C + 2O2 − → CO2 + 4e − C + O2 − → CO + 2e − CO + O2 − → CO2 + 2e − C + CO2 → 2CO Cathode reaction O2 + 4e − → 2O2 − The second one is molten hydroxides fuel cell . William W. Jacques obtained an US Patent 555,511 in this type of fuel cell in 1896 . Prototypes have been demonstrated by the research group , SARA , Inc. . The third one is based on the Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell ( MCFC ) concept . William W. Jacques obtained a Canadian patent in this type of fuel cell in 1897 . It has been developed further at the Lawrence Livermore Laboratory . The fourth is a molten tin anode solid oxide fuel cell design , which utilizes molten tin and tin oxide as an inter stage reaction between oxidation of the carbon dissolving in the anode and reduction of oxygen at the solid oxide cathode .","qid":"2709","docid":"Direct_carbon_fuel_cell","rank":84,"score":111063},{"content":"Title: Cap and dividend Content: Cap and dividend is a market-based trading system which retains the original capping method of cap and trade , but also includes compensation for energy consumers . This compensation is to offset the cost of products produced by companies that raise prices to consumers as a result of this policy . The process begins with some governments setting aggregate pollution quotas ( e.g. , for carbon emissions ) and selling pollution permits to the public respectively . Polluters are required to buy those credits to match their pollution outputs . Some of the cost producers pay for pollution will result in higher costs for consumers , who as citizens are additionally faced with the environmental costs of the pollution . Under the cap and dividend system , public revenues raised from the sale of pollution credits is rebated to citizens or to consumers as a subsidy for increasing efficiency .","qid":"2709","docid":"Cap_and_dividend","rank":85,"score":111025},{"content":"Title: Renewable heat Content: Renewable heat is an application of renewable energy and it refers to the renewable generation of heat , rather than electrical power ( e.g. replacing a fossil fuel boiler using concentrating solar thermal to feed radiators ) . Renewable heat technologies include renewable biofuels , solar heating , geothermal heating , heat pumps and heat exchangers to recover lost heat . Significant attention is also applied to insulation . Many colder countries consume more energy for heating than electrical power . For example , in 2005 the United Kingdom consumed 354 TWh of electric power , but had a heat requirement of 907 TWh , the majority of which ( 81 % ) was met using gas . The residential sector alone consumed a massive 550 TWh of energy for heating , mainly in the form of gas . Almost half of the final energy consumed in the UK ( 49 % ) was in the form of heat , of which 70 % was used by households and in commercial and public buildings . Households used heat mainly for space heating ( 69 % ) and heating water . The relative competitiveness of renewable electricity and renewable heat depends on a nation 's approach to energy and environment policy . Few renewable technologies ( whether for heat , electricity or transport ) are competitive with fossil fuels without some form of carbon valuation or subsidy . In those countries , such as Sweden , Denmark and Finland , where government intervention has been closest to a technology-neutral form of carbon valuation ( i.e. carbon and energy taxes ) , renewable heat has played the leading role in a very substantial renewable contribution to final energy consumption . In those countries , such as Germany , Spain , the USA , and the UK , where government intervention has been set at different levels for different technologies , uses and scales , the contributions of renewable heat and renewable electricity technologies have depended on the relative levels of support , and have resulted generally in a lower renewable contribution to final energy consumption .","qid":"2709","docid":"Renewable_heat","rank":86,"score":110852},{"content":"Title: Hydrogen Energy California Content: Hydrogen Energy California ( HECA ) was an alternative energy , hydrogen power project in development with support from the U.S. Department of Energy in Kern County , California . The facility proposed to convert coal and refinery waste into an impure hydrogen fuel that would be used to generate electricity and fertilizer . HECA was supposed to capture ninety percent of its carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) emissions to theoretically minimize greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions and inject it , ironically , for enhanced oil recovery . If it had become fully operational , HECA would have generated nearly 300MW of clean electricity and will produce one million tons of locally manufactured , low-carbon fertilizer . But , most of the electricity produced by HECA would have been consumed by the different processes at the plant . On March 4 , 2016 , the California Energy Commission ordered the HECA application to be terminated . HECA would have produced over 500 tons of criteria air pollutants . This air pollution would have been added to an area that already has the worst air pollution in the entire United States . The facility was to be located on 542 acres of prime farmland in western Kern County , about 7 mi west of Bakersfield and 1.5 mi northwest of the unincorporated community of Tupman . The site is near the Elk Hills Oil Field where the captured CO2 was to be used for enhanced oil recovery by Occidental of Elk Hills , Inc. . HECA would have employed an expected 2,000 union workers to construct the facility and would have created approximately 200 permanent jobs . HECA was a project of SCS Energy LLC , an independent developer of clean power . HECA was cofunded by the U.S. Department of Energy 's Office of Fossil Energy and administered by the National Energy Technology Laboratory . The HECA project was awarded a $ 408 million grant by the U.S. Department of Energy under Clean Coal Power Initiative Round 3 .","qid":"2709","docid":"Hydrogen_Energy_California","rank":87,"score":110663},{"content":"Title: Pollution Pricing Content: Pollution pricing reform ( PPR ) is the process of adjusting market prices to include direct environmental impact on measurable parameters , as e.g. dust and gas exhaust from combustion engines especially in road traffic . This approach differs from general ecologic taxation schemes , where the measurability of the impact is not available on short term or direct comparison of the tax affected choice for investment or operation . An externality ( a type of market failure ) exists where a market price omits pollution raise and affection . In such a situation , rational ( self-interested ) fiscal or individual decisions can lead to environmental harm , as well as to economic distortions and inefficiencies .","qid":"2709","docid":"Pollution_Pricing","rank":88,"score":110599},{"content":"Title: Environmental and Energy Study Institute Content: The Environmental and Energy Study Institute ( EESI ) is an independent , bi-partisan 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization that aims to promote environmentally sustainable societies . Based out of Washington , DC , EESI seeks to be a catalyst moving society away from environmentally damaging fossil fuels and toward a clean energy future . The organization was established in 1984 by a bipartisan and bicameral group of members of the United States Congress who were concerned with global environmental and energy problems . EESI works to advance policy solutions that reduce greenhouse gas emissions and ground-level air pollution ; improve public health , energy security , and economic development opportunities ; and increase use of renewable energy and energy efficiency . The group seeks to advance its mission through policymaker education , coalition building , and policy development .","qid":"2709","docid":"Environmental_and_Energy_Study_Institute","rank":89,"score":110350},{"content":"Title: List of proposed future transport Content: Most transport media in use today are generally fossil fuel powered . The reason for this is the ease of use and the existence of mature technologies harnessing this fuel source . Fossil fuels represent a concentrated , relatively compact source of energy . The drawbacks of such transportation media are that they are heavily polluting , and rely on limited energy sources . Many ideas exist which try to either harness renewable forms of energy , more efficiently use fossil fuel , or use human power , or some hybrid of these , to move people and things . The list below contains some forms of transport not in general use , but considered as possibilities in the future . Air-propelled train ( abandoned in 19th century ) Bounce tube pneumatic travel ( Proposed by Robert A. Heinlein in 1956 ) Vactrain also known as ET3 BiModal Glideway ( Dual Mode Transportation System ) travel ( Proposed by William D. Davis , Jr. in 1967 ) TEV Project ( proposed by Will Jones in Summer 2012 ) Kwik Lane also spelled as Qwik Lane ( proposed by McCrary Personal Transport Systems , LLC in 2011 ) Backpack helicopter Dual-mode vehicle Hyperloop Intelligent Transportation System Jet pack Launch loop Orbital ring Personal air vehicle ( Flying car ) Personal rapid transit Rolling road ( proposed by Robert A. Heinlein in 1940 ) Slidewalk ( proposed by Robert A. Heinlein in 1948 ) Light sail ( proposed by Jack Vance in 1962 ) Space elevator ( proposed by Russian scientist Konstantin Tsiolkovsky in 1895 ) Spacecraft propulsion or Space transport Teleportation SkyTran","qid":"2709","docid":"List_of_proposed_future_transport","rank":90,"score":110276},{"content":"Title: Renewable energy in Mexico Content: Renewable energy in Mexico contributes to 26 percent of electricity generation in Mexico . As of 2009 , electricity generation from renewable energy comes from hydro power , geothermal , solar power and wind . There is a long term effort established to increase the use of renewable energy sources . The amount of geothermal energy used and harvested , places Mexico as number four in the world . As one of the leading countries in renewable energy , more specifically , geothermal placing Mexico as the 4th ranked country in the world . As the importance of clean sustainable energy becomes more prevalent , the country and government officials continue to invest in research and innovations to continue to allow Mexico to be a leading example of renewable energy . Predictions based on current energy standings lead the country to anticipate by the year 2035 , the 26 percent renewable energy in Mexico will rise to 35 percent . Not only will this prove a more sustainable future it also increases jobs in rural areas . Jobs increased by 14 percent within the last 8 years in the renewable energy sector . With the objection to create more in home jobs for residents of Mexico , an increase in sustainable energy , results in a lower demand for conventional fuels such as fuel oil , petrol gas , coal and natural gas . With a lower demand on these fuels , mainly gasoline and diesel and on the rise jet fuel , this will result in a lower need for imports . With relying on fewer imports , national security is higher .","qid":"2709","docid":"Renewable_energy_in_Mexico","rank":91,"score":109923},{"content":"Title: Low-carbon fuel standard Content: A low-carbon fuel standard ( LCFS ) is a rule enacted to reduce carbon intensity in transportation fuels as compared to conventional petroleum fuels , such as gasoline and diesel . The most common low-carbon fuels are alternative fuels and cleaner fossil fuels , such as natural gas ( CNG and LPG ) . The main purpose of a low-carbon fuel standard is to decrease carbon dioxide emissions associated with vehicles powered by various types of internal combustion engines while also considering the entire life cycle ( `` well to wheels '' ) , in order to reduce the carbon footprint of transportation . The first low-carbon fuel standard mandate in the world was enacted by California in 2007 , with specific eligibility criteria defined by the California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) in April 2009 but taking effect in January 2011 . Similar legislation was approved in British Columbia in April 2008 , and by European Union which proposed its legislation in January 2007 and which was adopted in December 2008 . The United Kingdom is implementing its Renewable Transport Fuel Obligation Program , which also applies the concept of low-carbon fuels . Several bills have been proposed in the United States for similar low-carbon fuel regulation at a national level but with less stringent standards than California . As of early 2010 none have been approved . The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) issued its final rule regarding the expanded Renewable Fuel Standard ( RFS2 ) for 2010 and beyond on February 3 , 2010 . This ruling , as mandated by the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 ( EISA ) , included direct emissions and significant indirect emissions from land use changes .","qid":"2709","docid":"Low-carbon_fuel_standard","rank":92,"score":109806},{"content":"Title: Renewable energy debate Content: There is a renewable energy debate about the constraints and opportunities associated with the use of renewable energy . Renewable electricity production , from sources such as wind power and solar power , is sometimes criticized for being variable or intermittent . However , the International Energy Agency has stated that this only applies to certain renewables , mainly wind and solar photovoltaics , and its significance depends on a range of factors , such as the penetration of the renewables concerned . There have been `` not in my back yard '' ( NIMBY ) concerns relating to the visual and other impacts of some wind farms , with local residents sometimes fighting or blocking construction . In the USA , the Massachusetts Cape Wind project was delayed for years partly because of aesthetic concerns . However , residents in other areas have been more positive and there are many examples of community wind farm developments . According to a town councillor , the overwhelming majority of locals believe that the Ardrossan Wind Farm in Scotland has enhanced the area . The market for renewable energy technologies has continued to grow . Climate change concerns , coupled with high oil prices , peak oil , and increasing government support , are driving increasing renewable energy legislation , incentives and commercialization . New government spending , regulation and policies helped the industry weather the 2009 economic crisis better than many other sectors .","qid":"2709","docid":"Renewable_energy_debate","rank":93,"score":109758},{"content":"Title: Energy transition Content: Energy transition is generally defined as a long-term structural change in energy systems . These have occurred in the past , and still occur worldwide . Historic energy transitions are most broadly described by Vaclav Smil . Contemporary energy transitions differ in terms of motivation and objectives , drivers and governance . An example of transition toward sustainable energy , is the shift by Germany ( Energiewende ) , to decentralised renewable energy , and energy efficiency . Although so far these shifts have been replacing nuclear energy , their declared goal is the abolishment of coal , reducing non-renewable energy sources and the creation of an energy system based on 60 % renewable energy by 2050 . Renewable energy encompasses wind , hydropower , solar power , geothermal , and ocean power . These renewable sources are to serve as an alternative to fossil fuels ( oil , coal , natural gas ) and nuclear fuel ( uranium ) . Solving the energy/global warming problem is regarded as the most important challenge facing humankind in the 21st century . Piecemeal measures often have only limited potential , so a timely implementation for the energy transition requires multiple approaches in parallel . Energy conservation and improvements in energy efficiency thus play a major role . An example of an effective energy efficiency measure is improved insulation for buildings . Smart electric meters can schedule energy consumption for times when electricity is available inexpensively . After such a transitional period , with a continuing increase in renewable energy production these are expected to make up most , if not all , of the world 's energy production in 50 years according to a 2011 projection by the International Energy Agency , dramatically reducing the emissions of greenhouse gases .","qid":"2709","docid":"Energy_transition","rank":94,"score":109504},{"content":"Title: Climate change in China Content: The position of the Chinese government on climate change is contentious . China has ratified the Kyoto Protocol , but as a non-Annex I country which is not required to limit greenhouse gas emissions under terms of the agreement . In particular since 2007 the Chinese government has n't changed its attitude towards climate change policy and has become one of the major drivers of low-carbon technology developments . In 2002 , on the basis of an analysis of fossil fuel consumption ( including especially the coal power plants ) and cement production data , that China surpassed the United States as the world 's largest emitter of carbon dioxide , putting out 7,000 million tonnes , in comparison with America 's 5,800 million . According to data from the US Energy Information Administration China was the top emitter by fossil fuels CO2 in 2009 China : 7,710 million tonnes ( mt ) ( 25.4 % ) ahead of US : 5,420 mt ( 17.8 % ) , India : 5.3 % , Russia : 5.2 % and Japan : 3.6 % . China was also the top emitter of all greenhouse gas emissions including building and deforestation in 2005 : China : 7,220 mt ( 16.4 % ) , US : 6,930 mt ( 15.7 % ) , 3 . Brazil 6.5 % , 4 . Indonesia : 4.6 % , 5 . Russia 4.6 % , 6 . India 4.2 % , 7 . Japan 3.1 % , 8 . Germany 2.3 % , 9 . Canada 1.8 % , and 10 . Mexico 1.6 % . In the cumulative emissions between 1850 and 2007 the top emitters were : 1 . US 28.8 % 2 . China : 9.0 % , 3 . Russia 8.0 % , 4 . Germany 6.9 % , 5 . UK 5.8 % , 6 . Japan 3.9 % , 7 . France 2.8 % , 8 . India 2.4 % , 9 . Canada 2.2 % and 10 . Ukraine 2.2 % . According to BBC News , in September 2014 , China surpassed the European Union 's per capita carbon emissions for the first time in history . China 's per capita carbon emissions now stand at 7.2 t/capita . China 's carbon emissions have increased rapidly since its economic boom in the early 2000s . Since then , their per capita carbon emissions have increased by more than 2.5 times .","qid":"2709","docid":"Climate_change_in_China","rank":95,"score":109351},{"content":"Title: Energy in Chile Content: Chile 's total primary energy supply ( TPES ) was 36.10 Mtoe in 2014 . Energy in Chile is dominated by fossil fuels , with coal , oil and gas accounting for 73.4 % of the total primary energy . Biofuels and waste account for another 20.5 % of primary energy supply , with the rest sourced from hydro and other renewables . Electricity consumption was 68.90 TWh in 2014 . Main sources of electricity in Chile are hydroelectricity , gas , oil and coal . Renewable energy in the forms of wind and solar energy are also coming into use , encouraged by collaboration since 2009 with the United States Department of Energy . The electricity industry is privatized with ENDESA as the largest company in the field .","qid":"2709","docid":"Energy_in_Chile","rank":96,"score":109277},{"content":"Title: Hydroelectricity in China Content: Hydroelectricity is currently China 's largest renewable energy source and the second overall after coal . China 's installed hydro capacity in 2015 was 319 GW , up from 172 GW in 2009 , including 23 GW of pumped storage hydroelectricity capacity . In 2015 , hydropower generated 1,126 TWh of power , accounting for roughly 20 % of China 's total electricity generation . Due to China 's insufficient reserves of fossil fuels and the government 's preference for energy independence , hydropower plays a big part in the energy policy of the country . China 's potential hydropower capacity is estimated at up to 600 GW , but currently the technically exploitable and economically feasible capacity is around 500 GW . There is therefore considerable potential for further hydro development . The country has set a 350 GW capacity target for 2020 . Hydroelectric plants in China have a relatively low productivity , with an average capacity factor of 31 % , a possible consequence of rushed construction and the seasonal variability of rainfall . Moreover , a significant amount of energy is lost due to the need for long transmission lines to connect the remote plants to where demand is most concentrated . Although hydroelectricity represents the largest renewable and low greenhouse gas emissions energy source in the country , the social and environmental impact of dam construction in China has been large , with millions of people forced to relocate and large scale damage to the environment .","qid":"2709","docid":"Hydroelectricity_in_China","rank":97,"score":109080},{"content":"Title: Peat energy in Finland Content: Peat energy in Finland describes peat energy use in Finland . Peat has high global warming emissions and high environmental concerns . It may be compared to brown coal ( lignite ) or worse than this lowest rank of coal . Peat is the most harmful energy source for global warming in Finland . ( Hard coal , which is more harmful , is only used as an emergency back-up source for energy , and not in every year . ) According to IEA the Finnish subsidies for peat in 2007-2010 undermined the goal to reduce emissions and counteracted other environmental policies and The European Union emissions trading scheme .","qid":"2709","docid":"Peat_energy_in_Finland","rank":98,"score":108822},{"content":"Title: Coal mining in the United States Content: Coal mining in the United States is a major industry , coal being mined in 25 states , 40 % on public lands . Mined tonnage reached an all-time high of 1.06 Gt ( 1.17 billion short tons ) in 2008 , but by 2015 had declined to 986 million short tons . According to the U.S. Energy Information Administration ( EIA ) , in 2015 Wyoming , West Virginia , Kentucky , Illinois , and Pennsylvania produced about 639 millions of short tons ( MST ) representing 71 % of total U.S. coal production in the United States . The U.S. is a net exporter of coal . U.S. coal exports , for which Europe is the largest customer , peaked in 2012 , and have declined since . In 2015 , the U.S. exported 7.0 percent of mined coal . In 2005 coal provided approximately 50 % of electricity in the United States and about 92 percent of coal consumption went to electricity generation . However , in 2016 , the EIA calculated that coal would provide only 30 % of electricity generation nationwide with natural gas providing 34 % , nuclear , 19 % , and renewables , 15 % . By January 2016 , more than 25 % of coal production was in bankruptcy in the United States . In 2015 four publicly-traded US coal companies filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection , including Patriot Coal Corporation , Walter Energy , and the fourth-largest Alpha Natural Resources filed for bankruptcy protection . The second-largest producer Arch Coal and the largest producer Peabody Energy declared bankruptcy in 2016 . By March 2017 , the coal industry employed approximately 77,000 miners . 60,000 jobs have been lost since 2011 .","qid":"2709","docid":"Coal_mining_in_the_United_States","rank":99,"score":108631},{"content":"Title: Environmental impact of transport Content: The environmental impact of transport is significant because it is a major user of energy , and burns most of the world 's petroleum . This creates air pollution , including nitrous oxides and particulates , and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon dioxide , for sector . By subsector , road transport is the largest contributor to global warming . Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced the individual vehicle 's emission ; however , this has been offset by an increase in the number of vehicles , and more use of each vehicle . Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road vehicles considerably have been studied . Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes , causing environmentalists to call for a transition from air and road to rail and human-powered transport , and increase transport electrification and energy efficiency . The transportation sector is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) in the United States . An estimated 30 percent of national GHGs are directly attributable to transportation -- and in some regions , the proportion is even higher . Transportation methods are the greatest contributing source of GHGs in the U.S. , accounting for 47 percent of the net increase in total U.S. emissions since 1990 . Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urban sprawl , which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands . By reducing transportation emissions globally , it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects on Earth 's air quality , acid rain , smog and climate change . The health impact of transport emissions is also of concern . A recent survey of the studies on the effect of traffic emissions on pregnancy outcomes has linked exposure to emissions to adverse effects on gestational duration and possibly also intrauterine growth . As listed above direct impacts such as noise and carbon monoxide emissions create direct and harmful effects on the environment , along with indirect impacts . The indirect impacts are often of higher consequence which leads to the misconception that it 's the opposite since it is frequently understood that initial effects cause the most damage . For example , particulates which are the outcome of incomplete combustion done by an internal combustion engine , are not linked with respiratory and cardiovascular problems since they contribute to other factors not only to that specific condition . Even though the environmental impacts are usually listed individually there are also cumulative impacts . The synergetic consequences of transport activities . They take into account of the varied effects of direct and indirect impacts on an ecosystem . Climate change is the sum total impact of several natural and human-made factors . 15 % of global CO2 emissions are attributed to the transport sector .","qid":"2709","docid":"Environmental_impact_of_transport","rank":100,"score":108318}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon bubble Content: The carbon bubble is a hypothesized bubble in the valuation of companies dependent on fossil-fuel-based energy production , because the true costs of carbon dioxide in intensifying global warming are not yet taken into account in a company 's stock market valuation . Currently the price of fossil fuels companies ' shares is calculated under the assumption that all fossil fuel reserves will be consumed . An estimate made by Kepler Chevreux puts the loss in value of the fossil fuel companies due to the impact of the growing renewables industry at US$ 28 trillion over the next two decades-long . A more recent analysis made by Citi puts that figure at $ 100 trillion . Analysts in both the petroleum and financial industries are concluding that the `` age of oil '' has already reached a new stage where the excess supply that appeared in late 2014 may continue to prevail in the future . A consensus appears to be emerging that an international agreement will be reached to introduce measures to constrain the combustion of hydrocarbons in an effort to limit global temperature rise to the nominal 2 ° C that is consensually predicted to limit environmental harm to tolerable levels . According to the UK 's Committee on Climate Change , overvaluing companies that produce fossil fuels and greenhouse gases poses a serious threat to the economy . The committee warned the British government and Bank of England of the risks of the carbon bubble in 2014 . The following year , Mark Carney , the Governor of the Bank of England , in his lecture to Lloyd 's of London , warned that limiting global warming to 2 ° C appears to require that the `` vast majority '' of fossil fuel reserves be `` stranded '' , or `` literally unburnable without expensive carbon-capture technology '' , resulting in `` potentially huge '' exposure to investors in that sector . He concluded that `` the window of opportunity is finite and shrinking '' for responding to the threat that climate change poses to financial resilience and longer-term prosperity , which he called the `` tragedy of the horizon '' . That same month , the Prudential Regulation Authority of the Bank of England issued a report discussing the risks and opportunities that climate change presents to the insurance industry . In his speech announcing his denial of the proposal to build the Keystone XL oil pipeline , U.S. President Barack Obama gave as one reason for the decision '' ... ultimately , if we 're going to prevent large parts of this Earth from becoming not only inhospitable but uninhabitable in our lifetimes , we 're going to have to keep some fossil fuels in the ground ... '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_bubble\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 189259\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 21st-century fossil fuel regulations in the United States Content: Fossil fuel regulations are part of the energy policy in the United States and have gained major significance with the strong dependence on fossil fuel based energy . Regulatory processes are established at the federal and state level due to the immense economic , socio-political and environmental impact of fossil fuel extraction and production . Over 80 % of the United States ' energy comes from fossil fuels such as coal , natural gas , and oil . The Bush administration was marked by the Energy Policy Act of 2005 , which provided a monetary incentive for renewable energy adoption and addressed the issue of climate change . The Obama administration was made up of advocates for renewable energy and natural gas , while Donald Trump built his campaign on promises to revive the coal industry . Oil , gas , and coal companies have been at odds with policy makers who have supported a wider implementation of renewable energy , with the former often spending millions of dollars to lobby against cleaner energy . The Washington Post reported on February 22 , 2017 Scott Pruitt 's potential special interests with the fossil fuel industry as he began his term as the appointed head of the EPA under the Trump administration . Fossil fuel emission disproportionately affects working class , poor and minority populations . The people most adversely affected also have the least political influence and least access to health care .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"21st-century_fossil_fuel_regulations_in_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 170429\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon-based fuel Content: Carbon-based fuel is any fuel principally from the oxidation or burning of carbon . Carbon-based fuels are of two main kinds , biofuels and fossil fuels . Whereas biofuels are derived from recent-growth organic matter and are typically harvested , as with logging of forests and cutting of corn , fossil fuels are of prehistoric origin and are extracted from the ground , the principal fossil fuels being oil , coal , and natural gas . From an economic policy perspective , an important distinction between biofuels and fossil fuels is that only the former is sustainable or renewable . Whereas we can continue to obtain energy from biofuels indefinitely in principle , the Earth 's reserves of fossil fuels was determined millions of years ago and is therefore fixed as far as our foreseeable future is concerned . The great variability in the ease of extraction of fossil fuels however makes its endgame scenario one of increasing prices over one or more centuries rather than of abrupt exhaustion . From the perspective of climate and ecology , biofuels and fossil fuels have in common that they contribute to the production of atmospheric carbon dioxide , which has emerged in recent decades as the fastest-changing greenhouse gas , whose principal impacts are global warming and ocean acidification . However biofuels actively participate in the carbon cycle today by photosynthesizing carbon dioxide , unlike fossil fuels whose participation was long ago , and can therefore in principle bring atmospheric CO2 into an equilibrium not possible with the continued use of fossil fuel . But in practice photosynthesis is a slow process , and the additional fuel produced by artificial methods of accelerating it such as application of fertilizer tends to be offset by the energy consumed by the accelerating processes , to a degree currently under active debate . In contrast the speed of photosynthesis is immaterial for fossil fuels because they had millions of years in which to accumulate . Burning of both fossil fuels and biofuels usually also produces carbon monoxide , which is toxic and can kill a person after mixing with the haemoglobin of the blood , increasing its concentration in the body . Biofuels and fossil fuels may also produce many other air pollutants depending on the contents of the fuel .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon-based_fuel\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 160773\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_diet\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 156791\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental impact of transport in Australia Content: The environmental impact of transport in Australia is considerable . Australia subsidizes fossil fuel energy , keeping prices artificially low and raising greenhouse gas emissions due to the increased use of fossil fuels as a result of the subsidies . The Australian Energy Regulator and state agencies such as the New South Wales ' Independent Pricing and Regulatory Tribunal set and regulate electricity prices , thereby lowering production and consumer cost . According to a report by The Institute for Sustainable Futures ( ISF ) at University of Technology Sydney , titled : `` Energy and Transport Subsidies in Australia '' , roughly 70 % of the country 's greenhouse gas emissions are caused by the energy and transport industries . The uptake of renewable energy in these sectors is slow because of subsidies to fossil fuels and the high cost of acquiring the sophisticated technology required to produce cleaner fuels . Furthermore , fossil fuels are easier to transport and use , compared to renewable energy , which often require sophisticated instruments to acquire and store . The report revealed that for the 2005 -- 2006 financial year , transport subsidies were measured to reach up to $ 10.1 billion , of which 74 % related to transport , 18 % to electricity and 4 % to renewable and efficient energy . These subsidies help energy generation companies increase their profits , therefore encouraging the building of additional coal-fuel power plants . Investing in other , more sustainable , types of electricity generation plants would have cost less than continuing to subsidize the building of these power plants . On a positive note , alternative transport fuels such as natural gas and liquefied petroleum gas are excused from fuel excise/tax . Tax calculated for the use of a company car is calculated as such : the further the person drives the car , the higher the business use and the lower the personal use . Since tax is calculated based on personal use , drivers tend to drive longer distances to lessen the amount of tax that they have to pay . This leads to a higher consumption of vehicular fossil fuels and , subsequently , higher greenhouse gas emissions . Dr Hal Turton , the Group Leader of the Energy Economics Group at Swiss research establishment , the Paul Scherrer Institute , discussed in his report for Canberra-based think tank The Australia Institute titled : `` The Aluminium Smelting Industry : Structure , Market Power , Subsidies and Greenhouse Gas Emissions '' , that the yearly electrical use subsidy for the use of the six aluminium smelters in Australia is at least A$ 210 million . According to the report , Australia 's aluminium smelting industry is party to one of the most subsidized electricity charges as compared to other similar establishments . The ISF report found that removing electrical subsidies would bring up electricity prices by 3.9 % , which would lead to a fall in demand of electricity by 1.4 % in the long run . Reducing transport subsidies would increase prices by 32 % , which would lead to a fall in demand worth 18 % . It suggests that subsidies should be removed gradually so as not to hurt drivers who have no choice but to use petrol ( due to the lack of alternatives ) , and that taxpayer 's funds be channeled to subsidize the sustainable energy industry instead . The National Roads and Motorists ' Association ( NRMA ) is pushing for Australian petrol consumption to be reduced by 50 % by 2050 . It is advocating a move towards greener transport , and has called for a reduction of the A$ 10 billion subsidies given to the nation 's fossil fuel industry .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_impact_of_transport_in_Australia\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 156697\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Zero-carbon city Content: A zero-carbon city runs entirely on renewable energy ; it has no carbon footprint and will in this respect not cause harm to the planet . Most cities throughout the world produce energy by burning coal , oil and gas , unintentionally emitting carbon . Almost every activity humans do involves burning one of these fossil fuels . To become a zero carbon city , an established modern city must collectively reduce emissions of greenhouse gases to zero and all practices that emit greenhouse gases must cease . Also , renewable energy must supersede other non-renewable energy sources and become the sole source of energy , so a zero-carbon city is a renewable-energy-economy city . This transition which includes decarbonising electricity ( increasing the importance of the sources of renewable electricity ) and zero-emission transport , is undertaken as a response to climate change . Zero-carbon cities maintain optimal living conditions while eliminating environmental impact . Instead of using established cities , many developers are starting from scratch in order to create a zero-carbon city . This way they can make sure every aspect of a city contributes to it being carbon free .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Zero-carbon_city\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 152231\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_tax\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 151512\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Renewable energy in developing countries Content: Renewable energy technology has sometimes been seen as a costly luxury item by critics , and affordable only in the affluent developed world . This erroneous view has persisted for many years , but 2015 was the first year when investment in non-hydro renewables , was higher in developing countries , with $ 156 billion invested , mainly in China , India , and Brazil . Most developing countries have abundant renewable energy resources , including solar energy , wind power , geothermal energy , and biomass , as well as the ability to manufacture the relatively labor-intensive systems that harness these . By developing such energy sources developing countries can reduce their dependence on oil and natural gas , creating energy portfolios that are less vulnerable to price rises . In many circumstances , these investments can be less expensive than fossil fuel energy systems . In isolated rural areas , electricity grid extensions are often not economical . Off‐grid renewable technologies provide a sustainable and cost‐effective alternative to the diesel generators that would be otherwise be deployed in such areas . Renewable technologies can also help to displace other unsustainable energy sources such as kerosene lamps and traditional biomass . Kenya is the world leader in the number of solar power systems installed per capita ( but not the number of watts added ) . More than 30,000 small solar panels , each producing 12 to 30 watts , are sold in Kenya annually . Kenya was the first African country to use geothermal power , and still has the largest installed capacity of geothermal power in Africa at 200 MW , with a potential of up to 10 GW .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Renewable_energy_in_developing_countries\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 148702\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Energy accidents Content: Energy resources bring with them great social and economic promise , providing financial growth for communities and energy services for local economies . However , the infrastructure which delivers energy services can breakdown in an energy accident , sometimes causing much damage , and energy fatalities can occur , and with many systems often deaths will happen even when the systems are working as intended . Historically , coal mining has been the most dangerous energy activity and the list of historical coal mining disasters is a long one . Underground mining hazards include suffocation , gas poisoning , roof collapse and gas explosions . Open cut mining hazards are principally mine wall failures and vehicle collisions . In the US alone , more than 100,000 coal miners have been killed in accidents over the past century , with more than 3,200 dying in 1907 alone . According to Benjamin K. Sovacool , 279 major energy accidents occurred from 1907 to 2007 and they caused 182,156 deaths with $ 41 billion in property damages , with these figures not including deaths from smaller accidents . However , by far the greatest energy fatalities that result from energy generation by humanity , is the creation of air pollution . The most lethal of which , particulate matter , which is primarily generated from the burning of fossil fuels and biomass is ( counting outdoor air pollution effects only ) estimated to cause 2.1 million deaths annually .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Energy_accidents\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 148583\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Copper in renewable energy Content: Renewable energy sources such as solar , wind , tidal , hydro , biomass , and geothermal have become significant sectors of the energy market . The rapid growth of these sources in the 21st century has been prompted by increasing costs of fossil fuels as well as their negative environmental impacts . While the average capacity of renewable energy sources was only 7 % globally in 2010 , most installation of new capacity has been with renewables . Few new installations were from fossil fuel-based power plants . The trend towards new power capacity by renewables is expected to continue through 2020 . Since renewable energy supplies offset the amount of fossil fuels that need to be combusted in power plants , the use of renewables indirectly helps to reduce CO2 emissions . Hence , renewable energy supplies enable societies to progress towards lower-carbon-based economies . Copper plays an important role in renewable energy systems . Since copper is an excellent thermal and electrical conductor among the engineering metals ( second only to silver ) , power systems that utilize copper generate and transmit energy with high efficiency and with minimum environmental impacts . By using copper instead of other lower electrical energy-efficient metal conductors , less electricity needs to be generated to satisfy a given power demand . This article discusses the role of copper in various renewable energy generation systems .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Copper_in_renewable_energy\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 146084\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Energy policy of Australia Content: The energy policy of Australia is subject to the regulatory and fiscal influence of all three levels of government in Australia , although only the State and Federal levels determine policy for primary industries such as coal . As of 2016 , Federal energy policies continue to support the coal mining and natural gas industries through subsidies for fossil fuel use and production as the exports by those industries contribute significantly to the earnings of foreign exchange and government revenues . Australia is one of the most coal-dependent countries in the world . Coal and natural gas , along with oil-based products , are currently the primary sources of Australian energy usage and the coal industry produces approximately 38 % of Australia 's total greenhouse gas emissions . In 2015 Federal policy reverted to a pro-coal economy with cuts to alternate and renewable energy government offices , targets and subsidies Federal climate change policy changed following the election of the Labor Rudd Government in December 2007 , which committed to introduce an Emissions Trading Scheme in 2010 , and to expand the mandatory renewable energy target to ensure 20 % of electricity supply in Australia was from renewable sources by 2020 . After a contentious political debate , a carbon pricing mechanism entered force on 1 July 2012 under Prime Minister Julia Gillard , but was repealed by the Abbott Government in 2014 . In June 2015 the Abbott Government downgraded the renewable energy target from 41,000 GWh per year to 33,000 GWh . As of 2013 , Australia was now only the 12th highest emitter of greenhouse gases per capita in the world , and 16th ( behind China , Russia . the US , Germany , the UK , Japan , India and other major developed nations ) , in total CO2 emissions ( kt per year ) . Renewable energy commercialisation in Australia is an area of growing activity . Australia 's renewable energy industries are diverse , covering numerous energy sources and scales of operation , and currently contribute about 8 -- 10 % of Australia 's total energy supply . The major area where renewable energy is growing is in electricity generation following the introduction of government Mandatory Renewable Energy Targets . The two most populous states , New South Wales and Victoria have renewable energy targets of 20 % and 25 % respectively by 2020 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Energy_policy_of_Australia\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 142547\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mark Z. Jacobson Content: Mark Zachary Jacobson ( born 1965 ) is professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy Program . Jacobson develops computer models about the effects of different energy technologies and their emissions on air pollution and climate . He has done influential research on the role of aerosols and black carbon on the climate and is regarded as a leading aerosol climate modeler . According to Jacobson , a speedy transition to clean , renewable energy is required to reduce the potential acceleration of global warming , including the disappearance of the Arctic Sea ice . This change will also eliminate 2.5 -- 3 million deaths worldwide each year , related to air pollution , and reduce disruption associated with fossil fuel shortages .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Mark_Z._Jacobson\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 141773\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Clean coal technology Content: Clean coal technology is a collection of technologies being developed to attempt to mitigate the environmental impact of coal energy generation and to mitigate climate change . When coal is used as a fuel source , the gaseous emissions generated by the thermal decomposition of the coal include sulphur dioxide ( SO2 ) , nitrogen oxides ( NOx ) , mercury , and other chemical byproducts that vary depending on the type of the coal being used . These emissions have been established to have a negative impact on the environment and human health , contributing to acid rain , lung cancer and cardiovascular disease . As a result , clean coal technologies are being developed to remove or reduce pollutant emissions to the atmosphere . Some of the techniques that would be used to accomplish this include chemically washing minerals and impurities from the coal , gasification ( see also IGCC ) , improved technology for treating flue gases to remove pollutants to increasingly stringent levels and at higher efficiency , carbon capture and storage technologies to capture the carbon dioxide from the flue gas and dewatering lower rank coals ( brown coals ) to improve the calorific value , and thus the efficiency of the conversion into electricity . Clean coal technology usually addresses atmospheric problems resulting from burning coal . Historically , the primary focus was on SO2 and NOx , the most important gases in causation of acid rain , and particulates which cause visible air pollution and deleterious effects on human health . Concerns exist regarding the economic viability of these technologies and the timeframe of delivery , potentially high hidden economic costs in terms of social and environmental damage , and the costs and viability of disposing of removed carbon and other toxic matter .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Clean_coal_technology\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 140702\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coal power in the United States Content: Coal power in the United States accounted for 39 % of the country 's electricity production at utility-scale facilities in 2014 , 33 % in 2015 , and 30.4 % in 2016 Coal supplied 16.5 quadrillion BTUs of primary energy to electric power plants in 2013 , which made up nearly 92 % of coal 's contribution to energy supply . Utilities buy more than 90 percent of the coal consumed in the United States . Coal has been used to generate electricity in the United States since an Edison plant was built in New York City in 1882 . The first alternating current power station was opened by General Electric in Ehrenfeld , Pennsylvania in 1902 , servicing the Webster Coal and Coke Company . By the mid-twentieth century , coal had become the leading fuel for generating electricity in the US . The long , steady rise of coal-fired generation of electricity shifted to a decline after 2007 . The decline has been linked to the increased availability of natural gas , decreased consumption , renewable power , and more stringent environmental regulations . The Environmental Protection Administration has advanced restrictions on coal plants to counteract mercury pollution , smog , and global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Coal_power_in_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 140324\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental impact of the coal industry Content: The environmental impact of the coal industry includes issues such as land use , waste management , water and air pollution , caused by the coal mining , processing and the use of its products . In addition to atmospheric pollution , coal burning produces hundreds of millions of tons of solid waste products annually , including fly ash , bottom ash , and flue-gas desulfurization sludge , that contain mercury , uranium , thorium , arsenic , and other heavy metals . There are severe health effects caused by burning coal . According to a report by the World Health Organization in 2008 , coal particulates pollution are estimated to shorten approximately 1,000,000 lives annually worldwide . A 2004 study commissioned by environmental groups , but contested by the US EPA , concluded that coal burning costs 24,000 lives a year in the United States . Historically , coal mining has been a very dangerous activity and the list of historical coal mining disasters is a long one . Underground mining hazards include suffocation , gas poisoning , roof collapse and gas explosions . Open cut hazards are principally mine wall failures and vehicle collisions . In the United States , an average of 26 coal miners per year died in the decade 2005-2014 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_impact_of_the_coal_industry\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 137896\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coal pollution mitigation Content: Coal pollution mitigation , often referred to by the public relations term clean coal , is a series of systems and technologies that seek to mitigate the pollution and other environmental effects normally associated with the burning ( though not the mining or processing ) of coal , which is widely regarded as the dirtiest of the common fuels for industrial processes and power generation . The preferred industry term `` clean coal '' has been described as `` Orwellian '' , an oxymoron , and a myth . Approaches attempt to mitigate emissions of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and other greenhouse gases , and radioactive materials , that arise from the use of coal , mainly for electrical power generation , using various technologies . Historical efforts to reduce coal pollution focused on flue-gas desulfurization starting in the 1850s and clean burn technologies . More recent developments include carbon capture and storage , which pumps and stores CO2 emissions underground , and integrated gasification combined cycle ( IGCC ) involve coal gasification , which provides a basis for increased efficiency and lower cost in capturing CO2 emissions . There are seven technologies deployed or proposed for deployment in the United States : carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) , flue-gas desulfurization , fluidized-bed combustion , integrated gasification combined cycle ( IGCC ) , low nitrogen oxide burners , selective catalytic reduction ( SCR ) , and electrostatic precipitators . Of the 22 demonstration projects funded by the U.S. Department of Energy since 2003 , none are in operation as of February 2017 , having been abandoned or delayed due to capital budget overruns or discontinued because of excessive operating expenses .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Coal_pollution_mitigation\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 137485\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Electricity sector in the United Kingdom Content: The electricity sector in the United Kingdom relies mainly on fossil fuelled power and 15-20 % in nuclear power and similar amounts of renewable power . Fossil fuel generator use in general and coal use in particularly is shrinking , with coal generators now only mainly being run in Winter due to pollution and costs . In 2008 nuclear electricity production was 860 kWh pro person . In 2014 , 28.1 TW · h of energy was generated by wind power , which contributed 9.3 % of the UK 's electricity requirement . In 2015 , 40.4 TW · h of energy was generated by wind power , and the quarterly generation record was set in the three-month period from October to December 2015 , with 13 % of the nation 's electricity demand met by wind . 2015 saw 1.2 GW of new wind power capacity brought online , a 9.6 % increase of the total UK installed capacity . The United Kingdom voluntarily ended the use of incandescent lightbulbs in 2011 . Between 2007 and 2012 , the UK 's peak electrical demand has fallen from 61.5 GW to 57.5 GW The use of electricity declined 11 % in 2009 compared to 2004 and respectively . The UK is planning to reform its Electricity Market . It plans to introduce a capacity mechanism and contracts for difference to encourage the building of new generation .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Electricity_sector_in_the_United_Kingdom\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 137049\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental impact of the energy industry Content: The environmental impact of the energy industry is diverse . Energy has been harnessed by human beings for millennia . Initially it was with the use of fire for light , heat , cooking and for safety , and its use can be traced back at least 1.9 million years . In recent years there has been a trend towards the increased commercialization of various renewable energy sources . Consumption of fossil fuel resources leads to global warming and climate change . In most parts of the world little change is being made to slow these changes . If the peak oil theory proves true , and more explorations of viable alternative energy sources are made , our impact could be less hostile to our environment . Rapidly advancing technologies can achieve a transition of energy generation , water and waste management , and food production towards better environmental and energy usage practices using methods of systems ecology and industrial ecology .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_impact_of_the_energy_industry\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 135803\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Energy subsidy Content: Energy subsidies are measures that keep prices for consumers below market levels or for producers above market levels, or reduce costs for consumers and producers. Energy subsidies may be direct cash transfers to producers, consumers, or related bodies, as well as indirect support mechanisms, such as tax exemptions and rebates, price controls, trade restrictions, and limits on market access. Eliminating fossil fuel subsidies would greatly reduce global carbon emissions and would reduce the health risks of air pollution.\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Energy_subsidy\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 135545\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of renewable energy companies by stock exchange Content: Several renewable energy companies became listed on stock exchanges in the period after 2000 . The early 21st century was a very productive time for the renewable energy industry , since many governments set long term renewable energy targets . Some chose to directly subsidize the renewables with feed-in tariffs and other temporary measures to bridge the gap to full cost accounting that would properly reward these technologies for their low emissions and lack of interference with ecosystem services , and also to ensure some capacity and motivation to install conservation-focused smart grid technologies . Smart grid policy in the United States was especially important in driving renewable energy in that country ( see also load shedding , energy internet , home area network and cleantech for more on the structure of the industry and why renewables vendors are closely aligned industrially and politically with the vendors of networking technology ) , smart appliances and energy conservation software , and opposed in general to those of other `` energy '' firms , which effectively depend on the lack of this intelligence or accounting to appear competitive . For instance , coal vendors rely on a lack of accounting of about US$ 345 billion in harms done by coal to remain competitive in the US . In 2004 Russia ratified the United Nations ' Kyoto Protocol and the first order under this agreement came into force for the period 2008 to 2012 . The period from 2002 to 2008 was a period of rapid growth for the renewable energy industry with the photovoltaics industry experiencing an average of 60 % growth per annum , the biodiesel industry 42 % and the wind industry 25 % . As of the end of 2007 the renewable energy industry was worth an estimated US $ 77.3 billion . As a result of this growth several companies listed IPOs . Many public companies involved in the development of this industry and responsible for large market share do not participate exclusively in renewable energy and have been omitted for this list , most notable of these are BP , GE Energy and Sharp . This list consists of companies whose primary produce is either renewable energy or renewable energy products and services .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_renewable_energy_companies_by_stock_exchange\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 133739\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Eco-costs Content: Eco-costs are a measure to express the amount of environmental burden of a product on the basis of prevention of that burden . They are the costs which should be made to reduce the environmental pollution and materials depletion in our world to a level which is in line with the carrying capacity of our earth . For example : for each 1000 kg CO2 emission , one should invest $ 135 , - in offshore windmill parks ( and the other CO2 reduction systems at that price or less ) . When this is done consequently , the total CO2 emissions in the world will be reduced by 65 % compared to the emissions in 2008 . As a result , global warming will stabilise . In short : `` the eco-costs of 1000kg CO2 are $ 135 , - '' . Similar calculations can be made on the environmental burden of acidification , eutrification , summer smog , fine dust , eco-toxicity , and the use of metals , rare earth , fossil fuels , water and land ( nature ) . As such , the eco-costs are virtual costs , since they are not yet integrated in the real life costs of current production chains ( Life Cycle Costs ) . The eco-costs should be regarded as hidden obligations . The eco-costs of a product are the sum of all eco-costs of emissions and use of resources during the life cycle `` from cradle to cradle '' . The widely accepted method to make such a calculation is called Life Cycle Assessment ( LCA ) , which is basically a mass and energy balance , defined in the 14040 and ISO 14044 . The practical use of eco-costs is to compare the sustainability of several product types with the same functionality . The advantage of eco-costs is that they are expressed in a standardized monetary value which appears to be easily understood ` by instinct ' . Also the calculation is transparent and relatively easy , compared to damage based models which have the disadvantage of extremely complex calculations with subjective weighting of the various aspects contributing to the overall environmental burden . The system of eco-costs is part of the bigger model of the Ecocosts/Value Ratio , EVR\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Eco-costs\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 133490\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wind power Content: Wind power is the use of air flow through wind turbines to mechanically power generators for electric power . Wind power , as an alternative to burning fossil fuels , is plentiful , renewable , widely distributed , clean , produces no greenhouse gas emissions during operation , consumes no water , and uses little land . The net effects on the environment are far less problematic than those of nonrenewable power sources . Wind farms consist of many individual wind turbines which are connected to the electric power transmission network . Onshore wind is an inexpensive source of electric power , competitive with or in many places cheaper than coal or gas plants . Offshore wind is steadier and stronger than on land , and offshore farms have less visual impact , but construction and maintenance costs are considerably higher . Small onshore wind farms can feed some energy into the grid or provide electric power to isolated off-grid locations . Wind power gives variable power which is very consistent from year to year but which has significant variation over shorter time scales . It is therefore used in conjunction with other electric power sources to give a reliable supply . As the proportion of wind power in a region increases , a need to upgrade the grid , and a lowered ability to supplant conventional production can occur . Power management techniques such as having excess capacity , geographically distributed turbines , dispatchable backing sources , sufficient hydroelectric power , exporting and importing power to neighboring areas , using vehicle-to-grid strategies or reducing demand when wind production is low , can in many cases overcome these problems . In addition , weather forecasting permits the electric power network to be readied for the predictable variations in production that occur . As of 2015 , Denmark generates 40 % of its electric power from wind , and at least 83 other countries around the world are using wind power to supply their electric power grids . In 2014 global wind power capacity expanded 16 % to 369,553 MW . Yearly wind energy production is also growing rapidly and has reached around 4 % of worldwide electric power usage , 11.4 % in the EU .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Wind_power\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 133312\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon capture and storage in Australia Content: Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) is an approach to mitigate global warming by capturing carbon dioxide from large point sources such as fossil fuel power plants and storing it instead of releasing it into the atmosphere . Carbon capture and storage is also used for Enhanced Oil Recovery to increase yield from declining oil fields , and for storage of from natural gas fields . No coal-fired power station in Australia has CCS of . CCS is proven technology but is not yet commercially viable for reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from coal-fired power stations . Without an economic driver such as a high carbon price or revenue from Enhanced Oil Recovery CCS is not expected to be commercially viable until at least 2020 . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until 2100 . In the 2015 budget , the Abbott Government cut $ 460m from CCS research projects leaving $ 191.7 m to continue existing projects for the next seven years . The program had already been cut by the previous Labor government and much of the funding remained unallocated .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_capture_and_storage_in_Australia\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 132992\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Coal Question Content: The Coal Question ; An Inquiry Concerning the Progress of the Nation , and the Probable Exhaustion of Our Coal Mines ( 1865 ) was a book by economist William Stanley Jevons that explored the implications of Britain 's reliance on coal . Given that coal was a finite , non-renewable energy resource , Jevons raised the question of sustainability . `` Are we wise , '' he asked rhetorically , `` in allowing the commerce of this country to rise beyond the point at which we can long maintain it ? '' His central thesis was that the supremacy of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland over global affairs was transitory , given the finite nature of its primary energy resource . In propounding this thesis , Jevons covered a range of issues central to sustainability , including limits to growth , overpopulation , overshoot , energy return on energy input ( EROEI ) , taxation of energy resources , renewable energy alternatives , and resource peakinga subject widely discussed today under the rubric of peak oil .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Coal_Question\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 132774\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Non-renewable resource Content: A non-renewable resource ( also called a finite resource ) is a resource that does not renew itself at a sufficient rate for sustainable economic extraction in meaningful human time-frames . An example is carbon-based , organically-derived fuel . The original organic material , with the aid of heat and pressure , becomes a fuel such as oil or gas . Earth minerals and metal ores , fossil fuels ( coal , petroleum , natural gas ) and groundwater in certain aquifers are all considered non-renewable resources , though individual elements are almost always conserved . In contrast , resources such as timber ( when harvested sustainably ) and wind ( used to power energy conversion systems ) are considered renewable resources , largely because their localized replenishment can occur within time frames meaningful to humans .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Non-renewable_resource\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 132354\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Reinventing Fire Content: Reinventing Fire : Bold Business Solutions for the New Energy Era is a 2011 book , by Amory B. Lovins and the Rocky Mountain Institute , that explores converting the United States to almost total reliance on renewable energy sources , such as solar energy and wind power . Lovins says that renewable energy is already cheaper than fossil fuels and his analysis predicts further reductions in renewable energy prices . Reinventing Fire was launched at the Washington National Geographic Society , in October 2011 . Bill Clinton says the book is a `` wise , detailed and comprehensive blueprint . '' The book has forewords by Marvin Odum , from Shell Oil , and John W. Rowe , CEO of Exelon . The first paragraph of the preface says : Imagine fuel without fear . No climate change . No oil spills , dead coal miners , dirty air , devastated lands , lost wildlife . No energy poverty . No oil-fed wars , tyrannies , or terrorists . Nothing to run out . Nothing to cut off . Nothing to worry about . Just energy abundance , benign and affordable , for all , for ever . Fen Montaigne in The Guardian has said that the book is impressive in both its scope and detail : Lovins discusses everything from how to redesign heavy trucks to make them more fuel efficient to ways to change factory pipes to conserve energy -- the book lays out a plan for the U.S. to achieve the following by 2050 : cars completely powered by hydrogen fuel cells , electricity , and biofuels ; 84 percent of trucks and airplanes running on biomass fuels ; 80 percent of the nation 's electricity produced by renewable power ; $ 5 trillion in savings ; and an economy that has grown by 158 percent . By combining reduced energy use with energy efficiency gains , Lovins says that there will be a $ 5 trillion saving over the next 40 years and a faster-growing economy . This can all be done , the book jacket says , without `` new federal taxes , subsidies , mandates , or laws . The policy innovations needed to unlock and speed it need no act of Congress . '' The profitable commercialization of existing energy-saving technologies , through market forces , can be led by business .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Reinventing_Fire\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 131312\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Energy in Victoria Content: Energy in Victoria , Australia is generated using a number of fuels or technologies , including coal , natural gas and renewable energy sources - hydro , wind and solar . Brown coal is the primary energy source in the generation of electricity in the State of Victoria , Australia . Brown coal is also one of the largest contributors to Australia 's total domestic greenhouse gas emissions and a source of huge controversy for the country . Australia is one the highest polluters of greenhouse gas per capita in the world . Brown coal is used for the generation of approximately 85 % of Victoria 's household , commercial and industrial electricity consumption .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Energy_in_Victoria\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 129252\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 126076\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Clemson Energy Sustainability Content: In an effort to create a more sustainable environment , Clemson University , located in Clemson , South Carolina , has developed several initiatives to conserve energy and educate students along with the public about fossil fuels and natural resources . Clemson has set both short - and long-term goals , on a scale of up to 15 years . Known as the Solid Green campaign , Clemson has a mission to reduce total energy used by 20 % in the year 2020 , reach a goal of becoming net-zero in carbon emissions , and replace the coal-fired boiler in 2015 . Clemson has the long-term desire to become much more energy efficient , climate considerate and recycle more . One way of funding these initiatives is the Student Sustainability Fee , also known as the Green Fee , which students can elect to pay $ 10 with their tuition each semester .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Clemson_Energy_Sustainability\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 125500\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Energy mix Content: The energy mix is the group of different primary energy sources from which secondary energy for direct use - usually electricity - is produced . Primary energy in the form of fossil fuels is nowadays still mostly used directly for motor-driven vehicles , i.e. transport . Further energy conversion of the co-produced waste heat after burning is not possible . In 2009 , the global primary energy use corresponded to 12.5 e6t oil equivalent corresponding to 145,375 GWh ) . According to the International Energy Agency ( IEA ) 13,6 % of that was used by the EU . Within the EU , 75.9 % came from fossil fuels , 14.1 % from nuclear energy , 7 % from biofuels , 2.9 from renewable energy resources . Overall primary energy consumption in the U.S. in 2015 relied most on petroleum ( 35 e15BTU ) , natural gas ( 29 e15BTU ) and coal ( 16 e15BTU ) . Renewables contributed 9 e15BTU and nuclear power 8 e15BTU . In the same year , about 4 million GWh of electricity were generated in the U.S. , 67 % of which was generated from fossil fuels ( coal , natural gas , and < 1 % petroleum ) , 20 % from nuclear power , 6 % hydropower and 7 % other renewables . While the rise of global energy consumption with the global population growth can not immediately be counteracted , the sustainability of growth can partially be improved by changing the energy mix towards renewables . The main forces in this process are national and transnational energy policy and the energy industry together with their lobbyists .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Energy_mix\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 125346\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kick the Fossil Fuel Habit Content: Kick The Fossil Fuel Habit : 10 Clean Technologies to Save Our World is a 2010 book by clean energy venture capitalist Tom Rand . The book is about making an energy transition from fossil fuels to clean technologies , by changing to 100 % renewable energy . It includes detailed descriptions of the technologies required - solar energy , wind power , geothermal energy and more . Author Tom Rand says we will `` need to deploy resources on a scale not seen since World War II , generate international co-operation , and develop rules to put a price on carbon . '' Rand says that there are lots of reasons to kick the fossil fuel habit : `` energy security ; the moral cost of supporting undemocratic regimes that sit on the oil we use ; the military cost , both in blood and cash , to keep the supply lines open ; and getting a leg up on the competition in the next industrial revolution . Each of these is reason enough to kick the habit '' . Rand stresses that we need to act quickly and , equally important , collectively . That means `` this generation of government , businesses and individuals all need act together to save the world for the next '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Kick_the_Fossil_Fuel_Habit\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 125221\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hydrogen highway Content: A hydrogen highway is a chain of hydrogen-equipped filling stations and other hydrogen infrastructure along a road or highway which would allow hydrogen powered cars to travel . It is an element of the hydrogen infrastructure that is generally assumed to be a pre-requisite for mass utilization of hydrogen cars . For instance , William Clay Ford Jr. has stated that infrastructure is one of three factors ( also including costs and manufacturability in high volumes ) that hold back the marketability of fuel cell cars ( some commentators , such as Amory Lovins in Natural Capitalism , have argued that such infrastructure may not be necessary ) . Hence , there are plans and proposals to develop hydrogen highways through private and public funds . The use of hydrogen cars has been proposed as a means to reduce local air pollution and carbon emissions because hydrogen fuel cell cars emit clean exhaust . Hydrogen can be produced from natural gas , coal and renewable energy . However , as long as the majority of hydrogen continues to be produced by burning fossil fuels and transported in trucks , pollution is emitted by the hydrogen manufacturing process .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Hydrogen_highway\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 124416\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Fossil fuel phase-out Content: Fossil fuel phase out refers to the discontinuation of the use of fossil fuels , through the decommissioning of operating fossil fuel-fired power plants , the prevention of the construction of new ones , and the use of Alternative energy to replace the role of fossil fuels . The purpose of fossil fuel phase-out is to reduce the negative externalities that use of fossil fuels cause . Negative externalities refer to the costs a certain activity has over people who did not choose to incur in them . A direct negative externality from fossil fuels ' use is air pollution , and an indirect negative externality are mining accidents , that happen as a consequence of the extraction of fossil fuels . Fossil fuel burning contributes to climate change , as it releases greenhouse gas emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Fossil_fuel_phase-out\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 124169\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon-neutral fuel Content: Carbon-neutral fuels can refer to a variety of energy fuels or energy systems which have no net greenhouse gas emissions or carbon footprint . One class is synthetic fuel ( including methane , gasoline , diesel fuel , jet fuel or ammonia ) produced from sustainable or nuclear energy used to hydrogenate waste carbon dioxide recycled from power plant flue exhaust gas or derived from carbonic acid in seawater . Other types can be produced from renewable energy sources such as wind turbines , solar panels , and hydroelectric power stations . Such fuels are potentially carbon-neutral because they do not result in a net increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases . Until captured carbon is used for plastics feedstock , carbon neutral fuel synthesis is the primary means of carbon capture and utilization or recycling . To the extent that carbon-neutral fuels displace fossil fuels , or if they are produced from waste carbon or seawater carbonic acid , and their combustion is subject to carbon capture at the flue or exhaust pipe , they result in negative carbon dioxide emission and net carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere , and thus constitute a form of greenhouse gas remediation . Such power to gas carbon-neutral and carbon-negative fuels can be produced by the electrolysis of water to make hydrogen used in the Sabatier reaction to produce methane which may then be stored to be burned later in power plants as synthetic natural gas , transported by pipeline , truck , or tanker ship , or be used in gas to liquids processes such as the Fischer -- Tropsch process to make traditional fuels for transportation or heating . Carbon-neutral fuels are used in Germany and Iceland for distributed storage of renewable energy , minimizing problems of wind and solar intermittency , and enabling transmission of wind , water , and solar power through existing natural gas pipelines . Such renewable fuels could alleviate the costs and dependency issues of imported fossil fuels without requiring either electrification of the vehicle fleet or conversion to hydrogen or other fuels , enabling continued compatible and affordable vehicles . A 250 kilowatt synthetic methane plant has been built in Germany and it is being scaled up to 10 megawatts .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon-neutral_fuel\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 123983\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Contesting the Future of Nuclear Power Content: Contesting the Future of Nuclear Power : A Critical Global Assessment of Atomic Energy is a 2011 book by Benjamin K. Sovacool , published by World Scientific . Sovacool 's book addresses the current status of the global nuclear power industry , its fuel cycle , nuclear accidents , environmental impacts , social risks , energy payback , nuclear power economics , and industry subsidies . There is a postscript on the Japanese 2011 Fukushima nuclear disaster . Based on detailed analysis , Sovacool concludes `` that a global nuclear renaissance would bring immense technical , economic , environmental , political , and social costs '' . He says that it is renewable energy technologies which will enhance energy security , and which have many other advantages . Contesting the Future of Nuclear Power also `` reviews the little-known research which shows that the life-cycle CO2 emissions of nuclear power may become comparable with those of fossil power as high-grade uranium ore is used up over the next several decades and low-grade uranium is mined and milled using fossil fuels '' . The book says the marginal levelized cost for `` a 1,000-MWe facility built in 2009 would be 41.2 to 80.3 cents/kWh , presuming one actually takes into account construction , operation and fuel , reprocessing , waste storage , and decommissioning . '' Reviewer Mark Diesendorf says that one weakness of the book is the limited coverage of nuclear weapons proliferation . He says that governments of several countries ( e.g. , France , India , North Korea , Pakistan ) have used nuclear power and/or research reactors to assist nuclear weapons development or to contribute to their supplies of nuclear explosives from military reactors .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Contesting_the_Future_of_Nuclear_Power\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 123768\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Energy in Hawaii Content: Energy production in Hawaii is a difficult issue due to the islands ' isolated location and lack of local resources . The state relies heavily on imports of petroleum and coal for power although recent initiatives have increased use of alternative resources . High levels of solar photovoltaic and wind power use have led to power balance issues which have made Hawaii a study case for renewable use . Commercial-scale batteries and upgraded grid resources and management are among the solutions being advanced . Hawaii has the most expensive electricity prices in the United States . In 2016 the average cost of electricity was $ 0.24 per kilowatt-hour , with the next highest state being Alaska at $ 0.19 . The U.S. average was $ 0.10 per kilowatt-hour across all sectors .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Energy_in_Hawaii\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 123748\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental impact of nuclear power Content: The environmental impact of nuclear power results from the nuclear fuel cycle , operation , and the effects of nuclear accidents . The greenhouse gas emissions from nuclear fission power are much smaller than those associated with coal , oil and gas , and the routine health risks are much smaller than those associated with coal . However , there is a `` catastrophic risk '' potential if containment fails , which in nuclear reactors can be brought about by overheated fuels melting and releasing large quantities of fission products into the environment . This potential risk could wipe out the benefits . The most long-lived radioactive wastes , including spent nuclear fuel , must be contained and isolated from the environment for a long period of time . On the other side , spent nuclear fuel could be reused , yielding even more energy , and reducing the amount of waste to be contained . The public has been made sensitive to these risks and there has been considerable public opposition to nuclear power . The 1979 Three Mile Island accident and 1986 Chernobyl disaster , along with high construction costs , also compounded by delays resulting from a steady schedule of demonstrations , injunctions and political actions , caused by the anti-nuclear opposition , ended the rapid growth of global nuclear power capacity . A release of radioactive materials followed the 2011 Japanese tsunami which damaged the Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant , resulting in hydrogen gas explosions and partial meltdowns classified as a Level 7 event . The large-scale release of radioactivity resulted in people being evacuated from a 20 km exclusion zone set up around the power plant , similar to the 30 km radius Chernobyl Exclusion Zone still in effect . But published works suggest that the radioactivity levels have lowered enough to now have only a limited impact on wildlife . In Japan , on July 2016 , Fukushima Prefecture announced that the number of evacuees following the Great East Japan earthquake events , had fallen below 90,000 , in part following the lifting of evacuation orders issued in some municipalities .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_impact_of_nuclear_power\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 123281\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Beyond Coal Content: The Beyond Coal movement is a campaign by environmental group the Sierra Club to promote renewable energy instead of coal . Their primary objective is to close coal power plants in the United States , including at least one-third of the country 's more than 500 coal plants by 2020 , and to replace them with renewable energy sources . The campaign is also active in other countries ; for example they are trying to prevent the construction of the Kosovo C thermal power plant near Pristina , Kosovo ; to this end they have collaborated with academic and Obama administration climate advisor Dan Kammen . Other objectives include keeping coal in the ground , specifically in Appalachia and the Powder River Basin , where the majority of American coal reserves are located , and preventing coal from being exported from America . The campaign has received at least $ 80 million from Michael Bloomberg and his philanthropic foundation , Bloomberg Philanthropies . During the early Presidency of George W. Bush , an energy task force convened by Dick Cheney advocated the construction of 200 new coal plants in the United States , warning that if they were not built the entire country would face load shedding as California had just seen . During the Bush administration , the Beyond Coal campaign prevented 170 of the 200 plants from being built .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Beyond_Coal\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 122832\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Renewable energy in China Content: China is the world 's leading country in electricity production from renewable energy sources , with over double the generation of the second-ranking country , the United States . China 's renewable energy sector is growing faster than its fossil fuels and nuclear power capacity . In 2013 the country had a total capacity of 378 GW of renewable power , mainly from hydroelectric and wind power . Although China currently has the world 's largest installations of hydro , solar and wind power , its energy needs are so large that in 2013 renewables provided just a little over 20 % of its power generation , with most of the remainder provided by traditional coal power facilities . Nevertheless , the share of renewables in the energy mix had been gradually rising from 2013 and targets from 2015 onwards have represented a step change in ambition . China sees renewables as a source of energy security and not just only to reduce carbon emission . China 's Action Plan for the Prevention and Control of Air Pollution issued by China 's State Council in September 2013 , illustrates the government 's desire to increase the share of renewables in China 's energy mix . Unlike oil , coal and gas , the supplies of which are finite and subject to geopolitical tensions , renewable energy systems can be built and used wherever there is sufficient water , wind , and sun . From 2005 to 2014 , production of solar cells in China has expanded 100-fold . As Chinese renewable manufacturing has grown , the costs of renewable energy technologies have dropped dramatically . Innovation has helped , but the main driver of reduced costs has been market expansion . In 2015 China became the world 's largest producer of photovoltaic power , with 43 GW of total installed capacity .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Renewable_energy_in_China\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 122510\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Renewable fuels Content: Renewable fuels are fuels produced from renewable resources . Examples include : biofuels ( e.g. Vegetable oil used as fuel , ethanol , methanol from clean energy and carbon dioxide or biomass , and biodiesel ) and Hydrogen fuel ( when produced with renewable processes ) . This is in contrast to non-renewable fuels such as natural gas , LPG ( propane ) , petroleum and other fossil fuels and nuclear energy . Renewable fuels can include fuels that are synthesized from renewable energy sources , such as wind and solar . Renewable fuels have gained in popularity due to their sustainability , low contributions to the carbon cycle , and in some cases lower amounts of greenhouse gases . The geo-political ramifications of these fuels are also of interest , particularly to industrialized economies which desire independence from Middle Eastern oil .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Renewable_fuels\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 122340\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Renewable energy in the Philippines Content: Renewable energy accounts for 26.44 % of the total electrical energy needs in the Philippines , according to a 2013 survey . Renewable energy sources provided 19,903 gigawatt-hours of electrical energy out of a total need of 75,266 gigawatt-hours in 2013 . There are five main types of renewable energy used in the Philippines , hydropower , geothermal power , wind power , solar power and biomass power . There has been pressure to increase the Philippines ' usage of renewable energy sources in recent years due to the negative effects of fossil fuels -- such as pollution , accelerated climate change and fluctuating prices . A number of laws have been passed by the Philippine Congress to support the use of renewable energy including the Electric Power Industry Reform Act ( 2001 ) , which promotes the use of local and sustainable energy sources to replace imported fossil fuel sources ; the Biofuels Act ( 2006 ) , which encourages the use of biomass fuels ; the Renewable Energy Act ( 2008 ) ; and the Climate Change Act ( 2009 ) , which provides a legal basis for the tackling of climate change through sustainable development . The laws enacted by Congress have resulted in a significant degree of cooperation from private companies producing renewable energy , many of which have contracts with the Philippine Government .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Renewable_energy_in_the_Philippines\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 122204\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Energy forecasting Content: Energy forecasting is a broad term that refers to `` forecasting in the energy industry '' . It includes but is not limited to forecasting demand ( load ) and price of electricity , fossil fuels ( natural gas , oil , coal ) and renewable energy sources ( RES ; hydro , wind , solar ) . The term is used to describe both point and probabilistic ( i.e. , interval and density ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Energy_forecasting\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 121737\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mitigation of global warming in Australia Content: Mitigation of global warming involves taking actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to enhance sinks aimed at reducing the extent of global warming . This is in distinction to adaptation to global warming , which involves taking action to minimise the effects of global warming . Scientific consensus on global warming , together with the precautionary principle and the fear of non-linear climate transitions , is leading to increased effort to develop new technologies and sciences and carefully manage others in an attempt to mitigate global warming . Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) for coal-fired power stations has been put forward as a solution to rising greenhouse gas emissions . However , CCS can not deliver in time to avoid dangerous increases in temperatures , as widespread commercial use of CCS is not expected before 2030 . Following the introduction of government mandatory renewable energy targets , more opportunities have opened up for renewable energy technologies such as wind power , photovoltaics , and solar thermal technologies . The deployment of these technologies provides opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gases . A carbon price was introduced on 1 July 2012 by the government of Julia Gillard with the purpose of reducing Australia 's carbon emissions . It requires large businesses ( defined as those with annual carbon dioxide equivalent emissions over 25,000 tonnes annually ) to pay a price for emissions permits . The tax was scrapped by the Abbott government in July 2014 in what was a widely criticised and highly publicised move .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Mitigation_of_global_warming_in_Australia\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 120318\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: George Philippidis Content: George Philippidis is a renewable energy leader who has published and spoken extensively about the global need for energy diversification over the last 20 years . He advocates the development of renewable and alternative low-carbon power and fuels to enhance energy security , combat climate change , and secure sustainable economic growth . He has authored 11 cleantech patents , written numerous articles , and spoken nationally and internationally on this subject emphasizing that renewable and alternative energy will initially supplement and augment current resources and progressively replace fossil energy , provided that governments institute long-term energy policies promoting the development of and private investment in new energy technologies . A diverse energy portfolio , depending on the local availability of natural resources , includes ( 1 ) solar , wind , biomass-to-power , ocean , and geothermal energy for power generation , and ( 2 ) renewable hydrocarbons , biomass - and algae-derived biofuels , and electric vehicles for transportation . The private sector and the markets should determine which of those forms of low-carbon energy are most appropriate and cost-effective locally in different parts of the country and the world . Dr. Philippidis studied Chemical Engineering at the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki in Greece getting a BS and at the University of Minnesota receiving a PhD . He also studied Business Administration at the University of Denver obtaining an MBA . He led strategic business units at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory ( NREL ) of the US Department of Energy in Denver and at a subsidiary of Thermo Electron Corporation in Boston before becoming Energy Director of the Applied Research Center , the business arm of Florida International University in Miami . Presently , he is Director of the Alternative Energy Research Center and Associate Professor of Biofuel Engineering at the University of South Florida Polytechnic in the Tampa Bay area , where he works with companies and venture capital firms to commercialize clean energy technologies and educates students and professionals in critical energy issues . He has been advising the federal and state governments on energy policy , venture capital and private equity firms on investment in cleantech , and the private sector in the United States and Latin America on the establishment of a renewable energy industry .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"George_Philippidis\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 120308\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Fossil fuel Content: Fossil fuels are fuels formed by natural processes such as anaerobic decomposition of buried dead organisms , containing energy originating in ancient photosynthesis . The age of the organisms and their resulting fossil fuels is typically millions of years , and sometimes exceeds 650 million years . Fossil fuels contain high percentages of carbon and include petroleum , coal , and natural gas . Other commonly used derivatives include kerosene and propane . Fossil fuels range from volatile materials with low carbon to hydrogen ratios like methane , to liquids like petroleum , to nonvolatile materials composed of almost pure carbon , like anthracite coal . Methane can be found in hydrocarbon fields either alone , associated with oil , or in the form of methane clathrates . The theory that fossil fuels formed from the fossilized remains of dead plants by exposure to heat and pressure in the Earth 's crust over millions of years was first introduced by Georgius Agricola in 1556 and later by Mikhail Lomonosov in the 18th century . The Energy Information Administration estimates that in 2007 the primary sources of energy consisted of petroleum 36.0 % , coal 27.4 % , natural gas 23.0 % , amounting to an 86.4 % share for fossil fuels in primary energy consumption in the world . Non-fossil sources in 2006 included nuclear 8.5 % , hydroelectric 6.3 % , and others ( geothermal , solar , tidal , wind , wood , waste ) amounting to 0.9 % . World energy consumption was growing about 2.3 % per year . Although fossil fuels are continually being formed via natural processes , they are generally considered to be non-renewable resources because they take millions of years to form and the known viable reserves are being depleted much faster than new ones are being made . The use of fossil fuels raises serious environmental concerns . The burning of fossil fuels produces around 21.3 billion tonnes ( 21.3 gigatonnes ) of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) per year . It is estimated that natural processes can only absorb about half of that amount , so there is a net increase of 10.65 billion tonnes of atmospheric carbon dioxide per year . Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas that increases radiative forcing and contributes to global warming . A global movement towards the generation of renewable energy is underway to help reduce global greenhouse gas emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Fossil_fuel\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 120237\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The True Cost Content: The True Cost is a 2015 documentary film directed by Andrew Morgan that focuses on fast fashion . It discusses several aspects of the garment industry from production -- mainly exploring the life of low-wage workers in developing countries -- to its after-effects such as river and soil pollution , pesticide contamination , disease and death . Using an approach that looks at environmental , social and psychological aspects , it also examines consumerism and mass media , ultimately linking them to global capitalism . The documentary is a collage of several interviews with environmentalists , garment workers , factory owners , and people organizing fair trade companies or promoting sustainable clothing production . Morgan 's attention was drawn to the topic after the 2013 Savar building collapse , when a commercial building in Bangladesh named Rana Plaza toppled and killed over a thousand workers . Starting the project in October of that year , he traveled to thirteen countries to collect information and conduct interviews . The film was funded by Kickstarter and premiered at the 2015 Cannes Film Festival in early May 2015 before its release in select American and British theaters later that month . Critics have been both positive and dismissive , with reviews ranging from `` vitally important documentary '' to `` vague liberal agitprop '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"The_True_Cost\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 119333\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: History of sustainability Content: The history of sustainability traces human-dominated ecological systems from the earliest civilizations to the present . This history is characterized by the increased regional success of a particular society , followed by crises that were either resolved , producing sustainability , or not , leading to decline . In early human history , the use of fire and desire for specific foods may have altered the natural composition of plant and animal communities . Between 8,000 and 10,000 years ago , agrarian communities emerged which depended largely on their environment and the creation of a `` structure of permanence '' . The Western industrial revolution of the 18th to 19th centuries tapped into the vast growth potential of the energy in fossil fuels . Coal was used to power ever more efficient engines and later to generate electricity . Modern sanitation systems and advances in medicine protected large populations from disease . In the mid-20th century , a gathering environmental movement pointed out that there were environmental costs associated with the many material benefits that were now being enjoyed . In the late 20th century , environmental problems became global in scale . The 1973 and 1979 energy crises demonstrated the extent to which the global community had become dependent on non-renewable energy resources . In the 21st century , there is increasing global awareness of the threat posed by the human-induced enhanced greenhouse effect , produced largely by forest clearing and the burning of fossil fuels .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"History_of_sustainability\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 119137\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Fossil Fuel Beta Content: Fossil Fuel Beta ( FFß ) measures the percent change in excess , i.e. , market-adjusted , stock returns for every 1 percent increase in fossil fuel prices . If , for example , a company ( or industry ) has an FFß of -- 0.20 , then a 1 percent increase in fossil fuel prices should produce , on average , a 0.2 % decline in the firm 's stock price over and above the impact arising from fossil fuel price swing on the stock market as a whole . ( Conversely , a 1 percent decrease in fossil fuel prices should produce , on average , an equivalent increase in stock price . ) Converting the FFß into a hypothetical ` EPS-equivalent , ' based on , say , a 10 percent change in fossil fuel prices , it is possible to compare earnings-at-risk for individual companies with their competitors , or even industries with each other .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Fossil_Fuel_Beta\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 118913\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Non-Fossil Fuel Obligation Content: The Non-Fossil Fuel Obligation ( NFFO ) refers to a collection of orders requiring the electricity Distribution Network Operators in England and Wales to purchase electricity from the nuclear power and renewable energy sectors . Similar mechanisms operate in Scotland ( the Scottish Renewable Orders under the Scottish Renewables Obligation ) and Northern Ireland ( the Northern Ireland Non-Fossil Fuel Obligation ) . Five orders were made under the NFFO before the UK government replaced it with the Renewables Obligation , the first order or ` tranche ' was on October 1 , 1990 with an average price of 7.51 pence per kWh being paid to renewable energy generators , the fifth and last was in September 1998 at an average of 2.71 pence per kWh . Although the Renewables Obligation is now the Government 's main mechanism for expanding the renewables sector , the last of the existing orders will continue in effect until it expires in 2018 . Contracts resulting from the first two tranches however terminated in 1998 , allowing generators from these rounds to now sell electricity under the new mechanism .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Non-Fossil_Fuel_Obligation\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 118499\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coal in Europe Content: Coal in Europe describes coal as energy fuel in Europe today . Coal includes hard coal , brown coal , and lignite . Coal production in Europe is falling , and imports exceed production . If production and consumption continue at the present rate , proven and economically recoverable world reserves would last for about 150 years . According to IEA Coal Information ( 2007 ) world production and use of coal have increased considerably in recent years . There is , however , growing controversy in Europe over the use of coal , as many denounce it for reasons such as health risks and links to global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Coal_in_Europe\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 118371\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Rolling coal Content: Rolling coal is the practice of modifying a diesel engine to increase the amount of fuel entering the engine in order to emit an under-aspirated sooty exhaust that visibly pollutes the air . It also may include the intentional removal of the particulate filter . Practitioners often additionally modify their vehicles by installing smoke switches and smoke stacks . Modifications to a vehicle to enable rolling coal may cost from $ 200 to $ 5,000 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Rolling_coal\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 118252\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cofiring Content: Co-firing is the combustion of two different types of materials at the same time . One of the advantages of co-firing is that an existing plant can be used to burn a new fuel , which may be cheaper or more environmentally friendly . For example , biomass is sometimes co-fired in existing coal plants instead of new biomass plants . Co-firing can also be used to improve the combustion of fuels with low energy content . For example , landfill gas contains a large amount of carbon dioxide , which is non-combustible . If the landfill gas is burned without removing the carbon dioxide , the equipment may not perform properly or emissions of pollutants may increase . Co-firing it with natural gas increases the heat content of the fuel and improves combustion and equipment performance . As long as the electricity or heat produced with the biomass and landfill gas was otherwise going to be produced with non-renewable fuels , the benefits are essentially equivalent whether they are cofired or combusted alone . Also , co-firing can be used to lower the emission of some pollutants . For example , co-firing biomass with coal results in less sulfur emissions than burning coal by itself .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Cofiring\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 117928\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Energy in Queensland Content: Queensland 's energy policy is based on the year 2000 document called the Queensland Energy Policy : A Cleaner Energy Strategy . The Queensland Government assists energy development through the Department of Energy and Water Supply . The state is noted for its significant contribution to coal mining in Australia . The primary fuel for electricity generation in the state is coal with coal seam gas becoming a significant fuel source . Queensland has 98 % of Australia 's reserves of coal seam gas . An expansion of energy-intensive industries such as mining , economic growth and population growth have created increased demand for energy in Queensland . Early energy development in the middle of the 20th century facilitated the extraction of fossil fuels and distribution of natural gas and oil in pipelines from the south west of the state , under the leadership of Joh Bjelke-Petersen . In 2006 , Queensland became the biggest emitter of greenhouse gases in Australia due to its reliance on coal power and road transport . A 2005 government report highlighted the state 's vulnerability to rising oil prices . Queensland was the state to first to produce commercial oil , the first to find natural gas and the first to supply a capital city with natural gas by pipeline . It has Australia 's largest onshore oil field at Jackson . It was also the first state to use a form of hydro-electric power at Thargomindah when water pressure from a well sunk into the Great Artesian Basin was harnessed to generate electric power .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Energy_in_Queensland\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 117877\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental policy of the Donald Trump administration Content: The environmental policy of the Donald Trump administration represents a shift from the policy priorities and goals of his predecessor , Barack Obama . During the campaign Trump often described environmental regulations as an impediment to business . He promised to roll back many regulations and end a moratorium on the leasing of federal coal reserves . Immediately upon his inauguration , the White House released an `` America First Energy Plan '' , which focused on fossil fuels and did not mention renewable energy . The plan would repeal many Obama policies including the Climate Action Plan and the Waters of the U.S. rule , and limit the Environmental Protection Agency 's mission to protecting air and water quality . Within days of taking office he signed executive orders to approve two controversial pipelines and to require federal review of the Clean Water Rule and the Clean Power Plan . He also invited American manufacturers to suggest what regulations should be eliminated ; industry leaders submitted 168 comments , of which nearly half targeted Environmental Protection Agency rules . In March 2017 he released a proposed 2018 budget which would cut funding for the EPA by 31 % . In May 2017 Congress approved a budget for the balance of the 2017-18 year which cuts the EPA 's funding by 1 % and eliminates no jobs . Trump 's appointments to key agencies dealing in energy and environmental policy reflected his commitment to deregulation , particularly of the fossil fuel industry . Several of his cabinet picks , such as Rick Perry as Secretary of Energy and Scott Pruitt as Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency , were of people with a history of opposition to the agency they were named to head .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_policy_of_the_Donald_Trump_administration\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 117802\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Low-carbon_economy\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 117605\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coal Content: Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock usually occurring in rock strata in layers or veins called coal beds or coal seams . The harder forms , such as anthracite coal , can be regarded as metamorphic rock because of later exposure to elevated temperature and pressure . Coal is composed primarily of carbon , along with variable quantities of other elements , chiefly hydrogen , sulfur , oxygen , and nitrogen . A fossil fuel , coal forms when dead plant matter is converted into peat , which in turn is converted into lignite , then sub-bituminous coal , after that bituminous coal , and lastly anthracite . This involves biological and geological processes that take place over time . Throughout human history , coal has been used as an energy resource , primarily burned for the production of electricity and heat , and is also used for industrial purposes , such as refining metals . Coal is the largest source of energy for the generation of electricity worldwide , as well as one of the largest worldwide anthropogenic sources of carbon dioxide releases . The extraction of coal , its use in energy production and its byproducts are all associated with environmental and health effects including climate change . Coal is extracted from the ground by coal mining . Since 1983 , the world 's top coal producer has been China . In 2015 China produced 3,747 million tonnes of coal -- 47.7 % of 7,861 million tonnes world coal production . In 2015 other large producers were United States ( 813 million tonnes ) , India ( 678 ) , European Union ( 539 ) and Australia ( 503 ) . In 2010 the largest exporters were Australia with 328 million tonnes ( 27.1 % of world coal export ) and Indonesia with 316 million tonnes ( 26.1 % ) , while the largest importers were Japan with 207 million tonnes ( 17.5 % of world coal import ) , China with 195 million tonnes ( 16.6 % ) and South Korea with 126 million tonnes ( 10.7 % ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Coal\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 117559\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Energiewende in Germany Content: The Energiewende ( German for energy transition ) is the transition by Germany to a low carbon , environmentally sound , reliable , and affordable energy supply . The new system will rely heavily on renewable energy ( particularly wind , photovoltaics , and hydroelectricity ) , energy efficiency , and energy demand management . Most if not all existing coal-fired generation will need to be retired . The phase-out of Germany 's fleet of nuclear reactors , to be complete by 2022 , is a key part of the program . Legislative support for the Energiewende was passed in late 2010 and includes greenhouse gas ( GHG ) reductions of 80 -- 95 % by 2050 ( relative to 1990 ) and a renewable energy target of 60 % by 2050 . These targets are ambitious . The Berlin-based policy institute Agora Energiewende noted that `` while the German approach is not unique worldwide , the speed and scope of the Energiewende are exceptional '' . The Energiewende also seeks a greater transparency in relation to national energy policy formation . Germany has made significant progress on its GHG emissions reduction target , achieving a 27 % decrease between 1990 and 2014 . However Germany will need to maintain an average GHG emissions abatement rate of 3.5 % per annum to reach its Energiewende goal , equal to the maximum historical value thus far . Germany spends $ 1.5 billion per annum on energy research ( 2013 figure ) in an effort to solve the technical and social issues raised by the transition . This includes a number of computer studies that have confirmed the feasibility and a similar cost ( relative to business-as-usual and given that carbon is adequately priced ) of the Energiewende . The term Energiewende is regularly used in English language publications without being translated ( a loanword ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Energiewende_in_Germany\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 116703\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Energy subsidies Content: Energy subsidies are measures that keep prices for consumers below market levels or for producers above market levels , or reduce costs for consumers and producers . Energy subsidies may be direct cash transfers to producers , consumers , or related bodies , as well as indirect support mechanisms , such as tax exemptions and rebates , price controls , trade restrictions , and limits on market access . They may also include energy conservation subsidies . The development of today 's major modern energy industries have all relied on substantial subsidy support . Global fossil fuel subsidies represented 6.5 % of global GDP in 2015 . The elimination of these subsidies is widely seen as one of the most effective ways of reducing global carbon emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Energy_subsidies\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 116419\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mandatory renewable energy target Content: Mandatory renewable energy targets are part of government legislated schemes which require electricity retailers to source specific proportions of total electricity sales from renewable energy sources according to a fixed time frame . The purpose of these schemes is to promote renewable energy and reduce dependency on fossil fuels . If this results in an additional cost of electricity , the additional cost is distributed across most customers by increases in other tariffs . The cost of this measure is therefore not funded by government budgets , except for costs of establishing and monitoring the scheme and any audit and enforcement actions . As the cost of renewable energy has become cheaper than other sources , meeting and exceeding a renewable energy target will also reduce the cost of electricity to consumers . At least 67 countries have renewable energy policy targets of some type . In Europe , 28 European Union members states and 8 Energy Community Contracting Parties have legally binding renewable energy targets . The EU baseline target is 20 % by 2020 , while the United States also has a national RET of 20 % . Similarly , Canada has 9 provincial RETs but no national target . Targets are typically for shares of electricity production , but some are defined as by primary energy supply , installed capacity , or otherwise . While some targets are based on 2010-2012 data , many are now for 2020 , which ties in with the IPCC suggested greenhouse gas emission cuts of 25 to 40 % by Annex I countries by 2020 , although some are for 2025 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Mandatory_renewable_energy_target\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 116010\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coal mining in Brazil Content: Coal mining in Brazil is the country 's largest source of non-renewable energy , and is an important part of Brazil 's energy economy . Brazil is the tenth largest energy consumer and the third largest in the Western Hemisphere , Coal accounts for approximately 5.8 percent of the country 's total primary energy supply . It is the country 's largest source of non-renewable energy ( 50 percent ) , followed by nuclear energy ( 27 percent ) , petroleum ( eight percent ) , and natural gas ( 2.5 percent ) . Brazil produces about 6 million tons of coal per year , and total coal reserves are estimated at approximately 32.3 billion tons . It is also important in reducing reliance on imported oil and gas . Brazil 's coal-mining region is located in the southern part of the country , and the reserves are distributed among the states of Paraná ( 1 percent ) , Santa Catarina ( 46 percent ) , and Rio Grande do Sul ( 53 percent ) . The southernmost state of Rio Grande do Sul has majority of the coal reserves , but Santa Catarina is the largest producer of coal . The total Brazilian coal production in 2007 was 12,144,564 short tons , with the state of Santa Catarina producing 7,228,895 of those . The coal mining industry is of tremendous importance to these regions given the rapid expansion of Brazil 's national economy . It is also important in reducing reliance on hydropower from other regions . While the coal mining industry helped spur the regional economies in southern Brazil , in turn impacting their respective societies , but this has come at a high price . Severe environmental degradation has resulted from poor mining practices , improper waste disposal , poor regulation , and lack of research . In the state of Santa Catarina alone , 3.5 million tons of coal are rejected annually and disposed of in landfills . This is more than half of Brazil 's total annual coal extraction . The environmental problems have also translated into adverse effects for the mineworkers and those living in surrounding areas . A number of health , social , economic , and political concerns have arisen as a result of the mining industry . The Brazilian federal government even declared the state of Santa Catarina a site of environmental concern .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Coal_mining_in_Brazil\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 115875\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Fee and dividend Content: Fee and Dividend or Carbon Fee and Dividend ( CF&D ) is a market-based mechanism for reducing the carbon emissions that help to drive anthropogenic climate change . Carbon Fee and Dividend begins with levying imposing a progressively-rising fee on carbon-based fuels , then returning some or all of the fees collected to the public as a regular energy dividend . This is intended to incentivize a shift to low-carbon energy while protecting consumers from any increases in the costs of carbon-based fuels . Designed to maintain or improve economic vitality while speeding the transition to a sustainable energy economy , Carbon Fee and Dividend has been proposed as an alternative to emission reduction mechanisms such as cap and trade or a straightforward carbon tax .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Fee_and_dividend\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 115619\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative Content: ` The Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI , pronounced `` Reggie '' ) is the first mandatory market based program in the United States to reduce greenhouse gas emissions . RGGI is a cooperative effort among the states of Connecticut , Delaware , Maine , Maryland , Massachusetts , New Hampshire , New York , Rhode Island , and Vermont to cap and reduce CO2 emissions from the power sector . RGGI compliance obligations apply to fossil-fueled power plants 25MW and larger within the nine-state region . RGGI establishes a regional cap on the amount of CO2 pollution that power plants can emit by issuing a limited number of tradable CO2 allowances . Each allowance represents an authorization for a regulated power plant to emit one short ton of CO2 . Individual CO2 budget trading programs in each RGGI state together create a regional market for CO2 allowances . The RGGI states distribute over 90 percent of allowances through quarterly auctions . These allowance auctions generate proceeds , which participating states are able to invest in strategic energy and consumer benefit programs . Programs funded through RGGI have included energy efficiency , clean and renewable energy , greenhouse gas abatement , and direct bill assistance . An initial milestone program 's development occurred in 2005 , when seven states signed a Memorandum of Understanding ( MOU ) announcing an agreement to implement RGGI . The RGGI states then established individual CO2 budget trading programs , based on the RGGI Model Rule . The first pre-compliance RGGI auction took place in September 2008 , and the program became effective on January 1 , 2009 . The RGGI program is currently in its third three-year compliance period , which began January 1 , 2015 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Regional_Greenhouse_Gas_Initiative\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 114914\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Fossil Fuel Levy Content: The Fossil Fuel Levy ( FFL ) is a levy paid by suppliers of electricity from non-renewable energy sources in the United Kingdom . The costs are shared by the suppliers and consumers , as a proportion of the cost is passed on to consumers in the cost of the electricity supplied . The Fossil Fuel Levy was imposed to fund the Non-Fossil Fuel Obligation .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Fossil_Fuel_Levy\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 114910\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coal-mining region Content: Coal mining regions are significant resource extraction industries in many parts of the world . They provide a large amount of the fossil fuel energy in the world economy . The People 's Republic of China is the largest producer of coal in the world , while the United States contains the world 's largest ` recoverable ' coal reserves ( followed by Pakistan , Russia , China , and India ) . China and the United States are also among the largest coal consumers . Other important coal producing countries include Australia , India , South Africa , and Russia . A coal-mining region is a region in which coal mining is a significant economic activity . Coal-mining regions are often associated with the social , environmental and cultural impact of coal mining .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Coal-mining_region\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 114546\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Energy in Taiwan Content: Taiwan lacks energy resources and highly depends on import , so it is a top priority to develop clean , sustainable , and independent energy and achieve the balance among energy security , environmental protection , and industrial competitiveness , and reduce emissions through various strategies . Taiwan relies on imports for more than 99.23 % of its energy in 2008 , which leaves the island 's energy supply vulnerable to external disruption . In order to reduce this dependence , the Ministry of Economic Affairs ' Bureau of Energy has been actively promoting energy research at several universities since the 1990s . , in Taiwan , oil accounts for 48.5 % of the total energy consumption . Coal comes next with 29.2 % , followed by natural gas ( indigenous and liquefied ) with 12.2 % , nuclear energy with 8.3 % , biomass and waste with 1.2 % , and energy from other renewable sources with 0.5 % . Taiwan has 6 nuclear reactors . The 2016 election was won by the Pan-Green Coalition with policies that included a move toward a nuclear-free society , and is considering legislating to phase out nuclear power generation within nine years .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Energy_in_Taiwan\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 114509\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Alternative fuel Content: Alternative fuels , known as non-conventional and advanced fuels , are any materials or substances that can be used as fuels , other than conventional fuels like ; fossil fuels ( petroleum ( oil ) , coal , and natural gas ) , as well as nuclear materials such as uranium and thorium , as well as artificial radioisotope fuels that are made in nuclear reactors . Some well-known alternative fuels include biodiesel , bioalcohol ( methanol , ethanol , butanol ) , refuse-derived fuel , chemically stored electricity ( batteries and fuel cells ) , hydrogen , non-fossil methane , non-fossil natural gas , vegetable oil , propane and other biomass sources .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Alternative_fuel\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 114448\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sustainable biofuel Content: Sustainable biofuel is biofuel produced in a sustainable manner . Biofuels , in the form of liquid fuels derived from plant materials , are entering the market , driven by factors such as oil price spikes and the need for increased energy security . However , many of the biofuels that are currently being supplied have been criticised for their adverse impacts on the natural environment , food security , and land use . The challenge is to support biofuel development , including the development of new cellulosic technologies , with responsible policies and economic instruments to help ensure that biofuel commercialization is sustainable . Responsible commercialization of biofuels represents an opportunity to enhance sustainable economic prospects in Africa , Latin America and Asia . Biofuels have a limited ability to replace fossil fuels and should not be regarded as a ` silver bullet ' to deal with transport emissions . However , they offer the prospect of increased market competition and oil price moderation . A healthy supply of alternative energy sources will help to combat gasoline price spikes and reduce dependency on fossil fuels , especially in the transport sector . Using transportation fuels more efficiently is also an integral part of a sustainable transport strategy .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Sustainable_biofuel\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 114223\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental aspects of the electric car Content: Although electric cars have several benefits over conventional internal combustion engine automobiles , they are still subject to environmental regulation due to heavy reliance of rare earth elements such as neodymium , most of which are from China . However , several key environmental benefits includes a significant reduction of local air pollution , especially in cities , as they do not emit harmful tailpipe pollutants such as particulates ( soot ) , volatile organic compounds , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , ozone , lead , and various oxides of nitrogen . The amount of carbon dioxide emitted depends on the emission intensity of the power sources used to charge the vehicle , the efficiency of the said vehicle and the energy wasted in the charging process . For mains electricity the emission intensity varies significantly per country and within a particular country , and on the demand , the availability of renewable sources and the efficiency of the fossil fuel-based generation used at a given time .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_aspects_of_the_electric_car\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 113576\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Fossil fuel exporters Content: Petroleum , natural gas , and coal are exported from various source countries to countries reliant on these fossil fuels .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Fossil_fuel_exporters\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 113545\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Exploitation of natural resources Content: The exploitation of natural resources is the use of natural resources for economic growth , sometimes with a negative connotation of accompanying environmental degradation . It started to emerge on an industrial scale in the 19th century as the extraction and processing of raw materials ( such as in mining , steam power , and machinery ) developed much further than it had in preindustrial eras . During the 20th century , energy consumption rapidly increased . Today , about 80 % of the world 's energy consumption is sustained by the extraction of fossil fuels , which consists of oil , coal and gas . Another non-renewable resource that is exploited by humans is subsoil minerals such as precious metals that are mainly used in the production of industrial commodities . Intensive agriculture is an example of a mode of production that hinders many aspects of the natural environment , for example the degradation of forests in a terrestrial ecosystem and water pollution in an aquatic ecosystem . As the world population rises and economic growth occurs , the depletion of natural resources influenced by the unsustainable extraction of raw materials becomes an increasing concern .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Exploitation_of_natural_resources\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 113364\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental impact of wind power Content: The environmental impact of wind power when compared to the environmental impacts of fossil fuels , is relatively minor . Compared with other low carbon power sources , wind turbines have some of the lowest global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated . According to the IPCC , in assessments of the life-cycle global warming potential of energy sources , wind turbines have a median value of between 15 and 11 ( geq/kWh ) depending on whether off - or onshore turbines are being assessed . While wind turbine installations may cover a large area , they are compatible with many land uses such as farming and grazing , as only small areas of turbine foundations and infrastructure are made unavailable for use . Wind turbines generate some noise . At a residential distance of 300 m this may be around 45 dB , which is slightly louder than a refrigerator . At 1.5 km distance most wind turbines become inaudible . From a fundamental biological point of view , it is known that loud noise increases stress and stress causes diseases . Peer-reviewed research has generally supported the view that when properly sited wind turbines do not affect human health from noise . However , when improperly sited , data from the monitoring of two groups of growing geese revealed substantially lower body weights and higher concentrations of a stress hormone in the blood of the first group of geese who were situated 50 meters away compared to a second group which was at a distance of 500 meters from the turbine . Aesthetic aspects of wind turbines and resulting changes of the visual landscape can be significant . Conflicts arise especially in scenic and heritage protected landscapes . Siting restrictions ( such as setbacks ) have often been implemented to limit any intrusive environmental impacts . There are reports of bird and bat mortality at wind turbines as there are around other artificial structures . The scale of the ecological impact may or may not be significant , depending on specific circumstances . Prevention and mitigation of wildlife fatalities , and protection of peat bogs , affect the siting and operation of wind turbines .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_impact_of_wind_power\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 113259\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Peak gas Content: According to M. King Hubbert 's Hubbert peak theory , Peak gas is the point in time at which the maximum global natural gas ( fossil gas ) production rate will be reached , after which the rate of production will enter its terminal decline . Natural gas is a fossil fuel formed from plant matter over the course of millions of years . It is a finite resource and thus considered to be a non-renewable energy source . The concept of peak gas follows from Hubbert peak theory , which is most commonly associated with peak oil . Hubbert saw gas , coal and oil as natural resources , each of which would peak in production and eventually run out for a region , a country , or the world . Since Hubbert 's initial predictions in 1956 , `` the proper application of ever more powerful statistical techniques has reduced much of the uncertainty about the supply of oil and natural gas '' . One view in 1997 was that Hubbert 's use of an exponential decline model was statistically adequate in explaining real world data . However , longer-term experience has shown the predictions to be incorrect .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Peak_gas\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 113171\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hydroelectricity Content: Hydroelectricity is electricity produced from hydropower . In 2015 hydropower generated 16.6 % of the world 's total electricity and 70 % of all renewable electricity , and was expected to increase about 3.1 % each year for the next 25 years . Hydropower is produced in 150 countries , with the Asia-Pacific region generating 33 percent of global hydropower in 2013 . China is the largest hydroelectricity producer , with 920 TWh of production in 2013 , representing 16.9 percent of domestic electricity use . The cost of hydroelectricity is relatively low , making it a competitive source of renewable electricity . The hydro station consumes no water , unlike coal or gas plants . The average cost of electricity from a hydro station larger than 10 megawatts is 3 to 5 U.S. cents per kilowatt-hour . With a dam and reservoir it is also a flexible source of electricity since the amount produced by the station can be changed up or down very quickly to adapt to changing energy demands . Once a hydroelectric complex is constructed , the project produces no direct waste , and has a considerably lower output level of greenhouse gases than fossil fuel powered energy plants .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Hydroelectricity\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 112671\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: World Coal Association Content: World Coal Association ( WCA ) is an international non-profit , non-governmental association based in London created to represent the coal industry . The association was formerly called the World Coal Institute ( WCI ) but changed its name in November 2010 . The WCA undertakes lobbying , organises workshops , and provides coal information to decision makers in international energy and environmental policy and research discussions , as well as supplying information to the general public and educational organisations on the benefits and issues surrounding the use of coal . It also promotes clean coal technologies . It has participated in a number of United Nations and International Energy Agency workshops , boards , and forums , including the UN Commission on Sustainable Development , the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change , the IEA Working Party on Fossil Fuels , and the IEA Coal Industry Advisory Board . It is also part of the Carbon Sequestration Leadership Forum . It is co-author for a report on the future of coal in ASEAN nations .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"World_Coal_Association\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 112511\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Energy value of coal Content: The energy value of coal , or the fuel content , is the amount of potential energy in coal that can be converted into actual heating ability . The value can be calculated and compared with different grades of coal or even other materials . Materials of different grades will produce differing amounts of heat for a given mass . While chemistry provides methods of calculating the heating value of a certain amount of a substance , there is a difference between this theoretical value and its application to real coal . The grade of a sample of coal does not precisely define its chemical composition , so calculating the actual usefulness of coal as a fuel requires determining its proximate and ultimate analysis ( see `` Chemical Composition '' below ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Energy_value_of_coal\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 112268\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Fossil fuels lobby Content: `` Fossil fuels lobby '' is the umbrella term used to name the paid representatives of large fossil fuel ( oil , gas , coal ) and electric utilities corporations who attempt to influence governmental policy . So-called Big Oil companies such as ExxonMobil , Royal Dutch Shell , BP , Total S.A. , Chevron Corporation , and ConocoPhillips are amongst the largest corporations associated with the fossil fuels lobby . General Electric , Southern Company , First Energy , and the Edison Electric Institute are also among the most influential electric utilities corporations . However , electric companies and big oil and gas companies are consistently not among the ten highest-spending lobbyists -- the United States Chamber of Commerce is currently # 1 . By sector , `` Energy/Nat Resource '' comes fifth , behind `` Misc Business '' , `` Finance/Insur/RealEst '' , Health and `` Communic/Electronics '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Fossil_fuels_lobby\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 112090\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Midwestern Greenhouse Gas Reduction Accord Content: The Midwestern Greenhouse Gas Reduction Accord ( Midwestern Accord ) is a regional agreement by six governors of states in the US Midwest who are members of the Midwestern Governors Association ( MGA ) , and the premier of one Canadian province , whose purpose is to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to combat climate change . The accord has been inactive since March 2010 , when an advisory group presented a plan for action to the association with a scheduled implementation date of January 2012 . Signatories to the accord are the US states of Minnesota , Wisconsin , Illinois , Iowa , Michigan , Kansas , and the Canadian Province of Manitoba . Observers of the accord are Indiana , Ohio , and South Dakota , as well as the Canadian Province of Ontario . While the Midwest has intensive manufacturing and agriculture sectors , making it the most coal-dependent region in North America , it also has significant renewable energy resources and is particularly vulnerable to the climate change caused by burning coal and other fossil fuels . The Midwestern Accord was the fourth tier of the MGA Energy Security and Climate Stewardship Summit Platform , signed on November 15 , 2007 . It established the Midwestern Greenhouse Gas Reduction Program , which aimed to : establish greenhouse gas reduction targets and time frames consistent with signing states ' targets ; develop a market-based and multi-sector cap-and-trade mechanism to help achieve those reduction targets ; establish a system to enable tracking , management , and crediting for entities that reduce greenhouse gas emissions ; and develop and implement additional steps as needed to achieve the reduction targets , such as a low-carbon fuel standards and regional incentives and funding mechanisms . Through the Midwestern Accord , the governors agreed to establish a Midwestern greenhouse gas reduction program to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in their states , as well as a working group to provide recommendations regarding the implementation of the accord . In June 2009 , the Midwestern Greenhouse Gas Reduction Accord Advisory Group finalized its draft recommendations . In March 2010 the advisory group presented a plan to the MGA that called for implementation beginning in January 2012 . No further action was taken , as leadership in several of the states switched positions on climate policy . In July 2014 , accord member Kansas and observers Indiana , South Dakota , and Ohio joined a lawsuit opposing the EPA Clean Power Plan , federal climate regulations which could be met by implementation of the accord .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Midwestern_Greenhouse_Gas_Reduction_Accord\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 112072\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coal in Australia Content: Coal in Australia is mined primarily in Queensland , New South Wales and Victoria . Coal is used to generate electricity and most of the coal mined in Australia is exported , mostly to eastern Asia . In fiscal year 2013/14 , 430.9 million tonnes of coal was mined , and 375.1 million tonnes was exported . Coal provides about 69 % of Australia 's electricity production . In fiscal year 2008/09 , 487 million tonnes of coal was mined , and 261 million tonnes was exported . In 2013 , Australia was the world 's fifth-largest coal producer , after China , the United States , India , and Indonesia . However , in terms of proportion of production exported , Australia was the world 's second largest coal exporter , with exports accounting for roughly 73 % of coal production . Indonesia exports about 87 % of its coal production . Coal mining in Australia has been criticised by members of the environmental movement , due to carbon dioxide emissions during combustion . This criticism is primarily directed at thermal coal , for its connection to coal-fired power stations as a major source of carbon dioxide emissions , and the link to climate change and the effects of global warming on Australia . The burning of coal for electricity produces 29 % of Australia 's total greenhouse gas emissions , based on 2013-2014 Clean Energy Regulator data . Both Greenpeace Australia Pacific ( Energy -LSB- R -RSB- evolution ) and Beyond Zero Emissions ( Zero Carbon Australia 2020 ) have produced reports claiming a transition can be made to renewable energy and Greenpeace has called for a just transition for coal based communities , but others argue at present there is no strong evidence of a viable alternative for the vast majority of Australia 's electricity generation , or for the significant economic and social benefits coal mining delivers to regional communities . Many of these arguments specifically ignore the differentiation between thermal and metallurgical coal , and the different application they play in modern society . Coal Seam Gas , methane-based gas associated with deposits of coal has historically been flared , however over the past 10 years has been recovered and used to generate further electricity . The Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme , which followed the draft report of the Garnaut Climate Change Review , has placed a price on carbon emissions through a reducing cap and trade emissions trading scheme and this would be likely to impact most heavily on brown coal usage within Australia ( particularly in the Latrobe Valley in Victoria ) for power generation .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Coal_in_Australia\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 112002\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Proven reserves Content: Proven reserves , also called measured reserves , 1P , and reserves , are industry specific terms regarding fossil fuel energy sources . They are defined as a `` Quantity of energy sources estimated with reasonable certainty , from the analysis of geologic and engineering data , to be recoverable from well established or known reservoirs with the existing equipment and under the existing operating conditions . '' A reserve is considered a proven reserve if it is probable that 90 % or more of the resource is recoverable while being economically profitable . These terms relate to common fossil fuel reserves such as oil reserves , natural gas reserves , or coal reserves . Operating conditions are taken into account when determining if a reserve is classified as `` proven '' . Operating conditions include operational break-even price , regulatory and contractual approvals , without which the reserve can not be classified as proven . Price changes therefore can have a large impact on the classification of proven reserves . Regulatory and contractual conditions may change , and also affect the amount of proven reserves . If a reserve 's resources can be recovered using current technology but is not economically profitable it is considered `` technically recoverable '' but can not be considered a proven reserve . Reserves less than 90 % recoverable but more than 50 % are considered `` probable reserves '' and below 50 % are `` possible reserves '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Proven_reserves\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 111816\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Air Pollution in Canada Content: Air pollution in Canada arises from the increasing airborne chemicals , matter and biological materials in the air . These factors cause harm to human health , the environment and to the economy . In the Canadian context , the main contributor of air pollution stems from burning fossil fuels for power and energy . Fossil fuels continue to be the main source of fuel for Canadians , even though the government is aware of the negative effects that it has on the environment and human health . Air pollution in Canada continues to be an issue due to the pressures with climate change , increased urbanization and continued reliance on vehicles as the primary source of transportation . A major contributor to the problem of Canadian air pollution are the Alberta Oil Sands . Though they are not closely related to major Canadian Metropolitan Areas , the quality of mostly rural Northern Alberta is poorer than areas of similar population densities in Canada . Toronto and other Canadian municipalities face environmental problems associated with air pollution due to industrial chemicals . Air pollution is Canada continues to negatively affect the environment , leading to an increase in health problems for Canadians , especially regarding leukemia . Air pollution has increased the rate of hospital visits per year and is currently causing premature deaths . There are current policy responses to combat the increasing rate of air pollution in Canada . The agreement is a response to Canada 's transportation and energy production infrastructure as they contribute to the problem of Air Pollution . The Canadian and United States federal governments have required each other to reduce air pollution by specific amounts annually through detailed reporting .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Air_Pollution_in_Canada\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 111435\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: DC Divest Content: DC Divest is an advocacy campaign that seeks to get Washington , D.C. , to remove investments in fossil fuel companies from its investment portfolios , to raise awareness of local climate impacts , and support local climate activism . It is one of hundreds of locally focused campaigns worldwide taking part in the fossil fuel divestment movement , which seeks to increase the sense of urgency among elected officials , financial leaders , and the public around the need for political and social action to mitigate the worst effects of climate change . DC Divest was founded in March 2013 by a group of Washington , D.C. residents following a call to action by the non-profit environmental advocacy group 350 . org . In September 2013 , it succeeded in convincing the Council of the District of Columbia to introduce the Fossil Fuel Divestment Act of 2013 . In June 2016 , advocates announced that the city 's $ 6.4 million major pension fund had , citing financial and moral issues , sold off all direct investments in oil , coal , and gas companies listed on the Carbon Underground 200 . A number of Washington , D.C.-based environmental advocacy groups have given their support of the DC Divest campaign 's goal of removing fossil fuel companies from the District 's investments , including the D.C. Environmental Network , the Washington DC chapter of the Sierra Club , Moms Clean Air Force , the Chesapeake Climate Action Network , and many others .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"DC_Divest\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 111305\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Alternative energy Content: Alternative energy is any energy source that is an alternative to fossil fuel . These alternatives are intended to address concerns about such fossil fuels , such as its high carbon dioxide emissions , an important factor in global warming . Marine energy , hydroelectric , wind , geothermal and solar power are all alternative sources of energy . The nature of what constitutes an alternative energy source has changed considerably over time , as have controversies regarding energy use . Because of the variety of energy choices and differing goals of their advocates , defining some energy types as `` alternative '' is considered very controversial .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Alternative_energy\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 111182\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Energy in the United States Content: The United States was the 2nd largest energy consumer in 2010 ( after China ) considering total use . The U.S. ranks seventh in energy consumption per-capita after Canada and a number of small nations . Not included is the significant amount of energy used overseas in the production of retail and industrial goods consumed in the U.S. The majority of this energy is derived from fossil fuels : in 2010 , data showed 25 % of the nation 's energy came from petroleum , 22 % from coal , and 22 % from natural gas . Nuclear power supplied 8.4 % and renewable energy supplied 8 % , which was mainly from hydroelectric dams and biomass but also included other renewable sources such as wind power , geothermal and solar energy . Energy consumption has increased at a faster rate than domestic energy production over the last fifty years in the U.S. ( when they were roughly equal ) . This difference is now largely met through imports . According to the Energy Information Administration 's statistics , the per-capita energy consumption in the US has been somewhat consistent from the 1970s to today . The average has been 334 million British thermal units ( BTUs ) per person from 1980 to 2010 . One explanation suggested for this is that the energy required to produce the increase in US consumption of manufactured equipment , cars , and other goods has been shifted to other countries producing and transporting those goods to the US with a corresponding shift of green house gases and pollution . In comparison , the world average has increased from 63.7 in 1980 to 75 million BTU 's per person in 2008 . On the other hand , US `` off-shoring '' of manufacturing is sometimes exaggerated : US domestic manufacturing has grown by 50 % since 1980 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Energy_in_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 111122\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Direct carbon fuel cell Content: A Direct Carbon Fuel Cell ( DCFC ) is a fuel cell that uses a carbon rich material as a fuel such as bio-mass or coal . The cell produces energy by combining carbon and oxygen , which releases carbon dioxide as a by-product . It also called coal fuel cells ( CFCs ) , carbon-air fuel cells ( CAFCs ) , direct carbon/coal fuel cells ( DCFCs ) , and DC-SOFC . The total reaction of the cell is C + O2 → CO2 . The process in half cell notation : Anode : C + 2 O2 − → CO2 + 4 e − Cathode : O2 + 4 e − → 2 O2 − Despite this release of carbon dioxide , the direct carbon fuel cell is more environmentally friendly than traditional carbon burning techniques . Due to its higher efficiency , it requires less carbon to produce the same amount of energy . Also , because pure carbon dioxide is emitted , carbon capture techniques are much cheaper than for conventional power stations . Utilized carbon can be in the form of coal , coke , char , or a non-fossilized source of carbon . At least four types of DCFC exist : The first one is based on the Solid oxide fuel cell ( SOFC ) concept . Overall reaction in the solid oxide electrolyte based DCFC C + O2 → CO2 . Anode reaction C + 2O2 − → CO2 + 4e − C + O2 − → CO + 2e − CO + O2 − → CO2 + 2e − C + CO2 → 2CO Cathode reaction O2 + 4e − → 2O2 − The second one is molten hydroxides fuel cell . William W. Jacques obtained an US Patent 555,511 in this type of fuel cell in 1896 . Prototypes have been demonstrated by the research group , SARA , Inc. . The third one is based on the Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell ( MCFC ) concept . William W. Jacques obtained a Canadian patent in this type of fuel cell in 1897 . It has been developed further at the Lawrence Livermore Laboratory . The fourth is a molten tin anode solid oxide fuel cell design , which utilizes molten tin and tin oxide as an inter stage reaction between oxidation of the carbon dissolving in the anode and reduction of oxygen at the solid oxide cathode .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Direct_carbon_fuel_cell\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 111063\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cap and dividend Content: Cap and dividend is a market-based trading system which retains the original capping method of cap and trade , but also includes compensation for energy consumers . This compensation is to offset the cost of products produced by companies that raise prices to consumers as a result of this policy . The process begins with some governments setting aggregate pollution quotas ( e.g. , for carbon emissions ) and selling pollution permits to the public respectively . Polluters are required to buy those credits to match their pollution outputs . Some of the cost producers pay for pollution will result in higher costs for consumers , who as citizens are additionally faced with the environmental costs of the pollution . Under the cap and dividend system , public revenues raised from the sale of pollution credits is rebated to citizens or to consumers as a subsidy for increasing efficiency .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Cap_and_dividend\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 111025\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Renewable heat Content: Renewable heat is an application of renewable energy and it refers to the renewable generation of heat , rather than electrical power ( e.g. replacing a fossil fuel boiler using concentrating solar thermal to feed radiators ) . Renewable heat technologies include renewable biofuels , solar heating , geothermal heating , heat pumps and heat exchangers to recover lost heat . Significant attention is also applied to insulation . Many colder countries consume more energy for heating than electrical power . For example , in 2005 the United Kingdom consumed 354 TWh of electric power , but had a heat requirement of 907 TWh , the majority of which ( 81 % ) was met using gas . The residential sector alone consumed a massive 550 TWh of energy for heating , mainly in the form of gas . Almost half of the final energy consumed in the UK ( 49 % ) was in the form of heat , of which 70 % was used by households and in commercial and public buildings . Households used heat mainly for space heating ( 69 % ) and heating water . The relative competitiveness of renewable electricity and renewable heat depends on a nation 's approach to energy and environment policy . Few renewable technologies ( whether for heat , electricity or transport ) are competitive with fossil fuels without some form of carbon valuation or subsidy . In those countries , such as Sweden , Denmark and Finland , where government intervention has been closest to a technology-neutral form of carbon valuation ( i.e. carbon and energy taxes ) , renewable heat has played the leading role in a very substantial renewable contribution to final energy consumption . In those countries , such as Germany , Spain , the USA , and the UK , where government intervention has been set at different levels for different technologies , uses and scales , the contributions of renewable heat and renewable electricity technologies have depended on the relative levels of support , and have resulted generally in a lower renewable contribution to final energy consumption .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Renewable_heat\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 110852\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hydrogen Energy California Content: Hydrogen Energy California ( HECA ) was an alternative energy , hydrogen power project in development with support from the U.S. Department of Energy in Kern County , California . The facility proposed to convert coal and refinery waste into an impure hydrogen fuel that would be used to generate electricity and fertilizer . HECA was supposed to capture ninety percent of its carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) emissions to theoretically minimize greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions and inject it , ironically , for enhanced oil recovery . If it had become fully operational , HECA would have generated nearly 300MW of clean electricity and will produce one million tons of locally manufactured , low-carbon fertilizer . But , most of the electricity produced by HECA would have been consumed by the different processes at the plant . On March 4 , 2016 , the California Energy Commission ordered the HECA application to be terminated . HECA would have produced over 500 tons of criteria air pollutants . This air pollution would have been added to an area that already has the worst air pollution in the entire United States . The facility was to be located on 542 acres of prime farmland in western Kern County , about 7 mi west of Bakersfield and 1.5 mi northwest of the unincorporated community of Tupman . The site is near the Elk Hills Oil Field where the captured CO2 was to be used for enhanced oil recovery by Occidental of Elk Hills , Inc. . HECA would have employed an expected 2,000 union workers to construct the facility and would have created approximately 200 permanent jobs . HECA was a project of SCS Energy LLC , an independent developer of clean power . HECA was cofunded by the U.S. Department of Energy 's Office of Fossil Energy and administered by the National Energy Technology Laboratory . The HECA project was awarded a $ 408 million grant by the U.S. Department of Energy under Clean Coal Power Initiative Round 3 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Hydrogen_Energy_California\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 110663\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pollution Pricing Content: Pollution pricing reform ( PPR ) is the process of adjusting market prices to include direct environmental impact on measurable parameters , as e.g. dust and gas exhaust from combustion engines especially in road traffic . This approach differs from general ecologic taxation schemes , where the measurability of the impact is not available on short term or direct comparison of the tax affected choice for investment or operation . An externality ( a type of market failure ) exists where a market price omits pollution raise and affection . In such a situation , rational ( self-interested ) fiscal or individual decisions can lead to environmental harm , as well as to economic distortions and inefficiencies .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Pollution_Pricing\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 110599\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental and Energy Study Institute Content: The Environmental and Energy Study Institute ( EESI ) is an independent , bi-partisan 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization that aims to promote environmentally sustainable societies . Based out of Washington , DC , EESI seeks to be a catalyst moving society away from environmentally damaging fossil fuels and toward a clean energy future . The organization was established in 1984 by a bipartisan and bicameral group of members of the United States Congress who were concerned with global environmental and energy problems . EESI works to advance policy solutions that reduce greenhouse gas emissions and ground-level air pollution ; improve public health , energy security , and economic development opportunities ; and increase use of renewable energy and energy efficiency . The group seeks to advance its mission through policymaker education , coalition building , and policy development .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_and_Energy_Study_Institute\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 110350\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of proposed future transport Content: Most transport media in use today are generally fossil fuel powered . The reason for this is the ease of use and the existence of mature technologies harnessing this fuel source . Fossil fuels represent a concentrated , relatively compact source of energy . The drawbacks of such transportation media are that they are heavily polluting , and rely on limited energy sources . Many ideas exist which try to either harness renewable forms of energy , more efficiently use fossil fuel , or use human power , or some hybrid of these , to move people and things . The list below contains some forms of transport not in general use , but considered as possibilities in the future . Air-propelled train ( abandoned in 19th century ) Bounce tube pneumatic travel ( Proposed by Robert A. Heinlein in 1956 ) Vactrain also known as ET3 BiModal Glideway ( Dual Mode Transportation System ) travel ( Proposed by William D. Davis , Jr. in 1967 ) TEV Project ( proposed by Will Jones in Summer 2012 ) Kwik Lane also spelled as Qwik Lane ( proposed by McCrary Personal Transport Systems , LLC in 2011 ) Backpack helicopter Dual-mode vehicle Hyperloop Intelligent Transportation System Jet pack Launch loop Orbital ring Personal air vehicle ( Flying car ) Personal rapid transit Rolling road ( proposed by Robert A. Heinlein in 1940 ) Slidewalk ( proposed by Robert A. Heinlein in 1948 ) Light sail ( proposed by Jack Vance in 1962 ) Space elevator ( proposed by Russian scientist Konstantin Tsiolkovsky in 1895 ) Spacecraft propulsion or Space transport Teleportation SkyTran\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_proposed_future_transport\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 110276\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Renewable energy in Mexico Content: Renewable energy in Mexico contributes to 26 percent of electricity generation in Mexico . As of 2009 , electricity generation from renewable energy comes from hydro power , geothermal , solar power and wind . There is a long term effort established to increase the use of renewable energy sources . The amount of geothermal energy used and harvested , places Mexico as number four in the world . As one of the leading countries in renewable energy , more specifically , geothermal placing Mexico as the 4th ranked country in the world . As the importance of clean sustainable energy becomes more prevalent , the country and government officials continue to invest in research and innovations to continue to allow Mexico to be a leading example of renewable energy . Predictions based on current energy standings lead the country to anticipate by the year 2035 , the 26 percent renewable energy in Mexico will rise to 35 percent . Not only will this prove a more sustainable future it also increases jobs in rural areas . Jobs increased by 14 percent within the last 8 years in the renewable energy sector . With the objection to create more in home jobs for residents of Mexico , an increase in sustainable energy , results in a lower demand for conventional fuels such as fuel oil , petrol gas , coal and natural gas . With a lower demand on these fuels , mainly gasoline and diesel and on the rise jet fuel , this will result in a lower need for imports . With relying on fewer imports , national security is higher .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Renewable_energy_in_Mexico\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 109923\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Low-carbon fuel standard Content: A low-carbon fuel standard ( LCFS ) is a rule enacted to reduce carbon intensity in transportation fuels as compared to conventional petroleum fuels , such as gasoline and diesel . The most common low-carbon fuels are alternative fuels and cleaner fossil fuels , such as natural gas ( CNG and LPG ) . The main purpose of a low-carbon fuel standard is to decrease carbon dioxide emissions associated with vehicles powered by various types of internal combustion engines while also considering the entire life cycle ( `` well to wheels '' ) , in order to reduce the carbon footprint of transportation . The first low-carbon fuel standard mandate in the world was enacted by California in 2007 , with specific eligibility criteria defined by the California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) in April 2009 but taking effect in January 2011 . Similar legislation was approved in British Columbia in April 2008 , and by European Union which proposed its legislation in January 2007 and which was adopted in December 2008 . The United Kingdom is implementing its Renewable Transport Fuel Obligation Program , which also applies the concept of low-carbon fuels . Several bills have been proposed in the United States for similar low-carbon fuel regulation at a national level but with less stringent standards than California . As of early 2010 none have been approved . The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) issued its final rule regarding the expanded Renewable Fuel Standard ( RFS2 ) for 2010 and beyond on February 3 , 2010 . This ruling , as mandated by the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 ( EISA ) , included direct emissions and significant indirect emissions from land use changes .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Low-carbon_fuel_standard\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 109806\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Renewable energy debate Content: There is a renewable energy debate about the constraints and opportunities associated with the use of renewable energy . Renewable electricity production , from sources such as wind power and solar power , is sometimes criticized for being variable or intermittent . However , the International Energy Agency has stated that this only applies to certain renewables , mainly wind and solar photovoltaics , and its significance depends on a range of factors , such as the penetration of the renewables concerned . There have been `` not in my back yard '' ( NIMBY ) concerns relating to the visual and other impacts of some wind farms , with local residents sometimes fighting or blocking construction . In the USA , the Massachusetts Cape Wind project was delayed for years partly because of aesthetic concerns . However , residents in other areas have been more positive and there are many examples of community wind farm developments . According to a town councillor , the overwhelming majority of locals believe that the Ardrossan Wind Farm in Scotland has enhanced the area . The market for renewable energy technologies has continued to grow . Climate change concerns , coupled with high oil prices , peak oil , and increasing government support , are driving increasing renewable energy legislation , incentives and commercialization . New government spending , regulation and policies helped the industry weather the 2009 economic crisis better than many other sectors .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Renewable_energy_debate\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 109758\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Energy transition Content: Energy transition is generally defined as a long-term structural change in energy systems . These have occurred in the past , and still occur worldwide . Historic energy transitions are most broadly described by Vaclav Smil . Contemporary energy transitions differ in terms of motivation and objectives , drivers and governance . An example of transition toward sustainable energy , is the shift by Germany ( Energiewende ) , to decentralised renewable energy , and energy efficiency . Although so far these shifts have been replacing nuclear energy , their declared goal is the abolishment of coal , reducing non-renewable energy sources and the creation of an energy system based on 60 % renewable energy by 2050 . Renewable energy encompasses wind , hydropower , solar power , geothermal , and ocean power . These renewable sources are to serve as an alternative to fossil fuels ( oil , coal , natural gas ) and nuclear fuel ( uranium ) . Solving the energy/global warming problem is regarded as the most important challenge facing humankind in the 21st century . Piecemeal measures often have only limited potential , so a timely implementation for the energy transition requires multiple approaches in parallel . Energy conservation and improvements in energy efficiency thus play a major role . An example of an effective energy efficiency measure is improved insulation for buildings . Smart electric meters can schedule energy consumption for times when electricity is available inexpensively . After such a transitional period , with a continuing increase in renewable energy production these are expected to make up most , if not all , of the world 's energy production in 50 years according to a 2011 projection by the International Energy Agency , dramatically reducing the emissions of greenhouse gases .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Energy_transition\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 109504\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in China Content: The position of the Chinese government on climate change is contentious . China has ratified the Kyoto Protocol , but as a non-Annex I country which is not required to limit greenhouse gas emissions under terms of the agreement . In particular since 2007 the Chinese government has n't changed its attitude towards climate change policy and has become one of the major drivers of low-carbon technology developments . In 2002 , on the basis of an analysis of fossil fuel consumption ( including especially the coal power plants ) and cement production data , that China surpassed the United States as the world 's largest emitter of carbon dioxide , putting out 7,000 million tonnes , in comparison with America 's 5,800 million . According to data from the US Energy Information Administration China was the top emitter by fossil fuels CO2 in 2009 China : 7,710 million tonnes ( mt ) ( 25.4 % ) ahead of US : 5,420 mt ( 17.8 % ) , India : 5.3 % , Russia : 5.2 % and Japan : 3.6 % . China was also the top emitter of all greenhouse gas emissions including building and deforestation in 2005 : China : 7,220 mt ( 16.4 % ) , US : 6,930 mt ( 15.7 % ) , 3 . Brazil 6.5 % , 4 . Indonesia : 4.6 % , 5 . Russia 4.6 % , 6 . India 4.2 % , 7 . Japan 3.1 % , 8 . Germany 2.3 % , 9 . Canada 1.8 % , and 10 . Mexico 1.6 % . In the cumulative emissions between 1850 and 2007 the top emitters were : 1 . US 28.8 % 2 . China : 9.0 % , 3 . Russia 8.0 % , 4 . Germany 6.9 % , 5 . UK 5.8 % , 6 . Japan 3.9 % , 7 . France 2.8 % , 8 . India 2.4 % , 9 . Canada 2.2 % and 10 . Ukraine 2.2 % . According to BBC News , in September 2014 , China surpassed the European Union 's per capita carbon emissions for the first time in history . China 's per capita carbon emissions now stand at 7.2 t/capita . China 's carbon emissions have increased rapidly since its economic boom in the early 2000s . Since then , their per capita carbon emissions have increased by more than 2.5 times .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_China\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 109351\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Energy in Chile Content: Chile 's total primary energy supply ( TPES ) was 36.10 Mtoe in 2014 . Energy in Chile is dominated by fossil fuels , with coal , oil and gas accounting for 73.4 % of the total primary energy . Biofuels and waste account for another 20.5 % of primary energy supply , with the rest sourced from hydro and other renewables . Electricity consumption was 68.90 TWh in 2014 . Main sources of electricity in Chile are hydroelectricity , gas , oil and coal . Renewable energy in the forms of wind and solar energy are also coming into use , encouraged by collaboration since 2009 with the United States Department of Energy . The electricity industry is privatized with ENDESA as the largest company in the field .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Energy_in_Chile\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 109277\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hydroelectricity in China Content: Hydroelectricity is currently China 's largest renewable energy source and the second overall after coal . China 's installed hydro capacity in 2015 was 319 GW , up from 172 GW in 2009 , including 23 GW of pumped storage hydroelectricity capacity . In 2015 , hydropower generated 1,126 TWh of power , accounting for roughly 20 % of China 's total electricity generation . Due to China 's insufficient reserves of fossil fuels and the government 's preference for energy independence , hydropower plays a big part in the energy policy of the country . China 's potential hydropower capacity is estimated at up to 600 GW , but currently the technically exploitable and economically feasible capacity is around 500 GW . There is therefore considerable potential for further hydro development . The country has set a 350 GW capacity target for 2020 . Hydroelectric plants in China have a relatively low productivity , with an average capacity factor of 31 % , a possible consequence of rushed construction and the seasonal variability of rainfall . Moreover , a significant amount of energy is lost due to the need for long transmission lines to connect the remote plants to where demand is most concentrated . Although hydroelectricity represents the largest renewable and low greenhouse gas emissions energy source in the country , the social and environmental impact of dam construction in China has been large , with millions of people forced to relocate and large scale damage to the environment .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Hydroelectricity_in_China\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 109080\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Peat energy in Finland Content: Peat energy in Finland describes peat energy use in Finland . Peat has high global warming emissions and high environmental concerns . It may be compared to brown coal ( lignite ) or worse than this lowest rank of coal . Peat is the most harmful energy source for global warming in Finland . ( Hard coal , which is more harmful , is only used as an emergency back-up source for energy , and not in every year . ) According to IEA the Finnish subsidies for peat in 2007-2010 undermined the goal to reduce emissions and counteracted other environmental policies and The European Union emissions trading scheme .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Peat_energy_in_Finland\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 108822\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coal mining in the United States Content: Coal mining in the United States is a major industry , coal being mined in 25 states , 40 % on public lands . Mined tonnage reached an all-time high of 1.06 Gt ( 1.17 billion short tons ) in 2008 , but by 2015 had declined to 986 million short tons . According to the U.S. Energy Information Administration ( EIA ) , in 2015 Wyoming , West Virginia , Kentucky , Illinois , and Pennsylvania produced about 639 millions of short tons ( MST ) representing 71 % of total U.S. coal production in the United States . The U.S. is a net exporter of coal . U.S. coal exports , for which Europe is the largest customer , peaked in 2012 , and have declined since . In 2015 , the U.S. exported 7.0 percent of mined coal . In 2005 coal provided approximately 50 % of electricity in the United States and about 92 percent of coal consumption went to electricity generation . However , in 2016 , the EIA calculated that coal would provide only 30 % of electricity generation nationwide with natural gas providing 34 % , nuclear , 19 % , and renewables , 15 % . By January 2016 , more than 25 % of coal production was in bankruptcy in the United States . In 2015 four publicly-traded US coal companies filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection , including Patriot Coal Corporation , Walter Energy , and the fourth-largest Alpha Natural Resources filed for bankruptcy protection . The second-largest producer Arch Coal and the largest producer Peabody Energy declared bankruptcy in 2016 . By March 2017 , the coal industry employed approximately 77,000 miners . 60,000 jobs have been lost since 2011 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Coal_mining_in_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 108631\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental impact of transport Content: The environmental impact of transport is significant because it is a major user of energy , and burns most of the world 's petroleum . This creates air pollution , including nitrous oxides and particulates , and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon dioxide , for sector . By subsector , road transport is the largest contributor to global warming . Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced the individual vehicle 's emission ; however , this has been offset by an increase in the number of vehicles , and more use of each vehicle . Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road vehicles considerably have been studied . Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes , causing environmentalists to call for a transition from air and road to rail and human-powered transport , and increase transport electrification and energy efficiency . The transportation sector is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) in the United States . An estimated 30 percent of national GHGs are directly attributable to transportation -- and in some regions , the proportion is even higher . Transportation methods are the greatest contributing source of GHGs in the U.S. , accounting for 47 percent of the net increase in total U.S. emissions since 1990 . Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urban sprawl , which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands . By reducing transportation emissions globally , it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects on Earth 's air quality , acid rain , smog and climate change . The health impact of transport emissions is also of concern . A recent survey of the studies on the effect of traffic emissions on pregnancy outcomes has linked exposure to emissions to adverse effects on gestational duration and possibly also intrauterine growth . As listed above direct impacts such as noise and carbon monoxide emissions create direct and harmful effects on the environment , along with indirect impacts . The indirect impacts are often of higher consequence which leads to the misconception that it 's the opposite since it is frequently understood that initial effects cause the most damage . For example , particulates which are the outcome of incomplete combustion done by an internal combustion engine , are not linked with respiratory and cardiovascular problems since they contribute to other factors not only to that specific condition . Even though the environmental impacts are usually listed individually there are also cumulative impacts . The synergetic consequences of transport activities . They take into account of the varied effects of direct and indirect impacts on an ecosystem . Climate change is the sum total impact of several natural and human-made factors . 15 % of global CO2 emissions are attributed to the transport sector .\",\n \"qid\": \"2709\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_impact_of_transport\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 108318\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":1339,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"[Wind energy] is a more expensive way of producing energy than the alternative."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Wind power Content: Wind power is the use of air flow through wind turbines to mechanically power generators for electric power . Wind power , as an alternative to burning fossil fuels , is plentiful , renewable , widely distributed , clean , produces no greenhouse gas emissions during operation , consumes no water , and uses little land . The net effects on the environment are far less problematic than those of nonrenewable power sources . Wind farms consist of many individual wind turbines which are connected to the electric power transmission network . Onshore wind is an inexpensive source of electric power , competitive with or in many places cheaper than coal or gas plants . Offshore wind is steadier and stronger than on land , and offshore farms have less visual impact , but construction and maintenance costs are considerably higher . Small onshore wind farms can feed some energy into the grid or provide electric power to isolated off-grid locations . Wind power gives variable power which is very consistent from year to year but which has significant variation over shorter time scales . It is therefore used in conjunction with other electric power sources to give a reliable supply . As the proportion of wind power in a region increases , a need to upgrade the grid , and a lowered ability to supplant conventional production can occur . Power management techniques such as having excess capacity , geographically distributed turbines , dispatchable backing sources , sufficient hydroelectric power , exporting and importing power to neighboring areas , using vehicle-to-grid strategies or reducing demand when wind production is low , can in many cases overcome these problems . In addition , weather forecasting permits the electric power network to be readied for the predictable variations in production that occur . As of 2015 , Denmark generates 40 % of its electric power from wind , and at least 83 other countries around the world are using wind power to supply their electric power grids . In 2014 global wind power capacity expanded 16 % to 369,553 MW . Yearly wind energy production is also growing rapidly and has reached around 4 % of worldwide electric power usage , 11.4 % in the EU .","qid":"2710","docid":"Wind_power","rank":1,"score":158228},{"content":"Title: Wind power in the United Kingdom Content: The United Kingdom is one of the best locations for wind power in the world , and is considered to be the best in Europe . Wind power contributed 11 % of UK electricity generation in 2015 , and 17 % in December 2015 . Allowing for the costs of pollution , particularly the carbon emissions of other forms of production , onshore wind power is the cheapest form of energy in the United Kingdom . In 2016 , the UK generated more electricity from wind power than from coal . Wind power delivers a growing percentage of the energy of the United Kingdom and at the end of May 2017 , it consisted of 7,520 wind turbines with a total installed capacity of almost 15.5 gigawatts : 10,128 megawatts of onshore capacity and 5,356 megawatts of offshore capacity . This placed the United Kingdom at this time as the world 's sixth largest producer of wind power ( behind 1 . China , 2 . USA , 3 . Germany , 4 . India and 5 . Spain ) , having overtaken France and Italy in 2012 . Polling of public opinion consistently shows strong support for wind power in the UK , with nearly three quarters of the population agreeing with its use , even for people living near onshore wind turbines . In 2015 , 40.4 TW · h of energy was generated by wind power , and the quarterly generation record was set in the three-month period from October to December 2015 , with 13 % of the nation 's electricity demand met by wind . 2015 saw 1.2 GW of new wind power capacity brought online , a 9.6 % increase of the total UK installed capacity . Three large offshore wind farms came on stream in 2015 , Gwynt y Môr ( 576 MW max . capacity ) , Humber Gateway ( 219 MW ) and Westermost Rough ( 210 MW ) . Through the Renewables Obligation , British electricity suppliers are now required by law to provide a proportion of their sales from renewable sources such as wind power or pay a penalty fee . The supplier then receives a Renewables Obligation Certificate ( ROC ) for each MW · h of electricity they have purchased . Within the United Kingdom , wind power is the largest source of renewable electricity , and the second largest source of renewable energy after biomass . However , the UK 's Conservative government is opposed to onshore wind power and has attempted to cancel existing subsidies for onshore wind turbines a year early from April 2016 , although the House of Lords have struck these changes down . Overall , wind power raises costs of electricity slightly . In 2015 , it was estimated that the use of wind power in the UK had added # 18 to the average yearly electricity bill . This was the additional cost to consumers of using wind to generate about 9.3 % of the annual total ( see table below ) -- about # 2 for each 1 % . Nevertheless , offshore wind power is significantly more expensive than onshore , which raises costs . Offshore wind projects completed in 2012 -- 14 had a levelised cost of electricity of # 131/MW · h compared to a wholesale price of # 40 -- 50/MW · h ; the industry hopes to get the cost down to # 100/MW · h for projects approved in 2020 .","qid":"2710","docid":"Wind_power_in_the_United_Kingdom","rank":2,"score":132635},{"content":"Title: Renewable energy in developing countries Content: Renewable energy technology has sometimes been seen as a costly luxury item by critics , and affordable only in the affluent developed world . This erroneous view has persisted for many years , but 2015 was the first year when investment in non-hydro renewables , was higher in developing countries , with $ 156 billion invested , mainly in China , India , and Brazil . Most developing countries have abundant renewable energy resources , including solar energy , wind power , geothermal energy , and biomass , as well as the ability to manufacture the relatively labor-intensive systems that harness these . By developing such energy sources developing countries can reduce their dependence on oil and natural gas , creating energy portfolios that are less vulnerable to price rises . In many circumstances , these investments can be less expensive than fossil fuel energy systems . In isolated rural areas , electricity grid extensions are often not economical . Off‐grid renewable technologies provide a sustainable and cost‐effective alternative to the diesel generators that would be otherwise be deployed in such areas . Renewable technologies can also help to displace other unsustainable energy sources such as kerosene lamps and traditional biomass . Kenya is the world leader in the number of solar power systems installed per capita ( but not the number of watts added ) . More than 30,000 small solar panels , each producing 12 to 30 watts , are sold in Kenya annually . Kenya was the first African country to use geothermal power , and still has the largest installed capacity of geothermal power in Africa at 200 MW , with a potential of up to 10 GW .","qid":"2710","docid":"Renewable_energy_in_developing_countries","rank":3,"score":132123},{"content":"Title: Wind Energy (journal) Content: Wind Energy is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering research on wind power . It is published by John Wiley & Sons and the editors-in-chief are Rebecca Bartholomew ( Cornell University ) and Scott Schreck ( National Renewable Energy Laboratory ) . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2013 impact factor of 2.556 , ranking it 35th out of 83 journals in `` Energy & Fuels '' and 12th out of 128 journals in `` Engineering Mechanical '' .","qid":"2710","docid":"Wind_Energy_(journal)","rank":4,"score":126588},{"content":"Title: Alternative energy Content: Alternative energy is any energy source that is an alternative to fossil fuel . These alternatives are intended to address concerns about such fossil fuels , such as its high carbon dioxide emissions , an important factor in global warming . Marine energy , hydroelectric , wind , geothermal and solar power are all alternative sources of energy . The nature of what constitutes an alternative energy source has changed considerably over time , as have controversies regarding energy use . Because of the variety of energy choices and differing goals of their advocates , defining some energy types as `` alternative '' is considered very controversial .","qid":"2710","docid":"Alternative_energy","rank":5,"score":122089},{"content":"Title: Wind power in Australia Content: Wind power in Australia is a mode of production of renewable energy in Australia . Wind power is a rapidly expanding mode of renewable energy production in Australia with an average annual rate of growth in installed capacity of 35 % over the five years up to 2011 . As at 2015 , there were 4187 megawatts ( MW ) of installed capacity , with another 14962 MW either being planned or under construction . In the year to October 2015 , wind power accounted for 4.9 % of Australia 's total electricity demand and 33.7 % of total renewable energy supply . As at October 2015 , there were 76 wind farms in Australia , most of which had turbines of from 1.5 to 3 MW . South Australia has 35 % of Australia 's wind power capacity , accounting for 34 % of that state 's electricity needs as of 2015 . By the end of 2011 wind power in South Australia reached 26 % of the State 's electricity generation , edging out coal-fired power for the first time . At that stage South Australia , with only 7.2 % of Australia 's population , had 54 % of Australia 's installed wind capacity . Victoria also has a substantial system , with just under 30 % of the Australia 's capacity as of 2015 . In August 2015 , the Victorian government announced financial backing for new wind farms as part of a push to encourage renewable energy in the state , which was expected to bring forward the building of a modest 100 MW of new wind energy in the state , worth $ 200 million in investment . The government expected that there were about 2400 MW worth of Victorian projects that had been approved but were yet to be built .","qid":"2710","docid":"Wind_power_in_Australia","rank":6,"score":121334},{"content":"Title: Wind power in Serbia Content: Wind power is a fledgling source of renewable energy in Serbia ; nevertheless Green Star Alternative Energy , inc. has constructing the first wind farm in Serbia through its Belo Blato Wind Energy Project . The project is divided into 2 phases . The first phase includes a 20 megawatts ( MW ) wind farm which began operating in 2009 . The second phase includes development of additional 300-MW of wind generated power . The first wind farm is near Kula .","qid":"2710","docid":"Wind_power_in_Serbia","rank":7,"score":117844},{"content":"Title: Wind power in the European Union Content: As of December 2014 , installed capacity of wind power in the European Union totaled 128,751 megawatts ( MW ) . The EU wind industry has had a compound annual growth rate ( CAGR ) of 10 % between the years 2000 and 2013 . In 2014 , a total of 11,791 MW of wind power was installed , representing 32 % of all new power capacity . In a normal wind year the wind power capacity installed by early 2014 would produce 257 TWh of electricity , enough to supply 8 % of the EU 's electricity consumption . In the future , wind power is likely to continue to grow in the European Union . According to a European Environment Agency report , wind energy can play a major role in achieving the European renewable energy targets . The European Wind Energy Association estimates that 230 gigawatts ( GW ) of wind capacity will be installed in Europe by 2020 , consisting of 190 GW onshore and 40 GW offshore . This would produce 14-17 % of the EU 's electricity , avoiding 333 million tonnes of CO2 per year and saving Europe $ 28 billion a year in fuel costs . Research from a wide variety of sources in various European countries shows that support for wind power is consistently about 80 per cent among the general public .","qid":"2710","docid":"Wind_power_in_the_European_Union","rank":8,"score":116408},{"content":"Title: Wind power in South Korea Content: Wind power in South Korea is a form of renewable energy in South Korea . As of 2015 wind power capacity in South Korea was 835 MW and the wind energy share of total electricity consumption was far below 0,1 % . Nevertheless , the Korean government plans to invest $ 8.2 billion into offshore wind farms in order to increase the total capacity by 2.5 GW by 2019","qid":"2710","docid":"Wind_power_in_South_Korea","rank":9,"score":115393},{"content":"Title: Wind turbine Content: A wind turbine is a device that converts the wind 's kinetic energy into electrical power . Wind turbines are manufactured in a wide range of vertical and horizontal axis types . The smallest turbines are used for applications such as battery charging for auxiliary power for boats or caravans or to power traffic warning signs . Slightly larger turbines can be used for making contributions to a domestic power supply while selling unused power back to the utility supplier via the electrical grid . Arrays of large turbines , known as wind farms , are becoming an increasingly important source of intermittent renewable energy and are used by many countries as part of a strategy to reduce their reliance on fossil fuels .","qid":"2710","docid":"Wind_turbine","rank":10,"score":114885},{"content":"Title: First Wind Content: Founded in 2002 , First Wind was an independent renewable energy company that develops and operates utility-scale power projects in the United States . It grew to employ more than 220 people across the country . Headquartered in Boston , the company develops or operates renewable energy projects in Maine , Vermont , Massachusetts , New York , Utah , Idaho , Washington and Hawaii with a combined capacity of nearly 1,300 megawatts . In addition to renewable energy projects , the company developed and operates two generator leads . First Wind began as a utility-scale wind power developer and operator , but in 2014 the company brought its first solar energy projects online . In November 2014 First Wind was purchased by SunEdison and its yieldco TerraForm Power for $ 2.4 billion . In February 2015 , as part of the merger integration , First Wind CEO Paul Gaynor , who led the company since 2004 , was appointed EVP Of North America Utility And Global Wind at SunEdison .","qid":"2710","docid":"First_Wind","rank":11,"score":113747},{"content":"Title: Wind power in Thailand Content: Wind power in Thailand amounted to an installed production capacity of 224.5 MW as of the end of 2014 . Installed capacity was 112 MW at the end of 2012 , with 111 MW added in 2013 , and a minor amount added in 2014 . This ranked Thailand 46th in the world by installed capacity as of 2015 . Thailand 's natural gas reserves are projected to run out in 2021 , and Thailand began importing expensive liquefied natural gas in 2011 . These factors have led to increased demand for renewable energy , and Thailand 's Alternative Energy Development Plan ( AEDP ) in 2011 called for 25 percent of its energy to come from renewable sources by 2036 . By June 2012 , projects totalling over 1,600 MW had been proposed .","qid":"2710","docid":"Wind_power_in_Thailand","rank":12,"score":112867},{"content":"Title: Renewable energy in Asia Content: Renewable energy is a viable means of generating energy in Asia . For solar power , South Asia has the ideal combination of both high solar insolation and a high density of potential customers . Cheap solar can bring electricity to a major chunk of subcontinent 's people who still live off-grid , bypassing the need of installation of expensive grid lines . Also since the costs of energy consumed for temperature control squarely influences a regions energy intensity , and with cooling load requirements roughly in phase with the sun 's intensity , cooling from intense solar radiation could make perfect energy-economic sense in the subcontinent .","qid":"2710","docid":"Renewable_energy_in_Asia","rank":13,"score":112360},{"content":"Title: Wind power in Asia Content: Wind power in Asia is an important component in the Asian energy industry and one of the key sources of renewable energy in the region . As of April 2016 , the installed capacity of wind power in Asia ( excluding the Middle East ) totalled 175,831 MW . Asia is the fastest growing region in terms of wind energy , having increased its installed capacity by 33,858 MW in 2005 ( a 24 % increase over 2014 ) . China , with 145,362 MW of installed capacity , is the world 's largest generator of electricity from wind energy . India is the second largest in Asia with an installed capacity of 25,088 MW . Other key countries include Japan ( 1,394 MW ) , Taiwan ( 188 MW ) , South Korea ( 173 MW ) and the Philippines ( 33 MW ) .","qid":"2710","docid":"Wind_power_in_Asia","rank":14,"score":112219},{"content":"Title: Wind power in the United States Content: Wind power in the United States is a branch of the energy industry that has expanded quickly over the latest several years . For calendar year 2016 , wind power in the United States amounted to 226.5 terawatt-hours , or 5.55 % of all generated electrical energy . As of January 2017 , the U.S. nameplate generating capacity for wind power was 82,183 megawatts ( MW ) . This capacity is exceeded only by China and the European Union . Thus far , wind power 's largest growth in capacity was in 2012 , when 11,895 MW of wind power was installed , representing 26.5 % of new power capacity . In 2016 , Nebraska became the eighteenth state to have installed over 1,000 MW of wind power capacity . Texas , with over 20,000 MW of capacity , had the most installed wind power capacity of any U.S. state at the end of 2016 . Texas also had more under construction than any other state currently has installed . The state generating the highest percentage of energy from wind power is Iowa . North Dakota has the most per capita wind generation . The Alta Wind Energy Center in California is the largest wind farm in the United States with a capacity of 1548 MW . GE Energy is the largest domestic wind turbine manufacturer .","qid":"2710","docid":"Wind_power_in_the_United_States","rank":15,"score":112057},{"content":"Title: Renewable portfolio standard (United States) Content: A Renewable Portfolio Standard ( RPS ) is a regulation that requires the increased production of energy from renewable energy sources , such as wind , solar , biomass , and geothermal . The federal RPS is called the Renewable Electricity Standard ( RES ) . The RPS mechanism generally places an obligation on electricity supply companies to produce a specified fraction of their electricity from renewable energy sources . Certified renewable energy generators earn certificates for every unit of electricity they produce and can sell these along with their electricity to supply companies . Supply companies then pass the certificates to some form of regulatory body to demonstrate their compliance with their regulatory obligations . Because it is a market mandate , the RPS relies almost entirely on the private market for its implementation . Unlike feed-in tariffs which guarantee purchase of all renewable energy regardless of cost , RPS programs tend to allow more price competition between different types of renewable energy , but can be limited in competition through eligibility and multipliers for RPS programs . Those supporting the adoption of RPS mechanisms claim that market implementation will result in competition , efficiency , and innovation that will deliver renewable energy at the lowest possible cost , allowing renewable energy to compete with cheaper fossil fuel energy sources . RPS programs have been adopted in 29 of 50 U.S. states , and the District of Columbia .","qid":"2710","docid":"Renewable_portfolio_standard_(United_States)","rank":16,"score":111182},{"content":"Title: Wase Wind Content: Wase Wind is a Flemish energy cooperative , active in the production of renewable energy and the supply of electricity from windturbines . Its headquarters is in the community of Sint-Gillis-Waas , Belgium ) .","qid":"2710","docid":"Wase_Wind","rank":17,"score":110006},{"content":"Title: Energy in Hawaii Content: Energy production in Hawaii is a difficult issue due to the islands ' isolated location and lack of local resources . The state relies heavily on imports of petroleum and coal for power although recent initiatives have increased use of alternative resources . High levels of solar photovoltaic and wind power use have led to power balance issues which have made Hawaii a study case for renewable use . Commercial-scale batteries and upgraded grid resources and management are among the solutions being advanced . Hawaii has the most expensive electricity prices in the United States . In 2016 the average cost of electricity was $ 0.24 per kilowatt-hour , with the next highest state being Alaska at $ 0.19 . The U.S. average was $ 0.10 per kilowatt-hour across all sectors .","qid":"2710","docid":"Energy_in_Hawaii","rank":18,"score":109510},{"content":"Title: Global Wind Energy Council Content: The Global Wind Energy Council ( GWEC ) was established in 2005 to provide a credible and representative forum for the entire wind energy sector at an international level . GWEC 's mission is to ensure that wind power is established as one of the world 's leading energy sources , providing substantial environmental and economic benefits . A new report launched by the Global Wind Energy Council predicts that , despite temporary supply chain difficulties , international wind markets are set to continue their strong growth . In 2006 , total installed wind power capacity increased by 25 % globally , generating some $ 18 billion ( US$ 23 billion ) worth of new generating equipment and bringing global wind power capacity up to more than 74GW . While the European Union is still the leading market in wind energy with over 48GW of installed capacity , other continents such as North America and Asia are developing quickly .","qid":"2710","docid":"Global_Wind_Energy_Council","rank":19,"score":109320},{"content":"Title: RenewableUK Content: RenewableUK , formerly known as the ` British Wind Energy Association ' ( BWEA ) , is the trade association for wind power , wave power and tidal power industries in the United Kingdom . RenewableUK has over 660 corporate members , from wind , wave and tidal stream power generation and associated industries . The association carries out research , and co-ordinates statistics and intelligence on marine and wind power in the UK and its waters . It also represents its members internationally , and to Government , regional bodies and local authorities in the UK .","qid":"2710","docid":"RenewableUK","rank":20,"score":109166},{"content":"Title: Renewable energy debate Content: There is a renewable energy debate about the constraints and opportunities associated with the use of renewable energy . Renewable electricity production , from sources such as wind power and solar power , is sometimes criticized for being variable or intermittent . However , the International Energy Agency has stated that this only applies to certain renewables , mainly wind and solar photovoltaics , and its significance depends on a range of factors , such as the penetration of the renewables concerned . There have been `` not in my back yard '' ( NIMBY ) concerns relating to the visual and other impacts of some wind farms , with local residents sometimes fighting or blocking construction . In the USA , the Massachusetts Cape Wind project was delayed for years partly because of aesthetic concerns . However , residents in other areas have been more positive and there are many examples of community wind farm developments . According to a town councillor , the overwhelming majority of locals believe that the Ardrossan Wind Farm in Scotland has enhanced the area . The market for renewable energy technologies has continued to grow . Climate change concerns , coupled with high oil prices , peak oil , and increasing government support , are driving increasing renewable energy legislation , incentives and commercialization . New government spending , regulation and policies helped the industry weather the 2009 economic crisis better than many other sectors .","qid":"2710","docid":"Renewable_energy_debate","rank":21,"score":109121},{"content":"Title: Outline of wind energy Content: The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to wind energy : Wind energy -- the kinetic energy of air in motion , also called wind .","qid":"2710","docid":"Outline_of_wind_energy","rank":22,"score":108643},{"content":"Title: Offshore wind power Content: Offshore wind power or offshore wind energy is the use of wind farms constructed offshore , usually on the continental shelf , to harvest wind energy to generate electricity . Higher wind speeds are available offshore compared to on land , so offshore wind power 's contribution in terms of electricity supplied is higher , and NIMBY opposition to construction is usually much weaker . The cost of offshore wind power has historically been higher than that of onshore wind generation , but in 2016 had decreased to $ 54.5 / MWh the 700 MW Borssele 3 & 4 due to government tender and size . Similarly , $ 49.90 / MWh ( $ 55.34 , without transmission ) was achieved at the 600 MW Kriegers Flak . As of 2013 the 630 megawatt ( MW ) London Array is the largest offshore wind farm in the world , with the 504 ( MW ) Greater Gabbard wind farm the second largest , followed by the 367 MW Walney Wind Farm . All are off the coast of the UK . These projects will be dwarfed by subsequent wind farms that are in the pipeline , including Dogger Bank at 4,800 MW , Norfolk Bank ( 7,200 MW ) , and Irish Sea ( 4,200 MW ) . At the end of June 2013 total European combined offshore wind energy capacity was 6,040 MW . UK installed 513.5 MW offshore windpower in the first half year of 2013 .","qid":"2710","docid":"Offshore_wind_power","rank":23,"score":108566},{"content":"Title: Renewable energy Content: Renewable energy is energy that is collected from renewable resources , which are naturally replenished on a human timescale , such as sunlight , wind , rain , tides , waves , and geothermal heat . Renewable energy often provides energy in four important areas : electricity generation , air and water heating/cooling , transportation , and rural ( off-grid ) energy services . Based on REN21 's 2016 report , renewables contributed 19.2 % to humans ' global energy consumption and 23.7 % to their generation of electricity in 2014 and 2015 , respectively . This energy consumption is divided as 8.9 % coming from traditional biomass , 4.2 % as heat energy ( modern biomass , geothermal and solar heat ) , 3.9 % hydro electricity and 2.2 % is electricity from wind , solar , geothermal , and biomass . Worldwide investments in renewable technologies amounted to more than US$ 286 billion in 2015 , with countries like China and the United States heavily investing in wind , hydro , solar and biofuels . Globally , there are an estimated 7.7 million jobs associated with the renewable energy industries , with solar photovoltaics being the largest renewable employer . As of 2015 worldwide , more than half of all new electricity capacity installed was renewable . Renewable energy resources exist over wide geographical areas , in contrast to other energy sources , which are concentrated in a limited number of countries . Rapid deployment of renewable energy and energy efficiency is resulting in significant energy security , climate change mitigation , and economic benefits . The results of a recent review of the literature concluded that as greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emitters begin to be held liable for damages resulting from GHG emissions resulting in climate change , a high value for liability mitigation would provide powerful incentives for deployment of renewable energy technologies . In international public opinion surveys there is strong support for promoting renewable sources such as solar power and wind power . At the national level , at least 30 nations around the world already have renewable energy contributing more than 20 percent of energy supply . National renewable energy markets are projected to continue to grow strongly in the coming decade and beyond . Some places and at least two countries , Iceland and Norway generate all their electricity using renewable energy already , and many other countries have the set a goal to reach 100 % renewable energy in the future . For example , in Denmark the government decided to switch the total energy supply ( electricity , mobility and heating/cooling ) to 100 % renewable energy by 2050 . While many renewable energy projects are large-scale , renewable technologies are also suited to rural and remote areas and developing countries , where energy is often crucial in human development . United Nations ' Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon has said that renewable energy has the ability to lift the poorest nations to new levels of prosperity . As most of renewables provide electricity , renewable energy deployment is often applied in conjunction with further electrification , which has several benefits : Electricity can be converted to heat ( where necessary generating higher temperatures than fossil fuels ) , can be converted into mechanical energy with high efficiency and is clean at the point of consumption . In addition to that electrification with renewable energy is much more efficient and therefore leads to a significant reduction in primary energy requirements , because most renewables do n't have a steam cycle with high losses ( fossil power plants usually have losses of 40 to 65 % ) . Renewable energy systems are rapidly becoming more efficient and cheaper . Their share of total energy consumption is increasing . Growth in consumption of coal and oil could end by 2020 due to increased uptake of renewables and natural gas .","qid":"2710","docid":"Renewable_energy","rank":24,"score":108496},{"content":"Title: List of books about renewable energy Content: This is a bibliography of renewable energy . Renewable energy is energy which comes from natural resources such as sunlight , wind , rain , tides , and geothermal heat , which are renewable ( naturally replenished ) . About 16 % of global final energy consumption comes from renewables , with 10 % coming from traditional biomass , which is mainly used for heating , and 3.4 % from hydroelectricity . New renewables ( small hydro , modern biomass , wind , solar , geothermal , and biofuels ) account for another 3 % and are growing very rapidly . Total investment in renewable energy reached $ 244 billion in 2012 . The top countries for investment in recent years were China , Germany , Spain , the United States , Italy , and Brazil . Leading renewable energy companies include BrightSource Energy , Enercon , First Solar , Gamesa , GE Energy , Goldwind , Nordex , Sinovel , Suntech , Trina Solar , Vestas and Yingli .","qid":"2710","docid":"List_of_books_about_renewable_energy","rank":25,"score":108244},{"content":"Title: Wind Power Production Incentive Content: The Wind Power Production Incentive , or WPPI , was a program of the Canadian Government that promoted the generation of electricity from wind power in Canada to reduce the amount of greenhouse gas that would otherwise enter the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels . During the 5 years field trial projects were performed to test the performance based on various weather conditions . Provision of economic incentives were guaranteed for up to 1,000 MW of new installed capacity by 2007 . New installations in 2003 included the MacBride Wind Farm ( 75.9 MW ) in Alberta , the North Cape Wind Farm Expansion ( 5.3 MW ) , and the Aeolous Wind Turbine ( 3 MW ) in PEI , the Parc éolien du Renard ( 2.25 MW ) in Quebec , the Cypress Hill Wind Farm Expansion ( 4.6 MW ) in Saskatchewan , and the Ontario Place Wind turbine ( 0.75 MW ) in Ontario . ( IEA Wind 2002 Annual Report pg . 79 ) The government paid about half the excess cost of producing electricity from wind , compared to conventional sources , for the first 10 years of a project . The Canadian WPPI Program started in 2002 and ended on March 31 , 2007 after a change of government . A different program partly replaced it . A wind farm costs about the same to build per watt of nameplate capacity as a coal-fired power station of similar rating , but the economies of scale are fewer for a wind farm due to the lower quantity of power produced over the life of a station . Depending on location , wind farms may produce nearly full power output only about 28 % of the time , whereas a base-loaded coal-fired station runs at full output more than 85 % of the time . The WPPI provided a direct subsidy per kilowatthour of wind energy produced , from 1.2 cents down to 0.8 cents depending on the startup date of a project . Measures were taken to distribute the incentive across the country . The total estimated cost of the program was ( CDN ) $ 260 million . The program lived a short 5 year life .","qid":"2710","docid":"Wind_Power_Production_Incentive","rank":26,"score":107925},{"content":"Title: Community wind energy Content: Community wind projects are locally owned by farmers , investors , businesses , schools , utilities , or other public or private entities who utilize wind energy to support and reduce energy costs to the local community . The key feature is that local community members have a significant , direct financial stake in the project beyond land lease payments and tax revenue . Projects may be used for on-site power or to generate wholesale power for sale , usually on a commercial-scale greater than 100 kW .","qid":"2710","docid":"Community_wind_energy","rank":27,"score":107905},{"content":"Title: WindEurope Content: WindEurope , formerly the European Wind Energy Association ( EWEA ) , is an association based in Brussels , promoting the use of wind power in Europe . It has over 600 members , which are active in over 50 countries , including manufacturers with a leading share of the world wind power market , component suppliers , research institutes , national wind and renewables associations , developers , contractors , electricity providers , finance companies , insurance companies , and consultants .","qid":"2710","docid":"WindEurope","rank":28,"score":107473},{"content":"Title: Wind power in South Australia Content: Wind power has become a significant energy source within South Australia over the past decade . As of 2015 , there was an installed capacity of 1,475 MW , which accounts for 34 % of electricity production in the state . This represents 35 % of Australia 's installed wind power capacity . The development of wind power capacity in South Australia has been encouraged by a number of factors . These include the Australian Government 's Renewable Energy Target , which require electricity retailers to source a proportion of energy from renewable sources , incentives from the South Australian Government including a supportive regulatory regime and a payroll tax rebate scheme for large scale renewable energy developments . Also the state 's proximity to the Roaring forties means there are high quality wind resources for wind farms to exploit . In mid-2009 , RenewablesSA was established by the South Australian Government to encourage further investment in renewable energy in the state . The load factor ( or capacity factor ) for South Australian wind farms is usually in the range 32-38 % . This means that a wind farm could typically produce between 32 and 38 % of its nameplate capacity averaged over a year .","qid":"2710","docid":"Wind_power_in_South_Australia","rank":29,"score":106763},{"content":"Title: REG WindPower Content: REG WindPower is a renewable energy company , in the United Kingdom . REG Windpower is one of the UK 's leading developers and operators of small to medium-sized wind farms , operating nine sites in England and one in Wales , with a combined operational capacity of 41.15 MW . The ultimate parent company Renewable Energy Generation Limited , registered in Jersey , was put into liquidation in January 2016 .","qid":"2710","docid":"REG_WindPower","rank":30,"score":106535},{"content":"Title: Lists of renewable energy topics Content: Renewable energy is generally defined as energy that comes from resources which are naturally replenished on a human timescale , such as sunlight , wind , rain , tides , waves , and geothermal heat . Renewable energy replaces conventional fuels in four distinct areas : electricity generation , air and water heating/cooling , motor fuels , and rural ( off-grid ) energy services . Based on REN21 's 2014 report , renewables contributed 19 percent to our global energy consumption and 22 percent to our electricity generation in 2012 and 2013 , respectively . These are lists about renewable energy : Index of solar energy articles List of books about renewable energy List of concentrating solar thermal power companies List of countries by electricity production from renewable sources List of energy storage projects Lists of environmental topics List of geothermal power stations List of hydroelectric power stations List of largest hydroelectric power stations List of offshore wind farms Lists of offshore wind farms by country Lists of offshore wind farms by water area List of onshore wind farms List of onshore wind farms in the United Kingdom List of people associated with renewable energy List of photovoltaics companies List of photovoltaic power stations List of pioneering solar buildings List of renewable energy companies by stock exchange List of renewable energy organizations List of renewable energy topics by country List of rooftop photovoltaic installations List of solar car teams List of solar powered products List of solar thermal power stations List of U.S. states by electricity production from renewable sources Lists of wind farms by country List of wind farms in Australia List of wind farms in Canada List of wind farms in Iran List of wind farms in Romania List of wind farms in Sweden List of wind farms in the United States List of wind turbine manufacturers","qid":"2710","docid":"Lists_of_renewable_energy_topics","rank":31,"score":106435},{"content":"Title: Wind power in Scotland Content: Wind power is Scotland 's fastest growing renewable energy technology , with 5328 MW of installed capacity as of March 2015 . This includes 5131 MW of onshore wind and 197 MW of offshore wind . There is further potential for expansion , especially offshore given the high average wind speeds , and a number of large offshore wind farms are planned . The Scottish Government has a target of generating 50 % of Scotland 's electricity from renewable energy by 2015 , and 100 % by 2020 , which was raised from 50 % in September 2010 . The majority of this is likely to come from wind power .","qid":"2710","docid":"Wind_power_in_Scotland","rank":32,"score":106097},{"content":"Title: Renewable energy in Denmark Content: Denmark is a world leading country in wind energy production and wind turbine production . In 2014 Denmark produced 57.4 % of its net electricity generation from renewable energy sources . The Danish wind company Vestas Wind Systems A/S has expanded from its domestic base and by 2015 had a revenue of $ 8.423 billion , with more than 18,000 employees globally and manufacturing plants in Denmark , Germany , India , Italy , Romania , the United Kingdom , Spain , Sweden , Norway , Australia , China , and the United States ( see Vestas link above for sources ) . Wind power alone produced 42.7 % of Denmark 's electricity production in 2014 and is expected to increase its production by nearly 80 % in the years to 2024 . Denmark has a target of producing 30 % of all its energy needs from RE energy sources by 2020 , a considerable increase from the 17 % it attained in 2005 . By 2014 this figure had already reached 29.2 % and was the fifth highest amongst the EU-28 countries . The country has ambitious renewable energy goals for the future , including using renewable energy for 100 % of its energy needs in all sectors including transport by 2050 . In the heating sector the country has long used and continues to develop district heating ( DH ) networks . Hot water or steam is produced centrally and then distributed through a network of insulated pipes to high population areas . Houses within a district heating area have heat exchangers installed instead of boilers for their heating and hot water requirements . The heat exchanger keeps the two water systems separate and means that heat can be adjusted as with a familiar domestic boiler . One simple but important innovation in the district heating network was the development of internally insulated pipes . The two pipes taking and receiving the return of water are placed inside a much larger pipe and insulating material is set so as to fill the figure eight shaped void between the two smaller and the large pipe . In 2013 district heating supplied over 60 % of all households in Denmark with heating and hot water . The development of district heating technology has led Denmark to become a world leader in industrial pump and thermostat designs and its products are used in many industries worldwide . Cogeneration is also widely used . This is a process that extracts the waste heat produced when generating electricity . Power stations designed to do this are known as Combined Heat and Power ( CHP ) stations . CHP stations in Denmark are often sized to provide the heat required for the local district heating system . Thus CHP stations produce both electricity for the grid and heat for district heating systems . Heat can be stored in large industrial hot water tanks for several days allowing electricity and heat supply to be provided time independently from each other . By 2013 the use of CHP stations had reduced the overall energy consumption in Denmark by 11 % . Danish electricity generation has become increasingly decentralised with a move away from production in the large central power stations to many smaller , locally based and mostly CHP stations . Many of these smaller stations use locally sourced bio energy sources including straw and wood pellets .","qid":"2710","docid":"Renewable_energy_in_Denmark","rank":33,"score":104777},{"content":"Title: New energy Content: New energy may refer to : Alternative energy , any energy source other than fossil fuels Perpetual motion or `` free energy '' , an elusive energy source which would violate the laws of thermodynamics Renewable energy , energy from resources which are naturally replenished on a human timescale , such as sunlight , wind , rain , tides , waves , and geothermal heat","qid":"2710","docid":"New_energy","rank":34,"score":104283},{"content":"Title: United States Wind Energy Policy Content: Modern United States Wind Energy Policy coincided with the beginning of modern wind industry of the United States , which began in the early 1980s with the arrival of utility-scale wind turbines in California ( see Altamont Pass ) . Since then , the industry has had to endure the financial uncertainties caused by a highly fluctuating tax incentive program . Because these early wind projects were fueled by investment tax credits based on installation rather than performance , they were plagued with issues of low productivity and equipment reliability . Those investment tax credits expired in 1986 , which forced investors to focus on improving the reliability and efficiency of their turbines . The 1990s saw rise to a new type of tax credit , the production tax credit , which propelled technological improvements to the wind turbine even further by encouraging investors to focus on electricity output rather than installation . Wind energy policy is generally directed at three categories of constituents : Research and Development Organizations Commercial/Residential Generators Manufacturers and Producers with one of two goals : to provide incentives or require production and installation of wind turbines or production of electricity from wind , or facilitate the appropriate location of wind turbines . Historically , incentives have come in the form of production or installation tax credits , grants , and renewable portfolio standards , at the federal , state , and local levels of government . Policy facilitating appropriate location has historically come in the form of local ordinances and permitting requirements . __ TOC __","qid":"2710","docid":"United_States_Wind_Energy_Policy","rank":35,"score":104094},{"content":"Title: A Power Energy Systems ltd. Content: A-Power Energy Generation Systems is a provider of distributed generation systems in China . In 2008 , A-Power entered the wind energy market and has built the largest wind turbine manufacturing facility , located in Shenyang , Liaoning Province , China , with technologies licensed from German FUHRLÄNDER AG and Denmark-based Norwin , and a total annual production capacity of 1,125 MW .","qid":"2710","docid":"A_Power_Energy_Systems_ltd.","rank":36,"score":103972},{"content":"Title: Wind power in Italy Content: Wind power in Italy , at the end of 2015 , consisted of more than 1,847 wind turbines with a total installed capacity of 8,958 megawatts . Wind power contributed 5.4 % of Italy electricity generation in 2015 ( 14,589 GWh ) . Italy is ranked as the world 's ninth producer of wind power . Prospects for Italian wind energy beyond 2016 are very uncertain . Having Brazil already topped the 9 gigawatts mark , and with further 175 projects under construction in 2016 , by the end of the year , it is expected that Italy will drop to the tenth position , following Brazil . In 2010 , the energy from the 487 active plants accounted for 19 % of the renewable energy produced in Italy . The total energy produced in 2010 was 8,787 GWh , with an increase of 29 % from the previous year .","qid":"2710","docid":"Wind_power_in_Italy","rank":37,"score":103923},{"content":"Title: Wind power in Finland Content: Wind power in Finland describes wind power in Finland as part of energy in Finland and renewable energy in Finland . In December 2014 wind power capacity in Finland was 627 MW with 260 turbines and the wind energy share of total electricity consumption was 1.3 % . Wind power is the most popular energy resource among Finnish public : 90 % of Finns would want further investments in wind energy in September 2007 . In April 2005 the value was 88 % . In the Pori area of Finland 97 % of people supported wind power according to Suomen Hyötytuuli Oy in 2000 . Finland has a Feed-in Tariff scheme for wind turbines larger than 500 kW . Kimmo Tiilikainen ( 1966 ) ( Centre Party ) was the environmental minister of Finland during 1.10.2007-31 .3.2008 , while the permanent minister ( Paula Lehtomäki , Centre Party ) was on a leave . In his preliminary minister comments in September 2006 Kimmo Tiilikainen recommended Feed-in-Tariff for wind power within one year with the objective of 3000 MW wind power in 2020 . Finland consumed 90 000 GWh of electricity in ( 2006 ) . For reference Germany had installed base of 39,165 MW of wind power at the end of 2014 .","qid":"2710","docid":"Wind_power_in_Finland","rank":38,"score":103916},{"content":"Title: American Wind Energy Association Content: The American Wind Energy Association ( AWEA ) is a Washington , D.C.-based national trade association formed in 1974 , representing wind power project developers , equipment suppliers , service providers , parts manufacturers , utilities , researchers , and others involved in the wind industry . AWEA promotes wind energy as a clean source of electricity for consumers in the U.S. and around the world and has around 1,000 member organizations .","qid":"2710","docid":"American_Wind_Energy_Association","rank":39,"score":103518},{"content":"Title: Reinventing Fire Content: Reinventing Fire : Bold Business Solutions for the New Energy Era is a 2011 book , by Amory B. Lovins and the Rocky Mountain Institute , that explores converting the United States to almost total reliance on renewable energy sources , such as solar energy and wind power . Lovins says that renewable energy is already cheaper than fossil fuels and his analysis predicts further reductions in renewable energy prices . Reinventing Fire was launched at the Washington National Geographic Society , in October 2011 . Bill Clinton says the book is a `` wise , detailed and comprehensive blueprint . '' The book has forewords by Marvin Odum , from Shell Oil , and John W. Rowe , CEO of Exelon . The first paragraph of the preface says : Imagine fuel without fear . No climate change . No oil spills , dead coal miners , dirty air , devastated lands , lost wildlife . No energy poverty . No oil-fed wars , tyrannies , or terrorists . Nothing to run out . Nothing to cut off . Nothing to worry about . Just energy abundance , benign and affordable , for all , for ever . Fen Montaigne in The Guardian has said that the book is impressive in both its scope and detail : Lovins discusses everything from how to redesign heavy trucks to make them more fuel efficient to ways to change factory pipes to conserve energy -- the book lays out a plan for the U.S. to achieve the following by 2050 : cars completely powered by hydrogen fuel cells , electricity , and biofuels ; 84 percent of trucks and airplanes running on biomass fuels ; 80 percent of the nation 's electricity produced by renewable power ; $ 5 trillion in savings ; and an economy that has grown by 158 percent . By combining reduced energy use with energy efficiency gains , Lovins says that there will be a $ 5 trillion saving over the next 40 years and a faster-growing economy . This can all be done , the book jacket says , without `` new federal taxes , subsidies , mandates , or laws . The policy innovations needed to unlock and speed it need no act of Congress . '' The profitable commercialization of existing energy-saving technologies , through market forces , can be led by business .","qid":"2710","docid":"Reinventing_Fire","rank":40,"score":103276},{"content":"Title: Wind Powering America Content: Wind Powering America ( WPA ) is an initiative of the United States Department of Energy ( DOE ) that seeks to increase the use of wind energy throughout the United States . WPA collaborates with key state and regional stakeholders , including farmers , ranchers , Native Americans , rural electric cooperatives , consumer-owned utilities , and schools to break down barriers associated with wind energy development . Throughout its history , WPA has focused on states with strong potential for wind energy generation but with few operational projects . WPA provides fair and unbiased information about the challenges , benefits , and impacts of wind technology implementation . This information allows policymakers , organizations , and citizens to make educated and informed decisions about wind energy implementation in their communities .","qid":"2710","docid":"Wind_Powering_America","rank":41,"score":103266},{"content":"Title: Variable renewable energy Content: Variable renewable energy ( VRE ) is a renewable energy source that is non-dispatchable due to its fluctuating nature , like wind power and solar power , as opposed to a controllable renewable energy source such as hydroelectricity , or biomass , or a relatively constant source such as geothermal power or run-of-the-river hydroelectricity .","qid":"2710","docid":"Variable_renewable_energy","rank":42,"score":103124},{"content":"Title: Mass Megawatts Wind Power Content: Mass Megawatts Wind Power , Inc. is a company that produces wind turbines and sells wind-generated electricity . The company intends to build and operate wind energy power plants and plans to sell the electricity to the electric power exchange . Mass Megawatts Wind Power was founded on May 27 , 1997 and is headquartered in Worcester , Massachusetts , United States . In late 2014 , the company announced plans to enter the American solar power market . The Solar Tracking System ( STS ) utilizes minimal moving parts and electrical components , resulting in increased stability and lower operating costs . The STS claims to improve solar energy production levels by more than 20 % .","qid":"2710","docid":"Mass_Megawatts_Wind_Power","rank":43,"score":103090},{"content":"Title: Jacobs Wind Content: Jacobs Wind Electric Co. . Inc. is the oldest renewable energy company in the United States . It has been designing consumer and commercial renewable energy systems sized to the changing distributed electric loads of their periods since the mid-1920s . The firm was started and established by Marcellus and Joseph Jacobs , after local interest in their wind electric system for their family 's Montana Ranch , built in 1922 , brought them requests from neighbors to provide them with wind generated electric power as well . M.L. & Joe moved the firm to Minneapolis in 1963 to begin production of improved wind/engine distributed energy systems which were sold in the U.S. , Canada , and Mexico , as well as on every major continent , through a Dealer network that grew to over 300 . Early Jacobs ' machines included one taken to Antarctica by Richard Evelyn Byrd and installed ( at Byrd 's ` Little America ' ) in 1933 , running until 1955 . Before production ceased in the late 1950s , about 20,000 Jacobs Wind Energy Systems ( 1 - 3 kW ) were shipped from Minneapolis . In the 80 's via a partnership with Control Data a new line of production of Jacobs Wind Energy Systems began in Minneapolis , with marketing of larger 10 - 20 kW systems . Most of these 1,500 + wind systems produced from 1980-85 were grid connected . The majority of them went to pioneering windfarms in Hawaii and California . In Minnesota , Jacobs units began being connected to Rural Electric Cooperative ( REC ) grids starting in 1981 . Many of these systems are still on line to REC grids ' selling renewable wind power ( AG-WATTS ) . Today , the firm 's designers ( several now in their 4th decade in the wind industry ) are working with local RECs on a new generation of consumer renewable energy systems sized to ever larger consumer electric loads at distributed rural sites .","qid":"2710","docid":"Jacobs_Wind","rank":44,"score":103038},{"content":"Title: Wayang Windu Geothermal Power Station Content: The Wayang Windu Geothermal Power Station is the largest geothermal power station in Indonesia . The facility utilizes two units , one with 110 MW and the other with 117 MW , with a total installed capacity of 227 MW . The power station is located near the town of Pangalengan , 40 km south of Bandung , West Java . An estimated cost of US$ 200 million was incurred in construction and development . A third unit of 127 MW is being planned and expected to be onstream by mid-2013 . The arrangements to establish and operate the Wayang Windu plant were part of the overall policy towards the development of geothermal energy in Indonesia","qid":"2710","docid":"Wayang_Windu_Geothermal_Power_Station","rank":45,"score":102742},{"content":"Title: List of renewable energy topics by country Content: This is a list of renewable energy topics by country . These links can be used to compare developments in renewable energy in different countries and to help and encourage new writers to participate in writing about developments in their own countries or countries of interest . The list refers to renewable energy in general , as well as solar power , wind power , geothermal energy , biofuel , and hydro-electricity . As of 2013 , China , Germany , and Japan , three of the world 's four largest economies , as well as India , generate more electricity from renewables than from nuclear power . Based on REN21 's 2014 report , renewables contributed 19 percent to humans ' global energy consumption . This energy consumption is divided as 9 % coming from traditional biomass , 4.2 % as heat energy ( non-biomass ) , 3.8 % hydro electricity and 2 % is electricity from wind , solar , geothermal , and biomass . China is the world 's largest producer of hydroelectricity , followed by Canada . Wind power capacity is growing at the rate of 26 % annually , and is widely used in Europe , Asia , and the United States . Wind power accounts for approximately 30 % of electricity use in Denmark , 20 % in Portugal , and 18 % in Spain . PV power stations are popular in Japan , China and the United States . The world 's largest geothermal power installation is The Geysers in California , with a rated capacity of 750 MW . Brazil has one of the largest renewable energy programs in the world , involving production of ethanol fuel from sugar cane , and ethanol now provides 18 percent of the country 's automotive fuel . Ethanol fuel is also widely available in the USA . Plug-in electric vehicles in Norway reached a market share of 22.4 % in 2015 . the highest in the world . While many renewable energy projects are large-scale , renewable technologies are also suited to developing countries , where energy is often crucial in human development . Small solar PV systems provide electricity to a few million households , and micro-hydro configured into mini-grids serves many more .","qid":"2710","docid":"List_of_renewable_energy_topics_by_country","rank":46,"score":102739},{"content":"Title: Wind power in Michigan Content: Wind power in Michigan is a developing industry . The industrial base from the automotive industry has led to a number of companies producing wind turbine parts in the state.The development of wind farms in the state , however , has lagged behind . As of December 2015 , there were 887 wind turbines in the state with a nameplate capacity of 1531 MW . Wind provided 2.4 % of the state 's electricity in 2013 . Michigan 's requirement for 10 percent renewable energy by 2015 has led to increased alternative development in the state since it was passed in 2008 . A ballot initiative requiring 25 % by 2025 failed in 2012 . In 2011 , the Environmental Law & Policy Center identified over 100 businesses in Michigan involved in engineering and manufacturing wind turbine components , employing 4,000 people . The first commercial wind turbine installed in the state , a 0.6 MW model , was erected in Traverse City in 1996 . It remained the only turbine for several years . Traverse City Light & Power has announced a project to generate 30 % of its power from renewable sources by 2020 . In 2001 Mackinaw City installed 2 turbines rated at 0.6 MW each . Laker Elementary School in the Thumb region installed three 65KW turbines and a 10KW one , totaling 0.2 MW in 2005 . The first wind farm in the state was the Harvest Wind Farm in the Thumb , opened in December 2007 , with 32 turbines producing a rated 53 MW . In 2010 , wind power produced 0.3 % of Michigan 's electrical power . Installed wind capacity more than doubled in 2011 , to a total of 377 MW nameplate capacity . The largest wind farm in Michigan , the 213 MW Gratiot County Wind Project , entered full operation in June 2012 . A number of new projects are proposed in Michigan . In the Thumb region , which has most of Michigan 's high-quality onshore wind , 140 miles of new 345 kilovolt lines are being built to allow the region to support hundreds of proposed new turbines . Michigan has potential for offshore wind power in the Great Lakes but development has been delayed by political considerations . A proposed wind farm in Lake Michigan at Ludington was rejected in 2010 .","qid":"2710","docid":"Wind_power_in_Michigan","rank":47,"score":102736},{"content":"Title: High-altitude wind power Content: High-altitude wind power ( HAWP ) is the harnessing of the power of winds high in the sky by use of tether and cable technology . An atlas of the high-altitude wind power resource has been prepared for all points on Earth . A similar atlas of global assessment was developed at Joby Energy . The results were presented at the first annual Airborne Wind Energy Conference held at Stanford University by Airborne Wind Energy Consortium . Various mechanisms are proposed for capturing the kinetic energy of winds such as kites , kytoons , aerostats , gliders , gliders with turbines for regenerative soaring , sailplanes with turbines , or other airfoils , including multiple-point building - or terrain-enabled holdings . Once the mechanical energy is derived from the wind 's kinetic energy , then many options are available for using that mechanical energy : direct traction , conversion to electricity aloft or at ground station , conversion to laser or microwave for power beaming to other aircraft or ground receivers . Energy generated by a high-altitude system may be used aloft or sent to the ground surface by conducting cables , mechanical force through a tether , rotation of endless line loop , movement of changed chemicals , flow of high-pressure gases , flow of low-pressure gases , or laser or microwave power beams .","qid":"2710","docid":"High-altitude_wind_power","rank":48,"score":102530},{"content":"Title: Alternative Energy: Political, Economic, and Social Feasibility Content: Alternative Energy : Political , Economic , and Social Feasibility ( Lanham , Maryland : Rowman & Littlefield , 2006 . ) , a 2006 book by Christopher A. Simon , discusses the transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy . The book has been called a `` sophisticated , insightful , and well written book on the current global push to adopt varying forms of alternative energy , from wind to solar , geothermal , hydrogen , and beyond '' . In 2008 , Christopher Simon , associate professor of political science at the University of Nevada , Reno , was named the `` Technology Educator of the Year '' by Nevada 's Center for Entrepreneurship and Technology .","qid":"2710","docid":"Alternative_Energy:_Political,_Economic,_and_Social_Feasibility","rank":49,"score":102193},{"content":"Title: Longyuan Power Content: China Longyuan Power Group Limited , or Longyuan Power , is the largest wind power producer in China and Asia . It is mainly engaged in designing , developing , managing and operating wind power plants , and selling the electricity generated by its plants to its sole customers . As of June 2013 , the company had installed wind power plants with a total capacity of 10,661 MW . Longyuan Power is a partially owned subsidiary of the state-owned China Guodian Corporation , and is responsible for Guodian 's renewable energy assets . It had a 24 percent share of China 's wind power market in terms of total installed capacity as of the end of 2008 . It was listed on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange as H share in December 2009 with an IPO price of HK$ 8.16 per share .","qid":"2710","docid":"Longyuan_Power","rank":50,"score":102076},{"content":"Title: Wind power in Lithuania Content: Wind power in Lithuania is a form of renewable energy in Lithuania . At the end of 2011 wind power capacity in Lithuania was 179 MW and the wind energy share of total electricity consumption was 3,8 % .","qid":"2710","docid":"Wind_power_in_Lithuania","rank":51,"score":101954},{"content":"Title: Wind power in Spain Content: By year end 2015 Spain was the world 's fifth biggest producer of wind power with 23,031 MW installed capacity ( including 11 MW of wind-hydro capacity ) , providing 48,118 GWh of power and 19 % of the country 's total electricity production in that year . In 2014 , a record breaking year for renewable electricity production , wind power accounted for 20.2 % of total electricity generation in Spain making it the second most important electricity source after nuclear power ( 22 % ) and ahead of coal power ( 16.5 % ) . In earlier periods wind energy covered 16 % of the demand in 2010 , 13.8 % in 2009 and 11.5 % in 2008 . Following the fallout from the financial crisis in 2008 and the dire straits of the Spanish economy in the subsequent period new installations of new wind turbines all but stagnated between 2012 and 2015 remaining at close to 23,000 MW installed capacity for the entire period . Whilst Spain put expansion on ice the other world leading countries continued to expand or accelerated new wind turbine installations and by 2015 India had moved ahead of Spain in total installations . As of end 2015 ranked 5th in the world by wind power installed capacity . On windy days , wind power generation has surpassed all other electricity sources in Spain ; On 21 November 2015 at 4:50 am , 70.4 % of the electricity consumed on the Spanish Peninsula was covered with wind power energy . On 6 February 2013 , wind power achieved an earlier record in electricity production , reaching an instantaneous peak of 17,056 MW and an hourly production of 16,918 MWh . In November 2011 a capacity peak of 59 % of power demand being generated by wind power was reached . Power peaks of 14.960 GW were reached in November 2010 , and in November 2009 , a wind storm caused wind farms to produce a peak of 53 % of total electricity demand ( 11.546 GW ) . In 2009 , the largest producer of wind power in Spain was Iberdrola , with 25.5 % of capacity , followed by Acciona with 20.9 % and NEO Energia ( EDP Renewables ) with 8.3 % .","qid":"2710","docid":"Wind_power_in_Spain","rank":52,"score":101595},{"content":"Title: Native Wind Content: Native Wind ( NAWIG ) was formed to protect the environment and promote the welfare of Native Americans by facilitating the development of wind power and other renewable energy resources on tribal lands . Directors of Native Wind include representatives of the Intertribal Council On Utility Policy , Native Energy , ICLEI , Honor the Earth and American Spirit Productions . Two wind facilities have previously been built through Native Wind -- a 750kW turbine at the Rosebud Indian Reservation and another at the Fort Berthold Indian Reservation in North Dakota . The Indian tribes of the North and South Dakota and Nebraska are presently collaborating on a project to develop the large wind resources of the northern Great Plains . Eight separate tribes are moving ahead with plans to develop the first large-scale Native owned and operated wind farms in the United States .","qid":"2710","docid":"Native_Wind","rank":53,"score":101504},{"content":"Title: Renewable energy in Canada Content: Canada generates a significant majority of its electricity from hydroelectric dams ( 59 % in 2006 ) . Wind power is growing quickly with Canada in 2011 being the 6th largest producer of wind power in the world . Canada has built a number of photovoltaic power plants , mainly in Ontario , with one in Sarnia being the largest in the world at the time of construction . A 15 megawatt tidal plant sits at Annapolis , Nova Scotia , and uses the daily tides of the Bay of Fundy . Politicians have expressed interest in increasing the percentage of Canada 's electricity generated by renewable methods . Ontario has created a subsidy to assist wind and solar power producers .","qid":"2710","docid":"Renewable_energy_in_Canada","rank":54,"score":101501},{"content":"Title: Renewable energy in Brazil Content: Renewable energy in Brazil accounted for more than 85.4 % of the domestically produced electricity used in Brazil , according to data from the 2009 National Energy Balance , conducted by the Energy Research Corporation ( EPE ) . After the oil shocks of the 1970s , Brazil started focusing on developing alternative sources of energy , mainly sugarcane ethanol . Its large sugarcane farms helped . In 1985 , 91 % of cars produced that year ran on sugarcane ethanol . The success of flexible-fuel vehicles , introduced in 2003 , together with the mandatory E25 blend throughout the country , have allowed ethanol fuel consumption in the country to achieve a 50 % market share of the gasoline-powered fleet by February 2008 . Brazil held its first wind-only energy auction in 2009 , in a move to diversify its energy portfolio . Foreign companies scrambled to take part . In January 2015 , a drought in Brazil that cut water to the country 's hydroelectric dams prompted severe energy shortages . The crisis , which ravaged the country 's economy and led to electricity rationing , underscored Brazil 's pressing need to diversify away from water power . The bidding is expected to lead to the construction of two gigawatts of wind production with an investment of about US$ 6 billion over the next two years . Brazil counts on hydroelectricity for more than 3/4 of its electricity , but authorities are pushing biomass and wind as primary alternatives . Wind energy 's greatest potential in Brazil is during the dry season , so it is considered a hedge against low rainfall and the geographical spread of existing hydro resources . Brazil 's technical potential for wind energy is 143 gigawatts due to the country 's blustery 7,400-km coastline , where most projects are based . The Brazilian Wind Energy Association and the government have set a goal of achieving 20 gigawatts of wind energy capacity by 2020 from the current 5 gigawatts ( 2014 ) . The industry hopes the auction will help kick-start the wind-energy sector , which already accounts for 70 % of the total in all of Latin America .","qid":"2710","docid":"Renewable_energy_in_Brazil","rank":55,"score":101490},{"content":"Title: Lake Winds Energy Park Content: Lake Winds Energy Park is a wind farm located in Mason County , MI . The farm began production in August 2012 and is currently operated by Consumers Energy . It is home to a total of 56 wind turbines that produce a total of just over 100MW of energy . The turbines , which were constructed by Vestas-American Wind Technology , Inc. , take advantage of the western winds generated by Lake Michigan to produce power .","qid":"2710","docid":"Lake_Winds_Energy_Park","rank":56,"score":101446},{"content":"Title: WindShare Content: WindShare is a for-profit wind power co-operative that was officially launched in February 2002 in Toronto , Ontario , Canada . It was created by the non-profit Toronto Renewable Energy Co-operative ( TREC ) which was incorporated in 1998 . TREC continues to exist as a separate non-profit entity . WindShare 's ExPlace wind turbine was erected on December 18 , 2002 , on the grounds of Exhibition Place , in Toronto . It was the first wind turbine installed in a major North American urban city centre . and the first community-owned wind power project in Ontario . The 91 m tall ExPlace wind turbine is co-owned by the WindShare co-operative and Toronto Hydro , and annually adds an average of 1000 MWh of electricity to the city 's main power grid . WindShare and its parent , the Toronto Renewable Energy Cooperative ( TREC ) , have plans for more wind turbines . As of March , 2010 these plans are called `` The Lakewind Project . '' ( See below )","qid":"2710","docid":"WindShare","rank":57,"score":101007},{"content":"Title: George Philippidis Content: George Philippidis is a renewable energy leader who has published and spoken extensively about the global need for energy diversification over the last 20 years . He advocates the development of renewable and alternative low-carbon power and fuels to enhance energy security , combat climate change , and secure sustainable economic growth . He has authored 11 cleantech patents , written numerous articles , and spoken nationally and internationally on this subject emphasizing that renewable and alternative energy will initially supplement and augment current resources and progressively replace fossil energy , provided that governments institute long-term energy policies promoting the development of and private investment in new energy technologies . A diverse energy portfolio , depending on the local availability of natural resources , includes ( 1 ) solar , wind , biomass-to-power , ocean , and geothermal energy for power generation , and ( 2 ) renewable hydrocarbons , biomass - and algae-derived biofuels , and electric vehicles for transportation . The private sector and the markets should determine which of those forms of low-carbon energy are most appropriate and cost-effective locally in different parts of the country and the world . Dr. Philippidis studied Chemical Engineering at the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki in Greece getting a BS and at the University of Minnesota receiving a PhD . He also studied Business Administration at the University of Denver obtaining an MBA . He led strategic business units at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory ( NREL ) of the US Department of Energy in Denver and at a subsidiary of Thermo Electron Corporation in Boston before becoming Energy Director of the Applied Research Center , the business arm of Florida International University in Miami . Presently , he is Director of the Alternative Energy Research Center and Associate Professor of Biofuel Engineering at the University of South Florida Polytechnic in the Tampa Bay area , where he works with companies and venture capital firms to commercialize clean energy technologies and educates students and professionals in critical energy issues . He has been advising the federal and state governments on energy policy , venture capital and private equity firms on investment in cleantech , and the private sector in the United States and Latin America on the establishment of a renewable energy industry .","qid":"2710","docid":"George_Philippidis","rank":58,"score":100798},{"content":"Title: Renewable energy in the United States Content: Renewable energy in the United States accounted for 13.44 percent of the domestically produced electricity in 2015 , and 11.1 percent of total energy generation . As of 2016 , more than 260,000 people work in the solar industry and 43 states deploy net metering , where energy utilities buy back excess power generated by solar arrays . Renewable energy reached a major milestone in the first quarter of 2011 , when it contributed 11.7 percent of total U.S. energy production ( 2.245 quadrillion BTU of energy ) , surpassing energy production from nuclear power ( 2.125 quadrillion BTU ) . 2011 was the first year since 1997 that renewables exceeded nuclear in US total energy production . Hydroelectric power is currently the largest producer of renewable power in the U.S. . It produced around 6.14 % of the nation 's total electricity in 2015 which was 45.71 % of the total renewable power in the U.S. . The United States is the fourth largest producer of hydroelectricity in the world after China , Canada and Brazil . The Grand Coulee Dam is the 5th largest hydroelectric power station in the world . U.S. wind power installed capacity now exceeds 72,000 MW and supplies 4.1 % of the nation 's electricity . Texas is firmly established as the leader in wind power development , followed by Iowa and California . Since the U.S. pioneered the technology in 1981 with Solar One , several solar thermal power stations have also been built . The largest of these solar thermal power stations are the Ivanpah Solar Power Facility ( 392 MW ) , southwest of Las Vegas , and the SEGS group of plants in the Mojave Desert , with a total generating capacity of 354 MW . Large photovoltaic power plants in the USA include Solar Star ( 579 MW ) , near Rosamond , California , the Desert Sunlight Solar Farm , a 550 MW solar power plant in Riverside County , California and the Topaz Solar Farm , a 550 MW photovoltaic power plant , in San Luis Obispo County , California . The Geysers in Northern California is the largest complex of geothermal energy production in the world . The development of renewable energy and energy efficiency marks `` a new era of energy exploration '' in the United States , according to President Barack Obama . In a joint address to the Congress on February 24 , 2009 , President Obama called for doubling renewable energy within the next three years . In his 2012 State of the Union address , President Barack Obama restated his commitment to renewable energy and mentioned the long-standing Interior Department commitment to permit 10,000 MW of renewable energy projects on public land in 2012 .","qid":"2710","docid":"Renewable_energy_in_the_United_States","rank":59,"score":99980},{"content":"Title: History of wind power Content: Wind power has been used as long as humans have put sails into the wind . For more than two millennia wind-powered machines have ground grain and pumped water . Wind power was widely available and not confined to the banks of fast-flowing streams , or later , requiring sources of fuel . Wind-powered pumps drained the polders of the Netherlands , and in arid regions such as the American mid-west or the Australian outback , wind pumps provided water for livestock and steam engines . With the development of electric power , wind power found new applications in lighting buildings remote from centrally-generated power . Throughout the 20th century parallel paths developed small wind plants suitable for farms or residences , and larger utility-scale wind generators that could be connected to electricity grids for remote use of power . Today wind powered generators operate in every size range between tiny plants for battery charging at isolated residences , up to near-gigawatt sized offshore wind farms that provide electricity to national electrical networks . By 2014 , over 240,000 commercial-sized wind turbines were operating in the world , producing 4 % of the world 's electricity .","qid":"2710","docid":"History_of_wind_power","rank":60,"score":99372},{"content":"Title: Makani Power Content: Makani Power is an Alameda , California-based company that developed airborne wind turbines with the support of Google X and the U.S. Department of Energy office of ARPA-E . Makani is a leader in the development of airborne wind power extraction systems . Makani was founded in 2006 by Saul Griffith , Don Montague , and Corwin Hardham . It received funding as part of Google.org 's Renewable Energy cheaper than Coal ( RE < C ) initiative . `` Makani '' is Hawaiian for `` wind . '' One of the founders , Corwin Hardham , died in 2012 at age 38 .","qid":"2710","docid":"Makani_Power","rank":61,"score":99339},{"content":"Title: Golden Hills Wind Project Content: Golden Hills Wind Project is a proposed electricity generating wind farm facility in Sherman County , Oregon . It is being constructed by BP Alternative Energy . When completed , it will generate a peak of 400 megawatts , with an average of 133 MW of wind power across 200000 acre using up to 267 wind turbines .","qid":"2710","docid":"Golden_Hills_Wind_Project","rank":62,"score":99247},{"content":"Title: Renewable energy in the Netherlands Content: Despite the historic usage of wind power to drain water and grind grain , the Netherlands today lags behind most EU countries in the production of energy from renewable sources . The leading renewable sources in the country are biomass , wind , solar and both geothermal and aerothermal power ( mostly from ground source and air source heat pumps ) . In 2014 , the Netherlands produced only 5.5 % of its total energy from renewables , a small rise from 3.7 % in 2010 and just 1 % in 1990 . Among the EU countries , only Malta and Luxembourg had lower percentages . The low take up of renewable energy may be partially explained by the flat and often sub-sea level landscape and subsequent limits to hydropower resources , although hydro poor resource countries such as Denmark have still managed to make renewables the focus of their energy needs . In 2015 , Dutch wind turbines had a total nameplate capacity of 3,431 MW . Wind and solar power installations had a record breaking year during 2015 and this may move the Netherlands closer to its target of 37 % of electricity production coming from renewables by 2020 . A number of large offshore windfarms have either come online recently ( Gemini wind farm ) or have been granted authorisation ( Borsellee 1 and 2 , and Borsellee 3 and 4 wind farms ) . Most of the tiny contribution made to electricity generation by hydroelectricity came from three power plants . A large part of the renewable electricity sold in the Netherlands comes from Norway , a country which generates almost all its electricity from hydropower plants . In the Netherlands , household consumers can choose to buy renewable electricity . Since 2008 , the amount of renewable energy used by household users has been increasing , rising from 38 % in 2008 to 41 % by 2009 . and up to 44 % by mid 2010 . One area in which the Netherlands is a relative leader is in the adoption of electric plug in vehicles . In 2015 PEV vehicles in the Netherlands represented 9.74 % of car sales , making it the world 's second highest share after Norway . Electric vehicles are able to run on renewable electricity with zero emissions and have the potential to provide grid power storage facilities . An interesting source of heat recovery used in the Netherlands is sourced from freshly milked milk , or warm milk . However at 0.3 % of total renewable energy production ( 2010 figures ) this source is not likely to accelerate energy transition in the country . Warm milk is still not mentioned in the EU Renewable Energy Directive , nor in international energy statistics and so is not included is gross final consumption figures . It does however provide Dutch farmers with plenty of hot water .","qid":"2710","docid":"Renewable_energy_in_the_Netherlands","rank":63,"score":99222},{"content":"Title: Mount Millar Wind Farm Content: The Mount Millar Wind Farm is situated on an escarpment between the towns of Cowell and Cleve located 100 km southwest of Whyalla , South Australia . The 35 wind turbines are positioned on the elongated Mount Millar site ( about 7 km in length ) to maximise wind exposure . The wind farm can generate up to 70 megawatts ( MW ) of electricity and will provide enough energy to meet the needs of about 36,000 typical households . Because wind farms do not emit greenhouse gases in the generation of electricity , wind energy is considered a highly desirable form of renewable energy and assists in the reduction of the State 's reliance on coal and gas fired electricity generation . The Mount Millar Wind Farm is different from other SA wind farms , due to the turbines being a direct drive machine that do n't have gear boxes . This is why the nacelle of these turbines has a larger diameter than most . It connects to ElectraNet 's existing transmission network at Yadnarie Substation , via a new 33 km 132 kV overhead transmission line and substation . Construction of this wind farm started in late 2004 and was completed in December 2005 . Power production started in February 2006 . The $ 130 million project was developed by Tarong Energy Corporation Ltd , which has interests in both Queensland and South Australia ( including South Australia 's first wind farm , Starfish Hill Wind Farm ) . The Mount Millar wind farm was acquired by Meridian Energy in 2010 .","qid":"2710","docid":"Mount_Millar_Wind_Farm","rank":64,"score":99215},{"content":"Title: Wind power in Russia Content: Wind power in Russia has a long history of small-scale use , but the country has not yet developed large-scale commercial wind energy production . Most of its current wind production is located in agricultural areas with low population densities , where connection to the main energy grid is difficult . Russia is estimated to have a total potential of 80,000 TWh/yr for wind energy , 6,218 TWh/yr of which is economically feasible . Most of this potential is found in the southern steppes and the seacoasts of the country , although in many of these areas the population density is less than . This low population density means that there is little existing electricity infrastructure currently in place , which hinders development of these resources . In 2006 , Russia had a total installed wind capacity of 15 MW . Current Russian wind energy projects have a combined capacity of over 1,700 MW , although less than 17 MW had been installed as of the end of 2010 . The Russian Wind Energy Association predicts that if Russia achieves its goal of having 4.5 % of its energy come from renewable sources by 2020 , the country will have a total wind capacity of 7,000 MW . In 2010 , plans for the construction of a wind power plant in Yeisk , on the Sea of Azov , were announced . It is expected to initially have a capacity of 50 MW , which will become 100 MW a year later . German engineering company Siemens announced in July 2010 , following a visit to Russia by Chancellor Angela Merkel , that it would build wind power plants in Russia . By 2015 , the company hoped to install 1,250 MW of capacity in Russia . capacity was only 15.4 MW .","qid":"2710","docid":"Wind_power_in_Russia","rank":65,"score":99173},{"content":"Title: Wind power in Iran Content: This article discuss the development and implementation of wind power in Iran . Iran has relied primarily on a fossil fuel-based energy sector to power its country . However , in the last decade Iran has made steps to decrease its dependency on fossil fuels by investing in the renewable energy of wind power . This article discuss the process as well as the reasons for Iran 's interest in renewable energy ; the positive and negative effects as a result of the presence of wind power ; the political dynamics occurring in Iran ; and its attempt to also invest in nuclear energy as well .","qid":"2710","docid":"Wind_power_in_Iran","rank":66,"score":99163},{"content":"Title: Copper in renewable energy Content: Renewable energy sources such as solar , wind , tidal , hydro , biomass , and geothermal have become significant sectors of the energy market . The rapid growth of these sources in the 21st century has been prompted by increasing costs of fossil fuels as well as their negative environmental impacts . While the average capacity of renewable energy sources was only 7 % globally in 2010 , most installation of new capacity has been with renewables . Few new installations were from fossil fuel-based power plants . The trend towards new power capacity by renewables is expected to continue through 2020 . Since renewable energy supplies offset the amount of fossil fuels that need to be combusted in power plants , the use of renewables indirectly helps to reduce CO2 emissions . Hence , renewable energy supplies enable societies to progress towards lower-carbon-based economies . Copper plays an important role in renewable energy systems . Since copper is an excellent thermal and electrical conductor among the engineering metals ( second only to silver ) , power systems that utilize copper generate and transmit energy with high efficiency and with minimum environmental impacts . By using copper instead of other lower electrical energy-efficient metal conductors , less electricity needs to be generated to satisfy a given power demand . This article discusses the role of copper in various renewable energy generation systems .","qid":"2710","docid":"Copper_in_renewable_energy","rank":67,"score":99022},{"content":"Title: Wind power in Utah Content: Wind power in Utah is in the early stages of development . As of 2013 Utah had 325 MW of wind generation capacity . Wind thus plays a small role in the state 's renewable portfolio standard goals . A 2009 Utah Renewable Energy Zone Taskforce estimated that the state could produce over 9,000 megawatts of wind power . As about 80 % of Utah 's population is concentrated along the foot of the Wasatch Front mountain range , reliable and predictable canyon winds offer opportunities for wind power generation and efficient wind energy distribution without long-distance transmission . Utah Power , now PacifiCorp , launched the Blue Sky Program in 2000 to give customers an opportunity to purchase imported wind power , giving customers the option of purchasing 100-kilowatt hour ( kWh ) `` blocks '' of renewable energy for a monthly fee through their electricity bills . In the spring 2003 , radio station KZMU began operating solely on wind power . Kinkos also participates . PacifiCorp , the major provider in Utah , imports much of it renewable energy in the state and does not intend to build facilities within it until at least 2024 . The first utility scale wind farm was built at Spanish Fork in 2008 .","qid":"2710","docid":"Wind_power_in_Utah","rank":68,"score":98447},{"content":"Title: Wind power industry Content: The wind power industry is involved with the design , manufacture , construction , and maintenance of wind turbines . The modern wind power industry began in 1979 with the serial production of wind turbines by Danish manufacturers . The industry is currently undergoing a period of rapid globalization and consolidation .","qid":"2710","docid":"Wind_power_industry","rank":69,"score":98356},{"content":"Title: Waymart Wind Farm Content: Waymart Wind Farm is the second largest wind farm in Pennsylvania , United States . It consists of 43 GE 1.5 MW wind turbines , with a total net capacity of 64.5 MW . The project is located in Wayne County , Pennsylvania . The wind farm was developed by Atlantic Renewable Energy and constructed by NextEra Energy Resources , based in Florida . Energy from the wind farm is sold to Exelon for distribution in the Mid-Atlantic region .","qid":"2710","docid":"Waymart_Wind_Farm","rank":70,"score":98313},{"content":"Title: World Wind Energy Association Content: The World Wind Energy Association ( WWEA ) is an international non-profit association representing the wind power sector worldwide , with members in 100 countries , amongst them the leading national and regional wind energy associations . The organisation works for the promotion and worldwide deployment of wind energy technology and advocates a future energy system based on renewable energy .","qid":"2710","docid":"World_Wind_Energy_Association","rank":71,"score":98304},{"content":"Title: Renewable energy in Seychelles Content: Renewable energy in Seychelles is a recent development in providing power to the country . Electricity for the island nation of Seychelles is primarily produced by diesel generators which must import their fuel ( 69 MW on Mahe and 12 MW on Praslin ) . Energy policy calls for 15 % renewables by 2030 . In June 2013 , the first wind farm in Seychelles was officially inaugurated . This 6 MW power plant can produce up to 2 % of the Seychelles ' power and is located on Mahé Island . It is expected that the wind farm will replace 1.6 million litres of diesel fuel . The wind farm is expected to generate 7GHw of electricity and the islands consume 350GHw of electricity per year . The project was developed by Masdar of Abu Dhabi . Unison of S. Korea manufactured and installed the wind farm , with a 2-year maintenance contract upon commissioning . Electricity production is expected to be highly seasonal with the majority of energy produced in the months of June to September when wind strength and wind probability are highest on the island of Mahe . Project Development The wind farm project was fully funded by the Abu Dhabi government through a $ 28Million grant to the Seychelles . The Abu Dhabi government appointed Masdar as project manager . The wind farm was originally envisaged to be commissioned by November 2012 however this suffered several delays . The commissioning date was moved to February 2013 but just three of the eight turbines were commissioned by this date . The farm was finally fully commissioned 8 months later than first planned in June 2013 . The wind farm operator , the state owned Public Utilities Corporation ( PUC ) , confirmed on 25 July 2013 that one of the turbines was out of operation due to an overheating transformer . This followed weeks of speculation on local social media networks that one of the turbines was not in operation . The PUC also confirmed that the farm had produced 2.4 GHw of electricity during 2013 up to 25 July 2013 , approximately halfway through the windy season . Energy production from the wind farm is therefore expected to be below expectations in 2013 .","qid":"2710","docid":"Renewable_energy_in_Seychelles","rank":72,"score":98228},{"content":"Title: Wind power in France Content: In 2015 France reached a total of 10,358 MW installed wind power capacity placing France at that time as the world 's eighth largest wind power nation by installed capacity , behind the United Kingdom and Canada and ahead of Italy and Brazil . According to the IEA the yearly wind production was 20.2 TWh in 2015 , representing almost 23 % of the 88.4 TWh from renewable sources in France during that year . Furthermore wind provided for 4.3 % of the country 's electricity demand out of the 18.7 % provided by renewables in 2015 .","qid":"2710","docid":"Wind_power_in_France","rank":73,"score":98177},{"content":"Title: Cape Wind Content: The Cape Wind Project is an approved offshore wind farm on Horseshoe Shoal in Nantucket Sound off Cape Cod , Massachusetts , United States . The project is proposed by a private developer , Cape Wind Associates , the brainchild of Jim Gordon of Energy Management Inc. . The wind farm , an offshore wind energy project in United States coastal waters , is projected to generate 1,500 gigawatt hours of electricity per year derived from wind power . With National Grid and Northeast Utilities terminating their power purchase agreements in January 2015 , making it difficult to obtain financing , the future of the Cape Wind project is in doubt . The project is expected to cost $ 2.6 billion . Cape Wind had arranged to borrow $ 2 billion through The Bank of Tokyo-Mitsubishi UFJ ( BTMU ) . Siemens has agreed to supply the turbines for the project . Additionally , some construction began in 2013 , thus qualifying the project for the federal production tax credit , which expired at the end of the year .","qid":"2710","docid":"Cape_Wind","rank":74,"score":98171},{"content":"Title: Green Energy Wind Farm Content: The Green Energy Wind Farm is a proposed wind power project in Tulcea County , Romania . It will have 200 individual wind turbines with a nominal output of around 1 MW which will deliver up to 200 MW of power , enough to power over 79,200 homes , with a capital investment required of approximately US$ 450 million .","qid":"2710","docid":"Green_Energy_Wind_Farm","rank":75,"score":98146},{"content":"Title: Acciona Energy Content: Acciona Energy , a subsidiary of Acciona based in Madrid , is a Spanish company developing renewable energy projects , including small hydro , biomass , solar energy and thermal energy , and the marketing of biofuels . It also has assets in the field of co-generation and wind turbine manufacture . , it is carrying out research projects to produce hydrogen from wind power and to manufacture more efficient photovoltaic cells . , Acciona Energy has 164 wind farms in nine countries representing over 4,500 megawatts ( MW ) of wind power installed or under construction . Acciona Energy is also the developer , owner and operator of Nevada Solar One , the world 's first solar thermal plant built in more than 16 years , and the third largest facility of its kind . On September 18 , 2009 , the 100.5 MW EcoGrove Wind Farm in Lena , Illinois , U.S. became operational . The wind farm comprises 67 Acciona Windpower 1.5 MW turbines , and will produce enough to power 25,000 homes and offset 176,000 tons of carbon annually . The EcoGrove facility is spread across 7000 acre . Acciona Windpower 's main product is the AW1500 , a 1.545 MW output machine . There is a prototype AW3000 , a 3 MW model , operational in Pamplona , Spain . The company has a manufacturing facility in West Branch , Iowa which manufactures wind turbines . In June 2014 , Kohlberg Kravis Roberts announced it was taking a one-third stake in the international energy business of the company , at a cost of $ 417 million ( $ 567 million ) . The renewable energy generation business operates renewable assets , largely wind farms , across 14 countries including the United States , Italy and South Africa .","qid":"2710","docid":"Acciona_Energy","rank":76,"score":97895},{"content":"Title: Renewable energy in Kazakhstan Content: The Republic of Kazakhstan has enormous renewable energy potential , particularly from wind and small hydropower plants . The country has the potential to generate 10 times as much power as it currently needsfrom wind energy alone . But renewable energy accounts for just 0.6 percent of all power installations . Of that , 95 percent comes from small hydropower projects . The main barriers to investment in renewable energy are relatively high financing costs and an absence of uniform feed-in tariffs for electricity from renewable sources . The amount and duration of renewable energy feed-in tariffs are separately evaluated for each project , based on feasibility studies and project-specific generation costs . Power from wind , solar , biomass and water up to 35 MW , plus geothermal sources , are eligible for the tariff and transmission companies are required to purchase the energy of renewable energy producers . An amendmentthat introduces and clarifies technology-specific tariffs is now being prepared . It is expected to be adoptedby Parliament by the end of 2014 . In addition , the World Bank 's Ease of Doing Business indicator shows the country to be relatively investor-friendly , ranking it in 10th position for investor protection . Kazakhstan is a party to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change ( 1995 ) and ratified the Kyoto Protocol in 2009 . Kazakhstan has committed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions . Having more renewable energy in the energy balance of Kazakhstan is one of the most effective mechanisms to reduce harmful effects of the energy sector and to diversify the national power generation capacity . To help Kazakhstan meet its goals for renewable energy generation , the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development ( EBRD ) is launching the Kazakhstan Renewable Energy Financing Facility ( KazREFF ) . The KazREFF aims to provide development support and debt finance to renewable energy projects which meet required commercial , technical and environmental criteria . Renewable energy technologies supported will include solar , wind , small hydropower , geothermal , biomass , and biogas . The Facility comprises an amount of up to $ 50 million for financing projects together with up to $ 20 million of concessional finance from Clean Technology Fund ( CTF ) , and the technical assistance funded by the Japanese government through the Japan-EBRD Cooperation Fund ( JECF ) .","qid":"2710","docid":"Renewable_energy_in_Kazakhstan","rank":77,"score":97850},{"content":"Title: Electricity sector in the United Kingdom Content: The electricity sector in the United Kingdom relies mainly on fossil fuelled power and 15-20 % in nuclear power and similar amounts of renewable power . Fossil fuel generator use in general and coal use in particularly is shrinking , with coal generators now only mainly being run in Winter due to pollution and costs . In 2008 nuclear electricity production was 860 kWh pro person . In 2014 , 28.1 TW · h of energy was generated by wind power , which contributed 9.3 % of the UK 's electricity requirement . In 2015 , 40.4 TW · h of energy was generated by wind power , and the quarterly generation record was set in the three-month period from October to December 2015 , with 13 % of the nation 's electricity demand met by wind . 2015 saw 1.2 GW of new wind power capacity brought online , a 9.6 % increase of the total UK installed capacity . The United Kingdom voluntarily ended the use of incandescent lightbulbs in 2011 . Between 2007 and 2012 , the UK 's peak electrical demand has fallen from 61.5 GW to 57.5 GW The use of electricity declined 11 % in 2009 compared to 2004 and respectively . The UK is planning to reform its Electricity Market . It plans to introduce a capacity mechanism and contracts for difference to encourage the building of new generation .","qid":"2710","docid":"Electricity_sector_in_the_United_Kingdom","rank":78,"score":97697},{"content":"Title: European Technology Platform for Wind Energy Content: The European Technology Platform for Wind Energy ( TPWind ) is a European Seventh Framework Programme initiative to improve the competitive situation of the European Union in the field of wind energy . The programme is a joint initiative ( Public-Private Partnership ) of the European Commission , representing the European Union , and the industry . The main objective of the programme is to produce a Strategic Research Agenda ( SRA ) .","qid":"2710","docid":"European_Technology_Platform_for_Wind_Energy","rank":79,"score":97316},{"content":"Title: Wind power in Poland Content: Wind power is a minor but growing source of electricity in Poland . As of the end of 2015 , total installed capacity was 5,100 megawatts ( MW ) , which provided 10,858 gigawatt-hours ( GW · h ) -- around 6.22 % of the electricity consumed in the country . By year end 2016 total installed capacity had risen to 5,782 MW . Energy production sources are also registered by the state Office of Control of Electricity .","qid":"2710","docid":"Wind_power_in_Poland","rank":80,"score":96965},{"content":"Title: Grid parity Content: Grid parity ( or socket parity ) occurs when an alternative energy source can generate power at a levelized cost of electricity ( LCOE ) that is less than or equal to the price of purchasing power from the electricity grid . The term is most commonly used when discussing renewable energy sources , notably solar power and wind power . Grid parity depends upon whether you are calculating from the point of view of a utility or of a retail consumer . Reaching grid parity is considered to be the point at which an energy source becomes a contender for widespread development without subsidies or government support . It is widely believed that a wholesale shift in generation to these forms of energy will take place when they reach grid parity . Germany was one of the first countries to reach parity for solar PV in 2011 and 2012 for utility-scale solar and rooftop solar PV , respectively . By January 2014 , grid parity for solar PV systems had already been reached in at least nineteen countries .","qid":"2710","docid":"Grid_parity","rank":81,"score":96621},{"content":"Title: MK Fintel Wind Content: MK Fintel Wind is a Serbian renewable energy company . It is a joint venture between MK Group and the Italian Fintel Energia Group . MK Group is a business conglomerate belonging to the Serbian tycoon Miodrag Kostic . The company was the first to build and operate wind farms in Serbia . It has nearly 17 MW in operation and 69 MW under construction . One of its plants is located near Kula , and a second is under construction next to Vršac .","qid":"2710","docid":"MK_Fintel_Wind","rank":82,"score":96604},{"content":"Title: Wind power in Mexico Content: Mexico is the world 's twenty-fourth-biggest producer of wind power , and its installed capacity is expected to reach 2 GW by the end of 2012 . It has a capacity 330 MW under construction . As of 2008 , there were three wind farms in the country . The Eurus Wind Farm is the largest wind farm in Latin America . 18 of 27 wind farms construction projects are based in La Ventosa in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec in Oaxaca . According to the Mexican Wind Energy Association , the country will rank twentieth worldwide in wind capacity by the end of 2012 , and will produce four percent of the country 's total electricity production . It also believes that the nation will have 12 GW of wind generation capacity by 2020 , and will be able to provide fifteen percent of Mexico 's production . Brian Gardner , Economist Intelligence Unit 's energy analyst , said , `` With strong wind through the south , consistent sunlight in the north and a stable market , Mexico is well positioned for continued renewables growth '' . Wind power is in partial competition with Solar power in Mexico .","qid":"2710","docid":"Wind_power_in_Mexico","rank":83,"score":96580},{"content":"Title: Wind power forecasting Content: A wind power forecast corresponds to an estimate of the expected production of one or more wind turbines ( referred to as a wind farm ) in the near future . By production is often meant available power for wind farm considered ( with units kW or MW depending on the wind farm nominal capacity ) . Forecasts can also be expressed in terms of energy , by integrating power production over each time interval .","qid":"2710","docid":"Wind_power_forecasting","rank":84,"score":96502},{"content":"Title: Wind power in Denmark Content: Denmark was a pioneer in developing commercial wind power during the 1970s , and today a substantial share of the wind turbines around the world are produced by Danish manufacturers such as Vestas and Siemens Wind Power along with many component suppliers . Wind power produced the equivalent of 42.1 % of Denmark 's total electricity consumption in 2015 , increased from 33 % in 2013 , and 39 % in 2014 . In 2012 the Danish government adopted a plan to increase the share of electricity production from wind to 50 % by 2020 , and to 84 % in 2035 . Denmark had the 6th best energy security in the world in 2014 .","qid":"2710","docid":"Wind_power_in_Denmark","rank":85,"score":96481},{"content":"Title: Infigen Energy Content: Infigen Energy ( Infigen ) , formerly Babcock & Brown Wind Partners , is a developer , owner and operator of renewable energy generation assets in Australia . Infigen 's wind farm portfolio has an installed capacity of 557 MW . All of Infigen 's assets generate electricity from renewable sources and are eligible to sell Large-scale Generation Certificates ( LGCs ) under the mandatory Renewable Energy Target scheme , which operates in Australia under the Renewable Energy ( Electricity ) Act 2000 . Infigen previously owned a wind farm portfolio in the US . In October 2015 Infigen sold its US wind business to an Arclight Capital partners , LLC for US$ 274.4 million . The US wind farms are subsequently operated by Leeward Renewable Energy , LLC . Infigen reports under the Carbon Disclosure Project . Infigen is a member of the Clean Energy Council .","qid":"2710","docid":"Infigen_Energy","rank":86,"score":96474},{"content":"Title: Wind power in Kenya Content: Wind power in Kenya contributes only a small amount of the country 's electrical power . However , its share in energy production is increasing . Kenya aims to generate 2,036 MW of wind power , or 9 % of the country 's total capacity , by 2030 . Kenya has one major wind farm , Ngong Hills Wind Farm , located in Ngong , Kajiado County . It produces around 5.1 MW of electricity . It is owned by Kenya Electricity Generating Company ( KenGen ) and cost KES 1.6 billion ( US $ 18 million ) to construct .","qid":"2710","docid":"Wind_power_in_Kenya","rank":87,"score":96464},{"content":"Title: Wisconsin Independent News Distributors Content: Wisconsin Independent News Distributors ( WIND ) was an alternative left-wing news distributor founded in 1971 in Madison , Wisconsin by Jack Dunn , Roger Metcalf , Bill Morris , and Roney Sorenson . All were students or otherwise involved in the radical student movement of the times at the University of Wisconsin , Madison . The collective expanded through the 1970s to involve over 20 people , and expanding its operations throughout northern Illinois , Wisconsin , and eastern Minnesota .","qid":"2710","docid":"Wisconsin_Independent_News_Distributors","rank":88,"score":96373},{"content":"Title: Wind power in California Content: As of December 31 , 2016 , California has 5,662 megawatts ( MW ) of wind powered electricity generating capacity . California 's wind power capacity has grown by nearly 350 % since 2001 , when it was less than 1,700 MW . As of the end of September 2012 , wind energy ( including that supplied by other states ) now supplies about 5 % of California 's total electricity needs , or enough to power more than 400,000 households . Most of California 's wind generation is found in the Tehachapi area of Kern County , with some big projects in Solano , Contra Costa and Riverside counties as well . California is among the states with the largest amount of installed wind power capacity .","qid":"2710","docid":"Wind_power_in_California","rank":89,"score":96286},{"content":"Title: Wind power in Texas Content: Wind power in Texas consists of many wind farms with a total installed nameplate capacity of 20,321 MW from over 40 different projects . Texas produces the most wind power of any U.S. state . Wind power accounted for 12.63 % of the electricity generated in Texas in the 12 months ending Oct 2016 . The wind resource in many parts of Texas is very large . Farmers may lease their land to wind developers , creating a new revenue stream for the farm . The wind power industry has also created over 24,000 jobs for local communities and for the state . Texas is seen as a profit-driven leader of renewable energy commercialization in the United States . The wind boom in Texas was assisted by expansion of the state 's Renewable Portfolio Standard , use of designated Competitive Renewable Energy Zones , expedited transmission construction , and the necessary Public Utility Commission rule-making . The Roscoe Wind Farm ( 781 MW ) , near the town of Roscoe , is the state 's largest wind farm . Other large wind farms in Texas include : Horse Hollow Wind Energy Center , Sherbino Wind Farm , Capricorn Ridge Wind Farm , Sweetwater Wind Farm , Buffalo Gap Wind Farm , King Mountain Wind Farm , Desert Sky Wind Farm , Wildorado Wind Ranch , and the Brazos Wind Farm .","qid":"2710","docid":"Wind_power_in_Texas","rank":90,"score":96201},{"content":"Title: Wind power in Pennsylvania Content: There are more than twenty wind power projects operating in the commonwealth of Pennsylvania . The most productive wind energy regions generally fall in mountain or coastal terrains . The northern portion of the Appalachian chain , including most of Southwestern Pennsylvania , is one of the areas with the highest potential for wind energy in the Eastern United States . The mountain ridges of central and northeastern Pennsylvania , including the Poconos in the eastern part of the state , offer some of the best wind resources in the region . If all wind energy potential in Pennsylvania was developed with utility-scale wind turbines , the power produced each year would be enough to supply 6.4 % of the state 's current electricity consumption . In 2006 , Pennsylvania 's legislature ruled that wind turbines and related equipment may not be included in property-tax assessments . Instead , the sites of wind facilities are assessed for their income-capitalization value . In 2007 , Montgomery County became the first wind-powered county in the nation , with a two-year commitment to buy 100 percent of its electricity from a combination of wind energy and renewable energy credits derived from wind energy . In 2009 , the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency honored Swarthmore , Pennsylvania as a Green Power Community -- the only one in the Eastern United States - for its commitment to buy clean energy generated from wind turbines in mountainous region of western Pennsylvania . In 2012 , a coalition of wind farm developers , owner , operators , their supporters , and retail suppliers joined together to form ChoosePAWind . This coalition 's goal is to educate Pennsylvanians about the environmental and economic benefits of supplying energy from local wind farms . Many smaller wind farms in Pennsylvania are operated by NextEra Energy Resources , based in Florida .","qid":"2710","docid":"Wind_power_in_Pennsylvania","rank":91,"score":96045},{"content":"Title: Windbelt Content: The Windbelt is a wind power harvesting device invented by Shawn Frayn in 2004 for converting wind power to electricity . It consists of a flexible polymer ribbon stretched between supports transverse to the wind direction , with magnets glued to it . When the wind blows across it , the ribbon vibrates due to aeroelastic flutter , similar to the action of an aeolian harp . The vibrating movement of the magnets induces current in nearby pickup coils by electromagnetic induction . One prototype has powered two LEDs , a radio , and a clock ( separately ) using wind generated from a household fan . The cost of the materials was well under US$ 10 . $ 2 -- $ 5 for 40 mW is a cost of $ 50 -- $ 125 per watt . There are three sizes in development : The microBelt , a 12 cm version . This could be put into production in around six months . Its expected to produce 1 milliwatt average . To charge a pair of ideal rechargeable AA cells ( 2.5 Ah 1.2 v ) this would take 6000 hours , or 250 days . The Windcell , a 1-metre version that could be used to power meshed WiFi repeaters , charge cellphones , or run LED lights . This could go into production within 18 to 24 months . It is hoped that a square metre panel at 6 m/s average windspeed can generate 10 W average . An experimental 10-metre model that has no production date . The Windbelt 's inventor , Shawn Frayn , was a winner of the 2007 Breakthrough Award from the publishers of the magazine , Popular Mechanics . He is trying to make the Windbelt cheaper . The inventor 's claims that the device is 10 - 30 times more efficient than small wind turbines have been refuted by tests . The microWindbelt could generate 0.2 mW at a wind speed of 3.5 m/s and 5 mW at 7.5 m/s , which represent efficiencies ( ηCp ) of 0.21 % and 0.53 % respectively . Wind turbines typically have efficiencies of 1 % to 10 % . Since the Windbelt a number of other `` flutter '' wind harvester devices have been designed , but like the Windbelt almost all have efficiencies below turbine machines .","qid":"2710","docid":"Windbelt","rank":92,"score":95944},{"content":"Title: Vaneless ion wind generator Content: A vaneless ion wind generator or power fence is a proposed wind power device that produces electrical energy directly by using the wind to pump electric charge from one electrode to another , with no moving parts . Wind energy is usually extracted to make electricity by means of a wind turbine . The bird deaths , vibrational noise , and moving shadows associated with wind turbines would not occur with ion based power generation . One design uses water sprayed from a nozzle facing a toroidal charged electrode . This induces an opposite charge in the water , and when the water flows out of the nozzle , each drop carries a small amount of charge . These water droplets are then blown by the wind , going through the center of the charged toroid without touching it . The droplets then hit a fine mesh , adding to its charge . The other alternative is to use the Earth as the second electrode . The main advantage of this system is that it has no moving parts except the water droplets . The disadvantages are that it needs a constant supply of water , its wind profile ca n't be reduced , it requires many small parts , and it has to be well-crafted to reduce corona discharge losses . The device would produce direct current , which would need to be inverted to apply to a standard AC power grid . Lord Kelvin created a similar device that used the energy of falling water droplets to generate high voltage , sometimes called `` Kelvin 's Thunderstorm '' .","qid":"2710","docid":"Vaneless_ion_wind_generator","rank":93,"score":95924},{"content":"Title: Greengate Power Corporation Content: Greengate Power Corporation ( Greengate ) has nine wind projects under development in Alberta , Canada totaling 1,550 Megawatts ( MW ) across 200,000 acres of private land . This represents a potential investment of $ 4 billion upon full build-out of the projects . Greengate 's goal is to be Canada 's largest pure-play renewable energy producer . Greengate 's unique strategy has been to develop wind energy projects in close proximity to transmission lines with available capacity , with high quality wind resources and substantially contracted sources of revenue . This strategy has enabled Greengate to be a leader in the wind energy industry in Alberta . The 150 Megawatts ( MW ) Halkirk I Wind Project will be Greengate 's first operating project and will be the largest wind energy project in Alberta upon construction and operation .","qid":"2710","docid":"Greengate_Power_Corporation","rank":94,"score":95723},{"content":"Title: Renewable portfolio standard Content: A renewable portfolio standard ( RPS ) is a regulation that requires the increased production of energy from renewable energy sources , such as wind , solar , biomass , and geothermal . Other common names for the same concept include Renewable Electricity Standard ( RES ) at the United States federal level and Renewables Obligation in the UK . The RPS mechanism places an obligation on electricity supply companies to produce a specified fraction of their electricity from renewable energy sources . Certified renewable energy generators earn certificates for every unit of electricity they produce and can sell these along with their electricity to supply companies . Supply companies then pass the certificates to some form of regulatory body to demonstrate their compliance with their regulatory obligations . RPS can rely on the private market for its implementation . In jurisdictions such as California , minimum RPS requirements are legislated . California Senate Bill 350 passed in October 2015 requires retail sellers and publicly owned utilities to procure 50 percent of their electricity from eligible renewable energy resources by 2030 . RPS programs tend to allow more price competition between different types of renewable energy , but can be limited in competition through eligibility and multipliers for RPS programs . Those supporting the adoption of RPS mechanisms claim that market implementation will result in competition , efficiency , and innovation that will deliver renewable energy at the lowest possible cost , allowing renewable energy to compete with cheaper fossil fuel energy sources . RPS-type mechanisms have been adopted in several countries , including Britain , Italy , Poland , Sweden , Belgium , and Chile , as well as in 29 of 50 U.S. states , and the District of Columbia .","qid":"2710","docid":"Renewable_portfolio_standard","rank":95,"score":95637},{"content":"Title: Wind power in Japan Content: In Japan 's electricity sector wind power generates a small but increasing proportion of the country 's electricity , as the installed capacity has been growing in recent years . According to industry observers , the 2011 Japanese nuclear accidents are pushing wind power to the forefront as a safer and more reliable alternative to meet the country 's future electricity requirements . None of Japan 's commercial wind turbines , totaling over 2300 MW in nameplate capacity , failed as a result of the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami , including the Kamisu offshore wind farm directly hit by the tsunami . It has been estimated that Japan has the potential for 144 GW for onshore wind and 608 GW of offshore wind capacity .","qid":"2710","docid":"Wind_power_in_Japan","rank":96,"score":95570},{"content":"Title: Electricity sector in Denmark Content: The electricity sector in Denmark relies on fossil energy and renewable energy : wind power , biogas , biomass and waste . Danish average consumption of electricity per person was 0.8 GWh less than EU 15 average in 2008 . Denmark has average electricity costs ( including costs for cleaner energy ) in EU , but general taxes increase the price to the highest in Europe . In 2015 , supply security was over 99.99 % , among the highest in the world . Denmark invested in the wind power development in the 1970s and has had the highest wind share in the world ever since ; wind produced the equivalent of 42 % of Denmark 's total electricity consumption in 2015 . Danish consumption of wind turbine generated electricity is the highest in the world per person : 1,218 kWh in 2009 . Denmark produced more wind power per person in Denmark in 2009 than either Spain or the UK produced nuclear power per person in their respective countries . The Danish electricity market is a part of the Nord Pool Spot power exchange .","qid":"2710","docid":"Electricity_sector_in_Denmark","rank":97,"score":95467},{"content":"Title: Wind power in Germany Content: The installed capacity of wind power in Germany was 44,470 megawatts ( MW ) in 2015 , with wind power producing about 13.3 percent of Germany 's total electrical power . According to EWEA in a typical wind year , installed wind capacity in Germany was estimated to have met 10.6 % at end 2011 and 9.3 % at end 2010 of the German electricity needs . The persistent disparity between EWEA estimates for a `` normal wind year '' and the actual data tabulated below may be due to the EWEA relying on an unrealistically high capacity factor for German wind production . More than 26,772 wind turbines were located in the German federal area by year end 2015 , and the country has plans for further expansion . As of the end of 2015 Germany was the third largest producer of wind power in the world by installations , behind China and the USA , and ahead of India , Spain and the United Kingdom . Since 2011 , Germany 's federal government has been working on a new plan for increasing renewable energy commercialization , with a particular focus on offshore wind farms . A major challenge will be the development of sufficient network capacities for transmitting the power generated in the North Sea to the large industrial consumers in southern Germany .","qid":"2710","docid":"Wind_power_in_Germany","rank":98,"score":95462},{"content":"Title: Wind power in Uruguay Content: Wind power in Uruguay generates a small but rapidly growing proportion of the country 's electricity . Projections consider that , at the end of 2016 , Uruguay could become the country with the largest energy coverage with wind power .","qid":"2710","docid":"Wind_power_in_Uruguay","rank":99,"score":95415},{"content":"Title: Wind power in Malta Content: Wind power in Malta describes the wind power development in Malta . Malta is a European Union country . The European energy policy has the objective of a sustainable , competitive and secure supply of energy . According to the EU fact sheet in January 2007 the potential of wind energy in Malta is substantial . Malta produces almost all its electricity using oil , importing 100 % of it .","qid":"2710","docid":"Wind_power_in_Malta","rank":100,"score":95295}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wind power Content: Wind power is the use of air flow through wind turbines to mechanically power generators for electric power . Wind power , as an alternative to burning fossil fuels , is plentiful , renewable , widely distributed , clean , produces no greenhouse gas emissions during operation , consumes no water , and uses little land . The net effects on the environment are far less problematic than those of nonrenewable power sources . Wind farms consist of many individual wind turbines which are connected to the electric power transmission network . Onshore wind is an inexpensive source of electric power , competitive with or in many places cheaper than coal or gas plants . Offshore wind is steadier and stronger than on land , and offshore farms have less visual impact , but construction and maintenance costs are considerably higher . Small onshore wind farms can feed some energy into the grid or provide electric power to isolated off-grid locations . Wind power gives variable power which is very consistent from year to year but which has significant variation over shorter time scales . It is therefore used in conjunction with other electric power sources to give a reliable supply . As the proportion of wind power in a region increases , a need to upgrade the grid , and a lowered ability to supplant conventional production can occur . Power management techniques such as having excess capacity , geographically distributed turbines , dispatchable backing sources , sufficient hydroelectric power , exporting and importing power to neighboring areas , using vehicle-to-grid strategies or reducing demand when wind production is low , can in many cases overcome these problems . In addition , weather forecasting permits the electric power network to be readied for the predictable variations in production that occur . As of 2015 , Denmark generates 40 % of its electric power from wind , and at least 83 other countries around the world are using wind power to supply their electric power grids . In 2014 global wind power capacity expanded 16 % to 369,553 MW . Yearly wind energy production is also growing rapidly and has reached around 4 % of worldwide electric power usage , 11.4 % in the EU .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Wind_power\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 158228\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wind power in the United Kingdom Content: The United Kingdom is one of the best locations for wind power in the world , and is considered to be the best in Europe . Wind power contributed 11 % of UK electricity generation in 2015 , and 17 % in December 2015 . Allowing for the costs of pollution , particularly the carbon emissions of other forms of production , onshore wind power is the cheapest form of energy in the United Kingdom . In 2016 , the UK generated more electricity from wind power than from coal . Wind power delivers a growing percentage of the energy of the United Kingdom and at the end of May 2017 , it consisted of 7,520 wind turbines with a total installed capacity of almost 15.5 gigawatts : 10,128 megawatts of onshore capacity and 5,356 megawatts of offshore capacity . This placed the United Kingdom at this time as the world 's sixth largest producer of wind power ( behind 1 . China , 2 . USA , 3 . Germany , 4 . India and 5 . Spain ) , having overtaken France and Italy in 2012 . Polling of public opinion consistently shows strong support for wind power in the UK , with nearly three quarters of the population agreeing with its use , even for people living near onshore wind turbines . In 2015 , 40.4 TW · h of energy was generated by wind power , and the quarterly generation record was set in the three-month period from October to December 2015 , with 13 % of the nation 's electricity demand met by wind . 2015 saw 1.2 GW of new wind power capacity brought online , a 9.6 % increase of the total UK installed capacity . Three large offshore wind farms came on stream in 2015 , Gwynt y Môr ( 576 MW max . capacity ) , Humber Gateway ( 219 MW ) and Westermost Rough ( 210 MW ) . Through the Renewables Obligation , British electricity suppliers are now required by law to provide a proportion of their sales from renewable sources such as wind power or pay a penalty fee . The supplier then receives a Renewables Obligation Certificate ( ROC ) for each MW · h of electricity they have purchased . Within the United Kingdom , wind power is the largest source of renewable electricity , and the second largest source of renewable energy after biomass . However , the UK 's Conservative government is opposed to onshore wind power and has attempted to cancel existing subsidies for onshore wind turbines a year early from April 2016 , although the House of Lords have struck these changes down . Overall , wind power raises costs of electricity slightly . In 2015 , it was estimated that the use of wind power in the UK had added # 18 to the average yearly electricity bill . This was the additional cost to consumers of using wind to generate about 9.3 % of the annual total ( see table below ) -- about # 2 for each 1 % . Nevertheless , offshore wind power is significantly more expensive than onshore , which raises costs . Offshore wind projects completed in 2012 -- 14 had a levelised cost of electricity of # 131/MW · h compared to a wholesale price of # 40 -- 50/MW · h ; the industry hopes to get the cost down to # 100/MW · h for projects approved in 2020 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Wind_power_in_the_United_Kingdom\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 132635\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Renewable energy in developing countries Content: Renewable energy technology has sometimes been seen as a costly luxury item by critics , and affordable only in the affluent developed world . This erroneous view has persisted for many years , but 2015 was the first year when investment in non-hydro renewables , was higher in developing countries , with $ 156 billion invested , mainly in China , India , and Brazil . Most developing countries have abundant renewable energy resources , including solar energy , wind power , geothermal energy , and biomass , as well as the ability to manufacture the relatively labor-intensive systems that harness these . By developing such energy sources developing countries can reduce their dependence on oil and natural gas , creating energy portfolios that are less vulnerable to price rises . In many circumstances , these investments can be less expensive than fossil fuel energy systems . In isolated rural areas , electricity grid extensions are often not economical . Off‐grid renewable technologies provide a sustainable and cost‐effective alternative to the diesel generators that would be otherwise be deployed in such areas . Renewable technologies can also help to displace other unsustainable energy sources such as kerosene lamps and traditional biomass . Kenya is the world leader in the number of solar power systems installed per capita ( but not the number of watts added ) . More than 30,000 small solar panels , each producing 12 to 30 watts , are sold in Kenya annually . Kenya was the first African country to use geothermal power , and still has the largest installed capacity of geothermal power in Africa at 200 MW , with a potential of up to 10 GW .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Renewable_energy_in_developing_countries\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 132123\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wind Energy (journal) Content: Wind Energy is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering research on wind power . It is published by John Wiley & Sons and the editors-in-chief are Rebecca Bartholomew ( Cornell University ) and Scott Schreck ( National Renewable Energy Laboratory ) . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2013 impact factor of 2.556 , ranking it 35th out of 83 journals in `` Energy & Fuels '' and 12th out of 128 journals in `` Engineering Mechanical '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Wind_Energy_(journal)\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 126588\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Alternative energy Content: Alternative energy is any energy source that is an alternative to fossil fuel . These alternatives are intended to address concerns about such fossil fuels , such as its high carbon dioxide emissions , an important factor in global warming . Marine energy , hydroelectric , wind , geothermal and solar power are all alternative sources of energy . The nature of what constitutes an alternative energy source has changed considerably over time , as have controversies regarding energy use . Because of the variety of energy choices and differing goals of their advocates , defining some energy types as `` alternative '' is considered very controversial .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Alternative_energy\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 122089\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wind power in Australia Content: Wind power in Australia is a mode of production of renewable energy in Australia . Wind power is a rapidly expanding mode of renewable energy production in Australia with an average annual rate of growth in installed capacity of 35 % over the five years up to 2011 . As at 2015 , there were 4187 megawatts ( MW ) of installed capacity , with another 14962 MW either being planned or under construction . In the year to October 2015 , wind power accounted for 4.9 % of Australia 's total electricity demand and 33.7 % of total renewable energy supply . As at October 2015 , there were 76 wind farms in Australia , most of which had turbines of from 1.5 to 3 MW . South Australia has 35 % of Australia 's wind power capacity , accounting for 34 % of that state 's electricity needs as of 2015 . By the end of 2011 wind power in South Australia reached 26 % of the State 's electricity generation , edging out coal-fired power for the first time . At that stage South Australia , with only 7.2 % of Australia 's population , had 54 % of Australia 's installed wind capacity . Victoria also has a substantial system , with just under 30 % of the Australia 's capacity as of 2015 . In August 2015 , the Victorian government announced financial backing for new wind farms as part of a push to encourage renewable energy in the state , which was expected to bring forward the building of a modest 100 MW of new wind energy in the state , worth $ 200 million in investment . The government expected that there were about 2400 MW worth of Victorian projects that had been approved but were yet to be built .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Wind_power_in_Australia\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 121334\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wind power in Serbia Content: Wind power is a fledgling source of renewable energy in Serbia ; nevertheless Green Star Alternative Energy , inc. has constructing the first wind farm in Serbia through its Belo Blato Wind Energy Project . The project is divided into 2 phases . The first phase includes a 20 megawatts ( MW ) wind farm which began operating in 2009 . The second phase includes development of additional 300-MW of wind generated power . The first wind farm is near Kula .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Wind_power_in_Serbia\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 117844\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wind power in the European Union Content: As of December 2014 , installed capacity of wind power in the European Union totaled 128,751 megawatts ( MW ) . The EU wind industry has had a compound annual growth rate ( CAGR ) of 10 % between the years 2000 and 2013 . In 2014 , a total of 11,791 MW of wind power was installed , representing 32 % of all new power capacity . In a normal wind year the wind power capacity installed by early 2014 would produce 257 TWh of electricity , enough to supply 8 % of the EU 's electricity consumption . In the future , wind power is likely to continue to grow in the European Union . According to a European Environment Agency report , wind energy can play a major role in achieving the European renewable energy targets . The European Wind Energy Association estimates that 230 gigawatts ( GW ) of wind capacity will be installed in Europe by 2020 , consisting of 190 GW onshore and 40 GW offshore . This would produce 14-17 % of the EU 's electricity , avoiding 333 million tonnes of CO2 per year and saving Europe $ 28 billion a year in fuel costs . Research from a wide variety of sources in various European countries shows that support for wind power is consistently about 80 per cent among the general public .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Wind_power_in_the_European_Union\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 116408\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wind power in South Korea Content: Wind power in South Korea is a form of renewable energy in South Korea . As of 2015 wind power capacity in South Korea was 835 MW and the wind energy share of total electricity consumption was far below 0,1 % . Nevertheless , the Korean government plans to invest $ 8.2 billion into offshore wind farms in order to increase the total capacity by 2.5 GW by 2019\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Wind_power_in_South_Korea\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 115393\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wind turbine Content: A wind turbine is a device that converts the wind 's kinetic energy into electrical power . Wind turbines are manufactured in a wide range of vertical and horizontal axis types . The smallest turbines are used for applications such as battery charging for auxiliary power for boats or caravans or to power traffic warning signs . Slightly larger turbines can be used for making contributions to a domestic power supply while selling unused power back to the utility supplier via the electrical grid . Arrays of large turbines , known as wind farms , are becoming an increasingly important source of intermittent renewable energy and are used by many countries as part of a strategy to reduce their reliance on fossil fuels .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Wind_turbine\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 114885\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: First Wind Content: Founded in 2002 , First Wind was an independent renewable energy company that develops and operates utility-scale power projects in the United States . It grew to employ more than 220 people across the country . Headquartered in Boston , the company develops or operates renewable energy projects in Maine , Vermont , Massachusetts , New York , Utah , Idaho , Washington and Hawaii with a combined capacity of nearly 1,300 megawatts . In addition to renewable energy projects , the company developed and operates two generator leads . First Wind began as a utility-scale wind power developer and operator , but in 2014 the company brought its first solar energy projects online . In November 2014 First Wind was purchased by SunEdison and its yieldco TerraForm Power for $ 2.4 billion . In February 2015 , as part of the merger integration , First Wind CEO Paul Gaynor , who led the company since 2004 , was appointed EVP Of North America Utility And Global Wind at SunEdison .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"First_Wind\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 113747\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wind power in Thailand Content: Wind power in Thailand amounted to an installed production capacity of 224.5 MW as of the end of 2014 . Installed capacity was 112 MW at the end of 2012 , with 111 MW added in 2013 , and a minor amount added in 2014 . This ranked Thailand 46th in the world by installed capacity as of 2015 . Thailand 's natural gas reserves are projected to run out in 2021 , and Thailand began importing expensive liquefied natural gas in 2011 . These factors have led to increased demand for renewable energy , and Thailand 's Alternative Energy Development Plan ( AEDP ) in 2011 called for 25 percent of its energy to come from renewable sources by 2036 . By June 2012 , projects totalling over 1,600 MW had been proposed .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Wind_power_in_Thailand\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 112867\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Renewable energy in Asia Content: Renewable energy is a viable means of generating energy in Asia . For solar power , South Asia has the ideal combination of both high solar insolation and a high density of potential customers . Cheap solar can bring electricity to a major chunk of subcontinent 's people who still live off-grid , bypassing the need of installation of expensive grid lines . Also since the costs of energy consumed for temperature control squarely influences a regions energy intensity , and with cooling load requirements roughly in phase with the sun 's intensity , cooling from intense solar radiation could make perfect energy-economic sense in the subcontinent .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Renewable_energy_in_Asia\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 112360\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wind power in Asia Content: Wind power in Asia is an important component in the Asian energy industry and one of the key sources of renewable energy in the region . As of April 2016 , the installed capacity of wind power in Asia ( excluding the Middle East ) totalled 175,831 MW . Asia is the fastest growing region in terms of wind energy , having increased its installed capacity by 33,858 MW in 2005 ( a 24 % increase over 2014 ) . China , with 145,362 MW of installed capacity , is the world 's largest generator of electricity from wind energy . India is the second largest in Asia with an installed capacity of 25,088 MW . Other key countries include Japan ( 1,394 MW ) , Taiwan ( 188 MW ) , South Korea ( 173 MW ) and the Philippines ( 33 MW ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Wind_power_in_Asia\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 112219\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wind power in the United States Content: Wind power in the United States is a branch of the energy industry that has expanded quickly over the latest several years . For calendar year 2016 , wind power in the United States amounted to 226.5 terawatt-hours , or 5.55 % of all generated electrical energy . As of January 2017 , the U.S. nameplate generating capacity for wind power was 82,183 megawatts ( MW ) . This capacity is exceeded only by China and the European Union . Thus far , wind power 's largest growth in capacity was in 2012 , when 11,895 MW of wind power was installed , representing 26.5 % of new power capacity . In 2016 , Nebraska became the eighteenth state to have installed over 1,000 MW of wind power capacity . Texas , with over 20,000 MW of capacity , had the most installed wind power capacity of any U.S. state at the end of 2016 . Texas also had more under construction than any other state currently has installed . The state generating the highest percentage of energy from wind power is Iowa . North Dakota has the most per capita wind generation . The Alta Wind Energy Center in California is the largest wind farm in the United States with a capacity of 1548 MW . GE Energy is the largest domestic wind turbine manufacturer .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Wind_power_in_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 112057\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Renewable portfolio standard (United States) Content: A Renewable Portfolio Standard ( RPS ) is a regulation that requires the increased production of energy from renewable energy sources , such as wind , solar , biomass , and geothermal . The federal RPS is called the Renewable Electricity Standard ( RES ) . The RPS mechanism generally places an obligation on electricity supply companies to produce a specified fraction of their electricity from renewable energy sources . Certified renewable energy generators earn certificates for every unit of electricity they produce and can sell these along with their electricity to supply companies . Supply companies then pass the certificates to some form of regulatory body to demonstrate their compliance with their regulatory obligations . Because it is a market mandate , the RPS relies almost entirely on the private market for its implementation . Unlike feed-in tariffs which guarantee purchase of all renewable energy regardless of cost , RPS programs tend to allow more price competition between different types of renewable energy , but can be limited in competition through eligibility and multipliers for RPS programs . Those supporting the adoption of RPS mechanisms claim that market implementation will result in competition , efficiency , and innovation that will deliver renewable energy at the lowest possible cost , allowing renewable energy to compete with cheaper fossil fuel energy sources . RPS programs have been adopted in 29 of 50 U.S. states , and the District of Columbia .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Renewable_portfolio_standard_(United_States)\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 111182\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wase Wind Content: Wase Wind is a Flemish energy cooperative , active in the production of renewable energy and the supply of electricity from windturbines . Its headquarters is in the community of Sint-Gillis-Waas , Belgium ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Wase_Wind\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 110006\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Energy in Hawaii Content: Energy production in Hawaii is a difficult issue due to the islands ' isolated location and lack of local resources . The state relies heavily on imports of petroleum and coal for power although recent initiatives have increased use of alternative resources . High levels of solar photovoltaic and wind power use have led to power balance issues which have made Hawaii a study case for renewable use . Commercial-scale batteries and upgraded grid resources and management are among the solutions being advanced . Hawaii has the most expensive electricity prices in the United States . In 2016 the average cost of electricity was $ 0.24 per kilowatt-hour , with the next highest state being Alaska at $ 0.19 . The U.S. average was $ 0.10 per kilowatt-hour across all sectors .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Energy_in_Hawaii\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 109510\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Wind Energy Council Content: The Global Wind Energy Council ( GWEC ) was established in 2005 to provide a credible and representative forum for the entire wind energy sector at an international level . GWEC 's mission is to ensure that wind power is established as one of the world 's leading energy sources , providing substantial environmental and economic benefits . A new report launched by the Global Wind Energy Council predicts that , despite temporary supply chain difficulties , international wind markets are set to continue their strong growth . In 2006 , total installed wind power capacity increased by 25 % globally , generating some $ 18 billion ( US$ 23 billion ) worth of new generating equipment and bringing global wind power capacity up to more than 74GW . While the European Union is still the leading market in wind energy with over 48GW of installed capacity , other continents such as North America and Asia are developing quickly .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Wind_Energy_Council\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 109320\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: RenewableUK Content: RenewableUK , formerly known as the ` British Wind Energy Association ' ( BWEA ) , is the trade association for wind power , wave power and tidal power industries in the United Kingdom . RenewableUK has over 660 corporate members , from wind , wave and tidal stream power generation and associated industries . The association carries out research , and co-ordinates statistics and intelligence on marine and wind power in the UK and its waters . It also represents its members internationally , and to Government , regional bodies and local authorities in the UK .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"RenewableUK\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 109166\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Renewable energy debate Content: There is a renewable energy debate about the constraints and opportunities associated with the use of renewable energy . Renewable electricity production , from sources such as wind power and solar power , is sometimes criticized for being variable or intermittent . However , the International Energy Agency has stated that this only applies to certain renewables , mainly wind and solar photovoltaics , and its significance depends on a range of factors , such as the penetration of the renewables concerned . There have been `` not in my back yard '' ( NIMBY ) concerns relating to the visual and other impacts of some wind farms , with local residents sometimes fighting or blocking construction . In the USA , the Massachusetts Cape Wind project was delayed for years partly because of aesthetic concerns . However , residents in other areas have been more positive and there are many examples of community wind farm developments . According to a town councillor , the overwhelming majority of locals believe that the Ardrossan Wind Farm in Scotland has enhanced the area . The market for renewable energy technologies has continued to grow . Climate change concerns , coupled with high oil prices , peak oil , and increasing government support , are driving increasing renewable energy legislation , incentives and commercialization . New government spending , regulation and policies helped the industry weather the 2009 economic crisis better than many other sectors .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Renewable_energy_debate\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 109121\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Outline of wind energy Content: The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to wind energy : Wind energy -- the kinetic energy of air in motion , also called wind .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Outline_of_wind_energy\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 108643\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Offshore wind power Content: Offshore wind power or offshore wind energy is the use of wind farms constructed offshore , usually on the continental shelf , to harvest wind energy to generate electricity . Higher wind speeds are available offshore compared to on land , so offshore wind power 's contribution in terms of electricity supplied is higher , and NIMBY opposition to construction is usually much weaker . The cost of offshore wind power has historically been higher than that of onshore wind generation , but in 2016 had decreased to $ 54.5 / MWh the 700 MW Borssele 3 & 4 due to government tender and size . Similarly , $ 49.90 / MWh ( $ 55.34 , without transmission ) was achieved at the 600 MW Kriegers Flak . As of 2013 the 630 megawatt ( MW ) London Array is the largest offshore wind farm in the world , with the 504 ( MW ) Greater Gabbard wind farm the second largest , followed by the 367 MW Walney Wind Farm . All are off the coast of the UK . These projects will be dwarfed by subsequent wind farms that are in the pipeline , including Dogger Bank at 4,800 MW , Norfolk Bank ( 7,200 MW ) , and Irish Sea ( 4,200 MW ) . At the end of June 2013 total European combined offshore wind energy capacity was 6,040 MW . UK installed 513.5 MW offshore windpower in the first half year of 2013 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Offshore_wind_power\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 108566\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Renewable energy Content: Renewable energy is energy that is collected from renewable resources , which are naturally replenished on a human timescale , such as sunlight , wind , rain , tides , waves , and geothermal heat . Renewable energy often provides energy in four important areas : electricity generation , air and water heating/cooling , transportation , and rural ( off-grid ) energy services . Based on REN21 's 2016 report , renewables contributed 19.2 % to humans ' global energy consumption and 23.7 % to their generation of electricity in 2014 and 2015 , respectively . This energy consumption is divided as 8.9 % coming from traditional biomass , 4.2 % as heat energy ( modern biomass , geothermal and solar heat ) , 3.9 % hydro electricity and 2.2 % is electricity from wind , solar , geothermal , and biomass . Worldwide investments in renewable technologies amounted to more than US$ 286 billion in 2015 , with countries like China and the United States heavily investing in wind , hydro , solar and biofuels . Globally , there are an estimated 7.7 million jobs associated with the renewable energy industries , with solar photovoltaics being the largest renewable employer . As of 2015 worldwide , more than half of all new electricity capacity installed was renewable . Renewable energy resources exist over wide geographical areas , in contrast to other energy sources , which are concentrated in a limited number of countries . Rapid deployment of renewable energy and energy efficiency is resulting in significant energy security , climate change mitigation , and economic benefits . The results of a recent review of the literature concluded that as greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emitters begin to be held liable for damages resulting from GHG emissions resulting in climate change , a high value for liability mitigation would provide powerful incentives for deployment of renewable energy technologies . In international public opinion surveys there is strong support for promoting renewable sources such as solar power and wind power . At the national level , at least 30 nations around the world already have renewable energy contributing more than 20 percent of energy supply . National renewable energy markets are projected to continue to grow strongly in the coming decade and beyond . Some places and at least two countries , Iceland and Norway generate all their electricity using renewable energy already , and many other countries have the set a goal to reach 100 % renewable energy in the future . For example , in Denmark the government decided to switch the total energy supply ( electricity , mobility and heating/cooling ) to 100 % renewable energy by 2050 . While many renewable energy projects are large-scale , renewable technologies are also suited to rural and remote areas and developing countries , where energy is often crucial in human development . United Nations ' Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon has said that renewable energy has the ability to lift the poorest nations to new levels of prosperity . As most of renewables provide electricity , renewable energy deployment is often applied in conjunction with further electrification , which has several benefits : Electricity can be converted to heat ( where necessary generating higher temperatures than fossil fuels ) , can be converted into mechanical energy with high efficiency and is clean at the point of consumption . In addition to that electrification with renewable energy is much more efficient and therefore leads to a significant reduction in primary energy requirements , because most renewables do n't have a steam cycle with high losses ( fossil power plants usually have losses of 40 to 65 % ) . Renewable energy systems are rapidly becoming more efficient and cheaper . Their share of total energy consumption is increasing . Growth in consumption of coal and oil could end by 2020 due to increased uptake of renewables and natural gas .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Renewable_energy\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 108496\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of books about renewable energy Content: This is a bibliography of renewable energy . Renewable energy is energy which comes from natural resources such as sunlight , wind , rain , tides , and geothermal heat , which are renewable ( naturally replenished ) . About 16 % of global final energy consumption comes from renewables , with 10 % coming from traditional biomass , which is mainly used for heating , and 3.4 % from hydroelectricity . New renewables ( small hydro , modern biomass , wind , solar , geothermal , and biofuels ) account for another 3 % and are growing very rapidly . Total investment in renewable energy reached $ 244 billion in 2012 . The top countries for investment in recent years were China , Germany , Spain , the United States , Italy , and Brazil . Leading renewable energy companies include BrightSource Energy , Enercon , First Solar , Gamesa , GE Energy , Goldwind , Nordex , Sinovel , Suntech , Trina Solar , Vestas and Yingli .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_books_about_renewable_energy\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 108244\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wind Power Production Incentive Content: The Wind Power Production Incentive , or WPPI , was a program of the Canadian Government that promoted the generation of electricity from wind power in Canada to reduce the amount of greenhouse gas that would otherwise enter the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels . During the 5 years field trial projects were performed to test the performance based on various weather conditions . Provision of economic incentives were guaranteed for up to 1,000 MW of new installed capacity by 2007 . New installations in 2003 included the MacBride Wind Farm ( 75.9 MW ) in Alberta , the North Cape Wind Farm Expansion ( 5.3 MW ) , and the Aeolous Wind Turbine ( 3 MW ) in PEI , the Parc éolien du Renard ( 2.25 MW ) in Quebec , the Cypress Hill Wind Farm Expansion ( 4.6 MW ) in Saskatchewan , and the Ontario Place Wind turbine ( 0.75 MW ) in Ontario . ( IEA Wind 2002 Annual Report pg . 79 ) The government paid about half the excess cost of producing electricity from wind , compared to conventional sources , for the first 10 years of a project . The Canadian WPPI Program started in 2002 and ended on March 31 , 2007 after a change of government . A different program partly replaced it . A wind farm costs about the same to build per watt of nameplate capacity as a coal-fired power station of similar rating , but the economies of scale are fewer for a wind farm due to the lower quantity of power produced over the life of a station . Depending on location , wind farms may produce nearly full power output only about 28 % of the time , whereas a base-loaded coal-fired station runs at full output more than 85 % of the time . The WPPI provided a direct subsidy per kilowatthour of wind energy produced , from 1.2 cents down to 0.8 cents depending on the startup date of a project . Measures were taken to distribute the incentive across the country . The total estimated cost of the program was ( CDN ) $ 260 million . The program lived a short 5 year life .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Wind_Power_Production_Incentive\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 107925\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Community wind energy Content: Community wind projects are locally owned by farmers , investors , businesses , schools , utilities , or other public or private entities who utilize wind energy to support and reduce energy costs to the local community . The key feature is that local community members have a significant , direct financial stake in the project beyond land lease payments and tax revenue . Projects may be used for on-site power or to generate wholesale power for sale , usually on a commercial-scale greater than 100 kW .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Community_wind_energy\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 107905\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: WindEurope Content: WindEurope , formerly the European Wind Energy Association ( EWEA ) , is an association based in Brussels , promoting the use of wind power in Europe . It has over 600 members , which are active in over 50 countries , including manufacturers with a leading share of the world wind power market , component suppliers , research institutes , national wind and renewables associations , developers , contractors , electricity providers , finance companies , insurance companies , and consultants .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"WindEurope\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 107473\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wind power in South Australia Content: Wind power has become a significant energy source within South Australia over the past decade . As of 2015 , there was an installed capacity of 1,475 MW , which accounts for 34 % of electricity production in the state . This represents 35 % of Australia 's installed wind power capacity . The development of wind power capacity in South Australia has been encouraged by a number of factors . These include the Australian Government 's Renewable Energy Target , which require electricity retailers to source a proportion of energy from renewable sources , incentives from the South Australian Government including a supportive regulatory regime and a payroll tax rebate scheme for large scale renewable energy developments . Also the state 's proximity to the Roaring forties means there are high quality wind resources for wind farms to exploit . In mid-2009 , RenewablesSA was established by the South Australian Government to encourage further investment in renewable energy in the state . The load factor ( or capacity factor ) for South Australian wind farms is usually in the range 32-38 % . This means that a wind farm could typically produce between 32 and 38 % of its nameplate capacity averaged over a year .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Wind_power_in_South_Australia\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 106763\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: REG WindPower Content: REG WindPower is a renewable energy company , in the United Kingdom . REG Windpower is one of the UK 's leading developers and operators of small to medium-sized wind farms , operating nine sites in England and one in Wales , with a combined operational capacity of 41.15 MW . The ultimate parent company Renewable Energy Generation Limited , registered in Jersey , was put into liquidation in January 2016 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"REG_WindPower\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 106535\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Lists of renewable energy topics Content: Renewable energy is generally defined as energy that comes from resources which are naturally replenished on a human timescale , such as sunlight , wind , rain , tides , waves , and geothermal heat . Renewable energy replaces conventional fuels in four distinct areas : electricity generation , air and water heating/cooling , motor fuels , and rural ( off-grid ) energy services . Based on REN21 's 2014 report , renewables contributed 19 percent to our global energy consumption and 22 percent to our electricity generation in 2012 and 2013 , respectively . These are lists about renewable energy : Index of solar energy articles List of books about renewable energy List of concentrating solar thermal power companies List of countries by electricity production from renewable sources List of energy storage projects Lists of environmental topics List of geothermal power stations List of hydroelectric power stations List of largest hydroelectric power stations List of offshore wind farms Lists of offshore wind farms by country Lists of offshore wind farms by water area List of onshore wind farms List of onshore wind farms in the United Kingdom List of people associated with renewable energy List of photovoltaics companies List of photovoltaic power stations List of pioneering solar buildings List of renewable energy companies by stock exchange List of renewable energy organizations List of renewable energy topics by country List of rooftop photovoltaic installations List of solar car teams List of solar powered products List of solar thermal power stations List of U.S. states by electricity production from renewable sources Lists of wind farms by country List of wind farms in Australia List of wind farms in Canada List of wind farms in Iran List of wind farms in Romania List of wind farms in Sweden List of wind farms in the United States List of wind turbine manufacturers\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Lists_of_renewable_energy_topics\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 106435\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wind power in Scotland Content: Wind power is Scotland 's fastest growing renewable energy technology , with 5328 MW of installed capacity as of March 2015 . This includes 5131 MW of onshore wind and 197 MW of offshore wind . There is further potential for expansion , especially offshore given the high average wind speeds , and a number of large offshore wind farms are planned . The Scottish Government has a target of generating 50 % of Scotland 's electricity from renewable energy by 2015 , and 100 % by 2020 , which was raised from 50 % in September 2010 . The majority of this is likely to come from wind power .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Wind_power_in_Scotland\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 106097\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Renewable energy in Denmark Content: Denmark is a world leading country in wind energy production and wind turbine production . In 2014 Denmark produced 57.4 % of its net electricity generation from renewable energy sources . The Danish wind company Vestas Wind Systems A/S has expanded from its domestic base and by 2015 had a revenue of $ 8.423 billion , with more than 18,000 employees globally and manufacturing plants in Denmark , Germany , India , Italy , Romania , the United Kingdom , Spain , Sweden , Norway , Australia , China , and the United States ( see Vestas link above for sources ) . Wind power alone produced 42.7 % of Denmark 's electricity production in 2014 and is expected to increase its production by nearly 80 % in the years to 2024 . Denmark has a target of producing 30 % of all its energy needs from RE energy sources by 2020 , a considerable increase from the 17 % it attained in 2005 . By 2014 this figure had already reached 29.2 % and was the fifth highest amongst the EU-28 countries . The country has ambitious renewable energy goals for the future , including using renewable energy for 100 % of its energy needs in all sectors including transport by 2050 . In the heating sector the country has long used and continues to develop district heating ( DH ) networks . Hot water or steam is produced centrally and then distributed through a network of insulated pipes to high population areas . Houses within a district heating area have heat exchangers installed instead of boilers for their heating and hot water requirements . The heat exchanger keeps the two water systems separate and means that heat can be adjusted as with a familiar domestic boiler . One simple but important innovation in the district heating network was the development of internally insulated pipes . The two pipes taking and receiving the return of water are placed inside a much larger pipe and insulating material is set so as to fill the figure eight shaped void between the two smaller and the large pipe . In 2013 district heating supplied over 60 % of all households in Denmark with heating and hot water . The development of district heating technology has led Denmark to become a world leader in industrial pump and thermostat designs and its products are used in many industries worldwide . Cogeneration is also widely used . This is a process that extracts the waste heat produced when generating electricity . Power stations designed to do this are known as Combined Heat and Power ( CHP ) stations . CHP stations in Denmark are often sized to provide the heat required for the local district heating system . Thus CHP stations produce both electricity for the grid and heat for district heating systems . Heat can be stored in large industrial hot water tanks for several days allowing electricity and heat supply to be provided time independently from each other . By 2013 the use of CHP stations had reduced the overall energy consumption in Denmark by 11 % . Danish electricity generation has become increasingly decentralised with a move away from production in the large central power stations to many smaller , locally based and mostly CHP stations . Many of these smaller stations use locally sourced bio energy sources including straw and wood pellets .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Renewable_energy_in_Denmark\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 104777\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: New energy Content: New energy may refer to : Alternative energy , any energy source other than fossil fuels Perpetual motion or `` free energy '' , an elusive energy source which would violate the laws of thermodynamics Renewable energy , energy from resources which are naturally replenished on a human timescale , such as sunlight , wind , rain , tides , waves , and geothermal heat\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"New_energy\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 104283\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: United States Wind Energy Policy Content: Modern United States Wind Energy Policy coincided with the beginning of modern wind industry of the United States , which began in the early 1980s with the arrival of utility-scale wind turbines in California ( see Altamont Pass ) . Since then , the industry has had to endure the financial uncertainties caused by a highly fluctuating tax incentive program . Because these early wind projects were fueled by investment tax credits based on installation rather than performance , they were plagued with issues of low productivity and equipment reliability . Those investment tax credits expired in 1986 , which forced investors to focus on improving the reliability and efficiency of their turbines . The 1990s saw rise to a new type of tax credit , the production tax credit , which propelled technological improvements to the wind turbine even further by encouraging investors to focus on electricity output rather than installation . Wind energy policy is generally directed at three categories of constituents : Research and Development Organizations Commercial/Residential Generators Manufacturers and Producers with one of two goals : to provide incentives or require production and installation of wind turbines or production of electricity from wind , or facilitate the appropriate location of wind turbines . Historically , incentives have come in the form of production or installation tax credits , grants , and renewable portfolio standards , at the federal , state , and local levels of government . Policy facilitating appropriate location has historically come in the form of local ordinances and permitting requirements . __ TOC __\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"United_States_Wind_Energy_Policy\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 104094\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: A Power Energy Systems ltd. Content: A-Power Energy Generation Systems is a provider of distributed generation systems in China . In 2008 , A-Power entered the wind energy market and has built the largest wind turbine manufacturing facility , located in Shenyang , Liaoning Province , China , with technologies licensed from German FUHRLÄNDER AG and Denmark-based Norwin , and a total annual production capacity of 1,125 MW .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"A_Power_Energy_Systems_ltd.\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 103972\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wind power in Italy Content: Wind power in Italy , at the end of 2015 , consisted of more than 1,847 wind turbines with a total installed capacity of 8,958 megawatts . Wind power contributed 5.4 % of Italy electricity generation in 2015 ( 14,589 GWh ) . Italy is ranked as the world 's ninth producer of wind power . Prospects for Italian wind energy beyond 2016 are very uncertain . Having Brazil already topped the 9 gigawatts mark , and with further 175 projects under construction in 2016 , by the end of the year , it is expected that Italy will drop to the tenth position , following Brazil . In 2010 , the energy from the 487 active plants accounted for 19 % of the renewable energy produced in Italy . The total energy produced in 2010 was 8,787 GWh , with an increase of 29 % from the previous year .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Wind_power_in_Italy\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 103923\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wind power in Finland Content: Wind power in Finland describes wind power in Finland as part of energy in Finland and renewable energy in Finland . In December 2014 wind power capacity in Finland was 627 MW with 260 turbines and the wind energy share of total electricity consumption was 1.3 % . Wind power is the most popular energy resource among Finnish public : 90 % of Finns would want further investments in wind energy in September 2007 . In April 2005 the value was 88 % . In the Pori area of Finland 97 % of people supported wind power according to Suomen Hyötytuuli Oy in 2000 . Finland has a Feed-in Tariff scheme for wind turbines larger than 500 kW . Kimmo Tiilikainen ( 1966 ) ( Centre Party ) was the environmental minister of Finland during 1.10.2007-31 .3.2008 , while the permanent minister ( Paula Lehtomäki , Centre Party ) was on a leave . In his preliminary minister comments in September 2006 Kimmo Tiilikainen recommended Feed-in-Tariff for wind power within one year with the objective of 3000 MW wind power in 2020 . Finland consumed 90 000 GWh of electricity in ( 2006 ) . For reference Germany had installed base of 39,165 MW of wind power at the end of 2014 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Wind_power_in_Finland\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 103916\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: American Wind Energy Association Content: The American Wind Energy Association ( AWEA ) is a Washington , D.C.-based national trade association formed in 1974 , representing wind power project developers , equipment suppliers , service providers , parts manufacturers , utilities , researchers , and others involved in the wind industry . AWEA promotes wind energy as a clean source of electricity for consumers in the U.S. and around the world and has around 1,000 member organizations .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"American_Wind_Energy_Association\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 103518\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Reinventing Fire Content: Reinventing Fire : Bold Business Solutions for the New Energy Era is a 2011 book , by Amory B. Lovins and the Rocky Mountain Institute , that explores converting the United States to almost total reliance on renewable energy sources , such as solar energy and wind power . Lovins says that renewable energy is already cheaper than fossil fuels and his analysis predicts further reductions in renewable energy prices . Reinventing Fire was launched at the Washington National Geographic Society , in October 2011 . Bill Clinton says the book is a `` wise , detailed and comprehensive blueprint . '' The book has forewords by Marvin Odum , from Shell Oil , and John W. Rowe , CEO of Exelon . The first paragraph of the preface says : Imagine fuel without fear . No climate change . No oil spills , dead coal miners , dirty air , devastated lands , lost wildlife . No energy poverty . No oil-fed wars , tyrannies , or terrorists . Nothing to run out . Nothing to cut off . Nothing to worry about . Just energy abundance , benign and affordable , for all , for ever . Fen Montaigne in The Guardian has said that the book is impressive in both its scope and detail : Lovins discusses everything from how to redesign heavy trucks to make them more fuel efficient to ways to change factory pipes to conserve energy -- the book lays out a plan for the U.S. to achieve the following by 2050 : cars completely powered by hydrogen fuel cells , electricity , and biofuels ; 84 percent of trucks and airplanes running on biomass fuels ; 80 percent of the nation 's electricity produced by renewable power ; $ 5 trillion in savings ; and an economy that has grown by 158 percent . By combining reduced energy use with energy efficiency gains , Lovins says that there will be a $ 5 trillion saving over the next 40 years and a faster-growing economy . This can all be done , the book jacket says , without `` new federal taxes , subsidies , mandates , or laws . The policy innovations needed to unlock and speed it need no act of Congress . '' The profitable commercialization of existing energy-saving technologies , through market forces , can be led by business .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Reinventing_Fire\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 103276\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wind Powering America Content: Wind Powering America ( WPA ) is an initiative of the United States Department of Energy ( DOE ) that seeks to increase the use of wind energy throughout the United States . WPA collaborates with key state and regional stakeholders , including farmers , ranchers , Native Americans , rural electric cooperatives , consumer-owned utilities , and schools to break down barriers associated with wind energy development . Throughout its history , WPA has focused on states with strong potential for wind energy generation but with few operational projects . WPA provides fair and unbiased information about the challenges , benefits , and impacts of wind technology implementation . This information allows policymakers , organizations , and citizens to make educated and informed decisions about wind energy implementation in their communities .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Wind_Powering_America\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 103266\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Variable renewable energy Content: Variable renewable energy ( VRE ) is a renewable energy source that is non-dispatchable due to its fluctuating nature , like wind power and solar power , as opposed to a controllable renewable energy source such as hydroelectricity , or biomass , or a relatively constant source such as geothermal power or run-of-the-river hydroelectricity .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Variable_renewable_energy\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 103124\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mass Megawatts Wind Power Content: Mass Megawatts Wind Power , Inc. is a company that produces wind turbines and sells wind-generated electricity . The company intends to build and operate wind energy power plants and plans to sell the electricity to the electric power exchange . Mass Megawatts Wind Power was founded on May 27 , 1997 and is headquartered in Worcester , Massachusetts , United States . In late 2014 , the company announced plans to enter the American solar power market . The Solar Tracking System ( STS ) utilizes minimal moving parts and electrical components , resulting in increased stability and lower operating costs . The STS claims to improve solar energy production levels by more than 20 % .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Mass_Megawatts_Wind_Power\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 103090\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Jacobs Wind Content: Jacobs Wind Electric Co. . Inc. is the oldest renewable energy company in the United States . It has been designing consumer and commercial renewable energy systems sized to the changing distributed electric loads of their periods since the mid-1920s . The firm was started and established by Marcellus and Joseph Jacobs , after local interest in their wind electric system for their family 's Montana Ranch , built in 1922 , brought them requests from neighbors to provide them with wind generated electric power as well . M.L. & Joe moved the firm to Minneapolis in 1963 to begin production of improved wind/engine distributed energy systems which were sold in the U.S. , Canada , and Mexico , as well as on every major continent , through a Dealer network that grew to over 300 . Early Jacobs ' machines included one taken to Antarctica by Richard Evelyn Byrd and installed ( at Byrd 's ` Little America ' ) in 1933 , running until 1955 . Before production ceased in the late 1950s , about 20,000 Jacobs Wind Energy Systems ( 1 - 3 kW ) were shipped from Minneapolis . In the 80 's via a partnership with Control Data a new line of production of Jacobs Wind Energy Systems began in Minneapolis , with marketing of larger 10 - 20 kW systems . Most of these 1,500 + wind systems produced from 1980-85 were grid connected . The majority of them went to pioneering windfarms in Hawaii and California . In Minnesota , Jacobs units began being connected to Rural Electric Cooperative ( REC ) grids starting in 1981 . Many of these systems are still on line to REC grids ' selling renewable wind power ( AG-WATTS ) . Today , the firm 's designers ( several now in their 4th decade in the wind industry ) are working with local RECs on a new generation of consumer renewable energy systems sized to ever larger consumer electric loads at distributed rural sites .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Jacobs_Wind\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 103038\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wayang Windu Geothermal Power Station Content: The Wayang Windu Geothermal Power Station is the largest geothermal power station in Indonesia . The facility utilizes two units , one with 110 MW and the other with 117 MW , with a total installed capacity of 227 MW . The power station is located near the town of Pangalengan , 40 km south of Bandung , West Java . An estimated cost of US$ 200 million was incurred in construction and development . A third unit of 127 MW is being planned and expected to be onstream by mid-2013 . The arrangements to establish and operate the Wayang Windu plant were part of the overall policy towards the development of geothermal energy in Indonesia\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Wayang_Windu_Geothermal_Power_Station\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 102742\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of renewable energy topics by country Content: This is a list of renewable energy topics by country . These links can be used to compare developments in renewable energy in different countries and to help and encourage new writers to participate in writing about developments in their own countries or countries of interest . The list refers to renewable energy in general , as well as solar power , wind power , geothermal energy , biofuel , and hydro-electricity . As of 2013 , China , Germany , and Japan , three of the world 's four largest economies , as well as India , generate more electricity from renewables than from nuclear power . Based on REN21 's 2014 report , renewables contributed 19 percent to humans ' global energy consumption . This energy consumption is divided as 9 % coming from traditional biomass , 4.2 % as heat energy ( non-biomass ) , 3.8 % hydro electricity and 2 % is electricity from wind , solar , geothermal , and biomass . China is the world 's largest producer of hydroelectricity , followed by Canada . Wind power capacity is growing at the rate of 26 % annually , and is widely used in Europe , Asia , and the United States . Wind power accounts for approximately 30 % of electricity use in Denmark , 20 % in Portugal , and 18 % in Spain . PV power stations are popular in Japan , China and the United States . The world 's largest geothermal power installation is The Geysers in California , with a rated capacity of 750 MW . Brazil has one of the largest renewable energy programs in the world , involving production of ethanol fuel from sugar cane , and ethanol now provides 18 percent of the country 's automotive fuel . Ethanol fuel is also widely available in the USA . Plug-in electric vehicles in Norway reached a market share of 22.4 % in 2015 . the highest in the world . While many renewable energy projects are large-scale , renewable technologies are also suited to developing countries , where energy is often crucial in human development . Small solar PV systems provide electricity to a few million households , and micro-hydro configured into mini-grids serves many more .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_renewable_energy_topics_by_country\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 102739\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wind power in Michigan Content: Wind power in Michigan is a developing industry . The industrial base from the automotive industry has led to a number of companies producing wind turbine parts in the state.The development of wind farms in the state , however , has lagged behind . As of December 2015 , there were 887 wind turbines in the state with a nameplate capacity of 1531 MW . Wind provided 2.4 % of the state 's electricity in 2013 . Michigan 's requirement for 10 percent renewable energy by 2015 has led to increased alternative development in the state since it was passed in 2008 . A ballot initiative requiring 25 % by 2025 failed in 2012 . In 2011 , the Environmental Law & Policy Center identified over 100 businesses in Michigan involved in engineering and manufacturing wind turbine components , employing 4,000 people . The first commercial wind turbine installed in the state , a 0.6 MW model , was erected in Traverse City in 1996 . It remained the only turbine for several years . Traverse City Light & Power has announced a project to generate 30 % of its power from renewable sources by 2020 . In 2001 Mackinaw City installed 2 turbines rated at 0.6 MW each . Laker Elementary School in the Thumb region installed three 65KW turbines and a 10KW one , totaling 0.2 MW in 2005 . The first wind farm in the state was the Harvest Wind Farm in the Thumb , opened in December 2007 , with 32 turbines producing a rated 53 MW . In 2010 , wind power produced 0.3 % of Michigan 's electrical power . Installed wind capacity more than doubled in 2011 , to a total of 377 MW nameplate capacity . The largest wind farm in Michigan , the 213 MW Gratiot County Wind Project , entered full operation in June 2012 . A number of new projects are proposed in Michigan . In the Thumb region , which has most of Michigan 's high-quality onshore wind , 140 miles of new 345 kilovolt lines are being built to allow the region to support hundreds of proposed new turbines . Michigan has potential for offshore wind power in the Great Lakes but development has been delayed by political considerations . A proposed wind farm in Lake Michigan at Ludington was rejected in 2010 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Wind_power_in_Michigan\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 102736\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: High-altitude wind power Content: High-altitude wind power ( HAWP ) is the harnessing of the power of winds high in the sky by use of tether and cable technology . An atlas of the high-altitude wind power resource has been prepared for all points on Earth . A similar atlas of global assessment was developed at Joby Energy . The results were presented at the first annual Airborne Wind Energy Conference held at Stanford University by Airborne Wind Energy Consortium . Various mechanisms are proposed for capturing the kinetic energy of winds such as kites , kytoons , aerostats , gliders , gliders with turbines for regenerative soaring , sailplanes with turbines , or other airfoils , including multiple-point building - or terrain-enabled holdings . Once the mechanical energy is derived from the wind 's kinetic energy , then many options are available for using that mechanical energy : direct traction , conversion to electricity aloft or at ground station , conversion to laser or microwave for power beaming to other aircraft or ground receivers . Energy generated by a high-altitude system may be used aloft or sent to the ground surface by conducting cables , mechanical force through a tether , rotation of endless line loop , movement of changed chemicals , flow of high-pressure gases , flow of low-pressure gases , or laser or microwave power beams .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"High-altitude_wind_power\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 102530\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Alternative Energy: Political, Economic, and Social Feasibility Content: Alternative Energy : Political , Economic , and Social Feasibility ( Lanham , Maryland : Rowman & Littlefield , 2006 . ) , a 2006 book by Christopher A. Simon , discusses the transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy . The book has been called a `` sophisticated , insightful , and well written book on the current global push to adopt varying forms of alternative energy , from wind to solar , geothermal , hydrogen , and beyond '' . In 2008 , Christopher Simon , associate professor of political science at the University of Nevada , Reno , was named the `` Technology Educator of the Year '' by Nevada 's Center for Entrepreneurship and Technology .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Alternative_Energy:_Political,_Economic,_and_Social_Feasibility\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 102193\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Longyuan Power Content: China Longyuan Power Group Limited , or Longyuan Power , is the largest wind power producer in China and Asia . It is mainly engaged in designing , developing , managing and operating wind power plants , and selling the electricity generated by its plants to its sole customers . As of June 2013 , the company had installed wind power plants with a total capacity of 10,661 MW . Longyuan Power is a partially owned subsidiary of the state-owned China Guodian Corporation , and is responsible for Guodian 's renewable energy assets . It had a 24 percent share of China 's wind power market in terms of total installed capacity as of the end of 2008 . It was listed on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange as H share in December 2009 with an IPO price of HK$ 8.16 per share .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Longyuan_Power\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 102076\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wind power in Lithuania Content: Wind power in Lithuania is a form of renewable energy in Lithuania . At the end of 2011 wind power capacity in Lithuania was 179 MW and the wind energy share of total electricity consumption was 3,8 % .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Wind_power_in_Lithuania\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 101954\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wind power in Spain Content: By year end 2015 Spain was the world 's fifth biggest producer of wind power with 23,031 MW installed capacity ( including 11 MW of wind-hydro capacity ) , providing 48,118 GWh of power and 19 % of the country 's total electricity production in that year . In 2014 , a record breaking year for renewable electricity production , wind power accounted for 20.2 % of total electricity generation in Spain making it the second most important electricity source after nuclear power ( 22 % ) and ahead of coal power ( 16.5 % ) . In earlier periods wind energy covered 16 % of the demand in 2010 , 13.8 % in 2009 and 11.5 % in 2008 . Following the fallout from the financial crisis in 2008 and the dire straits of the Spanish economy in the subsequent period new installations of new wind turbines all but stagnated between 2012 and 2015 remaining at close to 23,000 MW installed capacity for the entire period . Whilst Spain put expansion on ice the other world leading countries continued to expand or accelerated new wind turbine installations and by 2015 India had moved ahead of Spain in total installations . As of end 2015 ranked 5th in the world by wind power installed capacity . On windy days , wind power generation has surpassed all other electricity sources in Spain ; On 21 November 2015 at 4:50 am , 70.4 % of the electricity consumed on the Spanish Peninsula was covered with wind power energy . On 6 February 2013 , wind power achieved an earlier record in electricity production , reaching an instantaneous peak of 17,056 MW and an hourly production of 16,918 MWh . In November 2011 a capacity peak of 59 % of power demand being generated by wind power was reached . Power peaks of 14.960 GW were reached in November 2010 , and in November 2009 , a wind storm caused wind farms to produce a peak of 53 % of total electricity demand ( 11.546 GW ) . In 2009 , the largest producer of wind power in Spain was Iberdrola , with 25.5 % of capacity , followed by Acciona with 20.9 % and NEO Energia ( EDP Renewables ) with 8.3 % .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Wind_power_in_Spain\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 101595\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Native Wind Content: Native Wind ( NAWIG ) was formed to protect the environment and promote the welfare of Native Americans by facilitating the development of wind power and other renewable energy resources on tribal lands . Directors of Native Wind include representatives of the Intertribal Council On Utility Policy , Native Energy , ICLEI , Honor the Earth and American Spirit Productions . Two wind facilities have previously been built through Native Wind -- a 750kW turbine at the Rosebud Indian Reservation and another at the Fort Berthold Indian Reservation in North Dakota . The Indian tribes of the North and South Dakota and Nebraska are presently collaborating on a project to develop the large wind resources of the northern Great Plains . Eight separate tribes are moving ahead with plans to develop the first large-scale Native owned and operated wind farms in the United States .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Native_Wind\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 101504\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Renewable energy in Canada Content: Canada generates a significant majority of its electricity from hydroelectric dams ( 59 % in 2006 ) . Wind power is growing quickly with Canada in 2011 being the 6th largest producer of wind power in the world . Canada has built a number of photovoltaic power plants , mainly in Ontario , with one in Sarnia being the largest in the world at the time of construction . A 15 megawatt tidal plant sits at Annapolis , Nova Scotia , and uses the daily tides of the Bay of Fundy . Politicians have expressed interest in increasing the percentage of Canada 's electricity generated by renewable methods . Ontario has created a subsidy to assist wind and solar power producers .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Renewable_energy_in_Canada\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 101501\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Renewable energy in Brazil Content: Renewable energy in Brazil accounted for more than 85.4 % of the domestically produced electricity used in Brazil , according to data from the 2009 National Energy Balance , conducted by the Energy Research Corporation ( EPE ) . After the oil shocks of the 1970s , Brazil started focusing on developing alternative sources of energy , mainly sugarcane ethanol . Its large sugarcane farms helped . In 1985 , 91 % of cars produced that year ran on sugarcane ethanol . The success of flexible-fuel vehicles , introduced in 2003 , together with the mandatory E25 blend throughout the country , have allowed ethanol fuel consumption in the country to achieve a 50 % market share of the gasoline-powered fleet by February 2008 . Brazil held its first wind-only energy auction in 2009 , in a move to diversify its energy portfolio . Foreign companies scrambled to take part . In January 2015 , a drought in Brazil that cut water to the country 's hydroelectric dams prompted severe energy shortages . The crisis , which ravaged the country 's economy and led to electricity rationing , underscored Brazil 's pressing need to diversify away from water power . The bidding is expected to lead to the construction of two gigawatts of wind production with an investment of about US$ 6 billion over the next two years . Brazil counts on hydroelectricity for more than 3/4 of its electricity , but authorities are pushing biomass and wind as primary alternatives . Wind energy 's greatest potential in Brazil is during the dry season , so it is considered a hedge against low rainfall and the geographical spread of existing hydro resources . Brazil 's technical potential for wind energy is 143 gigawatts due to the country 's blustery 7,400-km coastline , where most projects are based . The Brazilian Wind Energy Association and the government have set a goal of achieving 20 gigawatts of wind energy capacity by 2020 from the current 5 gigawatts ( 2014 ) . The industry hopes the auction will help kick-start the wind-energy sector , which already accounts for 70 % of the total in all of Latin America .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Renewable_energy_in_Brazil\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 101490\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Lake Winds Energy Park Content: Lake Winds Energy Park is a wind farm located in Mason County , MI . The farm began production in August 2012 and is currently operated by Consumers Energy . It is home to a total of 56 wind turbines that produce a total of just over 100MW of energy . The turbines , which were constructed by Vestas-American Wind Technology , Inc. , take advantage of the western winds generated by Lake Michigan to produce power .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Lake_Winds_Energy_Park\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 101446\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: WindShare Content: WindShare is a for-profit wind power co-operative that was officially launched in February 2002 in Toronto , Ontario , Canada . It was created by the non-profit Toronto Renewable Energy Co-operative ( TREC ) which was incorporated in 1998 . TREC continues to exist as a separate non-profit entity . WindShare 's ExPlace wind turbine was erected on December 18 , 2002 , on the grounds of Exhibition Place , in Toronto . It was the first wind turbine installed in a major North American urban city centre . and the first community-owned wind power project in Ontario . The 91 m tall ExPlace wind turbine is co-owned by the WindShare co-operative and Toronto Hydro , and annually adds an average of 1000 MWh of electricity to the city 's main power grid . WindShare and its parent , the Toronto Renewable Energy Cooperative ( TREC ) , have plans for more wind turbines . As of March , 2010 these plans are called `` The Lakewind Project . '' ( See below )\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"WindShare\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 101007\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: George Philippidis Content: George Philippidis is a renewable energy leader who has published and spoken extensively about the global need for energy diversification over the last 20 years . He advocates the development of renewable and alternative low-carbon power and fuels to enhance energy security , combat climate change , and secure sustainable economic growth . He has authored 11 cleantech patents , written numerous articles , and spoken nationally and internationally on this subject emphasizing that renewable and alternative energy will initially supplement and augment current resources and progressively replace fossil energy , provided that governments institute long-term energy policies promoting the development of and private investment in new energy technologies . A diverse energy portfolio , depending on the local availability of natural resources , includes ( 1 ) solar , wind , biomass-to-power , ocean , and geothermal energy for power generation , and ( 2 ) renewable hydrocarbons , biomass - and algae-derived biofuels , and electric vehicles for transportation . The private sector and the markets should determine which of those forms of low-carbon energy are most appropriate and cost-effective locally in different parts of the country and the world . Dr. Philippidis studied Chemical Engineering at the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki in Greece getting a BS and at the University of Minnesota receiving a PhD . He also studied Business Administration at the University of Denver obtaining an MBA . He led strategic business units at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory ( NREL ) of the US Department of Energy in Denver and at a subsidiary of Thermo Electron Corporation in Boston before becoming Energy Director of the Applied Research Center , the business arm of Florida International University in Miami . Presently , he is Director of the Alternative Energy Research Center and Associate Professor of Biofuel Engineering at the University of South Florida Polytechnic in the Tampa Bay area , where he works with companies and venture capital firms to commercialize clean energy technologies and educates students and professionals in critical energy issues . He has been advising the federal and state governments on energy policy , venture capital and private equity firms on investment in cleantech , and the private sector in the United States and Latin America on the establishment of a renewable energy industry .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"George_Philippidis\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 100798\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Renewable energy in the United States Content: Renewable energy in the United States accounted for 13.44 percent of the domestically produced electricity in 2015 , and 11.1 percent of total energy generation . As of 2016 , more than 260,000 people work in the solar industry and 43 states deploy net metering , where energy utilities buy back excess power generated by solar arrays . Renewable energy reached a major milestone in the first quarter of 2011 , when it contributed 11.7 percent of total U.S. energy production ( 2.245 quadrillion BTU of energy ) , surpassing energy production from nuclear power ( 2.125 quadrillion BTU ) . 2011 was the first year since 1997 that renewables exceeded nuclear in US total energy production . Hydroelectric power is currently the largest producer of renewable power in the U.S. . It produced around 6.14 % of the nation 's total electricity in 2015 which was 45.71 % of the total renewable power in the U.S. . The United States is the fourth largest producer of hydroelectricity in the world after China , Canada and Brazil . The Grand Coulee Dam is the 5th largest hydroelectric power station in the world . U.S. wind power installed capacity now exceeds 72,000 MW and supplies 4.1 % of the nation 's electricity . Texas is firmly established as the leader in wind power development , followed by Iowa and California . Since the U.S. pioneered the technology in 1981 with Solar One , several solar thermal power stations have also been built . The largest of these solar thermal power stations are the Ivanpah Solar Power Facility ( 392 MW ) , southwest of Las Vegas , and the SEGS group of plants in the Mojave Desert , with a total generating capacity of 354 MW . Large photovoltaic power plants in the USA include Solar Star ( 579 MW ) , near Rosamond , California , the Desert Sunlight Solar Farm , a 550 MW solar power plant in Riverside County , California and the Topaz Solar Farm , a 550 MW photovoltaic power plant , in San Luis Obispo County , California . The Geysers in Northern California is the largest complex of geothermal energy production in the world . The development of renewable energy and energy efficiency marks `` a new era of energy exploration '' in the United States , according to President Barack Obama . In a joint address to the Congress on February 24 , 2009 , President Obama called for doubling renewable energy within the next three years . In his 2012 State of the Union address , President Barack Obama restated his commitment to renewable energy and mentioned the long-standing Interior Department commitment to permit 10,000 MW of renewable energy projects on public land in 2012 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Renewable_energy_in_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 99980\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: History of wind power Content: Wind power has been used as long as humans have put sails into the wind . For more than two millennia wind-powered machines have ground grain and pumped water . Wind power was widely available and not confined to the banks of fast-flowing streams , or later , requiring sources of fuel . Wind-powered pumps drained the polders of the Netherlands , and in arid regions such as the American mid-west or the Australian outback , wind pumps provided water for livestock and steam engines . With the development of electric power , wind power found new applications in lighting buildings remote from centrally-generated power . Throughout the 20th century parallel paths developed small wind plants suitable for farms or residences , and larger utility-scale wind generators that could be connected to electricity grids for remote use of power . Today wind powered generators operate in every size range between tiny plants for battery charging at isolated residences , up to near-gigawatt sized offshore wind farms that provide electricity to national electrical networks . By 2014 , over 240,000 commercial-sized wind turbines were operating in the world , producing 4 % of the world 's electricity .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"History_of_wind_power\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 99372\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Makani Power Content: Makani Power is an Alameda , California-based company that developed airborne wind turbines with the support of Google X and the U.S. Department of Energy office of ARPA-E . Makani is a leader in the development of airborne wind power extraction systems . Makani was founded in 2006 by Saul Griffith , Don Montague , and Corwin Hardham . It received funding as part of Google.org 's Renewable Energy cheaper than Coal ( RE < C ) initiative . `` Makani '' is Hawaiian for `` wind . '' One of the founders , Corwin Hardham , died in 2012 at age 38 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Makani_Power\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 99339\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Golden Hills Wind Project Content: Golden Hills Wind Project is a proposed electricity generating wind farm facility in Sherman County , Oregon . It is being constructed by BP Alternative Energy . When completed , it will generate a peak of 400 megawatts , with an average of 133 MW of wind power across 200000 acre using up to 267 wind turbines .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Golden_Hills_Wind_Project\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 99247\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Renewable energy in the Netherlands Content: Despite the historic usage of wind power to drain water and grind grain , the Netherlands today lags behind most EU countries in the production of energy from renewable sources . The leading renewable sources in the country are biomass , wind , solar and both geothermal and aerothermal power ( mostly from ground source and air source heat pumps ) . In 2014 , the Netherlands produced only 5.5 % of its total energy from renewables , a small rise from 3.7 % in 2010 and just 1 % in 1990 . Among the EU countries , only Malta and Luxembourg had lower percentages . The low take up of renewable energy may be partially explained by the flat and often sub-sea level landscape and subsequent limits to hydropower resources , although hydro poor resource countries such as Denmark have still managed to make renewables the focus of their energy needs . In 2015 , Dutch wind turbines had a total nameplate capacity of 3,431 MW . Wind and solar power installations had a record breaking year during 2015 and this may move the Netherlands closer to its target of 37 % of electricity production coming from renewables by 2020 . A number of large offshore windfarms have either come online recently ( Gemini wind farm ) or have been granted authorisation ( Borsellee 1 and 2 , and Borsellee 3 and 4 wind farms ) . Most of the tiny contribution made to electricity generation by hydroelectricity came from three power plants . A large part of the renewable electricity sold in the Netherlands comes from Norway , a country which generates almost all its electricity from hydropower plants . In the Netherlands , household consumers can choose to buy renewable electricity . Since 2008 , the amount of renewable energy used by household users has been increasing , rising from 38 % in 2008 to 41 % by 2009 . and up to 44 % by mid 2010 . One area in which the Netherlands is a relative leader is in the adoption of electric plug in vehicles . In 2015 PEV vehicles in the Netherlands represented 9.74 % of car sales , making it the world 's second highest share after Norway . Electric vehicles are able to run on renewable electricity with zero emissions and have the potential to provide grid power storage facilities . An interesting source of heat recovery used in the Netherlands is sourced from freshly milked milk , or warm milk . However at 0.3 % of total renewable energy production ( 2010 figures ) this source is not likely to accelerate energy transition in the country . Warm milk is still not mentioned in the EU Renewable Energy Directive , nor in international energy statistics and so is not included is gross final consumption figures . It does however provide Dutch farmers with plenty of hot water .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Renewable_energy_in_the_Netherlands\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 99222\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mount Millar Wind Farm Content: The Mount Millar Wind Farm is situated on an escarpment between the towns of Cowell and Cleve located 100 km southwest of Whyalla , South Australia . The 35 wind turbines are positioned on the elongated Mount Millar site ( about 7 km in length ) to maximise wind exposure . The wind farm can generate up to 70 megawatts ( MW ) of electricity and will provide enough energy to meet the needs of about 36,000 typical households . Because wind farms do not emit greenhouse gases in the generation of electricity , wind energy is considered a highly desirable form of renewable energy and assists in the reduction of the State 's reliance on coal and gas fired electricity generation . The Mount Millar Wind Farm is different from other SA wind farms , due to the turbines being a direct drive machine that do n't have gear boxes . This is why the nacelle of these turbines has a larger diameter than most . It connects to ElectraNet 's existing transmission network at Yadnarie Substation , via a new 33 km 132 kV overhead transmission line and substation . Construction of this wind farm started in late 2004 and was completed in December 2005 . Power production started in February 2006 . The $ 130 million project was developed by Tarong Energy Corporation Ltd , which has interests in both Queensland and South Australia ( including South Australia 's first wind farm , Starfish Hill Wind Farm ) . The Mount Millar wind farm was acquired by Meridian Energy in 2010 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Mount_Millar_Wind_Farm\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 99215\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wind power in Russia Content: Wind power in Russia has a long history of small-scale use , but the country has not yet developed large-scale commercial wind energy production . Most of its current wind production is located in agricultural areas with low population densities , where connection to the main energy grid is difficult . Russia is estimated to have a total potential of 80,000 TWh/yr for wind energy , 6,218 TWh/yr of which is economically feasible . Most of this potential is found in the southern steppes and the seacoasts of the country , although in many of these areas the population density is less than . This low population density means that there is little existing electricity infrastructure currently in place , which hinders development of these resources . In 2006 , Russia had a total installed wind capacity of 15 MW . Current Russian wind energy projects have a combined capacity of over 1,700 MW , although less than 17 MW had been installed as of the end of 2010 . The Russian Wind Energy Association predicts that if Russia achieves its goal of having 4.5 % of its energy come from renewable sources by 2020 , the country will have a total wind capacity of 7,000 MW . In 2010 , plans for the construction of a wind power plant in Yeisk , on the Sea of Azov , were announced . It is expected to initially have a capacity of 50 MW , which will become 100 MW a year later . German engineering company Siemens announced in July 2010 , following a visit to Russia by Chancellor Angela Merkel , that it would build wind power plants in Russia . By 2015 , the company hoped to install 1,250 MW of capacity in Russia . capacity was only 15.4 MW .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Wind_power_in_Russia\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 99173\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wind power in Iran Content: This article discuss the development and implementation of wind power in Iran . Iran has relied primarily on a fossil fuel-based energy sector to power its country . However , in the last decade Iran has made steps to decrease its dependency on fossil fuels by investing in the renewable energy of wind power . This article discuss the process as well as the reasons for Iran 's interest in renewable energy ; the positive and negative effects as a result of the presence of wind power ; the political dynamics occurring in Iran ; and its attempt to also invest in nuclear energy as well .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Wind_power_in_Iran\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 99163\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Copper in renewable energy Content: Renewable energy sources such as solar , wind , tidal , hydro , biomass , and geothermal have become significant sectors of the energy market . The rapid growth of these sources in the 21st century has been prompted by increasing costs of fossil fuels as well as their negative environmental impacts . While the average capacity of renewable energy sources was only 7 % globally in 2010 , most installation of new capacity has been with renewables . Few new installations were from fossil fuel-based power plants . The trend towards new power capacity by renewables is expected to continue through 2020 . Since renewable energy supplies offset the amount of fossil fuels that need to be combusted in power plants , the use of renewables indirectly helps to reduce CO2 emissions . Hence , renewable energy supplies enable societies to progress towards lower-carbon-based economies . Copper plays an important role in renewable energy systems . Since copper is an excellent thermal and electrical conductor among the engineering metals ( second only to silver ) , power systems that utilize copper generate and transmit energy with high efficiency and with minimum environmental impacts . By using copper instead of other lower electrical energy-efficient metal conductors , less electricity needs to be generated to satisfy a given power demand . This article discusses the role of copper in various renewable energy generation systems .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Copper_in_renewable_energy\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 99022\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wind power in Utah Content: Wind power in Utah is in the early stages of development . As of 2013 Utah had 325 MW of wind generation capacity . Wind thus plays a small role in the state 's renewable portfolio standard goals . A 2009 Utah Renewable Energy Zone Taskforce estimated that the state could produce over 9,000 megawatts of wind power . As about 80 % of Utah 's population is concentrated along the foot of the Wasatch Front mountain range , reliable and predictable canyon winds offer opportunities for wind power generation and efficient wind energy distribution without long-distance transmission . Utah Power , now PacifiCorp , launched the Blue Sky Program in 2000 to give customers an opportunity to purchase imported wind power , giving customers the option of purchasing 100-kilowatt hour ( kWh ) `` blocks '' of renewable energy for a monthly fee through their electricity bills . In the spring 2003 , radio station KZMU began operating solely on wind power . Kinkos also participates . PacifiCorp , the major provider in Utah , imports much of it renewable energy in the state and does not intend to build facilities within it until at least 2024 . The first utility scale wind farm was built at Spanish Fork in 2008 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Wind_power_in_Utah\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 98447\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wind power industry Content: The wind power industry is involved with the design , manufacture , construction , and maintenance of wind turbines . The modern wind power industry began in 1979 with the serial production of wind turbines by Danish manufacturers . The industry is currently undergoing a period of rapid globalization and consolidation .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Wind_power_industry\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 98356\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Waymart Wind Farm Content: Waymart Wind Farm is the second largest wind farm in Pennsylvania , United States . It consists of 43 GE 1.5 MW wind turbines , with a total net capacity of 64.5 MW . The project is located in Wayne County , Pennsylvania . The wind farm was developed by Atlantic Renewable Energy and constructed by NextEra Energy Resources , based in Florida . Energy from the wind farm is sold to Exelon for distribution in the Mid-Atlantic region .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Waymart_Wind_Farm\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 98313\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: World Wind Energy Association Content: The World Wind Energy Association ( WWEA ) is an international non-profit association representing the wind power sector worldwide , with members in 100 countries , amongst them the leading national and regional wind energy associations . The organisation works for the promotion and worldwide deployment of wind energy technology and advocates a future energy system based on renewable energy .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"World_Wind_Energy_Association\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 98304\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Renewable energy in Seychelles Content: Renewable energy in Seychelles is a recent development in providing power to the country . Electricity for the island nation of Seychelles is primarily produced by diesel generators which must import their fuel ( 69 MW on Mahe and 12 MW on Praslin ) . Energy policy calls for 15 % renewables by 2030 . In June 2013 , the first wind farm in Seychelles was officially inaugurated . This 6 MW power plant can produce up to 2 % of the Seychelles ' power and is located on Mahé Island . It is expected that the wind farm will replace 1.6 million litres of diesel fuel . The wind farm is expected to generate 7GHw of electricity and the islands consume 350GHw of electricity per year . The project was developed by Masdar of Abu Dhabi . Unison of S. Korea manufactured and installed the wind farm , with a 2-year maintenance contract upon commissioning . Electricity production is expected to be highly seasonal with the majority of energy produced in the months of June to September when wind strength and wind probability are highest on the island of Mahe . Project Development The wind farm project was fully funded by the Abu Dhabi government through a $ 28Million grant to the Seychelles . The Abu Dhabi government appointed Masdar as project manager . The wind farm was originally envisaged to be commissioned by November 2012 however this suffered several delays . The commissioning date was moved to February 2013 but just three of the eight turbines were commissioned by this date . The farm was finally fully commissioned 8 months later than first planned in June 2013 . The wind farm operator , the state owned Public Utilities Corporation ( PUC ) , confirmed on 25 July 2013 that one of the turbines was out of operation due to an overheating transformer . This followed weeks of speculation on local social media networks that one of the turbines was not in operation . The PUC also confirmed that the farm had produced 2.4 GHw of electricity during 2013 up to 25 July 2013 , approximately halfway through the windy season . Energy production from the wind farm is therefore expected to be below expectations in 2013 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Renewable_energy_in_Seychelles\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 98228\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wind power in France Content: In 2015 France reached a total of 10,358 MW installed wind power capacity placing France at that time as the world 's eighth largest wind power nation by installed capacity , behind the United Kingdom and Canada and ahead of Italy and Brazil . According to the IEA the yearly wind production was 20.2 TWh in 2015 , representing almost 23 % of the 88.4 TWh from renewable sources in France during that year . Furthermore wind provided for 4.3 % of the country 's electricity demand out of the 18.7 % provided by renewables in 2015 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Wind_power_in_France\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 98177\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cape Wind Content: The Cape Wind Project is an approved offshore wind farm on Horseshoe Shoal in Nantucket Sound off Cape Cod , Massachusetts , United States . The project is proposed by a private developer , Cape Wind Associates , the brainchild of Jim Gordon of Energy Management Inc. . The wind farm , an offshore wind energy project in United States coastal waters , is projected to generate 1,500 gigawatt hours of electricity per year derived from wind power . With National Grid and Northeast Utilities terminating their power purchase agreements in January 2015 , making it difficult to obtain financing , the future of the Cape Wind project is in doubt . The project is expected to cost $ 2.6 billion . Cape Wind had arranged to borrow $ 2 billion through The Bank of Tokyo-Mitsubishi UFJ ( BTMU ) . Siemens has agreed to supply the turbines for the project . Additionally , some construction began in 2013 , thus qualifying the project for the federal production tax credit , which expired at the end of the year .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Cape_Wind\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 98171\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Green Energy Wind Farm Content: The Green Energy Wind Farm is a proposed wind power project in Tulcea County , Romania . It will have 200 individual wind turbines with a nominal output of around 1 MW which will deliver up to 200 MW of power , enough to power over 79,200 homes , with a capital investment required of approximately US$ 450 million .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Green_Energy_Wind_Farm\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 98146\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Acciona Energy Content: Acciona Energy , a subsidiary of Acciona based in Madrid , is a Spanish company developing renewable energy projects , including small hydro , biomass , solar energy and thermal energy , and the marketing of biofuels . It also has assets in the field of co-generation and wind turbine manufacture . , it is carrying out research projects to produce hydrogen from wind power and to manufacture more efficient photovoltaic cells . , Acciona Energy has 164 wind farms in nine countries representing over 4,500 megawatts ( MW ) of wind power installed or under construction . Acciona Energy is also the developer , owner and operator of Nevada Solar One , the world 's first solar thermal plant built in more than 16 years , and the third largest facility of its kind . On September 18 , 2009 , the 100.5 MW EcoGrove Wind Farm in Lena , Illinois , U.S. became operational . The wind farm comprises 67 Acciona Windpower 1.5 MW turbines , and will produce enough to power 25,000 homes and offset 176,000 tons of carbon annually . The EcoGrove facility is spread across 7000 acre . Acciona Windpower 's main product is the AW1500 , a 1.545 MW output machine . There is a prototype AW3000 , a 3 MW model , operational in Pamplona , Spain . The company has a manufacturing facility in West Branch , Iowa which manufactures wind turbines . In June 2014 , Kohlberg Kravis Roberts announced it was taking a one-third stake in the international energy business of the company , at a cost of $ 417 million ( $ 567 million ) . The renewable energy generation business operates renewable assets , largely wind farms , across 14 countries including the United States , Italy and South Africa .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Acciona_Energy\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 97895\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Renewable energy in Kazakhstan Content: The Republic of Kazakhstan has enormous renewable energy potential , particularly from wind and small hydropower plants . The country has the potential to generate 10 times as much power as it currently needsfrom wind energy alone . But renewable energy accounts for just 0.6 percent of all power installations . Of that , 95 percent comes from small hydropower projects . The main barriers to investment in renewable energy are relatively high financing costs and an absence of uniform feed-in tariffs for electricity from renewable sources . The amount and duration of renewable energy feed-in tariffs are separately evaluated for each project , based on feasibility studies and project-specific generation costs . Power from wind , solar , biomass and water up to 35 MW , plus geothermal sources , are eligible for the tariff and transmission companies are required to purchase the energy of renewable energy producers . An amendmentthat introduces and clarifies technology-specific tariffs is now being prepared . It is expected to be adoptedby Parliament by the end of 2014 . In addition , the World Bank 's Ease of Doing Business indicator shows the country to be relatively investor-friendly , ranking it in 10th position for investor protection . Kazakhstan is a party to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change ( 1995 ) and ratified the Kyoto Protocol in 2009 . Kazakhstan has committed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions . Having more renewable energy in the energy balance of Kazakhstan is one of the most effective mechanisms to reduce harmful effects of the energy sector and to diversify the national power generation capacity . To help Kazakhstan meet its goals for renewable energy generation , the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development ( EBRD ) is launching the Kazakhstan Renewable Energy Financing Facility ( KazREFF ) . The KazREFF aims to provide development support and debt finance to renewable energy projects which meet required commercial , technical and environmental criteria . Renewable energy technologies supported will include solar , wind , small hydropower , geothermal , biomass , and biogas . The Facility comprises an amount of up to $ 50 million for financing projects together with up to $ 20 million of concessional finance from Clean Technology Fund ( CTF ) , and the technical assistance funded by the Japanese government through the Japan-EBRD Cooperation Fund ( JECF ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Renewable_energy_in_Kazakhstan\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 97850\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Electricity sector in the United Kingdom Content: The electricity sector in the United Kingdom relies mainly on fossil fuelled power and 15-20 % in nuclear power and similar amounts of renewable power . Fossil fuel generator use in general and coal use in particularly is shrinking , with coal generators now only mainly being run in Winter due to pollution and costs . In 2008 nuclear electricity production was 860 kWh pro person . In 2014 , 28.1 TW · h of energy was generated by wind power , which contributed 9.3 % of the UK 's electricity requirement . In 2015 , 40.4 TW · h of energy was generated by wind power , and the quarterly generation record was set in the three-month period from October to December 2015 , with 13 % of the nation 's electricity demand met by wind . 2015 saw 1.2 GW of new wind power capacity brought online , a 9.6 % increase of the total UK installed capacity . The United Kingdom voluntarily ended the use of incandescent lightbulbs in 2011 . Between 2007 and 2012 , the UK 's peak electrical demand has fallen from 61.5 GW to 57.5 GW The use of electricity declined 11 % in 2009 compared to 2004 and respectively . The UK is planning to reform its Electricity Market . It plans to introduce a capacity mechanism and contracts for difference to encourage the building of new generation .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Electricity_sector_in_the_United_Kingdom\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 97697\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: European Technology Platform for Wind Energy Content: The European Technology Platform for Wind Energy ( TPWind ) is a European Seventh Framework Programme initiative to improve the competitive situation of the European Union in the field of wind energy . The programme is a joint initiative ( Public-Private Partnership ) of the European Commission , representing the European Union , and the industry . The main objective of the programme is to produce a Strategic Research Agenda ( SRA ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"European_Technology_Platform_for_Wind_Energy\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 97316\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wind power in Poland Content: Wind power is a minor but growing source of electricity in Poland . As of the end of 2015 , total installed capacity was 5,100 megawatts ( MW ) , which provided 10,858 gigawatt-hours ( GW · h ) -- around 6.22 % of the electricity consumed in the country . By year end 2016 total installed capacity had risen to 5,782 MW . Energy production sources are also registered by the state Office of Control of Electricity .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Wind_power_in_Poland\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 96965\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Grid parity Content: Grid parity ( or socket parity ) occurs when an alternative energy source can generate power at a levelized cost of electricity ( LCOE ) that is less than or equal to the price of purchasing power from the electricity grid . The term is most commonly used when discussing renewable energy sources , notably solar power and wind power . Grid parity depends upon whether you are calculating from the point of view of a utility or of a retail consumer . Reaching grid parity is considered to be the point at which an energy source becomes a contender for widespread development without subsidies or government support . It is widely believed that a wholesale shift in generation to these forms of energy will take place when they reach grid parity . Germany was one of the first countries to reach parity for solar PV in 2011 and 2012 for utility-scale solar and rooftop solar PV , respectively . By January 2014 , grid parity for solar PV systems had already been reached in at least nineteen countries .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Grid_parity\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 96621\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: MK Fintel Wind Content: MK Fintel Wind is a Serbian renewable energy company . It is a joint venture between MK Group and the Italian Fintel Energia Group . MK Group is a business conglomerate belonging to the Serbian tycoon Miodrag Kostic . The company was the first to build and operate wind farms in Serbia . It has nearly 17 MW in operation and 69 MW under construction . One of its plants is located near Kula , and a second is under construction next to Vršac .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"MK_Fintel_Wind\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 96604\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wind power in Mexico Content: Mexico is the world 's twenty-fourth-biggest producer of wind power , and its installed capacity is expected to reach 2 GW by the end of 2012 . It has a capacity 330 MW under construction . As of 2008 , there were three wind farms in the country . The Eurus Wind Farm is the largest wind farm in Latin America . 18 of 27 wind farms construction projects are based in La Ventosa in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec in Oaxaca . According to the Mexican Wind Energy Association , the country will rank twentieth worldwide in wind capacity by the end of 2012 , and will produce four percent of the country 's total electricity production . It also believes that the nation will have 12 GW of wind generation capacity by 2020 , and will be able to provide fifteen percent of Mexico 's production . Brian Gardner , Economist Intelligence Unit 's energy analyst , said , `` With strong wind through the south , consistent sunlight in the north and a stable market , Mexico is well positioned for continued renewables growth '' . Wind power is in partial competition with Solar power in Mexico .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Wind_power_in_Mexico\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 96580\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wind power forecasting Content: A wind power forecast corresponds to an estimate of the expected production of one or more wind turbines ( referred to as a wind farm ) in the near future . By production is often meant available power for wind farm considered ( with units kW or MW depending on the wind farm nominal capacity ) . Forecasts can also be expressed in terms of energy , by integrating power production over each time interval .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Wind_power_forecasting\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 96502\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wind power in Denmark Content: Denmark was a pioneer in developing commercial wind power during the 1970s , and today a substantial share of the wind turbines around the world are produced by Danish manufacturers such as Vestas and Siemens Wind Power along with many component suppliers . Wind power produced the equivalent of 42.1 % of Denmark 's total electricity consumption in 2015 , increased from 33 % in 2013 , and 39 % in 2014 . In 2012 the Danish government adopted a plan to increase the share of electricity production from wind to 50 % by 2020 , and to 84 % in 2035 . Denmark had the 6th best energy security in the world in 2014 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Wind_power_in_Denmark\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 96481\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Infigen Energy Content: Infigen Energy ( Infigen ) , formerly Babcock & Brown Wind Partners , is a developer , owner and operator of renewable energy generation assets in Australia . Infigen 's wind farm portfolio has an installed capacity of 557 MW . All of Infigen 's assets generate electricity from renewable sources and are eligible to sell Large-scale Generation Certificates ( LGCs ) under the mandatory Renewable Energy Target scheme , which operates in Australia under the Renewable Energy ( Electricity ) Act 2000 . Infigen previously owned a wind farm portfolio in the US . In October 2015 Infigen sold its US wind business to an Arclight Capital partners , LLC for US$ 274.4 million . The US wind farms are subsequently operated by Leeward Renewable Energy , LLC . Infigen reports under the Carbon Disclosure Project . Infigen is a member of the Clean Energy Council .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Infigen_Energy\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 96474\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wind power in Kenya Content: Wind power in Kenya contributes only a small amount of the country 's electrical power . However , its share in energy production is increasing . Kenya aims to generate 2,036 MW of wind power , or 9 % of the country 's total capacity , by 2030 . Kenya has one major wind farm , Ngong Hills Wind Farm , located in Ngong , Kajiado County . It produces around 5.1 MW of electricity . It is owned by Kenya Electricity Generating Company ( KenGen ) and cost KES 1.6 billion ( US $ 18 million ) to construct .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Wind_power_in_Kenya\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 96464\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wisconsin Independent News Distributors Content: Wisconsin Independent News Distributors ( WIND ) was an alternative left-wing news distributor founded in 1971 in Madison , Wisconsin by Jack Dunn , Roger Metcalf , Bill Morris , and Roney Sorenson . All were students or otherwise involved in the radical student movement of the times at the University of Wisconsin , Madison . The collective expanded through the 1970s to involve over 20 people , and expanding its operations throughout northern Illinois , Wisconsin , and eastern Minnesota .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Wisconsin_Independent_News_Distributors\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 96373\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wind power in California Content: As of December 31 , 2016 , California has 5,662 megawatts ( MW ) of wind powered electricity generating capacity . California 's wind power capacity has grown by nearly 350 % since 2001 , when it was less than 1,700 MW . As of the end of September 2012 , wind energy ( including that supplied by other states ) now supplies about 5 % of California 's total electricity needs , or enough to power more than 400,000 households . Most of California 's wind generation is found in the Tehachapi area of Kern County , with some big projects in Solano , Contra Costa and Riverside counties as well . California is among the states with the largest amount of installed wind power capacity .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Wind_power_in_California\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 96286\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wind power in Texas Content: Wind power in Texas consists of many wind farms with a total installed nameplate capacity of 20,321 MW from over 40 different projects . Texas produces the most wind power of any U.S. state . Wind power accounted for 12.63 % of the electricity generated in Texas in the 12 months ending Oct 2016 . The wind resource in many parts of Texas is very large . Farmers may lease their land to wind developers , creating a new revenue stream for the farm . The wind power industry has also created over 24,000 jobs for local communities and for the state . Texas is seen as a profit-driven leader of renewable energy commercialization in the United States . The wind boom in Texas was assisted by expansion of the state 's Renewable Portfolio Standard , use of designated Competitive Renewable Energy Zones , expedited transmission construction , and the necessary Public Utility Commission rule-making . The Roscoe Wind Farm ( 781 MW ) , near the town of Roscoe , is the state 's largest wind farm . Other large wind farms in Texas include : Horse Hollow Wind Energy Center , Sherbino Wind Farm , Capricorn Ridge Wind Farm , Sweetwater Wind Farm , Buffalo Gap Wind Farm , King Mountain Wind Farm , Desert Sky Wind Farm , Wildorado Wind Ranch , and the Brazos Wind Farm .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Wind_power_in_Texas\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 96201\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wind power in Pennsylvania Content: There are more than twenty wind power projects operating in the commonwealth of Pennsylvania . The most productive wind energy regions generally fall in mountain or coastal terrains . The northern portion of the Appalachian chain , including most of Southwestern Pennsylvania , is one of the areas with the highest potential for wind energy in the Eastern United States . The mountain ridges of central and northeastern Pennsylvania , including the Poconos in the eastern part of the state , offer some of the best wind resources in the region . If all wind energy potential in Pennsylvania was developed with utility-scale wind turbines , the power produced each year would be enough to supply 6.4 % of the state 's current electricity consumption . In 2006 , Pennsylvania 's legislature ruled that wind turbines and related equipment may not be included in property-tax assessments . Instead , the sites of wind facilities are assessed for their income-capitalization value . In 2007 , Montgomery County became the first wind-powered county in the nation , with a two-year commitment to buy 100 percent of its electricity from a combination of wind energy and renewable energy credits derived from wind energy . In 2009 , the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency honored Swarthmore , Pennsylvania as a Green Power Community -- the only one in the Eastern United States - for its commitment to buy clean energy generated from wind turbines in mountainous region of western Pennsylvania . In 2012 , a coalition of wind farm developers , owner , operators , their supporters , and retail suppliers joined together to form ChoosePAWind . This coalition 's goal is to educate Pennsylvanians about the environmental and economic benefits of supplying energy from local wind farms . Many smaller wind farms in Pennsylvania are operated by NextEra Energy Resources , based in Florida .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Wind_power_in_Pennsylvania\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 96045\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Windbelt Content: The Windbelt is a wind power harvesting device invented by Shawn Frayn in 2004 for converting wind power to electricity . It consists of a flexible polymer ribbon stretched between supports transverse to the wind direction , with magnets glued to it . When the wind blows across it , the ribbon vibrates due to aeroelastic flutter , similar to the action of an aeolian harp . The vibrating movement of the magnets induces current in nearby pickup coils by electromagnetic induction . One prototype has powered two LEDs , a radio , and a clock ( separately ) using wind generated from a household fan . The cost of the materials was well under US$ 10 . $ 2 -- $ 5 for 40 mW is a cost of $ 50 -- $ 125 per watt . There are three sizes in development : The microBelt , a 12 cm version . This could be put into production in around six months . Its expected to produce 1 milliwatt average . To charge a pair of ideal rechargeable AA cells ( 2.5 Ah 1.2 v ) this would take 6000 hours , or 250 days . The Windcell , a 1-metre version that could be used to power meshed WiFi repeaters , charge cellphones , or run LED lights . This could go into production within 18 to 24 months . It is hoped that a square metre panel at 6 m/s average windspeed can generate 10 W average . An experimental 10-metre model that has no production date . The Windbelt 's inventor , Shawn Frayn , was a winner of the 2007 Breakthrough Award from the publishers of the magazine , Popular Mechanics . He is trying to make the Windbelt cheaper . The inventor 's claims that the device is 10 - 30 times more efficient than small wind turbines have been refuted by tests . The microWindbelt could generate 0.2 mW at a wind speed of 3.5 m/s and 5 mW at 7.5 m/s , which represent efficiencies ( ηCp ) of 0.21 % and 0.53 % respectively . Wind turbines typically have efficiencies of 1 % to 10 % . Since the Windbelt a number of other `` flutter '' wind harvester devices have been designed , but like the Windbelt almost all have efficiencies below turbine machines .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Windbelt\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 95944\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Vaneless ion wind generator Content: A vaneless ion wind generator or power fence is a proposed wind power device that produces electrical energy directly by using the wind to pump electric charge from one electrode to another , with no moving parts . Wind energy is usually extracted to make electricity by means of a wind turbine . The bird deaths , vibrational noise , and moving shadows associated with wind turbines would not occur with ion based power generation . One design uses water sprayed from a nozzle facing a toroidal charged electrode . This induces an opposite charge in the water , and when the water flows out of the nozzle , each drop carries a small amount of charge . These water droplets are then blown by the wind , going through the center of the charged toroid without touching it . The droplets then hit a fine mesh , adding to its charge . The other alternative is to use the Earth as the second electrode . The main advantage of this system is that it has no moving parts except the water droplets . The disadvantages are that it needs a constant supply of water , its wind profile ca n't be reduced , it requires many small parts , and it has to be well-crafted to reduce corona discharge losses . The device would produce direct current , which would need to be inverted to apply to a standard AC power grid . Lord Kelvin created a similar device that used the energy of falling water droplets to generate high voltage , sometimes called `` Kelvin 's Thunderstorm '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Vaneless_ion_wind_generator\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 95924\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greengate Power Corporation Content: Greengate Power Corporation ( Greengate ) has nine wind projects under development in Alberta , Canada totaling 1,550 Megawatts ( MW ) across 200,000 acres of private land . This represents a potential investment of $ 4 billion upon full build-out of the projects . Greengate 's goal is to be Canada 's largest pure-play renewable energy producer . Greengate 's unique strategy has been to develop wind energy projects in close proximity to transmission lines with available capacity , with high quality wind resources and substantially contracted sources of revenue . This strategy has enabled Greengate to be a leader in the wind energy industry in Alberta . The 150 Megawatts ( MW ) Halkirk I Wind Project will be Greengate 's first operating project and will be the largest wind energy project in Alberta upon construction and operation .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Greengate_Power_Corporation\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 95723\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Renewable portfolio standard Content: A renewable portfolio standard ( RPS ) is a regulation that requires the increased production of energy from renewable energy sources , such as wind , solar , biomass , and geothermal . Other common names for the same concept include Renewable Electricity Standard ( RES ) at the United States federal level and Renewables Obligation in the UK . The RPS mechanism places an obligation on electricity supply companies to produce a specified fraction of their electricity from renewable energy sources . Certified renewable energy generators earn certificates for every unit of electricity they produce and can sell these along with their electricity to supply companies . Supply companies then pass the certificates to some form of regulatory body to demonstrate their compliance with their regulatory obligations . RPS can rely on the private market for its implementation . In jurisdictions such as California , minimum RPS requirements are legislated . California Senate Bill 350 passed in October 2015 requires retail sellers and publicly owned utilities to procure 50 percent of their electricity from eligible renewable energy resources by 2030 . RPS programs tend to allow more price competition between different types of renewable energy , but can be limited in competition through eligibility and multipliers for RPS programs . Those supporting the adoption of RPS mechanisms claim that market implementation will result in competition , efficiency , and innovation that will deliver renewable energy at the lowest possible cost , allowing renewable energy to compete with cheaper fossil fuel energy sources . RPS-type mechanisms have been adopted in several countries , including Britain , Italy , Poland , Sweden , Belgium , and Chile , as well as in 29 of 50 U.S. states , and the District of Columbia .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Renewable_portfolio_standard\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 95637\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wind power in Japan Content: In Japan 's electricity sector wind power generates a small but increasing proportion of the country 's electricity , as the installed capacity has been growing in recent years . According to industry observers , the 2011 Japanese nuclear accidents are pushing wind power to the forefront as a safer and more reliable alternative to meet the country 's future electricity requirements . None of Japan 's commercial wind turbines , totaling over 2300 MW in nameplate capacity , failed as a result of the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami , including the Kamisu offshore wind farm directly hit by the tsunami . It has been estimated that Japan has the potential for 144 GW for onshore wind and 608 GW of offshore wind capacity .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Wind_power_in_Japan\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 95570\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Electricity sector in Denmark Content: The electricity sector in Denmark relies on fossil energy and renewable energy : wind power , biogas , biomass and waste . Danish average consumption of electricity per person was 0.8 GWh less than EU 15 average in 2008 . Denmark has average electricity costs ( including costs for cleaner energy ) in EU , but general taxes increase the price to the highest in Europe . In 2015 , supply security was over 99.99 % , among the highest in the world . Denmark invested in the wind power development in the 1970s and has had the highest wind share in the world ever since ; wind produced the equivalent of 42 % of Denmark 's total electricity consumption in 2015 . Danish consumption of wind turbine generated electricity is the highest in the world per person : 1,218 kWh in 2009 . Denmark produced more wind power per person in Denmark in 2009 than either Spain or the UK produced nuclear power per person in their respective countries . The Danish electricity market is a part of the Nord Pool Spot power exchange .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Electricity_sector_in_Denmark\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 95467\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wind power in Germany Content: The installed capacity of wind power in Germany was 44,470 megawatts ( MW ) in 2015 , with wind power producing about 13.3 percent of Germany 's total electrical power . According to EWEA in a typical wind year , installed wind capacity in Germany was estimated to have met 10.6 % at end 2011 and 9.3 % at end 2010 of the German electricity needs . The persistent disparity between EWEA estimates for a `` normal wind year '' and the actual data tabulated below may be due to the EWEA relying on an unrealistically high capacity factor for German wind production . More than 26,772 wind turbines were located in the German federal area by year end 2015 , and the country has plans for further expansion . As of the end of 2015 Germany was the third largest producer of wind power in the world by installations , behind China and the USA , and ahead of India , Spain and the United Kingdom . Since 2011 , Germany 's federal government has been working on a new plan for increasing renewable energy commercialization , with a particular focus on offshore wind farms . A major challenge will be the development of sufficient network capacities for transmitting the power generated in the North Sea to the large industrial consumers in southern Germany .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Wind_power_in_Germany\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 95462\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wind power in Uruguay Content: Wind power in Uruguay generates a small but rapidly growing proportion of the country 's electricity . Projections consider that , at the end of 2016 , Uruguay could become the country with the largest energy coverage with wind power .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Wind_power_in_Uruguay\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 95415\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wind power in Malta Content: Wind power in Malta describes the wind power development in Malta . Malta is a European Union country . The European energy policy has the objective of a sustainable , competitive and secure supply of energy . According to the EU fact sheet in January 2007 the potential of wind energy in Malta is substantial . Malta produces almost all its electricity using oil , importing 100 % of it .\",\n \"qid\": \"2710\",\n \"docid\": \"Wind_power_in_Malta\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 95295\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":1340,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"'Antarctic sea ice set a new record in October 2007, as photographs distributed by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration showed penguins and other cold-weather creatures able to stand farther north on Southern Hemisphere sea ice than has ever been recorded."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Polar seas Content: Polar seas is a collective term for the Arctic Ocean ( about 4-5 percent of Earth 's oceans ) and the southern part of the Southern Ocean ( south of Antarctic Convergence , about 10 percent of Earth 's oceans ) . In the coldest years , sea ice can cover around 13 percent of the Earth 's total surface at its maximum , but out of phase in the two hemispheres . The polar seas contain a huge biome with many organisms . Among the species that inhabit various polar seas and surrounding land areas are polar bear , penguin , reindeer ( caribou ) , muskox , wolverine , ermine , lemming , Arctic hare , Arctic ground squirrel , whale , harp seal , and walrus . These species have unique adaptations to the extreme conditions . Many might be endangered if they can not adapt to changing conditions . Contrary to popular opinion , the World Wildlife Fund studies for polar bears show that this species has prospered since 1950 , attaining five times the numbers found in 1950 . In general , Arctic ecosystems are relatively fragile and slow to recover from serious damage .","qid":"2711","docid":"Polar_seas","rank":1,"score":212659},{"content":"Title: Antarctic sea ice Content: Antarctic sea ice is the sea ice of the Southern Ocean . It extends far north in winter and retreats almost to the coastline each summer . Sea ice is frozen seawater that is usually less than a few meters thick . This is in contrast to ice shelves , which are formed by glaciers , float in the sea , and are up to a kilometer thick . There are two subdivisions of sea ice : fast ice , which is attached to land ; and ice floes , which are not . Sea ice in the Southern Ocean melts from the bottom instead of from the surface like Arctic ice because it is covered in snow . As a result , melt ponds are rarely observed . On average , Antarctic sea ice is younger , thinner , warmer , saltier , and more mobile than Arctic sea ice . Due to its inaccessibility , it is not as well-studied as Arctic ice .","qid":"2711","docid":"Antarctic_sea_ice","rank":2,"score":200888},{"content":"Title: Sea Ice Physics and Ecosystem eXperiment Content: The Sea Ice Physics and Ecosystem eXperiment ( SIPEX ) was an Australian contribution to the International Polar Year ( IPY ) . The expedition studied the sea ice in the Antarctica zone in September and October 2007 , investigating links between the sea ice and the Southern Ocean ecosystems . Taking part were 45 scientists from 8 different countries , each a specialist on some aspect of the Antarctic sea ice zone . Travelling aboard the research vessel Aurora Australis , the researchers covered East Antarctica between 110 ° E and 130 ° E. Experiments dealt with ice thickness and snow cover , the sympagic fauna and flora and examined the effects of ocean currents and wind . The extent and distribution of sea ice in the polar regions is a sensitive indicator of global climate change . Global warming has been implicated in significant reductions in the extent of sea ice and this trend is set to continue . An improved understanding of sea ice may lead to improved conservation policies in Antarctica .","qid":"2711","docid":"Sea_Ice_Physics_and_Ecosystem_eXperiment","rank":3,"score":196966},{"content":"Title: North Ice Content: North Ice was a research station of the British North Greenland Expedition ( 1952 to 1954 ) on the inland ice of Greenland . The coordinates of the station were , at an altitude of 2341 m above sea level . The British North Greenland Expedition was led by Commander James Simpson RN . The station recorded the lowest temperature ever in North America with -66.1 C on 9 January 1954 . The name of the station contrasts to the former British South Ice station in Antarctica .","qid":"2711","docid":"North_Ice","rank":4,"score":194281},{"content":"Title: Antarctic Cold Reversal Content: The Antarctic Cold Reversal ( ACR ) was an important episode of cooling in the climate history of the Earth during the deglaciation at the close of the last ice age . It illustrates the complexity of the climate changes at the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene Epochs . The Last Glacial Maximum and sea-level minimum occurred c. 21,000 years before present ( BP ) . Antarctic ice cores show gradual warming beginning 3000 years later . At about 14,700 BP , there was a large pulse of meltwater , identified as Meltwater pulse 1A , probably from either the Antarctic ice sheet or the Laurentide ice sheet . Meltwater pulse 1A produced a marine transgression that raised global sea level about 20 meters in two to five centuries and is thought to have influenced the start of the Bølling / Allerød interstadial , the major break with glacial cold in the Northern Hemisphere . Meltwater pulse 1A was followed in Antarctica and the Southern Hemisphere by a renewed cooling , the Antarctic Cold Reversal , in c. 14,500 BP , which lasted for two millennia -- an instance of warming causing cooling . The ACR brought an average cooling of perhaps 3 ° C . The Younger Dryas cooling , in the Northern Hemisphere , began while the Antarctic Cold Reversal was still ongoing , and the ACR ended in the midst of the Younger Dryas . This pattern of climate decoupling between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres and of `` southern lead , northern lag '' would manifest in subsequent climate events . The cause or causes of this hemispheric decoupling , of the `` lead/lag '' pattern and of the specific mechanisms of the warming and cooling trends are still subjects of study and dispute among climate researchers . The specific dating and intensity of the Antarctic Cold Reversal are also under debate . The onset of the Antarctic Cold Reversal was followed , after about 800 years , by an Oceanic Cold Reversal in the Southern Ocean .","qid":"2711","docid":"Antarctic_Cold_Reversal","rank":5,"score":190878},{"content":"Title: East Antarctica Content: East Antarctica , also called Greater Antarctica , constitutes the majority ( two-thirds ) of the Antarctic continent , lying on the Indian Ocean side of the continent , separated from West Antarctica by the Transantarctic Mountains . It lies almost entirely within the Eastern Hemisphere and its name has been accepted for more than a century . It is generally higher than West Antarctica and includes the Gamburtsev Mountain Range in the centre . Apart from small areas of the coast , East Antarctica is permanently covered by ice . The only terrestrial plant life is lichens , mosses and algae clinging to rocks , and there are a limited range of invertebrates including nematodes , springtails , mites and midges . The coasts are the breeding ground for various seabirds and penguins , and the leopard seal , Weddell seal , elephant seal , crabeater seal and Ross seal breed on the surrounding pack ice in summer .","qid":"2711","docid":"East_Antarctica","rank":6,"score":189746},{"content":"Title: Wildlife of Antarctica Content: The wildlife of Antarctica are extremophiles , having to adapt to the dryness , low temperatures , and high exposure common in Antarctica . The extreme weather of the interior contrasts to the relatively mild conditions on the Antarctic Peninsula and the subantarctic islands , which have warmer temperatures and more liquid water . Much of the ocean around the mainland is covered by sea ice . The oceans themselves are a more stable environment for life , both in the water column and on the seabed . There is relatively little diversity in Antarctica compared to much of the rest of the world . Terrestrial life is concentrated in areas near the coast . Flying birds nest on the milder shores of the Peninsula and the subantarctic islands . Eight species of penguins inhabit Antarctica and its offshore islands . They share these areas with seven pinniped species . The Southern Ocean around Antarctica is home to 10 cetaceans , many of them migratory . There are very few terrestrial invertebrates on the mainland , although the species that do live there have high population densities . High densities of invertebrates also live in the ocean , with Antarctic krill forming dense and widespread swarms during the summer . Benthic animal communities also exist around the continent . Over 1000 fungi species have been found on and around Antarctica . Larger species are restricted to the subantarctic islands , and the majority of species discovered have been terrestrial . Plants are similarly restricted mostly to the subantarctic islands , and the western edge of the Peninsula . Some mosses and lichens however can be found even in the dry interior . Many algae are found around Antarctica , especially phytoplankton , which form the basis of many of Antarctica 's food webs . Human activity has caused introduced species to gain a foothold in the area , threatening the native wildlife . A history of overfishing and hunting has left many species with greatly reduced numbers . Pollution , habitat destruction , and climate change pose great risks to the environment . The Antarctic Treaty System is a global treaty designed to preserve Antarctica as a place of research , and measures from this system are used to regulate human activity in Antarctica .","qid":"2711","docid":"Wildlife_of_Antarctica","rank":7,"score":186198},{"content":"Title: Antarctic oscillation Content: The Antarctic oscillation ( AAO , to distinguish it from the Arctic oscillation or AO ) is a low-frequency mode of atmospheric variability of the southern hemisphere . It is also known as the Southern Annular Mode ( SAM ) . It is defined as a belt of westerly winds or low pressure surrounding Antarctica which moves north or south as its mode of variability . In its positive phase , the westerly wind belt contracts towards Antarctica , while its negative phase involves this belt moving towards the Equator . In 2014 , Dr Nerilie Abram used a network of temperature-sensitive ice core and tree growth records to reconstruct a 1000-year history of the Southern Annular Mode . This work suggests that the Southern Annular Mode is currently in its most extreme positive phase over at least the last 1000 years , and that recent positive trends in the SAM are attributed to increasing greenhouse gas levels and later stratospheric ozone depletion .","qid":"2711","docid":"Antarctic_oscillation","rank":8,"score":183046},{"content":"Title: Antarctic Circumpolar Current Content: The Antarctic Circumpolar Current ( ACC ) is an ocean current that flows clockwise from west to east around Antarctica . An alternative name for the ACC is the West Wind Drift . The ACC is the dominant circulation feature of the Southern Ocean and has a mean transport of 100-150 Sverdrups ( Sv , million m ³ / s ) , making it the largest ocean current . More recent research even puts this number at over 173 Sv . The current is circumpolar due to the lack of any landmass connecting with Antarctica and this keeps warm ocean waters away from Antarctica , enabling that continent to maintain its huge ice sheet . Associated with the Circumpolar Current is the Antarctic Convergence , where the cold Antarctic waters meet the warmer waters of the subantarctic , creating a zone of upwelling nutrients . These nurture high levels of phytoplankton with associated copepods and krill , and resultant foodchains supporting fish , whales , seals , penguins , albatrosses and a wealth of other species . The ACC has been known to sailors for centuries ; it greatly speeds up any travel from west to east , but makes sailing extremely difficult from east to west ; though this is mostly due to the prevailing westerly winds . The circumstances preceding the mutiny on the Bounty and Jack London 's story `` Make Westing '' poignantly illustrated the difficulty it caused for mariners seeking to round Cape Horn on the clipper ship route between New York and California . The clipper route , which is the fastest sailing route around the world , follows the ACC around three continental capes -- Cape Agulhas ( Africa ) , South East Cape ( Australia ) and Cape Horn ( South America ) . The current creates the Ross and Weddell gyres .","qid":"2711","docid":"Antarctic_Circumpolar_Current","rank":9,"score":179294},{"content":"Title: Measurement of sea ice Content: Measurement of sea ice is important for safety of navigation and for monitoring the environment , particularly the climate . Sea ice extent interacts with large climate patterns such as the North Atlantic oscillation and Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation , to name just two , and influences climate in the rest of the globe . The amount of sea ice coverage in the arctic has been of interest for centuries , as the Northwest Passage was of high interest for trade and seafaring . There is a longstanding history of records and measurements of some effects of the sea ice extent , but comprehensive measurements were sparse till the 1950s and started with the satellite era in the late 1970s . Modern direct records include data about ice extent , ice area , concentration , thickness , and the age of the ice . The current trends in the records show a significant decline in Northern hemisphere sea ice and a small but statistically significant increase in the winter Southern hemisphere sea ice . Furthermore , current research comprises and establishes extensive sets of multi-century historical records of arctic and subarctic sea ice and uses , among others high-resolution paleo-proxy sea-ice records . The arctic sea ice is a dynamic climate-system component and is linked to the Atlantic multidecadal variability and the historical climate over various decades . There are circular changes of sea ice patterns but so far no clear patterns based on modeling predictions .","qid":"2711","docid":"Measurement_of_sea_ice","rank":10,"score":177592},{"content":"Title: 2013 extreme weather events Content: The 2013 extreme weather events included several all-time temperature records in Northern and Southern Hemisphere . The February extent of snow cover in Eurasia and North America was above average , while the extent of Arctic ice in the same month was 4,5 % below the 1981 -- 2010 average . The Northern Hemisphere weather extremes have been linked to the melting of Arctic sea ice , which alters atmospheric circulation in a way that leads to more snow and ice . By January 11 , 233 weather-related deaths were reported in India . Elsewhere , particularly in Russia , the Czech Republic and the United Kingdom , low temperatures affected wildlife , delaying bird breeding and disrupting the bird migration . On January 10 Bangladesh faced the lowest temperature since country 's independence , at 3.0 ° C in Saidpur . While Finland and most of Northern European countries got the record high , and even the highest temperatures at Europe during May and June , Western - and Middle Europe faced much cooler weather and even their wettest May and June ever . During summer prolonged heat waves in the Northern Hemisphere set new record high temperatures . On March 24 , 2014 , the secretary-general of the World Meteorological Organization Michel Jarraud announced that `` many of the extreme events of 2013 were consistent with what we would expect as a result of human-induced climate change '' .","qid":"2711","docid":"2013_extreme_weather_events","rank":11,"score":176760},{"content":"Title: Antarctica: Empire of the Penguin Content: Antarctica : Empire of the Penguin is a theme area at SeaWorld Orlando by a first-of-its-kind motion-based , trackless dark ride . The attraction opened on May 24 , 2013 as the largest attraction at any SeaWorld Entertainment theme park . The area was generally well received by critics and the public at its opening .","qid":"2711","docid":"Antarctica:_Empire_of_the_Penguin","rank":12,"score":176352},{"content":"Title: Coat of arms of the British Antarctic Territory Content: The coat of arms of the British Antarctic Territory was first granted in 1952 , when the territory was still a dependency of the Falkland Islands ( along with South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands ) . The arms consist of a shield bearing a flaming torch on a wavy background representing the sea . The dexter supporter is a golden lion , representing the United Kingdom . The sinister supporter is an Emperor penguin , representing the native wildlife in the territory . The lion stands on a compartment of grass , while the penguin stands on a compartment of ice . The crest is a representation of the RRS Discovery , the research ship used by Robert Falcon Scott and Ernest Shackleton on their first journey to the Antarctic . The motto is `` Research and Discovery '' , reflecting the aims of the British Antarctic Survey . The coat of arms appears in the fly of the flag of the British Antarctic Territory .","qid":"2711","docid":"Coat_of_arms_of_the_British_Antarctic_Territory","rank":13,"score":174097},{"content":"Title: Antarctic Adventure Content: is a video game developed by Konami in 1983 for the MSX , and later for video game consoles , such as the Family Computer and the ColecoVision . The player takes the role of an Antarctic penguin , racing to disparate research stations owned by different countries in Antarctica ( excluding the USSR ) . The gameplay is similar to Sega 's Turbo , but plays at a much slower pace , and features platform game elements . The penguin , later named Penta , must reach the next station before time runs out while avoiding sea lions and breaks in the ice . Throughout the levels , fish jump out of ice holes and can be caught for bonus points . The game , like many early video games , has no ending -- when the player reaches the last station , the game starts from the first level again , but with increased difficulty .","qid":"2711","docid":"Antarctic_Adventure","rank":14,"score":172776},{"content":"Title: Murphy Rocks, Australian Antarctic Territory Content: Murphy Rocks consists of two closely adjacent but very isolated rocks lying in the sea about 2.3 km off the ice-cliff coastline of the Ingrid Christensen Coast , Princess Elizabeth Land , in the Vestfold Hills region of Antarctica . The rocks are dark grey and rounded , with diameters of about 200 m and are located approximately 49.5 km north-east of Davis Station . In January 1979 the first landings were made by helicopter on these rocks , during which survey station NM/S/268 was established . The rocks are named for Brian Murphy , who made extensive surveys in the Vestfold Hills in 1978-79 , including Doppler satellite fixes , a Tellurometer survey , heights by simultaneous reciprocal vertical angles and a site survey for a major re-building of Davis Station . These rocks currently define the north-eastern-most limit of ice-free rock areas of the Ingrid Christensen Coast , Princess Elizabeth Land , and , as such , form part of an extensive network of Adelie penguin rookeries located along this section of the coastline of Antarctica . The summit of the southern-most rock , upon which Transit Doppler satellite survey station NM/S/268 was established in January , 1979 , and to which the above WGS84 coordinates refer , is 22.4 m above mean sea level . The summit of the northern-most rock , upon which survey station NM/S/270 was established , is 23.8 m above mean sea level . Survey station NM/S/270 lies on a true bearing of 75 ° 49 ' distant 191.61 m from survey station NM/S/268 .","qid":"2711","docid":"Murphy_Rocks,_Australian_Antarctic_Territory","rank":15,"score":172686},{"content":"Title: Penguin Content: Penguins ( order Sphenisciformes , family Spheniscidae ) are a group of aquatic , flightless birds . They live almost exclusively in the Southern Hemisphere , with only one species , the Galapagos penguin , found north of the equator . Highly adapted for life in the water , penguins have countershaded dark and white plumage , and their wings have evolved into flippers . Most penguins feed on krill , fish , squid and other forms of sealife caught while swimming underwater . They spend about half of their lives on land and half in the oceans . Although almost all penguin species are native to the Southern Hemisphere , they are not found only in cold climates , such as Antarctica . In fact , only a few species of penguin live so far south . Several species are found in the temperate zone , and one species , the Galápagos penguin , lives near the equator . The largest living species is the emperor penguin ( Aptenodytes forsteri ) : on average adults are about 1.1 m tall and weigh 35 kg or more . The smallest penguin species is the little blue penguin ( Eudyptula minor ) , also known as the fairy penguin , which stands around 40 cm tall and weighs 1 kg . Among extant penguins , larger penguins inhabit colder regions , while smaller penguins are generally found in temperate or even tropical climates ( see also Bergmann 's rule ) . Some prehistoric species attained enormous sizes , becoming as tall or as heavy as an adult human . These were not restricted to Antarctic regions ; on the contrary , subantarctic regions harboured high diversity , and at least one giant penguin occurred in a region around 2,000 km south of the equator 35 mya , in a climate decidedly warmer than today .","qid":"2711","docid":"Penguin","rank":16,"score":172015},{"content":"Title: Cape Annawan Content: Cape Annawan is an ice-covered cape which marks the east extremity of Thurston Island and the northwest entrance to Seraph Bay in Antarctica . Discovered in helicopter flights from the USS Burton Island and Glacier by personnel of the U.S. Navy Bellingshausen Sea Expedition in February 1960 . Named by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) for the ship Annawan , of the United States Expedition of 1829-31 , which with the Penguin sailed west from the South Shetland Islands in February 1830 , holding a course between 62S and 58S and exploring as far as 103W , northward of this cape .","qid":"2711","docid":"Cape_Annawan","rank":17,"score":170415},{"content":"Title: Ponganis Icefall Content: Ponganis Icefall is an icefall , 1000 m high and 1.25 nmi wide on the east side of Coulman Island in the Ross Sea . The icefall descends from the Hawkes Heights caldera to the sea at Cape Main . It was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names in 2005 after Paul J. Ponganis , Center for Marine Biotechnology , Scripps Institution of Oceanography , who studied the behavior and census of Emperor penguins at Cape Crozier , Cape Washington , Beaufort Island , Franklin Island and Coulman Island in 13 field seasons , from 1987 to 2004 , and for Katherine V. Ponganis ( Mrs. Paul J. Ponganis ) , a member of the study team in five field seasons .","qid":"2711","docid":"Ponganis_Icefall","rank":18,"score":170219},{"content":"Title: Mathewson Point Content: Mathewson Point is a steep , rocky point at the northern tip of Shepard Island , which lies on the seaward edge of the Getz Ice Shelf , Marie Byrd Land , Antarctica . The point , the site of an Adélie penguin rookery , was charted by personnel of the on February 4 , 1962 , and was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names for Lieutenant David S. Mathewson , U.S. Navy , then supply officer of the Glacier .","qid":"2711","docid":"Mathewson_Point","rank":19,"score":169942},{"content":"Title: Weddell Polynya Content: The Weddell Polynya or Weddell Sea Polynya is a polynya or irregular area of open water surrounded by sea ice in the Weddell Sea of the Southern Ocean off Antarctica and near the Maud Rise . The size of New Zealand , it re-occurred each winter between 1974 and 1976 . These were the first three austral winters observed by the Nimbus-5 Electrically Scanning Microwave Radiometer ( ESMR ) . Since 1976 , the polynya has never been seen again . Since the 1970s , the polar Southern Ocean south of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current has freshened and stratified , likely a result of anthropogenic climate change . Such stratification may be responsible for suppressing the return of the Weddell Sea polynya .","qid":"2711","docid":"Weddell_Polynya","rank":20,"score":167581},{"content":"Title: Antarctic ice sheet Content: The Antarctic ice sheet is one of the two polar ice caps of the Earth . It covers about 98 % of the Antarctic continent and is the largest single mass of ice on Earth . It covers an area of almost 14 e6km2 and contains 26.5 e6km3 of ice . Approximately 61 percent of all fresh water on the Earth is held in the Antarctic ice sheet , an amount equivalent to about 58 m of sea-level rise . In East Antarctica , the ice sheet rests on a major land mass , but in West Antarctica the bed can extend to more than 2,500 m below sea level . Much of the land in this area would be seabed if the ice sheet were not there . In contrast to the melting of the Arctic sea ice , sea ice around Antarctica was expanding . The reasons for this are not fully understood , but suggestions include the climatic effects on ocean and atmospheric circulation of the ozone hole , and/or cooler ocean surface temperatures as the warming deep waters melt the ice shelves .","qid":"2711","docid":"Antarctic_ice_sheet","rank":21,"score":167376},{"content":"Title: Adélie penguin Content: The Adélie penguin ( Pygoscelis adeliae ) is a species of penguin common along the entire Antarctic coast , which is their only residence . They are among the most southerly distributed of all seabirds , along with the emperor penguin , the south polar skua , the Wilson 's storm petrel , the snow petrel , and the Antarctic petrel . They are named after Adélie Land , in turn named for Adèle Dumont D'Urville , the wife of French explorer Jules Dumont d'Urville who discovered these penguins in 1840 .","qid":"2711","docid":"Adélie_penguin","rank":22,"score":167333},{"content":"Title: Antarctic continental shelf Content: The Antarctic continental shelf is a geological feature that underlies the Southern Ocean , surrounding the continent of Antarctica . The shelf is generally narrow and unusually deep , its edge lying at depths averaging 500 meters ( the global mean is around 100 meters ) , with troughs extending as far as 2000 meters deep . It is home to a thriving ecosystem of penguins and cold-water fish and crustaceans . Several countries have issued proclamations claiming ownership over parts of the shelf , including Chile ( since 1947 ) , Australia ( since 1953 ) , France , and Argentina .","qid":"2711","docid":"Antarctic_continental_shelf","rank":23,"score":166892},{"content":"Title: Antarctica penguin deaths Content: From 2010 to 2016 the giant iceberg B09B has been responsible for the near annihilation of a 150,000 penguin colony . The media widely reported this as the `` death of 150,000 penguins . '' in Antarctica . The iceberg was the size of Rome , measuring 1,120 square miles . The Adélie penguins there face being wiped out after iceberg became lodged in their bay . In an article in Antarctic Science , researchers wrote : `` The arrival of iceberg B09B in Commonwealth Bay , East Antarctica , and subsequent fast ice expansion has dramatically increased the distance Adélie penguins breeding at Cape Denison must travel in search of food '' . The authors released this update : `` It is important to recognise that this study focuses on the Adélie penguin colonies at Cape Denison and the MacKellar Islets , which has been well known , and importantly , well studied over the past century . The study reported here identified that the impact of the iceberg B09B on the penguins since 2010 . The number of penguins breeding at these colonies has declined markedly since estimates were first made 100 years ago . However our study concerns only the impact B09B and the associated fast ice that has built up between it and the land since the iceberg stranded in 2010 . The penguins now have to commute about 65 km between colonies where they breed and the sea where they can feed . Many fewer penguins are now returning to the colonies to attempt to breed and of those that do return most fail to rear their chicks . We found hundreds of abandoned eggs and thousands of dead chicks . We did not suggest that thousands of adult penguins have died as some media reports suggest . In fact it is unlikely many if any adult penguins have died as a result of this stranding event . We found very few , perhaps no pre-breeding birds at Cape Denison and , if as we predict , few if any young birds prospecting for a place to breed in future are visiting these colonies the local colonies could become extinct within the breeding life of an Adelie penguins ( < 16 years ) if young birds do not replace the old established breeders as they come to the end of their lives . '' `` This iceberg stranding event only affects Adelie penguins in the Commonwealth Bay area , the millions of Adelie penguins breeding around the rest of Antarctica are not affected . '' This report was subsequently disputed and corrected by Antarctic experts who regretted the dramatic tone used by the journalists that led to over-simplification in the interpretation of the iceberg effect . The penguins that could not be found on the colony blocked by the iceberg are not dead . They probably relocated elsewhere in search of a new place to breed . See a statement published by the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research here","qid":"2711","docid":"Antarctica_penguin_deaths","rank":24,"score":166437},{"content":"Title: Geography of Antarctica Content: The geography of Antarctica is dominated by its south polar location and , thus , by ice . The Antarctic continent , located in the Earth 's southern hemisphere , is centered asymmetrically around the South Pole and largely south of the Antarctic Circle . It is washed by the Southern ( or Antarctic ) Ocean or , depending on definition , the southern Pacific , Atlantic , and Indian Oceans . It has an area of more than 14 million km ² . Some 98 % of Antarctica is covered by the Antarctic ice sheet , the world 's largest ice sheet and also its largest reservoir of fresh water . Averaging at least 1.6 km thick , the ice is so massive that it has depressed the continental bedrock in some areas more than 2.5 km below sea level ; subglacial lakes of liquid water also occur ( e.g. , Lake Vostok ) . Ice shelves and rises populate the ice sheet on the periphery .","qid":"2711","docid":"Geography_of_Antarctica","rank":25,"score":164411},{"content":"Title: South Ice Content: South Ice was a British support base 560 km from the South Pole at 82 ° 05 'S , 30 ° 00 ' W in Edith Ronne Land , Antarctica during the International Geophysical Year , established by Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition , where three men overwintered during the Antarctic winter of 1957 . In the same winter , men overwintered for the first time at the South Pole . The name of the station contrasts to North Ice which was a British research station in Greenland .","qid":"2711","docid":"South_Ice","rank":26,"score":163925},{"content":"Title: Milosz Point Content: Milosz Point is a low-lying , ice-free cape on the northern coast of King George Island , the largest of the South Shetland Islands of Antarctica . It lies 4.5 km west of North Foreland at the eastern entrance to Venus Bay and the western entrance to Emerald Cove . It has been identified as an Important Bird Area ( IBA ) by BirdLife International because it supports a large breeding colony of about 17,000 pairs of chinstrap penguins .","qid":"2711","docid":"Milosz_Point","rank":27,"score":163157},{"content":"Title: Antarctic realm Content: Antarctica is one of eight terrestrial biogeographic realms . The ecosystem includes Antarctica and several island groups in the southern Atlantic and Indian Oceans . The continent of Antarctica is so cold and dry that it has supported only 2 vascular plants for millions of years , and its flora presently consists of around 250 lichens , 100 mosses , 25-30 liverworts , and around 700 terrestrial and aquatic algal species , which live on the areas of exposed rock and soil around the shore of the continent . Antarctica 's two flowering plant species , the Antarctic hair grass ( Deschampsia antarctica ) and Antarctic pearlwort ( Colobanthus quitensis ) , are found on the northern and western parts of the Antarctic Peninsula . Antarctica is also home to a diversity of animal life , including penguins , seals , and whales . Several Antarctic island groups are considered part of the Antarctica realm , including South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands , South Orkney Islands , the South Shetland Islands , Bouvet Island , the Crozet Islands , Prince Edward Islands , Heard Island , the Kerguelen Islands , and the McDonald Islands . These islands have a somewhat milder climate than Antarctica proper , and support a greater diversity of tundra plants , although they are all too windy and cold to support trees . Antarctic krill is the keystone species of the ecosystem of the Southern Ocean , and is an important food organism for whales , seals , leopard seals , fur seals , crabeater seals , squid , icefish , penguins , albatrosses and many other birds . The ocean there is so full of phytoplankton because around the ice continent water rises from the depths to the light flooded surface , bringing nutrients from all oceans back to the photic zone . On August 20 , 2014 , scientists confirmed the existence of microorganisms living 800 m below the ice of Antarctica .","qid":"2711","docid":"Antarctic_realm","rank":28,"score":163066},{"content":"Title: Antarctica: A Year on Ice Content: Antarctica : A Year on Ice is the first feature film by New Zealand filmmaker Anthony B. Powell . This documentary is set in Antarctica , specifically in the Ross Island region , which is home to two research bases : United States ' McMurdo Station and New Zealand 's Scott Base . It chronicles a year of time spent living and working at these remote stations ; the summer season ( October to February ) when the sun shines 24 hours a day and the long dark winter ( February to October ) where the sun goes down for four long months and darkness envelopes the environment . The film focuses on the everyday workers that keep the stations and the equipment running so the scientists can complete their work . Interviewees include a helicopter pilot , fireman , firehouse dispatcher , cook , mechanic , storekeeper , storeman , finance person , administrative person , and operations manager . Extensive use of time-lapse photography is used to document the changing seasons and the Antarctic landscapes . Powell had to invent many of his own camera systems to survive the extreme conditions of the deep Antarctic winter . Powell 's previous work includes footage for Discovery , National Geographic , and was featured in BBC 's Frozen Planet . The film also touches upon topics such as ` T3 Syndrome , ' a term that describes what happens to people during the winter , when the T3 hormone in the brain is reassigned to the muscles of the body in an effort to protect it against the extreme cold . The film also describes how the community works and plays together including the annual New Year 's party `` Ice Stock '' . The film 's post-production was completed at Park Road Post Production in Wellington , New Zealand .","qid":"2711","docid":"Antarctica:_A_Year_on_Ice","rank":29,"score":162054},{"content":"Title: Auster rookery Content: 67 ° 23 ' 46.0 '' S , 63 ° 57 ' 02.5 '' E Auster Rookery is an Emperor penguin rookery on sea-ice , sheltered by grounded icebergs , 3 nautical miles ( 5 km ) east of Auster Islands , and about 51 km ENE of Mawson Station in Antarctica . Discovered in August , 1957 , by Flying Officer , D. Johnston RAAF from an ANARE Auster aircraft , after which it was named . Category : Mac . Robertson Land","qid":"2711","docid":"Auster_rookery","rank":30,"score":161845},{"content":"Title: MV Ortelius Content: MV Ortelius is an ice-strengthened cruise ship designed for polar exploration . She was built in Gdynia , Poland , in 1989 as Marina Svetaeva , as a special purpose vessel for the Russian Academy of Sciences . She operated in the Russian Far East as a passenger and supply vessel , and as an accommodation and supply ship to oil fields in the northern Pacific Ocean . From December 2007 she was chartered by Aurora Expeditions of Sydney , Australia , as a cruise ship in the Arctic and Antarctic seas . She was acquired in 2011 by the Dutch company Oceanwide Expeditions based in Vlissingen , Netherlands . She was renamed Ortelius and registered in Cyprus . On 16 January 2014 Ortelius should have sailed for a 10-day Antarctic peninsula voyage . All passengers were aboard , but the anchor system failed and the boat never left port . This technical problem was solved shortly thereafter and Ortelius continued her Antarctic season with passengers . A highlight of Ortelius Antarctic season was a successful expedition to Snow Hill Island where passengers were transported by helicopter to a colony of emperor penguins and their chicks .","qid":"2711","docid":"MV_Ortelius","rank":31,"score":161038},{"content":"Title: Antarctic Snow Cruiser Content: The Antarctic Snow Cruiser was a vehicle designed from 1937 to 1939 under the direction of Thomas Poulter , intended to facilitate transport in Antarctica . The Snow Cruiser was also known as `` The Penguin , '' `` Penguin 1 '' or `` Turtle '' in some published material . While having several innovative features , it generally failed to operate as hoped under the difficult conditions , and was eventually abandoned in Antarctica . Rediscovered under a deep layer of snow in 1958 , it later disappeared again due to shifting ice conditions .","qid":"2711","docid":"Antarctic_Snow_Cruiser","rank":32,"score":159796},{"content":"Title: ANDRILL Content: ANDRILL ( ANtarctic DRILLing Project ) is a scientific drilling project in Antarctica gathering information about past periods of global warming and cooling . The project involves scientists from Germany , Italy , New Zealand , and the United States . At two sites in 2006 and 2007 , ANDRILL team members drilled through ice , seawater , sediment and rock to a depth over more than 1,200 m and recovered a virtually continuous core record from the present to nearly 20 million years ago . The project is based at McMurdo Station in Antarctica . In studying the cores , ANDRILL scientists from various disciplines are gathering detailed information about past periods of global warming and cooling . A major goal of the project is to significantly improve the understanding of Antarctica 's impact on the world 's oceans currents and the atmosphere by reconstructing the behavior of Antarctic sea-ice , ice-shelves , glaciers and sea currents over tens of millions of years . Initial results imply rapid changes and dramatically different climates at various times on the southernmost continent.Quirin Scheirmeier , `` Sediment cores reveal Antarctica 's warmer past , '' Nature News , April 24 , 2008 . The $ 30 million project has achieved its operational goal of retrieving a continuous core record of the last 17 million years , filling crucial gaps left by previous drilling projects . Making use of knowledge gained through prior Antarctic drilling projects , ANDRILL employed novel techniques to reach record depths at its two drilling sites . Among the innovations deployed were a hot-water drilling system that allowed for easier ice-boring and a flexible drill pipe that could accommodate tidal oscillations and strong currents . On December 16 , 2006 , ANDRILL broke the previous record of 999.1 m set in 2000 by the Ocean Drilling Program 's drill ship , the Joides Resolution . The Antarctic-record 1285 m of core ANDRILL went on to recover represents geologic time to about 13 million years ago . In 2007 , drilling at the Southern McMurdo Sound , ANDRILL scientists recovered another 1138 meters ( 3733.6 ft ) of core . One goal in 2006 was to look at a period of around 3 to 5 million years ago in the Pliocene , which scientists know to be warmer . The team 's sedimentologists identified more than 60 cycles in which ice sheets or glaciers advanced and retreated across McMurdo Sound .","qid":"2711","docid":"ANDRILL","rank":33,"score":159784},{"content":"Title: Antarctica Content: Antarctica ( UK English -LSB- ænˈtɑːktɪkə -RSB- or -LSB- ænˈtɑːtɪkə -RSB- , US English -LSB- æntˈɑːrktɪkə -RSB- ) is Earth 's southernmost continent . It contains the geographic South Pole and is situated in the Antarctic region of the Southern Hemisphere , almost entirely south of the Antarctic Circle , and is surrounded by the Southern Ocean . At 14000000 km2 , it is the fifth-largest continent . For comparison , Antarctica is nearly twice the size of Australia . About 98 % of Antarctica is covered by ice that averages 1.9 km in thickness , which extends to all but the northernmost reaches of the Antarctic Peninsula . Antarctica , on average , is the coldest , driest , and windiest continent , and has the highest average elevation of all the continents . Antarctica is a desert , with annual precipitation of only 200 mm ( 8 in ) along the coast and far less inland . The temperature in Antarctica has reached − 89.2 ° C ( − 128.6 ° F ) , though the average for the third quarter ( the coldest part of the year ) is − 63 ° C ( − 81 ° F ) . Anywhere from 1,000 to 5,000 people reside throughout the year at the research stations scattered across the continent . Organisms native to Antarctica include many types of algae , bacteria , fungi , plants , protista , and certain animals , such as mites , nematodes , penguins , seals and tardigrades . Vegetation , where it occurs , is tundra . Although myths and speculation about a Terra Australis ( `` Southern Land '' ) date back to antiquity , Antarctica is noted as the last region on Earth in recorded history to be discovered and colonised by humans , being only first sighted in 1820 by the Russian expedition of Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev on Vostok and Mirny , who sighted the Fimbul ice shelf . The continent , however , remained largely neglected for the rest of the 19th century because of its hostile environment , lack of easily accessible resources , and isolation . In 1895 , the first confirmed landing was conducted by a team of Norwegians . Antarctica is a de facto condominium , governed by parties to the Antarctic Treaty System that have consulting status . Twelve countries signed the Antarctic Treaty in 1959 , and thirty-eight have signed it since then . The treaty prohibits military activities and mineral mining , prohibits nuclear explosions and nuclear waste disposal , supports scientific research , and protects the continent 's ecozone . Ongoing experiments are conducted by more than 4,000 scientists from many nations .","qid":"2711","docid":"Antarctica","rank":34,"score":159527},{"content":"Title: Polar High Content: The polar highs are areas of high atmospheric pressure around the north and south poles ; the north polar high being the stronger one because land gains and loses heat more effectively than sea . The cold temperatures in the polar regions cause air to descend to create the high pressure ( a process called subsidence ) , just as the warm temperatures around the equator cause air to rise to create the low pressure intertropical convergence zone . Rising air also occurs along bands of low pressure situated just below the polar highs around the 50th parallels of latitude . These extratropical convergence zones are occupied by the polar fronts where air masses of polar origin meet and clash with those of tropical or subtropical origin . This convergence of rising air completes the vertical cycle around the polar cell in each latitudinal hemisphere . Closely related to this concept is the polar vortex . Surface temperatures under the polar highs are the coldest on Earth , with no month having an average temperature above freezing . Regions under the polar high also experience very low levels of precipitation , which leads them to be known as `` polar deserts '' . Air flows outwards from the poles to create the polar easterlies in the arctic and antarctic areas .","qid":"2711","docid":"Polar_High","rank":35,"score":158799},{"content":"Title: West Antarctica Content: West Antarctica , or Lesser Antarctica , one of the two major regions of Antarctica , is the part of that continent that lies within the Western Hemisphere , and includes the Antarctic Peninsula . It is separated from East Antarctica by the Transantarctic Mountains and is covered by the West Antarctic Ice Sheet . It lies between the Ross Sea ( partly covered by the Ross Ice Shelf ) , and the Weddell Sea ( largely covered by the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf ) . It may be considered a giant peninsula stretching from the South Pole towards the tip of South America . West Antarctica is largely covered by the Antarctic ice sheet , but there have been signs that climate change is having some effect and that this ice sheet may have started to shrink slightly . The coasts of the Antarctic Peninsula are the only parts of West Antarctica that become ( in summer ) ice-free . These constitute the Marielandia Antarctic tundra and have the warmest climate in Antarctica . The rocks are clad in mosses and lichens that can cope with the intense cold of winter and the short growing-season .","qid":"2711","docid":"West_Antarctica","rank":36,"score":158769},{"content":"Title: Ice cap climate Content: An ice cap climate is a polar climate where the temperature never exceeds 0 C . The climate covers areas in or near the polar regions , such as Antarctica and Greenland , as well as the highest mountaintops . Such areas are covered by a permanent layer of ice and have no vegetation , but they may have animal life , that usually feeds from the oceans . Ice cap climates are inhospitable to human life . Antarctica , the coldest continent on Earth , sustains no permanent human residents , but has some civil inhabitants in proximity to research stations in coastal settlements that are maritime polar and there are some communities that are situated in a transitional zone between the two climates , but barely qualify as a tundra . Some places like Antarctica had a different climate before having an ice cap climate","qid":"2711","docid":"Ice_cap_climate","rank":37,"score":158182},{"content":"Title: Getz Ice Shelf Content: The Getz Ice Shelf is the largest Antarctic ice shelf along the SE Pacific-Antarctic coastline , over 300 mi long and from 20 to wide , bordering the Hobbs and Bakutis Coasts of Marie Byrd Land between the McDonald Heights and Martin Peninsula . Several large islands are partially or wholly embedded in the ice shelf , pinning the calving front . Summer temperature and salinity measurements from 1994 to 2010 show the shelf is subject to more changeable oceanic forcing than other Antarctic shelves . Beneath cold surface waters , the thermocline was ∼ 200 m shallower in 2007 than in 2000 , indicative of shifting access of deep water to the continental shelf and ice shelf base . The calculated area-average basal melt rates was between 1.1 and 4.1 m of ice per year , making Getz the largest source of meltwater to the Southern Ocean . The ice shelf westward of Siple Island was discovered by the United States Antarctic Service ( USAS ) in December 1940 . The portion eastward of Siple Island was first delineated from air photos taken by U.S. Navy Operation Highjump , 1946 -- 47 . The entire feature was mapped by the United States Geological Survey from U.S. Navy air photos of 1962 -- 65 . It was named by the USAS ( 1939 -- 41 ) for George F. Getz of Chicago , Illinois , who helped furnish the seaplane for the expedition .","qid":"2711","docid":"Getz_Ice_Shelf","rank":38,"score":158177},{"content":"Title: Southern Ocean Content: The Southern Ocean , also known as the Antarctic Ocean or the Austral Ocean , comprises the southernmost waters of the World Ocean , generally taken to be south of 60 ° S latitude and encircling Antarctica . As such , it is regarded as the fourth-largest of the five principal oceanic divisions : smaller than the Pacific , Atlantic , and Indian Oceans but larger than the Arctic Ocean . This ocean zone is where cold , northward flowing waters from the Antarctic mix with warmer subantarctic waters . By way of his voyages in the 1770s , Captain James Cook proved that waters encompassed the southern latitudes of the globe . Since then , geographers have disagreed on the Southern Ocean 's northern boundary or even existence , considering the waters part of the Pacific , Atlantic , and Indian Oceans , instead . This remains the current official policy of the International Hydrographic Organization ( IHO ) , since a 2000 revision of its definitions including the Southern Ocean as the waters south of the 60th parallel has not yet been adopted . Others regard the seasonally-fluctuating Antarctic Convergence as the natural boundary .","qid":"2711","docid":"Southern_Ocean","rank":39,"score":157915},{"content":"Title: VX-6 Content: Air Development Squadron Six ( VX-6 or AIRDEVRON SIX , commonly referred to by its nickname , `` puckered penguins '' ) was a United States Navy Air Development Squadron based at McMurdo Station , Antarctica . Established at Naval Air Station Patuxent River , Maryland on 17 January 1955 , the squadron 's mission was to conduct operations in support of Operation Deep Freeze , the operational component of the United States Antarctic Program . Using the tail code XD , the squadron flew numerous fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters over the course of its existence -- many of which were pioneering endeavors . For example , the first air link between Antarctica and New Zealand was established by men and aircraft of VX-6 in 1955 . The following year , a ski-equipped R4D Dakota of VX-6 became the first aircraft to land at the South Pole . In 1961 , the first emergency midwinter medical evacuation flight was conducted from Byrd Station to Christchurch . In 1963 , an LC-130F Hercules of VX-6 made the longest flight in Antarctic history . In 1967 , a United States Navy LC-130F of VX-6 completed the first scheduled winter flight to Antarctica , landing at Williams Field . VX-6 changed the tail code of its aircraft to JD in 1957 , and was redesignated as Antarctic Development Squadron Six ( VXE-6 ) on 1 January 1969 . Over the 14-year course of its existence , seventeen sailors and marines assigned to VX-6 died in Antarctica during Operation Deep Freeze missions .","qid":"2711","docid":"VX-6","rank":40,"score":157821},{"content":"Title: The Blue Marble Content: The Blue Marble is an image of the Earth made on December 7 , 1972 , by the crew of the Apollo 17 spacecraft at a distance of about 29000 km from the surface . It is one of the most reproduced images in human history . The image with the official NASA designation AS17-148-22727 reproduces the view of the Earth as seen by the Apollo crew traveling toward the Moon . The translunar coast photograph extends from the Mediterranean Sea to Antarctica . This was the first time the Apollo trajectory made it possible to photograph the south polar ice cap , despite the Southern Hemisphere being heavily covered in clouds . In addition to the Arabian Peninsula and Madagascar , almost the entire coastline of Africa is clearly visible . The Asian mainland is on the horizon . The name has also been applied by NASA to a 2012 series of image data sets covering the entire globe at relatively high resolution , created by carefully sifting through satellite-captured sequences taken over time , to eliminate as much cloud cover as possible from the collated set of images .","qid":"2711","docid":"The_Blue_Marble","rank":41,"score":157746},{"content":"Title: Sea ice Content: Sea ice arises as seawater freezes . Because ice is less dense than water , it floats on the ocean 's surface ( as does fresh water ice , which has an even lower density ) . Sea ice covers about 7 % of the Earth 's surface and about 12 % of the world 's oceans . Much of the world 's sea ice is enclosed within the polar ice packs in the Earth 's polar regions : the Arctic ice pack of the Arctic Ocean and the Antarctic ice pack of the Southern Ocean . Polar packs undergo a significant yearly cycling in surface extent , a natural process upon which depends the Arctic ecology , including the ocean 's ecosystems . Due to the action of winds , currents and temperature fluctuations , sea ice is very dynamic , leading to a wide variety of ice types and features . Sea ice may be contrasted with icebergs , which are chunks of ice shelves or glaciers that calve into the ocean . Depending on location , sea ice expanses may also incorporate icebergs .","qid":"2711","docid":"Sea_ice","rank":42,"score":157521},{"content":"Title: Climate of Antarctica Content: The climate of Antarctica is the coldest on Earth . Antarctica 's lowest air temperature record was set on 21 July 1983 , with − 89.2 C at Vostok Station . Satellite measurements have identified even lower ground temperatures , down to − 93.2 C at the cloud free East Antarctic Plateau on 10 August 2010 . It is also extremely dry ( technically a desert ) , averaging 166 mm of precipitation per year . On most parts of the continent the snow rarely melts and is eventually compressed to become the glacier ice that makes up the ice sheet . Weather fronts rarely penetrate far into the continent , because of the katabatic winds . Most of Antarctica has an ice cap climate ( Köppen EF ) with very cold , generally extremely dry weather .","qid":"2711","docid":"Climate_of_Antarctica","rank":43,"score":157314},{"content":"Title: Ice age Content: An ice age is a period of long-term reduction in the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere , resulting in the presence or expansion of continental and polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers . Within a long-term ice age , individual pulses of cold climate are termed `` glacial periods '' ( or alternatively `` glacials '' or `` glaciations '' or colloquially as `` ice age '' ) , and intermittent warm periods are called `` interglacials '' . In the terminology of glaciology , ice age implies the presence of extensive ice sheets in both northern and southern hemispheres . By this definition , we are in an interglacial period -- the Holocene -- of the ice age . The ice age began 2.6 million years ago at the start of the Pleistocene epoch , because the Greenland , Arctic , and Antarctic ice sheets still exist .","qid":"2711","docid":"Ice_age","rank":44,"score":156159},{"content":"Title: Polar see-saw Content: The polar see-saw ( also : Bipolar seesaw ) is the phenomenon that temperature changes in the northern and southern hemispheres may be out of phase . The theory ( or hypothesis ) states that large changes , f.e. when the glaciers are intensely growing or depleting , in the formation of ocean bottom water in both poles take a long time to exert their effect in the other hemisphere . Estimates of the period of delay vary , one typical estimate is 1500 years . This is usually studied in the context of ice-cores taken from Antarctica and Greenland .","qid":"2711","docid":"Polar_see-saw","rank":45,"score":156041},{"content":"Title: Antarctic Peninsula Content: The Antarctic Peninsula is the northernmost part of the mainland of Antarctica , located at the base of the Southern Hemisphere . At the surface , it is the biggest , most prominent peninsula in Antarctica as it extends 1300 km from a line between Cape Adams ( Weddell Sea ) and a point on the mainland south of Eklund Islands . Beneath the ice sheet which covers it , the Antarctic Peninsula consists of a string of bedrock islands ; these are separated by deep channels whose bottoms lie at depths considerably below current sea level . They are joined together by a grounded ice sheet . Tierra del Fuego , the southernmost tip of South America , lies only about 1000 km away across the Drake Passage . The Antarctic Peninsula is currently dotted with numerous research stations and nations have made multiple claims of sovereignty . The peninsula is part of disputed and overlapping claims by Argentina , Chile and the United Kingdom . None of these claims has international recognition and , under the Antarctic Treaty System , the respective countries do not attempt to enforce their claims . Argentina has the most bases and personnel stationed on the peninsula .","qid":"2711","docid":"Antarctic_Peninsula","rank":46,"score":155897},{"content":"Title: Iceberg D-16 Content: Iceberg D-16 is a city-sized iceberg near Antarctica , discovered on March 26 , 2006 by the National Ice Center using satellite imagery from the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program . It broke free of the Fimbul Ice Shelf , located along the northwestern section of Queen Maud Land in the eastern Weddell Sea . It is approximately 8 miles wide and 15 miles long ( 120 square miles ) , roughly the size of a city .","qid":"2711","docid":"Iceberg_D-16","rank":47,"score":155472},{"content":"Title: Taylor Rookery Content: Taylor Rookery is an emperor penguin breeding colony on the Mawson Coast of Mac.Robertson Land in East Antarctica . It is the largest of the two known entirely land-based colonies of the species , most of which are situated on sea ice .","qid":"2711","docid":"Taylor_Rookery","rank":48,"score":155137},{"content":"Title: Extreme points of Antarctica Content: The tallest mountain in Antarctica is Mount Vinson rising 4,892 metres ( 16,050 feet ) above sea level . The lowest point in Antarctica is within the Bentley Subglacial Trench , which reaches 2,555 metres below sea level . This is also the lowest place on Earth not covered by ocean ( although it is covered by ice ) . The lowest accessible point in Antarctica is the shore of Deep Lake , Vestfold Hills , which is 50 m beneath sea level . The point on land farthest from any coastline on the Antarctic Continent is located at . This is also known as the South Pole of inaccessibility . Antarctica is the southernmost land mass on Earth . The Geographical South Pole lies on the Polar Plateau at . It is here that the southernmost human habitation on Earth is located : Amundsen -- Scott South Pole Station ( U.S. Administered Base ) . Vostok Station is the most isolated research base on the continent ( located at ) , and it is situated over the southernmost lake in the world , Lake Vostok , a subglacial lake 4,000 metres ( 13,000 feet ) under the surface of the ice where the station sits . Formerly administrated by the Soviets , it is now operated by Russia . The southernmost volcano on the planet -- Mount Erebus -- is in Antarctica on the world 's southernmost island reachable from the sea : Ross Island . The southernmost island is Berkner Island . It is embedded in the ice shelf , fully covered by ice and fully below sea level . The Ross Sea is the southernmost sea in the world , with its southernmost extremity ( Gould Coast ) at the foot of the Horlick Mountains approximately 200 miles ( 320 km ) from the Geographic South Pole . However , this area is covered by the Ross Ice Shelf . The southernmost open sea is also part of Ross Sea , namely Bay of Whales at 78 ° 30 'S , at the edge of Ross Ice Shelf . The northernmost extremity of the Antarctic mainland ( without nearshore islands ) is Prime Head , at the northern tip of the Trinity Peninsula at . The Antarctic Peninsula is the largest contiguous part of the continent projecting north of the Antarctic Circle and thus has many of the continent 's research bases . Prime Head is 609 mi ( 980 km ) from Cape Horn . The northernmost research base on the mainland is Esperanza Base .","qid":"2711","docid":"Extreme_points_of_Antarctica","rank":49,"score":155110},{"content":"Title: Worley Point Content: Worley Point is a rock point , the site of an Adelie penguin rookery , forming the northwest corner of Shepard Island . Like Grant Island , 5 nautical miles ( 9 km ) eastward , Shepard Island is surrounded by the Getz Ice Shelf except on the north side . The point was charted from the USS Name applied by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) for Lieutenant Richard J. Worley , U.S. Navy , Medical Officer at South Pole Station , 1969 . Category : Headlands of Marie Byrd Land","qid":"2711","docid":"Worley_Point","rank":50,"score":154956},{"content":"Title: North-west White Island Antarctic Specially Protected Area Content: The North-west White Island Antarctic Specially Protected Area comprises a 142 km2 area of coastal shelf ice on the north-west side of White Island in the Ross Archipelago of Antarctica.The site has been designated an Antarctic Specially Protected Area ( ASPA 137 ) because it supports an unusual small breeding population of Weddell seals , which is not only the most southerly known , but which has also been physically isolated from other populations by the advance of the McMurdo and Ross ice shelves . The first seals in the area were recorded in 1958 , since when the population has grown to 25 -- 30 . The seals utilise the open waters of McMurdo Sound but do not have the breathing capacity to reach the open ocean by swimming beneath the intervening 20 km of permanent shelf ice .","qid":"2711","docid":"North-west_White_Island_Antarctic_Specially_Protected_Area","rank":51,"score":154921},{"content":"Title: Amanda Bay Content: Amanda Bay , also sometimes known as Hovde Cove , lies in southern Prydz Bay on the Ingrid Christensen Coast of Princess Elizabeth Land , East Antarctica . It is best known for its breeding colony of several thousand pairs of emperor penguins on sea ice at the south-west corner of the bay .","qid":"2711","docid":"Amanda_Bay","rank":52,"score":154819},{"content":"Title: Brown skua Content: The brown skua ( Stercorarius antarcticus ) , also known as the Antarctic skua , subantarctic skua , southern great skua , southern skua , or hākoakoa ( Māori ) , is a large seabird that breeds in the subantarctic and Antarctic zones and moves further north when not breeding . Its taxonomy is highly complex and a matter of dispute , with some splitting it into two or three species : Falkland skua ( S. antarcticus ) , Tristan skua ( S. hamiltoni ) , and subantarctic skua ( S. lönnbergi ) . To further confuse , it hybridizes with both the south polar and Chilean skuas , and the entire group has been considered to be a subspecies of the great skua , a species otherwise restricted to the Northern Hemisphere .","qid":"2711","docid":"Brown_skua","rank":53,"score":154675},{"content":"Title: Last Glacial Maximum Content: The Last Glacial Maximum ( LGM ) was the last period in the Earth 's climate history during the last glacial period when ice sheets were at their greatest extension . Growth of the ice sheets reached their maximum positions in about 24,500 BCE . Deglaciation commenced in the Northern Hemisphere between approximately 18,000 to 17,000 BCE and in Antarctica approximately 12,500 BCE , which is consistent with evidence that it was the primary source for an abrupt rise in the sea level in about 12,500 BCE . Vast ice sheets covered much of North America , northern Europe , and Asia . The ice sheets profoundly affected Earth 's climate by causing drought , desertification , and a dramatic drop in sea levels . It was followed by the Late Glacial .","qid":"2711","docid":"Last_Glacial_Maximum","rank":54,"score":154598},{"content":"Title: European Project for Ice Coring in Antarctica Content: The European Project for Ice Coring in Antarctica ( EPICA ) is a multinational European project for deep ice core drilling in Antarctica . Its main objective is to obtain full documentation of the climatic and atmospheric record archived in Antarctic ice by drilling and analyzing two ice cores and comparing these with their Greenland counterparts ( GRIP and GISP ) . Evaluation of these records will provide information about the natural climate variability and mechanisms of rapid climatic changes during the last glacial epoch . The European Science Foundation EPICA Programme ( 1996 -- 2005 ) provides co-ordination for EPICA drilling activities at Dome Concordia and Kohnen Station , which are supported by the European Commission and by national contributions from Belgium , Denmark , France , Germany , Italy , the Netherlands , Norway , Sweden , Switzerland and the United Kingdom . Deep drilling took place at two sites in Antarctica : Concordia Station at Dome C and Kohnen Station . In 2008 the project received the Descartes Prize for Research .","qid":"2711","docid":"European_Project_for_Ice_Coring_in_Antarctica","rank":55,"score":154503},{"content":"Title: Cadwalader Beach Content: Cadwalader Beach is a beach nearly 1 mi long at the south end of Beaufort Island , in the Ross Archipelago . The beach is occupied by a large Adélie penguin rookery and there is easy access from the sea when the coast is ice free . It was named by the New Zealand Geological Survey Antarctic Expedition ( 1958 -- 59 ) for Captain John Cadwalader , U.S. Navy , who encouraged and assisted the expedition in its Antarctic program , and also rendered valuable assistance to the New Zealand parties of the Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition , 1956 -- 58 .","qid":"2711","docid":"Cadwalader_Beach","rank":56,"score":154490},{"content":"Title: Cape Melville (South Shetland Islands) Content: Cape Melville , is a low-lying , ice-free headland at the eastern end of King George Island in the South Shetland Islands of Antarctica . Some 388 ha of the site has been identified as an Important Bird Area ( IBA ) by BirdLife International because it supports a large breeding colony of about 16,000 pairs of chinstrap penguins .","qid":"2711","docid":"Cape_Melville_(South_Shetland_Islands)","rank":57,"score":154483},{"content":"Title: New South Greenland Content: New South Greenland , sometimes known as Morrell 's Land , was an appearance of land recorded by the American captain Benjamin Morrell of the schooner Wasp in , during a sealing and exploration voyage in the Weddell Sea area of Antarctica . Morrell provided precise coordinates and a description of a coastline which he claimed to have sailed along for more than 300 mi . Because the Weddell Sea area was so little visited , and hard to navigate due to ice conditions , the alleged land was never properly investigated before its existence was emphatically disproved during Antarctic expeditions in the early 20th century . At the time of Morrell 's voyage , the geography of the then unnamed Weddell Sea and its surrounding coasts was almost entirely unknown , making the claimed sighting initially plausible . However , obvious errors in Morrell 's voyage account , and his general reputation as a fabulist , created scepticism about the existence of this new land . In the German explorer Wilhelm Filchner searched for but found no traces of land , after his ship Deutschland became icebound in the Weddell Sea and drifted into the locality of Morrell 's observation . A sounding of the sea bottom revealed more than 5000 ft of water , indicating no land in near proximity . Three years later , trapped in the same waters with his ship Endurance , Ernest Shackleton was able by similar means to confirm the land 's non-existence . Various explanations for Morrell 's error have been suggested , including intentional deception . However , Morrell describes his find briefly and prosaically , evidently seeking no personal credit or glory from the discovery . In his narrative he assigns the honour to his fellow sealing captain , Robert Johnson , for finding and naming the land two years earlier . Morrell may have been honestly mistaken , through miscalculation of his ship 's position or by misremembering detail when writing the account after nine years . Alternatively , he may have made the common error of confusing distant icebergs with land , or been misled by the distorting effects of Antarctic mirage . In 1843 the distinguished British naval explorer James Clark Ross reported possible land in a position close to Morrell 's ; this land , too , would eventually be proven not to exist .","qid":"2711","docid":"New_South_Greenland","rank":58,"score":153720},{"content":"Title: Coulman Island Content: Coulman Island is an ice-covered island , composed of several connected shield volcanos in the Ross Sea off Antarctica . It is 18 nmi long and 8 nmi and is located 9 nmi SE of Cape Jones , Victoria Land . The Coulman caldera , 3 mi wide and 2300 ft deep , can be found on the south end of the island . Emperor penguins inhabit this island . Coulman Island lies within the boundaries of Ross Dependency , which is claimed by New Zealand ; a claim unrecognised by most other states . It was discovered in 1841 by Sir James Clark Ross who named it for his father-in-law , Thomas Coulman . A notable landmark of this island is Cape Anne , the south-easternmost point of the island , so named by Sir James Clark Ross for his wife . Cape Wadworth is the northernmost point of the island . The island has an elevation of 1998 m.","qid":"2711","docid":"Coulman_Island","rank":59,"score":151413},{"content":"Title: Duncan Wingham Content: Duncan John Wingham ( born 12 October 1957 ) is a British physicist who is Professor of Climate Physics at University College London , and was the first Director of the Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling . He is chief executive of the Natural Environment Research Council and Principal Scientist for the CryoSat Satellite Mission . In the 1990s , Wingham was involved in a four-year satellite study of the Antarctic ice sheet . His conclusion then , and from later research , is that the Antarctic has contributed little to observed rising sea levels in the 20th century . However , he has also stated that `` it is possible that the consequences of global warming on sea level rise have been underestimated ... Other sources of rise must be underestimated . In particular it is possible that the effect of global warming on thermal expansion -LSB- on the oceans -RSB- is larger than we thought '' . In a 2005 interview Wingham stated '' -LSB- t -RSB- he Antarctic is to some extent insulated from global warming because to its north are zonal flows in the atmosphere and ocean , unimpeded by other landmasses ... I am not denying global warming . ''","qid":"2711","docid":"Duncan_Wingham","rank":60,"score":151333},{"content":"Title: Dome A Content: Dome A or Dome Argus is the loftiest ice dome on the Antarctic Plateau , located 1200 km inland . It is thought to be the coldest naturally occurring place on Earth ; scientists believe that temperatures can sometimes even drop below -102 ° C in the winter . It is the highest ice feature in Antarctica , consisting of an ice dome or eminence of 4093 m elevation above sea level . It is located near the center of East Antarctica , approximately midway between the enormous head of Lambert Glacier and the geographic South Pole , within the Australian claim .","qid":"2711","docid":"Dome_A","rank":61,"score":150699},{"content":"Title: Archaeospheniscus lopdelli Content: Lopdell 's penguin ( Archaeospheniscus lopdelli ) was the largest species of the extinct penguin genus Archaeospheniscus , standing about 90 -- 120 cm high , or somewhat less than the extant emperor penguin . It is only known from bones of a single individual ( Otago Museum C. 47.21 ) which was found in the Late Oligocene Kokoamu Greensand Formation ( 27-28 MYA ) at Duntroon , New Zealand . Bones apparently belonging to this species are now also known from the Late Eocene La Meseta Formation ( 34-37 MYA ) on Seymour Island , Antarctica ( Tambussi et al. , 2006 ) . As the bird is not very well distinguished except in size from its contemporary congener Archaeospheniscus lowei and the size range , an estimated 85 -- 120 cm , is in the upper range of the variation found in modern penguins , it is probable that A. lopdelli is a synonym of A. lowelli . As the recent finds in Antarctica suggest , this is far from certain , however , and there remains much to be learned about the systematics and biogeography of the two larger Archaeospheniscus species . The species ' binomen honors J. C. Lopdell , who assisted Marples in recovering the fossils of this bird and others found in the Duntroon excavations .","qid":"2711","docid":"Archaeospheniscus_lopdelli","rank":62,"score":150546},{"content":"Title: Emperor penguin Content: The emperor penguin ( Aptenodytes forsteri ) is the tallest and heaviest of all living penguin species and is endemic to Antarctica . The male and female are similar in plumage and size , reaching 122 cm in height and weighing from 22 to . The dorsal side and head are black and sharply delineated from the white belly , pale-yellow breast and bright-yellow ear patches . Like all penguins it is flightless , with a streamlined body , and wings stiffened and flattened into flippers for a marine habitat . Its diet consists primarily of fish , but can also include crustaceans , such as krill , and cephalopods , such as squid . In hunting , the species can remain submerged up to 18 minutes , diving to a depth of 535 m . It has several adaptations to facilitate this , including an unusually structured haemoglobin to allow it to function at low oxygen levels , solid bones to reduce barotrauma , and the ability to reduce its metabolism and shut down non-essential organ functions . The only penguin species that breeds during the Antarctic winter , emperor penguins trek 50 -- over the ice to breeding colonies which may include thousands of individuals . The female lays a single egg , which is incubated by the male while the female returns to the sea to feed ; parents subsequently take turns foraging at sea and caring for their chick in the colony . The lifespan is typically 20 years in the wild , although observations suggest that some individuals may live to 50 years of age .","qid":"2711","docid":"Emperor_penguin","rank":63,"score":150400},{"content":"Title: Notothenioidei Content: Notothenioidei is one of 18 suborders from the order Perciformes and includes Antarctic fish and sub-Antarctic fish . Notothenioids are distributed mainly throughout the Southern Ocean around the coasts of New Zealand , South America , and Antarctica . The main seawater temperatures between − 2 and 4 ° C ( 28 and 39 ° F ) , but some the subpolar species inhabit waters that may be as warm as 10 ° C ( 50 ° F ) around New Zealand and South America . Seawater temperatures below the freezing point of fresh water ( 0 ° C or 32 ° F ) are possible due to the dissolved salts . Notothenioids have a depth range of about 0 -- 1,500 m ( 0 -- 4,921 ft ) . Comparison studies between sub-Antarctic and Antarctic notothenioids have revealed different ecological processes and genetic differences between the two groups of fish , like loss of hemoglobin and changes in buoyancy .","qid":"2711","docid":"Notothenioidei","rank":64,"score":150027},{"content":"Title: Antarctic Content: The Antarctic ( US English -LSB- æntˈɑrktɪk -RSB- , UK English -LSB- ænˈtɑrktɪk -RSB- or -LSB- æntˈɑrtɪk -RSB- and -LSB- ænˈtɑrtɪk -RSB- or -LSB- ænˈɑrtɪk -RSB- ) is a polar region , specifically the region around the Earth 's South Pole , opposite the Arctic region around the North Pole . The Antarctic comprises in the strict sense the continent of Antarctica and the island territories located on the Antarctic Plate . In a broader sense the Antarctic region include the ice shelves , waters , and island territories in the Southern Ocean situated south of the Antarctic Convergence , a zone approximately 32 to wide varying in latitude seasonally . The region covers some 20 % of the Southern Hemisphere , of which 5.5 % ( 14 million km2 ) is the surface area of the Antarctic continent itself . All of the land and ice shelves south of 60 ° S latitude are administrated under the Antarctic Treaty System . In a biogeographic sense , the Antarctic ecozone is one of eight ecozones of the Earth 's land surface .","qid":"2711","docid":"Antarctic","rank":65,"score":149694},{"content":"Title: East Antarctic Ice Sheet Content: The East Antarctic Ice Sheet ( EAIS ) is one of two large ice sheets in Antarctica , and the largest on the entire planet . The EAIS lies between 45 ° west and 168 ° east longitudinally . The EAIS is considerably larger in area and mass than the West Antarctic Ice Sheet ( WAIS ) . It is separated from the WAIS by the Transantarctic Mountains . The EAIS rests upon a large land mass , contrary to that of the WAIS , which rests mainly on bedrock below sea level . The EAIS is also home to the thickest ice on the frozen white continent , at 15,700 ft ( 4,800 m ) . More well known , however , is that the EAIS is home to the geographic South Pole as well as of the Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station .","qid":"2711","docid":"East_Antarctic_Ice_Sheet","rank":66,"score":149432},{"content":"Title: North American ice storm of January 1961 Content: The North American ice storm of January 1961 was a massive ice storm that struck areas of northern Idaho in the United States on January 1 -- 3 , 1961 . The storm set a record for thickest recorded ice accumulation from a single storm in the United States , at 8 inches . The storm 's swath covered areas from Grangeville , in north central Idaho , to the Canada -- United States border . According to the National Weather Service , a combination of dense fog , sub-freezing temperatures , and occasional freezing rain led to the heavy ice accretions . Catastrophic damage to trees and utilities resulted , resulting in widespread power outages . Prior to this storm , previous records of between 4 and 6 inches of ice were recorded in New York City and Texas .","qid":"2711","docid":"North_American_ice_storm_of_January_1961","rank":67,"score":149432},{"content":"Title: Joseph Adhémar Content: Joseph Alphonse Adhémar ( 1797 -- 1862 ) was a French mathematician . He was the first to suggest that ice ages were controlled by astronomical forces in his 1842 book Revolutions of the Sea . The Earth 's orbit is elliptical , with the Sun at one focus ; lines drawn through the summer and winter solstice ; and the spring and autumn equinox ; intersect with the sun at right angles . The Earth is closest to the Sun ( perihelion ) near the northern hemisphere winter solstice . The earth moves faster through its orbit when closer to the sun . Hence , the period from the northern hemisphere 's autumn equinox to winter and spring is shorter by around seven days than the period from spring to summer to autumn ; the reverse is true in the southern hemisphere . Hence , northern hemisphere winter is shorter . Because of this , Adhemar reasoned that because the southern hemisphere had more hours of darkness in winter , it must be cooling , and attributed the Antarctic ice sheet to this . Adhemar knew of the 22,000 year cycle of precession of the equinoxes , and theorised that the ice ages occurred in this cycle . One immediate objection to the theory was that the total insolation during a year does not vary at all during the precessional cycle , only its seasonal distribution . Another was that the timing was wrong ; however this could not be tested by observations available at the time . Adhemar 's theory was further developed , first by James Croll and later by Milutin Milanković . Adhemar predicted the Antarctic ice sheet and theorised about its thickness by comparing the depths of the Arctic and circum-Antarctic oceans . Finding the Antarctic oceans deeper ( the measurements he used may not have been fully representative ) and attributing this to the gravitational attraction of the Antarctic ice sheet , he postulated a truly enormous ice sheet approximately 90 km thick .","qid":"2711","docid":"Joseph_Adhémar","rank":68,"score":149063},{"content":"Title: Pole of Inaccessibility (Antarctic research station) Content: The Pole of Inaccessibility Research Station is a defunct Soviet research station in Kemp Land , Antarctica , at the southern pole of inaccessibility ( the point in Antarctica furthest from any ocean ) as it was defined in 1958 when the station was established . Later definitions give other locations , all relatively near this point . It performed meteorological observations from 14 December 1958 to 26 December 1958 . The Pole of Inaccessibility has the world 's coldest year-round average temperature of -58.2 ° C. It is 878 km from the South Pole , and approximately 600 km from Sovetskaya . The surface elevation is 3,800 m . It was reached on 14 December 1958 by an 18-man traversing party of the 3rd Soviet Antarctic Expedition . Its WMO ID is 89550 .","qid":"2711","docid":"Pole_of_Inaccessibility_(Antarctic_research_station)","rank":69,"score":148085},{"content":"Title: Snow Content: Snow pertains to frozen crystalline water throughout its life cycle , starting when it precipitates from clouds and accumulates on surfaces , then metamorphoses in place , and ultimately melts , slides or sublimates away . Snowstorms organize and develop by feeding on sources of atmospheric moisture and cold air . Snowflakes nucleate around particles in the atmosphere by attracting supercooled water droplets , which freeze in hexagonal-shaped crystals . Snowflakes take on a variety of shapes , basic among these are platelets , needles , columns and rime . As snow accumulates into a snowpack , it may blow into drifts . Over time , accumulated snow metamorphoses , by sintering , sublimation and freeze-thaw . Where the climate is cold enough for year-to-year accumulation , a glacier may form . Otherwise , snow typically melts seasonally , causing runoff into streams and rivers and recharging groundwater . Major snow-prone areas include the polar regions , the upper half of the Northern Hemisphere and mountainous regions worldwide with sufficient moisture and cold temperatures . In the Southern Hemisphere , snow is confined primarily to mountainous areas , apart from Antarctica . Snow affects such human activities as transportation : creating the need for keeping roadways , wings , and windows clear ; agriculture : providing water to crops and safeguarding livestock ; such sports as skiing , snowboarding , snowmachine travel ; and warfare : impairing target acquisition , degrading the performance of combatants and materiel , and impeding mobility . Snow affects ecosystems , as well , by providing an insulating layer during winter under which plants and animals are able to survive the cold .","qid":"2711","docid":"Snow","rank":70,"score":148083},{"content":"Title: VXE-6 Content: Antarctic Development Squadron Six ( VXE-6 or ANTARCTIC DEVRON SIX , commonly referred to by its nickname , The Puckered Penguins ) was a United States Navy Air Test and Evaluation Squadron based Naval Air Station Point Mugu , California with forward operating bases at Christchurch , New Zealand and McMurdo Station , Antarctica . Established at Naval Air Station Quonset Point , Rhode Island on 1 January 1969 , the squadron 's mission was to provide aviation support for Operation Deep Freeze , the operational component of the United States Antarctic Program . Following the closure of NAS Quonset Point in the 1970s , the squadron relocated to NAS Point Mugu . Using the tail code JD and XD , the squadron flew numerous aircraft over the course of its existence . Following the closure of austral summer operations at Amundsen -- Scott South Pole Station in February 1999 , the squadron returned to Naval Air Station Point Mugu , California , where it was disestablished on 31 March 1999 .","qid":"2711","docid":"VXE-6","rank":71,"score":147804},{"content":"Title: Palaeeudyptes Content: Palaeeudyptes is an extinct genus of large penguins , currently containing four accepted species . They were probably larger than almost all living penguins , with the smaller species being about the size of an emperor penguin and the largest ones having stood about 2 meters tall . Of the four species , two ( P. gunnari and P. klekowskii ) are known from numerous remains found in Middle or Late Eocene strata ( 34 to 50 MYA ) of the La Meseta Formation on Seymour Island , Antarctica . P. antarcticus , the first fossil penguin described , is only really known from a single incomplete tarsometatarsus found in the Late Oligocene Otekaike Limestone ( 23 to 28 , possibly up to 34 MYA ) at Kakanui , New Zealand , but numerous other bones have been tentatively assigned to the species . The other described New Zealand species , P. marplesi , is known from parts of a skeleton , mainly leg bones , from the Middle or Late Eocene Burnside Mudstone ( 34 to 40 MYA ) at Burnside , Dunedin . To this species also a number of additional remains have been tentatively assigned . The problem with the indeterminate New Zealand specimens is that they at least in part are intermediate in size between the two species ( Simpson , 1971 ) . It may be that P. marplesi simply evolved into the smaller P. antarcticus . Bones unassignable to species also were found on Seymour Island , but in these cases they seem to be from juvenile individuals or are simply too damaged to be of diagnostic value ( Jadwiszczak , 2006 ) . In addition , an incomplete right tibiotarsus ( South Australian Museum P10862 ) and one left humerus ( South Australian Museum P7158 ) and assignable to this genus were found in the Late Eocene Blanche Point Marls at Witton Bluff near Adelaide , Australia ( Simpson , 1946 , 1971 ) . Additionally , an incomplete humerus identified as Palaeeudyptes was recovered in southernmost Chile ( Sallaberry et al. , 2010 ) , from middle to late Eocene beds of the Río Turbio Formation , near Puerto Natales , 200 km south from Torres del Paine National Park . The supposed genus Wimanornis , based on two Seymour Island humeri , is apparently a synonym of P. gunnari ( Jadwiszcak , 2006 ) . The genus is the namesake for the subfamily of primitive penguins , Palaeeudyptinae . Altogether , their osteological characteristics seem to have been somewhat less advanced that those of the slightly smaller Archaeospheniscus and about on par with the gigantic Anthropornis . The exact nature of the relationship of the Palaeeudyptinae to modern penguins is unknown .","qid":"2711","docid":"Palaeeudyptes","rank":72,"score":147218},{"content":"Title: Mohn Peaks Content: The Mohn Peaks are two ice-covered peaks , the northern and southern being 1,275 and high , respectively , standing 9 nmi west-southwest of the head of Mason Inlet , on the east coast of Palmer Land , Antarctica . They were first seen and photographed from the air in December 1940 by the United States Antarctic Service . During 1947 the peaks were photographed from the air by the Ronne Antarctic Research Expedition under Finn Ronne , who in conjunction with the Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey ( FIDS ) charted them from the ground . They were named by the FIDS for Norwegian meteorologist Henrik Mohn .","qid":"2711","docid":"Mohn_Peaks","rank":73,"score":146380},{"content":"Title: Old Pulteney Row To The Pole Content: The Old Pulteney Row To The Pole was a publicity stunt sponsored by a whisky distiller for naming rights , which navigated a rowing boat to the North Magnetic Pole at 78 ° 35.7 N 104 ° 11.9 W , the position certified in 1996 . It is believed to be the only polar expedition to feature rowing boats since the crew of Sir Ernest Shackleton 's row to Elephant Island off South Georgia in 1916 , after his aborted attempt to cross Antarctica . The 450-mile journey took almost four weeks . The expedition set out from Resolute Bay on July 28 , 2011 reaching the Pole position on August 25 . It was the first time any surface vessel under human power had been to any pole position . The expedition was the first attempt at such a voyage and was made possible by the open water in the Arctic region in summer . According to the National Snow and Ice Data Center , part of the University of Colorado , the Arctic sea ice melted to its third smallest extent ( since 1979 , when satellite measurements began ) in September 2010 . Prior to 1979 ice extents are unreliable .","qid":"2711","docid":"Old_Pulteney_Row_To_The_Pole","rank":74,"score":145236},{"content":"Title: Norwegian-U.S. Scientific Traverse of East Antarctica Content: The Norwegian-U.S. Scientific Traverse of East Antarctica is a research program consisting of two overland traverses of East Antarctica : the first from the Norwegian Troll Station to the South Pole in the 2007/2008 season ; and a return traverse via a different route in 2008/2009 . The main research focus of the program is climate change , the stated goals being to : Investigate climate variability in Dronning Maud Land of East Antarctica on time scales of years to a thousand years . Establish spatial and temporal variability in snow accumulation over this area of Antarctica to understand its impact on sea level . Investigate the impact of atmospheric and oceanic variability on the chemical composition of firn and ice in the region . Revisit areas and sites first explored by traverses in the 1960s , for detection of possible changes and to establish benchmark data sets for future research efforts . The program is part of Trans-Antarctic Scientific Traverse Expeditions -- Ice Divide of East Antarctica ( TASTE-IDEA ) , and the International Partners in Ice Coring Sciences ( IPICS ) , both of which have ISCU-WMO endorsement for the International Polar Year 2007-2009 .","qid":"2711","docid":"Norwegian-U.S._Scientific_Traverse_of_East_Antarctica","rank":75,"score":145203},{"content":"Title: Cold-weather warfare Content: Cold-weather warfare , also known as Arctic warfare or winter warfare , encompasses military operations affected by snow , ice , thawing conditions or cold , both on land and at sea . Cold-weather conditions occur year-round at high elevation or at high latitudes , and elsewhere materialise seasonally during the winter period . Mountain warfare often takes place in cold weather or on terrain that is affected by ice and snow , such as the Alps and the Himalayas . Historically , most such operations have been during winter in the Northern Hemisphere . Some have occurred above the Arctic Circle where snow , ice and cold may occur throughout the year . At times , cold or its aftermath -- thaw -- has been a decisive factor in the failure of a campaign , as with Napoleon 's invasion of Russia in 1812 and the Nazi invasion of Russia .","qid":"2711","docid":"Cold-weather_warfare","rank":76,"score":145059},{"content":"Title: Penguin River Content: Penguin River is a small meandering stream which flows in a general northeast direction from Hamberg Lakes to the coast close south of Horse Head in Cumberland East Bay , South Georgia . It was first surveyed by the Swedish Antarctic Expedition under Nordenskjold from 1901 -- 04 , and was named by Carl Skottsberg , botanist with the expedition . Category : Rivers of Antarctica","qid":"2711","docid":"Penguin_River","rank":77,"score":145050},{"content":"Title: Getman Ice Piedmont Content: Getman Ice Piedmont is an ice piedmont between Reichle Mesa and Three Slice Nunatak at the east end of Joerg Peninsula , Bowman Coast , Antarctica . It drains north-northeastwards into Hondius Inlet . The feature was explored from the ground and photographed from the air by the United States Antarctic Service , 1939 -- 41 , the Ronne Antarctic Research Expedition , 1947 -- 48 , and was surveyed by the Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey , 1946 -- 48 . It was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names in 1977 for Commander Robert T. Getman of the United States Coast Guard , an Executive Officer on USCGC Southwind during U.S. Navy Operation Deep Freeze , 1969 .","qid":"2711","docid":"Getman_Ice_Piedmont","rank":78,"score":144828},{"content":"Title: González Videla Antarctic Base Content: González Videla Base , is on the Antarctic mainland at Waterboat Point in Paradise Bay . It is named after Chilean President Gabriel González Videla , who in the 1940s became the first chief of state of any nation to visit Antarctica . The station was active from 1951 -- 58 , and was reopened briefly in the early 1980s . Occasional summer visits are made by Chilean parties and tourists . On the north edge of the station there is a sign identifying Waterboat Point as an official historic site under the Antarctic Treaty . This was the place where the smallest ever wintering-over party ( two men ) spent a year and a day in 1921-1922 . The two men , Thomas Bagshawe and M.C. Lester , had been part of the British Imperial Expedition , but their particular project , which involved flying a number of aircraft to the South Pole , was aborted . Nevertheless , they decided to stay over for the winter and made their shelter in an old whaling boat they found on this site . Their time was not wasted , however , because Bagshawe wrote the first scientific study of penguin breeding development . Today the Gentoo penguins , probably descendants of the ones he studied , nest in the ruins of the whaleboat shelter .","qid":"2711","docid":"González_Videla_Antarctic_Base","rank":79,"score":144768},{"content":"Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .","qid":"2711","docid":"Future_sea_level","rank":80,"score":144716},{"content":"Title: Antarctic Ice Marathon & 100k ultra race Content: The Antarctic Ice Marathon was established by Richard Donovan / Polar Running Adventures to enable marathon runners to complete a marathon on all seven continents . It also enables athletes to complete the marathon grand slam - a marathon on all seven continents and the North Pole . Runnings of the Antarctic Ice Marathon and 100 km race have taken place at 80 ° south just a few hundred miles from the South Pole at the foot of the Ellsworth Mountains . Participants are flown from Punta Arenas , Chile to the race location in the interior of the Antarctic and experience anything from subzero temperatures to 24 hours of daylight while there .","qid":"2711","docid":"Antarctic_Ice_Marathon_&_100k_ultra_race","rank":81,"score":144702},{"content":"Title: Southern fulmar Content: The southern fulmar ( Fulmarus glacialoides ) is a seabird of the Southern Hemisphere . Along with the northern fulmar , F. glacialis , it belongs to the fulmar genus Fulmarus in the family Procellariidae , the true petrels . It is also known as the Antarctic fulmar or silver-grey fulmar . It is largely pale grey above and white below with a distinctive white patch on the wing . It breeds on the coast of Antarctica and on surrounding islands , moving north in winter . It nests in colonies on cliffs , laying a single egg on a ledge or crevice . Its diet includes krill , fish and squid picked from the water 's surface .","qid":"2711","docid":"Southern_fulmar","rank":82,"score":144629},{"content":"Title: Pingvin Island Content: Pingvin Island is a small island lying off the northwest side of the West Ice Shelf in Antarctica . It was first mapped by the 1956 -- 57 Soviet expedition , who named it Pingvin ( the Russian word for `` Penguin '' ) . Although it appears on most modern maps , according to some sources the island does not exist .","qid":"2711","docid":"Pingvin_Island","rank":83,"score":144094},{"content":"Title: Antarctic microorganism Content: Antarctica is one of the most physically and chemically extreme terrestrial environments to be inhabited by microorganisms . Nonetheless , on February 6 , 2013 , scientists reported that bacteria were found living in the cold and dark in a lake buried a half-mile deep ( 0.5 mi ) under the ice in Antarctica . This finding was later confirmed by scientists on August 20 , 2014 .","qid":"2711","docid":"Antarctic_microorganism","rank":84,"score":143972},{"content":"Title: Jonassen Island Content: Jonassen Island is one of several Antarctic islands around the peninsula known as Graham Land , which is closer to South America than any other part of that continent . It is said to be a particularly rocky island , 4.1 km long . It is located north of Andersson Island / It was first named Irizar Island by Otto Nordenskiöld in honor of the Argentine captain whose ship Uruguay rescued the Swedish Antarctic Expedition in 1903 after their ship Antarctic had been crushed by ice . A year later , another island elsewhere in the Antarctic was named Irizar and , because that was a larger island and the name was in broad use for the location , the smaller island was renamed for Ole Jonassen , who accompanied Nordenskiöld on his two major sledge journeys in 1902-3 . The main life form on the island are gentoo penguins and kelp gulls . Both species have established breeding colonies on the island . Adélie and chinstrap penguins as well as pintado and snow petrels have been observed around or flying about the island . A 1901 observation listed the Adélie has having nested on the island ; the claim has not been substantiated in modern surveys .","qid":"2711","docid":"Jonassen_Island","rank":85,"score":143934},{"content":"Title: Antarctic Bottom Water Content: The Antarctic bottom water ( AABW ) is a type of water mass in the Southern Ocean surrounding Antarctica with temperatures ranging from − 0.8 to 2 ° C ( 35 ° F ) , salinities from 34.6 to 34.7 psu . Being the densest water mass of the oceans , AABW is found to occupy the depth range below 4000 m of all ocean basins that have a connection to the Southern Ocean at that level . The major significance of Antarctic bottom water is that it is the coldest bottom water , giving it a significant influence on the movement of the world 's oceans . Antarctic bottom water also has a high oxygen content relative to the rest of the oceans ' deep waters . This is due to the oxidation of deteriorating organic content in the rest of the deep oceans . Antarctic bottom water has thus been considered the ventilation of the deep ocean .","qid":"2711","docid":"Antarctic_Bottom_Water","rank":86,"score":143835},{"content":"Title: Amundsen Sea Content: The Amundsen Sea , an arm of the Southern Ocean off Marie Byrd Land in western Antarctica , lies between Cape Flying Fish ( the northwestern tip of Thurston Island ) to the east and Cape Dart on Siple Island to the west . Cape Flying Fish marks the boundary between the Amundsen Sea and the Bellingshausen Sea . West of Cape Dart there is no named marginal sea of the Southern Ocean between the Amundsen and Ross Seas . The Norwegian expedition of 1928 -- 1929 under Captain Nils Larsen named the body of water for the Norwegian polar explorer Roald Amundsen while exploring this area in February 1929 . The sea is mostly ice-covered , and the Thwaites Ice Tongue protrudes into it . The ice sheet which drains into the Amundsen Sea averages about 3 km in thickness ; roughly the size of the state of Texas , this area is known as the Amundsen Sea Embayment ( ASE ) ; it forms one of the three major ice-drainage basins of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet .","qid":"2711","docid":"Amundsen_Sea","rank":87,"score":143651},{"content":"Title: West Antarctic Ice Sheet Content: The Western Antarctic Ice Sheet ( WAIS ) is the segment of the continental ice sheet that covers West ( or Lesser ) Antarctica , the portion of Antarctica on the side of the Transantarctic Mountains which lies in the Western Hemisphere . The WAIS is classified as a marine-based ice sheet , meaning that its bed lies well below sea level and its edges flow into floating ice shelves . The WAIS is bounded by the Ross Ice Shelf , the Ronne Ice Shelf , and outlet glaciers that drain into the Amundsen Sea . It is estimated that the volume of the Antarctic ice sheet is about 25.4 million km3 ( 6.1 million cu mi ) , and the WAIS contains just under 10 % of this , or 2.2 million km3 ( 530,000 cu mi ) . The weight of the ice has caused the underlying rock to sink by between 0.5 and 1 kilometres ( 0.31 -- 0.62 mi ) in a process known as isostatic depression . Under the force of its own weight , the ice sheet deforms and flows . The interior ice flows slowly over rough bedrock . In some circumstances , ice can flow faster in ice streams , separated by slow-flowing ice ridges . The inter-stream ridges are frozen to the bed while the bed beneath the ice streams consists of water-saturated sediments . Many of these sediments were deposited before the ice sheet occupied the region , when much of West Antarctica was covered by the ocean . The rapid ice-stream flow is a non-linear process still not fully understood ; streams can start and stop for unclear reasons . When ice reaches the coast , it either calves or continues to flow outward onto the water . The result is a large , floating ice shelf affixed to the continent .","qid":"2711","docid":"West_Antarctic_Ice_Sheet","rank":88,"score":143593},{"content":"Title: Palaeeudyptes antarcticus Content: Palaeeudyptes antarcticus , also referred to as the narrow-flippered penguin , is the type species of the extinct penguin genus Palaeeudyptes . It was a huge species , albeit probably with a large size variation . Although the size range can only be loosely estimated , the birds seem to have stood between 43 and high in life ( i.e. somewhat larger than an emperor penguin ) , placing this species and its congener Palaeeudyptes marplesi among the largest penguin species known . It was the last known Palaeeudyptes species , and although the exact time when it lived is not precisely determined , it may have evolved from P. marplesi , or they might even have been a single species which slightly decreased in size over time . P. antarcticus was the first fossil penguin to become known to science . It was described from a single , slightly damaged , tarsometatarsus ( BM A. 1084 ) found in the Late Oligocene Otekaike Limestone ( 23-28 , possibly up to 34 MYA ) at Kakanui , New Zealand . An older date seems quite possible in fact as other bones have now been recovered from the Late Eocene ( 34-37 MYA ) of the La Meseta Formation on Seymour Island , Antarctica ( Tambussi et al. , 2006 ) , but given the considerable distances in age and range involved , it is not completely certain that the bones belong to a single species . This remains the only fossil unequivocally assigned to this species , but numerous other bones have been found that may belong to it too . These fossils were once uncritically considered as being from P. antarcticus , merely because other large penguins were not known at that time , but have not been subject to scientific review according to modern standards . While some of these bones are now known to belong to other species , a large number are not unequivocally assignable to either P. antarcticus or P. marplesi , being intermediate in size ( Simpson , 1971 ) , lending support to the theory that these taxa were in reality a single species .","qid":"2711","docid":"Palaeeudyptes_antarcticus","rank":89,"score":143490},{"content":"Title: Antarctic silverfish Content: Pleuragramma antarcticum , the Antarctic silverfish , is a species of cod icefish native to the Southern Ocean . Pleuragramma antarcticum is a keystone species in the ecosystem of the Southern Ocean . While widely distributed around the Antarctic , the species appears to have largely disappeared from the western side of the northern Antarctic Peninsula , based on a 2010 research cruise funded by the National Science Foundation under the US Antarctic Program .","qid":"2711","docid":"Antarctic_silverfish","rank":90,"score":143438},{"content":"Title: Cape Sastrugi Content: Cape Sastrugi is a sharply projecting point on the west side of Deep Freeze Range , standing 1.5 nautical miles ( 2.8 km ) northwest of Snowy Point and overlooking the north portion of Nansen Ice Sheet , in Victoria Land . First explored by the Northern Party of the British Antarctic Expedition , 1910 -- 13 , and so named by them because of large and extensive sastrugi that impeded the travel of this party in approaching the point . Category : Headlands of Victoria Land Category : Scott Coast","qid":"2711","docid":"Cape_Sastrugi","rank":91,"score":143201},{"content":"Title: Antarctic Circle Content: The Antarctic Circle is the most southerly of the five major circles of latitude that mark maps of the Earth . The region south of this circle is known as the Antarctic , and the zone immediately to the north is called the Southern Temperate Zone . South of the Antarctic Circle , the sun is above the horizon for 24 continuous hours at least once per year ( and therefore visible at midnight ) and ( at least partially ) below the horizon for 24 continuous hours at least once per year ( and therefore not fully visible at noon ) ; this is also true within the equivalent polar circle in the Northern Hemisphere , the Arctic Circle . The position of the Antarctic Circle is not fixed ; as of , it runs south of the Equator . Its latitude depends on the Earth 's axial tilt , which fluctuates within a margin of 2 ° over a 40,000-year period , due to tidal forces resulting from the orbit of the Moon . Consequently , the Antarctic Circle is currently drifting southwards at a speed of about 15 m per year .","qid":"2711","docid":"Antarctic_Circle","rank":92,"score":143006},{"content":"Title: Antarctic Muon And Neutrino Detector Array Content: The Antarctic Muon And Neutrino Detector Array ( AMANDA ) is a neutrino telescope located beneath the Amundsen -- Scott South Pole Station . In 2005 , after nine years of operation , AMANDA officially became part of her successor project , the IceCube Neutrino Observatory . AMANDA consists of optical modules , each containing one photomultiplier tube , sunk in Antarctic ice cap at a depth of about 1500 to 1900 metres . In her latest development stage , known as AMANDA-II , AMANDA is made up of an array of 677 optical modules mounted on 19 separate strings that are spread out in a rough circle with a diameter of 200 metres . Each string has several dozen modules , and was put in place by `` drilling '' a hole in the ice using a hot-water hose , sinking the cable with attached optical modules in , and then letting the ice freeze around it . AMANDA detects very high energy neutrinos ( 50 + GeV ) which pass through the Earth from the northern hemisphere and then react just as they are leaving upwards through the Antarctic ice . The neutrino interacts with nuclei of oxygen or hydrogen atoms contained in the surrounding water ice through the weak nuclear force , producing a muon and a hadronic shower . The optical modules detect the Cherenkov radiation from these latter particles , and by analysis of the timing of photon hits can approximately determine the direction of the original neutrino with a spatial resolution of approximately 2 degrees . AMANDA 's goal was an attempt at neutrino astronomy , identifying and characterizing extra-solar sources of neutrinos . Compared to underground detectors like Super-Kamiokande in Japan , AMANDA was capable of looking at higher energy neutrinos because it is not limited in volume to a manmade tank ; however , she had much less accuracy because of the less controlled conditions and wider spacing of photomultipliers . Super-Kamiokande can look at much greater detail at neutrinos from the Sun and those generated in the Earth 's atmosphere ; however , at higher energies , the spectrum should include neutrinos dominated by those from sources outside the solar system . Such a new view into the cosmos could give important clues in the search for Dark Matter and other astrophysical phenomena . After two years of integrated operation as part of IceCube , the AMANDA counting house ( in the Martin A. Pomerantz Observatory ) was decommissioned in July and August 2009 .","qid":"2711","docid":"Antarctic_Muon_And_Neutrino_Detector_Array","rank":93,"score":142770},{"content":"Title: Discovery Expedition Content: The British National Antarctic Expedition , 1901 -- 04 , generally known as the Discovery Expedition , was the first official British exploration of the Antarctic regions since James Clark Ross 's voyage sixty years earlier . Organized on a large scale under a joint committee of the Royal Society and the Royal Geographical Society ( RGS ) , the new expedition carried out scientific research and geographical exploration in what was then largely an untouched continent . It launched the Antarctic careers of many who would become leading figures in the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration , including Robert Falcon Scott who led the expedition , Ernest Shackleton , Edward Wilson , Frank Wild , Tom Crean and William Lashly . Its scientific results covered extensive ground in biology , zoology , geology , meteorology and magnetism . The expedition discovered the existence of the only snow-free Antarctic valleys , which contain Antarctica 's longest river . Further achievements included the discoveries of the Cape Crozier emperor penguin colony , King Edward VII Land , and the Polar Plateau ( via the western mountains route ) on which the South Pole is located . The expedition tried to reach the South Pole travelling as far as the Farthest South mark at a reported 82 ° 17 ′ S. As a trailbreaker for later ventures , the Discovery Expedition was a landmark in British Antarctic exploration history .","qid":"2711","docid":"Discovery_Expedition","rank":94,"score":142633},{"content":"Title: Penguin Point (Seymour Island) Content: Penguin Point lies on the south-eastern coast of Seymour Island , in the James Ross Island group , near the north-eastern extremity of the Antarctic Peninsula . The Argentine Marambio Base is about 8 km to the north-east . A ridge of exposed dark rock named Blackrock Ridge runs west-southwest -- east-northeast , 1.5 nautical miles ( 3 km ) north of Penguin Point .","qid":"2711","docid":"Penguin_Point_(Seymour_Island)","rank":95,"score":142622},{"content":"Title: Arctic Ocean Content: The Arctic Ocean is the smallest and shallowest of the world 's five major oceans . The International Hydrographic Organization ( IHO ) recognizes it as an ocean , although some oceanographers call it the Arctic Mediterranean Sea or simply the Arctic Sea , classifying it a mediterranean sea or an estuary of the Atlantic Ocean . Alternatively , the Arctic Ocean can be seen as the northernmost part of the all-encompassing World Ocean . Located mostly in the Arctic north polar region in the middle of the Northern Hemisphere , the Arctic Ocean is almost completely surrounded by Eurasia and North America . It is partly covered by sea ice throughout the year and almost completely in winter . The Arctic Ocean 's surface temperature and salinity vary seasonally as the ice cover melts and freezes ; its salinity is the lowest on average of the five major oceans , due to low evaporation , heavy fresh water inflow from rivers and streams , and limited connection and outflow to surrounding oceanic waters with higher salinities . The summer shrinking of the ice has been quoted at 50 % . The US National Snow and Ice Data Center ( NSIDC ) uses satellite data to provide a daily record of Arctic sea ice cover and the rate of melting compared to an average period and specific past years .","qid":"2711","docid":"Arctic_Ocean","rank":96,"score":142368},{"content":"Title: New College Valley Content: New College Valley lies south of Cape Bird , on ice-free slopes above Caughley Beach on Ross Island , Antarctica . It faces north-west and carries meltwater from the Cape Bird ice cap during the summer . It is protected as Antarctic Specially Protected Area ( ASPA ) No. 116 because it contains some of the richest stands of mosses , with associated microflora and fauna , in the Ross Sea region .","qid":"2711","docid":"New_College_Valley","rank":97,"score":142076},{"content":"Title: Riiser-Larsen Ice Shelf Content: Riiser-Larsen Ice Shelf is an ice shelf about 250 miles ( 400 km ) long on the coast of Queen Maud Land , extending from Cape Norvegia in the north to Lyddan Island and Stancomb-Wills Glacier in the south . Parts of the ice shelf were sighted by William Speirs Bruce in 1904 , Ernest Shackleton in 1915 , and Hjalmar Riiser-Larsen in 1930 . Most of it was photographed from the air in 1951-52 by the Norwegian-British-Swedish Antarctic Expedition ( NBSAE ) and delineated from these photos . Additional delineation of the southern and landward margins of the feature was accomplished from air photos taken , by USN Operation Deep Freeze from 1967 to 1969 . The feature was named by Norway for Capt. Hjalmar Riiser-Larsen , who explored the area in the late 1920s and early 1930s .","qid":"2711","docid":"Riiser-Larsen_Ice_Shelf","rank":98,"score":141987},{"content":"Title: Heirtzler Ice Piedmont Content: Heirtzler Ice Piedmont is a relatively low , triangular-shaped , ice-covered area of about 7 nmi extent , located at the west side of Violante Inlet and north of Maury Glacier , on the Black Coast of Palmer Land , Antarctica . The feature was first seen and photographed from the air by the United States Antarctic Service on December 30 , 1940 , and was mapped by the United States Geological Survey from U.S. Navy aerial photographs taken 1966 -- 69 . In association with the names of continental drift scientists grouped in this area , it was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names after James R. Heirtzler , an American physicist . Heirtzler was a Research Scientist at Columbia University 's Lamont -- Doherty Geological Observatory , 1960 -- 64 , and Senior Research Scientist , 1964 -- 67 ; he was Senior Scientist at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute , 1969 -- 86 ; Geophysicist and Head of the Geophysics Branch at the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center from 1986 .","qid":"2711","docid":"Heirtzler_Ice_Piedmont","rank":99,"score":141931},{"content":"Title: Ackley Point Content: Ackley Point is an ice-covered point 1 mi southeast of Cone Hill on the east side of Hut Point Peninsula , Ross Island . Named by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) in 2000 after Stephen F. Ackley , Snow and Ice Division , U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory ( CRREL ) , Hanover , New Hampshire , a United States Antarctic Program ( USAP ) sea ice specialist who worked in McMurdo Sound and diverse parts of the Southern Ocean for more than 25 years , dating from the 1976 -- 77 austral season . Category : Headlands of Ross Island","qid":"2711","docid":"Ackley_Point","rank":100,"score":141834}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Polar seas Content: Polar seas is a collective term for the Arctic Ocean ( about 4-5 percent of Earth 's oceans ) and the southern part of the Southern Ocean ( south of Antarctic Convergence , about 10 percent of Earth 's oceans ) . In the coldest years , sea ice can cover around 13 percent of the Earth 's total surface at its maximum , but out of phase in the two hemispheres . The polar seas contain a huge biome with many organisms . Among the species that inhabit various polar seas and surrounding land areas are polar bear , penguin , reindeer ( caribou ) , muskox , wolverine , ermine , lemming , Arctic hare , Arctic ground squirrel , whale , harp seal , and walrus . These species have unique adaptations to the extreme conditions . Many might be endangered if they can not adapt to changing conditions . Contrary to popular opinion , the World Wildlife Fund studies for polar bears show that this species has prospered since 1950 , attaining five times the numbers found in 1950 . In general , Arctic ecosystems are relatively fragile and slow to recover from serious damage .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Polar_seas\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 212659\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Antarctic sea ice Content: Antarctic sea ice is the sea ice of the Southern Ocean . It extends far north in winter and retreats almost to the coastline each summer . Sea ice is frozen seawater that is usually less than a few meters thick . This is in contrast to ice shelves , which are formed by glaciers , float in the sea , and are up to a kilometer thick . There are two subdivisions of sea ice : fast ice , which is attached to land ; and ice floes , which are not . Sea ice in the Southern Ocean melts from the bottom instead of from the surface like Arctic ice because it is covered in snow . As a result , melt ponds are rarely observed . On average , Antarctic sea ice is younger , thinner , warmer , saltier , and more mobile than Arctic sea ice . Due to its inaccessibility , it is not as well-studied as Arctic ice .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Antarctic_sea_ice\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 200888\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea Ice Physics and Ecosystem eXperiment Content: The Sea Ice Physics and Ecosystem eXperiment ( SIPEX ) was an Australian contribution to the International Polar Year ( IPY ) . The expedition studied the sea ice in the Antarctica zone in September and October 2007 , investigating links between the sea ice and the Southern Ocean ecosystems . Taking part were 45 scientists from 8 different countries , each a specialist on some aspect of the Antarctic sea ice zone . Travelling aboard the research vessel Aurora Australis , the researchers covered East Antarctica between 110 ° E and 130 ° E. Experiments dealt with ice thickness and snow cover , the sympagic fauna and flora and examined the effects of ocean currents and wind . The extent and distribution of sea ice in the polar regions is a sensitive indicator of global climate change . Global warming has been implicated in significant reductions in the extent of sea ice and this trend is set to continue . An improved understanding of sea ice may lead to improved conservation policies in Antarctica .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea_Ice_Physics_and_Ecosystem_eXperiment\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 196966\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: North Ice Content: North Ice was a research station of the British North Greenland Expedition ( 1952 to 1954 ) on the inland ice of Greenland . The coordinates of the station were , at an altitude of 2341 m above sea level . The British North Greenland Expedition was led by Commander James Simpson RN . The station recorded the lowest temperature ever in North America with -66.1 C on 9 January 1954 . The name of the station contrasts to the former British South Ice station in Antarctica .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"North_Ice\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 194281\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Antarctic Cold Reversal Content: The Antarctic Cold Reversal ( ACR ) was an important episode of cooling in the climate history of the Earth during the deglaciation at the close of the last ice age . It illustrates the complexity of the climate changes at the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene Epochs . The Last Glacial Maximum and sea-level minimum occurred c. 21,000 years before present ( BP ) . Antarctic ice cores show gradual warming beginning 3000 years later . At about 14,700 BP , there was a large pulse of meltwater , identified as Meltwater pulse 1A , probably from either the Antarctic ice sheet or the Laurentide ice sheet . Meltwater pulse 1A produced a marine transgression that raised global sea level about 20 meters in two to five centuries and is thought to have influenced the start of the Bølling / Allerød interstadial , the major break with glacial cold in the Northern Hemisphere . Meltwater pulse 1A was followed in Antarctica and the Southern Hemisphere by a renewed cooling , the Antarctic Cold Reversal , in c. 14,500 BP , which lasted for two millennia -- an instance of warming causing cooling . The ACR brought an average cooling of perhaps 3 ° C . The Younger Dryas cooling , in the Northern Hemisphere , began while the Antarctic Cold Reversal was still ongoing , and the ACR ended in the midst of the Younger Dryas . This pattern of climate decoupling between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres and of `` southern lead , northern lag '' would manifest in subsequent climate events . The cause or causes of this hemispheric decoupling , of the `` lead/lag '' pattern and of the specific mechanisms of the warming and cooling trends are still subjects of study and dispute among climate researchers . The specific dating and intensity of the Antarctic Cold Reversal are also under debate . The onset of the Antarctic Cold Reversal was followed , after about 800 years , by an Oceanic Cold Reversal in the Southern Ocean .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Antarctic_Cold_Reversal\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 190878\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: East Antarctica Content: East Antarctica , also called Greater Antarctica , constitutes the majority ( two-thirds ) of the Antarctic continent , lying on the Indian Ocean side of the continent , separated from West Antarctica by the Transantarctic Mountains . It lies almost entirely within the Eastern Hemisphere and its name has been accepted for more than a century . It is generally higher than West Antarctica and includes the Gamburtsev Mountain Range in the centre . Apart from small areas of the coast , East Antarctica is permanently covered by ice . The only terrestrial plant life is lichens , mosses and algae clinging to rocks , and there are a limited range of invertebrates including nematodes , springtails , mites and midges . The coasts are the breeding ground for various seabirds and penguins , and the leopard seal , Weddell seal , elephant seal , crabeater seal and Ross seal breed on the surrounding pack ice in summer .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"East_Antarctica\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 189746\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wildlife of Antarctica Content: The wildlife of Antarctica are extremophiles , having to adapt to the dryness , low temperatures , and high exposure common in Antarctica . The extreme weather of the interior contrasts to the relatively mild conditions on the Antarctic Peninsula and the subantarctic islands , which have warmer temperatures and more liquid water . Much of the ocean around the mainland is covered by sea ice . The oceans themselves are a more stable environment for life , both in the water column and on the seabed . There is relatively little diversity in Antarctica compared to much of the rest of the world . Terrestrial life is concentrated in areas near the coast . Flying birds nest on the milder shores of the Peninsula and the subantarctic islands . Eight species of penguins inhabit Antarctica and its offshore islands . They share these areas with seven pinniped species . The Southern Ocean around Antarctica is home to 10 cetaceans , many of them migratory . There are very few terrestrial invertebrates on the mainland , although the species that do live there have high population densities . High densities of invertebrates also live in the ocean , with Antarctic krill forming dense and widespread swarms during the summer . Benthic animal communities also exist around the continent . Over 1000 fungi species have been found on and around Antarctica . Larger species are restricted to the subantarctic islands , and the majority of species discovered have been terrestrial . Plants are similarly restricted mostly to the subantarctic islands , and the western edge of the Peninsula . Some mosses and lichens however can be found even in the dry interior . Many algae are found around Antarctica , especially phytoplankton , which form the basis of many of Antarctica 's food webs . Human activity has caused introduced species to gain a foothold in the area , threatening the native wildlife . A history of overfishing and hunting has left many species with greatly reduced numbers . Pollution , habitat destruction , and climate change pose great risks to the environment . The Antarctic Treaty System is a global treaty designed to preserve Antarctica as a place of research , and measures from this system are used to regulate human activity in Antarctica .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Wildlife_of_Antarctica\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 186198\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Antarctic oscillation Content: The Antarctic oscillation ( AAO , to distinguish it from the Arctic oscillation or AO ) is a low-frequency mode of atmospheric variability of the southern hemisphere . It is also known as the Southern Annular Mode ( SAM ) . It is defined as a belt of westerly winds or low pressure surrounding Antarctica which moves north or south as its mode of variability . In its positive phase , the westerly wind belt contracts towards Antarctica , while its negative phase involves this belt moving towards the Equator . In 2014 , Dr Nerilie Abram used a network of temperature-sensitive ice core and tree growth records to reconstruct a 1000-year history of the Southern Annular Mode . This work suggests that the Southern Annular Mode is currently in its most extreme positive phase over at least the last 1000 years , and that recent positive trends in the SAM are attributed to increasing greenhouse gas levels and later stratospheric ozone depletion .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Antarctic_oscillation\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 183046\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Antarctic Circumpolar Current Content: The Antarctic Circumpolar Current ( ACC ) is an ocean current that flows clockwise from west to east around Antarctica . An alternative name for the ACC is the West Wind Drift . The ACC is the dominant circulation feature of the Southern Ocean and has a mean transport of 100-150 Sverdrups ( Sv , million m ³ / s ) , making it the largest ocean current . More recent research even puts this number at over 173 Sv . The current is circumpolar due to the lack of any landmass connecting with Antarctica and this keeps warm ocean waters away from Antarctica , enabling that continent to maintain its huge ice sheet . Associated with the Circumpolar Current is the Antarctic Convergence , where the cold Antarctic waters meet the warmer waters of the subantarctic , creating a zone of upwelling nutrients . These nurture high levels of phytoplankton with associated copepods and krill , and resultant foodchains supporting fish , whales , seals , penguins , albatrosses and a wealth of other species . The ACC has been known to sailors for centuries ; it greatly speeds up any travel from west to east , but makes sailing extremely difficult from east to west ; though this is mostly due to the prevailing westerly winds . The circumstances preceding the mutiny on the Bounty and Jack London 's story `` Make Westing '' poignantly illustrated the difficulty it caused for mariners seeking to round Cape Horn on the clipper ship route between New York and California . The clipper route , which is the fastest sailing route around the world , follows the ACC around three continental capes -- Cape Agulhas ( Africa ) , South East Cape ( Australia ) and Cape Horn ( South America ) . The current creates the Ross and Weddell gyres .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Antarctic_Circumpolar_Current\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 179294\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Measurement of sea ice Content: Measurement of sea ice is important for safety of navigation and for monitoring the environment , particularly the climate . Sea ice extent interacts with large climate patterns such as the North Atlantic oscillation and Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation , to name just two , and influences climate in the rest of the globe . The amount of sea ice coverage in the arctic has been of interest for centuries , as the Northwest Passage was of high interest for trade and seafaring . There is a longstanding history of records and measurements of some effects of the sea ice extent , but comprehensive measurements were sparse till the 1950s and started with the satellite era in the late 1970s . Modern direct records include data about ice extent , ice area , concentration , thickness , and the age of the ice . The current trends in the records show a significant decline in Northern hemisphere sea ice and a small but statistically significant increase in the winter Southern hemisphere sea ice . Furthermore , current research comprises and establishes extensive sets of multi-century historical records of arctic and subarctic sea ice and uses , among others high-resolution paleo-proxy sea-ice records . The arctic sea ice is a dynamic climate-system component and is linked to the Atlantic multidecadal variability and the historical climate over various decades . There are circular changes of sea ice patterns but so far no clear patterns based on modeling predictions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Measurement_of_sea_ice\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 177592\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2013 extreme weather events Content: The 2013 extreme weather events included several all-time temperature records in Northern and Southern Hemisphere . The February extent of snow cover in Eurasia and North America was above average , while the extent of Arctic ice in the same month was 4,5 % below the 1981 -- 2010 average . The Northern Hemisphere weather extremes have been linked to the melting of Arctic sea ice , which alters atmospheric circulation in a way that leads to more snow and ice . By January 11 , 233 weather-related deaths were reported in India . Elsewhere , particularly in Russia , the Czech Republic and the United Kingdom , low temperatures affected wildlife , delaying bird breeding and disrupting the bird migration . On January 10 Bangladesh faced the lowest temperature since country 's independence , at 3.0 ° C in Saidpur . While Finland and most of Northern European countries got the record high , and even the highest temperatures at Europe during May and June , Western - and Middle Europe faced much cooler weather and even their wettest May and June ever . During summer prolonged heat waves in the Northern Hemisphere set new record high temperatures . On March 24 , 2014 , the secretary-general of the World Meteorological Organization Michel Jarraud announced that `` many of the extreme events of 2013 were consistent with what we would expect as a result of human-induced climate change '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"2013_extreme_weather_events\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 176760\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Antarctica: Empire of the Penguin Content: Antarctica : Empire of the Penguin is a theme area at SeaWorld Orlando by a first-of-its-kind motion-based , trackless dark ride . The attraction opened on May 24 , 2013 as the largest attraction at any SeaWorld Entertainment theme park . The area was generally well received by critics and the public at its opening .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Antarctica:_Empire_of_the_Penguin\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 176352\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coat of arms of the British Antarctic Territory Content: The coat of arms of the British Antarctic Territory was first granted in 1952 , when the territory was still a dependency of the Falkland Islands ( along with South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands ) . The arms consist of a shield bearing a flaming torch on a wavy background representing the sea . The dexter supporter is a golden lion , representing the United Kingdom . The sinister supporter is an Emperor penguin , representing the native wildlife in the territory . The lion stands on a compartment of grass , while the penguin stands on a compartment of ice . The crest is a representation of the RRS Discovery , the research ship used by Robert Falcon Scott and Ernest Shackleton on their first journey to the Antarctic . The motto is `` Research and Discovery '' , reflecting the aims of the British Antarctic Survey . The coat of arms appears in the fly of the flag of the British Antarctic Territory .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Coat_of_arms_of_the_British_Antarctic_Territory\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 174097\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Antarctic Adventure Content: is a video game developed by Konami in 1983 for the MSX , and later for video game consoles , such as the Family Computer and the ColecoVision . The player takes the role of an Antarctic penguin , racing to disparate research stations owned by different countries in Antarctica ( excluding the USSR ) . The gameplay is similar to Sega 's Turbo , but plays at a much slower pace , and features platform game elements . The penguin , later named Penta , must reach the next station before time runs out while avoiding sea lions and breaks in the ice . Throughout the levels , fish jump out of ice holes and can be caught for bonus points . The game , like many early video games , has no ending -- when the player reaches the last station , the game starts from the first level again , but with increased difficulty .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Antarctic_Adventure\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 172776\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Murphy Rocks, Australian Antarctic Territory Content: Murphy Rocks consists of two closely adjacent but very isolated rocks lying in the sea about 2.3 km off the ice-cliff coastline of the Ingrid Christensen Coast , Princess Elizabeth Land , in the Vestfold Hills region of Antarctica . The rocks are dark grey and rounded , with diameters of about 200 m and are located approximately 49.5 km north-east of Davis Station . In January 1979 the first landings were made by helicopter on these rocks , during which survey station NM/S/268 was established . The rocks are named for Brian Murphy , who made extensive surveys in the Vestfold Hills in 1978-79 , including Doppler satellite fixes , a Tellurometer survey , heights by simultaneous reciprocal vertical angles and a site survey for a major re-building of Davis Station . These rocks currently define the north-eastern-most limit of ice-free rock areas of the Ingrid Christensen Coast , Princess Elizabeth Land , and , as such , form part of an extensive network of Adelie penguin rookeries located along this section of the coastline of Antarctica . The summit of the southern-most rock , upon which Transit Doppler satellite survey station NM/S/268 was established in January , 1979 , and to which the above WGS84 coordinates refer , is 22.4 m above mean sea level . The summit of the northern-most rock , upon which survey station NM/S/270 was established , is 23.8 m above mean sea level . Survey station NM/S/270 lies on a true bearing of 75 ° 49 ' distant 191.61 m from survey station NM/S/268 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Murphy_Rocks,_Australian_Antarctic_Territory\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 172686\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Penguin Content: Penguins ( order Sphenisciformes , family Spheniscidae ) are a group of aquatic , flightless birds . They live almost exclusively in the Southern Hemisphere , with only one species , the Galapagos penguin , found north of the equator . Highly adapted for life in the water , penguins have countershaded dark and white plumage , and their wings have evolved into flippers . Most penguins feed on krill , fish , squid and other forms of sealife caught while swimming underwater . They spend about half of their lives on land and half in the oceans . Although almost all penguin species are native to the Southern Hemisphere , they are not found only in cold climates , such as Antarctica . In fact , only a few species of penguin live so far south . Several species are found in the temperate zone , and one species , the Galápagos penguin , lives near the equator . The largest living species is the emperor penguin ( Aptenodytes forsteri ) : on average adults are about 1.1 m tall and weigh 35 kg or more . The smallest penguin species is the little blue penguin ( Eudyptula minor ) , also known as the fairy penguin , which stands around 40 cm tall and weighs 1 kg . Among extant penguins , larger penguins inhabit colder regions , while smaller penguins are generally found in temperate or even tropical climates ( see also Bergmann 's rule ) . Some prehistoric species attained enormous sizes , becoming as tall or as heavy as an adult human . These were not restricted to Antarctic regions ; on the contrary , subantarctic regions harboured high diversity , and at least one giant penguin occurred in a region around 2,000 km south of the equator 35 mya , in a climate decidedly warmer than today .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Penguin\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 172015\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cape Annawan Content: Cape Annawan is an ice-covered cape which marks the east extremity of Thurston Island and the northwest entrance to Seraph Bay in Antarctica . Discovered in helicopter flights from the USS Burton Island and Glacier by personnel of the U.S. Navy Bellingshausen Sea Expedition in February 1960 . Named by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) for the ship Annawan , of the United States Expedition of 1829-31 , which with the Penguin sailed west from the South Shetland Islands in February 1830 , holding a course between 62S and 58S and exploring as far as 103W , northward of this cape .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Cape_Annawan\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 170415\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ponganis Icefall Content: Ponganis Icefall is an icefall , 1000 m high and 1.25 nmi wide on the east side of Coulman Island in the Ross Sea . The icefall descends from the Hawkes Heights caldera to the sea at Cape Main . It was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names in 2005 after Paul J. Ponganis , Center for Marine Biotechnology , Scripps Institution of Oceanography , who studied the behavior and census of Emperor penguins at Cape Crozier , Cape Washington , Beaufort Island , Franklin Island and Coulman Island in 13 field seasons , from 1987 to 2004 , and for Katherine V. Ponganis ( Mrs. Paul J. Ponganis ) , a member of the study team in five field seasons .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Ponganis_Icefall\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 170219\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mathewson Point Content: Mathewson Point is a steep , rocky point at the northern tip of Shepard Island , which lies on the seaward edge of the Getz Ice Shelf , Marie Byrd Land , Antarctica . The point , the site of an Adélie penguin rookery , was charted by personnel of the on February 4 , 1962 , and was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names for Lieutenant David S. Mathewson , U.S. Navy , then supply officer of the Glacier .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Mathewson_Point\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 169942\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Weddell Polynya Content: The Weddell Polynya or Weddell Sea Polynya is a polynya or irregular area of open water surrounded by sea ice in the Weddell Sea of the Southern Ocean off Antarctica and near the Maud Rise . The size of New Zealand , it re-occurred each winter between 1974 and 1976 . These were the first three austral winters observed by the Nimbus-5 Electrically Scanning Microwave Radiometer ( ESMR ) . Since 1976 , the polynya has never been seen again . Since the 1970s , the polar Southern Ocean south of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current has freshened and stratified , likely a result of anthropogenic climate change . Such stratification may be responsible for suppressing the return of the Weddell Sea polynya .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Weddell_Polynya\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 167581\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Antarctic ice sheet Content: The Antarctic ice sheet is one of the two polar ice caps of the Earth . It covers about 98 % of the Antarctic continent and is the largest single mass of ice on Earth . It covers an area of almost 14 e6km2 and contains 26.5 e6km3 of ice . Approximately 61 percent of all fresh water on the Earth is held in the Antarctic ice sheet , an amount equivalent to about 58 m of sea-level rise . In East Antarctica , the ice sheet rests on a major land mass , but in West Antarctica the bed can extend to more than 2,500 m below sea level . Much of the land in this area would be seabed if the ice sheet were not there . In contrast to the melting of the Arctic sea ice , sea ice around Antarctica was expanding . The reasons for this are not fully understood , but suggestions include the climatic effects on ocean and atmospheric circulation of the ozone hole , and/or cooler ocean surface temperatures as the warming deep waters melt the ice shelves .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Antarctic_ice_sheet\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 167376\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Adélie penguin Content: The Adélie penguin ( Pygoscelis adeliae ) is a species of penguin common along the entire Antarctic coast , which is their only residence . They are among the most southerly distributed of all seabirds , along with the emperor penguin , the south polar skua , the Wilson 's storm petrel , the snow petrel , and the Antarctic petrel . They are named after Adélie Land , in turn named for Adèle Dumont D'Urville , the wife of French explorer Jules Dumont d'Urville who discovered these penguins in 1840 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Adélie_penguin\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 167333\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Antarctic continental shelf Content: The Antarctic continental shelf is a geological feature that underlies the Southern Ocean , surrounding the continent of Antarctica . The shelf is generally narrow and unusually deep , its edge lying at depths averaging 500 meters ( the global mean is around 100 meters ) , with troughs extending as far as 2000 meters deep . It is home to a thriving ecosystem of penguins and cold-water fish and crustaceans . Several countries have issued proclamations claiming ownership over parts of the shelf , including Chile ( since 1947 ) , Australia ( since 1953 ) , France , and Argentina .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Antarctic_continental_shelf\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 166892\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Antarctica penguin deaths Content: From 2010 to 2016 the giant iceberg B09B has been responsible for the near annihilation of a 150,000 penguin colony . The media widely reported this as the `` death of 150,000 penguins . '' in Antarctica . The iceberg was the size of Rome , measuring 1,120 square miles . The Adélie penguins there face being wiped out after iceberg became lodged in their bay . In an article in Antarctic Science , researchers wrote : `` The arrival of iceberg B09B in Commonwealth Bay , East Antarctica , and subsequent fast ice expansion has dramatically increased the distance Adélie penguins breeding at Cape Denison must travel in search of food '' . The authors released this update : `` It is important to recognise that this study focuses on the Adélie penguin colonies at Cape Denison and the MacKellar Islets , which has been well known , and importantly , well studied over the past century . The study reported here identified that the impact of the iceberg B09B on the penguins since 2010 . The number of penguins breeding at these colonies has declined markedly since estimates were first made 100 years ago . However our study concerns only the impact B09B and the associated fast ice that has built up between it and the land since the iceberg stranded in 2010 . The penguins now have to commute about 65 km between colonies where they breed and the sea where they can feed . Many fewer penguins are now returning to the colonies to attempt to breed and of those that do return most fail to rear their chicks . We found hundreds of abandoned eggs and thousands of dead chicks . We did not suggest that thousands of adult penguins have died as some media reports suggest . In fact it is unlikely many if any adult penguins have died as a result of this stranding event . We found very few , perhaps no pre-breeding birds at Cape Denison and , if as we predict , few if any young birds prospecting for a place to breed in future are visiting these colonies the local colonies could become extinct within the breeding life of an Adelie penguins ( < 16 years ) if young birds do not replace the old established breeders as they come to the end of their lives . '' `` This iceberg stranding event only affects Adelie penguins in the Commonwealth Bay area , the millions of Adelie penguins breeding around the rest of Antarctica are not affected . '' This report was subsequently disputed and corrected by Antarctic experts who regretted the dramatic tone used by the journalists that led to over-simplification in the interpretation of the iceberg effect . The penguins that could not be found on the colony blocked by the iceberg are not dead . They probably relocated elsewhere in search of a new place to breed . See a statement published by the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research here\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Antarctica_penguin_deaths\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 166437\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Geography of Antarctica Content: The geography of Antarctica is dominated by its south polar location and , thus , by ice . The Antarctic continent , located in the Earth 's southern hemisphere , is centered asymmetrically around the South Pole and largely south of the Antarctic Circle . It is washed by the Southern ( or Antarctic ) Ocean or , depending on definition , the southern Pacific , Atlantic , and Indian Oceans . It has an area of more than 14 million km ² . Some 98 % of Antarctica is covered by the Antarctic ice sheet , the world 's largest ice sheet and also its largest reservoir of fresh water . Averaging at least 1.6 km thick , the ice is so massive that it has depressed the continental bedrock in some areas more than 2.5 km below sea level ; subglacial lakes of liquid water also occur ( e.g. , Lake Vostok ) . Ice shelves and rises populate the ice sheet on the periphery .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Geography_of_Antarctica\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 164411\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: South Ice Content: South Ice was a British support base 560 km from the South Pole at 82 ° 05 'S , 30 ° 00 ' W in Edith Ronne Land , Antarctica during the International Geophysical Year , established by Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition , where three men overwintered during the Antarctic winter of 1957 . In the same winter , men overwintered for the first time at the South Pole . The name of the station contrasts to North Ice which was a British research station in Greenland .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"South_Ice\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 163925\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Milosz Point Content: Milosz Point is a low-lying , ice-free cape on the northern coast of King George Island , the largest of the South Shetland Islands of Antarctica . It lies 4.5 km west of North Foreland at the eastern entrance to Venus Bay and the western entrance to Emerald Cove . It has been identified as an Important Bird Area ( IBA ) by BirdLife International because it supports a large breeding colony of about 17,000 pairs of chinstrap penguins .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Milosz_Point\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 163157\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Antarctic realm Content: Antarctica is one of eight terrestrial biogeographic realms . The ecosystem includes Antarctica and several island groups in the southern Atlantic and Indian Oceans . The continent of Antarctica is so cold and dry that it has supported only 2 vascular plants for millions of years , and its flora presently consists of around 250 lichens , 100 mosses , 25-30 liverworts , and around 700 terrestrial and aquatic algal species , which live on the areas of exposed rock and soil around the shore of the continent . Antarctica 's two flowering plant species , the Antarctic hair grass ( Deschampsia antarctica ) and Antarctic pearlwort ( Colobanthus quitensis ) , are found on the northern and western parts of the Antarctic Peninsula . Antarctica is also home to a diversity of animal life , including penguins , seals , and whales . Several Antarctic island groups are considered part of the Antarctica realm , including South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands , South Orkney Islands , the South Shetland Islands , Bouvet Island , the Crozet Islands , Prince Edward Islands , Heard Island , the Kerguelen Islands , and the McDonald Islands . These islands have a somewhat milder climate than Antarctica proper , and support a greater diversity of tundra plants , although they are all too windy and cold to support trees . Antarctic krill is the keystone species of the ecosystem of the Southern Ocean , and is an important food organism for whales , seals , leopard seals , fur seals , crabeater seals , squid , icefish , penguins , albatrosses and many other birds . The ocean there is so full of phytoplankton because around the ice continent water rises from the depths to the light flooded surface , bringing nutrients from all oceans back to the photic zone . On August 20 , 2014 , scientists confirmed the existence of microorganisms living 800 m below the ice of Antarctica .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Antarctic_realm\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 163066\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Antarctica: A Year on Ice Content: Antarctica : A Year on Ice is the first feature film by New Zealand filmmaker Anthony B. Powell . This documentary is set in Antarctica , specifically in the Ross Island region , which is home to two research bases : United States ' McMurdo Station and New Zealand 's Scott Base . It chronicles a year of time spent living and working at these remote stations ; the summer season ( October to February ) when the sun shines 24 hours a day and the long dark winter ( February to October ) where the sun goes down for four long months and darkness envelopes the environment . The film focuses on the everyday workers that keep the stations and the equipment running so the scientists can complete their work . Interviewees include a helicopter pilot , fireman , firehouse dispatcher , cook , mechanic , storekeeper , storeman , finance person , administrative person , and operations manager . Extensive use of time-lapse photography is used to document the changing seasons and the Antarctic landscapes . Powell had to invent many of his own camera systems to survive the extreme conditions of the deep Antarctic winter . Powell 's previous work includes footage for Discovery , National Geographic , and was featured in BBC 's Frozen Planet . The film also touches upon topics such as ` T3 Syndrome , ' a term that describes what happens to people during the winter , when the T3 hormone in the brain is reassigned to the muscles of the body in an effort to protect it against the extreme cold . The film also describes how the community works and plays together including the annual New Year 's party `` Ice Stock '' . The film 's post-production was completed at Park Road Post Production in Wellington , New Zealand .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Antarctica:_A_Year_on_Ice\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 162054\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Auster rookery Content: 67 ° 23 ' 46.0 '' S , 63 ° 57 ' 02.5 '' E Auster Rookery is an Emperor penguin rookery on sea-ice , sheltered by grounded icebergs , 3 nautical miles ( 5 km ) east of Auster Islands , and about 51 km ENE of Mawson Station in Antarctica . Discovered in August , 1957 , by Flying Officer , D. Johnston RAAF from an ANARE Auster aircraft , after which it was named . Category : Mac . Robertson Land\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Auster_rookery\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 161845\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: MV Ortelius Content: MV Ortelius is an ice-strengthened cruise ship designed for polar exploration . She was built in Gdynia , Poland , in 1989 as Marina Svetaeva , as a special purpose vessel for the Russian Academy of Sciences . She operated in the Russian Far East as a passenger and supply vessel , and as an accommodation and supply ship to oil fields in the northern Pacific Ocean . From December 2007 she was chartered by Aurora Expeditions of Sydney , Australia , as a cruise ship in the Arctic and Antarctic seas . She was acquired in 2011 by the Dutch company Oceanwide Expeditions based in Vlissingen , Netherlands . She was renamed Ortelius and registered in Cyprus . On 16 January 2014 Ortelius should have sailed for a 10-day Antarctic peninsula voyage . All passengers were aboard , but the anchor system failed and the boat never left port . This technical problem was solved shortly thereafter and Ortelius continued her Antarctic season with passengers . A highlight of Ortelius Antarctic season was a successful expedition to Snow Hill Island where passengers were transported by helicopter to a colony of emperor penguins and their chicks .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"MV_Ortelius\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 161038\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Antarctic Snow Cruiser Content: The Antarctic Snow Cruiser was a vehicle designed from 1937 to 1939 under the direction of Thomas Poulter , intended to facilitate transport in Antarctica . The Snow Cruiser was also known as `` The Penguin , '' `` Penguin 1 '' or `` Turtle '' in some published material . While having several innovative features , it generally failed to operate as hoped under the difficult conditions , and was eventually abandoned in Antarctica . Rediscovered under a deep layer of snow in 1958 , it later disappeared again due to shifting ice conditions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Antarctic_Snow_Cruiser\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 159796\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: ANDRILL Content: ANDRILL ( ANtarctic DRILLing Project ) is a scientific drilling project in Antarctica gathering information about past periods of global warming and cooling . The project involves scientists from Germany , Italy , New Zealand , and the United States . At two sites in 2006 and 2007 , ANDRILL team members drilled through ice , seawater , sediment and rock to a depth over more than 1,200 m and recovered a virtually continuous core record from the present to nearly 20 million years ago . The project is based at McMurdo Station in Antarctica . In studying the cores , ANDRILL scientists from various disciplines are gathering detailed information about past periods of global warming and cooling . A major goal of the project is to significantly improve the understanding of Antarctica 's impact on the world 's oceans currents and the atmosphere by reconstructing the behavior of Antarctic sea-ice , ice-shelves , glaciers and sea currents over tens of millions of years . Initial results imply rapid changes and dramatically different climates at various times on the southernmost continent.Quirin Scheirmeier , `` Sediment cores reveal Antarctica 's warmer past , '' Nature News , April 24 , 2008 . The $ 30 million project has achieved its operational goal of retrieving a continuous core record of the last 17 million years , filling crucial gaps left by previous drilling projects . Making use of knowledge gained through prior Antarctic drilling projects , ANDRILL employed novel techniques to reach record depths at its two drilling sites . Among the innovations deployed were a hot-water drilling system that allowed for easier ice-boring and a flexible drill pipe that could accommodate tidal oscillations and strong currents . On December 16 , 2006 , ANDRILL broke the previous record of 999.1 m set in 2000 by the Ocean Drilling Program 's drill ship , the Joides Resolution . The Antarctic-record 1285 m of core ANDRILL went on to recover represents geologic time to about 13 million years ago . In 2007 , drilling at the Southern McMurdo Sound , ANDRILL scientists recovered another 1138 meters ( 3733.6 ft ) of core . One goal in 2006 was to look at a period of around 3 to 5 million years ago in the Pliocene , which scientists know to be warmer . The team 's sedimentologists identified more than 60 cycles in which ice sheets or glaciers advanced and retreated across McMurdo Sound .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"ANDRILL\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 159784\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Antarctica Content: Antarctica ( UK English -LSB- ænˈtɑːktɪkə -RSB- or -LSB- ænˈtɑːtɪkə -RSB- , US English -LSB- æntˈɑːrktɪkə -RSB- ) is Earth 's southernmost continent . It contains the geographic South Pole and is situated in the Antarctic region of the Southern Hemisphere , almost entirely south of the Antarctic Circle , and is surrounded by the Southern Ocean . At 14000000 km2 , it is the fifth-largest continent . For comparison , Antarctica is nearly twice the size of Australia . About 98 % of Antarctica is covered by ice that averages 1.9 km in thickness , which extends to all but the northernmost reaches of the Antarctic Peninsula . Antarctica , on average , is the coldest , driest , and windiest continent , and has the highest average elevation of all the continents . Antarctica is a desert , with annual precipitation of only 200 mm ( 8 in ) along the coast and far less inland . The temperature in Antarctica has reached − 89.2 ° C ( − 128.6 ° F ) , though the average for the third quarter ( the coldest part of the year ) is − 63 ° C ( − 81 ° F ) . Anywhere from 1,000 to 5,000 people reside throughout the year at the research stations scattered across the continent . Organisms native to Antarctica include many types of algae , bacteria , fungi , plants , protista , and certain animals , such as mites , nematodes , penguins , seals and tardigrades . Vegetation , where it occurs , is tundra . Although myths and speculation about a Terra Australis ( `` Southern Land '' ) date back to antiquity , Antarctica is noted as the last region on Earth in recorded history to be discovered and colonised by humans , being only first sighted in 1820 by the Russian expedition of Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev on Vostok and Mirny , who sighted the Fimbul ice shelf . The continent , however , remained largely neglected for the rest of the 19th century because of its hostile environment , lack of easily accessible resources , and isolation . In 1895 , the first confirmed landing was conducted by a team of Norwegians . Antarctica is a de facto condominium , governed by parties to the Antarctic Treaty System that have consulting status . Twelve countries signed the Antarctic Treaty in 1959 , and thirty-eight have signed it since then . The treaty prohibits military activities and mineral mining , prohibits nuclear explosions and nuclear waste disposal , supports scientific research , and protects the continent 's ecozone . Ongoing experiments are conducted by more than 4,000 scientists from many nations .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Antarctica\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 159527\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Polar High Content: The polar highs are areas of high atmospheric pressure around the north and south poles ; the north polar high being the stronger one because land gains and loses heat more effectively than sea . The cold temperatures in the polar regions cause air to descend to create the high pressure ( a process called subsidence ) , just as the warm temperatures around the equator cause air to rise to create the low pressure intertropical convergence zone . Rising air also occurs along bands of low pressure situated just below the polar highs around the 50th parallels of latitude . These extratropical convergence zones are occupied by the polar fronts where air masses of polar origin meet and clash with those of tropical or subtropical origin . This convergence of rising air completes the vertical cycle around the polar cell in each latitudinal hemisphere . Closely related to this concept is the polar vortex . Surface temperatures under the polar highs are the coldest on Earth , with no month having an average temperature above freezing . Regions under the polar high also experience very low levels of precipitation , which leads them to be known as `` polar deserts '' . Air flows outwards from the poles to create the polar easterlies in the arctic and antarctic areas .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Polar_High\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 158799\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: West Antarctica Content: West Antarctica , or Lesser Antarctica , one of the two major regions of Antarctica , is the part of that continent that lies within the Western Hemisphere , and includes the Antarctic Peninsula . It is separated from East Antarctica by the Transantarctic Mountains and is covered by the West Antarctic Ice Sheet . It lies between the Ross Sea ( partly covered by the Ross Ice Shelf ) , and the Weddell Sea ( largely covered by the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf ) . It may be considered a giant peninsula stretching from the South Pole towards the tip of South America . West Antarctica is largely covered by the Antarctic ice sheet , but there have been signs that climate change is having some effect and that this ice sheet may have started to shrink slightly . The coasts of the Antarctic Peninsula are the only parts of West Antarctica that become ( in summer ) ice-free . These constitute the Marielandia Antarctic tundra and have the warmest climate in Antarctica . The rocks are clad in mosses and lichens that can cope with the intense cold of winter and the short growing-season .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"West_Antarctica\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 158769\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ice cap climate Content: An ice cap climate is a polar climate where the temperature never exceeds 0 C . The climate covers areas in or near the polar regions , such as Antarctica and Greenland , as well as the highest mountaintops . Such areas are covered by a permanent layer of ice and have no vegetation , but they may have animal life , that usually feeds from the oceans . Ice cap climates are inhospitable to human life . Antarctica , the coldest continent on Earth , sustains no permanent human residents , but has some civil inhabitants in proximity to research stations in coastal settlements that are maritime polar and there are some communities that are situated in a transitional zone between the two climates , but barely qualify as a tundra . Some places like Antarctica had a different climate before having an ice cap climate\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Ice_cap_climate\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 158182\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Getz Ice Shelf Content: The Getz Ice Shelf is the largest Antarctic ice shelf along the SE Pacific-Antarctic coastline , over 300 mi long and from 20 to wide , bordering the Hobbs and Bakutis Coasts of Marie Byrd Land between the McDonald Heights and Martin Peninsula . Several large islands are partially or wholly embedded in the ice shelf , pinning the calving front . Summer temperature and salinity measurements from 1994 to 2010 show the shelf is subject to more changeable oceanic forcing than other Antarctic shelves . Beneath cold surface waters , the thermocline was ∼ 200 m shallower in 2007 than in 2000 , indicative of shifting access of deep water to the continental shelf and ice shelf base . The calculated area-average basal melt rates was between 1.1 and 4.1 m of ice per year , making Getz the largest source of meltwater to the Southern Ocean . The ice shelf westward of Siple Island was discovered by the United States Antarctic Service ( USAS ) in December 1940 . The portion eastward of Siple Island was first delineated from air photos taken by U.S. Navy Operation Highjump , 1946 -- 47 . The entire feature was mapped by the United States Geological Survey from U.S. Navy air photos of 1962 -- 65 . It was named by the USAS ( 1939 -- 41 ) for George F. Getz of Chicago , Illinois , who helped furnish the seaplane for the expedition .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Getz_Ice_Shelf\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 158177\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Southern Ocean Content: The Southern Ocean , also known as the Antarctic Ocean or the Austral Ocean , comprises the southernmost waters of the World Ocean , generally taken to be south of 60 ° S latitude and encircling Antarctica . As such , it is regarded as the fourth-largest of the five principal oceanic divisions : smaller than the Pacific , Atlantic , and Indian Oceans but larger than the Arctic Ocean . This ocean zone is where cold , northward flowing waters from the Antarctic mix with warmer subantarctic waters . By way of his voyages in the 1770s , Captain James Cook proved that waters encompassed the southern latitudes of the globe . Since then , geographers have disagreed on the Southern Ocean 's northern boundary or even existence , considering the waters part of the Pacific , Atlantic , and Indian Oceans , instead . This remains the current official policy of the International Hydrographic Organization ( IHO ) , since a 2000 revision of its definitions including the Southern Ocean as the waters south of the 60th parallel has not yet been adopted . Others regard the seasonally-fluctuating Antarctic Convergence as the natural boundary .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Southern_Ocean\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 157915\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: VX-6 Content: Air Development Squadron Six ( VX-6 or AIRDEVRON SIX , commonly referred to by its nickname , `` puckered penguins '' ) was a United States Navy Air Development Squadron based at McMurdo Station , Antarctica . Established at Naval Air Station Patuxent River , Maryland on 17 January 1955 , the squadron 's mission was to conduct operations in support of Operation Deep Freeze , the operational component of the United States Antarctic Program . Using the tail code XD , the squadron flew numerous fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters over the course of its existence -- many of which were pioneering endeavors . For example , the first air link between Antarctica and New Zealand was established by men and aircraft of VX-6 in 1955 . The following year , a ski-equipped R4D Dakota of VX-6 became the first aircraft to land at the South Pole . In 1961 , the first emergency midwinter medical evacuation flight was conducted from Byrd Station to Christchurch . In 1963 , an LC-130F Hercules of VX-6 made the longest flight in Antarctic history . In 1967 , a United States Navy LC-130F of VX-6 completed the first scheduled winter flight to Antarctica , landing at Williams Field . VX-6 changed the tail code of its aircraft to JD in 1957 , and was redesignated as Antarctic Development Squadron Six ( VXE-6 ) on 1 January 1969 . Over the 14-year course of its existence , seventeen sailors and marines assigned to VX-6 died in Antarctica during Operation Deep Freeze missions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"VX-6\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 157821\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Blue Marble Content: The Blue Marble is an image of the Earth made on December 7 , 1972 , by the crew of the Apollo 17 spacecraft at a distance of about 29000 km from the surface . It is one of the most reproduced images in human history . The image with the official NASA designation AS17-148-22727 reproduces the view of the Earth as seen by the Apollo crew traveling toward the Moon . The translunar coast photograph extends from the Mediterranean Sea to Antarctica . This was the first time the Apollo trajectory made it possible to photograph the south polar ice cap , despite the Southern Hemisphere being heavily covered in clouds . In addition to the Arabian Peninsula and Madagascar , almost the entire coastline of Africa is clearly visible . The Asian mainland is on the horizon . The name has also been applied by NASA to a 2012 series of image data sets covering the entire globe at relatively high resolution , created by carefully sifting through satellite-captured sequences taken over time , to eliminate as much cloud cover as possible from the collated set of images .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Blue_Marble\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 157746\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea ice Content: Sea ice arises as seawater freezes . Because ice is less dense than water , it floats on the ocean 's surface ( as does fresh water ice , which has an even lower density ) . Sea ice covers about 7 % of the Earth 's surface and about 12 % of the world 's oceans . Much of the world 's sea ice is enclosed within the polar ice packs in the Earth 's polar regions : the Arctic ice pack of the Arctic Ocean and the Antarctic ice pack of the Southern Ocean . Polar packs undergo a significant yearly cycling in surface extent , a natural process upon which depends the Arctic ecology , including the ocean 's ecosystems . Due to the action of winds , currents and temperature fluctuations , sea ice is very dynamic , leading to a wide variety of ice types and features . Sea ice may be contrasted with icebergs , which are chunks of ice shelves or glaciers that calve into the ocean . Depending on location , sea ice expanses may also incorporate icebergs .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea_ice\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 157521\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate of Antarctica Content: The climate of Antarctica is the coldest on Earth . Antarctica 's lowest air temperature record was set on 21 July 1983 , with − 89.2 C at Vostok Station . Satellite measurements have identified even lower ground temperatures , down to − 93.2 C at the cloud free East Antarctic Plateau on 10 August 2010 . It is also extremely dry ( technically a desert ) , averaging 166 mm of precipitation per year . On most parts of the continent the snow rarely melts and is eventually compressed to become the glacier ice that makes up the ice sheet . Weather fronts rarely penetrate far into the continent , because of the katabatic winds . Most of Antarctica has an ice cap climate ( Köppen EF ) with very cold , generally extremely dry weather .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_of_Antarctica\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 157314\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ice age Content: An ice age is a period of long-term reduction in the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere , resulting in the presence or expansion of continental and polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers . Within a long-term ice age , individual pulses of cold climate are termed `` glacial periods '' ( or alternatively `` glacials '' or `` glaciations '' or colloquially as `` ice age '' ) , and intermittent warm periods are called `` interglacials '' . In the terminology of glaciology , ice age implies the presence of extensive ice sheets in both northern and southern hemispheres . By this definition , we are in an interglacial period -- the Holocene -- of the ice age . The ice age began 2.6 million years ago at the start of the Pleistocene epoch , because the Greenland , Arctic , and Antarctic ice sheets still exist .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Ice_age\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 156159\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Polar see-saw Content: The polar see-saw ( also : Bipolar seesaw ) is the phenomenon that temperature changes in the northern and southern hemispheres may be out of phase . The theory ( or hypothesis ) states that large changes , f.e. when the glaciers are intensely growing or depleting , in the formation of ocean bottom water in both poles take a long time to exert their effect in the other hemisphere . Estimates of the period of delay vary , one typical estimate is 1500 years . This is usually studied in the context of ice-cores taken from Antarctica and Greenland .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Polar_see-saw\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 156041\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Antarctic Peninsula Content: The Antarctic Peninsula is the northernmost part of the mainland of Antarctica , located at the base of the Southern Hemisphere . At the surface , it is the biggest , most prominent peninsula in Antarctica as it extends 1300 km from a line between Cape Adams ( Weddell Sea ) and a point on the mainland south of Eklund Islands . Beneath the ice sheet which covers it , the Antarctic Peninsula consists of a string of bedrock islands ; these are separated by deep channels whose bottoms lie at depths considerably below current sea level . They are joined together by a grounded ice sheet . Tierra del Fuego , the southernmost tip of South America , lies only about 1000 km away across the Drake Passage . The Antarctic Peninsula is currently dotted with numerous research stations and nations have made multiple claims of sovereignty . The peninsula is part of disputed and overlapping claims by Argentina , Chile and the United Kingdom . None of these claims has international recognition and , under the Antarctic Treaty System , the respective countries do not attempt to enforce their claims . Argentina has the most bases and personnel stationed on the peninsula .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Antarctic_Peninsula\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 155897\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Iceberg D-16 Content: Iceberg D-16 is a city-sized iceberg near Antarctica , discovered on March 26 , 2006 by the National Ice Center using satellite imagery from the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program . It broke free of the Fimbul Ice Shelf , located along the northwestern section of Queen Maud Land in the eastern Weddell Sea . It is approximately 8 miles wide and 15 miles long ( 120 square miles ) , roughly the size of a city .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Iceberg_D-16\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 155472\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Taylor Rookery Content: Taylor Rookery is an emperor penguin breeding colony on the Mawson Coast of Mac.Robertson Land in East Antarctica . It is the largest of the two known entirely land-based colonies of the species , most of which are situated on sea ice .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Taylor_Rookery\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 155137\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Extreme points of Antarctica Content: The tallest mountain in Antarctica is Mount Vinson rising 4,892 metres ( 16,050 feet ) above sea level . The lowest point in Antarctica is within the Bentley Subglacial Trench , which reaches 2,555 metres below sea level . This is also the lowest place on Earth not covered by ocean ( although it is covered by ice ) . The lowest accessible point in Antarctica is the shore of Deep Lake , Vestfold Hills , which is 50 m beneath sea level . The point on land farthest from any coastline on the Antarctic Continent is located at . This is also known as the South Pole of inaccessibility . Antarctica is the southernmost land mass on Earth . The Geographical South Pole lies on the Polar Plateau at . It is here that the southernmost human habitation on Earth is located : Amundsen -- Scott South Pole Station ( U.S. Administered Base ) . Vostok Station is the most isolated research base on the continent ( located at ) , and it is situated over the southernmost lake in the world , Lake Vostok , a subglacial lake 4,000 metres ( 13,000 feet ) under the surface of the ice where the station sits . Formerly administrated by the Soviets , it is now operated by Russia . The southernmost volcano on the planet -- Mount Erebus -- is in Antarctica on the world 's southernmost island reachable from the sea : Ross Island . The southernmost island is Berkner Island . It is embedded in the ice shelf , fully covered by ice and fully below sea level . The Ross Sea is the southernmost sea in the world , with its southernmost extremity ( Gould Coast ) at the foot of the Horlick Mountains approximately 200 miles ( 320 km ) from the Geographic South Pole . However , this area is covered by the Ross Ice Shelf . The southernmost open sea is also part of Ross Sea , namely Bay of Whales at 78 ° 30 'S , at the edge of Ross Ice Shelf . The northernmost extremity of the Antarctic mainland ( without nearshore islands ) is Prime Head , at the northern tip of the Trinity Peninsula at . The Antarctic Peninsula is the largest contiguous part of the continent projecting north of the Antarctic Circle and thus has many of the continent 's research bases . Prime Head is 609 mi ( 980 km ) from Cape Horn . The northernmost research base on the mainland is Esperanza Base .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Extreme_points_of_Antarctica\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 155110\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Worley Point Content: Worley Point is a rock point , the site of an Adelie penguin rookery , forming the northwest corner of Shepard Island . Like Grant Island , 5 nautical miles ( 9 km ) eastward , Shepard Island is surrounded by the Getz Ice Shelf except on the north side . The point was charted from the USS Name applied by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) for Lieutenant Richard J. Worley , U.S. Navy , Medical Officer at South Pole Station , 1969 . Category : Headlands of Marie Byrd Land\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Worley_Point\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 154956\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: North-west White Island Antarctic Specially Protected Area Content: The North-west White Island Antarctic Specially Protected Area comprises a 142 km2 area of coastal shelf ice on the north-west side of White Island in the Ross Archipelago of Antarctica.The site has been designated an Antarctic Specially Protected Area ( ASPA 137 ) because it supports an unusual small breeding population of Weddell seals , which is not only the most southerly known , but which has also been physically isolated from other populations by the advance of the McMurdo and Ross ice shelves . The first seals in the area were recorded in 1958 , since when the population has grown to 25 -- 30 . The seals utilise the open waters of McMurdo Sound but do not have the breathing capacity to reach the open ocean by swimming beneath the intervening 20 km of permanent shelf ice .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"North-west_White_Island_Antarctic_Specially_Protected_Area\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 154921\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Amanda Bay Content: Amanda Bay , also sometimes known as Hovde Cove , lies in southern Prydz Bay on the Ingrid Christensen Coast of Princess Elizabeth Land , East Antarctica . It is best known for its breeding colony of several thousand pairs of emperor penguins on sea ice at the south-west corner of the bay .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Amanda_Bay\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 154819\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Brown skua Content: The brown skua ( Stercorarius antarcticus ) , also known as the Antarctic skua , subantarctic skua , southern great skua , southern skua , or hākoakoa ( Māori ) , is a large seabird that breeds in the subantarctic and Antarctic zones and moves further north when not breeding . Its taxonomy is highly complex and a matter of dispute , with some splitting it into two or three species : Falkland skua ( S. antarcticus ) , Tristan skua ( S. hamiltoni ) , and subantarctic skua ( S. lönnbergi ) . To further confuse , it hybridizes with both the south polar and Chilean skuas , and the entire group has been considered to be a subspecies of the great skua , a species otherwise restricted to the Northern Hemisphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Brown_skua\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 154675\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Last Glacial Maximum Content: The Last Glacial Maximum ( LGM ) was the last period in the Earth 's climate history during the last glacial period when ice sheets were at their greatest extension . Growth of the ice sheets reached their maximum positions in about 24,500 BCE . Deglaciation commenced in the Northern Hemisphere between approximately 18,000 to 17,000 BCE and in Antarctica approximately 12,500 BCE , which is consistent with evidence that it was the primary source for an abrupt rise in the sea level in about 12,500 BCE . Vast ice sheets covered much of North America , northern Europe , and Asia . The ice sheets profoundly affected Earth 's climate by causing drought , desertification , and a dramatic drop in sea levels . It was followed by the Late Glacial .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Last_Glacial_Maximum\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 154598\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: European Project for Ice Coring in Antarctica Content: The European Project for Ice Coring in Antarctica ( EPICA ) is a multinational European project for deep ice core drilling in Antarctica . Its main objective is to obtain full documentation of the climatic and atmospheric record archived in Antarctic ice by drilling and analyzing two ice cores and comparing these with their Greenland counterparts ( GRIP and GISP ) . Evaluation of these records will provide information about the natural climate variability and mechanisms of rapid climatic changes during the last glacial epoch . The European Science Foundation EPICA Programme ( 1996 -- 2005 ) provides co-ordination for EPICA drilling activities at Dome Concordia and Kohnen Station , which are supported by the European Commission and by national contributions from Belgium , Denmark , France , Germany , Italy , the Netherlands , Norway , Sweden , Switzerland and the United Kingdom . Deep drilling took place at two sites in Antarctica : Concordia Station at Dome C and Kohnen Station . In 2008 the project received the Descartes Prize for Research .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"European_Project_for_Ice_Coring_in_Antarctica\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 154503\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cadwalader Beach Content: Cadwalader Beach is a beach nearly 1 mi long at the south end of Beaufort Island , in the Ross Archipelago . The beach is occupied by a large Adélie penguin rookery and there is easy access from the sea when the coast is ice free . It was named by the New Zealand Geological Survey Antarctic Expedition ( 1958 -- 59 ) for Captain John Cadwalader , U.S. Navy , who encouraged and assisted the expedition in its Antarctic program , and also rendered valuable assistance to the New Zealand parties of the Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition , 1956 -- 58 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Cadwalader_Beach\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 154490\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cape Melville (South Shetland Islands) Content: Cape Melville , is a low-lying , ice-free headland at the eastern end of King George Island in the South Shetland Islands of Antarctica . Some 388 ha of the site has been identified as an Important Bird Area ( IBA ) by BirdLife International because it supports a large breeding colony of about 16,000 pairs of chinstrap penguins .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Cape_Melville_(South_Shetland_Islands)\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 154483\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: New South Greenland Content: New South Greenland , sometimes known as Morrell 's Land , was an appearance of land recorded by the American captain Benjamin Morrell of the schooner Wasp in , during a sealing and exploration voyage in the Weddell Sea area of Antarctica . Morrell provided precise coordinates and a description of a coastline which he claimed to have sailed along for more than 300 mi . Because the Weddell Sea area was so little visited , and hard to navigate due to ice conditions , the alleged land was never properly investigated before its existence was emphatically disproved during Antarctic expeditions in the early 20th century . At the time of Morrell 's voyage , the geography of the then unnamed Weddell Sea and its surrounding coasts was almost entirely unknown , making the claimed sighting initially plausible . However , obvious errors in Morrell 's voyage account , and his general reputation as a fabulist , created scepticism about the existence of this new land . In the German explorer Wilhelm Filchner searched for but found no traces of land , after his ship Deutschland became icebound in the Weddell Sea and drifted into the locality of Morrell 's observation . A sounding of the sea bottom revealed more than 5000 ft of water , indicating no land in near proximity . Three years later , trapped in the same waters with his ship Endurance , Ernest Shackleton was able by similar means to confirm the land 's non-existence . Various explanations for Morrell 's error have been suggested , including intentional deception . However , Morrell describes his find briefly and prosaically , evidently seeking no personal credit or glory from the discovery . In his narrative he assigns the honour to his fellow sealing captain , Robert Johnson , for finding and naming the land two years earlier . Morrell may have been honestly mistaken , through miscalculation of his ship 's position or by misremembering detail when writing the account after nine years . Alternatively , he may have made the common error of confusing distant icebergs with land , or been misled by the distorting effects of Antarctic mirage . In 1843 the distinguished British naval explorer James Clark Ross reported possible land in a position close to Morrell 's ; this land , too , would eventually be proven not to exist .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"New_South_Greenland\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 153720\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coulman Island Content: Coulman Island is an ice-covered island , composed of several connected shield volcanos in the Ross Sea off Antarctica . It is 18 nmi long and 8 nmi and is located 9 nmi SE of Cape Jones , Victoria Land . The Coulman caldera , 3 mi wide and 2300 ft deep , can be found on the south end of the island . Emperor penguins inhabit this island . Coulman Island lies within the boundaries of Ross Dependency , which is claimed by New Zealand ; a claim unrecognised by most other states . It was discovered in 1841 by Sir James Clark Ross who named it for his father-in-law , Thomas Coulman . A notable landmark of this island is Cape Anne , the south-easternmost point of the island , so named by Sir James Clark Ross for his wife . Cape Wadworth is the northernmost point of the island . The island has an elevation of 1998 m.\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Coulman_Island\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 151413\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Duncan Wingham Content: Duncan John Wingham ( born 12 October 1957 ) is a British physicist who is Professor of Climate Physics at University College London , and was the first Director of the Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling . He is chief executive of the Natural Environment Research Council and Principal Scientist for the CryoSat Satellite Mission . In the 1990s , Wingham was involved in a four-year satellite study of the Antarctic ice sheet . His conclusion then , and from later research , is that the Antarctic has contributed little to observed rising sea levels in the 20th century . However , he has also stated that `` it is possible that the consequences of global warming on sea level rise have been underestimated ... Other sources of rise must be underestimated . In particular it is possible that the effect of global warming on thermal expansion -LSB- on the oceans -RSB- is larger than we thought '' . In a 2005 interview Wingham stated '' -LSB- t -RSB- he Antarctic is to some extent insulated from global warming because to its north are zonal flows in the atmosphere and ocean , unimpeded by other landmasses ... I am not denying global warming . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Duncan_Wingham\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 151333\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Dome A Content: Dome A or Dome Argus is the loftiest ice dome on the Antarctic Plateau , located 1200 km inland . It is thought to be the coldest naturally occurring place on Earth ; scientists believe that temperatures can sometimes even drop below -102 ° C in the winter . It is the highest ice feature in Antarctica , consisting of an ice dome or eminence of 4093 m elevation above sea level . It is located near the center of East Antarctica , approximately midway between the enormous head of Lambert Glacier and the geographic South Pole , within the Australian claim .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Dome_A\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 150699\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Archaeospheniscus lopdelli Content: Lopdell 's penguin ( Archaeospheniscus lopdelli ) was the largest species of the extinct penguin genus Archaeospheniscus , standing about 90 -- 120 cm high , or somewhat less than the extant emperor penguin . It is only known from bones of a single individual ( Otago Museum C. 47.21 ) which was found in the Late Oligocene Kokoamu Greensand Formation ( 27-28 MYA ) at Duntroon , New Zealand . Bones apparently belonging to this species are now also known from the Late Eocene La Meseta Formation ( 34-37 MYA ) on Seymour Island , Antarctica ( Tambussi et al. , 2006 ) . As the bird is not very well distinguished except in size from its contemporary congener Archaeospheniscus lowei and the size range , an estimated 85 -- 120 cm , is in the upper range of the variation found in modern penguins , it is probable that A. lopdelli is a synonym of A. lowelli . As the recent finds in Antarctica suggest , this is far from certain , however , and there remains much to be learned about the systematics and biogeography of the two larger Archaeospheniscus species . The species ' binomen honors J. C. Lopdell , who assisted Marples in recovering the fossils of this bird and others found in the Duntroon excavations .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Archaeospheniscus_lopdelli\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 150546\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Emperor penguin Content: The emperor penguin ( Aptenodytes forsteri ) is the tallest and heaviest of all living penguin species and is endemic to Antarctica . The male and female are similar in plumage and size , reaching 122 cm in height and weighing from 22 to . The dorsal side and head are black and sharply delineated from the white belly , pale-yellow breast and bright-yellow ear patches . Like all penguins it is flightless , with a streamlined body , and wings stiffened and flattened into flippers for a marine habitat . Its diet consists primarily of fish , but can also include crustaceans , such as krill , and cephalopods , such as squid . In hunting , the species can remain submerged up to 18 minutes , diving to a depth of 535 m . It has several adaptations to facilitate this , including an unusually structured haemoglobin to allow it to function at low oxygen levels , solid bones to reduce barotrauma , and the ability to reduce its metabolism and shut down non-essential organ functions . The only penguin species that breeds during the Antarctic winter , emperor penguins trek 50 -- over the ice to breeding colonies which may include thousands of individuals . The female lays a single egg , which is incubated by the male while the female returns to the sea to feed ; parents subsequently take turns foraging at sea and caring for their chick in the colony . The lifespan is typically 20 years in the wild , although observations suggest that some individuals may live to 50 years of age .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Emperor_penguin\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 150400\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Notothenioidei Content: Notothenioidei is one of 18 suborders from the order Perciformes and includes Antarctic fish and sub-Antarctic fish . Notothenioids are distributed mainly throughout the Southern Ocean around the coasts of New Zealand , South America , and Antarctica . The main seawater temperatures between − 2 and 4 ° C ( 28 and 39 ° F ) , but some the subpolar species inhabit waters that may be as warm as 10 ° C ( 50 ° F ) around New Zealand and South America . Seawater temperatures below the freezing point of fresh water ( 0 ° C or 32 ° F ) are possible due to the dissolved salts . Notothenioids have a depth range of about 0 -- 1,500 m ( 0 -- 4,921 ft ) . Comparison studies between sub-Antarctic and Antarctic notothenioids have revealed different ecological processes and genetic differences between the two groups of fish , like loss of hemoglobin and changes in buoyancy .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Notothenioidei\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 150027\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Antarctic Content: The Antarctic ( US English -LSB- æntˈɑrktɪk -RSB- , UK English -LSB- ænˈtɑrktɪk -RSB- or -LSB- æntˈɑrtɪk -RSB- and -LSB- ænˈtɑrtɪk -RSB- or -LSB- ænˈɑrtɪk -RSB- ) is a polar region , specifically the region around the Earth 's South Pole , opposite the Arctic region around the North Pole . The Antarctic comprises in the strict sense the continent of Antarctica and the island territories located on the Antarctic Plate . In a broader sense the Antarctic region include the ice shelves , waters , and island territories in the Southern Ocean situated south of the Antarctic Convergence , a zone approximately 32 to wide varying in latitude seasonally . The region covers some 20 % of the Southern Hemisphere , of which 5.5 % ( 14 million km2 ) is the surface area of the Antarctic continent itself . All of the land and ice shelves south of 60 ° S latitude are administrated under the Antarctic Treaty System . In a biogeographic sense , the Antarctic ecozone is one of eight ecozones of the Earth 's land surface .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Antarctic\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 149694\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: East Antarctic Ice Sheet Content: The East Antarctic Ice Sheet ( EAIS ) is one of two large ice sheets in Antarctica , and the largest on the entire planet . The EAIS lies between 45 ° west and 168 ° east longitudinally . The EAIS is considerably larger in area and mass than the West Antarctic Ice Sheet ( WAIS ) . It is separated from the WAIS by the Transantarctic Mountains . The EAIS rests upon a large land mass , contrary to that of the WAIS , which rests mainly on bedrock below sea level . The EAIS is also home to the thickest ice on the frozen white continent , at 15,700 ft ( 4,800 m ) . More well known , however , is that the EAIS is home to the geographic South Pole as well as of the Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"East_Antarctic_Ice_Sheet\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 149432\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: North American ice storm of January 1961 Content: The North American ice storm of January 1961 was a massive ice storm that struck areas of northern Idaho in the United States on January 1 -- 3 , 1961 . The storm set a record for thickest recorded ice accumulation from a single storm in the United States , at 8 inches . The storm 's swath covered areas from Grangeville , in north central Idaho , to the Canada -- United States border . According to the National Weather Service , a combination of dense fog , sub-freezing temperatures , and occasional freezing rain led to the heavy ice accretions . Catastrophic damage to trees and utilities resulted , resulting in widespread power outages . Prior to this storm , previous records of between 4 and 6 inches of ice were recorded in New York City and Texas .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"North_American_ice_storm_of_January_1961\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 149432\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Joseph Adhémar Content: Joseph Alphonse Adhémar ( 1797 -- 1862 ) was a French mathematician . He was the first to suggest that ice ages were controlled by astronomical forces in his 1842 book Revolutions of the Sea . The Earth 's orbit is elliptical , with the Sun at one focus ; lines drawn through the summer and winter solstice ; and the spring and autumn equinox ; intersect with the sun at right angles . The Earth is closest to the Sun ( perihelion ) near the northern hemisphere winter solstice . The earth moves faster through its orbit when closer to the sun . Hence , the period from the northern hemisphere 's autumn equinox to winter and spring is shorter by around seven days than the period from spring to summer to autumn ; the reverse is true in the southern hemisphere . Hence , northern hemisphere winter is shorter . Because of this , Adhemar reasoned that because the southern hemisphere had more hours of darkness in winter , it must be cooling , and attributed the Antarctic ice sheet to this . Adhemar knew of the 22,000 year cycle of precession of the equinoxes , and theorised that the ice ages occurred in this cycle . One immediate objection to the theory was that the total insolation during a year does not vary at all during the precessional cycle , only its seasonal distribution . Another was that the timing was wrong ; however this could not be tested by observations available at the time . Adhemar 's theory was further developed , first by James Croll and later by Milutin Milanković . Adhemar predicted the Antarctic ice sheet and theorised about its thickness by comparing the depths of the Arctic and circum-Antarctic oceans . Finding the Antarctic oceans deeper ( the measurements he used may not have been fully representative ) and attributing this to the gravitational attraction of the Antarctic ice sheet , he postulated a truly enormous ice sheet approximately 90 km thick .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Joseph_Adhémar\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 149063\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pole of Inaccessibility (Antarctic research station) Content: The Pole of Inaccessibility Research Station is a defunct Soviet research station in Kemp Land , Antarctica , at the southern pole of inaccessibility ( the point in Antarctica furthest from any ocean ) as it was defined in 1958 when the station was established . Later definitions give other locations , all relatively near this point . It performed meteorological observations from 14 December 1958 to 26 December 1958 . The Pole of Inaccessibility has the world 's coldest year-round average temperature of -58.2 ° C. It is 878 km from the South Pole , and approximately 600 km from Sovetskaya . The surface elevation is 3,800 m . It was reached on 14 December 1958 by an 18-man traversing party of the 3rd Soviet Antarctic Expedition . Its WMO ID is 89550 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Pole_of_Inaccessibility_(Antarctic_research_station)\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 148085\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Snow Content: Snow pertains to frozen crystalline water throughout its life cycle , starting when it precipitates from clouds and accumulates on surfaces , then metamorphoses in place , and ultimately melts , slides or sublimates away . Snowstorms organize and develop by feeding on sources of atmospheric moisture and cold air . Snowflakes nucleate around particles in the atmosphere by attracting supercooled water droplets , which freeze in hexagonal-shaped crystals . Snowflakes take on a variety of shapes , basic among these are platelets , needles , columns and rime . As snow accumulates into a snowpack , it may blow into drifts . Over time , accumulated snow metamorphoses , by sintering , sublimation and freeze-thaw . Where the climate is cold enough for year-to-year accumulation , a glacier may form . Otherwise , snow typically melts seasonally , causing runoff into streams and rivers and recharging groundwater . Major snow-prone areas include the polar regions , the upper half of the Northern Hemisphere and mountainous regions worldwide with sufficient moisture and cold temperatures . In the Southern Hemisphere , snow is confined primarily to mountainous areas , apart from Antarctica . Snow affects such human activities as transportation : creating the need for keeping roadways , wings , and windows clear ; agriculture : providing water to crops and safeguarding livestock ; such sports as skiing , snowboarding , snowmachine travel ; and warfare : impairing target acquisition , degrading the performance of combatants and materiel , and impeding mobility . Snow affects ecosystems , as well , by providing an insulating layer during winter under which plants and animals are able to survive the cold .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Snow\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 148083\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: VXE-6 Content: Antarctic Development Squadron Six ( VXE-6 or ANTARCTIC DEVRON SIX , commonly referred to by its nickname , The Puckered Penguins ) was a United States Navy Air Test and Evaluation Squadron based Naval Air Station Point Mugu , California with forward operating bases at Christchurch , New Zealand and McMurdo Station , Antarctica . Established at Naval Air Station Quonset Point , Rhode Island on 1 January 1969 , the squadron 's mission was to provide aviation support for Operation Deep Freeze , the operational component of the United States Antarctic Program . Following the closure of NAS Quonset Point in the 1970s , the squadron relocated to NAS Point Mugu . Using the tail code JD and XD , the squadron flew numerous aircraft over the course of its existence . Following the closure of austral summer operations at Amundsen -- Scott South Pole Station in February 1999 , the squadron returned to Naval Air Station Point Mugu , California , where it was disestablished on 31 March 1999 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"VXE-6\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 147804\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Palaeeudyptes Content: Palaeeudyptes is an extinct genus of large penguins , currently containing four accepted species . They were probably larger than almost all living penguins , with the smaller species being about the size of an emperor penguin and the largest ones having stood about 2 meters tall . Of the four species , two ( P. gunnari and P. klekowskii ) are known from numerous remains found in Middle or Late Eocene strata ( 34 to 50 MYA ) of the La Meseta Formation on Seymour Island , Antarctica . P. antarcticus , the first fossil penguin described , is only really known from a single incomplete tarsometatarsus found in the Late Oligocene Otekaike Limestone ( 23 to 28 , possibly up to 34 MYA ) at Kakanui , New Zealand , but numerous other bones have been tentatively assigned to the species . The other described New Zealand species , P. marplesi , is known from parts of a skeleton , mainly leg bones , from the Middle or Late Eocene Burnside Mudstone ( 34 to 40 MYA ) at Burnside , Dunedin . To this species also a number of additional remains have been tentatively assigned . The problem with the indeterminate New Zealand specimens is that they at least in part are intermediate in size between the two species ( Simpson , 1971 ) . It may be that P. marplesi simply evolved into the smaller P. antarcticus . Bones unassignable to species also were found on Seymour Island , but in these cases they seem to be from juvenile individuals or are simply too damaged to be of diagnostic value ( Jadwiszczak , 2006 ) . In addition , an incomplete right tibiotarsus ( South Australian Museum P10862 ) and one left humerus ( South Australian Museum P7158 ) and assignable to this genus were found in the Late Eocene Blanche Point Marls at Witton Bluff near Adelaide , Australia ( Simpson , 1946 , 1971 ) . Additionally , an incomplete humerus identified as Palaeeudyptes was recovered in southernmost Chile ( Sallaberry et al. , 2010 ) , from middle to late Eocene beds of the Río Turbio Formation , near Puerto Natales , 200 km south from Torres del Paine National Park . The supposed genus Wimanornis , based on two Seymour Island humeri , is apparently a synonym of P. gunnari ( Jadwiszcak , 2006 ) . The genus is the namesake for the subfamily of primitive penguins , Palaeeudyptinae . Altogether , their osteological characteristics seem to have been somewhat less advanced that those of the slightly smaller Archaeospheniscus and about on par with the gigantic Anthropornis . The exact nature of the relationship of the Palaeeudyptinae to modern penguins is unknown .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Palaeeudyptes\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 147218\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mohn Peaks Content: The Mohn Peaks are two ice-covered peaks , the northern and southern being 1,275 and high , respectively , standing 9 nmi west-southwest of the head of Mason Inlet , on the east coast of Palmer Land , Antarctica . They were first seen and photographed from the air in December 1940 by the United States Antarctic Service . During 1947 the peaks were photographed from the air by the Ronne Antarctic Research Expedition under Finn Ronne , who in conjunction with the Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey ( FIDS ) charted them from the ground . They were named by the FIDS for Norwegian meteorologist Henrik Mohn .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Mohn_Peaks\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 146380\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Old Pulteney Row To The Pole Content: The Old Pulteney Row To The Pole was a publicity stunt sponsored by a whisky distiller for naming rights , which navigated a rowing boat to the North Magnetic Pole at 78 ° 35.7 N 104 ° 11.9 W , the position certified in 1996 . It is believed to be the only polar expedition to feature rowing boats since the crew of Sir Ernest Shackleton 's row to Elephant Island off South Georgia in 1916 , after his aborted attempt to cross Antarctica . The 450-mile journey took almost four weeks . The expedition set out from Resolute Bay on July 28 , 2011 reaching the Pole position on August 25 . It was the first time any surface vessel under human power had been to any pole position . The expedition was the first attempt at such a voyage and was made possible by the open water in the Arctic region in summer . According to the National Snow and Ice Data Center , part of the University of Colorado , the Arctic sea ice melted to its third smallest extent ( since 1979 , when satellite measurements began ) in September 2010 . Prior to 1979 ice extents are unreliable .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Old_Pulteney_Row_To_The_Pole\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 145236\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Norwegian-U.S. Scientific Traverse of East Antarctica Content: The Norwegian-U.S. Scientific Traverse of East Antarctica is a research program consisting of two overland traverses of East Antarctica : the first from the Norwegian Troll Station to the South Pole in the 2007/2008 season ; and a return traverse via a different route in 2008/2009 . The main research focus of the program is climate change , the stated goals being to : Investigate climate variability in Dronning Maud Land of East Antarctica on time scales of years to a thousand years . Establish spatial and temporal variability in snow accumulation over this area of Antarctica to understand its impact on sea level . Investigate the impact of atmospheric and oceanic variability on the chemical composition of firn and ice in the region . Revisit areas and sites first explored by traverses in the 1960s , for detection of possible changes and to establish benchmark data sets for future research efforts . The program is part of Trans-Antarctic Scientific Traverse Expeditions -- Ice Divide of East Antarctica ( TASTE-IDEA ) , and the International Partners in Ice Coring Sciences ( IPICS ) , both of which have ISCU-WMO endorsement for the International Polar Year 2007-2009 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Norwegian-U.S._Scientific_Traverse_of_East_Antarctica\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 145203\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cold-weather warfare Content: Cold-weather warfare , also known as Arctic warfare or winter warfare , encompasses military operations affected by snow , ice , thawing conditions or cold , both on land and at sea . Cold-weather conditions occur year-round at high elevation or at high latitudes , and elsewhere materialise seasonally during the winter period . Mountain warfare often takes place in cold weather or on terrain that is affected by ice and snow , such as the Alps and the Himalayas . Historically , most such operations have been during winter in the Northern Hemisphere . Some have occurred above the Arctic Circle where snow , ice and cold may occur throughout the year . At times , cold or its aftermath -- thaw -- has been a decisive factor in the failure of a campaign , as with Napoleon 's invasion of Russia in 1812 and the Nazi invasion of Russia .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Cold-weather_warfare\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 145059\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Penguin River Content: Penguin River is a small meandering stream which flows in a general northeast direction from Hamberg Lakes to the coast close south of Horse Head in Cumberland East Bay , South Georgia . It was first surveyed by the Swedish Antarctic Expedition under Nordenskjold from 1901 -- 04 , and was named by Carl Skottsberg , botanist with the expedition . Category : Rivers of Antarctica\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Penguin_River\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 145050\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Getman Ice Piedmont Content: Getman Ice Piedmont is an ice piedmont between Reichle Mesa and Three Slice Nunatak at the east end of Joerg Peninsula , Bowman Coast , Antarctica . It drains north-northeastwards into Hondius Inlet . The feature was explored from the ground and photographed from the air by the United States Antarctic Service , 1939 -- 41 , the Ronne Antarctic Research Expedition , 1947 -- 48 , and was surveyed by the Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey , 1946 -- 48 . It was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names in 1977 for Commander Robert T. Getman of the United States Coast Guard , an Executive Officer on USCGC Southwind during U.S. Navy Operation Deep Freeze , 1969 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Getman_Ice_Piedmont\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 144828\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: González Videla Antarctic Base Content: González Videla Base , is on the Antarctic mainland at Waterboat Point in Paradise Bay . It is named after Chilean President Gabriel González Videla , who in the 1940s became the first chief of state of any nation to visit Antarctica . The station was active from 1951 -- 58 , and was reopened briefly in the early 1980s . Occasional summer visits are made by Chilean parties and tourists . On the north edge of the station there is a sign identifying Waterboat Point as an official historic site under the Antarctic Treaty . This was the place where the smallest ever wintering-over party ( two men ) spent a year and a day in 1921-1922 . The two men , Thomas Bagshawe and M.C. Lester , had been part of the British Imperial Expedition , but their particular project , which involved flying a number of aircraft to the South Pole , was aborted . Nevertheless , they decided to stay over for the winter and made their shelter in an old whaling boat they found on this site . Their time was not wasted , however , because Bagshawe wrote the first scientific study of penguin breeding development . Today the Gentoo penguins , probably descendants of the ones he studied , nest in the ruins of the whaleboat shelter .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"González_Videla_Antarctic_Base\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 144768\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Future_sea_level\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 144716\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Antarctic Ice Marathon & 100k ultra race Content: The Antarctic Ice Marathon was established by Richard Donovan / Polar Running Adventures to enable marathon runners to complete a marathon on all seven continents . It also enables athletes to complete the marathon grand slam - a marathon on all seven continents and the North Pole . Runnings of the Antarctic Ice Marathon and 100 km race have taken place at 80 ° south just a few hundred miles from the South Pole at the foot of the Ellsworth Mountains . Participants are flown from Punta Arenas , Chile to the race location in the interior of the Antarctic and experience anything from subzero temperatures to 24 hours of daylight while there .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Antarctic_Ice_Marathon_&_100k_ultra_race\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 144702\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Southern fulmar Content: The southern fulmar ( Fulmarus glacialoides ) is a seabird of the Southern Hemisphere . Along with the northern fulmar , F. glacialis , it belongs to the fulmar genus Fulmarus in the family Procellariidae , the true petrels . It is also known as the Antarctic fulmar or silver-grey fulmar . It is largely pale grey above and white below with a distinctive white patch on the wing . It breeds on the coast of Antarctica and on surrounding islands , moving north in winter . It nests in colonies on cliffs , laying a single egg on a ledge or crevice . Its diet includes krill , fish and squid picked from the water 's surface .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Southern_fulmar\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 144629\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pingvin Island Content: Pingvin Island is a small island lying off the northwest side of the West Ice Shelf in Antarctica . It was first mapped by the 1956 -- 57 Soviet expedition , who named it Pingvin ( the Russian word for `` Penguin '' ) . Although it appears on most modern maps , according to some sources the island does not exist .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Pingvin_Island\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 144094\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Antarctic microorganism Content: Antarctica is one of the most physically and chemically extreme terrestrial environments to be inhabited by microorganisms . Nonetheless , on February 6 , 2013 , scientists reported that bacteria were found living in the cold and dark in a lake buried a half-mile deep ( 0.5 mi ) under the ice in Antarctica . This finding was later confirmed by scientists on August 20 , 2014 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Antarctic_microorganism\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 143972\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Jonassen Island Content: Jonassen Island is one of several Antarctic islands around the peninsula known as Graham Land , which is closer to South America than any other part of that continent . It is said to be a particularly rocky island , 4.1 km long . It is located north of Andersson Island / It was first named Irizar Island by Otto Nordenskiöld in honor of the Argentine captain whose ship Uruguay rescued the Swedish Antarctic Expedition in 1903 after their ship Antarctic had been crushed by ice . A year later , another island elsewhere in the Antarctic was named Irizar and , because that was a larger island and the name was in broad use for the location , the smaller island was renamed for Ole Jonassen , who accompanied Nordenskiöld on his two major sledge journeys in 1902-3 . The main life form on the island are gentoo penguins and kelp gulls . Both species have established breeding colonies on the island . Adélie and chinstrap penguins as well as pintado and snow petrels have been observed around or flying about the island . A 1901 observation listed the Adélie has having nested on the island ; the claim has not been substantiated in modern surveys .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Jonassen_Island\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 143934\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Antarctic Bottom Water Content: The Antarctic bottom water ( AABW ) is a type of water mass in the Southern Ocean surrounding Antarctica with temperatures ranging from − 0.8 to 2 ° C ( 35 ° F ) , salinities from 34.6 to 34.7 psu . Being the densest water mass of the oceans , AABW is found to occupy the depth range below 4000 m of all ocean basins that have a connection to the Southern Ocean at that level . The major significance of Antarctic bottom water is that it is the coldest bottom water , giving it a significant influence on the movement of the world 's oceans . Antarctic bottom water also has a high oxygen content relative to the rest of the oceans ' deep waters . This is due to the oxidation of deteriorating organic content in the rest of the deep oceans . Antarctic bottom water has thus been considered the ventilation of the deep ocean .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Antarctic_Bottom_Water\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 143835\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Amundsen Sea Content: The Amundsen Sea , an arm of the Southern Ocean off Marie Byrd Land in western Antarctica , lies between Cape Flying Fish ( the northwestern tip of Thurston Island ) to the east and Cape Dart on Siple Island to the west . Cape Flying Fish marks the boundary between the Amundsen Sea and the Bellingshausen Sea . West of Cape Dart there is no named marginal sea of the Southern Ocean between the Amundsen and Ross Seas . The Norwegian expedition of 1928 -- 1929 under Captain Nils Larsen named the body of water for the Norwegian polar explorer Roald Amundsen while exploring this area in February 1929 . The sea is mostly ice-covered , and the Thwaites Ice Tongue protrudes into it . The ice sheet which drains into the Amundsen Sea averages about 3 km in thickness ; roughly the size of the state of Texas , this area is known as the Amundsen Sea Embayment ( ASE ) ; it forms one of the three major ice-drainage basins of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Amundsen_Sea\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 143651\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: West Antarctic Ice Sheet Content: The Western Antarctic Ice Sheet ( WAIS ) is the segment of the continental ice sheet that covers West ( or Lesser ) Antarctica , the portion of Antarctica on the side of the Transantarctic Mountains which lies in the Western Hemisphere . The WAIS is classified as a marine-based ice sheet , meaning that its bed lies well below sea level and its edges flow into floating ice shelves . The WAIS is bounded by the Ross Ice Shelf , the Ronne Ice Shelf , and outlet glaciers that drain into the Amundsen Sea . It is estimated that the volume of the Antarctic ice sheet is about 25.4 million km3 ( 6.1 million cu mi ) , and the WAIS contains just under 10 % of this , or 2.2 million km3 ( 530,000 cu mi ) . The weight of the ice has caused the underlying rock to sink by between 0.5 and 1 kilometres ( 0.31 -- 0.62 mi ) in a process known as isostatic depression . Under the force of its own weight , the ice sheet deforms and flows . The interior ice flows slowly over rough bedrock . In some circumstances , ice can flow faster in ice streams , separated by slow-flowing ice ridges . The inter-stream ridges are frozen to the bed while the bed beneath the ice streams consists of water-saturated sediments . Many of these sediments were deposited before the ice sheet occupied the region , when much of West Antarctica was covered by the ocean . The rapid ice-stream flow is a non-linear process still not fully understood ; streams can start and stop for unclear reasons . When ice reaches the coast , it either calves or continues to flow outward onto the water . The result is a large , floating ice shelf affixed to the continent .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"West_Antarctic_Ice_Sheet\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 143593\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Palaeeudyptes antarcticus Content: Palaeeudyptes antarcticus , also referred to as the narrow-flippered penguin , is the type species of the extinct penguin genus Palaeeudyptes . It was a huge species , albeit probably with a large size variation . Although the size range can only be loosely estimated , the birds seem to have stood between 43 and high in life ( i.e. somewhat larger than an emperor penguin ) , placing this species and its congener Palaeeudyptes marplesi among the largest penguin species known . It was the last known Palaeeudyptes species , and although the exact time when it lived is not precisely determined , it may have evolved from P. marplesi , or they might even have been a single species which slightly decreased in size over time . P. antarcticus was the first fossil penguin to become known to science . It was described from a single , slightly damaged , tarsometatarsus ( BM A. 1084 ) found in the Late Oligocene Otekaike Limestone ( 23-28 , possibly up to 34 MYA ) at Kakanui , New Zealand . An older date seems quite possible in fact as other bones have now been recovered from the Late Eocene ( 34-37 MYA ) of the La Meseta Formation on Seymour Island , Antarctica ( Tambussi et al. , 2006 ) , but given the considerable distances in age and range involved , it is not completely certain that the bones belong to a single species . This remains the only fossil unequivocally assigned to this species , but numerous other bones have been found that may belong to it too . These fossils were once uncritically considered as being from P. antarcticus , merely because other large penguins were not known at that time , but have not been subject to scientific review according to modern standards . While some of these bones are now known to belong to other species , a large number are not unequivocally assignable to either P. antarcticus or P. marplesi , being intermediate in size ( Simpson , 1971 ) , lending support to the theory that these taxa were in reality a single species .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Palaeeudyptes_antarcticus\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 143490\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Antarctic silverfish Content: Pleuragramma antarcticum , the Antarctic silverfish , is a species of cod icefish native to the Southern Ocean . Pleuragramma antarcticum is a keystone species in the ecosystem of the Southern Ocean . While widely distributed around the Antarctic , the species appears to have largely disappeared from the western side of the northern Antarctic Peninsula , based on a 2010 research cruise funded by the National Science Foundation under the US Antarctic Program .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Antarctic_silverfish\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 143438\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cape Sastrugi Content: Cape Sastrugi is a sharply projecting point on the west side of Deep Freeze Range , standing 1.5 nautical miles ( 2.8 km ) northwest of Snowy Point and overlooking the north portion of Nansen Ice Sheet , in Victoria Land . First explored by the Northern Party of the British Antarctic Expedition , 1910 -- 13 , and so named by them because of large and extensive sastrugi that impeded the travel of this party in approaching the point . Category : Headlands of Victoria Land Category : Scott Coast\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Cape_Sastrugi\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 143201\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Antarctic Circle Content: The Antarctic Circle is the most southerly of the five major circles of latitude that mark maps of the Earth . The region south of this circle is known as the Antarctic , and the zone immediately to the north is called the Southern Temperate Zone . South of the Antarctic Circle , the sun is above the horizon for 24 continuous hours at least once per year ( and therefore visible at midnight ) and ( at least partially ) below the horizon for 24 continuous hours at least once per year ( and therefore not fully visible at noon ) ; this is also true within the equivalent polar circle in the Northern Hemisphere , the Arctic Circle . The position of the Antarctic Circle is not fixed ; as of , it runs south of the Equator . Its latitude depends on the Earth 's axial tilt , which fluctuates within a margin of 2 ° over a 40,000-year period , due to tidal forces resulting from the orbit of the Moon . Consequently , the Antarctic Circle is currently drifting southwards at a speed of about 15 m per year .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Antarctic_Circle\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 143006\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Antarctic Muon And Neutrino Detector Array Content: The Antarctic Muon And Neutrino Detector Array ( AMANDA ) is a neutrino telescope located beneath the Amundsen -- Scott South Pole Station . In 2005 , after nine years of operation , AMANDA officially became part of her successor project , the IceCube Neutrino Observatory . AMANDA consists of optical modules , each containing one photomultiplier tube , sunk in Antarctic ice cap at a depth of about 1500 to 1900 metres . In her latest development stage , known as AMANDA-II , AMANDA is made up of an array of 677 optical modules mounted on 19 separate strings that are spread out in a rough circle with a diameter of 200 metres . Each string has several dozen modules , and was put in place by `` drilling '' a hole in the ice using a hot-water hose , sinking the cable with attached optical modules in , and then letting the ice freeze around it . AMANDA detects very high energy neutrinos ( 50 + GeV ) which pass through the Earth from the northern hemisphere and then react just as they are leaving upwards through the Antarctic ice . The neutrino interacts with nuclei of oxygen or hydrogen atoms contained in the surrounding water ice through the weak nuclear force , producing a muon and a hadronic shower . The optical modules detect the Cherenkov radiation from these latter particles , and by analysis of the timing of photon hits can approximately determine the direction of the original neutrino with a spatial resolution of approximately 2 degrees . AMANDA 's goal was an attempt at neutrino astronomy , identifying and characterizing extra-solar sources of neutrinos . Compared to underground detectors like Super-Kamiokande in Japan , AMANDA was capable of looking at higher energy neutrinos because it is not limited in volume to a manmade tank ; however , she had much less accuracy because of the less controlled conditions and wider spacing of photomultipliers . Super-Kamiokande can look at much greater detail at neutrinos from the Sun and those generated in the Earth 's atmosphere ; however , at higher energies , the spectrum should include neutrinos dominated by those from sources outside the solar system . Such a new view into the cosmos could give important clues in the search for Dark Matter and other astrophysical phenomena . After two years of integrated operation as part of IceCube , the AMANDA counting house ( in the Martin A. Pomerantz Observatory ) was decommissioned in July and August 2009 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Antarctic_Muon_And_Neutrino_Detector_Array\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 142770\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Discovery Expedition Content: The British National Antarctic Expedition , 1901 -- 04 , generally known as the Discovery Expedition , was the first official British exploration of the Antarctic regions since James Clark Ross 's voyage sixty years earlier . Organized on a large scale under a joint committee of the Royal Society and the Royal Geographical Society ( RGS ) , the new expedition carried out scientific research and geographical exploration in what was then largely an untouched continent . It launched the Antarctic careers of many who would become leading figures in the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration , including Robert Falcon Scott who led the expedition , Ernest Shackleton , Edward Wilson , Frank Wild , Tom Crean and William Lashly . Its scientific results covered extensive ground in biology , zoology , geology , meteorology and magnetism . The expedition discovered the existence of the only snow-free Antarctic valleys , which contain Antarctica 's longest river . Further achievements included the discoveries of the Cape Crozier emperor penguin colony , King Edward VII Land , and the Polar Plateau ( via the western mountains route ) on which the South Pole is located . The expedition tried to reach the South Pole travelling as far as the Farthest South mark at a reported 82 ° 17 ′ S. As a trailbreaker for later ventures , the Discovery Expedition was a landmark in British Antarctic exploration history .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Discovery_Expedition\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 142633\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Penguin Point (Seymour Island) Content: Penguin Point lies on the south-eastern coast of Seymour Island , in the James Ross Island group , near the north-eastern extremity of the Antarctic Peninsula . The Argentine Marambio Base is about 8 km to the north-east . A ridge of exposed dark rock named Blackrock Ridge runs west-southwest -- east-northeast , 1.5 nautical miles ( 3 km ) north of Penguin Point .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Penguin_Point_(Seymour_Island)\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 142622\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Arctic Ocean Content: The Arctic Ocean is the smallest and shallowest of the world 's five major oceans . The International Hydrographic Organization ( IHO ) recognizes it as an ocean , although some oceanographers call it the Arctic Mediterranean Sea or simply the Arctic Sea , classifying it a mediterranean sea or an estuary of the Atlantic Ocean . Alternatively , the Arctic Ocean can be seen as the northernmost part of the all-encompassing World Ocean . Located mostly in the Arctic north polar region in the middle of the Northern Hemisphere , the Arctic Ocean is almost completely surrounded by Eurasia and North America . It is partly covered by sea ice throughout the year and almost completely in winter . The Arctic Ocean 's surface temperature and salinity vary seasonally as the ice cover melts and freezes ; its salinity is the lowest on average of the five major oceans , due to low evaporation , heavy fresh water inflow from rivers and streams , and limited connection and outflow to surrounding oceanic waters with higher salinities . The summer shrinking of the ice has been quoted at 50 % . The US National Snow and Ice Data Center ( NSIDC ) uses satellite data to provide a daily record of Arctic sea ice cover and the rate of melting compared to an average period and specific past years .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Arctic_Ocean\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 142368\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: New College Valley Content: New College Valley lies south of Cape Bird , on ice-free slopes above Caughley Beach on Ross Island , Antarctica . It faces north-west and carries meltwater from the Cape Bird ice cap during the summer . It is protected as Antarctic Specially Protected Area ( ASPA ) No. 116 because it contains some of the richest stands of mosses , with associated microflora and fauna , in the Ross Sea region .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"New_College_Valley\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 142076\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Riiser-Larsen Ice Shelf Content: Riiser-Larsen Ice Shelf is an ice shelf about 250 miles ( 400 km ) long on the coast of Queen Maud Land , extending from Cape Norvegia in the north to Lyddan Island and Stancomb-Wills Glacier in the south . Parts of the ice shelf were sighted by William Speirs Bruce in 1904 , Ernest Shackleton in 1915 , and Hjalmar Riiser-Larsen in 1930 . Most of it was photographed from the air in 1951-52 by the Norwegian-British-Swedish Antarctic Expedition ( NBSAE ) and delineated from these photos . Additional delineation of the southern and landward margins of the feature was accomplished from air photos taken , by USN Operation Deep Freeze from 1967 to 1969 . The feature was named by Norway for Capt. Hjalmar Riiser-Larsen , who explored the area in the late 1920s and early 1930s .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Riiser-Larsen_Ice_Shelf\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 141987\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Heirtzler Ice Piedmont Content: Heirtzler Ice Piedmont is a relatively low , triangular-shaped , ice-covered area of about 7 nmi extent , located at the west side of Violante Inlet and north of Maury Glacier , on the Black Coast of Palmer Land , Antarctica . The feature was first seen and photographed from the air by the United States Antarctic Service on December 30 , 1940 , and was mapped by the United States Geological Survey from U.S. Navy aerial photographs taken 1966 -- 69 . In association with the names of continental drift scientists grouped in this area , it was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names after James R. Heirtzler , an American physicist . Heirtzler was a Research Scientist at Columbia University 's Lamont -- Doherty Geological Observatory , 1960 -- 64 , and Senior Research Scientist , 1964 -- 67 ; he was Senior Scientist at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute , 1969 -- 86 ; Geophysicist and Head of the Geophysics Branch at the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center from 1986 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Heirtzler_Ice_Piedmont\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 141931\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ackley Point Content: Ackley Point is an ice-covered point 1 mi southeast of Cone Hill on the east side of Hut Point Peninsula , Ross Island . Named by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) in 2000 after Stephen F. Ackley , Snow and Ice Division , U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory ( CRREL ) , Hanover , New Hampshire , a United States Antarctic Program ( USAP ) sea ice specialist who worked in McMurdo Sound and diverse parts of the Southern Ocean for more than 25 years , dating from the 1976 -- 77 austral season . Category : Headlands of Ross Island\",\n \"qid\": \"2711\",\n \"docid\": \"Ackley_Point\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 141834\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":1341,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"The news of expanding Antarctic sea ice stole headlines from global warming alarmists who asserted Arctic sea ice had reached its lowest extent since 1979.'"},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Sea Ice Physics and Ecosystem eXperiment Content: The Sea Ice Physics and Ecosystem eXperiment ( SIPEX ) was an Australian contribution to the International Polar Year ( IPY ) . The expedition studied the sea ice in the Antarctica zone in September and October 2007 , investigating links between the sea ice and the Southern Ocean ecosystems . Taking part were 45 scientists from 8 different countries , each a specialist on some aspect of the Antarctic sea ice zone . Travelling aboard the research vessel Aurora Australis , the researchers covered East Antarctica between 110 ° E and 130 ° E. Experiments dealt with ice thickness and snow cover , the sympagic fauna and flora and examined the effects of ocean currents and wind . The extent and distribution of sea ice in the polar regions is a sensitive indicator of global climate change . Global warming has been implicated in significant reductions in the extent of sea ice and this trend is set to continue . An improved understanding of sea ice may lead to improved conservation policies in Antarctica .","qid":"2712","docid":"Sea_Ice_Physics_and_Ecosystem_eXperiment","rank":1,"score":191878},{"content":"Title: Arctic sea ice decline Content: Arctic sea ice decline is the sea ice loss observed in recent decades in the Arctic Ocean . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that greenhouse gas forcing is largely , but not wholly , responsible for the decline in Arctic sea ice extent . A study from 2011 suggested that internal variability enhanced the greenhouse gas forced sea ice decline over the last decades . A study from 2007 found the decline to be `` faster than forecasted '' by model simulations . The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report concluded with high confidence that sea ice continues to decrease in extent , and that there is robust evidence for the downward trend in Arctic summer sea ice extent since 1979 . It has been established that the region is at its warmest for at least 40,000 years and the Arctic-wide melt season has lengthened at a rate of 5 days per decade ( from 1979 to 2013 ) , dominated by a later autumn freezeup . Sea ice changes have been identified as a mechanism for polar amplification .","qid":"2712","docid":"Arctic_sea_ice_decline","rank":2,"score":180059},{"content":"Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .","qid":"2712","docid":"Future_sea_level","rank":3,"score":173767},{"content":"Title: Antarctic ice sheet Content: The Antarctic ice sheet is one of the two polar ice caps of the Earth . It covers about 98 % of the Antarctic continent and is the largest single mass of ice on Earth . It covers an area of almost 14 e6km2 and contains 26.5 e6km3 of ice . Approximately 61 percent of all fresh water on the Earth is held in the Antarctic ice sheet , an amount equivalent to about 58 m of sea-level rise . In East Antarctica , the ice sheet rests on a major land mass , but in West Antarctica the bed can extend to more than 2,500 m below sea level . Much of the land in this area would be seabed if the ice sheet were not there . In contrast to the melting of the Arctic sea ice , sea ice around Antarctica was expanding . The reasons for this are not fully understood , but suggestions include the climatic effects on ocean and atmospheric circulation of the ozone hole , and/or cooler ocean surface temperatures as the warming deep waters melt the ice shelves .","qid":"2712","docid":"Antarctic_ice_sheet","rank":4,"score":172558},{"content":"Title: Duncan Wingham Content: Duncan John Wingham ( born 12 October 1957 ) is a British physicist who is Professor of Climate Physics at University College London , and was the first Director of the Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling . He is chief executive of the Natural Environment Research Council and Principal Scientist for the CryoSat Satellite Mission . In the 1990s , Wingham was involved in a four-year satellite study of the Antarctic ice sheet . His conclusion then , and from later research , is that the Antarctic has contributed little to observed rising sea levels in the 20th century . However , he has also stated that `` it is possible that the consequences of global warming on sea level rise have been underestimated ... Other sources of rise must be underestimated . In particular it is possible that the effect of global warming on thermal expansion -LSB- on the oceans -RSB- is larger than we thought '' . In a 2005 interview Wingham stated '' -LSB- t -RSB- he Antarctic is to some extent insulated from global warming because to its north are zonal flows in the atmosphere and ocean , unimpeded by other landmasses ... I am not denying global warming . ''","qid":"2712","docid":"Duncan_Wingham","rank":5,"score":171370},{"content":"Title: Old Pulteney Row To The Pole Content: The Old Pulteney Row To The Pole was a publicity stunt sponsored by a whisky distiller for naming rights , which navigated a rowing boat to the North Magnetic Pole at 78 ° 35.7 N 104 ° 11.9 W , the position certified in 1996 . It is believed to be the only polar expedition to feature rowing boats since the crew of Sir Ernest Shackleton 's row to Elephant Island off South Georgia in 1916 , after his aborted attempt to cross Antarctica . The 450-mile journey took almost four weeks . The expedition set out from Resolute Bay on July 28 , 2011 reaching the Pole position on August 25 . It was the first time any surface vessel under human power had been to any pole position . The expedition was the first attempt at such a voyage and was made possible by the open water in the Arctic region in summer . According to the National Snow and Ice Data Center , part of the University of Colorado , the Arctic sea ice melted to its third smallest extent ( since 1979 , when satellite measurements began ) in September 2010 . Prior to 1979 ice extents are unreliable .","qid":"2712","docid":"Old_Pulteney_Row_To_The_Pole","rank":6,"score":170100},{"content":"Title: Antarctic sea ice Content: Antarctic sea ice is the sea ice of the Southern Ocean . It extends far north in winter and retreats almost to the coastline each summer . Sea ice is frozen seawater that is usually less than a few meters thick . This is in contrast to ice shelves , which are formed by glaciers , float in the sea , and are up to a kilometer thick . There are two subdivisions of sea ice : fast ice , which is attached to land ; and ice floes , which are not . Sea ice in the Southern Ocean melts from the bottom instead of from the surface like Arctic ice because it is covered in snow . As a result , melt ponds are rarely observed . On average , Antarctic sea ice is younger , thinner , warmer , saltier , and more mobile than Arctic sea ice . Due to its inaccessibility , it is not as well-studied as Arctic ice .","qid":"2712","docid":"Antarctic_sea_ice","rank":7,"score":168053},{"content":"Title: North Ice Content: North Ice was a research station of the British North Greenland Expedition ( 1952 to 1954 ) on the inland ice of Greenland . The coordinates of the station were , at an altitude of 2341 m above sea level . The British North Greenland Expedition was led by Commander James Simpson RN . The station recorded the lowest temperature ever in North America with -66.1 C on 9 January 1954 . The name of the station contrasts to the former British South Ice station in Antarctica .","qid":"2712","docid":"North_Ice","rank":8,"score":158225},{"content":"Title: Sea ice Content: Sea ice arises as seawater freezes . Because ice is less dense than water , it floats on the ocean 's surface ( as does fresh water ice , which has an even lower density ) . Sea ice covers about 7 % of the Earth 's surface and about 12 % of the world 's oceans . Much of the world 's sea ice is enclosed within the polar ice packs in the Earth 's polar regions : the Arctic ice pack of the Arctic Ocean and the Antarctic ice pack of the Southern Ocean . Polar packs undergo a significant yearly cycling in surface extent , a natural process upon which depends the Arctic ecology , including the ocean 's ecosystems . Due to the action of winds , currents and temperature fluctuations , sea ice is very dynamic , leading to a wide variety of ice types and features . Sea ice may be contrasted with icebergs , which are chunks of ice shelves or glaciers that calve into the ocean . Depending on location , sea ice expanses may also incorporate icebergs .","qid":"2712","docid":"Sea_ice","rank":9,"score":157679},{"content":"Title: Ice and the Sky Content: Ice and the Sky ( La Glace et le ciel , also known as Antarctica : Ice and Sky ) is a 2015 French documentary film directed by Luc Jacquet about the work of Claude Lorius , who began studying Antarctic ice in 1957 , and , in 1965 , was the first scientist to be concerned about global warming . The film was selected to close the 2015 Cannes Film Festival .","qid":"2712","docid":"Ice_and_the_Sky","rank":10,"score":154871},{"content":"Title: Antarctic Cold Reversal Content: The Antarctic Cold Reversal ( ACR ) was an important episode of cooling in the climate history of the Earth during the deglaciation at the close of the last ice age . It illustrates the complexity of the climate changes at the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene Epochs . The Last Glacial Maximum and sea-level minimum occurred c. 21,000 years before present ( BP ) . Antarctic ice cores show gradual warming beginning 3000 years later . At about 14,700 BP , there was a large pulse of meltwater , identified as Meltwater pulse 1A , probably from either the Antarctic ice sheet or the Laurentide ice sheet . Meltwater pulse 1A produced a marine transgression that raised global sea level about 20 meters in two to five centuries and is thought to have influenced the start of the Bølling / Allerød interstadial , the major break with glacial cold in the Northern Hemisphere . Meltwater pulse 1A was followed in Antarctica and the Southern Hemisphere by a renewed cooling , the Antarctic Cold Reversal , in c. 14,500 BP , which lasted for two millennia -- an instance of warming causing cooling . The ACR brought an average cooling of perhaps 3 ° C . The Younger Dryas cooling , in the Northern Hemisphere , began while the Antarctic Cold Reversal was still ongoing , and the ACR ended in the midst of the Younger Dryas . This pattern of climate decoupling between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres and of `` southern lead , northern lag '' would manifest in subsequent climate events . The cause or causes of this hemispheric decoupling , of the `` lead/lag '' pattern and of the specific mechanisms of the warming and cooling trends are still subjects of study and dispute among climate researchers . The specific dating and intensity of the Antarctic Cold Reversal are also under debate . The onset of the Antarctic Cold Reversal was followed , after about 800 years , by an Oceanic Cold Reversal in the Southern Ocean .","qid":"2712","docid":"Antarctic_Cold_Reversal","rank":11,"score":154397},{"content":"Title: Arctic geoengineering Content: Temperatures in the Arctic region have tended to increase more rapidly than the global average . Projections of sea ice loss that are adjusted to take account of recent rapid Arctic shrinkage suggest that the Arctic will likely be free of summer sea ice sometime between 2059 and 2078 . Various climate engineering schemes have been suggested to reduce the chance of significant and irreversible effects such as Arctic methane release . Several climate engineering proposals have been made which are specific to the Arctic . They are usually hydrological in nature , and principally centre upon measures to prevent Arctic ice loss . In addition , other solar radiation management climate engineering techniques , such as stratospheric sulfate aerosols have been proposed . These would cool the Arctic by adjusting the albedo of the atmosphere .","qid":"2712","docid":"Arctic_geoengineering","rank":12,"score":153682},{"content":"Title: Extreme points of Antarctica Content: The tallest mountain in Antarctica is Mount Vinson rising 4,892 metres ( 16,050 feet ) above sea level . The lowest point in Antarctica is within the Bentley Subglacial Trench , which reaches 2,555 metres below sea level . This is also the lowest place on Earth not covered by ocean ( although it is covered by ice ) . The lowest accessible point in Antarctica is the shore of Deep Lake , Vestfold Hills , which is 50 m beneath sea level . The point on land farthest from any coastline on the Antarctic Continent is located at . This is also known as the South Pole of inaccessibility . Antarctica is the southernmost land mass on Earth . The Geographical South Pole lies on the Polar Plateau at . It is here that the southernmost human habitation on Earth is located : Amundsen -- Scott South Pole Station ( U.S. Administered Base ) . Vostok Station is the most isolated research base on the continent ( located at ) , and it is situated over the southernmost lake in the world , Lake Vostok , a subglacial lake 4,000 metres ( 13,000 feet ) under the surface of the ice where the station sits . Formerly administrated by the Soviets , it is now operated by Russia . The southernmost volcano on the planet -- Mount Erebus -- is in Antarctica on the world 's southernmost island reachable from the sea : Ross Island . The southernmost island is Berkner Island . It is embedded in the ice shelf , fully covered by ice and fully below sea level . The Ross Sea is the southernmost sea in the world , with its southernmost extremity ( Gould Coast ) at the foot of the Horlick Mountains approximately 200 miles ( 320 km ) from the Geographic South Pole . However , this area is covered by the Ross Ice Shelf . The southernmost open sea is also part of Ross Sea , namely Bay of Whales at 78 ° 30 'S , at the edge of Ross Ice Shelf . The northernmost extremity of the Antarctic mainland ( without nearshore islands ) is Prime Head , at the northern tip of the Trinity Peninsula at . The Antarctic Peninsula is the largest contiguous part of the continent projecting north of the Antarctic Circle and thus has many of the continent 's research bases . Prime Head is 609 mi ( 980 km ) from Cape Horn . The northernmost research base on the mainland is Esperanza Base .","qid":"2712","docid":"Extreme_points_of_Antarctica","rank":13,"score":152443},{"content":"Title: Konrad Steffen Content: Konrad `` Koni '' Steffen ( born 1952 ) is a glaciologist and the former director of the Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences at the University of Colorado Boulder , a position he held from 2005 until he took office as the director of the Swiss Federal Institute for Forest , Snow and Landscape Research on July 1 , 2012 . He is known for his research into Arctic sea ice and the glaciers of Greenland , and how they are affected by global warming . He has often traveled to Greenland to study these glaciers firsthand ; for example , when studying Petermann Glacier for three weeks in 2004 , Steffen did so from a camp set up 4,000 feet up the flanks of the glacier 's ice cap . He also operates a network of 20 weather stations on the Greenland ice sheet , the first of which , Swiss Camp , he established in 1990 . He has argued that due to this ice sheet melting faster than anticipated , sea levels could rise by about 3 feet by 2100 , considerably higher than the IPCC 's upper limit of 59 cm , and that Greenland might lose all its ice in 10,000 years , but Antarctica would take considerably longer , since it is so much bigger .","qid":"2712","docid":"Konrad_Steffen","rank":14,"score":151994},{"content":"Title: Bentley Subglacial Trench Content: Bentley Subglacial Trench is a vast topographic trench in Marie Byrd Land , West Antarctica , 80 ° S , 115 ° W . At 2,555 meters ( 8,382 ft ) below sea level , it is the lowest point on the surface of the earth not covered by ocean , although it is covered by ice . Normally , it is not counted as the lowest point on land , since the overlying ice sheet makes it essentially subterranean . ( See Extremes on Earth and Vestfold Hills ) Also , if the ice melted , the area would be under water . The trench was named in 1961 after Charles R. Bentley who was the geophysicist in charge of the scientific expeditions in West Antarctica in 1957 -- 59 that led to its discovery .","qid":"2712","docid":"Bentley_Subglacial_Trench","rank":15,"score":151338},{"content":"Title: Arcticaborg Content: Arcticaborg is an icebreaking platform supply vessel operated by Wagenborg Kazakhstan in the Caspian Sea . She and her sister ship , Antarcticaborg , were built by Kværner Masa-Yards in Helsinki , Finland , in 1998 . They are the first full developments of the double acting ship concept and among the first icebreakers equipped with Azipods , electric azimuth thrusters manufactured by ABB .","qid":"2712","docid":"Arcticaborg","rank":16,"score":150066},{"content":"Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .","qid":"2712","docid":"Climate_change_in_the_Arctic","rank":17,"score":149993},{"content":"Title: Peter Doran Content: Peter Doran , Ph.D. is Professor of Geology and Geophysics at Louisiana State University . Doran specializes in polar regions , especially Antarctic climate and ecosystems . Doran was the lead author of a research paper about Antarctic temperatures that was published in the journal Nature in January 2002 . Because he and his colleagues found that some parts of Antarctica had cooled between 1964 and 2000 , his paper has been frequently cited by opponents of the global warming theory , such as Ann Coulter and Michael Crichton . In an opinion piece in the July 27 , 2006 New York Times , Doran characterized this as a `` misinterpretation '' and stated , `` I have never thought such a thing ... I would like to remove my name from the list of scientists who dispute global warming . '' ( The temporary phenomenon is related to the `` hole '' in the ozone . As the `` hole heals '' the Antarctic will dramatically warm quickly . ) Doran and his grad student Maggie Kendall Zimmerman also published a paper in the Jan 27 , 2009 issue of EOS showing that active climate researchers almost unanimously agree that humans have had a significant impact on the Earth 's climate . Both an Antarctic stream and glacier were named for Doran by the U.S. Geological Survey to commemorate his many significant research contributions conducted on the continent .","qid":"2712","docid":"Peter_Doran","rank":18,"score":143720},{"content":"Title: British Arctic Expedition Content: The British Arctic Expedition of 1875-1876 , led by Sir George Strong Nares , was sent by the British Admiralty to attempt to reach the North Pole via Smith Sound . Two ships , HMS Alert and HMS Discovery ( captained by Henry Frederick Stephenson ) , sailed from Portsmouth on 29 May 1875 . Although the expedition failed to reach the North Pole , the coasts of Greenland and Ellesmere Island were extensively explored and large amounts of scientific data were collected . On this expedition , Nares became the first explorer to take his ships all the way north through the channel between Greenland and Ellesmere Island ( now named Nares Strait in his honour ) to the Lincoln Sea . Up to this time , it had been a popular theory that this route would lead to the supposed Open Polar Sea , an ice-free region surrounding the pole , but Nares found only a wasteland of ice . A sledging party under Commander Albert Hastings Markham set a new record Farthest North of 83 ° 20 ' 26 `` N , but overall the expedition was a near-disaster . The men suffered badly from scurvy and were hampered by inappropriate clothing and equipment . Realising that his men could not survive another winter in the ice , Nares hastily retreated southward with both his ships in the summer of 1876 . However , naval personnel and topographers , among them Thomas Mitchell , did succeed in documenting , by photograph , the Northern indigenous peoples and landscapes of what would become Canada 's Northwest Territories and , later , Nunavut . The expedition included Petty Officer Adam Ayles , after whom both the Ayles Ice Shelf and Mount Ayles are named . Other features named after the expedition include the Markham Ice Shelf , Nares Strait and Alert , Nunavut , the most northerly permanently inhabited place on earth . Pelham Aldrich was a lieutenant on the expedition and commanded the Western Sledge Party to Ellesmere Island , where Cape Aldrich was named in his honour . Archives are held at Scott Polar Research Institute , University of Cambridge .","qid":"2712","docid":"British_Arctic_Expedition","rank":19,"score":143597},{"content":"Title: Arctic resources race Content: The Arctic resources race refers to the competition between global entities for newly available natural resources in the Arctic . As the ice in the Arctic melts at a record rate and the sea ice extent continues to decrease due to global climate change , the Arctic waters become more navigable and Arctic resources -- such as oil and gas , minerals , fish , as well as tourism and new trade routes -- are becoming more accessible . Under the United Nations Convention of the Law of the Sea , five nations have the legal right to exploit the Arctic 's natural resources within their exclusive economic zones : Canada , Russia , Denmark , Norway , and the United States ( though the U.S. has yet to ratify the treaty , it considers the treaty to be customary international law and abides by it ) . The Arctic region and its resources have recently been at the center of controversy and pose potential conflicts between nations that have differing opinions of how to manage the area , including conflicting territorial claims . In addition , the Arctic region is home to an estimated 400,000 indigenous people . If the ice continues to melt at the current rate , then these indigenous people are at risk of being displaced . The acceleration of ice depletion will contribute to climate change as a whole : melting ice releases methane , ice reflects incoming solar radiation , and without it will cause the ocean to absorb more radiation ( albedo effect ) , heating up the water causing more ocean acidification , and melting ice will cause a rise in sea level .","qid":"2712","docid":"Arctic_resources_race","rank":20,"score":143158},{"content":"Title: ANDRILL Content: ANDRILL ( ANtarctic DRILLing Project ) is a scientific drilling project in Antarctica gathering information about past periods of global warming and cooling . The project involves scientists from Germany , Italy , New Zealand , and the United States . At two sites in 2006 and 2007 , ANDRILL team members drilled through ice , seawater , sediment and rock to a depth over more than 1,200 m and recovered a virtually continuous core record from the present to nearly 20 million years ago . The project is based at McMurdo Station in Antarctica . In studying the cores , ANDRILL scientists from various disciplines are gathering detailed information about past periods of global warming and cooling . A major goal of the project is to significantly improve the understanding of Antarctica 's impact on the world 's oceans currents and the atmosphere by reconstructing the behavior of Antarctic sea-ice , ice-shelves , glaciers and sea currents over tens of millions of years . Initial results imply rapid changes and dramatically different climates at various times on the southernmost continent.Quirin Scheirmeier , `` Sediment cores reveal Antarctica 's warmer past , '' Nature News , April 24 , 2008 . The $ 30 million project has achieved its operational goal of retrieving a continuous core record of the last 17 million years , filling crucial gaps left by previous drilling projects . Making use of knowledge gained through prior Antarctic drilling projects , ANDRILL employed novel techniques to reach record depths at its two drilling sites . Among the innovations deployed were a hot-water drilling system that allowed for easier ice-boring and a flexible drill pipe that could accommodate tidal oscillations and strong currents . On December 16 , 2006 , ANDRILL broke the previous record of 999.1 m set in 2000 by the Ocean Drilling Program 's drill ship , the Joides Resolution . The Antarctic-record 1285 m of core ANDRILL went on to recover represents geologic time to about 13 million years ago . In 2007 , drilling at the Southern McMurdo Sound , ANDRILL scientists recovered another 1138 meters ( 3733.6 ft ) of core . One goal in 2006 was to look at a period of around 3 to 5 million years ago in the Pliocene , which scientists know to be warmer . The team 's sedimentologists identified more than 60 cycles in which ice sheets or glaciers advanced and retreated across McMurdo Sound .","qid":"2712","docid":"ANDRILL","rank":21,"score":143155},{"content":"Title: Measurement of sea ice Content: Measurement of sea ice is important for safety of navigation and for monitoring the environment , particularly the climate . Sea ice extent interacts with large climate patterns such as the North Atlantic oscillation and Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation , to name just two , and influences climate in the rest of the globe . The amount of sea ice coverage in the arctic has been of interest for centuries , as the Northwest Passage was of high interest for trade and seafaring . There is a longstanding history of records and measurements of some effects of the sea ice extent , but comprehensive measurements were sparse till the 1950s and started with the satellite era in the late 1970s . Modern direct records include data about ice extent , ice area , concentration , thickness , and the age of the ice . The current trends in the records show a significant decline in Northern hemisphere sea ice and a small but statistically significant increase in the winter Southern hemisphere sea ice . Furthermore , current research comprises and establishes extensive sets of multi-century historical records of arctic and subarctic sea ice and uses , among others high-resolution paleo-proxy sea-ice records . The arctic sea ice is a dynamic climate-system component and is linked to the Atlantic multidecadal variability and the historical climate over various decades . There are circular changes of sea ice patterns but so far no clear patterns based on modeling predictions .","qid":"2712","docid":"Measurement_of_sea_ice","rank":22,"score":142647},{"content":"Title: Arctic Ocean Content: The Arctic Ocean is the smallest and shallowest of the world 's five major oceans . The International Hydrographic Organization ( IHO ) recognizes it as an ocean , although some oceanographers call it the Arctic Mediterranean Sea or simply the Arctic Sea , classifying it a mediterranean sea or an estuary of the Atlantic Ocean . Alternatively , the Arctic Ocean can be seen as the northernmost part of the all-encompassing World Ocean . Located mostly in the Arctic north polar region in the middle of the Northern Hemisphere , the Arctic Ocean is almost completely surrounded by Eurasia and North America . It is partly covered by sea ice throughout the year and almost completely in winter . The Arctic Ocean 's surface temperature and salinity vary seasonally as the ice cover melts and freezes ; its salinity is the lowest on average of the five major oceans , due to low evaporation , heavy fresh water inflow from rivers and streams , and limited connection and outflow to surrounding oceanic waters with higher salinities . The summer shrinking of the ice has been quoted at 50 % . The US National Snow and Ice Data Center ( NSIDC ) uses satellite data to provide a daily record of Arctic sea ice cover and the rate of melting compared to an average period and specific past years .","qid":"2712","docid":"Arctic_Ocean","rank":23,"score":141940},{"content":"Title: Peter Wadhams Content: Peter Wadhams ScD ( born 14 May 1948 ) , is professor of Ocean Physics , and Head of the Polar Ocean Physics Group in the Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics , University of Cambridge . He is best known for his work on sea ice . He is the president of the International Association for the Physical Sciences of the Oceans Commission on Sea Ice and Coordinator for the International Programme for Antarctic Buoys . Wadhams has been the leader of 40 polar field expeditions . Wadhams advocates for the use of climate engineering to mitigate climate change .","qid":"2712","docid":"Peter_Wadhams","rank":24,"score":141071},{"content":"Title: Arctic methane emissions Content: Arctic methane release is the release of methane from seas and soils in permafrost regions of the Arctic . While a long-term natural process , it is exacerbated by global warming . This results in a positive feedback effect , as methane is itself a powerful greenhouse gas . The Arctic region is one of the many natural sources of the greenhouse gas methane . Global warming accelerates its release , due to both release of methane from existing stores , and from methanogenesis in rotting biomass . Large quantities of methane are stored in the Arctic in natural gas deposits , permafrost , and as undersea clathrates . Permafrost and clathrates degrade on warming , thus large releases of methane from these sources may arise as a result of global warming . Other sources of methane include submarine taliks , river transport , ice complex retreat , submarine permafrost and decaying gas hydrate deposits . Concentrations in the Arctic atmosphere are higher by 8 -- 10 % than that in the Antarctic atmosphere . During cold glacier epochs , this gradient decreases to practically insignificant levels . Land ecosystems are considered the main sources of this asymmetry , although it has been suggested that `` the role of the Arctic Ocean is significantly underestimated . '' Soil temperature and moisture levels have been found to be significant variables in soil methane fluxes in tundra environments .","qid":"2712","docid":"Arctic_methane_emissions","rank":25,"score":140539},{"content":"Title: Climate inertia Content: Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .","qid":"2712","docid":"Climate_inertia","rank":26,"score":140504},{"content":"Title: Antarctic oscillation Content: The Antarctic oscillation ( AAO , to distinguish it from the Arctic oscillation or AO ) is a low-frequency mode of atmospheric variability of the southern hemisphere . It is also known as the Southern Annular Mode ( SAM ) . It is defined as a belt of westerly winds or low pressure surrounding Antarctica which moves north or south as its mode of variability . In its positive phase , the westerly wind belt contracts towards Antarctica , while its negative phase involves this belt moving towards the Equator . In 2014 , Dr Nerilie Abram used a network of temperature-sensitive ice core and tree growth records to reconstruct a 1000-year history of the Southern Annular Mode . This work suggests that the Southern Annular Mode is currently in its most extreme positive phase over at least the last 1000 years , and that recent positive trends in the SAM are attributed to increasing greenhouse gas levels and later stratospheric ozone depletion .","qid":"2712","docid":"Antarctic_oscillation","rank":27,"score":139957},{"content":"Title: Dakshin Gangotri Glacier Content: The Dakshin Gangotri Glacier is a small tongue of the polar continental ice sheet impinging on the Schirmacher Oasis of central Queen Maud Land , Antarctica . It was discovered by the Second Indian Expedition to Antarctica in 1983 , and named for India 's first Antarctic research station . Since then its snout , and the area around it , has been regularly monitored and it has become a valuable site for tracking the impact of global warming through changes in the movement of the Antarctic ice sheet . The site is protected under the Antarctic Treaty System as Antarctic Specially Protected Area ( ASPA ) No. 163 .","qid":"2712","docid":"Dakshin_Gangotri_Glacier","rank":28,"score":139784},{"content":"Title: Weddell Polynya Content: The Weddell Polynya or Weddell Sea Polynya is a polynya or irregular area of open water surrounded by sea ice in the Weddell Sea of the Southern Ocean off Antarctica and near the Maud Rise . The size of New Zealand , it re-occurred each winter between 1974 and 1976 . These were the first three austral winters observed by the Nimbus-5 Electrically Scanning Microwave Radiometer ( ESMR ) . Since 1976 , the polynya has never been seen again . Since the 1970s , the polar Southern Ocean south of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current has freshened and stratified , likely a result of anthropogenic climate change . Such stratification may be responsible for suppressing the return of the Weddell Sea polynya .","qid":"2712","docid":"Weddell_Polynya","rank":29,"score":138825},{"content":"Title: Polar seas Content: Polar seas is a collective term for the Arctic Ocean ( about 4-5 percent of Earth 's oceans ) and the southern part of the Southern Ocean ( south of Antarctic Convergence , about 10 percent of Earth 's oceans ) . In the coldest years , sea ice can cover around 13 percent of the Earth 's total surface at its maximum , but out of phase in the two hemispheres . The polar seas contain a huge biome with many organisms . Among the species that inhabit various polar seas and surrounding land areas are polar bear , penguin , reindeer ( caribou ) , muskox , wolverine , ermine , lemming , Arctic hare , Arctic ground squirrel , whale , harp seal , and walrus . These species have unique adaptations to the extreme conditions . Many might be endangered if they can not adapt to changing conditions . Contrary to popular opinion , the World Wildlife Fund studies for polar bears show that this species has prospered since 1950 , attaining five times the numbers found in 1950 . In general , Arctic ecosystems are relatively fragile and slow to recover from serious damage .","qid":"2712","docid":"Polar_seas","rank":30,"score":138670},{"content":"Title: Quaternary glaciation Content: The Quaternary glaciation , also known as the Pleistocene glaciation or the current ice age , is a series of glacial events separated by interglacial events during the Quaternary period from 2.58 Ma ( million years ago ) to present . During this period , ice sheets expanded , notably from out of Antarctica and Greenland , and fluctuating ice sheets occurred elsewhere ( for example , the Laurentide ice sheet ) . The major effects of the ice age are erosion and deposition of material over large parts of the continents , modification of river systems , creation of millions of lakes , changes in sea level , development of pluvial lakes far from the ice margins , isostatic adjustment of the crust , and abnormal winds . It affected oceans , flooding , and biological communities . The ice sheets themselves , by raising the albedo , affect a major feedback on climate cooling .","qid":"2712","docid":"Quaternary_glaciation","rank":31,"score":138132},{"content":"Title: Cook Ice Shelf Content: Cook Ice Shelf is an ice shelf about 55 mi wide , occupying a deep recession of the coastline between Cape Freshfield and Cape Hudson , to the east of Deakin Bay . This indentation was called Cook Bay by the Australasian Antarctic Expedition , 1911 -- 14 , under Douglas Mawson , who named it for Joseph Cook , Prime Minister of Australia in 1914 . The generic term has been amended , as the bay is permanently filled by an ice shelf . Scientists studying the effects of global warming have proposed that sea water encroachment in the area could destabilize a significant portion of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet .","qid":"2712","docid":"Cook_Ice_Shelf","rank":32,"score":136037},{"content":"Title: John H. Mercer Content: John H. Mercer ( Cheltenham , England , 19 October 1922 -- Columbus , Ohio 3 July 1987 ) was a glaciologist , chiefly known for his theoretical work on , and field studies of Antarctic ice streams , especially in the Transantarctic Mountains and in West Antarctica . Following John T. Hollin 's work ( 1962 ) suggesting that climatic warming and rising sea-level cause Antarctic ice shelves to retreat , Mercer postulated that the West Antarctic ice sheet , being grounded well below sea-level and terminating in floating ice shelves , was vulnerable to these changes and may have collapsed altogether during the last interglacial when Antarctica may have been warmer and sea-level may have been higher . In 1978 , in the science magazine Nature , Mercer pointed out that `` green-house '' warming from burning fossil fuel could have the same effect during the present interglacial . Two studies published 12 May 2014 confirm Mercer 's assumption . Climate scientist James Hansen has coined the term , `` John Mercer effect . '' After Mercer published his paper suggesting that the West Antarctic ice sheet could collapse in response to warming , he struggled to get funding . Others , including Hansen , had similar problems . Many climate scientists censor their own work to avoid losing funding , especially regarding prospects for limiting warming to 2 ° C above pre-industrial temperatures . John H. Mercer was the third child of Harriet and John W. Mercer . He was educated at private schools in Cheltenham and , later , at Gordonstoun in Scotland . During World War II he served in the British Merchant Marines ( 1940 -- 46 ) as a radio man . After the war he went to University of Cambridge and studied geography . At that time he came under the influence of William Vaughan Lewis . After finishing his B.A. in 1949 Mercer went to Canada , where he received his PhD in geography from McGill University in 1954 . He was a Research Scholar from 1954 to 1956 at the Australian National University in Canberra , where he studied land use and population in western Samoa . He returned to Canada and worked in the Canadian Hydro-graphic Office in Ottawa as a geographer in 1957 and 1958 . During 1959 -- 60 , 1961 -- 62 , 1964 , and 1966 , the American Geographical Society employed him at its World Data Center A for Glaciology in New York . The turning point in his career as a glaciologist was in 1960 , when he became a Research Associate at The Ohio State University , in the Institute of Polar Studies ( renamed the Byrd Polar Research Center ) . He remained at The Ohio State University until his death , becoming its first Senior Research Scientist .","qid":"2712","docid":"John_H._Mercer","rank":33,"score":135016},{"content":"Title: Stefan Ice Piedmont Content: Stefan Ice Piedmont is a small ice piedmont at the northwest extremity of Pernik Peninsula , Loubet Coast in Graham Land , overlying the coast between Cape Rey and Holdfast Point . Mapped from air photos taken by Falkland Islands and Dependencies Aerial Survey Expedition ( FIDASE ) ( 1956 -- 57 ) . Named by United Kingdom Antarctic Place-Names Committee ( UK-APC ) for Josef Stefan ( 1835 -- 1893 ) , Austrian physicist who in 1889 pioneered the theory of heat flow in a freezing ice layer ( see Stefan problem ) and first used it to calculate rates of sea ice growth in the Arctic .","qid":"2712","docid":"Stefan_Ice_Piedmont","rank":34,"score":134622},{"content":"Title: Antarctica cooling controversy Content: An apparent contradiction in the observed cooling behavior of Antarctica between 1966 and 2000 became part of the public debate in the global warming controversy , particularly between advocacy groups of both sides in the public arena including politicians , as well as the popular media . In his novel State of Fear , Michael Crichton asserted that the Antarctic data contradict global warming . The few scientists who have commented on the supposed controversy state that there is no contradiction , while the author of the paper whose work inspired Crichton 's remarks has said that Crichton `` misused '' his results . There is no similar controversy within the scientific community , as the small observed changes in Antarctica are consistent with the small changes predicted by climate models , and because the overall trend since comprehensive observations began is now known to be one of warming . At the South Pole , where some of the strongest cooling trends were observed between the 1950s and 1990s , the mean trend is flat from 1957 through 2013 .","qid":"2712","docid":"Antarctica_cooling_controversy","rank":35,"score":134410},{"content":"Title: Arctic sea ice ecology and history Content: The Arctic sea ice covers less area in the summer than in the winter . The multi-year ( i.e. perennial ) sea ice covers nearly all of the central deep basins . The Arctic sea ice and its related biota are unique , and the year-round persistence of the ice has allowed the development of ice endemic species , meaning species not found anywhere else . There are differing scientific opinions about how long perennial sea ice has existed in the Arctic . Estimates range from 120,000 , 700,000 or 4 million years ago .","qid":"2712","docid":"Arctic_sea_ice_ecology_and_history","rank":36,"score":134184},{"content":"Title: Last Glacial Maximum Content: The Last Glacial Maximum ( LGM ) was the last period in the Earth 's climate history during the last glacial period when ice sheets were at their greatest extension . Growth of the ice sheets reached their maximum positions in about 24,500 BCE . Deglaciation commenced in the Northern Hemisphere between approximately 18,000 to 17,000 BCE and in Antarctica approximately 12,500 BCE , which is consistent with evidence that it was the primary source for an abrupt rise in the sea level in about 12,500 BCE . Vast ice sheets covered much of North America , northern Europe , and Asia . The ice sheets profoundly affected Earth 's climate by causing drought , desertification , and a dramatic drop in sea levels . It was followed by the Late Glacial .","qid":"2712","docid":"Last_Glacial_Maximum","rank":37,"score":133555},{"content":"Title: Ice cap climate Content: An ice cap climate is a polar climate where the temperature never exceeds 0 C . The climate covers areas in or near the polar regions , such as Antarctica and Greenland , as well as the highest mountaintops . Such areas are covered by a permanent layer of ice and have no vegetation , but they may have animal life , that usually feeds from the oceans . Ice cap climates are inhospitable to human life . Antarctica , the coldest continent on Earth , sustains no permanent human residents , but has some civil inhabitants in proximity to research stations in coastal settlements that are maritime polar and there are some communities that are situated in a transitional zone between the two climates , but barely qualify as a tundra . Some places like Antarctica had a different climate before having an ice cap climate","qid":"2712","docid":"Ice_cap_climate","rank":38,"score":133448},{"content":"Title: Brusilov Expedition Content: The Brusilov Expedition ( Экспедиция Брусилова , Ekspeditsiya Brusilova ) was a Russian maritime expedition to the Arctic led by Captain Georgy Brusilov , which set out in 1912 to explore and map a route from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific via a northeast passage known as the Northern Sea Route . The expedition was ill-planned and ill-executed by Brusilov , and disappeared without a trace . Earlier searches were unsuccessful , and its fate was not known until 2010 . The expedition set out from Alexandrovsk on 28 August 1912 in the gunvessel Svyataya Anna , so late in the summer that in October the ship became locked in the polar ice of the Kara Sea off the Yamal Peninsula . Supplies were abundant , and officers and crew prepared themselves for wintering over , hoping to be freed in the following year 's thaw . However , during 1913 the sea remained completely frozen . By early 1914 the Svyataya Anna had drifted far north in lazy zigzags with the Arctic ice . In the summer that year she reached 83 ° of latitude , NW of Franz Josef Land , and had no chance to be freed in 1914 either . To make matters worse , captain and crew had succumbed to scurvy . Navigator and second-in-command Valerian Albanov , believing that their position was hopeless , requested permission from Captain Brusilov to be relieved from his duties as second-in-command in order to leave the ship and attempt to return to civilization on foot . Albanov hoped to reach Eva Island in Hvidtenland , the northeasternmost island of Franz Josef Land . He used Fridtjof Nansen 's inaccurate map , full of dotted lines where the archipelago was still unexplored . After a gruesome ordeal , Albanov and Alexander Konrad , one of the crewmen of the Svyataya Anna , finally made it back to Russia . They were the only two survivors . One of the members of the expedition was the second Russian woman to go to the Arctic , Yerminia Zhdanko , a 22-year-old nurse and daughter of a general who was a hero in the Russo-Japanese War . The Svyataya Anna was never seen again . She may have sunk , crushed by the polar ice . It was thought she may have been carried by the polar ice drift until she broke free on the other side of the Arctic ( like the Fram ) . In 1914-15 Otto Sverdrup led a search-and-rescue expedition aboard ship Eklips in the Kara Sea on behalf of the Russian Imperial Navy . He aimed to find two missing arctic expeditions , those of Captain Brusilov on the Svyataya Anna and Vladimir Rusanov on the Gerkules , but found no trace of either expedition . Valerian Albanov made repeated requests to Arctic explorer and Admiral Alexander Kolchak to launch a search expedition for the Svyataya Anna . In December 1919 Albanov traveled to Omsk to confer with Kolchak , but the political turmoil in Russia at the time made a relief mission impossible , and the fate of the expedition was unknown until 2010 . Explorers announced in 2010 that they had found the bones of a crew-member of Brusilov 's expedition . Later in 2010 , a crew-member 's logbook and various other artifacts were found , also on Franz Josef Land .","qid":"2712","docid":"Brusilov_Expedition","rank":39,"score":133115},{"content":"Title: Bob Reiss Content: Bob Reiss ( born 1951 in New York City ) is a best selling American author of nonfiction and fiction books . Reiss has written more than 20 books , including Purgatory Road , a murder mystery set in Antarctica , The Road to Extrema , a study of the destruction of Brazilian rain forests , and The Coming Storm , which focuses on global warming and catastrophic weather . Many of his books and articles are based on his travels to Alaska , Hong Kong , Somalia , South Africa , Antarctica , and other locations around the world . White Plague , a novel set on a US icebreaker in the Arctic Ocean , was published in January 2015 , under the name of James Abel . Protocol Zero , second book in the series , will be published in August , 2015 . Under another pseudonym , Ethan Black , Bob Reiss has penned a series featuring Conrad Voort , a New York City police detective . The five books published in this series include : The Broken Hearts Club - ( 1999 ) Irresistible - ( 2000 ) All the Dead Were Strangers - ( 2001 ) Dead For Life - ( 2003 ) At Hell 's Gate - ( 2004 ) In 2012 , Reiss published The Eskimo and The Oil Man , a non-fiction book about the opening Arctic , and the fight over offshore drilling there , as seen through the eyes of a Shell oil executive , and an Inupiat Eskimo leader in Alaska . William Reilly , co-chair of the former Deepwater Horizon Commission , and Chairman Emeritus of the World Wildlife Fund , said of the book , `` Reiss has taken a highly charged and divisive subject and gotten inside the lives and values of the principles with empathy and insight . The Eskimo and The Oil Man is a most illuminating contribution to issues that will become more important as new discoveries follow drilling offshore . '' Reiss 's novel Black Monday was optioned by Paramount Pictures . According to Variety this novel focused on `` a mysterious condition that is eroding the quality of the crude with catastrophic results , and a federal investigator tries to solve the problem before the world is brought to a screeching halt . '' Aside from this project , Reiss has previously sold and optioned books for films , a screenplay to Warner Bros. , and a film treatment to NBC . Reiss has also written for Smithsonian Magazine , Rolling Stone , GQ , Glamour , Parade , The Washington Post Magazine , Mirabella , and other national publications .","qid":"2712","docid":"Bob_Reiss","rank":40,"score":132307},{"content":"Title: SY Aurora's drift Content: The drift of the Antarctic exploration vessel SY Aurora was an ordeal which lasted 312 days , during the Ross Sea chapter of Sir Ernest Shackleton 's Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition , 1914 -- 17 . It began when the ship broke loose from its anchorage in McMurdo Sound in May 1915 , during a gale . Caught in heavy pack ice and unable to manoeuvre , Aurora , with eighteen men aboard , was carried into the open waters of the Ross Sea and Southern Ocean , leaving ten men stranded ashore with meagre provisions . Aurora , a 40-year-old former Arctic whaler registered as a steam yacht , had brought the Ross Sea party to Cape Evans in McMurdo Sound in January 1915 , to establish its base there in support of Shackleton 's proposed transcontinental crossing . When Aurora 's captain Aeneas Mackintosh took charge of activities ashore , first officer Joseph Stenhouse assumed command of the ship . Stenhouse 's inexperience may have contributed to the choice of an inappropriate winter 's berth , although his options were restricted by the instructions of his superiors . After the ship was blown away it suffered severe damage in the ice , including the destruction of its rudder and the loss of its anchors ; on several occasions its situation was such that Stenhouse considered abandonment . Efforts to make wireless contact with Cape Evans and , later , with stations in New Zealand and Australia , were unavailing ; the drift extended through the southern winter and spring to reach a position north of the Antarctic Circle . In February 1916 the ice finally broke up , and a month later the ship was free . It was subsequently able to reach New Zealand for repairs and resupply , before returning to Antarctica to rescue the surviving members of the shore party . Despite his role in saving the ship , after Aurora 's arrival in Port Chalmers Stenhouse was removed from command by the organisers of the Ross Sea party relief expedition , so the ship returned to McMurdo Sound under a new commander and with a substantially different crew . Stenhouse was later appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire ( OBE ) for his service aboard Aurora .","qid":"2712","docid":"SY_Aurora's_drift","rank":41,"score":131266},{"content":"Title: Tim Naish Content: Tim Naish is a New Zealand glaciologist . He is the Director of the Antarctic Research Centre , Victoria University of Wellington , New Zealand . He has written about the collapse of Antarctica 's Larsen B ice shelf . In 2002 , between January 31 and March 7 the Larsen B ice shelf collapsed and broke up . Tim Naish warned that the ice shelf of Weddell Sea is imperiled , and if the temperature rises by 3 ° C , the ice shelves of Antarctica will become thinner . `` These are dramatic changes '' -- said Tim Naish . In 2009 , Professor Naish was awarded a New Zealand Antarctic Medal ( NZAM ) for services to Antarctic climate science .","qid":"2712","docid":"Tim_Naish","rank":42,"score":131254},{"content":"Title: Heirtzler Ice Piedmont Content: Heirtzler Ice Piedmont is a relatively low , triangular-shaped , ice-covered area of about 7 nmi extent , located at the west side of Violante Inlet and north of Maury Glacier , on the Black Coast of Palmer Land , Antarctica . The feature was first seen and photographed from the air by the United States Antarctic Service on December 30 , 1940 , and was mapped by the United States Geological Survey from U.S. Navy aerial photographs taken 1966 -- 69 . In association with the names of continental drift scientists grouped in this area , it was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names after James R. Heirtzler , an American physicist . Heirtzler was a Research Scientist at Columbia University 's Lamont -- Doherty Geological Observatory , 1960 -- 64 , and Senior Research Scientist , 1964 -- 67 ; he was Senior Scientist at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute , 1969 -- 86 ; Geophysicist and Head of the Geophysics Branch at the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center from 1986 .","qid":"2712","docid":"Heirtzler_Ice_Piedmont","rank":43,"score":131112},{"content":"Title: Dvořák Ice Rise Content: Dvořák Ice Rise is an ice rise 1.5 nmi in extent , rising above the ice of Mendelssohn Inlet in the southwest part of Alexander Island , Antarctica . It was first mapped , from air photos taken by the Ronne Antarctic Research Expedition , 1947 -- 48 , by D. Searle of the Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey in 1960 , and was named by the UK Antarctic Place-Names Committee after Antonín Dvořák , the Czech composer . ( 1841-1904 ) .","qid":"2712","docid":"Dvořák_Ice_Rise","rank":44,"score":131063},{"content":"Title: Ice shelf Content: An ice shelf is a thick floating platform of ice that forms where a glacier or ice sheet flows down to a coastline and onto the ocean surface . Ice shelves are only found in Antarctica , Greenland , Canada and the Russian Arctic . The boundary between the floating ice shelf and the grounded ( resting on bedrock ) ice that feeds it is called the grounding line . The thickness of ice shelves ranges from about 100 to 1000 meters . In contrast , sea ice is formed on water , is much thinner ( typically less than 3m ) , and forms throughout the Arctic Ocean . It also is found in the Southern Ocean around the continent of Antarctica . Ice shelves are principally driven by gravity-driven pressure from the grounded ice . That flow continually moves ice from the grounding line to the seaward front of the shelf . The primary mechanism of mass loss from ice shelves was thought to have been iceberg calving , in which a chunk of ice breaks off from the seaward front of the shelf . A study by NASA and university researchers - published in the June 14 , 2013 issue of Science - found however that ocean waters melting the undersides of Antarctic ice shelves are responsible for most of the continent 's ice shelf mass loss . Typically , a shelf front will extend forward for years or decades between major calving events . Snow accumulation on the upper surface and melting from the lower surface are also important to the mass balance of an ice shelf . Ice may also accrete onto the underside of the shelf . The density contrast between glacial ice , which is denser than normal ice , and liquid water means that only about 1/9 of the floating ice is above the ocean surface . The world 's largest ice shelves are the Ross Ice Shelf and the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in Antarctica . The term captured ice shelf has been used for the ice over a subglacial lake , such as Lake Vostok .","qid":"2712","docid":"Ice_shelf","rank":45,"score":130750},{"content":"Title: Arctic dipole anomaly Content: The Arctic dipole anomaly is a pressure pattern characterized by high pressure on the arctic regions of North America , and a low pressure on the Eurasia region . This pattern sometimes replaces the Arctic oscillation and the North Atlantic Oscillation . It was observed for the first time in the first decade of 2000s and is perhaps linked to recent climate change . The Arctic dipole lets more southern winds into the Arctic ocean resulting in more ice melting . The summer 2007 event played an important role in the record low sea ice extent which was recorded in September . The Arctic dipole has also been linked to changes in arctic circulation patterns that cause drier winters in Northern Europe , but much wetter winters in Southern Europe and colder winters in East Asia , Europe and the eastern half of North America .","qid":"2712","docid":"Arctic_dipole_anomaly","rank":46,"score":130534},{"content":"Title: Mikhail Somov Content: Mikhail Mikhailovich Somov ( 7 April 1908 , in Moscow -- 30 December 1973 , in Leningrad ) was a Soviet oceanologist , polar explorer , Doctor of Geographical Sciences ( 1954 ) . Mikhail Somov graduated from the Moscow Hydrometeorological Institute in 1937 . In 1939 , he was appointed senior researcher at the Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute . In 1950-1951 , Mikhail Somov headed a drift-ice station North Pole-2 . In 1955-1957 , he became the commander of the first Soviet Antarctic Expedition . Mikhail Somov was also the first Soviet delegate to the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research . The Somov Sea north of Victoria Land and a glacier in Queen Maud Land ( both East Antarctica ) bear Mikhail Somov 's name , as well as a scientific icebreaker . A minor planet 3334 Somov discovered by Czech astronomer Antonín Mrkos in 1981 is named after him . Somov was a Hero of the Soviet Union .","qid":"2712","docid":"Mikhail_Somov","rank":47,"score":130523},{"content":"Title: Students on Ice Content: Students on Ice ( also known as SOI ) is a Canadian charitable organisation that leads educational expeditions to the Arctic and Antarctic for international high school and university students . Its mandate is to provide youth , educators and scientists from around the world with learning and teaching opportunities in the polar regions , with the goal of fostering new understanding of and respect for the global environment .","qid":"2712","docid":"Students_on_Ice","rank":48,"score":129711},{"content":"Title: Iceberg D-16 Content: Iceberg D-16 is a city-sized iceberg near Antarctica , discovered on March 26 , 2006 by the National Ice Center using satellite imagery from the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program . It broke free of the Fimbul Ice Shelf , located along the northwestern section of Queen Maud Land in the eastern Weddell Sea . It is approximately 8 miles wide and 15 miles long ( 120 square miles ) , roughly the size of a city .","qid":"2712","docid":"Iceberg_D-16","rank":49,"score":129449},{"content":"Title: 1985 Polar Sea controversy Content: The 1985 Polar Sea controversy was a diplomatic event triggered by plans for the navigation of through the Northwest passage from Greenland to Alaska without formal authorization from the Canadian government . It was the United States ' position that the Northwest Passage was an international strait open to shipping and it sought only to notify Canada rather than ask for permission . Publication of the plans enraged the Canadian public opinion as it was regarded as a breach and disregard of sovereignty and prompted the government to take preventive measures in defending Canada 's arctic territories . The U.S. never recognized Canada 's claim over the Northwest passage but nevertheless , the two countries reached an agreement two years later which stipulated that in the future , the U.S. would ask permission before navigating the disputed waters . Canada 's sovereignty over the region 's waters was still a contentious issue as of 2010 and is likely to become of increasing importance as climate change in the Arctic has the potential to render those waters more accessible to commercial ships and the thawing of the sea ice of making oil drilling easier .","qid":"2712","docid":"1985_Polar_Sea_controversy","rank":50,"score":129327},{"content":"Title: Shackleton Ice Shelf Content: Shackleton Ice Shelf is an extensive ice shelf fronting the coast of East Antarctica for about 384 km ( 95E to 105E ) , projecting seaward about 145 km in the western portion and 64 km in the east . It occupies an area of 33,820 km ² . It is part of Mawson Sea and separates the Queen Mary Coast to the west from the Knox Coast of Wilkes Land to the east . The existence of this ice shelf was first made known by the USEE under Charles Wilkes who mapped a portion of it from the Vincennes in February 1840 . It was explored by the Australian Antarctic Expedition under Douglas Mawson ( 1911 -- 14 ) who named it for Sir Ernest Shackleton . The extent of the ice shelf was mapped in greater detail in 1955 , using aerial photography obtained by US Navy Operation Highjump , 1946-47 . Further mapping by the Soviet Expedition of 1956 showed the portion eastward of Scott Glacier to be a part of this ice shelf .","qid":"2712","docid":"Shackleton_Ice_Shelf","rank":51,"score":129048},{"content":"Title: Wiesław Masłowski Content: Wiesław Masłowski is a research professor at the Naval Postgraduate School in Monterey , California since 2009 . He obtained his MS from the University of Gdańsk in 1987 , and his PhD from the University of Alaska , Fairbanks in 1994 with a dissertation entitled `` Numerical modeling study of the circulation of the Greenland Sea '' . He became well known in 2007 for stating that the Arctic Ocean might be nearly ice free in the summer as early as 2013 , based on projection of the declining ice volume trend . While later revised to 2016 + / - 3 years based on computer modeling , this prediction became controversial when the Arctic was not sea-ice free in 2013 , having increased from the record low set in 2012 .","qid":"2712","docid":"Wiesław_Masłowski","rank":52,"score":128838},{"content":"Title: Lowest temperature recorded on Earth Content: The lowest natural temperature ever directly recorded at ground level on Earth is − 89.2 C , which was at the Soviet Vostok Station in Antarctica by ground measurements . A 2009 study estimated that under exceptional climate conditions similar to those recorded at Vostin 1983 , temperatures higher on the plateau around Dome Argus could potentially drop lower than − 95 C. On August 10 , 2010 , satellite observations measured a surface temperature of − 93.2 C at 81.8 ° S 59.3 ° E , along a ridge between Dome Argus and Dome Fuji , at 3,900 m elevation . The result was reported at the 46th annual meeting of the American Geophysical Union in San Francisco , in December 2013 ; it is a provisional figure , and may be subject to revision . The value may not be listed as the record coldest temperature as it was measured by remote sensing satellites and not by ground-based thermometers , unlike the 1983 record . The temperature announced reflects that of the ice surface , while the Vostok readings measured the air above the ice , and so the two are not directly comparable . However , it is most likely that the real temperature on the site was lower than that recorded at Vostok .","qid":"2712","docid":"Lowest_temperature_recorded_on_Earth","rank":53,"score":128273},{"content":"Title: Terence Edward Armstrong Content: Terence Edward Armstrong MA PhD ( 7 April 1920 -- 21 February 1996 ) , was a British polar geographer , sea ice specialist , writer , and expert on the Russian Arctic .","qid":"2712","docid":"Terence_Edward_Armstrong","rank":54,"score":128098},{"content":"Title: Water sky Content: Water sky is a phenomenon that is closely related to ice blink . It forms in regions with large areas of ice and low-lying clouds and so is limited mostly to the extreme northern and southern sections of earth , in Antarctica and in the Arctic . When light hits the blue oceans or seas , some of it bounces back and enables the observer to physically see the water . However , some of the light also is reflected back up on to the bottoms of low-lying clouds and causes a dark spot to appear underneath some clouds . These clouds may be visible when the seas are not and can show alert and knowledgeable travelers the general direction of water . The dark clouds over open water have long been used by polar explorers and scientists to navigate in sea ice . For example , Arctic explorer Fridtjof Nansen and his assistant Hjalmar Johansen used the phenomenon to find lanes of water in their failed expedition to the North Pole as did Bernacchi and Sir Douglas Mawson in the Antarctica .","qid":"2712","docid":"Water_sky","rank":55,"score":127989},{"content":"Title: Norwegian-U.S. Scientific Traverse of East Antarctica Content: The Norwegian-U.S. Scientific Traverse of East Antarctica is a research program consisting of two overland traverses of East Antarctica : the first from the Norwegian Troll Station to the South Pole in the 2007/2008 season ; and a return traverse via a different route in 2008/2009 . The main research focus of the program is climate change , the stated goals being to : Investigate climate variability in Dronning Maud Land of East Antarctica on time scales of years to a thousand years . Establish spatial and temporal variability in snow accumulation over this area of Antarctica to understand its impact on sea level . Investigate the impact of atmospheric and oceanic variability on the chemical composition of firn and ice in the region . Revisit areas and sites first explored by traverses in the 1960s , for detection of possible changes and to establish benchmark data sets for future research efforts . The program is part of Trans-Antarctic Scientific Traverse Expeditions -- Ice Divide of East Antarctica ( TASTE-IDEA ) , and the International Partners in Ice Coring Sciences ( IPICS ) , both of which have ISCU-WMO endorsement for the International Polar Year 2007-2009 .","qid":"2712","docid":"Norwegian-U.S._Scientific_Traverse_of_East_Antarctica","rank":56,"score":127810},{"content":"Title: Arctic ice pack Content: The Arctic ice pack is the ice cover of the Arctic Ocean and its vicinity . The Arctic ice pack undergoes a regular seasonal cycle in which ice melts in spring and summer , reaches a minimum around mid-September , then increases during fall and winter . Summer ice cover in the Arctic is about 50 % of winter cover . Some of the ice survives from one year to the next . Currently 28 % of Arctic basin sea ice is multi-year ice , thicker than seasonal ice : up to 3 - thick over large areas , with ridges up to 20 m thick . As well as the regular seasonal cycle there has been an underlying trend of declining sea ice in the Arctic in recent decades .","qid":"2712","docid":"Arctic_ice_pack","rank":57,"score":127700},{"content":"Title: Arctic Climate Impact Assessment Content: The Arctic Climate Impact Assessment ( ACIA ) is a study describing the ongoing climate change in the Arctic and its consequences : rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , unprecedented melting of the Greenland ice sheet , and many impacts on ecosystems , animals , and people . The ACIA is the first comprehensively researched , fully referenced , and independently reviewed evaluation of Arctic climate change and its impacts for the region and for the world . The project was guided by the intergovernmental Arctic Council and the non-governmental International Arctic Science Committee . Three hundred scientists participated in the study over a span of three years . The 140-page synthesis report Impacts of a Warming Arctic was released in November 2004 , and the scientific report later in 2005 . The ACIA Secretariat is located at the International Arctic Research Center at the University of Alaska Fairbanks .","qid":"2712","docid":"Arctic_Climate_Impact_Assessment","rank":58,"score":127435},{"content":"Title: Krause Point Content: Krause Point is a low , ice-covered point in Antarctica , fronting on Davis Sea midway between Cape Torson and Cape Filchner . It was mapped from air photos taken by U.S. Navy Operation Highjump , 1946 -- 47 , and was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names for Glenn R. Krause , a photogrammetrist with the Navy Hydrographic Office , who served as a surveyor with the U.S. Navy Operation Windmill parties which established astronomical control stations along Wilhelm II , Knox and Budd coasts in 1947 -- 48 .","qid":"2712","docid":"Krause_Point","rank":59,"score":127130},{"content":"Title: Ice age Content: An ice age is a period of long-term reduction in the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere , resulting in the presence or expansion of continental and polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers . Within a long-term ice age , individual pulses of cold climate are termed `` glacial periods '' ( or alternatively `` glacials '' or `` glaciations '' or colloquially as `` ice age '' ) , and intermittent warm periods are called `` interglacials '' . In the terminology of glaciology , ice age implies the presence of extensive ice sheets in both northern and southern hemispheres . By this definition , we are in an interglacial period -- the Holocene -- of the ice age . The ice age began 2.6 million years ago at the start of the Pleistocene epoch , because the Greenland , Arctic , and Antarctic ice sheets still exist .","qid":"2712","docid":"Ice_age","rank":60,"score":127107},{"content":"Title: Sea smoke Content: Sea smoke , frost smoke , or steam fog , is fog which is formed when very cold air moves over warmer water . Arctic sea smoke is sea smoke forming over small patches of open water in sea ice . It forms when a light wind of very cold air mixes with a shallow layer of saturated warm air immediately above the warmer water . The warmer air is cooled beyond the dew point and can no longer hold as much water vapor , so the excess condenses out . The effect is similar to the `` steam '' produced over a hot bath or a hot drink , or even an exercising person . Sea smoke has a turbulent appearance and may form spiralling columns . It is usually not very high and lookouts on ships can usually see over it ( but small boats may have very poor visibility ) because the fog is confined to the layer of warm air above the sea . However , sea smoke columns 20 -- 30 metres high have been observed . Because this type of fog requires very low air temperatures , it is uncommon in temperate climates , but is common in the Arctic and Antarctic .","qid":"2712","docid":"Sea_smoke","rank":61,"score":126869},{"content":"Title: Heard Island glaciers Content: The Heard Island glaciers covered 79 percent of Heard Island itself , in 1947 , covering 288 km2 ; by 1988 , this had decreased by 11 percent to 257 km2 . The glaciers fall under the Antarctic Environmental Gradient , which spans 30 degrees of latitude and includes a range of macro-climatic zones from cool temperate islands to the frigid and arid Antarctic continent . Glaciers extend from 2745 m to sea level , with ice up to 150 m deep.The geologic movement of the glaciers can appear fast-flowing due to the steep slope and high precipitation , and are particularly sensitive to climatic fluctuations . Measurements between 1947 and 1980 show glacial retreat , particularly on the eastern flanks , is correlated with changes in weather patterns . A 29 % reduction in area of the Brown Glacier from 1947-2003 was observed . The volcano Big Ben , from which all the glaciers drain , has shown no sign of changing geothermal output to cause the melting ; a 1 degree Celsius warming has occurred over the same time period . Glaciologists continue to study the Brown Glacier , detailing surveys of the glacier 's snout and surface , which determine if glacial retreat is rapid or punctuated . Measurements on the mass balance of the glacier , as well as more detailed ice thickness measurements using a portable radar echo sounder , were undertaken . Monitoring of climatic conditions continues , with emphasis on the impact of Foehn winds on glacier mass balance . An expedition by scientists from the Australian Antarctic Division recently visited the volcanic island in 2009 , observing glaciers that had retreated 50 metres in three years . Repairs were made to an automatic weather station established in November 2000 . Glaciologist Dr. Ian Allison cites that the latest aerial surveys that show continuous rapid melt and that satellite imagery shows the island double in size due to volcanic activity .","qid":"2712","docid":"Heard_Island_glaciers","rank":62,"score":126633},{"content":"Title: Arctic Circle (organization) Content: The Arctic Circle is a nonprofit organization introduced by President Ólafur Ragnar Grímsson of Iceland on April 15 , 2013 , at the National Press Club in Washington . The organization 's mission is to facilitate dialogue among political and business leaders , environmental experts , scientists , indigenous representatives , and other international stakeholders to address issues facing the Arctic as a result of climate change and melting sea ice . The organization is led by Ólafur , who serves as chairman of the honorary board , and by Alaska Dispatch publisher and Arctic Imperative Summit founder Alice Rogoff , who chairs the advisory board .","qid":"2712","docid":"Arctic_Circle_(organization)","rank":63,"score":126612},{"content":"Title: Ellesmere Ice Shelf Content: The former Ellesmere Ice Shelf was the largest ice shelf in the Arctic , encompassing about 3500 sqmi of the north coast of Ellesmere Island , Nunavut , Canada . The ice shelf was first documented by the British Arctic Expedition of 1875-76 , in which Lieutenant Pelham Aldrich 's party went from Cape Sheridan ( 82.47 ° N , 61.50 ° W ) west to Cape Alert ( 82.27 ° N , 85.55 ° W ) . The continuous mass of the Ellesmere Ice Shelf had been in place for at least 3,000 years . During the twentieth century the Ellesmere Ice Shelf broke up into six separate shelves , the largest being the Ward Hunt Ice Shelf . During the 1980s reassuring official science reported that the remnants were stable . In April 2000 , satellite images revealed that a large crack in the Ward Hunt shelf had begun to form , and in 2003 it was announced that the ice sheet had split completely in two in 2002 , releasing a huge pool of fresh water from the largest epishelf lake in the Northern Hemisphere , located in Disraeli Fjord . In April 2008 , it was discovered that the shelf was fractured into dozens of deep , multi-faceted cracks . On August 13 , 2005 , The Ayles Ice Shelf , which was located at , approximately 800 km south of the North Pole , broke away from the coast forming the giant Ayles Ice Island 37 m thick and measuring around 14 km by 5 km in size with an area of approximately 66 km ² ( 25.5 sq mi ) or 2.6 km3 in volume . The Milne Ice Shelf is the second large segment of the former Ellesmere Ice Shelf .","qid":"2712","docid":"Ellesmere_Ice_Shelf","rank":64,"score":126348},{"content":"Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.","qid":"2712","docid":"Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C","rank":65,"score":125129},{"content":"Title: Mark Serreze Content: Mark Clifford Serreze ( born 1960 ) is an American geographer and the director of the National Snow and Ice Data Center ( NSIDC ) , a project of the Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences at the University of Colorado Boulder . He officially became the NSIDC 's director in August 2009 . Serreze is primarily known for his expertise in the Arctic sea ice decline that has occurred over the last few decades due to global warming , a topic about which he has expressed serious concern .","qid":"2712","docid":"Mark_Serreze","rank":66,"score":124765},{"content":"Title: Global warming in Antarctica Content: The effects of global warming in Antarctica may include rising temperatures and increasing snow melt .","qid":"2712","docid":"Global_warming_in_Antarctica","rank":67,"score":124557},{"content":"Title: Yevgeny Tolstikov Content: Yevgeny Ivanovich Tolstikov ( February 9 , 1913 -- December 3 , 1987 ) was a Soviet polar explorer , awarded by the Hero of the Soviet Union title . He led the Third Soviet Antarctic Expedition and one of the first manned drifting ice stations in the Arctic . In 1979 , he was made deputy chairman of the State Committee for Hydrometeorolgy and Environmental Control . A minor planet 3357 Tolstikov discovered by Czech astronomer Antonín Mrkos in 1984 is named after him .","qid":"2712","docid":"Yevgeny_Tolstikov","rank":68,"score":124488},{"content":"Title: Cape Roberts Project Content: Between 1997 and 1999 the international Cape Roberts Project ( CRP ) has recovered up to 1000 m long drill cores in the Ross Sea , Antarctica to reconstruct the glaciation history of Antarctica . Scientists from various institutes in seven countries have participated : Australia , Germany , United Kingdom , The Netherlands , Italy , New Zealand , and USA . After a seismic pre-site survey the area off Cape Roberts in the Ross Sea at the margin of the Transantarctic Mountains ( 77 ° S 163 ° 43 ` E ) was found to be suitable . Drilling was performed using a conventional core wireline system with a drill derrick , protected by a cover against the rough climate . Sea ice was 2 m thick with a water depth of 150 -- below . Four overlapping drill cores at three sites reflect in excellent quality the geological history and glaciation of the Antarctic during the last 34 million years . As a logistic and scientific basis the American McMurdo Station and Scott Base of New Zealand were used . Supply of the drill site was performed with motor sledges and snow mobiles , exchange of personal with helicopters . The costs for the logistics were around four Million US dollar .","qid":"2712","docid":"Cape_Roberts_Project","rank":69,"score":124415},{"content":"Title: Ice2sea Content: Ice2sea is a program of scientific research funded by the European Union 's Framework 7 Programme to study the effects of climate change on glaciation and the melting of ice caps and glaciers on sea level . The ice2sea project , a collaborative of 24 research institutions , which is headed by Prof David Vaughan , aims to reduce the uncertainty in sea-level projections which are of great economic and social importance to the European Union , especially as large areas of coastal area in Europe are below or less than a metre above sea level . The 2007 fourth Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) report highlighted ice sheets * as the most significant remaining uncertainty in projections of sea-level rise . Understanding about the crucial ice-sheet effects was `` too limited to assess their likelihood or provide a best estimate of an upper bound for sea-level rise '' . Improved scientific results from ice2sea will feed directly into the fifth IPCC report ( due in 2013 ) to generate more accurate sea-level rise projections . The initiative recently funded research by scientists from the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in Germany , which was published in Nature in 2012 , which predicts the disappearance of the 450000 km2 vast Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in east Antarctica by the end of the century which could add up to 4.4 mm of rise of sea level each year due to its melting alone .","qid":"2712","docid":"Ice2sea","rank":70,"score":124261},{"content":"Title: Applied Physics Laboratory Ice Station Content: The Applied Physics Laboratory Ice Station 2007 ( APLIS07 ) is an U.S.A. and Japanese laboratory dedicated to the study of global climate change , located about 300km south of the Arctic Circle , Alaska on the West Ridge of the University of Alaska Fairbanks campus .","qid":"2712","docid":"Applied_Physics_Laboratory_Ice_Station","rank":71,"score":124164},{"content":"Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .","qid":"2712","docid":"Copenhagen_Diagnosis","rank":72,"score":124042},{"content":"Title: Cape Polar Sea Content: Cape Polar Sea is a rock cape that forms the west extremity of Coulman Island in northwest Ross Sea . Named in 1998 by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) after USCGC Polar Sea , an icebreaker in support of United States Antarctic Program ( USAP ) activities in the Ross , Amundsen and Bellingshausen Seas , and other Antarctic coastal areas during 11 seasons , 1980-1997 . The cape lies in proximity to Cape Polar Star and Glacier Strait , two features named earlier for American icebreakers . Category : Headlands of Victoria Land Category : Borchgrevink Coast","qid":"2712","docid":"Cape_Polar_Sea","rank":73,"score":124041},{"content":"Title: International Arctic Buoy Program Content: The International Arctic Buoy Program is headquartered at the Polar Science Center , Applied Physics Laboratory , University of Washington , in Seattle , Washington , United States . The program 's objectives include to provide meteorological and oceanographic data in order to support operations and research for UNESCO 's World Climate Research Programme and the World Weather Watch Programme of the United Nations ' World Meteorological Organization . IABP participating countries include Canada , China , France , Germany , Japan , Norway , Russia , and the United States . Together , they share the costs of the program . The IABP has deployed more than 700 buoys since it began operations in 1991 , succeeding the Arctic Ocean Buoy Program ( operational since 1979-01-19 ) . Commonly , 25 to 40 buoys operate at any given time and provide real-time position , pressure , temperature , and interpolated ice velocity . In support of the International Polar Year , the IABP will deploy over 120 buoys , at over 80 different locations , during the period of April-August 2008 . The organization 's annual meeting provides discussion on instrumentation , forecasting , observations , and outlook .","qid":"2712","docid":"International_Arctic_Buoy_Program","rank":74,"score":124006},{"content":"Title: Arctic Content: The Arctic ( -LSB- ˈɑrktɪk -RSB- or -LSB- ˈɑrtɪk -RSB- ) is a polar region located at the northernmost part of Earth . The Arctic consists of the Arctic Ocean , adjacent seas , and parts of Alaska ( United States ) , Canada , Finland , Greenland ( Denmark ) , Iceland , Norway , Russia and Sweden . Land within the Arctic region has seasonally varying snow and ice cover , with predominantly treeless permafrost-containing tundra . Arctic seas contain seasonal sea ice in many places . The Arctic region is a unique area among Earth 's ecosystems . For example , the cultures in the region and the Arctic indigenous peoples have adapted to its cold and extreme conditions . In recent years , Arctic sea ice decline has been caused by global warming . Life in the Arctic includes organisms living in the ice , zooplankton and phytoplankton , fish and marine mammals , birds , land animals , plants and human societies . Arctic land is bordered by the subarctic .","qid":"2712","docid":"Arctic","rank":75,"score":123898},{"content":"Title: Oden (1988 icebreaker) Content: Oden is a large Swedish icebreaker , built in 1988 for the Swedish Maritime Administration . It is named after the Norse god Odin . First built to clear a passage through the ice of the Gulf of Bothnia for cargo ships , it was later modified to serve as a research vessel . Equipped with its own helicopter and manned by 15 crew members it has ample capacity to carry laboratory equipment and 80 passengers , functioning independently in harsh Polar ice packs of the Arctic and Antarctic seas . It was the first non-nuclear surface vessel to reach the North Pole ( in 1991 ) , together with the German research icebreaker Polarstern . It has participated in several scientific expeditions in Arctic and Antarctica .","qid":"2712","docid":"Oden_(1988_icebreaker)","rank":76,"score":123835},{"content":"Title: Lazarev Ice Shelf Content: The Lazarev Ice Shelf is that part of the ice shelf fringing the Princess Astrid Coast of Queen Maud Land , Antarctica , that lies between Leningradskiy Island and Verblyud Island . It is part of the western Riiser-Larsen Sea and is about 50 nmi long . The ice shelf was first photographed from the air and mapped by the Third German Antarctic Expedition , 1938 -- 39 . It was explored and mapped by the Soviet Antarctic Expedition in 1959 , and named for Lieutenant ( later Admiral ) Mikhail P. Lazarev , commander of the sloop Mirnyy .","qid":"2712","docid":"Lazarev_Ice_Shelf","rank":77,"score":123774},{"content":"Title: MacKenzie Bay Content: MacKenzie Bay is a relatively small embayment of the western extremity of the Amery Ice Shelf , Antarctica , about 20 nmi northeast of Foley Promontory . On February 10 , 1931 , the British Australian New Zealand Antarctic Research Expedition ( BANZARE ) sighted a much larger embayment here and made an airplane flight to sketch its limits . They named it `` MacKenzie Sea '' after Captain K.N. MacKenzie , the master of the expedition 's ship Discovery in 1930 -- 31 . Breakout of a large part of Amery Ice Shelf has drastically reduced the size of this feature ; in 1968 the bay was 15 nmi wide . Several Norwegian whaling ships sighted the original embayment nearly simultaneously with BANZARE ; the whale-catcher Seksern ( Captain Brunvoll ) reached this area on January 13 , 1931 , and the Torlyn ( Captain Klarius Mikkelsen ) on February 13 , 1931 .","qid":"2712","docid":"MacKenzie_Bay","rank":78,"score":123531},{"content":"Title: MV Arctic Sea Content: The MV Arctic Sea is a merchant vessel cargo ship , formerly registered in Malta that was reported as missing between late July and mid August 2009 en route from Finland to Algeria . On July 24 , the Arctic Sea , manned by a Russian crew and carrying a cargo of what was declared to consist solely of timber , was allegedly boarded by hijackers off the coast of Sweden . The incident was not immediately reported , and contact with the ship was apparently lost on , or after , July 30 . The Arctic Sea did not arrive at its scheduled port in Algeria , and on August 14 the ship was located near Cape Verde instead . On August 17 it was seized by the Russian Navy . An investigation into the incident is underway amidst speculation regarding the ship 's actual cargo , and allegations of a cover-up by Russian authorities . The Arctic Sea was towed into harbour in the Maltese capital of Valletta on October 29 , 2009 . The ship 's hijacking and subsequent events remain mysterious as no credible explanation exists of its disappearance and Russia 's conduct during and after capturing the ship . If confirmed to be an act of piracy , the hijacking of Arctic Sea would be the first known of its kind in Northern European waters for centuries . Although by March 2011 all the hijackers had officially been found guilty of piracy , this has not led to -- in the words of BBC correspondent Daniel Sandford -- being `` closer to knowing what actually happened '' .","qid":"2712","docid":"MV_Arctic_Sea","rank":79,"score":123513},{"content":"Title: National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research Content: The National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research ( NCAOR ) is an Indian research and development institution , situated in Vasco , Goa . It is an autonomous Institution of the Department of Ocean Development ( DOD ) , Government of India which is responsible for administering the Indian Antarctic Program and maintains the Indian government 's Antarctic research station , Maitri . NCAOR was established on 25 May 1998 , with Dr. P C Pandey as its founding director . NCAOR is known for its participation in global experiments , hosting of international conferences and in the leadership of international committees concerned with Antarctic science . At present , NCAOR is an agency working under Ministry of Earth Sciences , Government of India since 2006 , by the notification of the President of India . NCAOR complex is a home to a special low-temperature laboratory and is setting up a National Antarctic Data Centre and a Polar Museum . The NCAOR operates in different fields or tasks : storing ice core samples , from Antarctica and the Himalayan Mountains . operating the Himadri Arctic research station in Spitsbergen , Norway . managing the oceanic research vessel ORV Sagar Kanya , the flagship of India 's fleet of oceanographic study vessels . This ship has contributed significantly to India 's study of the Arabian Sea , the Bay of Bengal , and the Indian Ocean . it supported the KBCAOS , University of Allahabad from initial stage of establishment up to the final stage of the center as full-fledged faculty center , in form of a project as per collaborative work with the University . This centre was previously referred to as Antarctic Study Centre . It came in existence with joining of Dr. Prem Chand Pandey as director on 12 May 1997 .","qid":"2712","docid":"National_Centre_for_Antarctic_and_Ocean_Research","rank":80,"score":123434},{"content":"Title: Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute Content: The Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute , or AARI ( Арктический и антарктический научно-исследовательский институт , abbreviated as ААНИИ ) is the oldest and largest Russian research institute in the field of comprehensive studies of Arctic and Antarctica . It is located in Saint Petersburg . The AARI was founded on 3 March 1920 as the Northern Research and Trade Expedition under the Scientific and Technical Department of the All-Union Council of State Economy . In 1925 , the expedition was reorganized into the Institute of Northern Studies and five years later - into the All-Union Arctic Institute . In 1932 , the institute was integrated into the Chief Directorate of the Northern Sea Route . In 1948 , they established the Arctic Geology Research Institute ( Научно-исследовательский институт геологии Арктики , or НИИГА ) on the basis of the geology department of the All-Union Arctic Institute , which would subordinate to the Ministry of Geology of the USSR . In 1958 , the All-Union Arctic Institute was renamed Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute . In 1963 , the AARI was incorporated into the Chief Administration of the Hydrometeorological Service under the Council of Ministers of the USSR ( now Federal Service for Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring of Russia ) . Throughout its history , the AARI has organized more than a thousand Arctic expeditions , including dozens of high-latitude aerial expeditions , which transported 34 manned drifting ice stations Severniy Polyus ( '' Северный полюс '' , or North Pole ) to Central Arctic . In 1955 , the AARI participated in the organization of Antarctic research . In 1958 , it began to organize and lead all of the Soviet Antarctic expeditions , which would later make many geographic discoveries . In 1968 , the institute engaged in research of the areas of the Atlantic Ocean contiguous to the Arctic and Antarctica . The AARI has numerous departments , such as those of oceanography , glaciology , meteorology , hydrology or Arctic river mouths and water resources , geophysics , polar geography , and others . It also has its own computer center , ice research laboratory , experimental workshops , and a museum ( the Arctic and Antarctic Museum ) . Scientists , such as Alexander Karpinsky , Alexander Fersman , Yuly Shokalsky , Nikolai Knipovich , Lev Berg , Otto Schmidt , Rudolf Samoylovich , Vladimir Vize , Nikolai Zubov , Pyotr Shirshov , Nikolai Urvantsev , and Yakov Gakkel have all made their valuable contributions to the work of the AARI . In 1967 , AARI was awarded the Order of Lenin .","qid":"2712","docid":"Arctic_and_Antarctic_Research_Institute","rank":81,"score":123339},{"content":"Title: Sea ice thickness Content: Sea ice thickness spatial extent , and open water within ice packs can vary rapidly in response to weather and climate . Sea ice concentration are measured by satellites , with the Special Sensor Microwave Imager / Sounder ( SSMIS ) , and the European Space Agency 's Cryosat-2 satellite to map the thickness and shape of the Earth 's polar ice cover . The sea ice volume is calculated with the Pan-Arctic Ice Ocean Modeling and Assimilation System ( PIOMAS ) , which blends satellite-observed data , such as sea ice concentrations into model calculations to estimate sea ice thickness and volume . Sea ice thickness determines a number of important fluxes such as heat flux between the air and ocean surface -- see below -- as well as salt and fresh water fluxes between the ocean since saline water ejects much of its salt content when frozen -- see sea ice growth processes . It is also important for navigators on icebreakers since there is an upper limit to the thickness of ice any ship can sail through .","qid":"2712","docid":"Sea_ice_thickness","rank":82,"score":123177},{"content":"Title: Demas Ice Tongue Content: Demas Ice Tongue is a conspicuous ice tongue , about 20 nautical miles ( 40 km ) long , extending west from Abbot Ice Shelf of Peacock Sound into the Amundsen Sea . It was discovered by members of the United States Antarctic Service in flights from the Bear , February 1940 , and named after E.J. Demas ( d. 1979 ) , a member of the Byrd Antarctic Expeditions of 1928 -- 30 and 1933 -- 35 .","qid":"2712","docid":"Demas_Ice_Tongue","rank":83,"score":122873},{"content":"Title: The Coming Global Superstorm Content: The Coming Global Superstorm ( ISBN 0-671-04190-8 ) is a 1999 book by Art Bell and Whitley Strieber , which warns that global warming might produce sudden and catastrophic climatic effects . First , the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic drift would generate a cordon of warm water around the North Pole , which in turn , holds in a frozen mass of Arctic air . Second , if the North Atlantic drift were to shut down , that barrier would fail , releasing a flood of frozen air into the Northern Hemisphere , causing a sudden and drastic temperature shift . The book discusses a possible cause of the failure of the Gulf Stream : the melting of the polar ice caps could drastically affect the salinity of the North Atlantic drift by dumping a large quantity of freshwater into the world 's oceans . Bell and Strieber explain the possibility that such current destabilizations have occurred before , as well as seemingly impossible engineering feats by the ancients . Among their examples is the island city of Nan Madol . The book claims that its construction , with exacting tolerances and extremely heavy basalt materials , necessitates a high degree of technical competency . Since no such society exists in the modern record or even , in legend , the society must have been destroyed by dramatic means . While other explanations beside a global meteorological event are possible , a correlating evidence set is presented in the woolly mammoth . Strieber and Bell assert that since mammoths have been found preserved with food still in their mouths and undigested in their stomachs , these animals must have been killed quickly , in otherwise normal conditions . They were preserved so well by quick freezing , which is taken as evidence of a rapid onset of a global blizzard or similar event . Interspersed with the analytical parts of the book are a series of interlinked short fictional scenarios , written in italics , describing what might transpire today if a destabilization of the North Atlantic Current were to occur . The fictional accounts of `` current events '' as the meteorological situation deteriorates provided background and inspiration for the 2004 science fiction film The Day After Tomorrow . Indeed , some events from the book are portrayed in the film with little modification .","qid":"2712","docid":"The_Coming_Global_Superstorm","rank":84,"score":122760},{"content":"Title: Prince Gustav Channel Content: The Prince Gustav Channel was named in 1903 after Crown Prince Gustav of Sweden ( later King Gustav V ) by Otto Nordenskiöld of the Swedish Antarctic Expedition . The channel is bounded on the west by the Antarctic Peninsula and on the east by James Ross Island . It is about 130 km long and ranges from 6 to wide . On 27 February 1995 , the British Antarctic Survey ( BAS ) reported that an ice shelf formerly blocking the channel had disintegrated . This ice shelf had spanned approximately 700 km2 prior to its disintegration . In the area previously covered by the shelf , the channel 's water depth is between 600 to . Between February and March 2000 , scientists collected sediment cores 5 to 6 m in length from the ocean floor . Carbon dating of organic material found in the sediment layers suggested that for a period between 2,000 and 5,000 years ago , much of the channel was seasonally open water . While icebergs were able to navigate the channel , ice rafted debris was deposited within the sediment . It appears that before and after this period , the channel remained closed . The period when the channel was open coincides with a period of local warming supported by data gathered from land-based studies of lake sediments and ancient , abandoned penguin rookeries . With the return of colder conditions about 1900 years ago , the Prince Gustav Ice Shelf reformed until its recent retreat and collapse . Ice shelves are sensitive indicators of regional climatic change , therefore recent warming in the vicinity of the Prince Gustav Channel is exceptional for at least the past 1900 years .","qid":"2712","docid":"Prince_Gustav_Channel","rank":85,"score":122223},{"content":"Title: East Antarctic Ice Sheet Content: The East Antarctic Ice Sheet ( EAIS ) is one of two large ice sheets in Antarctica , and the largest on the entire planet . The EAIS lies between 45 ° west and 168 ° east longitudinally . The EAIS is considerably larger in area and mass than the West Antarctic Ice Sheet ( WAIS ) . It is separated from the WAIS by the Transantarctic Mountains . The EAIS rests upon a large land mass , contrary to that of the WAIS , which rests mainly on bedrock below sea level . The EAIS is also home to the thickest ice on the frozen white continent , at 15,700 ft ( 4,800 m ) . More well known , however , is that the EAIS is home to the geographic South Pole as well as of the Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station .","qid":"2712","docid":"East_Antarctic_Ice_Sheet","rank":86,"score":122152},{"content":"Title: Henry Ice Rise Content: Henry Ice Rise is a triangular-shaped ice rise about 70 mi long located between Korff Ice Rise and the southern portion of Berkner Island in the Ronne Ice Shelf , Antarctica . It was first visited by the United States International Geophysical Year geophysical traverse party from Ellsworth Station , 1957 -- 58 , and was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names after Captain Clifford D. Henry of the Military Sealift Command , a veteran American polar sea captain and master of . Henry died aboard his ship , February 16 , 1975 , while returning from his fourteenth voyage to Antarctica in support of the U.S. Antarctic Research Program .","qid":"2712","docid":"Henry_Ice_Rise","rank":87,"score":122151},{"content":"Title: Riiser-Larsen Sea Content: The Riiser-Larsen Sea is a marginal sea in the Southern Ocean . It is bordered by the Lazarev Sea to the west and the Cosmonauts Sea to the east , or between 14 ° E and 30 ° E. Its northern border is defined to be the 65th parallel south . The name , proposed by the Soviet Union , was never officially approved by the International Hydrographic Organization ( IHO ) . The Riiser-Larsen Sea was named in 1962 by the Soviet Antarctic Expedition in honor of Norwegian aviation pioneer and polar explorer Hjalmar Riiser-Larsen ( 1890 -- 1965 ) . The IHO 2002 draft was never approved by the IHO ( or any other organization ) , and the 1953 IHO document ( which does not contain the name ) remains currently in force . Leading geographic authorities and atlases do not use the name , including the 2014 10th edition World Atlas from the United States ' National Geographic Society and the 2014 12th edition of the British Times Atlas of the World . But Soviet and Russian-issued maps do . Depths exceed 3,000 meters in most of the waters here . The area is covered with drifting ice almost year-round . It would stretch over an area of 1,138,000 km ² . There are many icebergs . To the south of this area lies the Princess Astrid Coast and Princess Ragnhild Coast of Queen Maud Land . In the western part is the Lazarev Ice Shelf , and further east are Erskine Iceport and Godel Iceport , and the former Belgian Roi-Baudouin Station .","qid":"2712","docid":"Riiser-Larsen_Sea","rank":88,"score":122125},{"content":"Title: Getz Ice Shelf Content: The Getz Ice Shelf is the largest Antarctic ice shelf along the SE Pacific-Antarctic coastline , over 300 mi long and from 20 to wide , bordering the Hobbs and Bakutis Coasts of Marie Byrd Land between the McDonald Heights and Martin Peninsula . Several large islands are partially or wholly embedded in the ice shelf , pinning the calving front . Summer temperature and salinity measurements from 1994 to 2010 show the shelf is subject to more changeable oceanic forcing than other Antarctic shelves . Beneath cold surface waters , the thermocline was ∼ 200 m shallower in 2007 than in 2000 , indicative of shifting access of deep water to the continental shelf and ice shelf base . The calculated area-average basal melt rates was between 1.1 and 4.1 m of ice per year , making Getz the largest source of meltwater to the Southern Ocean . The ice shelf westward of Siple Island was discovered by the United States Antarctic Service ( USAS ) in December 1940 . The portion eastward of Siple Island was first delineated from air photos taken by U.S. Navy Operation Highjump , 1946 -- 47 . The entire feature was mapped by the United States Geological Survey from U.S. Navy air photos of 1962 -- 65 . It was named by the USAS ( 1939 -- 41 ) for George F. Getz of Chicago , Illinois , who helped furnish the seaplane for the expedition .","qid":"2712","docid":"Getz_Ice_Shelf","rank":89,"score":121878},{"content":"Title: Polaribacter franzmannii Content: Polaribacter franzmannii is a species of gas vacuolate polar marine bacteria . It was first isolated from sea ice and water from the Arctic and the Antarctic . Its type strain is ATCC 700399 .","qid":"2712","docid":"Polaribacter_franzmannii","rank":90,"score":121800},{"content":"Title: Climate of Antarctica Content: The climate of Antarctica is the coldest on Earth . Antarctica 's lowest air temperature record was set on 21 July 1983 , with − 89.2 C at Vostok Station . Satellite measurements have identified even lower ground temperatures , down to − 93.2 C at the cloud free East Antarctic Plateau on 10 August 2010 . It is also extremely dry ( technically a desert ) , averaging 166 mm of precipitation per year . On most parts of the continent the snow rarely melts and is eventually compressed to become the glacier ice that makes up the ice sheet . Weather fronts rarely penetrate far into the continent , because of the katabatic winds . Most of Antarctica has an ice cap climate ( Köppen EF ) with very cold , generally extremely dry weather .","qid":"2712","docid":"Climate_of_Antarctica","rank":91,"score":121749},{"content":"Title: Ross Ice Shelf Content: The Ross Ice Shelf is the largest ice shelf of Antarctica ( an area of roughly 487000 sqkm and about 800 km across : about the size of France ) . It is several hundred metres thick . The nearly vertical ice front to the open sea is more than 600 km long , and between 15 and high above the water surface . Ninety percent of the floating ice , however , is below the water surface . Most of Ross Ice Shelf is in the Ross Dependency claimed by New Zealand . It floats in , and covers , a large southern portion of the Ross Sea and the entire Roosevelt Island located in the west of the Ross Sea . The ice shelf is named after Captain Sir James Clark Ross , who discovered it on 28 January 1841 . It was originally called The Barrier , with various adjectives including Great Ice Barrier , as it prevented sailing further south . Ross mapped the ice front eastward to 160 ° W . In 1947 , the US Board on Geographic Names applied the name Ross Shelf Ice to this feature and published it in the original US Antarctic Gazetteer . In January 1953 the name was changed to Ross Ice Shelf ; that name was published in 1956 .","qid":"2712","docid":"Ross_Ice_Shelf","rank":92,"score":121572},{"content":"Title: Jim McNeill Content: Jim McNeill is a British polar explorer , presenter and keynote speaker , with over 30 years of experience travelling in the polar regions . He founded the Ice Warrior project in 2001 . He has trained and guided many groups to the Arctic , including BBC film crews . His expeditions , travelling thousands of miles across the Arctic , give him regular opportunities to monitor polar bear populations for the Norwegian Polar Institute , as well as putting together a yearly scientific program for scientists to monitor the effects of climate change . He is an ambassador for Hauser Bears , a charitable organization committed to the conservation of bears worldwide . He is Vice president - Arctic Expeditions for Sea Research Society .","qid":"2712","docid":"Jim_McNeill","rank":93,"score":121542},{"content":"Title: Polaribacter filamentus Content: Polaribacter filamentus is a species of gas vacuolate polar marine bacteria . It was first isolated from sea ice and water from the Arctic and the Antarctic . Its type strain is ATCC 700397 .","qid":"2712","docid":"Polaribacter_filamentus","rank":94,"score":121473},{"content":"Title: Ekström Ice Shelf Content: The Ekström Ice Shelf is the ice shelf lying between Sorasen Ridge and Halvfarryggen Ridge , on the Princess Martha Coast of Queen Maud Land . It was first mapped by the Norwegian -- British -- Swedish Antarctic Expedition ( NBSAE ) ( 1949 -- 1952 ) , and named for Bertil Ekström , a Swedish mechanical engineer with the NBSAE , who drowned when the weasel ( track-driven vehicle ) he was driving plunged over the edge of Quar Ice Shelf on February 24 , 1951 . The ice shelf occupies an area of 8,700 sqkm . It is 160 m thick at the edge , and rises 15 m above the sea level . Germany 's Neumayer-Station III is to the northeast at Atka Bay .","qid":"2712","docid":"Ekström_Ice_Shelf","rank":95,"score":121378},{"content":"Title: Charlie Paton Content: Charlie Paton ( born 1970 ) , former Royal Marine and personal trainer , is the first Scotsman to walk unsupported to the Geographic North Pole from Canada . After 70 days on the ice , Charlie led by Alan Chambers MBE , raised the Union Jack on top of the world at 23:16 hours on 16 May 2000 . The ten-week expedition left the team ten days overdue , suffering weight loss and without food supplies . Charlie and Alan will attempt another British first commencing February 2007 ; walking unsupported across the frozen Arctic Ocean from Russia to Canada , approximately 2000 kilometres , 100 days on the ice and experiencing temperatures as low as -60 . The project is called Polar Odyssey . Charlie is currently giving people the opportunity to enjoy guided trips to the North and South Poles with his travel company PolarTrex .","qid":"2712","docid":"Charlie_Paton","rank":96,"score":121208},{"content":"Title: Dome A Content: Dome A or Dome Argus is the loftiest ice dome on the Antarctic Plateau , located 1200 km inland . It is thought to be the coldest naturally occurring place on Earth ; scientists believe that temperatures can sometimes even drop below -102 ° C in the winter . It is the highest ice feature in Antarctica , consisting of an ice dome or eminence of 4093 m elevation above sea level . It is located near the center of East Antarctica , approximately midway between the enormous head of Lambert Glacier and the geographic South Pole , within the Australian claim .","qid":"2712","docid":"Dome_A","rank":97,"score":121136},{"content":"Title: Arctic and Antarctic Museum Content: The Russian State Arctic and Antarctic Museum is a museum in St. Petersburg , Russia . It was established in November 1930 as part of the Soviet Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute , but was not opened until six years later . The museum is located in Avraam Melnikov 's Neoclassical church from the 1820s and remains the largest museum dedicated to polar exploration in the world . The current director of the museum is Victor Boyarsky .","qid":"2712","docid":"Arctic_and_Antarctic_Museum","rank":98,"score":120821},{"content":"Title: Japanese Antarctic Expedition Content: __ NOTOC __ The Japanese Antarctic Expedition of 1910 -- 12 was the first exploration of Antarctic territory by an expedition from Japan . Led by Army Lieutenant Nobu Shirase , its ship Kainan Maru left Tokyo in December 1910 , reached the ice on 26 February 1911 and sailed on into the Ross Sea . As it was very late in the Antarctic season , the ship was not able to get beyond Coulman Island , and returned to Sydney , Australia to winter there . During the following season a third attempt was made to reach an Antarctic landfall , with the specific objective of exploring King Edward VII Land . At the Great Ice Barrier , the Kainan Maru encountered Roald Amundsen 's ship Fram , which was waiting in the Bay of Whales for the return of Amundsen 's South Pole party . A `` Dash Patrol '' of seven men from the Kainan Maru then landed on the Barrier and journeyed southward to 80 ° 05 'S , at which point adverse weather forced their return . Meanwhile , the ship landed another party on the coast of King Edward VII Land , where an exploration of the lower slopes of the Alexandra Range was carried out . Kainan Maru returned to Japan ; it reached Yokohama on 20 June 1912 .","qid":"2712","docid":"Japanese_Antarctic_Expedition","rank":99,"score":120689},{"content":"Title: Polar High Content: The polar highs are areas of high atmospheric pressure around the north and south poles ; the north polar high being the stronger one because land gains and loses heat more effectively than sea . The cold temperatures in the polar regions cause air to descend to create the high pressure ( a process called subsidence ) , just as the warm temperatures around the equator cause air to rise to create the low pressure intertropical convergence zone . Rising air also occurs along bands of low pressure situated just below the polar highs around the 50th parallels of latitude . These extratropical convergence zones are occupied by the polar fronts where air masses of polar origin meet and clash with those of tropical or subtropical origin . This convergence of rising air completes the vertical cycle around the polar cell in each latitudinal hemisphere . Closely related to this concept is the polar vortex . Surface temperatures under the polar highs are the coldest on Earth , with no month having an average temperature above freezing . Regions under the polar high also experience very low levels of precipitation , which leads them to be known as `` polar deserts '' . Air flows outwards from the poles to create the polar easterlies in the arctic and antarctic areas .","qid":"2712","docid":"Polar_High","rank":100,"score":120553}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea Ice Physics and Ecosystem eXperiment Content: The Sea Ice Physics and Ecosystem eXperiment ( SIPEX ) was an Australian contribution to the International Polar Year ( IPY ) . The expedition studied the sea ice in the Antarctica zone in September and October 2007 , investigating links between the sea ice and the Southern Ocean ecosystems . Taking part were 45 scientists from 8 different countries , each a specialist on some aspect of the Antarctic sea ice zone . Travelling aboard the research vessel Aurora Australis , the researchers covered East Antarctica between 110 ° E and 130 ° E. Experiments dealt with ice thickness and snow cover , the sympagic fauna and flora and examined the effects of ocean currents and wind . The extent and distribution of sea ice in the polar regions is a sensitive indicator of global climate change . Global warming has been implicated in significant reductions in the extent of sea ice and this trend is set to continue . An improved understanding of sea ice may lead to improved conservation policies in Antarctica .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea_Ice_Physics_and_Ecosystem_eXperiment\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 191878\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Arctic sea ice decline Content: Arctic sea ice decline is the sea ice loss observed in recent decades in the Arctic Ocean . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that greenhouse gas forcing is largely , but not wholly , responsible for the decline in Arctic sea ice extent . A study from 2011 suggested that internal variability enhanced the greenhouse gas forced sea ice decline over the last decades . A study from 2007 found the decline to be `` faster than forecasted '' by model simulations . The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report concluded with high confidence that sea ice continues to decrease in extent , and that there is robust evidence for the downward trend in Arctic summer sea ice extent since 1979 . It has been established that the region is at its warmest for at least 40,000 years and the Arctic-wide melt season has lengthened at a rate of 5 days per decade ( from 1979 to 2013 ) , dominated by a later autumn freezeup . Sea ice changes have been identified as a mechanism for polar amplification .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Arctic_sea_ice_decline\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 180059\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Future_sea_level\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 173767\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Antarctic ice sheet Content: The Antarctic ice sheet is one of the two polar ice caps of the Earth . It covers about 98 % of the Antarctic continent and is the largest single mass of ice on Earth . It covers an area of almost 14 e6km2 and contains 26.5 e6km3 of ice . Approximately 61 percent of all fresh water on the Earth is held in the Antarctic ice sheet , an amount equivalent to about 58 m of sea-level rise . In East Antarctica , the ice sheet rests on a major land mass , but in West Antarctica the bed can extend to more than 2,500 m below sea level . Much of the land in this area would be seabed if the ice sheet were not there . In contrast to the melting of the Arctic sea ice , sea ice around Antarctica was expanding . The reasons for this are not fully understood , but suggestions include the climatic effects on ocean and atmospheric circulation of the ozone hole , and/or cooler ocean surface temperatures as the warming deep waters melt the ice shelves .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Antarctic_ice_sheet\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 172558\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Duncan Wingham Content: Duncan John Wingham ( born 12 October 1957 ) is a British physicist who is Professor of Climate Physics at University College London , and was the first Director of the Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling . He is chief executive of the Natural Environment Research Council and Principal Scientist for the CryoSat Satellite Mission . In the 1990s , Wingham was involved in a four-year satellite study of the Antarctic ice sheet . His conclusion then , and from later research , is that the Antarctic has contributed little to observed rising sea levels in the 20th century . However , he has also stated that `` it is possible that the consequences of global warming on sea level rise have been underestimated ... Other sources of rise must be underestimated . In particular it is possible that the effect of global warming on thermal expansion -LSB- on the oceans -RSB- is larger than we thought '' . In a 2005 interview Wingham stated '' -LSB- t -RSB- he Antarctic is to some extent insulated from global warming because to its north are zonal flows in the atmosphere and ocean , unimpeded by other landmasses ... I am not denying global warming . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Duncan_Wingham\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 171370\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Old Pulteney Row To The Pole Content: The Old Pulteney Row To The Pole was a publicity stunt sponsored by a whisky distiller for naming rights , which navigated a rowing boat to the North Magnetic Pole at 78 ° 35.7 N 104 ° 11.9 W , the position certified in 1996 . It is believed to be the only polar expedition to feature rowing boats since the crew of Sir Ernest Shackleton 's row to Elephant Island off South Georgia in 1916 , after his aborted attempt to cross Antarctica . The 450-mile journey took almost four weeks . The expedition set out from Resolute Bay on July 28 , 2011 reaching the Pole position on August 25 . It was the first time any surface vessel under human power had been to any pole position . The expedition was the first attempt at such a voyage and was made possible by the open water in the Arctic region in summer . According to the National Snow and Ice Data Center , part of the University of Colorado , the Arctic sea ice melted to its third smallest extent ( since 1979 , when satellite measurements began ) in September 2010 . Prior to 1979 ice extents are unreliable .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Old_Pulteney_Row_To_The_Pole\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 170100\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Antarctic sea ice Content: Antarctic sea ice is the sea ice of the Southern Ocean . It extends far north in winter and retreats almost to the coastline each summer . Sea ice is frozen seawater that is usually less than a few meters thick . This is in contrast to ice shelves , which are formed by glaciers , float in the sea , and are up to a kilometer thick . There are two subdivisions of sea ice : fast ice , which is attached to land ; and ice floes , which are not . Sea ice in the Southern Ocean melts from the bottom instead of from the surface like Arctic ice because it is covered in snow . As a result , melt ponds are rarely observed . On average , Antarctic sea ice is younger , thinner , warmer , saltier , and more mobile than Arctic sea ice . Due to its inaccessibility , it is not as well-studied as Arctic ice .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Antarctic_sea_ice\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 168053\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: North Ice Content: North Ice was a research station of the British North Greenland Expedition ( 1952 to 1954 ) on the inland ice of Greenland . The coordinates of the station were , at an altitude of 2341 m above sea level . The British North Greenland Expedition was led by Commander James Simpson RN . The station recorded the lowest temperature ever in North America with -66.1 C on 9 January 1954 . The name of the station contrasts to the former British South Ice station in Antarctica .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"North_Ice\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 158225\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea ice Content: Sea ice arises as seawater freezes . Because ice is less dense than water , it floats on the ocean 's surface ( as does fresh water ice , which has an even lower density ) . Sea ice covers about 7 % of the Earth 's surface and about 12 % of the world 's oceans . Much of the world 's sea ice is enclosed within the polar ice packs in the Earth 's polar regions : the Arctic ice pack of the Arctic Ocean and the Antarctic ice pack of the Southern Ocean . Polar packs undergo a significant yearly cycling in surface extent , a natural process upon which depends the Arctic ecology , including the ocean 's ecosystems . Due to the action of winds , currents and temperature fluctuations , sea ice is very dynamic , leading to a wide variety of ice types and features . Sea ice may be contrasted with icebergs , which are chunks of ice shelves or glaciers that calve into the ocean . Depending on location , sea ice expanses may also incorporate icebergs .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea_ice\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 157679\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ice and the Sky Content: Ice and the Sky ( La Glace et le ciel , also known as Antarctica : Ice and Sky ) is a 2015 French documentary film directed by Luc Jacquet about the work of Claude Lorius , who began studying Antarctic ice in 1957 , and , in 1965 , was the first scientist to be concerned about global warming . The film was selected to close the 2015 Cannes Film Festival .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Ice_and_the_Sky\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 154871\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Antarctic Cold Reversal Content: The Antarctic Cold Reversal ( ACR ) was an important episode of cooling in the climate history of the Earth during the deglaciation at the close of the last ice age . It illustrates the complexity of the climate changes at the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene Epochs . The Last Glacial Maximum and sea-level minimum occurred c. 21,000 years before present ( BP ) . Antarctic ice cores show gradual warming beginning 3000 years later . At about 14,700 BP , there was a large pulse of meltwater , identified as Meltwater pulse 1A , probably from either the Antarctic ice sheet or the Laurentide ice sheet . Meltwater pulse 1A produced a marine transgression that raised global sea level about 20 meters in two to five centuries and is thought to have influenced the start of the Bølling / Allerød interstadial , the major break with glacial cold in the Northern Hemisphere . Meltwater pulse 1A was followed in Antarctica and the Southern Hemisphere by a renewed cooling , the Antarctic Cold Reversal , in c. 14,500 BP , which lasted for two millennia -- an instance of warming causing cooling . The ACR brought an average cooling of perhaps 3 ° C . The Younger Dryas cooling , in the Northern Hemisphere , began while the Antarctic Cold Reversal was still ongoing , and the ACR ended in the midst of the Younger Dryas . This pattern of climate decoupling between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres and of `` southern lead , northern lag '' would manifest in subsequent climate events . The cause or causes of this hemispheric decoupling , of the `` lead/lag '' pattern and of the specific mechanisms of the warming and cooling trends are still subjects of study and dispute among climate researchers . The specific dating and intensity of the Antarctic Cold Reversal are also under debate . The onset of the Antarctic Cold Reversal was followed , after about 800 years , by an Oceanic Cold Reversal in the Southern Ocean .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Antarctic_Cold_Reversal\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 154397\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Arctic geoengineering Content: Temperatures in the Arctic region have tended to increase more rapidly than the global average . Projections of sea ice loss that are adjusted to take account of recent rapid Arctic shrinkage suggest that the Arctic will likely be free of summer sea ice sometime between 2059 and 2078 . Various climate engineering schemes have been suggested to reduce the chance of significant and irreversible effects such as Arctic methane release . Several climate engineering proposals have been made which are specific to the Arctic . They are usually hydrological in nature , and principally centre upon measures to prevent Arctic ice loss . In addition , other solar radiation management climate engineering techniques , such as stratospheric sulfate aerosols have been proposed . These would cool the Arctic by adjusting the albedo of the atmosphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Arctic_geoengineering\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 153682\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Extreme points of Antarctica Content: The tallest mountain in Antarctica is Mount Vinson rising 4,892 metres ( 16,050 feet ) above sea level . The lowest point in Antarctica is within the Bentley Subglacial Trench , which reaches 2,555 metres below sea level . This is also the lowest place on Earth not covered by ocean ( although it is covered by ice ) . The lowest accessible point in Antarctica is the shore of Deep Lake , Vestfold Hills , which is 50 m beneath sea level . The point on land farthest from any coastline on the Antarctic Continent is located at . This is also known as the South Pole of inaccessibility . Antarctica is the southernmost land mass on Earth . The Geographical South Pole lies on the Polar Plateau at . It is here that the southernmost human habitation on Earth is located : Amundsen -- Scott South Pole Station ( U.S. Administered Base ) . Vostok Station is the most isolated research base on the continent ( located at ) , and it is situated over the southernmost lake in the world , Lake Vostok , a subglacial lake 4,000 metres ( 13,000 feet ) under the surface of the ice where the station sits . Formerly administrated by the Soviets , it is now operated by Russia . The southernmost volcano on the planet -- Mount Erebus -- is in Antarctica on the world 's southernmost island reachable from the sea : Ross Island . The southernmost island is Berkner Island . It is embedded in the ice shelf , fully covered by ice and fully below sea level . The Ross Sea is the southernmost sea in the world , with its southernmost extremity ( Gould Coast ) at the foot of the Horlick Mountains approximately 200 miles ( 320 km ) from the Geographic South Pole . However , this area is covered by the Ross Ice Shelf . The southernmost open sea is also part of Ross Sea , namely Bay of Whales at 78 ° 30 'S , at the edge of Ross Ice Shelf . The northernmost extremity of the Antarctic mainland ( without nearshore islands ) is Prime Head , at the northern tip of the Trinity Peninsula at . The Antarctic Peninsula is the largest contiguous part of the continent projecting north of the Antarctic Circle and thus has many of the continent 's research bases . Prime Head is 609 mi ( 980 km ) from Cape Horn . The northernmost research base on the mainland is Esperanza Base .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Extreme_points_of_Antarctica\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 152443\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Konrad Steffen Content: Konrad `` Koni '' Steffen ( born 1952 ) is a glaciologist and the former director of the Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences at the University of Colorado Boulder , a position he held from 2005 until he took office as the director of the Swiss Federal Institute for Forest , Snow and Landscape Research on July 1 , 2012 . He is known for his research into Arctic sea ice and the glaciers of Greenland , and how they are affected by global warming . He has often traveled to Greenland to study these glaciers firsthand ; for example , when studying Petermann Glacier for three weeks in 2004 , Steffen did so from a camp set up 4,000 feet up the flanks of the glacier 's ice cap . He also operates a network of 20 weather stations on the Greenland ice sheet , the first of which , Swiss Camp , he established in 1990 . He has argued that due to this ice sheet melting faster than anticipated , sea levels could rise by about 3 feet by 2100 , considerably higher than the IPCC 's upper limit of 59 cm , and that Greenland might lose all its ice in 10,000 years , but Antarctica would take considerably longer , since it is so much bigger .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Konrad_Steffen\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 151994\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bentley Subglacial Trench Content: Bentley Subglacial Trench is a vast topographic trench in Marie Byrd Land , West Antarctica , 80 ° S , 115 ° W . At 2,555 meters ( 8,382 ft ) below sea level , it is the lowest point on the surface of the earth not covered by ocean , although it is covered by ice . Normally , it is not counted as the lowest point on land , since the overlying ice sheet makes it essentially subterranean . ( See Extremes on Earth and Vestfold Hills ) Also , if the ice melted , the area would be under water . The trench was named in 1961 after Charles R. Bentley who was the geophysicist in charge of the scientific expeditions in West Antarctica in 1957 -- 59 that led to its discovery .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Bentley_Subglacial_Trench\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 151338\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Arcticaborg Content: Arcticaborg is an icebreaking platform supply vessel operated by Wagenborg Kazakhstan in the Caspian Sea . She and her sister ship , Antarcticaborg , were built by Kværner Masa-Yards in Helsinki , Finland , in 1998 . They are the first full developments of the double acting ship concept and among the first icebreakers equipped with Azipods , electric azimuth thrusters manufactured by ABB .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Arcticaborg\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 150066\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_the_Arctic\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 149993\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Peter Doran Content: Peter Doran , Ph.D. is Professor of Geology and Geophysics at Louisiana State University . Doran specializes in polar regions , especially Antarctic climate and ecosystems . Doran was the lead author of a research paper about Antarctic temperatures that was published in the journal Nature in January 2002 . Because he and his colleagues found that some parts of Antarctica had cooled between 1964 and 2000 , his paper has been frequently cited by opponents of the global warming theory , such as Ann Coulter and Michael Crichton . In an opinion piece in the July 27 , 2006 New York Times , Doran characterized this as a `` misinterpretation '' and stated , `` I have never thought such a thing ... I would like to remove my name from the list of scientists who dispute global warming . '' ( The temporary phenomenon is related to the `` hole '' in the ozone . As the `` hole heals '' the Antarctic will dramatically warm quickly . ) Doran and his grad student Maggie Kendall Zimmerman also published a paper in the Jan 27 , 2009 issue of EOS showing that active climate researchers almost unanimously agree that humans have had a significant impact on the Earth 's climate . Both an Antarctic stream and glacier were named for Doran by the U.S. Geological Survey to commemorate his many significant research contributions conducted on the continent .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Peter_Doran\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 143720\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: British Arctic Expedition Content: The British Arctic Expedition of 1875-1876 , led by Sir George Strong Nares , was sent by the British Admiralty to attempt to reach the North Pole via Smith Sound . Two ships , HMS Alert and HMS Discovery ( captained by Henry Frederick Stephenson ) , sailed from Portsmouth on 29 May 1875 . Although the expedition failed to reach the North Pole , the coasts of Greenland and Ellesmere Island were extensively explored and large amounts of scientific data were collected . On this expedition , Nares became the first explorer to take his ships all the way north through the channel between Greenland and Ellesmere Island ( now named Nares Strait in his honour ) to the Lincoln Sea . Up to this time , it had been a popular theory that this route would lead to the supposed Open Polar Sea , an ice-free region surrounding the pole , but Nares found only a wasteland of ice . A sledging party under Commander Albert Hastings Markham set a new record Farthest North of 83 ° 20 ' 26 `` N , but overall the expedition was a near-disaster . The men suffered badly from scurvy and were hampered by inappropriate clothing and equipment . Realising that his men could not survive another winter in the ice , Nares hastily retreated southward with both his ships in the summer of 1876 . However , naval personnel and topographers , among them Thomas Mitchell , did succeed in documenting , by photograph , the Northern indigenous peoples and landscapes of what would become Canada 's Northwest Territories and , later , Nunavut . The expedition included Petty Officer Adam Ayles , after whom both the Ayles Ice Shelf and Mount Ayles are named . Other features named after the expedition include the Markham Ice Shelf , Nares Strait and Alert , Nunavut , the most northerly permanently inhabited place on earth . Pelham Aldrich was a lieutenant on the expedition and commanded the Western Sledge Party to Ellesmere Island , where Cape Aldrich was named in his honour . Archives are held at Scott Polar Research Institute , University of Cambridge .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"British_Arctic_Expedition\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 143597\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Arctic resources race Content: The Arctic resources race refers to the competition between global entities for newly available natural resources in the Arctic . As the ice in the Arctic melts at a record rate and the sea ice extent continues to decrease due to global climate change , the Arctic waters become more navigable and Arctic resources -- such as oil and gas , minerals , fish , as well as tourism and new trade routes -- are becoming more accessible . Under the United Nations Convention of the Law of the Sea , five nations have the legal right to exploit the Arctic 's natural resources within their exclusive economic zones : Canada , Russia , Denmark , Norway , and the United States ( though the U.S. has yet to ratify the treaty , it considers the treaty to be customary international law and abides by it ) . The Arctic region and its resources have recently been at the center of controversy and pose potential conflicts between nations that have differing opinions of how to manage the area , including conflicting territorial claims . In addition , the Arctic region is home to an estimated 400,000 indigenous people . If the ice continues to melt at the current rate , then these indigenous people are at risk of being displaced . The acceleration of ice depletion will contribute to climate change as a whole : melting ice releases methane , ice reflects incoming solar radiation , and without it will cause the ocean to absorb more radiation ( albedo effect ) , heating up the water causing more ocean acidification , and melting ice will cause a rise in sea level .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Arctic_resources_race\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 143158\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: ANDRILL Content: ANDRILL ( ANtarctic DRILLing Project ) is a scientific drilling project in Antarctica gathering information about past periods of global warming and cooling . The project involves scientists from Germany , Italy , New Zealand , and the United States . At two sites in 2006 and 2007 , ANDRILL team members drilled through ice , seawater , sediment and rock to a depth over more than 1,200 m and recovered a virtually continuous core record from the present to nearly 20 million years ago . The project is based at McMurdo Station in Antarctica . In studying the cores , ANDRILL scientists from various disciplines are gathering detailed information about past periods of global warming and cooling . A major goal of the project is to significantly improve the understanding of Antarctica 's impact on the world 's oceans currents and the atmosphere by reconstructing the behavior of Antarctic sea-ice , ice-shelves , glaciers and sea currents over tens of millions of years . Initial results imply rapid changes and dramatically different climates at various times on the southernmost continent.Quirin Scheirmeier , `` Sediment cores reveal Antarctica 's warmer past , '' Nature News , April 24 , 2008 . The $ 30 million project has achieved its operational goal of retrieving a continuous core record of the last 17 million years , filling crucial gaps left by previous drilling projects . Making use of knowledge gained through prior Antarctic drilling projects , ANDRILL employed novel techniques to reach record depths at its two drilling sites . Among the innovations deployed were a hot-water drilling system that allowed for easier ice-boring and a flexible drill pipe that could accommodate tidal oscillations and strong currents . On December 16 , 2006 , ANDRILL broke the previous record of 999.1 m set in 2000 by the Ocean Drilling Program 's drill ship , the Joides Resolution . The Antarctic-record 1285 m of core ANDRILL went on to recover represents geologic time to about 13 million years ago . In 2007 , drilling at the Southern McMurdo Sound , ANDRILL scientists recovered another 1138 meters ( 3733.6 ft ) of core . One goal in 2006 was to look at a period of around 3 to 5 million years ago in the Pliocene , which scientists know to be warmer . The team 's sedimentologists identified more than 60 cycles in which ice sheets or glaciers advanced and retreated across McMurdo Sound .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"ANDRILL\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 143155\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Measurement of sea ice Content: Measurement of sea ice is important for safety of navigation and for monitoring the environment , particularly the climate . Sea ice extent interacts with large climate patterns such as the North Atlantic oscillation and Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation , to name just two , and influences climate in the rest of the globe . The amount of sea ice coverage in the arctic has been of interest for centuries , as the Northwest Passage was of high interest for trade and seafaring . There is a longstanding history of records and measurements of some effects of the sea ice extent , but comprehensive measurements were sparse till the 1950s and started with the satellite era in the late 1970s . Modern direct records include data about ice extent , ice area , concentration , thickness , and the age of the ice . The current trends in the records show a significant decline in Northern hemisphere sea ice and a small but statistically significant increase in the winter Southern hemisphere sea ice . Furthermore , current research comprises and establishes extensive sets of multi-century historical records of arctic and subarctic sea ice and uses , among others high-resolution paleo-proxy sea-ice records . The arctic sea ice is a dynamic climate-system component and is linked to the Atlantic multidecadal variability and the historical climate over various decades . There are circular changes of sea ice patterns but so far no clear patterns based on modeling predictions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Measurement_of_sea_ice\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 142647\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Arctic Ocean Content: The Arctic Ocean is the smallest and shallowest of the world 's five major oceans . The International Hydrographic Organization ( IHO ) recognizes it as an ocean , although some oceanographers call it the Arctic Mediterranean Sea or simply the Arctic Sea , classifying it a mediterranean sea or an estuary of the Atlantic Ocean . Alternatively , the Arctic Ocean can be seen as the northernmost part of the all-encompassing World Ocean . Located mostly in the Arctic north polar region in the middle of the Northern Hemisphere , the Arctic Ocean is almost completely surrounded by Eurasia and North America . It is partly covered by sea ice throughout the year and almost completely in winter . The Arctic Ocean 's surface temperature and salinity vary seasonally as the ice cover melts and freezes ; its salinity is the lowest on average of the five major oceans , due to low evaporation , heavy fresh water inflow from rivers and streams , and limited connection and outflow to surrounding oceanic waters with higher salinities . The summer shrinking of the ice has been quoted at 50 % . The US National Snow and Ice Data Center ( NSIDC ) uses satellite data to provide a daily record of Arctic sea ice cover and the rate of melting compared to an average period and specific past years .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Arctic_Ocean\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 141940\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Peter Wadhams Content: Peter Wadhams ScD ( born 14 May 1948 ) , is professor of Ocean Physics , and Head of the Polar Ocean Physics Group in the Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics , University of Cambridge . He is best known for his work on sea ice . He is the president of the International Association for the Physical Sciences of the Oceans Commission on Sea Ice and Coordinator for the International Programme for Antarctic Buoys . Wadhams has been the leader of 40 polar field expeditions . Wadhams advocates for the use of climate engineering to mitigate climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Peter_Wadhams\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 141071\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Arctic methane emissions Content: Arctic methane release is the release of methane from seas and soils in permafrost regions of the Arctic . While a long-term natural process , it is exacerbated by global warming . This results in a positive feedback effect , as methane is itself a powerful greenhouse gas . The Arctic region is one of the many natural sources of the greenhouse gas methane . Global warming accelerates its release , due to both release of methane from existing stores , and from methanogenesis in rotting biomass . Large quantities of methane are stored in the Arctic in natural gas deposits , permafrost , and as undersea clathrates . Permafrost and clathrates degrade on warming , thus large releases of methane from these sources may arise as a result of global warming . Other sources of methane include submarine taliks , river transport , ice complex retreat , submarine permafrost and decaying gas hydrate deposits . Concentrations in the Arctic atmosphere are higher by 8 -- 10 % than that in the Antarctic atmosphere . During cold glacier epochs , this gradient decreases to practically insignificant levels . Land ecosystems are considered the main sources of this asymmetry , although it has been suggested that `` the role of the Arctic Ocean is significantly underestimated . '' Soil temperature and moisture levels have been found to be significant variables in soil methane fluxes in tundra environments .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Arctic_methane_emissions\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 140539\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate inertia Content: Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_inertia\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 140504\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Antarctic oscillation Content: The Antarctic oscillation ( AAO , to distinguish it from the Arctic oscillation or AO ) is a low-frequency mode of atmospheric variability of the southern hemisphere . It is also known as the Southern Annular Mode ( SAM ) . It is defined as a belt of westerly winds or low pressure surrounding Antarctica which moves north or south as its mode of variability . In its positive phase , the westerly wind belt contracts towards Antarctica , while its negative phase involves this belt moving towards the Equator . In 2014 , Dr Nerilie Abram used a network of temperature-sensitive ice core and tree growth records to reconstruct a 1000-year history of the Southern Annular Mode . This work suggests that the Southern Annular Mode is currently in its most extreme positive phase over at least the last 1000 years , and that recent positive trends in the SAM are attributed to increasing greenhouse gas levels and later stratospheric ozone depletion .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Antarctic_oscillation\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 139957\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Dakshin Gangotri Glacier Content: The Dakshin Gangotri Glacier is a small tongue of the polar continental ice sheet impinging on the Schirmacher Oasis of central Queen Maud Land , Antarctica . It was discovered by the Second Indian Expedition to Antarctica in 1983 , and named for India 's first Antarctic research station . Since then its snout , and the area around it , has been regularly monitored and it has become a valuable site for tracking the impact of global warming through changes in the movement of the Antarctic ice sheet . The site is protected under the Antarctic Treaty System as Antarctic Specially Protected Area ( ASPA ) No. 163 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Dakshin_Gangotri_Glacier\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 139784\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Weddell Polynya Content: The Weddell Polynya or Weddell Sea Polynya is a polynya or irregular area of open water surrounded by sea ice in the Weddell Sea of the Southern Ocean off Antarctica and near the Maud Rise . The size of New Zealand , it re-occurred each winter between 1974 and 1976 . These were the first three austral winters observed by the Nimbus-5 Electrically Scanning Microwave Radiometer ( ESMR ) . Since 1976 , the polynya has never been seen again . Since the 1970s , the polar Southern Ocean south of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current has freshened and stratified , likely a result of anthropogenic climate change . Such stratification may be responsible for suppressing the return of the Weddell Sea polynya .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Weddell_Polynya\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 138825\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Polar seas Content: Polar seas is a collective term for the Arctic Ocean ( about 4-5 percent of Earth 's oceans ) and the southern part of the Southern Ocean ( south of Antarctic Convergence , about 10 percent of Earth 's oceans ) . In the coldest years , sea ice can cover around 13 percent of the Earth 's total surface at its maximum , but out of phase in the two hemispheres . The polar seas contain a huge biome with many organisms . Among the species that inhabit various polar seas and surrounding land areas are polar bear , penguin , reindeer ( caribou ) , muskox , wolverine , ermine , lemming , Arctic hare , Arctic ground squirrel , whale , harp seal , and walrus . These species have unique adaptations to the extreme conditions . Many might be endangered if they can not adapt to changing conditions . Contrary to popular opinion , the World Wildlife Fund studies for polar bears show that this species has prospered since 1950 , attaining five times the numbers found in 1950 . In general , Arctic ecosystems are relatively fragile and slow to recover from serious damage .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Polar_seas\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 138670\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Quaternary glaciation Content: The Quaternary glaciation , also known as the Pleistocene glaciation or the current ice age , is a series of glacial events separated by interglacial events during the Quaternary period from 2.58 Ma ( million years ago ) to present . During this period , ice sheets expanded , notably from out of Antarctica and Greenland , and fluctuating ice sheets occurred elsewhere ( for example , the Laurentide ice sheet ) . The major effects of the ice age are erosion and deposition of material over large parts of the continents , modification of river systems , creation of millions of lakes , changes in sea level , development of pluvial lakes far from the ice margins , isostatic adjustment of the crust , and abnormal winds . It affected oceans , flooding , and biological communities . The ice sheets themselves , by raising the albedo , affect a major feedback on climate cooling .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Quaternary_glaciation\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 138132\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cook Ice Shelf Content: Cook Ice Shelf is an ice shelf about 55 mi wide , occupying a deep recession of the coastline between Cape Freshfield and Cape Hudson , to the east of Deakin Bay . This indentation was called Cook Bay by the Australasian Antarctic Expedition , 1911 -- 14 , under Douglas Mawson , who named it for Joseph Cook , Prime Minister of Australia in 1914 . The generic term has been amended , as the bay is permanently filled by an ice shelf . Scientists studying the effects of global warming have proposed that sea water encroachment in the area could destabilize a significant portion of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Cook_Ice_Shelf\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 136037\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: John H. Mercer Content: John H. Mercer ( Cheltenham , England , 19 October 1922 -- Columbus , Ohio 3 July 1987 ) was a glaciologist , chiefly known for his theoretical work on , and field studies of Antarctic ice streams , especially in the Transantarctic Mountains and in West Antarctica . Following John T. Hollin 's work ( 1962 ) suggesting that climatic warming and rising sea-level cause Antarctic ice shelves to retreat , Mercer postulated that the West Antarctic ice sheet , being grounded well below sea-level and terminating in floating ice shelves , was vulnerable to these changes and may have collapsed altogether during the last interglacial when Antarctica may have been warmer and sea-level may have been higher . In 1978 , in the science magazine Nature , Mercer pointed out that `` green-house '' warming from burning fossil fuel could have the same effect during the present interglacial . Two studies published 12 May 2014 confirm Mercer 's assumption . Climate scientist James Hansen has coined the term , `` John Mercer effect . '' After Mercer published his paper suggesting that the West Antarctic ice sheet could collapse in response to warming , he struggled to get funding . Others , including Hansen , had similar problems . Many climate scientists censor their own work to avoid losing funding , especially regarding prospects for limiting warming to 2 ° C above pre-industrial temperatures . John H. Mercer was the third child of Harriet and John W. Mercer . He was educated at private schools in Cheltenham and , later , at Gordonstoun in Scotland . During World War II he served in the British Merchant Marines ( 1940 -- 46 ) as a radio man . After the war he went to University of Cambridge and studied geography . At that time he came under the influence of William Vaughan Lewis . After finishing his B.A. in 1949 Mercer went to Canada , where he received his PhD in geography from McGill University in 1954 . He was a Research Scholar from 1954 to 1956 at the Australian National University in Canberra , where he studied land use and population in western Samoa . He returned to Canada and worked in the Canadian Hydro-graphic Office in Ottawa as a geographer in 1957 and 1958 . During 1959 -- 60 , 1961 -- 62 , 1964 , and 1966 , the American Geographical Society employed him at its World Data Center A for Glaciology in New York . The turning point in his career as a glaciologist was in 1960 , when he became a Research Associate at The Ohio State University , in the Institute of Polar Studies ( renamed the Byrd Polar Research Center ) . He remained at The Ohio State University until his death , becoming its first Senior Research Scientist .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"John_H._Mercer\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 135016\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Stefan Ice Piedmont Content: Stefan Ice Piedmont is a small ice piedmont at the northwest extremity of Pernik Peninsula , Loubet Coast in Graham Land , overlying the coast between Cape Rey and Holdfast Point . Mapped from air photos taken by Falkland Islands and Dependencies Aerial Survey Expedition ( FIDASE ) ( 1956 -- 57 ) . Named by United Kingdom Antarctic Place-Names Committee ( UK-APC ) for Josef Stefan ( 1835 -- 1893 ) , Austrian physicist who in 1889 pioneered the theory of heat flow in a freezing ice layer ( see Stefan problem ) and first used it to calculate rates of sea ice growth in the Arctic .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Stefan_Ice_Piedmont\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 134622\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Antarctica cooling controversy Content: An apparent contradiction in the observed cooling behavior of Antarctica between 1966 and 2000 became part of the public debate in the global warming controversy , particularly between advocacy groups of both sides in the public arena including politicians , as well as the popular media . In his novel State of Fear , Michael Crichton asserted that the Antarctic data contradict global warming . The few scientists who have commented on the supposed controversy state that there is no contradiction , while the author of the paper whose work inspired Crichton 's remarks has said that Crichton `` misused '' his results . There is no similar controversy within the scientific community , as the small observed changes in Antarctica are consistent with the small changes predicted by climate models , and because the overall trend since comprehensive observations began is now known to be one of warming . At the South Pole , where some of the strongest cooling trends were observed between the 1950s and 1990s , the mean trend is flat from 1957 through 2013 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Antarctica_cooling_controversy\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 134410\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Arctic sea ice ecology and history Content: The Arctic sea ice covers less area in the summer than in the winter . The multi-year ( i.e. perennial ) sea ice covers nearly all of the central deep basins . The Arctic sea ice and its related biota are unique , and the year-round persistence of the ice has allowed the development of ice endemic species , meaning species not found anywhere else . There are differing scientific opinions about how long perennial sea ice has existed in the Arctic . Estimates range from 120,000 , 700,000 or 4 million years ago .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Arctic_sea_ice_ecology_and_history\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 134184\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Last Glacial Maximum Content: The Last Glacial Maximum ( LGM ) was the last period in the Earth 's climate history during the last glacial period when ice sheets were at their greatest extension . Growth of the ice sheets reached their maximum positions in about 24,500 BCE . Deglaciation commenced in the Northern Hemisphere between approximately 18,000 to 17,000 BCE and in Antarctica approximately 12,500 BCE , which is consistent with evidence that it was the primary source for an abrupt rise in the sea level in about 12,500 BCE . Vast ice sheets covered much of North America , northern Europe , and Asia . The ice sheets profoundly affected Earth 's climate by causing drought , desertification , and a dramatic drop in sea levels . It was followed by the Late Glacial .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Last_Glacial_Maximum\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 133555\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ice cap climate Content: An ice cap climate is a polar climate where the temperature never exceeds 0 C . The climate covers areas in or near the polar regions , such as Antarctica and Greenland , as well as the highest mountaintops . Such areas are covered by a permanent layer of ice and have no vegetation , but they may have animal life , that usually feeds from the oceans . Ice cap climates are inhospitable to human life . Antarctica , the coldest continent on Earth , sustains no permanent human residents , but has some civil inhabitants in proximity to research stations in coastal settlements that are maritime polar and there are some communities that are situated in a transitional zone between the two climates , but barely qualify as a tundra . Some places like Antarctica had a different climate before having an ice cap climate\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Ice_cap_climate\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 133448\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Brusilov Expedition Content: The Brusilov Expedition ( Экспедиция Брусилова , Ekspeditsiya Brusilova ) was a Russian maritime expedition to the Arctic led by Captain Georgy Brusilov , which set out in 1912 to explore and map a route from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific via a northeast passage known as the Northern Sea Route . The expedition was ill-planned and ill-executed by Brusilov , and disappeared without a trace . Earlier searches were unsuccessful , and its fate was not known until 2010 . The expedition set out from Alexandrovsk on 28 August 1912 in the gunvessel Svyataya Anna , so late in the summer that in October the ship became locked in the polar ice of the Kara Sea off the Yamal Peninsula . Supplies were abundant , and officers and crew prepared themselves for wintering over , hoping to be freed in the following year 's thaw . However , during 1913 the sea remained completely frozen . By early 1914 the Svyataya Anna had drifted far north in lazy zigzags with the Arctic ice . In the summer that year she reached 83 ° of latitude , NW of Franz Josef Land , and had no chance to be freed in 1914 either . To make matters worse , captain and crew had succumbed to scurvy . Navigator and second-in-command Valerian Albanov , believing that their position was hopeless , requested permission from Captain Brusilov to be relieved from his duties as second-in-command in order to leave the ship and attempt to return to civilization on foot . Albanov hoped to reach Eva Island in Hvidtenland , the northeasternmost island of Franz Josef Land . He used Fridtjof Nansen 's inaccurate map , full of dotted lines where the archipelago was still unexplored . After a gruesome ordeal , Albanov and Alexander Konrad , one of the crewmen of the Svyataya Anna , finally made it back to Russia . They were the only two survivors . One of the members of the expedition was the second Russian woman to go to the Arctic , Yerminia Zhdanko , a 22-year-old nurse and daughter of a general who was a hero in the Russo-Japanese War . The Svyataya Anna was never seen again . She may have sunk , crushed by the polar ice . It was thought she may have been carried by the polar ice drift until she broke free on the other side of the Arctic ( like the Fram ) . In 1914-15 Otto Sverdrup led a search-and-rescue expedition aboard ship Eklips in the Kara Sea on behalf of the Russian Imperial Navy . He aimed to find two missing arctic expeditions , those of Captain Brusilov on the Svyataya Anna and Vladimir Rusanov on the Gerkules , but found no trace of either expedition . Valerian Albanov made repeated requests to Arctic explorer and Admiral Alexander Kolchak to launch a search expedition for the Svyataya Anna . In December 1919 Albanov traveled to Omsk to confer with Kolchak , but the political turmoil in Russia at the time made a relief mission impossible , and the fate of the expedition was unknown until 2010 . Explorers announced in 2010 that they had found the bones of a crew-member of Brusilov 's expedition . Later in 2010 , a crew-member 's logbook and various other artifacts were found , also on Franz Josef Land .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Brusilov_Expedition\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 133115\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bob Reiss Content: Bob Reiss ( born 1951 in New York City ) is a best selling American author of nonfiction and fiction books . Reiss has written more than 20 books , including Purgatory Road , a murder mystery set in Antarctica , The Road to Extrema , a study of the destruction of Brazilian rain forests , and The Coming Storm , which focuses on global warming and catastrophic weather . Many of his books and articles are based on his travels to Alaska , Hong Kong , Somalia , South Africa , Antarctica , and other locations around the world . White Plague , a novel set on a US icebreaker in the Arctic Ocean , was published in January 2015 , under the name of James Abel . Protocol Zero , second book in the series , will be published in August , 2015 . Under another pseudonym , Ethan Black , Bob Reiss has penned a series featuring Conrad Voort , a New York City police detective . The five books published in this series include : The Broken Hearts Club - ( 1999 ) Irresistible - ( 2000 ) All the Dead Were Strangers - ( 2001 ) Dead For Life - ( 2003 ) At Hell 's Gate - ( 2004 ) In 2012 , Reiss published The Eskimo and The Oil Man , a non-fiction book about the opening Arctic , and the fight over offshore drilling there , as seen through the eyes of a Shell oil executive , and an Inupiat Eskimo leader in Alaska . William Reilly , co-chair of the former Deepwater Horizon Commission , and Chairman Emeritus of the World Wildlife Fund , said of the book , `` Reiss has taken a highly charged and divisive subject and gotten inside the lives and values of the principles with empathy and insight . The Eskimo and The Oil Man is a most illuminating contribution to issues that will become more important as new discoveries follow drilling offshore . '' Reiss 's novel Black Monday was optioned by Paramount Pictures . According to Variety this novel focused on `` a mysterious condition that is eroding the quality of the crude with catastrophic results , and a federal investigator tries to solve the problem before the world is brought to a screeching halt . '' Aside from this project , Reiss has previously sold and optioned books for films , a screenplay to Warner Bros. , and a film treatment to NBC . Reiss has also written for Smithsonian Magazine , Rolling Stone , GQ , Glamour , Parade , The Washington Post Magazine , Mirabella , and other national publications .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Bob_Reiss\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 132307\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: SY Aurora's drift Content: The drift of the Antarctic exploration vessel SY Aurora was an ordeal which lasted 312 days , during the Ross Sea chapter of Sir Ernest Shackleton 's Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition , 1914 -- 17 . It began when the ship broke loose from its anchorage in McMurdo Sound in May 1915 , during a gale . Caught in heavy pack ice and unable to manoeuvre , Aurora , with eighteen men aboard , was carried into the open waters of the Ross Sea and Southern Ocean , leaving ten men stranded ashore with meagre provisions . Aurora , a 40-year-old former Arctic whaler registered as a steam yacht , had brought the Ross Sea party to Cape Evans in McMurdo Sound in January 1915 , to establish its base there in support of Shackleton 's proposed transcontinental crossing . When Aurora 's captain Aeneas Mackintosh took charge of activities ashore , first officer Joseph Stenhouse assumed command of the ship . Stenhouse 's inexperience may have contributed to the choice of an inappropriate winter 's berth , although his options were restricted by the instructions of his superiors . After the ship was blown away it suffered severe damage in the ice , including the destruction of its rudder and the loss of its anchors ; on several occasions its situation was such that Stenhouse considered abandonment . Efforts to make wireless contact with Cape Evans and , later , with stations in New Zealand and Australia , were unavailing ; the drift extended through the southern winter and spring to reach a position north of the Antarctic Circle . In February 1916 the ice finally broke up , and a month later the ship was free . It was subsequently able to reach New Zealand for repairs and resupply , before returning to Antarctica to rescue the surviving members of the shore party . Despite his role in saving the ship , after Aurora 's arrival in Port Chalmers Stenhouse was removed from command by the organisers of the Ross Sea party relief expedition , so the ship returned to McMurdo Sound under a new commander and with a substantially different crew . Stenhouse was later appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire ( OBE ) for his service aboard Aurora .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"SY_Aurora's_drift\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 131266\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tim Naish Content: Tim Naish is a New Zealand glaciologist . He is the Director of the Antarctic Research Centre , Victoria University of Wellington , New Zealand . He has written about the collapse of Antarctica 's Larsen B ice shelf . In 2002 , between January 31 and March 7 the Larsen B ice shelf collapsed and broke up . Tim Naish warned that the ice shelf of Weddell Sea is imperiled , and if the temperature rises by 3 ° C , the ice shelves of Antarctica will become thinner . `` These are dramatic changes '' -- said Tim Naish . In 2009 , Professor Naish was awarded a New Zealand Antarctic Medal ( NZAM ) for services to Antarctic climate science .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Tim_Naish\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 131254\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Heirtzler Ice Piedmont Content: Heirtzler Ice Piedmont is a relatively low , triangular-shaped , ice-covered area of about 7 nmi extent , located at the west side of Violante Inlet and north of Maury Glacier , on the Black Coast of Palmer Land , Antarctica . The feature was first seen and photographed from the air by the United States Antarctic Service on December 30 , 1940 , and was mapped by the United States Geological Survey from U.S. Navy aerial photographs taken 1966 -- 69 . In association with the names of continental drift scientists grouped in this area , it was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names after James R. Heirtzler , an American physicist . Heirtzler was a Research Scientist at Columbia University 's Lamont -- Doherty Geological Observatory , 1960 -- 64 , and Senior Research Scientist , 1964 -- 67 ; he was Senior Scientist at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute , 1969 -- 86 ; Geophysicist and Head of the Geophysics Branch at the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center from 1986 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Heirtzler_Ice_Piedmont\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 131112\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Dvořák Ice Rise Content: Dvořák Ice Rise is an ice rise 1.5 nmi in extent , rising above the ice of Mendelssohn Inlet in the southwest part of Alexander Island , Antarctica . It was first mapped , from air photos taken by the Ronne Antarctic Research Expedition , 1947 -- 48 , by D. Searle of the Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey in 1960 , and was named by the UK Antarctic Place-Names Committee after Antonín Dvořák , the Czech composer . ( 1841-1904 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Dvořák_Ice_Rise\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 131063\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ice shelf Content: An ice shelf is a thick floating platform of ice that forms where a glacier or ice sheet flows down to a coastline and onto the ocean surface . Ice shelves are only found in Antarctica , Greenland , Canada and the Russian Arctic . The boundary between the floating ice shelf and the grounded ( resting on bedrock ) ice that feeds it is called the grounding line . The thickness of ice shelves ranges from about 100 to 1000 meters . In contrast , sea ice is formed on water , is much thinner ( typically less than 3m ) , and forms throughout the Arctic Ocean . It also is found in the Southern Ocean around the continent of Antarctica . Ice shelves are principally driven by gravity-driven pressure from the grounded ice . That flow continually moves ice from the grounding line to the seaward front of the shelf . The primary mechanism of mass loss from ice shelves was thought to have been iceberg calving , in which a chunk of ice breaks off from the seaward front of the shelf . A study by NASA and university researchers - published in the June 14 , 2013 issue of Science - found however that ocean waters melting the undersides of Antarctic ice shelves are responsible for most of the continent 's ice shelf mass loss . Typically , a shelf front will extend forward for years or decades between major calving events . Snow accumulation on the upper surface and melting from the lower surface are also important to the mass balance of an ice shelf . Ice may also accrete onto the underside of the shelf . The density contrast between glacial ice , which is denser than normal ice , and liquid water means that only about 1/9 of the floating ice is above the ocean surface . The world 's largest ice shelves are the Ross Ice Shelf and the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in Antarctica . The term captured ice shelf has been used for the ice over a subglacial lake , such as Lake Vostok .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Ice_shelf\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 130750\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Arctic dipole anomaly Content: The Arctic dipole anomaly is a pressure pattern characterized by high pressure on the arctic regions of North America , and a low pressure on the Eurasia region . This pattern sometimes replaces the Arctic oscillation and the North Atlantic Oscillation . It was observed for the first time in the first decade of 2000s and is perhaps linked to recent climate change . The Arctic dipole lets more southern winds into the Arctic ocean resulting in more ice melting . The summer 2007 event played an important role in the record low sea ice extent which was recorded in September . The Arctic dipole has also been linked to changes in arctic circulation patterns that cause drier winters in Northern Europe , but much wetter winters in Southern Europe and colder winters in East Asia , Europe and the eastern half of North America .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Arctic_dipole_anomaly\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 130534\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mikhail Somov Content: Mikhail Mikhailovich Somov ( 7 April 1908 , in Moscow -- 30 December 1973 , in Leningrad ) was a Soviet oceanologist , polar explorer , Doctor of Geographical Sciences ( 1954 ) . Mikhail Somov graduated from the Moscow Hydrometeorological Institute in 1937 . In 1939 , he was appointed senior researcher at the Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute . In 1950-1951 , Mikhail Somov headed a drift-ice station North Pole-2 . In 1955-1957 , he became the commander of the first Soviet Antarctic Expedition . Mikhail Somov was also the first Soviet delegate to the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research . The Somov Sea north of Victoria Land and a glacier in Queen Maud Land ( both East Antarctica ) bear Mikhail Somov 's name , as well as a scientific icebreaker . A minor planet 3334 Somov discovered by Czech astronomer Antonín Mrkos in 1981 is named after him . Somov was a Hero of the Soviet Union .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Mikhail_Somov\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 130523\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Students on Ice Content: Students on Ice ( also known as SOI ) is a Canadian charitable organisation that leads educational expeditions to the Arctic and Antarctic for international high school and university students . Its mandate is to provide youth , educators and scientists from around the world with learning and teaching opportunities in the polar regions , with the goal of fostering new understanding of and respect for the global environment .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Students_on_Ice\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 129711\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Iceberg D-16 Content: Iceberg D-16 is a city-sized iceberg near Antarctica , discovered on March 26 , 2006 by the National Ice Center using satellite imagery from the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program . It broke free of the Fimbul Ice Shelf , located along the northwestern section of Queen Maud Land in the eastern Weddell Sea . It is approximately 8 miles wide and 15 miles long ( 120 square miles ) , roughly the size of a city .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Iceberg_D-16\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 129449\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1985 Polar Sea controversy Content: The 1985 Polar Sea controversy was a diplomatic event triggered by plans for the navigation of through the Northwest passage from Greenland to Alaska without formal authorization from the Canadian government . It was the United States ' position that the Northwest Passage was an international strait open to shipping and it sought only to notify Canada rather than ask for permission . Publication of the plans enraged the Canadian public opinion as it was regarded as a breach and disregard of sovereignty and prompted the government to take preventive measures in defending Canada 's arctic territories . The U.S. never recognized Canada 's claim over the Northwest passage but nevertheless , the two countries reached an agreement two years later which stipulated that in the future , the U.S. would ask permission before navigating the disputed waters . Canada 's sovereignty over the region 's waters was still a contentious issue as of 2010 and is likely to become of increasing importance as climate change in the Arctic has the potential to render those waters more accessible to commercial ships and the thawing of the sea ice of making oil drilling easier .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"1985_Polar_Sea_controversy\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 129327\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Shackleton Ice Shelf Content: Shackleton Ice Shelf is an extensive ice shelf fronting the coast of East Antarctica for about 384 km ( 95E to 105E ) , projecting seaward about 145 km in the western portion and 64 km in the east . It occupies an area of 33,820 km ² . It is part of Mawson Sea and separates the Queen Mary Coast to the west from the Knox Coast of Wilkes Land to the east . The existence of this ice shelf was first made known by the USEE under Charles Wilkes who mapped a portion of it from the Vincennes in February 1840 . It was explored by the Australian Antarctic Expedition under Douglas Mawson ( 1911 -- 14 ) who named it for Sir Ernest Shackleton . The extent of the ice shelf was mapped in greater detail in 1955 , using aerial photography obtained by US Navy Operation Highjump , 1946-47 . Further mapping by the Soviet Expedition of 1956 showed the portion eastward of Scott Glacier to be a part of this ice shelf .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Shackleton_Ice_Shelf\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 129048\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wiesław Masłowski Content: Wiesław Masłowski is a research professor at the Naval Postgraduate School in Monterey , California since 2009 . He obtained his MS from the University of Gdańsk in 1987 , and his PhD from the University of Alaska , Fairbanks in 1994 with a dissertation entitled `` Numerical modeling study of the circulation of the Greenland Sea '' . He became well known in 2007 for stating that the Arctic Ocean might be nearly ice free in the summer as early as 2013 , based on projection of the declining ice volume trend . While later revised to 2016 + / - 3 years based on computer modeling , this prediction became controversial when the Arctic was not sea-ice free in 2013 , having increased from the record low set in 2012 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Wiesław_Masłowski\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 128838\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Lowest temperature recorded on Earth Content: The lowest natural temperature ever directly recorded at ground level on Earth is − 89.2 C , which was at the Soviet Vostok Station in Antarctica by ground measurements . A 2009 study estimated that under exceptional climate conditions similar to those recorded at Vostin 1983 , temperatures higher on the plateau around Dome Argus could potentially drop lower than − 95 C. On August 10 , 2010 , satellite observations measured a surface temperature of − 93.2 C at 81.8 ° S 59.3 ° E , along a ridge between Dome Argus and Dome Fuji , at 3,900 m elevation . The result was reported at the 46th annual meeting of the American Geophysical Union in San Francisco , in December 2013 ; it is a provisional figure , and may be subject to revision . The value may not be listed as the record coldest temperature as it was measured by remote sensing satellites and not by ground-based thermometers , unlike the 1983 record . The temperature announced reflects that of the ice surface , while the Vostok readings measured the air above the ice , and so the two are not directly comparable . However , it is most likely that the real temperature on the site was lower than that recorded at Vostok .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Lowest_temperature_recorded_on_Earth\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 128273\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Terence Edward Armstrong Content: Terence Edward Armstrong MA PhD ( 7 April 1920 -- 21 February 1996 ) , was a British polar geographer , sea ice specialist , writer , and expert on the Russian Arctic .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Terence_Edward_Armstrong\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 128098\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Water sky Content: Water sky is a phenomenon that is closely related to ice blink . It forms in regions with large areas of ice and low-lying clouds and so is limited mostly to the extreme northern and southern sections of earth , in Antarctica and in the Arctic . When light hits the blue oceans or seas , some of it bounces back and enables the observer to physically see the water . However , some of the light also is reflected back up on to the bottoms of low-lying clouds and causes a dark spot to appear underneath some clouds . These clouds may be visible when the seas are not and can show alert and knowledgeable travelers the general direction of water . The dark clouds over open water have long been used by polar explorers and scientists to navigate in sea ice . For example , Arctic explorer Fridtjof Nansen and his assistant Hjalmar Johansen used the phenomenon to find lanes of water in their failed expedition to the North Pole as did Bernacchi and Sir Douglas Mawson in the Antarctica .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Water_sky\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 127989\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Norwegian-U.S. Scientific Traverse of East Antarctica Content: The Norwegian-U.S. Scientific Traverse of East Antarctica is a research program consisting of two overland traverses of East Antarctica : the first from the Norwegian Troll Station to the South Pole in the 2007/2008 season ; and a return traverse via a different route in 2008/2009 . The main research focus of the program is climate change , the stated goals being to : Investigate climate variability in Dronning Maud Land of East Antarctica on time scales of years to a thousand years . Establish spatial and temporal variability in snow accumulation over this area of Antarctica to understand its impact on sea level . Investigate the impact of atmospheric and oceanic variability on the chemical composition of firn and ice in the region . Revisit areas and sites first explored by traverses in the 1960s , for detection of possible changes and to establish benchmark data sets for future research efforts . The program is part of Trans-Antarctic Scientific Traverse Expeditions -- Ice Divide of East Antarctica ( TASTE-IDEA ) , and the International Partners in Ice Coring Sciences ( IPICS ) , both of which have ISCU-WMO endorsement for the International Polar Year 2007-2009 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Norwegian-U.S._Scientific_Traverse_of_East_Antarctica\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 127810\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Arctic ice pack Content: The Arctic ice pack is the ice cover of the Arctic Ocean and its vicinity . The Arctic ice pack undergoes a regular seasonal cycle in which ice melts in spring and summer , reaches a minimum around mid-September , then increases during fall and winter . Summer ice cover in the Arctic is about 50 % of winter cover . Some of the ice survives from one year to the next . Currently 28 % of Arctic basin sea ice is multi-year ice , thicker than seasonal ice : up to 3 - thick over large areas , with ridges up to 20 m thick . As well as the regular seasonal cycle there has been an underlying trend of declining sea ice in the Arctic in recent decades .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Arctic_ice_pack\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 127700\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Arctic Climate Impact Assessment Content: The Arctic Climate Impact Assessment ( ACIA ) is a study describing the ongoing climate change in the Arctic and its consequences : rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , unprecedented melting of the Greenland ice sheet , and many impacts on ecosystems , animals , and people . The ACIA is the first comprehensively researched , fully referenced , and independently reviewed evaluation of Arctic climate change and its impacts for the region and for the world . The project was guided by the intergovernmental Arctic Council and the non-governmental International Arctic Science Committee . Three hundred scientists participated in the study over a span of three years . The 140-page synthesis report Impacts of a Warming Arctic was released in November 2004 , and the scientific report later in 2005 . The ACIA Secretariat is located at the International Arctic Research Center at the University of Alaska Fairbanks .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Arctic_Climate_Impact_Assessment\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 127435\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Krause Point Content: Krause Point is a low , ice-covered point in Antarctica , fronting on Davis Sea midway between Cape Torson and Cape Filchner . It was mapped from air photos taken by U.S. Navy Operation Highjump , 1946 -- 47 , and was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names for Glenn R. Krause , a photogrammetrist with the Navy Hydrographic Office , who served as a surveyor with the U.S. Navy Operation Windmill parties which established astronomical control stations along Wilhelm II , Knox and Budd coasts in 1947 -- 48 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Krause_Point\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 127130\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ice age Content: An ice age is a period of long-term reduction in the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere , resulting in the presence or expansion of continental and polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers . Within a long-term ice age , individual pulses of cold climate are termed `` glacial periods '' ( or alternatively `` glacials '' or `` glaciations '' or colloquially as `` ice age '' ) , and intermittent warm periods are called `` interglacials '' . In the terminology of glaciology , ice age implies the presence of extensive ice sheets in both northern and southern hemispheres . By this definition , we are in an interglacial period -- the Holocene -- of the ice age . The ice age began 2.6 million years ago at the start of the Pleistocene epoch , because the Greenland , Arctic , and Antarctic ice sheets still exist .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Ice_age\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 127107\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea smoke Content: Sea smoke , frost smoke , or steam fog , is fog which is formed when very cold air moves over warmer water . Arctic sea smoke is sea smoke forming over small patches of open water in sea ice . It forms when a light wind of very cold air mixes with a shallow layer of saturated warm air immediately above the warmer water . The warmer air is cooled beyond the dew point and can no longer hold as much water vapor , so the excess condenses out . The effect is similar to the `` steam '' produced over a hot bath or a hot drink , or even an exercising person . Sea smoke has a turbulent appearance and may form spiralling columns . It is usually not very high and lookouts on ships can usually see over it ( but small boats may have very poor visibility ) because the fog is confined to the layer of warm air above the sea . However , sea smoke columns 20 -- 30 metres high have been observed . Because this type of fog requires very low air temperatures , it is uncommon in temperate climates , but is common in the Arctic and Antarctic .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea_smoke\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 126869\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Heard Island glaciers Content: The Heard Island glaciers covered 79 percent of Heard Island itself , in 1947 , covering 288 km2 ; by 1988 , this had decreased by 11 percent to 257 km2 . The glaciers fall under the Antarctic Environmental Gradient , which spans 30 degrees of latitude and includes a range of macro-climatic zones from cool temperate islands to the frigid and arid Antarctic continent . Glaciers extend from 2745 m to sea level , with ice up to 150 m deep.The geologic movement of the glaciers can appear fast-flowing due to the steep slope and high precipitation , and are particularly sensitive to climatic fluctuations . Measurements between 1947 and 1980 show glacial retreat , particularly on the eastern flanks , is correlated with changes in weather patterns . A 29 % reduction in area of the Brown Glacier from 1947-2003 was observed . The volcano Big Ben , from which all the glaciers drain , has shown no sign of changing geothermal output to cause the melting ; a 1 degree Celsius warming has occurred over the same time period . Glaciologists continue to study the Brown Glacier , detailing surveys of the glacier 's snout and surface , which determine if glacial retreat is rapid or punctuated . Measurements on the mass balance of the glacier , as well as more detailed ice thickness measurements using a portable radar echo sounder , were undertaken . Monitoring of climatic conditions continues , with emphasis on the impact of Foehn winds on glacier mass balance . An expedition by scientists from the Australian Antarctic Division recently visited the volcanic island in 2009 , observing glaciers that had retreated 50 metres in three years . Repairs were made to an automatic weather station established in November 2000 . Glaciologist Dr. Ian Allison cites that the latest aerial surveys that show continuous rapid melt and that satellite imagery shows the island double in size due to volcanic activity .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Heard_Island_glaciers\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 126633\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Arctic Circle (organization) Content: The Arctic Circle is a nonprofit organization introduced by President Ólafur Ragnar Grímsson of Iceland on April 15 , 2013 , at the National Press Club in Washington . The organization 's mission is to facilitate dialogue among political and business leaders , environmental experts , scientists , indigenous representatives , and other international stakeholders to address issues facing the Arctic as a result of climate change and melting sea ice . The organization is led by Ólafur , who serves as chairman of the honorary board , and by Alaska Dispatch publisher and Arctic Imperative Summit founder Alice Rogoff , who chairs the advisory board .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Arctic_Circle_(organization)\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 126612\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ellesmere Ice Shelf Content: The former Ellesmere Ice Shelf was the largest ice shelf in the Arctic , encompassing about 3500 sqmi of the north coast of Ellesmere Island , Nunavut , Canada . The ice shelf was first documented by the British Arctic Expedition of 1875-76 , in which Lieutenant Pelham Aldrich 's party went from Cape Sheridan ( 82.47 ° N , 61.50 ° W ) west to Cape Alert ( 82.27 ° N , 85.55 ° W ) . The continuous mass of the Ellesmere Ice Shelf had been in place for at least 3,000 years . During the twentieth century the Ellesmere Ice Shelf broke up into six separate shelves , the largest being the Ward Hunt Ice Shelf . During the 1980s reassuring official science reported that the remnants were stable . In April 2000 , satellite images revealed that a large crack in the Ward Hunt shelf had begun to form , and in 2003 it was announced that the ice sheet had split completely in two in 2002 , releasing a huge pool of fresh water from the largest epishelf lake in the Northern Hemisphere , located in Disraeli Fjord . In April 2008 , it was discovered that the shelf was fractured into dozens of deep , multi-faceted cracks . On August 13 , 2005 , The Ayles Ice Shelf , which was located at , approximately 800 km south of the North Pole , broke away from the coast forming the giant Ayles Ice Island 37 m thick and measuring around 14 km by 5 km in size with an area of approximately 66 km ² ( 25.5 sq mi ) or 2.6 km3 in volume . The Milne Ice Shelf is the second large segment of the former Ellesmere Ice Shelf .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Ellesmere_Ice_Shelf\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 126348\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \\\"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\\\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \\\"deep emissions reductions\\\" and \\\"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\\\" Furthermore, the report finds that \\\"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\\\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \\\"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\\\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 125129\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mark Serreze Content: Mark Clifford Serreze ( born 1960 ) is an American geographer and the director of the National Snow and Ice Data Center ( NSIDC ) , a project of the Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences at the University of Colorado Boulder . He officially became the NSIDC 's director in August 2009 . Serreze is primarily known for his expertise in the Arctic sea ice decline that has occurred over the last few decades due to global warming , a topic about which he has expressed serious concern .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Mark_Serreze\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 124765\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming in Antarctica Content: The effects of global warming in Antarctica may include rising temperatures and increasing snow melt .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_in_Antarctica\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 124557\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Yevgeny Tolstikov Content: Yevgeny Ivanovich Tolstikov ( February 9 , 1913 -- December 3 , 1987 ) was a Soviet polar explorer , awarded by the Hero of the Soviet Union title . He led the Third Soviet Antarctic Expedition and one of the first manned drifting ice stations in the Arctic . In 1979 , he was made deputy chairman of the State Committee for Hydrometeorolgy and Environmental Control . A minor planet 3357 Tolstikov discovered by Czech astronomer Antonín Mrkos in 1984 is named after him .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Yevgeny_Tolstikov\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 124488\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cape Roberts Project Content: Between 1997 and 1999 the international Cape Roberts Project ( CRP ) has recovered up to 1000 m long drill cores in the Ross Sea , Antarctica to reconstruct the glaciation history of Antarctica . Scientists from various institutes in seven countries have participated : Australia , Germany , United Kingdom , The Netherlands , Italy , New Zealand , and USA . After a seismic pre-site survey the area off Cape Roberts in the Ross Sea at the margin of the Transantarctic Mountains ( 77 ° S 163 ° 43 ` E ) was found to be suitable . Drilling was performed using a conventional core wireline system with a drill derrick , protected by a cover against the rough climate . Sea ice was 2 m thick with a water depth of 150 -- below . Four overlapping drill cores at three sites reflect in excellent quality the geological history and glaciation of the Antarctic during the last 34 million years . As a logistic and scientific basis the American McMurdo Station and Scott Base of New Zealand were used . Supply of the drill site was performed with motor sledges and snow mobiles , exchange of personal with helicopters . The costs for the logistics were around four Million US dollar .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Cape_Roberts_Project\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 124415\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ice2sea Content: Ice2sea is a program of scientific research funded by the European Union 's Framework 7 Programme to study the effects of climate change on glaciation and the melting of ice caps and glaciers on sea level . The ice2sea project , a collaborative of 24 research institutions , which is headed by Prof David Vaughan , aims to reduce the uncertainty in sea-level projections which are of great economic and social importance to the European Union , especially as large areas of coastal area in Europe are below or less than a metre above sea level . The 2007 fourth Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) report highlighted ice sheets * as the most significant remaining uncertainty in projections of sea-level rise . Understanding about the crucial ice-sheet effects was `` too limited to assess their likelihood or provide a best estimate of an upper bound for sea-level rise '' . Improved scientific results from ice2sea will feed directly into the fifth IPCC report ( due in 2013 ) to generate more accurate sea-level rise projections . The initiative recently funded research by scientists from the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in Germany , which was published in Nature in 2012 , which predicts the disappearance of the 450000 km2 vast Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in east Antarctica by the end of the century which could add up to 4.4 mm of rise of sea level each year due to its melting alone .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Ice2sea\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 124261\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Applied Physics Laboratory Ice Station Content: The Applied Physics Laboratory Ice Station 2007 ( APLIS07 ) is an U.S.A. and Japanese laboratory dedicated to the study of global climate change , located about 300km south of the Arctic Circle , Alaska on the West Ridge of the University of Alaska Fairbanks campus .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Applied_Physics_Laboratory_Ice_Station\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 124164\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Copenhagen_Diagnosis\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 124042\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cape Polar Sea Content: Cape Polar Sea is a rock cape that forms the west extremity of Coulman Island in northwest Ross Sea . Named in 1998 by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) after USCGC Polar Sea , an icebreaker in support of United States Antarctic Program ( USAP ) activities in the Ross , Amundsen and Bellingshausen Seas , and other Antarctic coastal areas during 11 seasons , 1980-1997 . The cape lies in proximity to Cape Polar Star and Glacier Strait , two features named earlier for American icebreakers . Category : Headlands of Victoria Land Category : Borchgrevink Coast\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Cape_Polar_Sea\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 124041\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: International Arctic Buoy Program Content: The International Arctic Buoy Program is headquartered at the Polar Science Center , Applied Physics Laboratory , University of Washington , in Seattle , Washington , United States . The program 's objectives include to provide meteorological and oceanographic data in order to support operations and research for UNESCO 's World Climate Research Programme and the World Weather Watch Programme of the United Nations ' World Meteorological Organization . IABP participating countries include Canada , China , France , Germany , Japan , Norway , Russia , and the United States . Together , they share the costs of the program . The IABP has deployed more than 700 buoys since it began operations in 1991 , succeeding the Arctic Ocean Buoy Program ( operational since 1979-01-19 ) . Commonly , 25 to 40 buoys operate at any given time and provide real-time position , pressure , temperature , and interpolated ice velocity . In support of the International Polar Year , the IABP will deploy over 120 buoys , at over 80 different locations , during the period of April-August 2008 . The organization 's annual meeting provides discussion on instrumentation , forecasting , observations , and outlook .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"International_Arctic_Buoy_Program\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 124006\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Arctic Content: The Arctic ( -LSB- ˈɑrktɪk -RSB- or -LSB- ˈɑrtɪk -RSB- ) is a polar region located at the northernmost part of Earth . The Arctic consists of the Arctic Ocean , adjacent seas , and parts of Alaska ( United States ) , Canada , Finland , Greenland ( Denmark ) , Iceland , Norway , Russia and Sweden . Land within the Arctic region has seasonally varying snow and ice cover , with predominantly treeless permafrost-containing tundra . Arctic seas contain seasonal sea ice in many places . The Arctic region is a unique area among Earth 's ecosystems . For example , the cultures in the region and the Arctic indigenous peoples have adapted to its cold and extreme conditions . In recent years , Arctic sea ice decline has been caused by global warming . Life in the Arctic includes organisms living in the ice , zooplankton and phytoplankton , fish and marine mammals , birds , land animals , plants and human societies . Arctic land is bordered by the subarctic .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Arctic\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 123898\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Oden (1988 icebreaker) Content: Oden is a large Swedish icebreaker , built in 1988 for the Swedish Maritime Administration . It is named after the Norse god Odin . First built to clear a passage through the ice of the Gulf of Bothnia for cargo ships , it was later modified to serve as a research vessel . Equipped with its own helicopter and manned by 15 crew members it has ample capacity to carry laboratory equipment and 80 passengers , functioning independently in harsh Polar ice packs of the Arctic and Antarctic seas . It was the first non-nuclear surface vessel to reach the North Pole ( in 1991 ) , together with the German research icebreaker Polarstern . It has participated in several scientific expeditions in Arctic and Antarctica .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Oden_(1988_icebreaker)\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 123835\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Lazarev Ice Shelf Content: The Lazarev Ice Shelf is that part of the ice shelf fringing the Princess Astrid Coast of Queen Maud Land , Antarctica , that lies between Leningradskiy Island and Verblyud Island . It is part of the western Riiser-Larsen Sea and is about 50 nmi long . The ice shelf was first photographed from the air and mapped by the Third German Antarctic Expedition , 1938 -- 39 . It was explored and mapped by the Soviet Antarctic Expedition in 1959 , and named for Lieutenant ( later Admiral ) Mikhail P. Lazarev , commander of the sloop Mirnyy .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Lazarev_Ice_Shelf\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 123774\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: MacKenzie Bay Content: MacKenzie Bay is a relatively small embayment of the western extremity of the Amery Ice Shelf , Antarctica , about 20 nmi northeast of Foley Promontory . On February 10 , 1931 , the British Australian New Zealand Antarctic Research Expedition ( BANZARE ) sighted a much larger embayment here and made an airplane flight to sketch its limits . They named it `` MacKenzie Sea '' after Captain K.N. MacKenzie , the master of the expedition 's ship Discovery in 1930 -- 31 . Breakout of a large part of Amery Ice Shelf has drastically reduced the size of this feature ; in 1968 the bay was 15 nmi wide . Several Norwegian whaling ships sighted the original embayment nearly simultaneously with BANZARE ; the whale-catcher Seksern ( Captain Brunvoll ) reached this area on January 13 , 1931 , and the Torlyn ( Captain Klarius Mikkelsen ) on February 13 , 1931 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"MacKenzie_Bay\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 123531\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: MV Arctic Sea Content: The MV Arctic Sea is a merchant vessel cargo ship , formerly registered in Malta that was reported as missing between late July and mid August 2009 en route from Finland to Algeria . On July 24 , the Arctic Sea , manned by a Russian crew and carrying a cargo of what was declared to consist solely of timber , was allegedly boarded by hijackers off the coast of Sweden . The incident was not immediately reported , and contact with the ship was apparently lost on , or after , July 30 . The Arctic Sea did not arrive at its scheduled port in Algeria , and on August 14 the ship was located near Cape Verde instead . On August 17 it was seized by the Russian Navy . An investigation into the incident is underway amidst speculation regarding the ship 's actual cargo , and allegations of a cover-up by Russian authorities . The Arctic Sea was towed into harbour in the Maltese capital of Valletta on October 29 , 2009 . The ship 's hijacking and subsequent events remain mysterious as no credible explanation exists of its disappearance and Russia 's conduct during and after capturing the ship . If confirmed to be an act of piracy , the hijacking of Arctic Sea would be the first known of its kind in Northern European waters for centuries . Although by March 2011 all the hijackers had officially been found guilty of piracy , this has not led to -- in the words of BBC correspondent Daniel Sandford -- being `` closer to knowing what actually happened '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"MV_Arctic_Sea\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 123513\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research Content: The National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research ( NCAOR ) is an Indian research and development institution , situated in Vasco , Goa . It is an autonomous Institution of the Department of Ocean Development ( DOD ) , Government of India which is responsible for administering the Indian Antarctic Program and maintains the Indian government 's Antarctic research station , Maitri . NCAOR was established on 25 May 1998 , with Dr. P C Pandey as its founding director . NCAOR is known for its participation in global experiments , hosting of international conferences and in the leadership of international committees concerned with Antarctic science . At present , NCAOR is an agency working under Ministry of Earth Sciences , Government of India since 2006 , by the notification of the President of India . NCAOR complex is a home to a special low-temperature laboratory and is setting up a National Antarctic Data Centre and a Polar Museum . The NCAOR operates in different fields or tasks : storing ice core samples , from Antarctica and the Himalayan Mountains . operating the Himadri Arctic research station in Spitsbergen , Norway . managing the oceanic research vessel ORV Sagar Kanya , the flagship of India 's fleet of oceanographic study vessels . This ship has contributed significantly to India 's study of the Arabian Sea , the Bay of Bengal , and the Indian Ocean . it supported the KBCAOS , University of Allahabad from initial stage of establishment up to the final stage of the center as full-fledged faculty center , in form of a project as per collaborative work with the University . This centre was previously referred to as Antarctic Study Centre . It came in existence with joining of Dr. Prem Chand Pandey as director on 12 May 1997 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"National_Centre_for_Antarctic_and_Ocean_Research\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 123434\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute Content: The Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute , or AARI ( Арктический и антарктический научно-исследовательский институт , abbreviated as ААНИИ ) is the oldest and largest Russian research institute in the field of comprehensive studies of Arctic and Antarctica . It is located in Saint Petersburg . The AARI was founded on 3 March 1920 as the Northern Research and Trade Expedition under the Scientific and Technical Department of the All-Union Council of State Economy . In 1925 , the expedition was reorganized into the Institute of Northern Studies and five years later - into the All-Union Arctic Institute . In 1932 , the institute was integrated into the Chief Directorate of the Northern Sea Route . In 1948 , they established the Arctic Geology Research Institute ( Научно-исследовательский институт геологии Арктики , or НИИГА ) on the basis of the geology department of the All-Union Arctic Institute , which would subordinate to the Ministry of Geology of the USSR . In 1958 , the All-Union Arctic Institute was renamed Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute . In 1963 , the AARI was incorporated into the Chief Administration of the Hydrometeorological Service under the Council of Ministers of the USSR ( now Federal Service for Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring of Russia ) . Throughout its history , the AARI has organized more than a thousand Arctic expeditions , including dozens of high-latitude aerial expeditions , which transported 34 manned drifting ice stations Severniy Polyus ( '' Северный полюс '' , or North Pole ) to Central Arctic . In 1955 , the AARI participated in the organization of Antarctic research . In 1958 , it began to organize and lead all of the Soviet Antarctic expeditions , which would later make many geographic discoveries . In 1968 , the institute engaged in research of the areas of the Atlantic Ocean contiguous to the Arctic and Antarctica . The AARI has numerous departments , such as those of oceanography , glaciology , meteorology , hydrology or Arctic river mouths and water resources , geophysics , polar geography , and others . It also has its own computer center , ice research laboratory , experimental workshops , and a museum ( the Arctic and Antarctic Museum ) . Scientists , such as Alexander Karpinsky , Alexander Fersman , Yuly Shokalsky , Nikolai Knipovich , Lev Berg , Otto Schmidt , Rudolf Samoylovich , Vladimir Vize , Nikolai Zubov , Pyotr Shirshov , Nikolai Urvantsev , and Yakov Gakkel have all made their valuable contributions to the work of the AARI . In 1967 , AARI was awarded the Order of Lenin .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Arctic_and_Antarctic_Research_Institute\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 123339\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea ice thickness Content: Sea ice thickness spatial extent , and open water within ice packs can vary rapidly in response to weather and climate . Sea ice concentration are measured by satellites , with the Special Sensor Microwave Imager / Sounder ( SSMIS ) , and the European Space Agency 's Cryosat-2 satellite to map the thickness and shape of the Earth 's polar ice cover . The sea ice volume is calculated with the Pan-Arctic Ice Ocean Modeling and Assimilation System ( PIOMAS ) , which blends satellite-observed data , such as sea ice concentrations into model calculations to estimate sea ice thickness and volume . Sea ice thickness determines a number of important fluxes such as heat flux between the air and ocean surface -- see below -- as well as salt and fresh water fluxes between the ocean since saline water ejects much of its salt content when frozen -- see sea ice growth processes . It is also important for navigators on icebreakers since there is an upper limit to the thickness of ice any ship can sail through .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea_ice_thickness\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 123177\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Demas Ice Tongue Content: Demas Ice Tongue is a conspicuous ice tongue , about 20 nautical miles ( 40 km ) long , extending west from Abbot Ice Shelf of Peacock Sound into the Amundsen Sea . It was discovered by members of the United States Antarctic Service in flights from the Bear , February 1940 , and named after E.J. Demas ( d. 1979 ) , a member of the Byrd Antarctic Expeditions of 1928 -- 30 and 1933 -- 35 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Demas_Ice_Tongue\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 122873\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Coming Global Superstorm Content: The Coming Global Superstorm ( ISBN 0-671-04190-8 ) is a 1999 book by Art Bell and Whitley Strieber , which warns that global warming might produce sudden and catastrophic climatic effects . First , the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic drift would generate a cordon of warm water around the North Pole , which in turn , holds in a frozen mass of Arctic air . Second , if the North Atlantic drift were to shut down , that barrier would fail , releasing a flood of frozen air into the Northern Hemisphere , causing a sudden and drastic temperature shift . The book discusses a possible cause of the failure of the Gulf Stream : the melting of the polar ice caps could drastically affect the salinity of the North Atlantic drift by dumping a large quantity of freshwater into the world 's oceans . Bell and Strieber explain the possibility that such current destabilizations have occurred before , as well as seemingly impossible engineering feats by the ancients . Among their examples is the island city of Nan Madol . The book claims that its construction , with exacting tolerances and extremely heavy basalt materials , necessitates a high degree of technical competency . Since no such society exists in the modern record or even , in legend , the society must have been destroyed by dramatic means . While other explanations beside a global meteorological event are possible , a correlating evidence set is presented in the woolly mammoth . Strieber and Bell assert that since mammoths have been found preserved with food still in their mouths and undigested in their stomachs , these animals must have been killed quickly , in otherwise normal conditions . They were preserved so well by quick freezing , which is taken as evidence of a rapid onset of a global blizzard or similar event . Interspersed with the analytical parts of the book are a series of interlinked short fictional scenarios , written in italics , describing what might transpire today if a destabilization of the North Atlantic Current were to occur . The fictional accounts of `` current events '' as the meteorological situation deteriorates provided background and inspiration for the 2004 science fiction film The Day After Tomorrow . Indeed , some events from the book are portrayed in the film with little modification .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Coming_Global_Superstorm\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 122760\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Prince Gustav Channel Content: The Prince Gustav Channel was named in 1903 after Crown Prince Gustav of Sweden ( later King Gustav V ) by Otto Nordenskiöld of the Swedish Antarctic Expedition . The channel is bounded on the west by the Antarctic Peninsula and on the east by James Ross Island . It is about 130 km long and ranges from 6 to wide . On 27 February 1995 , the British Antarctic Survey ( BAS ) reported that an ice shelf formerly blocking the channel had disintegrated . This ice shelf had spanned approximately 700 km2 prior to its disintegration . In the area previously covered by the shelf , the channel 's water depth is between 600 to . Between February and March 2000 , scientists collected sediment cores 5 to 6 m in length from the ocean floor . Carbon dating of organic material found in the sediment layers suggested that for a period between 2,000 and 5,000 years ago , much of the channel was seasonally open water . While icebergs were able to navigate the channel , ice rafted debris was deposited within the sediment . It appears that before and after this period , the channel remained closed . The period when the channel was open coincides with a period of local warming supported by data gathered from land-based studies of lake sediments and ancient , abandoned penguin rookeries . With the return of colder conditions about 1900 years ago , the Prince Gustav Ice Shelf reformed until its recent retreat and collapse . Ice shelves are sensitive indicators of regional climatic change , therefore recent warming in the vicinity of the Prince Gustav Channel is exceptional for at least the past 1900 years .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Prince_Gustav_Channel\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 122223\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: East Antarctic Ice Sheet Content: The East Antarctic Ice Sheet ( EAIS ) is one of two large ice sheets in Antarctica , and the largest on the entire planet . The EAIS lies between 45 ° west and 168 ° east longitudinally . The EAIS is considerably larger in area and mass than the West Antarctic Ice Sheet ( WAIS ) . It is separated from the WAIS by the Transantarctic Mountains . The EAIS rests upon a large land mass , contrary to that of the WAIS , which rests mainly on bedrock below sea level . The EAIS is also home to the thickest ice on the frozen white continent , at 15,700 ft ( 4,800 m ) . More well known , however , is that the EAIS is home to the geographic South Pole as well as of the Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"East_Antarctic_Ice_Sheet\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 122152\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Henry Ice Rise Content: Henry Ice Rise is a triangular-shaped ice rise about 70 mi long located between Korff Ice Rise and the southern portion of Berkner Island in the Ronne Ice Shelf , Antarctica . It was first visited by the United States International Geophysical Year geophysical traverse party from Ellsworth Station , 1957 -- 58 , and was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names after Captain Clifford D. Henry of the Military Sealift Command , a veteran American polar sea captain and master of . Henry died aboard his ship , February 16 , 1975 , while returning from his fourteenth voyage to Antarctica in support of the U.S. Antarctic Research Program .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Henry_Ice_Rise\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 122151\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Riiser-Larsen Sea Content: The Riiser-Larsen Sea is a marginal sea in the Southern Ocean . It is bordered by the Lazarev Sea to the west and the Cosmonauts Sea to the east , or between 14 ° E and 30 ° E. Its northern border is defined to be the 65th parallel south . The name , proposed by the Soviet Union , was never officially approved by the International Hydrographic Organization ( IHO ) . The Riiser-Larsen Sea was named in 1962 by the Soviet Antarctic Expedition in honor of Norwegian aviation pioneer and polar explorer Hjalmar Riiser-Larsen ( 1890 -- 1965 ) . The IHO 2002 draft was never approved by the IHO ( or any other organization ) , and the 1953 IHO document ( which does not contain the name ) remains currently in force . Leading geographic authorities and atlases do not use the name , including the 2014 10th edition World Atlas from the United States ' National Geographic Society and the 2014 12th edition of the British Times Atlas of the World . But Soviet and Russian-issued maps do . Depths exceed 3,000 meters in most of the waters here . The area is covered with drifting ice almost year-round . It would stretch over an area of 1,138,000 km ² . There are many icebergs . To the south of this area lies the Princess Astrid Coast and Princess Ragnhild Coast of Queen Maud Land . In the western part is the Lazarev Ice Shelf , and further east are Erskine Iceport and Godel Iceport , and the former Belgian Roi-Baudouin Station .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Riiser-Larsen_Sea\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 122125\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Getz Ice Shelf Content: The Getz Ice Shelf is the largest Antarctic ice shelf along the SE Pacific-Antarctic coastline , over 300 mi long and from 20 to wide , bordering the Hobbs and Bakutis Coasts of Marie Byrd Land between the McDonald Heights and Martin Peninsula . Several large islands are partially or wholly embedded in the ice shelf , pinning the calving front . Summer temperature and salinity measurements from 1994 to 2010 show the shelf is subject to more changeable oceanic forcing than other Antarctic shelves . Beneath cold surface waters , the thermocline was ∼ 200 m shallower in 2007 than in 2000 , indicative of shifting access of deep water to the continental shelf and ice shelf base . The calculated area-average basal melt rates was between 1.1 and 4.1 m of ice per year , making Getz the largest source of meltwater to the Southern Ocean . The ice shelf westward of Siple Island was discovered by the United States Antarctic Service ( USAS ) in December 1940 . The portion eastward of Siple Island was first delineated from air photos taken by U.S. Navy Operation Highjump , 1946 -- 47 . The entire feature was mapped by the United States Geological Survey from U.S. Navy air photos of 1962 -- 65 . It was named by the USAS ( 1939 -- 41 ) for George F. Getz of Chicago , Illinois , who helped furnish the seaplane for the expedition .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Getz_Ice_Shelf\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 121878\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Polaribacter franzmannii Content: Polaribacter franzmannii is a species of gas vacuolate polar marine bacteria . It was first isolated from sea ice and water from the Arctic and the Antarctic . Its type strain is ATCC 700399 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Polaribacter_franzmannii\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 121800\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate of Antarctica Content: The climate of Antarctica is the coldest on Earth . Antarctica 's lowest air temperature record was set on 21 July 1983 , with − 89.2 C at Vostok Station . Satellite measurements have identified even lower ground temperatures , down to − 93.2 C at the cloud free East Antarctic Plateau on 10 August 2010 . It is also extremely dry ( technically a desert ) , averaging 166 mm of precipitation per year . On most parts of the continent the snow rarely melts and is eventually compressed to become the glacier ice that makes up the ice sheet . Weather fronts rarely penetrate far into the continent , because of the katabatic winds . Most of Antarctica has an ice cap climate ( Köppen EF ) with very cold , generally extremely dry weather .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_of_Antarctica\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 121749\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ross Ice Shelf Content: The Ross Ice Shelf is the largest ice shelf of Antarctica ( an area of roughly 487000 sqkm and about 800 km across : about the size of France ) . It is several hundred metres thick . The nearly vertical ice front to the open sea is more than 600 km long , and between 15 and high above the water surface . Ninety percent of the floating ice , however , is below the water surface . Most of Ross Ice Shelf is in the Ross Dependency claimed by New Zealand . It floats in , and covers , a large southern portion of the Ross Sea and the entire Roosevelt Island located in the west of the Ross Sea . The ice shelf is named after Captain Sir James Clark Ross , who discovered it on 28 January 1841 . It was originally called The Barrier , with various adjectives including Great Ice Barrier , as it prevented sailing further south . Ross mapped the ice front eastward to 160 ° W . In 1947 , the US Board on Geographic Names applied the name Ross Shelf Ice to this feature and published it in the original US Antarctic Gazetteer . In January 1953 the name was changed to Ross Ice Shelf ; that name was published in 1956 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Ross_Ice_Shelf\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 121572\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Jim McNeill Content: Jim McNeill is a British polar explorer , presenter and keynote speaker , with over 30 years of experience travelling in the polar regions . He founded the Ice Warrior project in 2001 . He has trained and guided many groups to the Arctic , including BBC film crews . His expeditions , travelling thousands of miles across the Arctic , give him regular opportunities to monitor polar bear populations for the Norwegian Polar Institute , as well as putting together a yearly scientific program for scientists to monitor the effects of climate change . He is an ambassador for Hauser Bears , a charitable organization committed to the conservation of bears worldwide . He is Vice president - Arctic Expeditions for Sea Research Society .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Jim_McNeill\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 121542\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Polaribacter filamentus Content: Polaribacter filamentus is a species of gas vacuolate polar marine bacteria . It was first isolated from sea ice and water from the Arctic and the Antarctic . Its type strain is ATCC 700397 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Polaribacter_filamentus\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 121473\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ekström Ice Shelf Content: The Ekström Ice Shelf is the ice shelf lying between Sorasen Ridge and Halvfarryggen Ridge , on the Princess Martha Coast of Queen Maud Land . It was first mapped by the Norwegian -- British -- Swedish Antarctic Expedition ( NBSAE ) ( 1949 -- 1952 ) , and named for Bertil Ekström , a Swedish mechanical engineer with the NBSAE , who drowned when the weasel ( track-driven vehicle ) he was driving plunged over the edge of Quar Ice Shelf on February 24 , 1951 . The ice shelf occupies an area of 8,700 sqkm . It is 160 m thick at the edge , and rises 15 m above the sea level . Germany 's Neumayer-Station III is to the northeast at Atka Bay .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Ekström_Ice_Shelf\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 121378\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Charlie Paton Content: Charlie Paton ( born 1970 ) , former Royal Marine and personal trainer , is the first Scotsman to walk unsupported to the Geographic North Pole from Canada . After 70 days on the ice , Charlie led by Alan Chambers MBE , raised the Union Jack on top of the world at 23:16 hours on 16 May 2000 . The ten-week expedition left the team ten days overdue , suffering weight loss and without food supplies . Charlie and Alan will attempt another British first commencing February 2007 ; walking unsupported across the frozen Arctic Ocean from Russia to Canada , approximately 2000 kilometres , 100 days on the ice and experiencing temperatures as low as -60 . The project is called Polar Odyssey . Charlie is currently giving people the opportunity to enjoy guided trips to the North and South Poles with his travel company PolarTrex .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Charlie_Paton\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 121208\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Dome A Content: Dome A or Dome Argus is the loftiest ice dome on the Antarctic Plateau , located 1200 km inland . It is thought to be the coldest naturally occurring place on Earth ; scientists believe that temperatures can sometimes even drop below -102 ° C in the winter . It is the highest ice feature in Antarctica , consisting of an ice dome or eminence of 4093 m elevation above sea level . It is located near the center of East Antarctica , approximately midway between the enormous head of Lambert Glacier and the geographic South Pole , within the Australian claim .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Dome_A\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 121136\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Arctic and Antarctic Museum Content: The Russian State Arctic and Antarctic Museum is a museum in St. Petersburg , Russia . It was established in November 1930 as part of the Soviet Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute , but was not opened until six years later . The museum is located in Avraam Melnikov 's Neoclassical church from the 1820s and remains the largest museum dedicated to polar exploration in the world . The current director of the museum is Victor Boyarsky .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Arctic_and_Antarctic_Museum\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 120821\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Japanese Antarctic Expedition Content: __ NOTOC __ The Japanese Antarctic Expedition of 1910 -- 12 was the first exploration of Antarctic territory by an expedition from Japan . Led by Army Lieutenant Nobu Shirase , its ship Kainan Maru left Tokyo in December 1910 , reached the ice on 26 February 1911 and sailed on into the Ross Sea . As it was very late in the Antarctic season , the ship was not able to get beyond Coulman Island , and returned to Sydney , Australia to winter there . During the following season a third attempt was made to reach an Antarctic landfall , with the specific objective of exploring King Edward VII Land . At the Great Ice Barrier , the Kainan Maru encountered Roald Amundsen 's ship Fram , which was waiting in the Bay of Whales for the return of Amundsen 's South Pole party . A `` Dash Patrol '' of seven men from the Kainan Maru then landed on the Barrier and journeyed southward to 80 ° 05 'S , at which point adverse weather forced their return . Meanwhile , the ship landed another party on the coast of King Edward VII Land , where an exploration of the lower slopes of the Alexandra Range was carried out . Kainan Maru returned to Japan ; it reached Yokohama on 20 June 1912 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Japanese_Antarctic_Expedition\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 120689\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Polar High Content: The polar highs are areas of high atmospheric pressure around the north and south poles ; the north polar high being the stronger one because land gains and loses heat more effectively than sea . The cold temperatures in the polar regions cause air to descend to create the high pressure ( a process called subsidence ) , just as the warm temperatures around the equator cause air to rise to create the low pressure intertropical convergence zone . Rising air also occurs along bands of low pressure situated just below the polar highs around the 50th parallels of latitude . These extratropical convergence zones are occupied by the polar fronts where air masses of polar origin meet and clash with those of tropical or subtropical origin . This convergence of rising air completes the vertical cycle around the polar cell in each latitudinal hemisphere . Closely related to this concept is the polar vortex . Surface temperatures under the polar highs are the coldest on Earth , with no month having an average temperature above freezing . Regions under the polar high also experience very low levels of precipitation , which leads them to be known as `` polar deserts '' . Air flows outwards from the poles to create the polar easterlies in the arctic and antarctic areas .\",\n \"qid\": \"2712\",\n \"docid\": \"Polar_High\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 120553\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":1342,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"The result did suggest the sea level was increasing in the western Pacific, but this was offset by a drop in the level near the Alaskan coast."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: North Pacific Oscillation Content: The North Pacific Oscillation ( NPO ) is a teleconnection pattern first described by Walker and Bliss and characterized by a north-south seesaw in sea level pressure over the North Pacific . Rogers , using surface atmospheric temperature from St. Paul , Alaska and Edmonton , identified two phases of the NPO , an Aleutian below ( AB ) phase that correspond to a deepened and eastward shifted Aleutian low and an Aleutian above ( AA ) phase that is the opposite . During the positive ( AB ) phase sea level pressure is enhanced over a large region in the subtropics that extend poleward to 40N ° and reduced at higher latitudes , westerlies are enhanced over the central Pacific and winter temperature are mild along much of the North America west coast but cooler than usual over Eastern Siberia and the United States South-West , precipitations are higher than usual over Alaska and the Great Plains . The NPGO is the oceanic expression of the NPO .","qid":"2720","docid":"North_Pacific_Oscillation","rank":1,"score":141781},{"content":"Title: Pacific Coast Ranges Content: The Pacific Coast Ranges ( officially gazetted as the Pacific Mountain System in the United States but referred to as the Pacific Coast Ranges ) , are the series of mountain ranges that stretch along the West Coast of North America from Alaska south to Northern and Central Mexico . The Pacific Coast Ranges are part of the North American Cordillera ( sometimes known as the Western Cordillera , or in Canada , as the Pacific Cordillera and/or the Canadian Cordillera ) , which includes the Rocky Mountains , Columbia Mountains , Interior Mountains , the Interior Plateau , Sierra Nevada Mountains , the Great Basin mountain ranges , and other ranges and various plateaus and basins . The Pacific Coast Ranges designation , however , only applies to the Western System of the Western Cordillera , which comprises the Saint Elias Mountains , Coast Mountains , Insular Mountains , Olympic Mountains , Cascade Range , Oregon Coast Range , California Coast Ranges , Transverse Ranges , Peninsular Ranges , and the Sierra Madre Occidental .","qid":"2720","docid":"Pacific_Coast_Ranges","rank":2,"score":136971},{"content":"Title: Alaska Current Content: The Alaska Current is a southwestern warm-water current along the coast of British Columbia and the Alaska Panhandle . The current results from the northward diversion of a portion of the North Pacific Current when that current meets the west coast of the North American continent . It forms a part of the counterclockwise gyre in the Gulf of Alaska . In contrast to typical sub-Arctic Pacific water , Alaska Current water is characterized by temperatures above 39 ° F ( 4 ° C ) and surface salinities below 32.6 parts per thousand . In the northern Gulf of Alaska , the Alaska Current continues into the Alaskan Stream , which begins near Kodiak Island and flows southwestward along the Alaska Peninsula . The Alaska Current produces large clockwise eddies at two sites : west of the Queen Charlotte Islands ( `` Queen Charlotte Eddy '' or `` Haida Eddies '' ) and west of Sitka ( `` Sitka Eddy '' ) .","qid":"2720","docid":"Alaska_Current","rank":3,"score":135890},{"content":"Title: 1946 Aleutian Islands earthquake Content: The 1946 Aleutian Islands earthquake occurred near the Aleutian Islands , Alaska on April 1 . The shock had a moment magnitude of 8.6 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of VI ( Strong ) . It resulted in 165 -- 173 casualties and over $ 26 million in damage . The seafloor along the fault was elevated , triggering a Pacific-wide tsunami with multiple destructive waves at heights ranging from 45 -- 130 ft. The tsunami obliterated the Scotch Cap Lighthouse on Unimak Island , Alaska among others , and killed all five lighthouse keepers . Despite the destruction to the Aleutian Island Unimak , the tsunami had almost an imperceptible effect on the Alaskan mainland . The wave reached Kauai , Hawaii 4.5 hours after the quake , and Hilo , Hawaii 4.9 hours later . The residents of these islands were caught completely off-guard by the onset of the tsunami due to the inability to transmit any warnings from the destroyed posts at Scotch Cap . The effects of the tsunami also reached the West Coast of the United States . The tsunami was unusually powerful for the size of the earthquake . The event was classified as a tsunami earthquake due to the discrepancy between the size of the tsunami and the relatively low surface wave magnitude . The large-scale destruction prompted the creation of the Seismic Sea Wave Warning System , which later became the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center in 1949 .","qid":"2720","docid":"1946_Aleutian_Islands_earthquake","rank":4,"score":135022},{"content":"Title: Marine transgression Content: A marine transgression is a geologic event during which sea level rises relative to the land and the shoreline moves toward higher ground , resulting in flooding . Transgressions can be caused either by the land sinking or the ocean basins filling with water ( or decreasing in capacity ) . Transgressions and regressions may be caused by tectonic events such as orogenies , severe climate change such as ice ages or isostatic adjustments following removal of ice or sediment load . During the Cretaceous , seafloor spreading created a relatively shallow Atlantic basin at the expense of deeper Pacific basin . This reduced the world 's ocean basin capacity and caused a rise in sea level worldwide . As a result of this sea level rise , the oceans transgressed completely across the central portion of North America and created the Western Interior Seaway from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean . The opposite of transgression is regression , in which the sea level falls relative to the land and exposes former sea bottom . During the Pleistocene Ice Ages , so much water was removed from the oceans and stored on land as year-round glaciers that the ocean regressed 120 m , exposing the Bering land bridge between Alaska and Asia .","qid":"2720","docid":"Marine_transgression","rank":5,"score":131763},{"content":"Title: Northern Pacific coastal forests (WWF ecoregion) Content: The Northern Pacific coastal forests are temperate coniferous forest ecoregion of the Pacific coast of North America . It occupies a narrow coastal zone of Alaska , between the Pacific Ocean and the northernmost Pacific Coast Ranges , covering an area of 23,300 square miles ( 60,400 square kilometers ) , extending from the Alexander Archipelago in southeast Alaska along the Gulf of Alaska to the western Kenai Peninsula and eastern Kodiak Island . The Pacific Coastal Mountain icefields and tundra ecoregion lies inland , at higher elevations in the Coast Mountains . The ecoregion receives high rainfall , which varies considerably based on exposure and elevation . It contains a quarter of the world 's remaining temperate rain forest .","qid":"2720","docid":"Northern_Pacific_coastal_forests_(WWF_ecoregion)","rank":6,"score":131281},{"content":"Title: Oregon Coast Range Content: This article is about the range in Oregon . For the larger grouping also known as the Coast Ranges , see Pacific Coast Ranges . The Oregon Coast Range , often called simply the Coast Range and sometimes the Pacific Coast Range , is a mountain range , in the Pacific Coast Ranges physiographic region , in the U.S. state of Oregon along the Pacific Ocean . This north-south running range extends over 200 mi from the Columbia River in the north on the border of Oregon and Washington , south to the middle fork of the Coquille River . It is 30 to wide and averages around 1500 ft in elevation above sea level . The coast range has three main sections , a Northern , Central , and Southern . The oldest portions of the range are over 60 million years old , with volcanics and a forearc basin as the primary mountain building processes responsible for the range . It is part of the larger grouping known as the Pacific Coast Ranges that extends over much of the western edge of North America from California to Alaska . The range creates a rain shadow effect for the Willamette Valley that lies to the east of the mountains , creating a more stable climate and significantly less rain than the coastal region of the state . To the west where the range over-shadows the Oregon Coast , the range causes more precipitation to fall on that side of the mountains , contributing to the numerous rivers that flow to the Pacific Ocean . Marys Peak in the Central Coast Range is the highest peak at 4,097 feet ( 1,248 m ) . Logging is a major industry in the range in both private and government owned forests . Both the state and federal government manage forests in the Oregon Coast Range . The mountains are home to a variety of wildlife including black bear , elk , deer , beaver , many species of birds , and bats among others . Fish , including salmon and trout , and other aquatic life inhabit the streams and rivers flowing through the range .","qid":"2720","docid":"Oregon_Coast_Range","rank":7,"score":130698},{"content":"Title: Chugach Mountains Content: The Chugach Mountains of southern Alaska are the northernmost of the several mountain ranges that make up the Pacific Coast Ranges of the western edge of North America . The range is about 250 mi long and 60 mi wide , and extends from the Knik and Turnagain Arms of the Cook Inlet on the west to Bering Glacier , Tana Glacier , and the Tana River on the east . It is bounded on the north by the Matanuska , Copper , and Chitina rivers . The highest point of the Chugach Mountains is Mount Marcus Baker , at 13094 ft , but with an average elevation of 4006 ft , most of its summits are not especially high . Even so its position along the Gulf of Alaska ensures more snowfall in the Chugach than anywhere else in the world , an annual average of over 1500 cm ( 600 in ) . The mountains are protected in the Chugach State Park and the Chugach National Forest . Near to Anchorage , they are a popular destination for outdoor activities . Weather permitting , the World Extreme Skiing Championship is held annually in the Chugach Mountains near Valdez . The Richardson Highway , Seward Highway , Portage Glacier Highway , and the Glenn Highway run through the Chugach Mountains . The Anton Anderson Memorial Tunnel of the Portage Glacier Highway provides railroad and automobile access underneath Maynard Mountain between Portage Lake and the city of Whittier on Prince William Sound .","qid":"2720","docid":"Chugach_Mountains","rank":8,"score":129422},{"content":"Title: Coastal Waters of Southeast Alaska and British Columbia Content: The Coastal Waters of Southeast Alaska and British Columbia is a marine area designated by the International Hydrographic Organization ( IHO ) . It comprises waterbodies along the Pacific coast of British Columbia , Canada and the Alaska Panhandle , United States ; some waters off north-west Washington are also included . These waterbodies include the Salish Sea ( Strait of Juan de Fuca , Puget Sound , Strait of Georgia , and connecting waterbodies ) , Queen Charlotte Strait , Queen Charlotte Sound , Hecate Strait , Dixon Entrance , Clarence Strait , Sumner Strait , Chatham Strait , Sitka Sound , Frederick Sound , Stephens Passage and Icy Strait .","qid":"2720","docid":"Coastal_Waters_of_Southeast_Alaska_and_British_Columbia","rank":9,"score":128321},{"content":"Title: Gulf of Alaska Content: The Gulf of Alaska is an arm of the Pacific Ocean defined by the curve of the southern coast of Alaska , stretching from the Alaska Peninsula and Kodiak Island in the west to the Alexander Archipelago in the east , where Glacier Bay and the Inside Passage are found . The entire shoreline of the Gulf is a rugged combination of forest , mountain , and a number of tidewater glaciers . Alaska 's largest glaciers , the Malaspina Glacier and Bering Glacier , spill out onto the coastal line along the Gulf of Alaska . The coast is heavily indented , with Cook Inlet and Prince William Sound the two largest connected bodies of water . It includes Yakutat Bay and Cross Sound . Lituya Bay is the site of the largest recorded tsunami in history . It is customarily a popular sheltered anchorage for fishing boats .","qid":"2720","docid":"Gulf_of_Alaska","rank":10,"score":127855},{"content":"Title: Coast Mountains Content: The Coast Mountains are a major mountain range in the Pacific Coast Ranges of western North America , extending from southwestern Yukon through the Alaska Panhandle and virtually all of the Coast of British Columbia south to the Fraser River . The mountain range 's name derives from its proximity to the sea coast , and is often referred to as the Coast Range . The range includes volcanic and non-volcanic mountains and the extensive ice fields of the Pacific and Boundary Ranges , and the northern end of the volcanic system known as the Cascade Volcanoes . The Coast Mountains are part of a larger mountain system called the Pacific Coast Ranges or the Pacific Mountain System , which includes the Cascade Range , the Insular Mountains , the Olympic Mountains , the Oregon Coast Range , the California Coast Ranges , the Saint Elias Mountains and the Chugach Mountains . The Coast Mountains are also part of the American Cordilleraa Spanish term for an extensive chain of mountain rangesthat consists of an almost continuous sequence of mountain ranges that form the western backbone of North America , Central America , South America and Antarctica . The Coast Mountains are approximately 1600 km long and average 300 km in width . The range 's southern and southeastern boundaries are surrounded by the Fraser River and the Interior Plateau while its far northwestern edge is delimited by the Kelsall and Tatshenshini Rivers at the north end of the Alaska Panhandle , beyond which are the Saint Elias Mountains , and by Champagne Pass in the Yukon Territory . Covered in dense temperate rainforest on its western exposures , the range rises to heavily glaciated peaks , including the largest temperate-latitude ice fields in the world . On its eastern flanks , the range tapers to the dry Interior Plateau and the subarctic boreal forests of the Skeena Mountains and Stikine Plateau . The Coast Mountains are part of the Pacific Ring of Firethe ring of volcanoes and associated mountains around the Pacific Oceanand contains some of British Columbia 's highest mountains . Mount Waddington is the highest mountain of the Coast Mountains and the highest that lies entirely within British Columbia , located northeast of the head of Knight Inlet with an elevation of 4019 m.","qid":"2720","docid":"Coast_Mountains","rank":11,"score":127704},{"content":"Title: West Coast of the United States Content: The West Coast or Pacific Coast is the coastline along which the contiguous Western United States meets the North Pacific Ocean . As a region , this term most often refers to the coastal states of California , Oregon and Washington . More specifically , it refers to an area defined on the east by the Cascade Range , Sierra Nevada and Mojave Desert , and on the west by the Pacific Ocean . The U.S. Census groups the five states of California , Oregon , Washington , Alaska , and Hawaii together as the Pacific States division .","qid":"2720","docid":"West_Coast_of_the_United_States","rank":12,"score":127442},{"content":"Title: Bering Sea Content: The Bering Sea is a marginal sea of the Pacific Ocean . It comprises a deep water basin , which then rises through a narrow slope into the shallower water above the continental shelves The Bering Sea is separated from the Gulf of Alaska by the Alaska Peninsula . It covers over 2,000,000 km2 and is bordered on the east and northeast by Alaska , on the west by Russian Far East and Kamchatka Peninsula , on the south by the Alaska Peninsula and the Aleutian Islands and on the far north by the Bering Strait , which connects the Bering Sea to the Arctic Ocean 's Chukchi Sea . Bristol Bay is the portion of the Bering Sea which separates the Alaska Peninsula from mainland Alaska . The Bering Sea is named for Vitus Bering , a Danish navigator in Russian service , who in 1728 was the first European to systematically explore it , sailing from the Pacific Ocean northward to the Arctic Ocean . The Bering Sea ecosystem includes resources within the jurisdiction of the United States and Russia , as well as international waters in the middle of the sea ( known as the `` Donut Hole '' ) . The interaction between currents , sea ice , and weather makes for a vigorous and productive ecosystem .","qid":"2720","docid":"Bering_Sea","rank":13,"score":125249},{"content":"Title: West Pacific Flyway Content: The West Pacific Flyway is a bird migration route that stretches from New Zealand and the east coast of Australia , northwards through the central Pacific Ocean , including Papua New Guinea , eastern Indonesia and the Philippines , the east coast of northern Asia , including Japan and the Korean Peninsula , and ending at the Bering and Chukchi Seas encompassing easternmost Siberia ( including the Chukotka and Kamchatka Peninsulas ) and the Alaskan Peninsula . It overlaps along its western margin with the East Asian - Australasian Flyway , and at its north eastern extremity with the Central Asian Flyway in the vicinity of Wrangel and Herald Islands . The West Pacific Flyway covers a large number of Pacific islands including the American Samoa , the Cook Islands , Fiji , French Polynesia , Guam , Hawaii , Kiribati , the Marshall Islands , Micronesia , Nauru , New Caledonia , Niue , the Northern Mariana Islands , Palau , the Pitcairn Islands , the Solomon Islands , Tokelau , Tonga , Tuvalu , Vanuatu , the Wallis and Futuna Islands and Western Samoa .","qid":"2720","docid":"West_Pacific_Flyway","rank":14,"score":124803},{"content":"Title: Abies amabilis Content: Abies amabilis , commonly known as the Pacific silver fir , is a fir native to the Pacific Northwest of North America , occurring in the Pacific Coast Ranges and the Cascade Range from the extreme southeast of Alaska , through western British Columbia , Washington and Oregon , to the extreme northwest of California . It is also commonly referred to as the white fir , red fir , lovely fir , Amabilis fir , Cascades fir , or silver fir . It grows at altitudes of sea level to 1500 m in the north of the range , and 1000 - in the south of the range , always in temperate rain forest with relatively high precipitation and cool , humid summers . Common associate trees are Douglas fir and in the extreme southern area of its range , California buckeye .","qid":"2720","docid":"Abies_amabilis","rank":15,"score":124168},{"content":"Title: Pacific decadal oscillation Content: The Pacific Decadal Oscillation ( PDO ) is a robust , recurring pattern of ocean-atmosphere climate variability centered over the mid-latitude Pacific basin . The PDO is detected as warm or cool surface waters in the Pacific Ocean , north of 20 ° N. Over the past century , the amplitude of this climate pattern has varied irregularly at interannual-to-interdecadal time scales ( meaning time periods of a few years to as much as time periods of multiple decades ) . There is evidence of reversals in the prevailing polarity ( meaning changes in cool surface waters versus warm surface waters within the region ) of the oscillation occurring around 1925 , 1947 , and 1977 ; the last two reversals corresponded with dramatic shifts in salmon production regimes in the North Pacific Ocean . This climate pattern also affects coastal sea and continental surface air temperatures from Alaska to California . During a `` warm '' , or `` positive '' , phase , the west Pacific becomes cooler and part of the eastern ocean warms ; during a `` cool '' or `` negative '' phase , the opposite pattern occurs . The Pacific Decadal Oscillation was named by Steven R. Hare , who noticed it while studying salmon production pattern results in 1997 . The Pacific Decadal Oscillation index is the leading empirical orthogonal function ( EOF ) of monthly sea surface temperature anomalies ( SST-A ) over the North Pacific ( poleward of 20 ° N ) after the global average sea surface temperature has been removed . This PDO index is the standardized principal component time series . A PDO ` signal ' has been reconstructed to 1661 through tree-ring chronologies in the Baja California area .","qid":"2720","docid":"Pacific_decadal_oscillation","rank":16,"score":123391},{"content":"Title: Pacific temperate rainforests (WWF ecoregion) Content: The Pacific temperate rainforests ecoregion of North America is the largest temperate rain forest ecoregion on the planet as defined by the World Wildlife Fund ( other definitions exist ) . The Pacific temperate rain forests lie along the western side of the Pacific Coast Ranges along the Pacific Northwest Coast of North America from the Prince William Sound in Alaska through the British Columbia Coast to Northern California , and are part of the Nearctic ecozone , as also defined by the World Wildlife Fund . The Pacific temperate rain forests are characterized by a high amount of rainfall , in some areas more than 300 cm per year and moderate temperatures in both the summer and winter months ( 10 - ) . This ecoregion is a subregion of the Cascadia bioregion . These rain forests occur in a number of ecoregions , which vary in their species composition , but are predominantly of conifers , sometimes with an understory of broadleaf trees , ferns and shrubs . In the WWF 's system , sub-ecoregions of the Pacific Temperate Rain Forests Ecoregion are the Northern Pacific coastal forests , Haida Gwaii , British Columbia mainland coastal forests , Central Pacific coastal forests , Central and Southern Cascades forests , Klamath-Siskiyou forests , and Northern California coastal forests ecoregions . The forests in the north contain predominantly Sitka spruce and western hemlock , while those in the coastal forests are home as well to coast redwood ( Sequoia sempervirens ) , coast Douglas-fir ( Pseudotsuga menziesii ) , western redcedar and shore pine . Notably , the three tallest species of trees are found here . Dense growths of epiphytes and mosses cover the trees , and lush vegetation is present everywhere . Hardwood trees such as the bigleaf maple and the alder are also common , especially at lower elevations and along stream banks , and are vital to the ecosystem , in part because of their nitrogen fixing .","qid":"2720","docid":"Pacific_temperate_rainforests_(WWF_ecoregion)","rank":17,"score":123061},{"content":"Title: Pacific Maritime Ecozone (CEC) Content: The Pacific Maritime Ecozone , as defined by the Commission for Environmental Cooperation ( CEC ) , is a Canadian terrestrial ecozone , spanning a strip approximately 200 kilometres wide along the British Columbian coast , then narrowing along the border with Alaska . It also includes all marine islands of British Columbia , and a small portion of the southwestern corner of the Yukon . Fourteen ecoregions comprise the Ecozone , ranging from the Mount Logan Ecoregion in the north to the Cascade Ecoregion and Lower Mainland Ecoregion in the south . The name of the comparable ecozones in the United States , where Level II ecoregions correspond to the international term `` ecozone '' , are the Marine West Coast Forest and the Northwestern Forested Mountains . ecoregions . In the floristic province system , the region is described as part of the Rocky Mountain Floristic Region . Also in use is a system of biogeoclimatic zones defined and used by the British Columbia government , which defines the same area as the Coastal Western Hemlock zone , though a small portion flanking the Strait of Georgia comprises the Coastal Douglas-fir zone . In the different ecoregion system established by the World Wildlife Fund , the region corresponds to the Pacific Temperate Rain Forests Ecoregion , sub-ecoregions of which are the Queen Charlotte Islands ecoregion , Vancouver Island ecoregion , British Columbia mainland coastal forests ecoregions","qid":"2720","docid":"Pacific_Maritime_Ecozone_(CEC)","rank":18,"score":121596},{"content":"Title: Pacific-Alaska Navigation Company Content: The Pacific-Alaska Navigation Company was an American passenger and freight ocean shipping company that operated between 1912 and 1916 on the West Coast of North America . It was formed as a holding company during the merger of the Alaska Pacific Steamship Company and the Alaska Coast Company . During its four years of life , its fleet became known as the Admiral Line because its ships ( for example , the Admiral Watson ) were usually named for former U.S. Navy admirals . The company was operated by president H.F. `` Bert '' Alexander , a former Tacoma longshoreman who worked his way up the ranks . During the company 's brief history , it suffered at least two significant accidents . The steamer SS Yukon ran aground June 23 , 1913 on the northwest coast of Sanak Island on a reef subsequently named for the ship . A second major accident occurred Aug. 26 , 1914 when the SS Admiral Sampson was rammed by the SS Princess Victoria of the Canadian Pacific Line . Both ships were operating in heavy fog within Puget Sound , 18 miles north of Seattle . The Admiral Sampson sank , killing 11 , while the Princess Victoria returned to Seattle with the survivors of the accident . In 1916 , the Pacific-Alaska Navigation Company operated nine steamships when it merged with the Pacific Coast Steamship Company , operator of 13 ships . The resulting company became known as the Pacific Steamship Company .","qid":"2720","docid":"Pacific-Alaska_Navigation_Company","rank":19,"score":121130},{"content":"Title: Pacific Hockey League (1994) Content: For the late 1970s ice hockey league , see Pacific Hockey League . The Pacific Hockey League ( PHL ) was a short lived semi-professional ice hockey league in the western United States in the 1990s . The league was formed by a merger of two previous semi-professional leagues , the Pacific Southwest Hockey League and Pacific Northwest Hockey League . Several PHL teams became charter members of the professional West Coast Hockey League in 1995 . The PHL played only one season , 1994 -- 95 . In addition to its league schedule the Anchorage Aces played several out-of-league games , while the Fresno Falcons also played opponents from the Florida-based Sunshine Hockey League . The Fairbanks-based Alaska Gold Kings were the league 's sole champions . After the season three PHL teams , the Aces , Falcons and Gold Kings , joined the WCHL . A fourth team , the Los Angeles Bandits , briefly joined the dubious North American League before folding .","qid":"2720","docid":"Pacific_Hockey_League_(1994)","rank":20,"score":120006},{"content":"Title: Hetta Inlet Content: Hetta Inlet is a deep embayment in the southwestern coast of Prince of Wales Island in the U.S. state of Alaska . It connects with the Pacific Ocean through Cordova Bay . The head of the inlet is separated by a 200 ft divide from the West Arm of Cholmondeley Sound . The shores are abrupt from the water 's edge , and the channels and inlets are deep . The precipitation is probably a little greater than at Ketchikan , and the mean annual temperature is slightly higher . The white crystalline limestone of the Wales series , striking nearly north and south , is the predominant country rock of Hetta Inlet . In it are intruded many igneous rocks , some schistose , some massive . The white limestones are closely folded and have great variation in dip . The igneous rocks , so far as determined from the small collection made , include gabbros , diorites , amphibolites , diabases , and pyroxene-syenites . All these are comparatively massive . The greenstoneschists , which occupy considerable areas , are chloritic . The inlet is bordered on the west by lands of the Tongass National Forest , which are included in the 13720 acre Hydaburg Roadless Area .","qid":"2720","docid":"Hetta_Inlet","rank":21,"score":119979},{"content":"Title: Ugashik Bay Content: Ugashik Bay is a bay of the Bering Sea in the U.S. state of Alaska . It is an elongated , comma-shaped estuary formed where the Ugashik River empties into Bristol Bay , on the western coast of the Alaska Peninsula . Its waters are characteristically turbid and turbulent , the result of muddy feeder streams , frequent winds , and very high tides . Some Bristol Bay tides are thought to rank eighth highest in the world , and Ugashik Bay is greatly influenced by this tidal action . The bay is bordered on the north by a sand beach stretching from Smoky Point on the west to the wide mouth of Dago Creek , on the east by a mud-and-sand shoreline running nearly true north-south past the village of Pilot Point to Muddy Point . The southern shore is a shifting series of mud-and-sand ridges , the northernmost and most prominent of which is called South Spit . The bay influences a marine zone ranging from Cape Greig , 8 mi north , to Cape Menshikof , 12 mi to the south . Ugashik Bay 's weather is quite variable , especially during winter when storm systems frequently change climatological influences on the area . Storms blowing winds up from the North Pacific can make winter conditions relatively mild , even balmy ; whereas winds from the Alaska Interior can bring clear and bitter cold conditions . Westerly winds blowing off the Bering Sea bring high humidity and biting cold , combined with coastal low clouds and fog , even in summer . This is so commonplace that Smoky Point was named from the frequent inclement weather .","qid":"2720","docid":"Ugashik_Bay","rank":22,"score":119598},{"content":"Title: Alaska North Slope Content: The Alaska North Slope is the region of the U.S. state of Alaska located on the northern slope of the Brooks Range along the coast of two marginal seas of the Arctic Ocean , the Chukchi Sea being on the western side of Point Barrow , and the Beaufort Sea on the eastern .","qid":"2720","docid":"Alaska_North_Slope","rank":23,"score":118743},{"content":"Title: Coast Range Arc Content: The Coast Range Arc was a large volcanic arc system , extending from northern Washington through British Columbia and the Alaska Panhandle to southwestern Yukon . The Coast Range Arc lies along the western margin of the North American Plate in the Pacific Northwest of western North America . Although taking its name from the Coast Mountains , this term is a geologic grouping rather than a geographic one , and the Coast Range Arc extended south into the High Cascades of the Cascade Range , past the Fraser River which is the northward limit of the Cascade Range proper . The Coast Range Arc formed as a result of subduction of the Kula and pre-existing Farallon Plates . It is most famous for being the largest granitic outcropping in North America , which then it is usually referred to as the Coast Plutonic Complex or the Coast Mountains Batholith . It is a coast-parallel continental volcanic arc similar to the Andes of South America and the largest continential volcanic arc fossil in the world .","qid":"2720","docid":"Coast_Range_Arc","rank":24,"score":118141},{"content":"Title: Okhotsk Coast Content: The Okhotsk Coast is an informal name for the northwest coast of the Sea of Okhotsk . Although it was never an administrative unit there is some reason to treat it as a distinct region . Here in 1639 the Russians first reached the Pacific Ocean . From here , beginning in 1716 , Russian ships sailed east to the Kamchatka Peninsula , the Aleutian Islands and Alaska .","qid":"2720","docid":"Okhotsk_Coast","rank":25,"score":117779},{"content":"Title: Pacific Coast Theater of the American Civil War Content: The Pacific Coast Theater of the American Civil War consists of major military operations in the United States on the Pacific Ocean and in the states and Territories west of the Continental Divide . The theater was encompassed by the Department of the Pacific that included the states of California , Oregon , and Nevada , the territories of Washington , Utah , and later Idaho . The operations of Union volunteer troop detachments , primarily from California , some from Oregon , and a few companies from Washington Territory , were directed mostly against Indians in the theater . Union and Confederate regular forces did not meet directly within the Pacific Department except in New Mexico Territory . However , operations were directed against Confederate irregulars in California and strong garrisons were placed in Southern California and southern New Mexico Territory to control the region which had strong secessionist sympathies . Confederate States Navy warships operated in the Pacific Ocean , but the naval operations did not succeed in interrupting commerce to the Eastern United States . The last of these commerce raiders , CSS Shenandoah , fired the last shot of the War in the Bering Sea off the coast of Alaska . Attempts by the Confederacy to buy or seize ships for commerce raiding on the West Coast were thwarted by alert Union officials and the Pacific Squadron .","qid":"2720","docid":"Pacific_Coast_Theater_of_the_American_Civil_War","rank":26,"score":117377},{"content":"Title: Geography of Alaska Content: Alaska is one of two U.S. states not bordered by another state ; Hawaii the other . Alaska has more ocean coastline than all of the other U.S. states combined . About 500 mi of Canadian territory separate Alaska from Washington State . Alaska is thus an exclave of the United States that is part of the continental U.S. but is not part of the contiguous U.S. Alaska is also the only state , other than Hawaii , whose capital city is accessible only via ship or air , because no roads connect Juneau to the rest of the continent . The state is bordered by Yukon and British Columbia , Canada to the east , the Gulf of Alaska and the Pacific Ocean to the south , the Bering Sea , Bering Strait , and Chukchi Sea to the west , and the Beaufort Sea and the Arctic Ocean to the north . Because it extends into the Eastern Hemisphere , it is technically both the westernmost and easternmost state in the United States , as well as also being the northernmost . Alaska is the largest state in the United States in terms of land area at 570,380 sqmi , over twice ( roughly 2.47 times ) as large as Texas , the next largest state . If the state 's westernmost point were superimposed on San Francisco , California , its easternmost point would be in Jacksonville , Florida . It is larger than all but 16 sovereign nations . Alaska is home to 3.5 million lakes of 20 acre or larger . Marshlands and wetland permafrost cover 188,320 sqmi ( mostly in northern , western and southwest flatlands ) . Frozen water , in the form of glacier ice , covers some 16,000 sqmi of land and 1,200 sqmi of tidal zone . The Bering Glacier complex near the southeastern border with Yukon , Canada , covers 2,250 sqmi alone .","qid":"2720","docid":"Geography_of_Alaska","rank":27,"score":116768},{"content":"Title: Alaska Pacific Steamship Company Content: The Alaska Pacific Steamship Company was a short-lived freight and passenger shipping line that operated on the West Coast of North America between 1906 and 1912 . The company was created by E.E. Caine , who used the steamships Buckman and Watson on the route between Seattle , Tacoma , and San Francisco . The following year , Caine 's partners in the company took over management of the Alaska Coast Company , which operated the steamships Jeanie and Portland . In 1909 , Alaska Pacific acquired the twin-propeller steamships Admiral Farragut and Admiral Sampson from the American Mail Steamship Company on the East Coast . In 1912 , Alaska Pacific acquired the remaining Admiral-class steamships Admiral Dewey and Admiral Schley from American Mail . Before the end of the year , the company 's directors decided to merge Alaska Pacific with Alaska Coast Company to form the new Pacific-Alaska Navigation Company .","qid":"2720","docid":"Alaska_Pacific_Steamship_Company","rank":28,"score":116754},{"content":"Title: Dendraster excentricus Content: Eccentric sand dollar ( Dendraster excentricus ) , also known as the sea-cake , biscuit-urchin , western sand dollar , or Pacific sand dollar , is a member of the order Clypeasteroida , better known as sand dollars , a species of flattened , burrowing sea urchins found in the northeast Pacific Ocean from Alaska to Baja California .","qid":"2720","docid":"Dendraster_excentricus","rank":29,"score":116528},{"content":"Title: Alaska Anchorage Seawolves Content: The Alaska Anchorage Seawolves are the 13 varsity athletic teams that represent the University of Alaska Anchorage , in Anchorage , Alaska , in NCAA intercollegiate sports . The vast majority of UAA 's athletic teams are in NCAA Division II with the exception of the Alpine and Nordic Ski , gymnastics , and ice hockey teams , which are members of Division I. The Seawolves principally compete as members of the Great Northwest Athletic Conference . Teams playing outside the GNAC include the hockey team ( Western Collegiate Hockey Association ) , the gymnastics team ( Mountain Pacific Sports Federation ) , and the ski teams ( Rocky Mountain Intercollegiate Ski Association ) . UAA also hosts the nationally known GCI Great Alaska Shootout college basketball tournament every Thanksgiving .","qid":"2720","docid":"Alaska_Anchorage_Seawolves","rank":30,"score":116410},{"content":"Title: Pacific-slope flycatcher Content: The Pacific-slope flycatcher ( Empidonax difficilis ) is a small insectivorous bird of the family Tyrannidae . It is native to coastal regions of western North America , including the Pacific Ocean and the southern Gulf of California , as far north as British Columbia and southern Alaska , but is replaced in the inland regions by the Cordilleran flycatcher . These two species were formerly considered a single species known as the western flycatcher . In winter , both species migrate south to Mexico , where they are virtually indistinguishable from one another .","qid":"2720","docid":"Pacific-slope_flycatcher","rank":31,"score":116292},{"content":"Title: Pacific Northwest Content: The Pacific Northwest ( in the United States , commonly abbreviated as PNW ) , sometimes referred to as Cascadia , is a geographic region in western North America bounded by the Pacific Ocean to the west and ( loosely ) by the Rocky Mountains on the east . Though no agreed boundary exists , a common conception includes the U.S. states of Oregon and Washington and the Canadian province of British Columbia . Broader conceptions reach north into Alaska and Yukon , south into far northern California and east to the Continental Divide , thus including Idaho , Western Montana , and western Wyoming . Narrower conceptions may be limited to the northwestern US or to the coastal areas west of the Cascade and Coast mountains . The variety of definitions can be attributed to partially overlapping commonalities of the region 's history , geography , society , and other factors . The Northwest Coast is the coastal region of the Pacific Northwest and the Northwest Plateau ( also commonly known as `` the Interior '' in British Columbia and the Inland Empire in the United States ) is the inland region . The term `` Pacific Northwest '' should not be confused with the Northwest Territory ( also known as the Great Northwest , a historical term in the United States ) or the Northwest Territories of Canada . The region 's largest metropolitan areas are Greater Seattle , Washington , with 3.7 million people ; Greater Portland , Oregon , with 2.5 million people.Greater Vancouver , British Columbia , with 2.4 million people ; A key aspect of the Pacific Northwest is the US -- Canada international border , which the United States and the United Kingdom established at a time when the region 's inhabitants were composed mostly of indigenous peoples . The border -- in two sections , along the 49th parallel south of British Columbia and the Alaska Panhandle west of northern British Columbia -- has had a powerful effect on the region . According to Canadian historian Ken Coates , the border has not merely influenced the Pacific Northwest -- rather , `` the region 's history and character have been determined by the boundary . ''","qid":"2720","docid":"Pacific_Northwest","rank":32,"score":116075},{"content":"Title: North Pacific Current Content: The North Pacific Current ( sometimes referred to as the North Pacific Drift ) is a slow warm water current that flows west-to-east between 30 and 50 degrees north in the Pacific Ocean . The current forms the southern part of the North Pacific Subpolar Gyre and the northern part of the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre . The North Pacific Current is formed by the collision of the Kuroshio Current , running northward off the coast of Japan , and the Oyashio Current , which is a cold subarctic current that flows south and circulates counterclockwise along the western North Pacific Ocean . In the eastern North Pacific off southern British Columbia , it splits into the southward flowing California Current and the northward flowing Alaska Current .","qid":"2720","docid":"North_Pacific_Current","rank":33,"score":115794},{"content":"Title: Pacific Marine Ecozone (CEC) Content: The Pacific Marine Ecozone , as defined by the Commission for Environmental Cooperation ( CEC ) , is a Canadian and American marine ecozone extending to the international waters of the Pacific Ocean from the coasts of Alaska , British Columbia , Washington and Oregon . The islands within the Canadian portion are part of the adjacent Pacific Maritime ecozone . Famous for its tourism and an important shipping channel for Canada , the zone is subject to intense human activity which has damaged ecosystems . Primary effects include overfishing , pollution and even direct habitat destruction . The large and increasing population in nearby coastal areas , including the major centres of Vancouver and Seattle , exerts significant strain on the natural habitats within this ecozone .","qid":"2720","docid":"Pacific_Marine_Ecozone_(CEC)","rank":34,"score":115279},{"content":"Title: Aleutian Trench Content: The Aleutian Trench ( or Aleutian Trough ) is an oceanic trench along a convergent plate boundary which runs along the southern coastline of Alaska and the Aleutian islands . The trench extends for 3,400 km from a triple junction in the west with the Ulakhan Fault and the northern end of the Kuril -- Kamchatka Trench , to a junction with the northern end of the Queen Charlotte Fault system in the east . It is classified as a `` marginal trench '' in the east as it runs along the margin of the continent . The subduction along the trench gives rise to the Aleutian arc , a volcanic island arc , where it runs through the open sea west of the Alaska Peninsula . As a convergent plate boundary , the trench forms part of the boundary between two tectonic plates . Here , the Pacific Plate is being subducted under the North American Plate at a dip angle of nearly 45 ° . The rate of closure is 3 in per year .","qid":"2720","docid":"Aleutian_Trench","rank":35,"score":115009},{"content":"Title: Pacific Packing and Navigation Company Content: Pacific Packing and Navigation Company is a defunct salmon-canning company which operated in the U.S. state of Alaska . Incorporated under the laws of New Jersey and backed by eastern capitalists , it was formed during the spring of 1901 , the idea of Roland B. Onnfroy . It consolidate into one corporation the properties and privileges of other Alaska companies and firms . It proposed to capitalize the new corporation as follows : 6 per cent debentures , $ 7,000,000 ; 7 per cent cumulative preferred stock , $ 12,500,000 ; common stock , $ 12,500,000 . The Pacific Packing and Navigation Company acquired the following properties in Alaska : Canneries of Pacific Steam Whaling Company at Nushagak , Bristol Bay ; Chignik , Alaska Peninsula ; Uyak , Kadiak Island ; Kenai , Cook Inlet ; Orca , Prince William Sound ; Hunter Bay , Southeast Alaska . Hume Bros. and Hume , with canneries at Chignik , Alaska Peninsula , and Ifyak , Kadiak Island . Thlinket Packing Company , canneries at Gerard Point and Santa Anna Bay , Southeast Alaska . Western Fisheries Company , with a cannery at Dundas Bay , Icy Strait . Chilkoot Packing Company , with a cannery at Chilkoot Inlet . Taku Packing Company , with a cannery at Taku Inlet . Taku Fishing Company , with a cannery at the entrance to Port Snettisham . Boston Fishing à Trading Company , with a cannery at Yee Bay . Chatham Straits Packing Company , with a cannery at Sitkoh Bay . Icy Strait Packing Company , with a cannery at Petersburg , Wrangell Narrows . Quadra Packing Company , with a cannery at Mink Bay , Boca de Quadra It further acquired companies in the Puget Sound region of Washington state : Pacific-American Fisheries Company , with canneries at Fairhaven and one at Friday Harbor . Ainsworth and Dunn , with canneries at Seattle and Friday Harbor . Fairhaven Canning Company , with a cannery at Fairhaven . The Pacific Packing and Navigation Company represented 23 canneries with their equipage . The company claimed an Alaska pack for 1901 of about 700,000 cases , and expected to increase its output to have a total capacity of 1,000,000 per season . The Alaska Packers ' Association was its major rival , with approximately 50 percent of the total production . The Pacific Packing and Navigation Company followed with about 30 per cent . The remaining 20 per cent were distributed among independent concerns . In 1903 , the reported capital stock was cut down from $ 12,500,000 to $ 1,000,000 as the corporation was insolvent and in process of liquidation with much of the property having been sold off . By 1904 , the Pacific Packing and Navigation Company was in the hands of a receiver , J. B. McGovern . In the report of the committee , it is said that a plan was advanced for forming the new corporation with capital , of which $ 1,500,000 was to be preferred stock , and $ 1,500.000 , common . Of the latter amount 11,400 was to be accepted by the holders of the company 's notes and debentures in full settlement of their claims on a 40 per cent , basis . The preferred stock was to be an eight per cent , accumulative issue , maturing at the end of five years , and redeemable pro rata at any time during that period at the discretion of the directors , by the payment of ten per cent , per annum , the holders to receive the benefit of the premium , whether the stock ran to maturity or not . In addition , the new company was to acquire all the assets of the Pacific Packing and Navigation Company , and the Pacific American Fisheries Company at receiver 's sale . The directors of the company were to consist of five residents of San Francisco , two of Seattle , and two of New York , all of whom were to represent the Preferred Stockholders . Common stockholders had no vote until all the preferred stock has been redeemed . The main offices of the company were to be located in Seattle or San Francisco .","qid":"2720","docid":"Pacific_Packing_and_Navigation_Company","rank":36,"score":114913},{"content":"Title: Pacific States Content: The `` Pacific States '' form one of the nine geographic divisions within the United States that are officially recognized by that country 's census bureau . There are five states in this division -- Alaska , California , Hawaii , Oregon , Washington -- and , as its name suggests , they all have coastlines on the Pacific Ocean ( and are the only American states that border that ocean ) . The Pacific States division is one of two divisions that are located within the United States Census Bureau 's Western region ; the other Western division is the Mountain States . Despite being slotted into the same region by the Census Bureau , the Pacific and Mountain divisions are vastly different from one another in many vital respects , most notably in the arena of politics ; while nearly all of the Mountain states are regarded as being conservative `` red states '' , four out of five of the Pacific states ( all except Alaska ) are clearly counted among the liberal `` blue states . '' Bold denotes election winner","qid":"2720","docid":"Pacific_States","rank":37,"score":114896},{"content":"Title: November 2011 Bering Sea cyclone Content: The November 2011 Bering Sea cyclone was one of the most powerful extratropical cyclones to affect Alaska on record . On November 8 , the National Weather Service ( NWS ) began issuing severe weather warnings , saying that this was a near-record ( or record ) storm in the Bering Sea . It rapidly deepened from 973 mb to 948 mb in just 24 hours before bottoming out at 943 mbar ( hPa ; 27.85 inHg ) , roughly comparable to a Category 3 or 4 hurricane . The storm had been deemed life-threatening by many people . The storm had a forward speed of at least 60 mph before it had reached Alaska . The storm began affecting Alaska in the late hours of November 8 , 2011 . The highest gust recorded was 93 mph on Little Diomede Island . One person has been reported missing after being swept into the Bering Sea .","qid":"2720","docid":"November_2011_Bering_Sea_cyclone","rank":38,"score":114500},{"content":"Title: Endocladia muricata Content: Endocladia muricata , commonly known as Nailbrush seaweed or Turfweed , is a marine alga that is widely distributed along the shores of the North Pacific Ocean , from Alaska to Punto Santo Tomas , Baja California . E. muricata is common north of Point Conception , and is one of the most common algae in the high intertidal zone of the central California , coast . It commonly forms the top-most conspicuous band of seaweed along that coast . E. muricata often grows with Pelvetiopsis limitata ( dwarf rockweed ) and Mastocarpus papillatus ( Turkish washcloth ) , on rocks in the high intertidal . E. muricata 's thallus is 4-8 cm tall , short & bushy ; branches cylindrical with sub-dichotomous branching ; covered with minute , soft conical spines ; blackish-brown to dark red to yellow . Dries to almost black . It is usually not slippery to walk on , dry or wet .","qid":"2720","docid":"Endocladia_muricata","rank":39,"score":114142},{"content":"Title: Between Pacific Tides Content: Between Pacific Tides is a 1939 book by Ed Ricketts and Jack Calvin that explores the intertidal ecology of the Pacific coast of the United States . The book was originally titled `` Between Pacific Tides : An Account of the Habits and Habitats of Some Five Hundred of the Common , Conspicuous Seashore Invertebrates of the Pacific Coast Between Sitka , Alaska , and Northern Mexico '' . The book was out of print from 1942 to 1948 , but it has since been revised and updated to keep it current , and is now in its fifth edition with the size increasing around twenty percent from the original . Updated and expanded sections have been added since the original edition was published , including : John Steinbeck 's Foreword to the 1948 edition ; a new chapter regarding the influence on the distribution of shore organisms ; an updated Annotated Systematic Index and General Bibliography comprising 2,300 entries ; and the addition of 200 photographs and drawings . By 2004 , the book had sold around 100,000 copies , making it one of the best-selling books published by Stanford University Press .","qid":"2720","docid":"Between_Pacific_Tides","rank":40,"score":113953},{"content":"Title: Pacific Tsunami Warning Center Content: The Pacific Tsunami Warning Center ( PTWC ) is one of two tsunami warning centers that are operated by NOAA in the United States . Headquartered on Ford Island , HI , the PTWC is part of an international tsunami warning system ( TWS ) program and serves as the operational center for TWS of the Pacific issuing bulletins and warnings to participating members and other nations in the Pacific Ocean area of responsibility . It is also the regional ( local ) warning center for the State of Hawaii . The other tsunami warning center is the National Tsunami Warning Center ( NTWC ) in Palmer , Alaska , serving all coastal regions of Canada and the United States except Hawaii , the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico . The PTWC was established in 1949 , following the 1946 Aleutian Island earthquake and a tsunami that resulted in 165 casualties in Hawaii and Alaska . The PTWC uses seismic data as its starting point , but then takes into account oceanographic data when calculating possible threats . Tide gauges in the area of the earthquake are checked to establish if a tsunami has formed . The center then forecasts the future of the tsunami , issuing warnings to at-risk areas all around the Pacific basin if needed .","qid":"2720","docid":"Pacific_Tsunami_Warning_Center","rank":41,"score":113798},{"content":"Title: Environmental issues with salmon Content: Salmon population levels are of concern in the Atlantic and in some parts of the Pacific . Salmon fishery stocks are still abundant , and catches have been on the rise in recent decades , after the state initiated limitations in 1972 . Some of the most important Alaskan salmon sustainable wild fisheries are located near the Kenai River , Copper River , and in Bristol Bay . Fish farming of Pacific salmon is outlawed in the United States Exclusive Economic Zone , however , there is a substantial network of publicly funded hatcheries , and the State of Alaska 's fisheries management system is viewed as a leader in the management of wild fish stocks . In Canada , returning Skeena River wild salmon support commercial , subsistence and recreational fisheries , as well as the area 's diverse wildlife on the coast and around communities hundreds of miles inland in the watershed . The status of wild salmon in Washington is mixed . Out of 435 wild stocks of salmon and steelhead , only 187 of them were classified as healthy ; 113 had an unknown status , 1 was extinct , 12 were in critical condition and 122 were experiencing depressed populations .","qid":"2720","docid":"Environmental_issues_with_salmon","rank":42,"score":113796},{"content":"Title: Climate of Alaska Content: The climate of Alaska is determined by average temperatures and precipitation received statewide over many years . The extratropical storm track runs along the Aleutian Island chain , across the Alaska Peninsula , and along the coastal area of the Gulf of Alaska which exposes these parts of the state to a large majority of the storms crossing the North Pacific . The climate in Juneau and the southeast panhandle is a mid-latitude oceanic climate ( Köppen Cfb ) in the southern sections and a subarctic oceanic climate ( Köppen Cfc ) in the northern parts . The climate in Southcentral Alaska is a subarctic climate ( Köppen Dfc ) due to its short , cool summers . The climate of the interior of Alaska is best described as extreme and is the best example of a true subarctic climate , as the highest and lowest recorded temperatures in Alaska have both occurred in the interior . The climate in the extreme north of Alaska is an Arctic climate ( Köppen ET ) with long , cold winters , and cool summers where snow is possible year-round .","qid":"2720","docid":"Climate_of_Alaska","rank":43,"score":113420},{"content":"Title: Cooperative Institute for Arctic Research Content: The Cooperative Institute for Arctic Research is designed to be a focal point for interactions between the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) / Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) and the Arctic research community through the University of Alaska for research related to the Western Arctic/Bering Sea region . ( CIFAR ) was established through a Memorandum of Understanding between NOAA and the University of Alaska . CIFAR is exclusively concerned with Arctic research . They work closely with NOAA 's Arctic Research Office and the Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory ( PMEL ) . Partnerships with NOAA also include the National Marine Fisheries Service ( NMFS ) , the National Ocean Service ( NOS ) , and an emerging relationship with the National Weather Service .","qid":"2720","docid":"Cooperative_Institute_for_Arctic_Research","rank":44,"score":113004},{"content":"Title: Pisaster Content: Pisaster is a genus of Pacific sea stars that includes three species , P. brevispinus , P. giganteus , and P. ochraceus . Their range extends along the Pacific coast from Alaska to southern California in the intertidal zone . The largest individuals of Pisaster can reach diameters of up to 70 cm across ; they all develop five arms , but some may be lost from injury or disease , and occasionally the re-growth of an injured arm will result in an individual with more than five arms . Sea stars in the genus Pisaster are all predators ; the ochre sea star is the best-characterized of these , and is considered a `` keystone '' predator that controls the relative abundance of many other species in the ecosystem .","qid":"2720","docid":"Pisaster","rank":45,"score":112909},{"content":"Title: Mikhail Vasilyev (explorer) Content: Mikhail Nikolayevich Vasilyev ( Михаил Николаевич Васильев 1770 -- June 23 , 1847 ) was a Russian explorer and vice admiral of the Imperial Russian Navy . He is reputed for having surveyed the then little-known coast of Alaska as navigator . Vasiliev was sent by the Russian Imperial Hydrographic Service in 1819 to explore the northern parts of the Pacific Ocean and particularly the area around the Bering Strait . Certain geographic features of the Alaskan coast , like the Lindenberg Peninsula and Sealion Island were named by him in the maps that were subsequently published . In 1820 Mikhail Vasiliev on the ship Otkrytie ( Discovery ) entered the Chukchi Sea and explored the coast of Alaska from Kotzebue Sound to Icy Cape and later from Norton Sound to Cape Newenham . He was accompanied by Gleb Semenovich Shishmarev ( 1781-1835 ) , who was in command of the ship Blagonamerennyi ( Good Intent ) . After these surveys , in which he is credited to be the first European having sighted Nunivak Island , Vasiliev sailed to Petropavlovsk and returned to Kronstadt , arriving there on August 2 , 1822 . Vasiliev 's name is spelt `` Vasilief '' in the United States , where Vasilief Bay in Atka and Cape Vasilyev in Nunivak Island were named after him by Captain Fyodor Petrovich Litke ; Cape Vasilyev was later renamed `` Cape Corwin '' by the U.S. Board on Geographic Names in 1909 . There are other geographic features in the coast of Alaska and the Aleutians bearing the name `` Vasilief '' , but it is not clear after which Vasiliev they were named .","qid":"2720","docid":"Mikhail_Vasilyev_(explorer)","rank":46,"score":112645},{"content":"Title: Taxus brevifolia Content: Taxus brevifolia , the Pacific yew or western yew , is a conifer native to the Pacific Northwest of North America . It ranges from southernmost Alaska south to central California , mostly in the Pacific Coast Ranges , but with isolated disjunct populations in southeast British Columbia ( most notably occurring on Zuckerberg Island near Castlegar ) and in north to central Idaho .","qid":"2720","docid":"Taxus_brevifolia","rank":47,"score":112346},{"content":"Title: Chukchi Sea Shelf Content: The Chukchi Sea Shelf or Chukchi Shelf is the westernmost part of the continental shelf of the United States and the easternmost part of the continental shelf of Russia . Within this shelf , the 50-mile Chukchi Corridor acts as a passageway for one of the largest marine mammal migrations in the world . The main geological features of the Chukchi Shelf are the Hope Basin and the Herald Thrust , a basement uplift cored by Cretaceous thrust faults . The latter is named after Herald Island . Off the northwestern Alaskan coast there is a Jurassic rift basin , the Hannah Trough . To the north of Alaska the Chukchi Shelf extends to form the Chukchi Plateau which protrudes into the Arctic Ocean geological zone . The Chukchi Shelf is shared between Russia and the United States according to the 1990 USA-USSR maritime boundary .","qid":"2720","docid":"Chukchi_Sea_Shelf","rank":48,"score":112062},{"content":"Title: School of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences Content: School of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences , or SFOS , is part of the University of Alaska Fairbanks . SFOS offers a bachelor of arts and a bachelor of science in fisheries , master 's and doctoral degrees in oceanography , fisheries and marine biology , and a minor in marine science . The school was established by the University of Alaska Board of Regents in 1987 from units at several campuses and placed under a single umbrella administered within the University of Alaska Fairbanks . SFOS is headquartered in Fairbanks , Alaska , with major divisions in Seward , Anchorage , Juneau and Kodiak : The Institute of Marine Science in Fairbanks is active in research and graduate training at the master 's and doctoral levels . IMS conducts marine science studies in the world 's oceans , with special emphasis on arctic and Pacific subarctic waters . The Kodiak Seafood and Marine Science Center in Kodiak works to increase the value of the Alaska fishing industry through academic and research programs in sustainable harvesting and seafood technology . The NOAA Alaska Sea Grant College Program in Fairbanks funds marine research , offers education and advisory services , distributes information about Alaska 's seas and coasts and provides outreach to coastal communities . The Alaska Sea Grant Marine Advisory Program in Anchorage is a statewide outreach and technical assistance program helping Alaskans widely use , conserve and enjoy Alaska 's marine and coastal resources . The Seward Marine Center in Seward provides access to saltwater laboratories and the coastal environment with laboratories , constant temperature chambers and a running seawater system . The University of Alaska 's new icebreaker , the R/V Sikuliaq will be based here . The Fisheries Division in Juneau and Fairbanks collaborates with state , national and international organizations to study how to develop and maintain sustainable fisheries programs in Alaska and global waters . Faculty at the Fisheries Division train undergraduate and graduate programs in fisheries .","qid":"2720","docid":"School_of_Fisheries_and_Ocean_Sciences","rank":49,"score":111882},{"content":"Title: Alsek Ranges Content: The Alsek Ranges are the southeasternmost subdivision of the Saint Elias Mountains of the Pacific Cordillera . They span the region between the Alsek River , Glacier Bay and the Kelsall River ( which is the route of the highway from Haines , Alaska to Haines Junction , Yukon ) . Their western boundary is the Grand Pacific Glacier , beyond which is the Fairweather Range , another subdivision of the St. Elias Mountains . To their east is the northernmost section of the Boundary Ranges , the northernmost subdivision of the Coast Mountains and which are also known as the Alaska Boundary Range , and which run south to the Nass River and form , as their name indicates , the spine of the boundary between the American state of Alaska and the Canadian province of British Columbia . All of the British Columbia portion of the Alsek Ranges are in the Tatshenshini-Alsek Park , but is also the location of the controversial Windy Craggy Mine proposal . Most of the Alaskan portion between the Lynn Canal and Glacier Bay is part of Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve , and most of the Yukon portion is in Kluane National Park and Reserve .","qid":"2720","docid":"Alsek_Ranges","rank":50,"score":111852},{"content":"Title: Amelanchier alnifolia Content: Amelanchier alnifolia , the saskatoon , Pacific serviceberry , western serviceberry , alder-leaf shadbush , dwarf shadbush , chuckley pear , or western juneberry , is a shrub with edible berry-like fruit , native to North America from Alaska across most of western Canada and in the western and north-central United States . Historically , it was also called pigeon berry . It grows from sea level in the north of the range , up to 2600 m elevation in California and 3400 m in the Rocky Mountains , and is a common shrub in the forest understory .","qid":"2720","docid":"Amelanchier_alnifolia","rank":51,"score":111482},{"content":"Title: Cape Prince of Wales Content: Cape Prince of Wales ( Russian : Мыс Принца Уэльского ) is the westernmost point on the mainland of the Americas . It was named in 1778 by Captain James Cook of the British Royal Navy , presumably for the Prince of Wales at the time , George Augustus Frederick . Located on the Seward Peninsula of the U.S. state of Alaska near the city of Wales , Cape Prince of Wales is the terminus of the Continental Divide , marking the division between the Pacific and Arctic coasts , as well as marking the limit between the Bering Sea and the Chukchi Sea . It is the eastern boundary of the Bering Strait , 51 miles ( 82 km ) opposite Cape Dezhnev , and adjacent to the Diomede Islands and Fairway Rock .","qid":"2720","docid":"Cape_Prince_of_Wales","rank":52,"score":111183},{"content":"Title: Western Defense Command Content: Western Defense Command ( WDC ) was established on 17 March 1941 as the command formation of the U.S. Army responsible for coordinating the defense of the Pacific Coast region of the United States . A second major responsibility was the training of soldiers prior to their deployment overseas . The first Commanding General of WDC was Lieutenant General John L. DeWitt , who continued on in command of the Fourth U.S. Army . WDC headquarters were co-located at the existing Fourth Army headquarters at the Presidio of San Francisco . WDC 's operational region covered the states of Washington , Oregon , California , Idaho , Montana , Nevada , Utah and Arizona . However , until 11 December 1941 the command was little more than a planning agency . On that date the Army coast defense , antiaircraft , and fighter assets on the west coast and in Alaska were placed under the command , which until 20 March 1942 was known as the Western Theater of Operations , then reverted to the previous name . From 11 December 1941 until 1 November 1943 Alaska Defense Command was controlled through WDC . On 14 February 1942 , Western Defense Command sent a memorandum to Secretary of War Henry Stimson recommending that `` Japanese and other subversive elements '' be removed from the West Coast region . This led President Franklin D. Roosevelt to issue Executive Order 9066 on 19 February , which gave U.S. military commanders the authority to designate `` military areas '' and to then exclude any or all people from them . On 2 March 1942 General DeWitt issued a proclamation that designated the western halves of Washington , Oregon and California , and the southern third of Arizona to be military areas from which Americans of Japanese ancestry would be excluded . ( The exclusion zone would later be expanded to include the entire state of California . ) Americans of German and Italian ancestry were also affected by restrictions and in some cases internment . From June 1942 to August 1943 , WDC was heavily involved in the planning and execution of the Aleutian Islands Campaign , which succeeded in expelling Japanese forces from their toehold in North America on the islands of Attu and Kiska . The operation to re-capture Kiska Island , Operation Cottage , involved both U.S. troops and a brigade of Canadian troops from Pacific Command . Western Defense Command was disbanded on 6 March 1946 .","qid":"2720","docid":"Western_Defense_Command","rank":53,"score":111159},{"content":"Title: Etolin Strait Content: Etolin Strait is a strait of the Pacific Ocean in western Alaska , the United States .","qid":"2720","docid":"Etolin_Strait","rank":54,"score":111052},{"content":"Title: Vashon Glaciation Content: The Vashon Glaciation or Vashon Stade was the most recent period of very cold climate in which glaciers existed at elevations at and near sea level in the western part of present-day Washington state . It occurred during a colder than present part of the current ice age . The Vashon Glaciation lasted from about 19,000 - 16,000 BP ( Before Present - present defined as January 1 , 1950 for this scale ) . The Cordilleran Ice Sheet was an ice sheet that covered present-day southern Alaska and parts of western Canada . During the Vashon Glaciation , the Cordilleran Ice Sheet advanced into the Puget Sound region .","qid":"2720","docid":"Vashon_Glaciation","rank":55,"score":110528},{"content":"Title: Red sea urchin Content: The red sea urchin ( Mesocentrotus franciscanus ) is a sea urchin found in the Pacific Ocean from Alaska to Baja California . It lives in shallow waters from the low-tide line to greater than 100 m deep , and is typically found on rocky shores sheltered from extreme wave action .","qid":"2720","docid":"Red_sea_urchin","rank":56,"score":110452},{"content":"Title: Kaguyak Village Site Content: The Kaguyak Village Site , designated 49 Afg 4 , is a historic and prehistoric archaeological site on the Pacific coast of the Alaska Peninsula in Katmai National Park and Preserve . It is the site of a Native village which was abandoned after the eruption of Novarupta in 1912 . The historic elements of the site include the remains of a Russian Orthodox church and cemetery , as well as a number of frame house remnants and foundations . The site was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1978 .","qid":"2720","docid":"Kaguyak_Village_Site","rank":57,"score":110381},{"content":"Title: Steep coast Content: A steep coast is a stretch of coastline where the mainland descends abruptly into the sea . There is a sharp transition from the land to sea as opposed to that on a flat coast where the land descends gradually seawards . The height of the land on a steep coast is well above sea level . Most steep coast are rocky cliffed coasts ( also called abrasion coasts ) , where the erosion processes of wave action result in a steep declivity . Another type of steep coast is the fjord which is formed when a glacial valley lies partially under water as a result of a rise in sea levels . In Norway , New Zealand or Alaska there are fjords whose almost vertical sides tower over 1,000 metres above the water and plunge 300 metres below it . On volcanic islands the sea can enter the caldera and the face of the volcanic pipe can form a steep coastline . The best-known example of that is Santorini in the archipelago of the Cyclades in Greeces . The main town of Thira lies on the rim of the caldera which is around 300 metres above the sea and drops below it for another 200 metres .","qid":"2720","docid":"Steep_coast","rank":58,"score":109938},{"content":"Title: National Tsunami Warning Center Content: The National Tsunami Warning Center ( NTWC ) is one of two tsunami warning centers that are operated by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) in the United States . It was called the West Coast and Alaska Tsunami Warning Center ( WC/ATWC ) until October 1 , 2013 . The name was changed to reflect its geographical zone of responsibility . Headquartered in Palmer , Alaska , the NTWC is part of an international tsunami warning system ( TWS ) program and serves as the operational center for TWS of all coastal regions of Canada and the United States , except Hawaii , the Caribbean , and the Gulf of Mexico . The other tsunami warning center is the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center ( PTWC ) in Ford Island , Hawaii , serving participating members and other nations in the Pacific Ocean area of responsibility .","qid":"2720","docid":"National_Tsunami_Warning_Center","rank":59,"score":109880},{"content":"Title: 1975 Pacific Northwest hurricane Content: The 1975 Pacific Northwest hurricane was an unusual Pacific tropical cyclone that attained hurricane status farther north than any other Pacific hurricane . It was officially unnamed , with the cargo ship providing vital meteorological data in assessing the storm . The twelfth tropical cyclone of the 1975 Pacific hurricane season , it developed from a cold-core upper-level low merging with the remnants of a tropical cyclone on August 31 , well to the northeast of Hawaii . Convection increased as the circulation became better defined , and by early on September 2 it became a tropical storm . Turning to the northeast through an area of warm water temperatures , the storm quickly strengthened , and , after developing an eye , it attained hurricane status late on September 3 , while located about 1,200 miles ( 1,950 km ) south of Alaska . After maintaining peak winds for about 18 hours , the storm rapidly weakened , as it interacted with an approaching cold front . Early on September 5 , it lost its identity near the coast of Alaska .","qid":"2720","docid":"1975_Pacific_Northwest_hurricane","rank":60,"score":109834},{"content":"Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .","qid":"2720","docid":"Future_sea_level","rank":61,"score":109832},{"content":"Title: Chariot, Alaska Content: Chariot is a populated area on the coast of the Chukchi Sea in the western part of North Slope Borough in the U.S. state of Alaska . It is located close to the mouth of Ogotoruk Creek in the Ogotoruk Valley , 10 km ESE of Cape Thompson , Arctic Slope . Maximum elevation 20 m. The place was named around 1962 after Project Chariot by personnel of the project . The name likely refers to a headquarters building on the site .","qid":"2720","docid":"Chariot,_Alaska","rank":62,"score":109538},{"content":"Title: Alaska Time Zone Content: The Alaska Time Zone observes standard time by subtracting nine hours from Coordinated Universal Time ( UTC − 09:00 ) . During daylight saving time its time offset is eight hours ( UTC − 08:00 ) . The clock time in this zone is based on mean solar time at the 135th meridian west of the Greenwich Observatory . The zone includes nearly all of the U.S. state of Alaska and is one hour behind the Pacific Time Zone . standard time : Alaska Standard Time ( AKST ) daylight saving time : Alaska Daylight Time ( AKDT ) The western Aleutian Islands observe Hawaii -- Aleutian Time , one hour behind the remainder of the state . Effective from 2007 , the local time changes from AKST to AKDT at 02:00 LST to 03:00 LDT on the second Sunday in March and returns at 02:00 LDT to 01:00 LST on the first Sunday in November .","qid":"2720","docid":"Alaska_Time_Zone","rank":63,"score":109471},{"content":"Title: Pacific Birds Habitat Joint Venture Content: The Pacific Birds Habitat Joint Venture ( PBHJV ) , previously Pacific Coast Joint Venture is a partnership established in 1991 between governments , organizations , and conservation groups along the Pacific Coast of the United States and Canada , established to protect and enhance wetlands important to migratory birds , within the framework of the North American Waterfowl Management Plan ( NAWMP ) . Participants include the provincial government of British Columbia in Canada , and the state governments of Alaska , California , Hawaii , Oregon and Washington in the United States . The venture 's scope covers an area from San Francisco Bay to Alaska , west of the Coast Mountains , and it was the first joint venture of the NAWMP to have an international scope . Between 2001 and 2004 , Ducks Unlimited Canada and the Canadian Wildlife Service ran a project supported by PBHJV partners to identify and map estuaries in British Columbia that would be targets for conservation . These are located in an expanse covered by the PBHJV of 220,000 km ² of landscape , 460,000 km ² of seascape , and over 30,000 km of shoreline . In California , the Joint Venture focuses on coastal northern California , specifically in Del Norte , Humboldt , Mendocino , Trinity , and Siskiyou Counties . The project in Washington focuses on bird habitats in its western and coastal regions , specifically the bays and straits of northern Washington , the southern Puget Sound and Hood Canal , the Olympic Peninsula , the southern Washington coast , and the Lower Columbia River . In British Columbia , the partnership is focused on the east coast of Vancouver Island and the Fraser River delta . with a goal to `` protect , restore , and enhance the natural integrity of coastal wetlands '' . It also launched Operation Orange , a scientific survey to track spartina , which is `` choking the Pacific shoreline and endangering native species '' . The project also extends to Washington , where the Washington State Department of Agriculture , The Nature Conservancy , and the Puget Sound Joint Venture team track spartina in Puget Sound and the Georgia Strait . Program execution is conducted by Ducks Unlimited Canada in British Columbia .","qid":"2720","docid":"Pacific_Birds_Habitat_Joint_Venture","rank":64,"score":109181},{"content":"Title: Temperate Northern Pacific Content: The Temperate Northern Pacific is a biogeographic region of the Earth 's seas , comprising the temperate waters of the northern Pacific Ocean . The Temperate Northern Pacific connects , via the Bering Sea , to the Arctic marine realm , which includes the polar waters of the Arctic Sea . To the south , it transitions to the tropical marine realms of the Pacific , including the Tropical Eastern Pacific along the Pacific coast of the Americas , the Eastern Indo-Pacific in the central Pacific Ocean , and the Central Indo-Pacific of the western Pacific basin . The Taiwan Strait forms the boundary between the Temperate Northern Pacific and the Central Indo-Pacific . Characteristic fauna include the Pacific salmon and trout ( Oncorhynchus spp . ) , gray whale ( Eschrichtius robustus ) , and North Pacific right whale ( Eubalaena japonica ) .","qid":"2720","docid":"Temperate_Northern_Pacific","rank":65,"score":109000},{"content":"Title: Middleton Island Content: Middleton Island is a small , uninhabited island in the U.S. state of Alaska , located in the Pacific Ocean approximately 80 mi southwest of Cordova . The island was briefly home to Middleton Island Air Force Station , an early warning radar station , from 1958 until the station 's closure in 1963 . During the 1964 Alaska earthquake the island was raised an additional 12 ft above sea level . The island now hosts the unattended Middleton Island Airport and a NEXRAD weather radar .","qid":"2720","docid":"Middleton_Island","rank":66,"score":108966},{"content":"Title: Lituya Mountain Content: Lituya Mountain is a peak in the Fairweather Range of Alaska , United States , south of Mount Fairweather . Its eastern slopes feed a branch of the Johns Hopkins Glacier , which flows into Glacier Bay . On its western side is a large cirque , shared with Mount Fairweather , Mount Quincy Adams , and Mount Salisbury , which heads the Fairweather Glacier ; this flows almost to the Pacific coast at Cape Fairweather . The Lituya Glacier flows from the south side of the mountain into Lituya Bay on the Pacific coast . Though not exceptional in terms of absolute elevation , Lituya Mountain does possess great vertical relief over local terrain . For example , the south side of the mountain drops 8000 ft to the Lituya Glacier in approximately 3 mi , and the southeast side drops the same distance in just over 2 mi . Lituya Mountain is not often climbed , partly due to its proximity to the higher and better-known Mount Fairweather , and partly due to difficult access and bad weather in the Fairweather Range .","qid":"2720","docid":"Lituya_Mountain","rank":67,"score":108911},{"content":"Title: Inside Passage Content: The Inside Passage is a coastal route for oceangoing vessels along a network of passages which weave through the islands on the Pacific coast of North America . The route extends from southeastern Alaska , in the United States , through western British Columbia , in Canada , to northwestern Washington state , in the United States . Ships using the route can avoid some of the bad weather in the open ocean and may visit some of the many isolated communities along the route . The Inside Passage is heavily travelled by cruise ships , freighters , tugs with tows , fishing craft and ships of the Alaska Marine Highway , BC Ferries , and Washington State Ferries systems . The term `` Inside Passage '' is also often used to refer to the ocean and islands around the passage itself . The Inside Passage is also sometimes referred to as the `` Inland Passage '' which is in turn a reference to early explorers ' quests to locate the Northwest Passage between the Pacific Ocean and the Atlantic Ocean .","qid":"2720","docid":"Inside_Passage","rank":68,"score":108849},{"content":"Title: Sea otter conservation Content: Modern efforts in sea otter conservation began in the early 19th century , when the sea otter was nearly extinct due to large-scale commercial hunting . The sea otter was once abundant in a wide arc across the North Pacific ocean , from northern Japan to Alaska to Mexico . By 1911 , hunting for the animal 's luxurious fur had reduced the sea otter population to fewer than 2000 individuals in the most remote and inaccessible parts of its range . During the 20th century , sea otter populations recovered from remnant populations in the far east of Russia , western Alaska , and California . Beginning in the 1960s , efforts to translocate sea otters to previously populated areas were also successful in restoring sea otters to other parts of the west coast of North America . Populations in some areas are now thriving , and the recovery of the sea otter is considered one of the greatest successes in marine conservation . In two important parts of its range , however , sea otter populations have recently declined or have plateaued at depressed levels . In the Aleutian Islands , a massive and unexpected disappearance of sea otters has occurred in recent decades . The cause of the decline is not known , although the observed pattern of disappearances is consistent with a rise in orca predation . Sea otters give live birth . In the 1990s , California 's sea otter population stopped growing for reasons that are probably different from the difficulties facing Alaska 's otters . A high prevalence of infectious disease in juveniles and adults has been found to cause many sea otter deaths , however it is not known why California sea otters would be more vulnerable to disease than populations elsewhere . Other threats to sea otters are well-known . In particular , sea otters are highly vulnerable to oil spills , and a major spill can rapidly kill thousands of the animals . The IUCN lists the sea otter as an endangered species .","qid":"2720","docid":"Sea_otter_conservation","rank":69,"score":108806},{"content":"Title: Paranthrene robiniae Content: Paranthrene robiniae , the western poplar clearwing , is a moth of the Sesiidae family . It is found from sea level to near the timber line from Alaska southward along the Pacific Coast to southern California and throughout the Rocky Mountains into the desert southwest and as far east as Kansas and North Dakota . The wingspan is 23 -- 30 mm for males and 30 -- 36 mm for females . Adults are yellow-black , with orange brown forewings with somewhat darker veins . The hindwings are transparent with a conspicuous deep yellow discal mark and fringed with dark brown scales . Adults emerge mostly from March to August , depending on location . In central California , most emerge by mid June , in eastern Washington as late as mid September and in the extreme southern range in California , specimens have been taken from February to May and again in November . The larvae feed on poplar , willow and birch . Poplars are generally favoured , although willows seem preferred in some areas of California and Oregon . Black cottonwood , balsam poplar , and white poplar , as well as several hybrids poplars , are also recorded as hosts . Newly hatched larvae crawl over the bark for a few hours before selecting suitable sites to begin feeding . The larvae initially excavate cavities in the phloem and cambium and later galleries into the wood . The larvae feed during two successive summer and fall seasons . The first winter in the galleries , which are loosely packed with frass and the second winter in pupal chambers near the distal ends of the galleries . These distal ends are capped with silk , but no cocoons are formed . Pupation lasts two to three weeks . A generation requires two years over most of its range but may be of shorter duration in its southern range .","qid":"2720","docid":"Paranthrene_robiniae","rank":70,"score":108637},{"content":"Title: Coastal cutthroat trout Content: The coastal cutthroat trout ( Oncorhynchus clarkii clarkii ) also known as the sea run cutthroat , or harvest trout is one of the several subspecies of cutthroat trout found in Western North America . The coastal cutthroat trout occurs in four distinct forms . A semi-anadromous or sea-run form is the most well known . Freshwater forms occur in both large and small rivers and streams and lake environments . The native range of the coastal cutthroat trout extends south from the southern coastline of the Kenai Peninsula in Alaska to the Eel River in Northern California . Coastal cutthroat trout are resident in tributary streams and rivers of the Pacific basin and are rarely found more than 100 mi from the ocean . Adults migrate from the ocean to spawn in fresh water . Juveniles migrate to the sea where they feed and become sexually mature before returning to fresh water to overwinter and spawn . Unlike steelhead and Pacific salmon , coastal cutthroat do not make lengthy migrations out to sea . Generally speaking , coastal cutthroat will remain in or near estuarine waters , usually within 5 -- 10 mi ( 10 -- 15 km ) of their natal stream . Some cutthroat , however , have been shown to move as far as 70 mi ( 110 km ) into the open ocean . There are also lacustrine and riverine populations that spend their entire lives in freshwater . One such population is the trout of Lake Crescent in Washington state that was formerly considered to be a separate subspecies called the Crescenti trout , Oncorhynchus clarkii crescenti .","qid":"2720","docid":"Coastal_cutthroat_trout","rank":71,"score":108456},{"content":"Title: Spanish expeditions to the Pacific Northwest Content: Spanish claims to Alaska and the West Coast of North America date to the papal bull of 1493 , and the Treaty of Tordesillas . In 1513 , this claim was reinforced by Spanish explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa , the first European to sight the Pacific Ocean , when he claimed all lands adjoining this ocean for the Spanish Crown . Spain only started to colonize the claimed territory north of present-day Mexico in the 18th century , when it settled the northern coast of Las Californias ( California ) . Starting in the mid-18th century , Spain 's rights began to be challenged by British and Russian fur traders and colonizers . King Charles III of Spain and his successors sent a number of expeditions from New Spain to present-day Canada and Alaska between 1774 and 1793 , to counter this threat and to defend Spanish territorial rights . During this period in history , a nation 's claims or rights to a certain territory were legitimized by exploration and `` prior to Spanish discovery '' .","qid":"2720","docid":"Spanish_expeditions_to_the_Pacific_Northwest","rank":72,"score":108441},{"content":"Title: Seward Peninsula Content: The Seward Peninsula is a large peninsula on the western coast of the U.S. state of Alaska . It projects about 320 km into the Bering Sea between Norton Sound , the Bering Strait , the Chukchi Sea , and Kotzebue Sound , just below the Arctic Circle . The entire peninsula is about 330 km long and 145 km - 225 km wide . Like Seward , Alaska , it was named after William H. Seward , the United States Secretary of State who fought for the U.S. purchase of Alaska . The Seward Peninsula is a remnant of the Bering land bridge , a roughly thousand mile wide swath of land connecting Siberia with mainland Alaska during the Pleistocene Ice Age . This land bridge aided in the migration of humans , as well as plant and animal species from Asia to North America . Archeological discoveries throughout the Chukotka Peninsula and Seward Peninsula show proof that Inupiat people have been living in the region for thousands of years . Excavations at sites such as the Trail Creek Caves and Cape Espenberg in the Bering Land Bridge National Preserve as well as Cape Denbigh to the south have provided insight into the timeline of prehistorical migrations from Asia to the Seward Peninsula .","qid":"2720","docid":"Seward_Peninsula","rank":73,"score":108405},{"content":"Title: Atanik Content: Atanik is a prehistoric and historic Native Alaskan community site on coast of the Chukchi Sea in North Slope Borough , Alaska . A Native village was documented to be at the site in 1838 , and the area may have evidence of much earlier habitation . Archaeological features of interest include the ruins of sod houses , ice cellars , a cemetery , and evidence of whaling-related activity . The site is also believed to have been a point from which inland hunting expeditions were launched . The site was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1980 .","qid":"2720","docid":"Atanik","rank":74,"score":108357},{"content":"Title: Climate change in southeast Alaska Content: Climate change in southeast Alaska are changes which occur in southeast Alaska as average temperatures rise as a result of global warming . The temperate rainforest that covers this area is a result of humid summers and transient snow cover in winter . The conifers that thrive in this moist climate are free from fire risk as compared to the forests to both the north and south . Warmer weather will lengthen the growing period of the trees and the increase in evapotranspiration is likely to outweigh the increase of precipitation . Assuming a scenario involving a mid-range increase in emissions , the average temperature may rise by about 3 ° F by the year 2040 and by 6 ° F by 2080 . The trees will grow more vigorously but fungi that cause rot will also thrive , there is likely to be an increase in windthrow , and fire risk may rise . With winter temperatures increasing , the type of precipitation will change . Lack of snow cover on the ground will expose tree roots to colder soils , and yellow ceder is already showing the result of this with many trees dying . The melting of glaciers in the watershed is likely to accelerate and will cause hydrological changes that will impact the wetland habitats and the distribution of wildlife . Animals such as the black-tailed deer , moose and mountain goat may benefit from less snow cover , while such mammals as the northwestern deer mouse that tunnels under the snow are likely to be disadvantaged .","qid":"2720","docid":"Climate_change_in_southeast_Alaska","rank":75,"score":108345},{"content":"Title: British Columbia Coast Content: The British Columbia Coast or BC Coast is Canada 's western continental coastline on the Pacific Ocean . The usage is synonymous with the term West Coast of Canada . In a sense excluding the urban Lower Mainland area adjacent to the Canada -- United States border , which is considered `` The Coast , '' the British Columbia Coast refers to one of British Columbia 's three main regions , the others being the Lower Mainland and The Interior . The aerial distance from Victoria on the Strait of Juan de Fuca to Stewart , British Columbia on the Alaska border at the head of the Portland Canal is 965 km in length . However , because of its many deep inlets and complicated island shorelines -- and 40,000 islands of varying sizes , including Vancouver Island and Haida Gwaii -- the total length of the British Columbia Coast is over 25725 km , making up about 10 % of the Canadian coastline at 243042 km . The coastline 's geography , which is shared with Southeast Alaska and adjoining parts of northwest Washington , is most comparable to that of Norway and its heavily indented coastline of fjords , a landscape also found in southern Chile . The dominant landforms of the BC Coast are the Insular Mountains , comprising most of Vancouver Island and Haida Gwaii , and the Coast Mountains , which extend beyond into Alaska and the Yukon . The British Columbia Coast is mostly part of the Pacific temperate rain forests ecoregion as defined by the World Wide Fund for Nature . In the system used by Environment Canada , established by the Commission for Environmental Cooperation ( CEC ) , the area is defined as the Pacific Maritime Ecozone . In the geoclimatic zones system used by the British Columbia Ministry of Forests the bulk of the region comprises the Coastal Western Hemlock biogeoclimatic zone , although small areas flanking the Strait of Georgia at the coast 's southern extremity are classed in the Coastal Douglas-fir zone .","qid":"2720","docid":"British_Columbia_Coast","rank":76,"score":108148},{"content":"Title: East Pacific Rise Content: The East Pacific Rise is a mid-oceanic ridge , a divergent tectonic plate boundary located along the floor of the Pacific Ocean . It separates the Pacific Plate to the west from ( north to south ) the North American Plate , the Rivera Plate , the Cocos Plate , the Nazca Plate , and the Antarctic Plate . It runs from south from the Gulf of California in the Salton Sea basin in southern California to a point near 55 ° S , 130 ° W where it joins the Pacific-Antarctic Ridge trending west-southwest towards Antarctica near New Zealand ( though in some uses the PAR is regarded as the southern section of the EPR ) . Much of the rise lies about 3200 km ( 2000 mi ) off the South American coast and rises about 1,800 -- 2,700 m ( 6,000 -- 9,000 ft ) above the surrounding seafloor .","qid":"2720","docid":"East_Pacific_Rise","rank":77,"score":107962},{"content":"Title: Coast Guard Alaska Content: Coast Guard Alaska is an American reality documentary television series on The Weather Channel that premiered on November 9 , 2011 . The series follows members of the United States Coast Guard stationed in Kodiak , Alaska on the job . After a seven episode first season , the series was renewed for a split second season , of five and eight episodes premiering in April and October 2012 respectively . The first season saw ratings increase for The Weather Channel of 95 % on the same timeslot the year prior . A third season premiered on July 17 , 2013 , again made up of a split season of seven then six episodes . A fourth and final eight episode season premiered on February 23 , 2015 . A 13 episode spin-off titled Coast Guard Florida premiered in October 2012 . This was followed on December 5 , 2012 with an hour-long special , Coast Guard : HMS Bounty Rescue , detailing the Coast Guard 's attempt to rescue the replica of the HMS Bounty and its crew during Hurricane Sandy . Another 13 episode spin-off series , Coast Guard Cape Disappointment/Pacific Northwest , premiered in February 2014 .","qid":"2720","docid":"Coast_Guard_Alaska","rank":78,"score":107465},{"content":"Title: Alaska Content: Alaska ( -LSB- əˈlæskə -RSB- ) is a U.S. state located in the northwest extremity of North America . The Canadian administrative divisions of British Columbia and Yukon border the state to the east ; its most extreme western part is Attu Island ; it has a maritime border with Russia to the west across the Bering Strait . To the north are the Chukchi and Beaufort seas -- the southern parts of the Arctic Ocean . The Pacific Ocean lies to the south and southwest . It is the largest state in the United States by area . In addition , it is the 3rd least populous and the most sparsely populated of the 50 United States ; nevertheless , it is by far the most populous territory located mostly north of the 60th parallel in North America , its population ( the total estimated at 738,432 by the U.S. Census Bureau in 2015 ) more than quadrupling the combined populations of Northern Canada and Greenland . Approximately half of Alaska 's residents live within the Anchorage metropolitan area . Alaska 's economy is dominated by the fishing , natural gas , and oil industries , resources which it has in abundance . Military bases and tourism are also a significant part of the economy . The United States purchased Alaska from the Russian Empire on March 30 , 1867 , for 7.2 million U.S. dollars at approximately two cents per acre ( $ 4.74 / km2 ) . The area went through several administrative changes before becoming organized as a territory on May 11 , 1912 . It was admitted as the 49th state of the U.S. on January 3 , 1959 .","qid":"2720","docid":"Alaska","rank":79,"score":107401},{"content":"Title: Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast Content: The indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast are composed of many nations and tribal affiliations , each with distinctive cultural and political identities , but they share certain beliefs , traditions and practices , such as the centrality of salmon as a resource and spiritual symbol . The term Northwest Coast or North West Coast is used in anthropology to refer to the groups of Indigenous people residing along the coast of British Columbia , Washington state , parts of Alaska , Oregon , and northern California . The term Pacific Northwest is largely used in the American context . Prior to the contact with Westerners , warfare between nations , and the enslaving of captives was also an enterprise common to many of the groups . At one point the region had the highest population density of a region inhabited by Aboriginal peoples in Canada .","qid":"2720","docid":"Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Pacific_Northwest_Coast","rank":80,"score":107375},{"content":"Title: Slaty-backed gull Content: The slaty-backed gull ( Larus schistisagus ) is a large white-headed gull that breeds on the western coast of Alaska but travels widely during nonbreeding seasons . It is similar in appearance to the western gull and the glaucous-winged gull . Another alternate name is Pacific gull , though this also applies to a southern hemisphere species , Larus pacificus . Claims have been made as to its ( sometimes occasional ) presence throughout North America as well as the eastern coast of Asia . On November 3 , 2012 , an individual was spotted in Finland . The species has only been spotted three times before in Europe . This species is tied with the Yellow-footed Gull for fourth largest gull species . Measures 55 - in length , 132 - in wingspan and weighs 1.05 - . Among standard measurements , the wing chord is 40.6 to , the bill is 4.8 to and the tarsus is 6 to . It has a white head , belly , and tail with a dark slaty-gray back and wings with a broad white trailing edge . The wings and back are slightly darker than those of the Western Gull . The underside of the wings features a `` string of pearls '' pattern along their edges ; these can be seen from below when the bird is in flight . Its eyes are yellow . The legs are pink and short when compared with those of similar-looking gulls , and the body appears more stout . The bill is yellow with orange-red subterminal spot ( the spot near the end of the bill that chicks peck in order to stimulate regurgitative feeding ) . Immature gulls ' plumage is brown , similar to that of the great black-backed gull , but paler , and is practically indistinguishable from the immature herring gull in the field .","qid":"2720","docid":"Slaty-backed_gull","rank":81,"score":107319},{"content":"Title: Gumboot chiton Content: The gumboot chiton ( Cryptochiton stelleri ) also known as the giant western firey chiton , is the largest of the chitons , growing to 36 cm and over 2 kg . It is found along the shores of the northern Pacific Ocean from Central California to Alaska , across the Aleutian Islands to the Kamchatka Peninsula and south to Japan . It inhabits the lower intertidal and subtidal zones of rocky coastlines . Chitons are molluscs which have eight armored plates ( called valves ) running in a flexible line down their back . Unlike most chitons , the gumboot 's valves are completely hidden by its leathery upper skin or girdle , which is usually reddish-brown , brown , and occasionally orange in color . The gumboot chiton 's appearance has led some tidepoolers to fondly refer to it as the `` wandering meatloaf . ''","qid":"2720","docid":"Gumboot_chiton","rank":82,"score":107201},{"content":"Title: The Blob (Pacific Ocean) Content: The Blob is the name given to a large mass of relatively warm water in the Pacific Ocean off the coast of North America . It was first detected in late 2013 and continued to spread throughout 2014 and 2015 . Sea surface temperature indicated that The Blob persisted into 2016 , but was thought to have dissipated later that year . By September 2016 , `` The Blob '' resurfaced and made itself known to meteorologists . This warm water mass is unusual in ocean conditions and is considered to have a role in the formation of the unusual weather conditions felt in the Pacific Coast . The warm waters of the Blob are nutrient poor and have adversely affected marine life .","qid":"2720","docid":"The_Blob_(Pacific_Ocean)","rank":83,"score":107143},{"content":"Title: Pacific tree frog Content: The Pacific tree frog ( Pseudacris regilla ) , also known as the Pacific chorus frog , has a range from the West Coast of the United States ( from Northern California , Oregon , and Washington ) to British Columbia in Canada and extreme southern Alaska . They live from sea level to more than 10,000 feet in many types of habitats , reproducing in aquatic settings . They occur in shades of greens or browns and can change colors over periods of hours and weeks .","qid":"2720","docid":"Pacific_tree_frog","rank":84,"score":106914},{"content":"Title: Kotzebue Sound Content: Kotzebue Sound is an arm of the Chukchi Sea in the western region of the U.S. state of Alaska . It is on the north side of the Seward Peninsula and bounded the east by the Baldwin Peninsula . It is 100 mi long and 70 mi wide . Kotzebue Sound is located in the transitional climate zone , which is characterized by long , cold winters and cool summers . The average low temperature during January is -12 ° F ; the average high during July is 58 ° F. Temperature extremes have been measured from -52 ° F to 85 ° F. Snowfall averages 40 in , with total precipitation of 9 in per year . Kotzebue Sound is ice-free from early July until early October . The towns of Kotzebue , Kiwalik and Deering are on the shores of Kotzebue Sound . Kotzebue Sound was explored and named in 1816 by Baltic German Lieutenant Otto von Kotzebue while searching for the Northeast Passage in the service of Russia .","qid":"2720","docid":"Kotzebue_Sound","rank":85,"score":106903},{"content":"Title: Fox Islands Passes Content: The Fox Islands Passess are waterways in the Fox Islands area of the U.S. state of Alaska , connecting the Bering Sea with the North Pacific Ocean . From the southward and eastward , bound for Bering Sea , there are three passes used by deep-draft vessels , known collectively as the Fox Islands Passes , and respectively as Unimak , Akutan , and Unalga passes . The largest and most desirable one to use in thick and foggy weather is the eastern one , Unimak Pass . This is clear of hidden dangers , the widest of the three , and is comparatively free from tide rips . It is especially recommended for sailing vessels , and for steamers bound direct to the northward . Akutan and Unalga passes are convenient for steam vessels bound to Unalaska Bay , but , being narrow and having strong currents and tide rips at times , are not recommended for sailing vessels bound north . A fair wind is almost necessary for the passage , and from the southward this would bring fog . The pass between Ashmiak and Ugamok islands on the east and Sea Lion Island on the west may be clear of dangers , but it is not recommended . All of the other minor passes between Unimak and Akutan passes are known to be full of rocks and reefs . The mountains in this vicinity would be excellent landmarks if they could be seen , but in summer they are almost always obscured by fogs or low-lying clouds . The lower hills and islands and objects near the sea level furnish the available landmarks . In coming from the southward or eastward in clear weather , and if bound through Akutan or Unalga passes , it is recommended to steer for Tigalda Island as the first land to be made . It is high and prominent , and when once made a course can be shaped for any of the three passes .","qid":"2720","docid":"Fox_Islands_Passes","rank":86,"score":106835},{"content":"Title: Alaskan Command Content: The Alaskan Command ( ALCOM ) is a joint sub-unified command of the United States Northern Command , ( formerly of United States Pacific Command ) responsible for operations in and around the state of Alaska . Alaskan Command is charged with maintaining air sovereignty , deploying forces for worldwide contingencies as directed by the Commander , Pacific Command , providing support to federal and state authorities during civil emergencies and conducting joint training for the rapid deployment of combat forces . ALCOM combined forces include more than 16,000 Air Force , Army , Navy and Coast Guard personnel , and 3,700 guardsmen and reservists . Recently , the Command Representative for Missile Defense position was created to be the focal point for all issues related to Ground-Based Midcourse Defense in Alaska , in support of Alaskan Command , the Alaska NORAD Region , and the Eleventh Air Force . ALCOM is headquartered at Joint Base Elmendorf-Richardson near Anchorage . The command is made up of the following military forces : Eleventh Air Force , headquartered at Elmendorf Air Force Base United States Army Alaska , headquartered at Fort Richardson United States Naval Forces , Alaska , headquartered in Juneau","qid":"2720","docid":"Alaskan_Command","rank":87,"score":106809},{"content":"Title: 1949 Queen Charlotte Islands earthquake Content: The 1949 Queen Charlotte Islands earthquake struck the sparsely populated Queen Charlotte Islands and the Pacific Northwest coast at 8:01 p.m. PDT on August 21 . The shock had a surface wave magnitude of 8.1 and a maximum Mercalli Intensity of VIII ( Severe ) . The interplate earthquake began in the ocean bottom just off the rugged coast of Graham Island . It ruptured along the Queen Charlotte Fault both northward and southward more than 500 km . Shaking was felt throughout British Columbia , parts of Washington , Oregon , Alberta , the Yukon , and Alaska . No deaths were reported in this earthquake .","qid":"2720","docid":"1949_Queen_Charlotte_Islands_earthquake","rank":88,"score":106792},{"content":"Title: Mount Salisbury Content: Mount Salisbury is a peak in the Fairweather Range of Alaska , 6 miles ( 10 km ) southeast of Mount Fairweather . Its east slopes feed one of the northern branches of the Johns Hopkins Glacier , which flows into Glacier Bay . On its western side is a large cirque , shared with Mount Fairweather , Mount Quincy Adams , and Lituya Mountain , which heads the Fairweather Glacier ; this flows almost to the Pacific coast at Cape Fairweather . Though not exceptional in terms of absolute elevation , Mount Salisbury does possess great vertical relief over local terrain : for example , the southwest side of the mountain drops over 10000 ft to the Johns Hopkins Glacier in only five miles . Mount Salisbury is not often climbed , partly due to its proximity to the higher and better-known Mount Fairweather , and partly due to difficult access and the typically bad weather that this range ironically possesses .","qid":"2720","docid":"Mount_Salisbury","rank":89,"score":106443},{"content":"Title: Geography of Yukon Content: Yukon '' ' is in the northwestern corner of Canada and is bordered by Alaska and the Northwest Territories . The sparsely populated territory abounds with natural scenic beauty , with snowmelt lakes and perennial white-capped mountains , including many of Canada 's highest mountains . The territory 's climate is Arctic in the north ( north of Old Crow ) , subarctic in the central region , between north of Whitehorse and Old Crow , and has a humid continental climate in the far south , south of Whitehorse and in areas close to the BC border . The long sunshine hours in the short summer allow a profusion of flowers and fruit to blossom . Most of the territory is boreal forest , tundra being the main vegetation zone only in the extreme north and at high elevations . The territory is about the shape of a right triangle , bordering the American state of Alaska to the west , the Northwest Territories to the east and British Columbia to the south . Yukon covers 482,443 km2 , of which 474,391 km2 is land and 8,052 km2 is water . It is bounded on the south by the 60th parallel of latitude . Its northern coast is on the Beaufort Sea . Its western boundary is 141 ° west longitude . Its ragged eastern boundary mostly follows the divide between the Yukon River Basin and the Mackenzie River watershed to the east in the Mackenzie mountains .","qid":"2720","docid":"Geography_of_Yukon","rank":90,"score":106406},{"content":"Title: Amukta Pass Content: Amukta Pass is a wide strait between the Bering Sea and the North Pacific Ocean in the Aleutian Islands in Alaska . It lies between Amukta Island to the east and Seguam Island to the west .","qid":"2720","docid":"Amukta_Pass","rank":91,"score":106344},{"content":"Title: Sarichef Island Content: Sarichef Island is a long and narrow coastal island on the Chukchi Sea-facing coast of Alaska . It is located at the mouth of the Shishmaref Inlet , Kotzebue-Kobuk Low Sarichef Island is 7 km in length . The highest point on the island is 6 m above sea level . Shishmaref town and Shishmaref Airport are located on this island . This island was named in 1816 by explorer Lt. Otto von Kotzebue , of the Imperial Russian Navy , `` in the honor of his worthy '' Vice Admiral Gavril Sarychev ( 1763 -- 1831 ) .","qid":"2720","docid":"Sarichef_Island","rank":92,"score":106342},{"content":"Title: Norton Sound Content: Norton Sound is an inlet of the Bering Sea on the western coast of the U.S. state of Alaska , south of the Seward Peninsula . It is about 240 km ( 150 mi ) long and 200 km ( 125 mi ) wide . The Yukon River delta forms a portion of the south shore and water from the Yukon influences this body of water . It is ice-free from June to October . Norton Sound was explored by Captain James Cook in September 1778 . He named the body of water after Sir Fletcher Norton , then Speaker of the British House of Commons . The Norton Sound area has been home to Yup ` ik and Inupiat for many centuries . It is the boundary between the two peoples ; the Inupiat live to the north and the Yup ` ik to the south . The town of Nome is along the northern edge of Norton Sound . The villages of Elim , Golovin , Stebbins , White Mountain , Koyuk , Shaktoolik , St. Michael , and Unalakleet are on the shores or waterways flowing into Norton Sound . The Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race runs through coastal villages between Unalakleet and Nome . The seaplane tender USS Norton Sound was named after the inlet .","qid":"2720","docid":"Norton_Sound","rank":93,"score":106074},{"content":"Title: Davidson Current Content: In oceanography , the Davidson Current is a coastal countercurrent of the Pacific Ocean running north along the western coast of the United States from Baja California , Mexico to northern California , ending at about latitude 48 ° N. Its flow is adjacent to the California Current , but it flows north rather than south and hugs the coastline . The current is active year-round at 650 feet ( 200 meters ) below sea level , but surfaces during the winter months , generally from mid-November through mid-February . In these months , northerly winds weaken and are replaced to some extent by southeasterly winds .","qid":"2720","docid":"Davidson_Current","rank":94,"score":105762},{"content":"Title: Cape Sarichef Light Content: Cape Sarichef Light is a lighthouse located on the northwest tip of Unimak Island , approximately 630 mi southwest of Anchorage , Alaska . The most westerly and most isolated lighthouse in North America , Cape Sarichef Light marks the northwest end of Unimak Pass , the main passage through the Aleutian Islands between the Bering Sea and the Pacific Ocean . When it was first lit on July 1 , 1904 , it was Alaska 's second coastal lighthouse ( after Scotch Cap Light ) , and the only U.S. manned lighthouse on the Bering Sea . Today , the lighthouse is automated , and the beacon is mounted on a skeleton tower . Cape Sarichef was named in 1816 by Russian explorer Otto von Kotzebue after Admiral Gavril Sarychev of the Imperial Russian Navy .","qid":"2720","docid":"Cape_Sarichef_Light","rank":95,"score":105727},{"content":"Title: 1964 Alaska earthquake Content: The 1964 Alaskan earthquake , also known as the Great Alaskan earthquake and Good Friday earthquake , occurred at 5:36 P.M. AST on Good Friday , March 27 . Across south-central Alaska , ground fissures , collapsing structures , and tsunamis resulting from the earthquake caused about 139 deaths . Lasting four minutes and thirty-eight seconds , the magnitude 9.2 megathrust earthquake was the most powerful recorded in North American history , and the second most powerful recorded in world history . Soil liquefaction , fissures , landslides , and other ground failures caused major structural damage in several communities and much damage to property . Anchorage sustained great destruction or damage to many inadequately earthquake engineered houses , buildings , and infrastructure ( paved streets , sidewalks , water and sewer mains , electrical systems , and other man-made equipment ) , particularly in the several landslide zones along Knik Arm . Two hundred miles southwest , some areas near Kodiak were permanently raised by 30 ft. Southeast of Anchorage , areas around the head of Turnagain Arm near Girdwood and Portage dropped as much as 8 ft , requiring reconstruction and fill to raise the Seward Highway above the new high tide mark . In Prince William Sound , Port Valdez suffered a massive underwater landslide , resulting in the deaths of 30 people between the collapse of the Valdez city harbor and docks , and inside the ship that was docked there at the time . Nearby , a 27 ft tsunami destroyed the village of Chenega , killing 23 of the 68 people who lived there ; survivors out-ran the wave , climbing to high ground . Post-quake tsunamis severely affected Whittier , Seward , Kodiak , and other Alaskan communities , as well as people and property in British Columbia , Washington , Oregon , and California . Tsunamis also caused damage in Hawaii and Japan . Evidence of motion directly related to the earthquake was also reported from Florida and Texas .","qid":"2720","docid":"1964_Alaska_earthquake","rank":96,"score":105709},{"content":"Title: Fenimore Pass Content: Fenimore Pass is a strait between the Bering Sea and the North Pacific Ocean in the Aleutian Islands in Alaska . It lies between Oglodak Island to the east and Tagalak Island to the west .","qid":"2720","docid":"Fenimore_Pass","rank":97,"score":105692},{"content":"Title: Saint Elias Mountains Content: The Saint Elias Mountains are a subgroup of the Pacific Coast Ranges , located in southeastern Alaska in the United States , southwestern Yukon and the very far northwestern part of British Columbia in Canada . The range spans Wrangell-St . Elias National Park and Preserve in the USA and Kluane National Park and Reserve in Canada and includes all of Glacier Bay National Park in Alaska . In Alaska , the range includes parts of the city/borough of Yakutat and the Hoonah-Angoon and Valdez-Cordova census areas . This mountain range was named after Mount Saint Elias which had been named in 1741 by the Russian explorer Vitus Bering .","qid":"2720","docid":"Saint_Elias_Mountains","rank":98,"score":105651},{"content":"Title: Chrysaora fuscescens Content: Chrysaora fuscescens ( commonly known as the Pacific sea nettle or West Coast sea nettle ) is a common free-floating scyphozoan that lives in the East Pacific Ocean from Canada to Mexico . Sea nettles have a distinctive golden-brown bell with a reddish tint . The bell can grow to be larger than one meter ( three feet ) in diameter in the wild , though most are less than 50 cm across . The long , spiraling , white oral arms and the 24 undulating maroon tentacles may trail behind as far as 15 feet . For humans , its sting is often irritating , but rarely dangerous . Chrysaora fuscescens has proven to be very popular for display at public aquariums due to their bright colors and relatively easy maintenance . It is possible to establish polyps and culture Chrysaora in captivity . When provided appropriate aquarium conditions , the medusae do well under captive conditions .","qid":"2720","docid":"Chrysaora_fuscescens","rank":99,"score":105636},{"content":"Title: Cape Wrangell Content: Cape Wrangell is considered to be the westernmost point of Alaska and all of the United States by direction of travel . It is located on Attu Island , which is situated in the Near Islands . Following this definition of westernmost , an alternative westernmost point would be located on the tiny ( ca. 200m diameter ) Peaked Island , just off the coast to the west , but because both sit west of the 180th meridian , these two are at times viewed as the easternmost points of the United States .","qid":"2720","docid":"Cape_Wrangell","rank":100,"score":105489}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: North Pacific Oscillation Content: The North Pacific Oscillation ( NPO ) is a teleconnection pattern first described by Walker and Bliss and characterized by a north-south seesaw in sea level pressure over the North Pacific . Rogers , using surface atmospheric temperature from St. Paul , Alaska and Edmonton , identified two phases of the NPO , an Aleutian below ( AB ) phase that correspond to a deepened and eastward shifted Aleutian low and an Aleutian above ( AA ) phase that is the opposite . During the positive ( AB ) phase sea level pressure is enhanced over a large region in the subtropics that extend poleward to 40N ° and reduced at higher latitudes , westerlies are enhanced over the central Pacific and winter temperature are mild along much of the North America west coast but cooler than usual over Eastern Siberia and the United States South-West , precipitations are higher than usual over Alaska and the Great Plains . The NPGO is the oceanic expression of the NPO .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"North_Pacific_Oscillation\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 141781\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pacific Coast Ranges Content: The Pacific Coast Ranges ( officially gazetted as the Pacific Mountain System in the United States but referred to as the Pacific Coast Ranges ) , are the series of mountain ranges that stretch along the West Coast of North America from Alaska south to Northern and Central Mexico . The Pacific Coast Ranges are part of the North American Cordillera ( sometimes known as the Western Cordillera , or in Canada , as the Pacific Cordillera and/or the Canadian Cordillera ) , which includes the Rocky Mountains , Columbia Mountains , Interior Mountains , the Interior Plateau , Sierra Nevada Mountains , the Great Basin mountain ranges , and other ranges and various plateaus and basins . The Pacific Coast Ranges designation , however , only applies to the Western System of the Western Cordillera , which comprises the Saint Elias Mountains , Coast Mountains , Insular Mountains , Olympic Mountains , Cascade Range , Oregon Coast Range , California Coast Ranges , Transverse Ranges , Peninsular Ranges , and the Sierra Madre Occidental .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Pacific_Coast_Ranges\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 136971\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Alaska Current Content: The Alaska Current is a southwestern warm-water current along the coast of British Columbia and the Alaska Panhandle . The current results from the northward diversion of a portion of the North Pacific Current when that current meets the west coast of the North American continent . It forms a part of the counterclockwise gyre in the Gulf of Alaska . In contrast to typical sub-Arctic Pacific water , Alaska Current water is characterized by temperatures above 39 ° F ( 4 ° C ) and surface salinities below 32.6 parts per thousand . In the northern Gulf of Alaska , the Alaska Current continues into the Alaskan Stream , which begins near Kodiak Island and flows southwestward along the Alaska Peninsula . The Alaska Current produces large clockwise eddies at two sites : west of the Queen Charlotte Islands ( `` Queen Charlotte Eddy '' or `` Haida Eddies '' ) and west of Sitka ( `` Sitka Eddy '' ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Alaska_Current\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 135890\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1946 Aleutian Islands earthquake Content: The 1946 Aleutian Islands earthquake occurred near the Aleutian Islands , Alaska on April 1 . The shock had a moment magnitude of 8.6 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of VI ( Strong ) . It resulted in 165 -- 173 casualties and over $ 26 million in damage . The seafloor along the fault was elevated , triggering a Pacific-wide tsunami with multiple destructive waves at heights ranging from 45 -- 130 ft. The tsunami obliterated the Scotch Cap Lighthouse on Unimak Island , Alaska among others , and killed all five lighthouse keepers . Despite the destruction to the Aleutian Island Unimak , the tsunami had almost an imperceptible effect on the Alaskan mainland . The wave reached Kauai , Hawaii 4.5 hours after the quake , and Hilo , Hawaii 4.9 hours later . The residents of these islands were caught completely off-guard by the onset of the tsunami due to the inability to transmit any warnings from the destroyed posts at Scotch Cap . The effects of the tsunami also reached the West Coast of the United States . The tsunami was unusually powerful for the size of the earthquake . The event was classified as a tsunami earthquake due to the discrepancy between the size of the tsunami and the relatively low surface wave magnitude . The large-scale destruction prompted the creation of the Seismic Sea Wave Warning System , which later became the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center in 1949 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"1946_Aleutian_Islands_earthquake\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 135022\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Marine transgression Content: A marine transgression is a geologic event during which sea level rises relative to the land and the shoreline moves toward higher ground , resulting in flooding . Transgressions can be caused either by the land sinking or the ocean basins filling with water ( or decreasing in capacity ) . Transgressions and regressions may be caused by tectonic events such as orogenies , severe climate change such as ice ages or isostatic adjustments following removal of ice or sediment load . During the Cretaceous , seafloor spreading created a relatively shallow Atlantic basin at the expense of deeper Pacific basin . This reduced the world 's ocean basin capacity and caused a rise in sea level worldwide . As a result of this sea level rise , the oceans transgressed completely across the central portion of North America and created the Western Interior Seaway from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean . The opposite of transgression is regression , in which the sea level falls relative to the land and exposes former sea bottom . During the Pleistocene Ice Ages , so much water was removed from the oceans and stored on land as year-round glaciers that the ocean regressed 120 m , exposing the Bering land bridge between Alaska and Asia .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Marine_transgression\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 131763\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Northern Pacific coastal forests (WWF ecoregion) Content: The Northern Pacific coastal forests are temperate coniferous forest ecoregion of the Pacific coast of North America . It occupies a narrow coastal zone of Alaska , between the Pacific Ocean and the northernmost Pacific Coast Ranges , covering an area of 23,300 square miles ( 60,400 square kilometers ) , extending from the Alexander Archipelago in southeast Alaska along the Gulf of Alaska to the western Kenai Peninsula and eastern Kodiak Island . The Pacific Coastal Mountain icefields and tundra ecoregion lies inland , at higher elevations in the Coast Mountains . The ecoregion receives high rainfall , which varies considerably based on exposure and elevation . It contains a quarter of the world 's remaining temperate rain forest .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Northern_Pacific_coastal_forests_(WWF_ecoregion)\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 131281\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Oregon Coast Range Content: This article is about the range in Oregon . For the larger grouping also known as the Coast Ranges , see Pacific Coast Ranges . The Oregon Coast Range , often called simply the Coast Range and sometimes the Pacific Coast Range , is a mountain range , in the Pacific Coast Ranges physiographic region , in the U.S. state of Oregon along the Pacific Ocean . This north-south running range extends over 200 mi from the Columbia River in the north on the border of Oregon and Washington , south to the middle fork of the Coquille River . It is 30 to wide and averages around 1500 ft in elevation above sea level . The coast range has three main sections , a Northern , Central , and Southern . The oldest portions of the range are over 60 million years old , with volcanics and a forearc basin as the primary mountain building processes responsible for the range . It is part of the larger grouping known as the Pacific Coast Ranges that extends over much of the western edge of North America from California to Alaska . The range creates a rain shadow effect for the Willamette Valley that lies to the east of the mountains , creating a more stable climate and significantly less rain than the coastal region of the state . To the west where the range over-shadows the Oregon Coast , the range causes more precipitation to fall on that side of the mountains , contributing to the numerous rivers that flow to the Pacific Ocean . Marys Peak in the Central Coast Range is the highest peak at 4,097 feet ( 1,248 m ) . Logging is a major industry in the range in both private and government owned forests . Both the state and federal government manage forests in the Oregon Coast Range . The mountains are home to a variety of wildlife including black bear , elk , deer , beaver , many species of birds , and bats among others . Fish , including salmon and trout , and other aquatic life inhabit the streams and rivers flowing through the range .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Oregon_Coast_Range\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 130698\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Chugach Mountains Content: The Chugach Mountains of southern Alaska are the northernmost of the several mountain ranges that make up the Pacific Coast Ranges of the western edge of North America . The range is about 250 mi long and 60 mi wide , and extends from the Knik and Turnagain Arms of the Cook Inlet on the west to Bering Glacier , Tana Glacier , and the Tana River on the east . It is bounded on the north by the Matanuska , Copper , and Chitina rivers . The highest point of the Chugach Mountains is Mount Marcus Baker , at 13094 ft , but with an average elevation of 4006 ft , most of its summits are not especially high . Even so its position along the Gulf of Alaska ensures more snowfall in the Chugach than anywhere else in the world , an annual average of over 1500 cm ( 600 in ) . The mountains are protected in the Chugach State Park and the Chugach National Forest . Near to Anchorage , they are a popular destination for outdoor activities . Weather permitting , the World Extreme Skiing Championship is held annually in the Chugach Mountains near Valdez . The Richardson Highway , Seward Highway , Portage Glacier Highway , and the Glenn Highway run through the Chugach Mountains . The Anton Anderson Memorial Tunnel of the Portage Glacier Highway provides railroad and automobile access underneath Maynard Mountain between Portage Lake and the city of Whittier on Prince William Sound .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Chugach_Mountains\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 129422\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coastal Waters of Southeast Alaska and British Columbia Content: The Coastal Waters of Southeast Alaska and British Columbia is a marine area designated by the International Hydrographic Organization ( IHO ) . It comprises waterbodies along the Pacific coast of British Columbia , Canada and the Alaska Panhandle , United States ; some waters off north-west Washington are also included . These waterbodies include the Salish Sea ( Strait of Juan de Fuca , Puget Sound , Strait of Georgia , and connecting waterbodies ) , Queen Charlotte Strait , Queen Charlotte Sound , Hecate Strait , Dixon Entrance , Clarence Strait , Sumner Strait , Chatham Strait , Sitka Sound , Frederick Sound , Stephens Passage and Icy Strait .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Coastal_Waters_of_Southeast_Alaska_and_British_Columbia\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 128321\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Gulf of Alaska Content: The Gulf of Alaska is an arm of the Pacific Ocean defined by the curve of the southern coast of Alaska , stretching from the Alaska Peninsula and Kodiak Island in the west to the Alexander Archipelago in the east , where Glacier Bay and the Inside Passage are found . The entire shoreline of the Gulf is a rugged combination of forest , mountain , and a number of tidewater glaciers . Alaska 's largest glaciers , the Malaspina Glacier and Bering Glacier , spill out onto the coastal line along the Gulf of Alaska . The coast is heavily indented , with Cook Inlet and Prince William Sound the two largest connected bodies of water . It includes Yakutat Bay and Cross Sound . Lituya Bay is the site of the largest recorded tsunami in history . It is customarily a popular sheltered anchorage for fishing boats .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Gulf_of_Alaska\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 127855\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coast Mountains Content: The Coast Mountains are a major mountain range in the Pacific Coast Ranges of western North America , extending from southwestern Yukon through the Alaska Panhandle and virtually all of the Coast of British Columbia south to the Fraser River . The mountain range 's name derives from its proximity to the sea coast , and is often referred to as the Coast Range . The range includes volcanic and non-volcanic mountains and the extensive ice fields of the Pacific and Boundary Ranges , and the northern end of the volcanic system known as the Cascade Volcanoes . The Coast Mountains are part of a larger mountain system called the Pacific Coast Ranges or the Pacific Mountain System , which includes the Cascade Range , the Insular Mountains , the Olympic Mountains , the Oregon Coast Range , the California Coast Ranges , the Saint Elias Mountains and the Chugach Mountains . The Coast Mountains are also part of the American Cordilleraa Spanish term for an extensive chain of mountain rangesthat consists of an almost continuous sequence of mountain ranges that form the western backbone of North America , Central America , South America and Antarctica . The Coast Mountains are approximately 1600 km long and average 300 km in width . The range 's southern and southeastern boundaries are surrounded by the Fraser River and the Interior Plateau while its far northwestern edge is delimited by the Kelsall and Tatshenshini Rivers at the north end of the Alaska Panhandle , beyond which are the Saint Elias Mountains , and by Champagne Pass in the Yukon Territory . Covered in dense temperate rainforest on its western exposures , the range rises to heavily glaciated peaks , including the largest temperate-latitude ice fields in the world . On its eastern flanks , the range tapers to the dry Interior Plateau and the subarctic boreal forests of the Skeena Mountains and Stikine Plateau . The Coast Mountains are part of the Pacific Ring of Firethe ring of volcanoes and associated mountains around the Pacific Oceanand contains some of British Columbia 's highest mountains . Mount Waddington is the highest mountain of the Coast Mountains and the highest that lies entirely within British Columbia , located northeast of the head of Knight Inlet with an elevation of 4019 m.\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Coast_Mountains\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 127704\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: West Coast of the United States Content: The West Coast or Pacific Coast is the coastline along which the contiguous Western United States meets the North Pacific Ocean . As a region , this term most often refers to the coastal states of California , Oregon and Washington . More specifically , it refers to an area defined on the east by the Cascade Range , Sierra Nevada and Mojave Desert , and on the west by the Pacific Ocean . The U.S. Census groups the five states of California , Oregon , Washington , Alaska , and Hawaii together as the Pacific States division .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"West_Coast_of_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 127442\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bering Sea Content: The Bering Sea is a marginal sea of the Pacific Ocean . It comprises a deep water basin , which then rises through a narrow slope into the shallower water above the continental shelves The Bering Sea is separated from the Gulf of Alaska by the Alaska Peninsula . It covers over 2,000,000 km2 and is bordered on the east and northeast by Alaska , on the west by Russian Far East and Kamchatka Peninsula , on the south by the Alaska Peninsula and the Aleutian Islands and on the far north by the Bering Strait , which connects the Bering Sea to the Arctic Ocean 's Chukchi Sea . Bristol Bay is the portion of the Bering Sea which separates the Alaska Peninsula from mainland Alaska . The Bering Sea is named for Vitus Bering , a Danish navigator in Russian service , who in 1728 was the first European to systematically explore it , sailing from the Pacific Ocean northward to the Arctic Ocean . The Bering Sea ecosystem includes resources within the jurisdiction of the United States and Russia , as well as international waters in the middle of the sea ( known as the `` Donut Hole '' ) . The interaction between currents , sea ice , and weather makes for a vigorous and productive ecosystem .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Bering_Sea\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 125249\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: West Pacific Flyway Content: The West Pacific Flyway is a bird migration route that stretches from New Zealand and the east coast of Australia , northwards through the central Pacific Ocean , including Papua New Guinea , eastern Indonesia and the Philippines , the east coast of northern Asia , including Japan and the Korean Peninsula , and ending at the Bering and Chukchi Seas encompassing easternmost Siberia ( including the Chukotka and Kamchatka Peninsulas ) and the Alaskan Peninsula . It overlaps along its western margin with the East Asian - Australasian Flyway , and at its north eastern extremity with the Central Asian Flyway in the vicinity of Wrangel and Herald Islands . The West Pacific Flyway covers a large number of Pacific islands including the American Samoa , the Cook Islands , Fiji , French Polynesia , Guam , Hawaii , Kiribati , the Marshall Islands , Micronesia , Nauru , New Caledonia , Niue , the Northern Mariana Islands , Palau , the Pitcairn Islands , the Solomon Islands , Tokelau , Tonga , Tuvalu , Vanuatu , the Wallis and Futuna Islands and Western Samoa .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"West_Pacific_Flyway\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 124803\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Abies amabilis Content: Abies amabilis , commonly known as the Pacific silver fir , is a fir native to the Pacific Northwest of North America , occurring in the Pacific Coast Ranges and the Cascade Range from the extreme southeast of Alaska , through western British Columbia , Washington and Oregon , to the extreme northwest of California . It is also commonly referred to as the white fir , red fir , lovely fir , Amabilis fir , Cascades fir , or silver fir . It grows at altitudes of sea level to 1500 m in the north of the range , and 1000 - in the south of the range , always in temperate rain forest with relatively high precipitation and cool , humid summers . Common associate trees are Douglas fir and in the extreme southern area of its range , California buckeye .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Abies_amabilis\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 124168\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pacific decadal oscillation Content: The Pacific Decadal Oscillation ( PDO ) is a robust , recurring pattern of ocean-atmosphere climate variability centered over the mid-latitude Pacific basin . The PDO is detected as warm or cool surface waters in the Pacific Ocean , north of 20 ° N. Over the past century , the amplitude of this climate pattern has varied irregularly at interannual-to-interdecadal time scales ( meaning time periods of a few years to as much as time periods of multiple decades ) . There is evidence of reversals in the prevailing polarity ( meaning changes in cool surface waters versus warm surface waters within the region ) of the oscillation occurring around 1925 , 1947 , and 1977 ; the last two reversals corresponded with dramatic shifts in salmon production regimes in the North Pacific Ocean . This climate pattern also affects coastal sea and continental surface air temperatures from Alaska to California . During a `` warm '' , or `` positive '' , phase , the west Pacific becomes cooler and part of the eastern ocean warms ; during a `` cool '' or `` negative '' phase , the opposite pattern occurs . The Pacific Decadal Oscillation was named by Steven R. Hare , who noticed it while studying salmon production pattern results in 1997 . The Pacific Decadal Oscillation index is the leading empirical orthogonal function ( EOF ) of monthly sea surface temperature anomalies ( SST-A ) over the North Pacific ( poleward of 20 ° N ) after the global average sea surface temperature has been removed . This PDO index is the standardized principal component time series . A PDO ` signal ' has been reconstructed to 1661 through tree-ring chronologies in the Baja California area .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Pacific_decadal_oscillation\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 123391\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pacific temperate rainforests (WWF ecoregion) Content: The Pacific temperate rainforests ecoregion of North America is the largest temperate rain forest ecoregion on the planet as defined by the World Wildlife Fund ( other definitions exist ) . The Pacific temperate rain forests lie along the western side of the Pacific Coast Ranges along the Pacific Northwest Coast of North America from the Prince William Sound in Alaska through the British Columbia Coast to Northern California , and are part of the Nearctic ecozone , as also defined by the World Wildlife Fund . The Pacific temperate rain forests are characterized by a high amount of rainfall , in some areas more than 300 cm per year and moderate temperatures in both the summer and winter months ( 10 - ) . This ecoregion is a subregion of the Cascadia bioregion . These rain forests occur in a number of ecoregions , which vary in their species composition , but are predominantly of conifers , sometimes with an understory of broadleaf trees , ferns and shrubs . In the WWF 's system , sub-ecoregions of the Pacific Temperate Rain Forests Ecoregion are the Northern Pacific coastal forests , Haida Gwaii , British Columbia mainland coastal forests , Central Pacific coastal forests , Central and Southern Cascades forests , Klamath-Siskiyou forests , and Northern California coastal forests ecoregions . The forests in the north contain predominantly Sitka spruce and western hemlock , while those in the coastal forests are home as well to coast redwood ( Sequoia sempervirens ) , coast Douglas-fir ( Pseudotsuga menziesii ) , western redcedar and shore pine . Notably , the three tallest species of trees are found here . Dense growths of epiphytes and mosses cover the trees , and lush vegetation is present everywhere . Hardwood trees such as the bigleaf maple and the alder are also common , especially at lower elevations and along stream banks , and are vital to the ecosystem , in part because of their nitrogen fixing .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Pacific_temperate_rainforests_(WWF_ecoregion)\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 123061\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pacific Maritime Ecozone (CEC) Content: The Pacific Maritime Ecozone , as defined by the Commission for Environmental Cooperation ( CEC ) , is a Canadian terrestrial ecozone , spanning a strip approximately 200 kilometres wide along the British Columbian coast , then narrowing along the border with Alaska . It also includes all marine islands of British Columbia , and a small portion of the southwestern corner of the Yukon . Fourteen ecoregions comprise the Ecozone , ranging from the Mount Logan Ecoregion in the north to the Cascade Ecoregion and Lower Mainland Ecoregion in the south . The name of the comparable ecozones in the United States , where Level II ecoregions correspond to the international term `` ecozone '' , are the Marine West Coast Forest and the Northwestern Forested Mountains . ecoregions . In the floristic province system , the region is described as part of the Rocky Mountain Floristic Region . Also in use is a system of biogeoclimatic zones defined and used by the British Columbia government , which defines the same area as the Coastal Western Hemlock zone , though a small portion flanking the Strait of Georgia comprises the Coastal Douglas-fir zone . In the different ecoregion system established by the World Wildlife Fund , the region corresponds to the Pacific Temperate Rain Forests Ecoregion , sub-ecoregions of which are the Queen Charlotte Islands ecoregion , Vancouver Island ecoregion , British Columbia mainland coastal forests ecoregions\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Pacific_Maritime_Ecozone_(CEC)\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 121596\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pacific-Alaska Navigation Company Content: The Pacific-Alaska Navigation Company was an American passenger and freight ocean shipping company that operated between 1912 and 1916 on the West Coast of North America . It was formed as a holding company during the merger of the Alaska Pacific Steamship Company and the Alaska Coast Company . During its four years of life , its fleet became known as the Admiral Line because its ships ( for example , the Admiral Watson ) were usually named for former U.S. Navy admirals . The company was operated by president H.F. `` Bert '' Alexander , a former Tacoma longshoreman who worked his way up the ranks . During the company 's brief history , it suffered at least two significant accidents . The steamer SS Yukon ran aground June 23 , 1913 on the northwest coast of Sanak Island on a reef subsequently named for the ship . A second major accident occurred Aug. 26 , 1914 when the SS Admiral Sampson was rammed by the SS Princess Victoria of the Canadian Pacific Line . Both ships were operating in heavy fog within Puget Sound , 18 miles north of Seattle . The Admiral Sampson sank , killing 11 , while the Princess Victoria returned to Seattle with the survivors of the accident . In 1916 , the Pacific-Alaska Navigation Company operated nine steamships when it merged with the Pacific Coast Steamship Company , operator of 13 ships . The resulting company became known as the Pacific Steamship Company .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Pacific-Alaska_Navigation_Company\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 121130\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pacific Hockey League (1994) Content: For the late 1970s ice hockey league , see Pacific Hockey League . The Pacific Hockey League ( PHL ) was a short lived semi-professional ice hockey league in the western United States in the 1990s . The league was formed by a merger of two previous semi-professional leagues , the Pacific Southwest Hockey League and Pacific Northwest Hockey League . Several PHL teams became charter members of the professional West Coast Hockey League in 1995 . The PHL played only one season , 1994 -- 95 . In addition to its league schedule the Anchorage Aces played several out-of-league games , while the Fresno Falcons also played opponents from the Florida-based Sunshine Hockey League . The Fairbanks-based Alaska Gold Kings were the league 's sole champions . After the season three PHL teams , the Aces , Falcons and Gold Kings , joined the WCHL . A fourth team , the Los Angeles Bandits , briefly joined the dubious North American League before folding .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Pacific_Hockey_League_(1994)\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 120006\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hetta Inlet Content: Hetta Inlet is a deep embayment in the southwestern coast of Prince of Wales Island in the U.S. state of Alaska . It connects with the Pacific Ocean through Cordova Bay . The head of the inlet is separated by a 200 ft divide from the West Arm of Cholmondeley Sound . The shores are abrupt from the water 's edge , and the channels and inlets are deep . The precipitation is probably a little greater than at Ketchikan , and the mean annual temperature is slightly higher . The white crystalline limestone of the Wales series , striking nearly north and south , is the predominant country rock of Hetta Inlet . In it are intruded many igneous rocks , some schistose , some massive . The white limestones are closely folded and have great variation in dip . The igneous rocks , so far as determined from the small collection made , include gabbros , diorites , amphibolites , diabases , and pyroxene-syenites . All these are comparatively massive . The greenstoneschists , which occupy considerable areas , are chloritic . The inlet is bordered on the west by lands of the Tongass National Forest , which are included in the 13720 acre Hydaburg Roadless Area .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Hetta_Inlet\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 119979\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ugashik Bay Content: Ugashik Bay is a bay of the Bering Sea in the U.S. state of Alaska . It is an elongated , comma-shaped estuary formed where the Ugashik River empties into Bristol Bay , on the western coast of the Alaska Peninsula . Its waters are characteristically turbid and turbulent , the result of muddy feeder streams , frequent winds , and very high tides . Some Bristol Bay tides are thought to rank eighth highest in the world , and Ugashik Bay is greatly influenced by this tidal action . The bay is bordered on the north by a sand beach stretching from Smoky Point on the west to the wide mouth of Dago Creek , on the east by a mud-and-sand shoreline running nearly true north-south past the village of Pilot Point to Muddy Point . The southern shore is a shifting series of mud-and-sand ridges , the northernmost and most prominent of which is called South Spit . The bay influences a marine zone ranging from Cape Greig , 8 mi north , to Cape Menshikof , 12 mi to the south . Ugashik Bay 's weather is quite variable , especially during winter when storm systems frequently change climatological influences on the area . Storms blowing winds up from the North Pacific can make winter conditions relatively mild , even balmy ; whereas winds from the Alaska Interior can bring clear and bitter cold conditions . Westerly winds blowing off the Bering Sea bring high humidity and biting cold , combined with coastal low clouds and fog , even in summer . This is so commonplace that Smoky Point was named from the frequent inclement weather .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Ugashik_Bay\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 119598\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Alaska North Slope Content: The Alaska North Slope is the region of the U.S. state of Alaska located on the northern slope of the Brooks Range along the coast of two marginal seas of the Arctic Ocean , the Chukchi Sea being on the western side of Point Barrow , and the Beaufort Sea on the eastern .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Alaska_North_Slope\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 118743\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coast Range Arc Content: The Coast Range Arc was a large volcanic arc system , extending from northern Washington through British Columbia and the Alaska Panhandle to southwestern Yukon . The Coast Range Arc lies along the western margin of the North American Plate in the Pacific Northwest of western North America . Although taking its name from the Coast Mountains , this term is a geologic grouping rather than a geographic one , and the Coast Range Arc extended south into the High Cascades of the Cascade Range , past the Fraser River which is the northward limit of the Cascade Range proper . The Coast Range Arc formed as a result of subduction of the Kula and pre-existing Farallon Plates . It is most famous for being the largest granitic outcropping in North America , which then it is usually referred to as the Coast Plutonic Complex or the Coast Mountains Batholith . It is a coast-parallel continental volcanic arc similar to the Andes of South America and the largest continential volcanic arc fossil in the world .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Coast_Range_Arc\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 118141\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Okhotsk Coast Content: The Okhotsk Coast is an informal name for the northwest coast of the Sea of Okhotsk . Although it was never an administrative unit there is some reason to treat it as a distinct region . Here in 1639 the Russians first reached the Pacific Ocean . From here , beginning in 1716 , Russian ships sailed east to the Kamchatka Peninsula , the Aleutian Islands and Alaska .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Okhotsk_Coast\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 117779\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pacific Coast Theater of the American Civil War Content: The Pacific Coast Theater of the American Civil War consists of major military operations in the United States on the Pacific Ocean and in the states and Territories west of the Continental Divide . The theater was encompassed by the Department of the Pacific that included the states of California , Oregon , and Nevada , the territories of Washington , Utah , and later Idaho . The operations of Union volunteer troop detachments , primarily from California , some from Oregon , and a few companies from Washington Territory , were directed mostly against Indians in the theater . Union and Confederate regular forces did not meet directly within the Pacific Department except in New Mexico Territory . However , operations were directed against Confederate irregulars in California and strong garrisons were placed in Southern California and southern New Mexico Territory to control the region which had strong secessionist sympathies . Confederate States Navy warships operated in the Pacific Ocean , but the naval operations did not succeed in interrupting commerce to the Eastern United States . The last of these commerce raiders , CSS Shenandoah , fired the last shot of the War in the Bering Sea off the coast of Alaska . Attempts by the Confederacy to buy or seize ships for commerce raiding on the West Coast were thwarted by alert Union officials and the Pacific Squadron .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Pacific_Coast_Theater_of_the_American_Civil_War\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 117377\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Geography of Alaska Content: Alaska is one of two U.S. states not bordered by another state ; Hawaii the other . Alaska has more ocean coastline than all of the other U.S. states combined . About 500 mi of Canadian territory separate Alaska from Washington State . Alaska is thus an exclave of the United States that is part of the continental U.S. but is not part of the contiguous U.S. Alaska is also the only state , other than Hawaii , whose capital city is accessible only via ship or air , because no roads connect Juneau to the rest of the continent . The state is bordered by Yukon and British Columbia , Canada to the east , the Gulf of Alaska and the Pacific Ocean to the south , the Bering Sea , Bering Strait , and Chukchi Sea to the west , and the Beaufort Sea and the Arctic Ocean to the north . Because it extends into the Eastern Hemisphere , it is technically both the westernmost and easternmost state in the United States , as well as also being the northernmost . Alaska is the largest state in the United States in terms of land area at 570,380 sqmi , over twice ( roughly 2.47 times ) as large as Texas , the next largest state . If the state 's westernmost point were superimposed on San Francisco , California , its easternmost point would be in Jacksonville , Florida . It is larger than all but 16 sovereign nations . Alaska is home to 3.5 million lakes of 20 acre or larger . Marshlands and wetland permafrost cover 188,320 sqmi ( mostly in northern , western and southwest flatlands ) . Frozen water , in the form of glacier ice , covers some 16,000 sqmi of land and 1,200 sqmi of tidal zone . The Bering Glacier complex near the southeastern border with Yukon , Canada , covers 2,250 sqmi alone .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Geography_of_Alaska\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 116768\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Alaska Pacific Steamship Company Content: The Alaska Pacific Steamship Company was a short-lived freight and passenger shipping line that operated on the West Coast of North America between 1906 and 1912 . The company was created by E.E. Caine , who used the steamships Buckman and Watson on the route between Seattle , Tacoma , and San Francisco . The following year , Caine 's partners in the company took over management of the Alaska Coast Company , which operated the steamships Jeanie and Portland . In 1909 , Alaska Pacific acquired the twin-propeller steamships Admiral Farragut and Admiral Sampson from the American Mail Steamship Company on the East Coast . In 1912 , Alaska Pacific acquired the remaining Admiral-class steamships Admiral Dewey and Admiral Schley from American Mail . Before the end of the year , the company 's directors decided to merge Alaska Pacific with Alaska Coast Company to form the new Pacific-Alaska Navigation Company .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Alaska_Pacific_Steamship_Company\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 116754\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Dendraster excentricus Content: Eccentric sand dollar ( Dendraster excentricus ) , also known as the sea-cake , biscuit-urchin , western sand dollar , or Pacific sand dollar , is a member of the order Clypeasteroida , better known as sand dollars , a species of flattened , burrowing sea urchins found in the northeast Pacific Ocean from Alaska to Baja California .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Dendraster_excentricus\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 116528\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Alaska Anchorage Seawolves Content: The Alaska Anchorage Seawolves are the 13 varsity athletic teams that represent the University of Alaska Anchorage , in Anchorage , Alaska , in NCAA intercollegiate sports . The vast majority of UAA 's athletic teams are in NCAA Division II with the exception of the Alpine and Nordic Ski , gymnastics , and ice hockey teams , which are members of Division I. The Seawolves principally compete as members of the Great Northwest Athletic Conference . Teams playing outside the GNAC include the hockey team ( Western Collegiate Hockey Association ) , the gymnastics team ( Mountain Pacific Sports Federation ) , and the ski teams ( Rocky Mountain Intercollegiate Ski Association ) . UAA also hosts the nationally known GCI Great Alaska Shootout college basketball tournament every Thanksgiving .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Alaska_Anchorage_Seawolves\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 116410\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pacific-slope flycatcher Content: The Pacific-slope flycatcher ( Empidonax difficilis ) is a small insectivorous bird of the family Tyrannidae . It is native to coastal regions of western North America , including the Pacific Ocean and the southern Gulf of California , as far north as British Columbia and southern Alaska , but is replaced in the inland regions by the Cordilleran flycatcher . These two species were formerly considered a single species known as the western flycatcher . In winter , both species migrate south to Mexico , where they are virtually indistinguishable from one another .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Pacific-slope_flycatcher\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 116292\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pacific Northwest Content: The Pacific Northwest ( in the United States , commonly abbreviated as PNW ) , sometimes referred to as Cascadia , is a geographic region in western North America bounded by the Pacific Ocean to the west and ( loosely ) by the Rocky Mountains on the east . Though no agreed boundary exists , a common conception includes the U.S. states of Oregon and Washington and the Canadian province of British Columbia . Broader conceptions reach north into Alaska and Yukon , south into far northern California and east to the Continental Divide , thus including Idaho , Western Montana , and western Wyoming . Narrower conceptions may be limited to the northwestern US or to the coastal areas west of the Cascade and Coast mountains . The variety of definitions can be attributed to partially overlapping commonalities of the region 's history , geography , society , and other factors . The Northwest Coast is the coastal region of the Pacific Northwest and the Northwest Plateau ( also commonly known as `` the Interior '' in British Columbia and the Inland Empire in the United States ) is the inland region . The term `` Pacific Northwest '' should not be confused with the Northwest Territory ( also known as the Great Northwest , a historical term in the United States ) or the Northwest Territories of Canada . The region 's largest metropolitan areas are Greater Seattle , Washington , with 3.7 million people ; Greater Portland , Oregon , with 2.5 million people.Greater Vancouver , British Columbia , with 2.4 million people ; A key aspect of the Pacific Northwest is the US -- Canada international border , which the United States and the United Kingdom established at a time when the region 's inhabitants were composed mostly of indigenous peoples . The border -- in two sections , along the 49th parallel south of British Columbia and the Alaska Panhandle west of northern British Columbia -- has had a powerful effect on the region . According to Canadian historian Ken Coates , the border has not merely influenced the Pacific Northwest -- rather , `` the region 's history and character have been determined by the boundary . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Pacific_Northwest\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 116075\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: North Pacific Current Content: The North Pacific Current ( sometimes referred to as the North Pacific Drift ) is a slow warm water current that flows west-to-east between 30 and 50 degrees north in the Pacific Ocean . The current forms the southern part of the North Pacific Subpolar Gyre and the northern part of the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre . The North Pacific Current is formed by the collision of the Kuroshio Current , running northward off the coast of Japan , and the Oyashio Current , which is a cold subarctic current that flows south and circulates counterclockwise along the western North Pacific Ocean . In the eastern North Pacific off southern British Columbia , it splits into the southward flowing California Current and the northward flowing Alaska Current .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"North_Pacific_Current\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 115794\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pacific Marine Ecozone (CEC) Content: The Pacific Marine Ecozone , as defined by the Commission for Environmental Cooperation ( CEC ) , is a Canadian and American marine ecozone extending to the international waters of the Pacific Ocean from the coasts of Alaska , British Columbia , Washington and Oregon . The islands within the Canadian portion are part of the adjacent Pacific Maritime ecozone . Famous for its tourism and an important shipping channel for Canada , the zone is subject to intense human activity which has damaged ecosystems . Primary effects include overfishing , pollution and even direct habitat destruction . The large and increasing population in nearby coastal areas , including the major centres of Vancouver and Seattle , exerts significant strain on the natural habitats within this ecozone .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Pacific_Marine_Ecozone_(CEC)\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 115279\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Aleutian Trench Content: The Aleutian Trench ( or Aleutian Trough ) is an oceanic trench along a convergent plate boundary which runs along the southern coastline of Alaska and the Aleutian islands . The trench extends for 3,400 km from a triple junction in the west with the Ulakhan Fault and the northern end of the Kuril -- Kamchatka Trench , to a junction with the northern end of the Queen Charlotte Fault system in the east . It is classified as a `` marginal trench '' in the east as it runs along the margin of the continent . The subduction along the trench gives rise to the Aleutian arc , a volcanic island arc , where it runs through the open sea west of the Alaska Peninsula . As a convergent plate boundary , the trench forms part of the boundary between two tectonic plates . Here , the Pacific Plate is being subducted under the North American Plate at a dip angle of nearly 45 ° . The rate of closure is 3 in per year .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Aleutian_Trench\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 115009\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pacific Packing and Navigation Company Content: Pacific Packing and Navigation Company is a defunct salmon-canning company which operated in the U.S. state of Alaska . Incorporated under the laws of New Jersey and backed by eastern capitalists , it was formed during the spring of 1901 , the idea of Roland B. Onnfroy . It consolidate into one corporation the properties and privileges of other Alaska companies and firms . It proposed to capitalize the new corporation as follows : 6 per cent debentures , $ 7,000,000 ; 7 per cent cumulative preferred stock , $ 12,500,000 ; common stock , $ 12,500,000 . The Pacific Packing and Navigation Company acquired the following properties in Alaska : Canneries of Pacific Steam Whaling Company at Nushagak , Bristol Bay ; Chignik , Alaska Peninsula ; Uyak , Kadiak Island ; Kenai , Cook Inlet ; Orca , Prince William Sound ; Hunter Bay , Southeast Alaska . Hume Bros. and Hume , with canneries at Chignik , Alaska Peninsula , and Ifyak , Kadiak Island . Thlinket Packing Company , canneries at Gerard Point and Santa Anna Bay , Southeast Alaska . Western Fisheries Company , with a cannery at Dundas Bay , Icy Strait . Chilkoot Packing Company , with a cannery at Chilkoot Inlet . Taku Packing Company , with a cannery at Taku Inlet . Taku Fishing Company , with a cannery at the entrance to Port Snettisham . Boston Fishing à Trading Company , with a cannery at Yee Bay . Chatham Straits Packing Company , with a cannery at Sitkoh Bay . Icy Strait Packing Company , with a cannery at Petersburg , Wrangell Narrows . Quadra Packing Company , with a cannery at Mink Bay , Boca de Quadra It further acquired companies in the Puget Sound region of Washington state : Pacific-American Fisheries Company , with canneries at Fairhaven and one at Friday Harbor . Ainsworth and Dunn , with canneries at Seattle and Friday Harbor . Fairhaven Canning Company , with a cannery at Fairhaven . The Pacific Packing and Navigation Company represented 23 canneries with their equipage . The company claimed an Alaska pack for 1901 of about 700,000 cases , and expected to increase its output to have a total capacity of 1,000,000 per season . The Alaska Packers ' Association was its major rival , with approximately 50 percent of the total production . The Pacific Packing and Navigation Company followed with about 30 per cent . The remaining 20 per cent were distributed among independent concerns . In 1903 , the reported capital stock was cut down from $ 12,500,000 to $ 1,000,000 as the corporation was insolvent and in process of liquidation with much of the property having been sold off . By 1904 , the Pacific Packing and Navigation Company was in the hands of a receiver , J. B. McGovern . In the report of the committee , it is said that a plan was advanced for forming the new corporation with capital , of which $ 1,500,000 was to be preferred stock , and $ 1,500.000 , common . Of the latter amount 11,400 was to be accepted by the holders of the company 's notes and debentures in full settlement of their claims on a 40 per cent , basis . The preferred stock was to be an eight per cent , accumulative issue , maturing at the end of five years , and redeemable pro rata at any time during that period at the discretion of the directors , by the payment of ten per cent , per annum , the holders to receive the benefit of the premium , whether the stock ran to maturity or not . In addition , the new company was to acquire all the assets of the Pacific Packing and Navigation Company , and the Pacific American Fisheries Company at receiver 's sale . The directors of the company were to consist of five residents of San Francisco , two of Seattle , and two of New York , all of whom were to represent the Preferred Stockholders . Common stockholders had no vote until all the preferred stock has been redeemed . The main offices of the company were to be located in Seattle or San Francisco .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Pacific_Packing_and_Navigation_Company\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 114913\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pacific States Content: The `` Pacific States '' form one of the nine geographic divisions within the United States that are officially recognized by that country 's census bureau . There are five states in this division -- Alaska , California , Hawaii , Oregon , Washington -- and , as its name suggests , they all have coastlines on the Pacific Ocean ( and are the only American states that border that ocean ) . The Pacific States division is one of two divisions that are located within the United States Census Bureau 's Western region ; the other Western division is the Mountain States . Despite being slotted into the same region by the Census Bureau , the Pacific and Mountain divisions are vastly different from one another in many vital respects , most notably in the arena of politics ; while nearly all of the Mountain states are regarded as being conservative `` red states '' , four out of five of the Pacific states ( all except Alaska ) are clearly counted among the liberal `` blue states . '' Bold denotes election winner\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Pacific_States\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 114896\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: November 2011 Bering Sea cyclone Content: The November 2011 Bering Sea cyclone was one of the most powerful extratropical cyclones to affect Alaska on record . On November 8 , the National Weather Service ( NWS ) began issuing severe weather warnings , saying that this was a near-record ( or record ) storm in the Bering Sea . It rapidly deepened from 973 mb to 948 mb in just 24 hours before bottoming out at 943 mbar ( hPa ; 27.85 inHg ) , roughly comparable to a Category 3 or 4 hurricane . The storm had been deemed life-threatening by many people . The storm had a forward speed of at least 60 mph before it had reached Alaska . The storm began affecting Alaska in the late hours of November 8 , 2011 . The highest gust recorded was 93 mph on Little Diomede Island . One person has been reported missing after being swept into the Bering Sea .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"November_2011_Bering_Sea_cyclone\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 114500\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Endocladia muricata Content: Endocladia muricata , commonly known as Nailbrush seaweed or Turfweed , is a marine alga that is widely distributed along the shores of the North Pacific Ocean , from Alaska to Punto Santo Tomas , Baja California . E. muricata is common north of Point Conception , and is one of the most common algae in the high intertidal zone of the central California , coast . It commonly forms the top-most conspicuous band of seaweed along that coast . E. muricata often grows with Pelvetiopsis limitata ( dwarf rockweed ) and Mastocarpus papillatus ( Turkish washcloth ) , on rocks in the high intertidal . E. muricata 's thallus is 4-8 cm tall , short & bushy ; branches cylindrical with sub-dichotomous branching ; covered with minute , soft conical spines ; blackish-brown to dark red to yellow . Dries to almost black . It is usually not slippery to walk on , dry or wet .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Endocladia_muricata\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 114142\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Between Pacific Tides Content: Between Pacific Tides is a 1939 book by Ed Ricketts and Jack Calvin that explores the intertidal ecology of the Pacific coast of the United States . The book was originally titled `` Between Pacific Tides : An Account of the Habits and Habitats of Some Five Hundred of the Common , Conspicuous Seashore Invertebrates of the Pacific Coast Between Sitka , Alaska , and Northern Mexico '' . The book was out of print from 1942 to 1948 , but it has since been revised and updated to keep it current , and is now in its fifth edition with the size increasing around twenty percent from the original . Updated and expanded sections have been added since the original edition was published , including : John Steinbeck 's Foreword to the 1948 edition ; a new chapter regarding the influence on the distribution of shore organisms ; an updated Annotated Systematic Index and General Bibliography comprising 2,300 entries ; and the addition of 200 photographs and drawings . By 2004 , the book had sold around 100,000 copies , making it one of the best-selling books published by Stanford University Press .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Between_Pacific_Tides\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 113953\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pacific Tsunami Warning Center Content: The Pacific Tsunami Warning Center ( PTWC ) is one of two tsunami warning centers that are operated by NOAA in the United States . Headquartered on Ford Island , HI , the PTWC is part of an international tsunami warning system ( TWS ) program and serves as the operational center for TWS of the Pacific issuing bulletins and warnings to participating members and other nations in the Pacific Ocean area of responsibility . It is also the regional ( local ) warning center for the State of Hawaii . The other tsunami warning center is the National Tsunami Warning Center ( NTWC ) in Palmer , Alaska , serving all coastal regions of Canada and the United States except Hawaii , the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico . The PTWC was established in 1949 , following the 1946 Aleutian Island earthquake and a tsunami that resulted in 165 casualties in Hawaii and Alaska . The PTWC uses seismic data as its starting point , but then takes into account oceanographic data when calculating possible threats . Tide gauges in the area of the earthquake are checked to establish if a tsunami has formed . The center then forecasts the future of the tsunami , issuing warnings to at-risk areas all around the Pacific basin if needed .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Pacific_Tsunami_Warning_Center\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 113798\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental issues with salmon Content: Salmon population levels are of concern in the Atlantic and in some parts of the Pacific . Salmon fishery stocks are still abundant , and catches have been on the rise in recent decades , after the state initiated limitations in 1972 . Some of the most important Alaskan salmon sustainable wild fisheries are located near the Kenai River , Copper River , and in Bristol Bay . Fish farming of Pacific salmon is outlawed in the United States Exclusive Economic Zone , however , there is a substantial network of publicly funded hatcheries , and the State of Alaska 's fisheries management system is viewed as a leader in the management of wild fish stocks . In Canada , returning Skeena River wild salmon support commercial , subsistence and recreational fisheries , as well as the area 's diverse wildlife on the coast and around communities hundreds of miles inland in the watershed . The status of wild salmon in Washington is mixed . Out of 435 wild stocks of salmon and steelhead , only 187 of them were classified as healthy ; 113 had an unknown status , 1 was extinct , 12 were in critical condition and 122 were experiencing depressed populations .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_issues_with_salmon\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 113796\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate of Alaska Content: The climate of Alaska is determined by average temperatures and precipitation received statewide over many years . The extratropical storm track runs along the Aleutian Island chain , across the Alaska Peninsula , and along the coastal area of the Gulf of Alaska which exposes these parts of the state to a large majority of the storms crossing the North Pacific . The climate in Juneau and the southeast panhandle is a mid-latitude oceanic climate ( Köppen Cfb ) in the southern sections and a subarctic oceanic climate ( Köppen Cfc ) in the northern parts . The climate in Southcentral Alaska is a subarctic climate ( Köppen Dfc ) due to its short , cool summers . The climate of the interior of Alaska is best described as extreme and is the best example of a true subarctic climate , as the highest and lowest recorded temperatures in Alaska have both occurred in the interior . The climate in the extreme north of Alaska is an Arctic climate ( Köppen ET ) with long , cold winters , and cool summers where snow is possible year-round .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_of_Alaska\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 113420\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cooperative Institute for Arctic Research Content: The Cooperative Institute for Arctic Research is designed to be a focal point for interactions between the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) / Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) and the Arctic research community through the University of Alaska for research related to the Western Arctic/Bering Sea region . ( CIFAR ) was established through a Memorandum of Understanding between NOAA and the University of Alaska . CIFAR is exclusively concerned with Arctic research . They work closely with NOAA 's Arctic Research Office and the Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory ( PMEL ) . Partnerships with NOAA also include the National Marine Fisheries Service ( NMFS ) , the National Ocean Service ( NOS ) , and an emerging relationship with the National Weather Service .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Cooperative_Institute_for_Arctic_Research\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 113004\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pisaster Content: Pisaster is a genus of Pacific sea stars that includes three species , P. brevispinus , P. giganteus , and P. ochraceus . Their range extends along the Pacific coast from Alaska to southern California in the intertidal zone . The largest individuals of Pisaster can reach diameters of up to 70 cm across ; they all develop five arms , but some may be lost from injury or disease , and occasionally the re-growth of an injured arm will result in an individual with more than five arms . Sea stars in the genus Pisaster are all predators ; the ochre sea star is the best-characterized of these , and is considered a `` keystone '' predator that controls the relative abundance of many other species in the ecosystem .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Pisaster\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 112909\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mikhail Vasilyev (explorer) Content: Mikhail Nikolayevich Vasilyev ( Михаил Николаевич Васильев 1770 -- June 23 , 1847 ) was a Russian explorer and vice admiral of the Imperial Russian Navy . He is reputed for having surveyed the then little-known coast of Alaska as navigator . Vasiliev was sent by the Russian Imperial Hydrographic Service in 1819 to explore the northern parts of the Pacific Ocean and particularly the area around the Bering Strait . Certain geographic features of the Alaskan coast , like the Lindenberg Peninsula and Sealion Island were named by him in the maps that were subsequently published . In 1820 Mikhail Vasiliev on the ship Otkrytie ( Discovery ) entered the Chukchi Sea and explored the coast of Alaska from Kotzebue Sound to Icy Cape and later from Norton Sound to Cape Newenham . He was accompanied by Gleb Semenovich Shishmarev ( 1781-1835 ) , who was in command of the ship Blagonamerennyi ( Good Intent ) . After these surveys , in which he is credited to be the first European having sighted Nunivak Island , Vasiliev sailed to Petropavlovsk and returned to Kronstadt , arriving there on August 2 , 1822 . Vasiliev 's name is spelt `` Vasilief '' in the United States , where Vasilief Bay in Atka and Cape Vasilyev in Nunivak Island were named after him by Captain Fyodor Petrovich Litke ; Cape Vasilyev was later renamed `` Cape Corwin '' by the U.S. Board on Geographic Names in 1909 . There are other geographic features in the coast of Alaska and the Aleutians bearing the name `` Vasilief '' , but it is not clear after which Vasiliev they were named .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Mikhail_Vasilyev_(explorer)\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 112645\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Taxus brevifolia Content: Taxus brevifolia , the Pacific yew or western yew , is a conifer native to the Pacific Northwest of North America . It ranges from southernmost Alaska south to central California , mostly in the Pacific Coast Ranges , but with isolated disjunct populations in southeast British Columbia ( most notably occurring on Zuckerberg Island near Castlegar ) and in north to central Idaho .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Taxus_brevifolia\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 112346\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Chukchi Sea Shelf Content: The Chukchi Sea Shelf or Chukchi Shelf is the westernmost part of the continental shelf of the United States and the easternmost part of the continental shelf of Russia . Within this shelf , the 50-mile Chukchi Corridor acts as a passageway for one of the largest marine mammal migrations in the world . The main geological features of the Chukchi Shelf are the Hope Basin and the Herald Thrust , a basement uplift cored by Cretaceous thrust faults . The latter is named after Herald Island . Off the northwestern Alaskan coast there is a Jurassic rift basin , the Hannah Trough . To the north of Alaska the Chukchi Shelf extends to form the Chukchi Plateau which protrudes into the Arctic Ocean geological zone . The Chukchi Shelf is shared between Russia and the United States according to the 1990 USA-USSR maritime boundary .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Chukchi_Sea_Shelf\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 112062\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: School of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences Content: School of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences , or SFOS , is part of the University of Alaska Fairbanks . SFOS offers a bachelor of arts and a bachelor of science in fisheries , master 's and doctoral degrees in oceanography , fisheries and marine biology , and a minor in marine science . The school was established by the University of Alaska Board of Regents in 1987 from units at several campuses and placed under a single umbrella administered within the University of Alaska Fairbanks . SFOS is headquartered in Fairbanks , Alaska , with major divisions in Seward , Anchorage , Juneau and Kodiak : The Institute of Marine Science in Fairbanks is active in research and graduate training at the master 's and doctoral levels . IMS conducts marine science studies in the world 's oceans , with special emphasis on arctic and Pacific subarctic waters . The Kodiak Seafood and Marine Science Center in Kodiak works to increase the value of the Alaska fishing industry through academic and research programs in sustainable harvesting and seafood technology . The NOAA Alaska Sea Grant College Program in Fairbanks funds marine research , offers education and advisory services , distributes information about Alaska 's seas and coasts and provides outreach to coastal communities . The Alaska Sea Grant Marine Advisory Program in Anchorage is a statewide outreach and technical assistance program helping Alaskans widely use , conserve and enjoy Alaska 's marine and coastal resources . The Seward Marine Center in Seward provides access to saltwater laboratories and the coastal environment with laboratories , constant temperature chambers and a running seawater system . The University of Alaska 's new icebreaker , the R/V Sikuliaq will be based here . The Fisheries Division in Juneau and Fairbanks collaborates with state , national and international organizations to study how to develop and maintain sustainable fisheries programs in Alaska and global waters . Faculty at the Fisheries Division train undergraduate and graduate programs in fisheries .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"School_of_Fisheries_and_Ocean_Sciences\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 111882\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Alsek Ranges Content: The Alsek Ranges are the southeasternmost subdivision of the Saint Elias Mountains of the Pacific Cordillera . They span the region between the Alsek River , Glacier Bay and the Kelsall River ( which is the route of the highway from Haines , Alaska to Haines Junction , Yukon ) . Their western boundary is the Grand Pacific Glacier , beyond which is the Fairweather Range , another subdivision of the St. Elias Mountains . To their east is the northernmost section of the Boundary Ranges , the northernmost subdivision of the Coast Mountains and which are also known as the Alaska Boundary Range , and which run south to the Nass River and form , as their name indicates , the spine of the boundary between the American state of Alaska and the Canadian province of British Columbia . All of the British Columbia portion of the Alsek Ranges are in the Tatshenshini-Alsek Park , but is also the location of the controversial Windy Craggy Mine proposal . Most of the Alaskan portion between the Lynn Canal and Glacier Bay is part of Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve , and most of the Yukon portion is in Kluane National Park and Reserve .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Alsek_Ranges\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 111852\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Amelanchier alnifolia Content: Amelanchier alnifolia , the saskatoon , Pacific serviceberry , western serviceberry , alder-leaf shadbush , dwarf shadbush , chuckley pear , or western juneberry , is a shrub with edible berry-like fruit , native to North America from Alaska across most of western Canada and in the western and north-central United States . Historically , it was also called pigeon berry . It grows from sea level in the north of the range , up to 2600 m elevation in California and 3400 m in the Rocky Mountains , and is a common shrub in the forest understory .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Amelanchier_alnifolia\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 111482\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cape Prince of Wales Content: Cape Prince of Wales ( Russian : Мыс Принца Уэльского ) is the westernmost point on the mainland of the Americas . It was named in 1778 by Captain James Cook of the British Royal Navy , presumably for the Prince of Wales at the time , George Augustus Frederick . Located on the Seward Peninsula of the U.S. state of Alaska near the city of Wales , Cape Prince of Wales is the terminus of the Continental Divide , marking the division between the Pacific and Arctic coasts , as well as marking the limit between the Bering Sea and the Chukchi Sea . It is the eastern boundary of the Bering Strait , 51 miles ( 82 km ) opposite Cape Dezhnev , and adjacent to the Diomede Islands and Fairway Rock .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Cape_Prince_of_Wales\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 111183\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Western Defense Command Content: Western Defense Command ( WDC ) was established on 17 March 1941 as the command formation of the U.S. Army responsible for coordinating the defense of the Pacific Coast region of the United States . A second major responsibility was the training of soldiers prior to their deployment overseas . The first Commanding General of WDC was Lieutenant General John L. DeWitt , who continued on in command of the Fourth U.S. Army . WDC headquarters were co-located at the existing Fourth Army headquarters at the Presidio of San Francisco . WDC 's operational region covered the states of Washington , Oregon , California , Idaho , Montana , Nevada , Utah and Arizona . However , until 11 December 1941 the command was little more than a planning agency . On that date the Army coast defense , antiaircraft , and fighter assets on the west coast and in Alaska were placed under the command , which until 20 March 1942 was known as the Western Theater of Operations , then reverted to the previous name . From 11 December 1941 until 1 November 1943 Alaska Defense Command was controlled through WDC . On 14 February 1942 , Western Defense Command sent a memorandum to Secretary of War Henry Stimson recommending that `` Japanese and other subversive elements '' be removed from the West Coast region . This led President Franklin D. Roosevelt to issue Executive Order 9066 on 19 February , which gave U.S. military commanders the authority to designate `` military areas '' and to then exclude any or all people from them . On 2 March 1942 General DeWitt issued a proclamation that designated the western halves of Washington , Oregon and California , and the southern third of Arizona to be military areas from which Americans of Japanese ancestry would be excluded . ( The exclusion zone would later be expanded to include the entire state of California . ) Americans of German and Italian ancestry were also affected by restrictions and in some cases internment . From June 1942 to August 1943 , WDC was heavily involved in the planning and execution of the Aleutian Islands Campaign , which succeeded in expelling Japanese forces from their toehold in North America on the islands of Attu and Kiska . The operation to re-capture Kiska Island , Operation Cottage , involved both U.S. troops and a brigade of Canadian troops from Pacific Command . Western Defense Command was disbanded on 6 March 1946 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Western_Defense_Command\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 111159\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Etolin Strait Content: Etolin Strait is a strait of the Pacific Ocean in western Alaska , the United States .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Etolin_Strait\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 111052\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Vashon Glaciation Content: The Vashon Glaciation or Vashon Stade was the most recent period of very cold climate in which glaciers existed at elevations at and near sea level in the western part of present-day Washington state . It occurred during a colder than present part of the current ice age . The Vashon Glaciation lasted from about 19,000 - 16,000 BP ( Before Present - present defined as January 1 , 1950 for this scale ) . The Cordilleran Ice Sheet was an ice sheet that covered present-day southern Alaska and parts of western Canada . During the Vashon Glaciation , the Cordilleran Ice Sheet advanced into the Puget Sound region .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Vashon_Glaciation\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 110528\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Red sea urchin Content: The red sea urchin ( Mesocentrotus franciscanus ) is a sea urchin found in the Pacific Ocean from Alaska to Baja California . It lives in shallow waters from the low-tide line to greater than 100 m deep , and is typically found on rocky shores sheltered from extreme wave action .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Red_sea_urchin\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 110452\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kaguyak Village Site Content: The Kaguyak Village Site , designated 49 Afg 4 , is a historic and prehistoric archaeological site on the Pacific coast of the Alaska Peninsula in Katmai National Park and Preserve . It is the site of a Native village which was abandoned after the eruption of Novarupta in 1912 . The historic elements of the site include the remains of a Russian Orthodox church and cemetery , as well as a number of frame house remnants and foundations . The site was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1978 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Kaguyak_Village_Site\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 110381\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Steep coast Content: A steep coast is a stretch of coastline where the mainland descends abruptly into the sea . There is a sharp transition from the land to sea as opposed to that on a flat coast where the land descends gradually seawards . The height of the land on a steep coast is well above sea level . Most steep coast are rocky cliffed coasts ( also called abrasion coasts ) , where the erosion processes of wave action result in a steep declivity . Another type of steep coast is the fjord which is formed when a glacial valley lies partially under water as a result of a rise in sea levels . In Norway , New Zealand or Alaska there are fjords whose almost vertical sides tower over 1,000 metres above the water and plunge 300 metres below it . On volcanic islands the sea can enter the caldera and the face of the volcanic pipe can form a steep coastline . The best-known example of that is Santorini in the archipelago of the Cyclades in Greeces . The main town of Thira lies on the rim of the caldera which is around 300 metres above the sea and drops below it for another 200 metres .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Steep_coast\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 109938\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: National Tsunami Warning Center Content: The National Tsunami Warning Center ( NTWC ) is one of two tsunami warning centers that are operated by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) in the United States . It was called the West Coast and Alaska Tsunami Warning Center ( WC/ATWC ) until October 1 , 2013 . The name was changed to reflect its geographical zone of responsibility . Headquartered in Palmer , Alaska , the NTWC is part of an international tsunami warning system ( TWS ) program and serves as the operational center for TWS of all coastal regions of Canada and the United States , except Hawaii , the Caribbean , and the Gulf of Mexico . The other tsunami warning center is the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center ( PTWC ) in Ford Island , Hawaii , serving participating members and other nations in the Pacific Ocean area of responsibility .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"National_Tsunami_Warning_Center\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 109880\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1975 Pacific Northwest hurricane Content: The 1975 Pacific Northwest hurricane was an unusual Pacific tropical cyclone that attained hurricane status farther north than any other Pacific hurricane . It was officially unnamed , with the cargo ship providing vital meteorological data in assessing the storm . The twelfth tropical cyclone of the 1975 Pacific hurricane season , it developed from a cold-core upper-level low merging with the remnants of a tropical cyclone on August 31 , well to the northeast of Hawaii . Convection increased as the circulation became better defined , and by early on September 2 it became a tropical storm . Turning to the northeast through an area of warm water temperatures , the storm quickly strengthened , and , after developing an eye , it attained hurricane status late on September 3 , while located about 1,200 miles ( 1,950 km ) south of Alaska . After maintaining peak winds for about 18 hours , the storm rapidly weakened , as it interacted with an approaching cold front . Early on September 5 , it lost its identity near the coast of Alaska .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"1975_Pacific_Northwest_hurricane\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 109834\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Future_sea_level\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 109832\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Chariot, Alaska Content: Chariot is a populated area on the coast of the Chukchi Sea in the western part of North Slope Borough in the U.S. state of Alaska . It is located close to the mouth of Ogotoruk Creek in the Ogotoruk Valley , 10 km ESE of Cape Thompson , Arctic Slope . Maximum elevation 20 m. The place was named around 1962 after Project Chariot by personnel of the project . The name likely refers to a headquarters building on the site .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Chariot,_Alaska\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 109538\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Alaska Time Zone Content: The Alaska Time Zone observes standard time by subtracting nine hours from Coordinated Universal Time ( UTC − 09:00 ) . During daylight saving time its time offset is eight hours ( UTC − 08:00 ) . The clock time in this zone is based on mean solar time at the 135th meridian west of the Greenwich Observatory . The zone includes nearly all of the U.S. state of Alaska and is one hour behind the Pacific Time Zone . standard time : Alaska Standard Time ( AKST ) daylight saving time : Alaska Daylight Time ( AKDT ) The western Aleutian Islands observe Hawaii -- Aleutian Time , one hour behind the remainder of the state . Effective from 2007 , the local time changes from AKST to AKDT at 02:00 LST to 03:00 LDT on the second Sunday in March and returns at 02:00 LDT to 01:00 LST on the first Sunday in November .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Alaska_Time_Zone\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 109471\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pacific Birds Habitat Joint Venture Content: The Pacific Birds Habitat Joint Venture ( PBHJV ) , previously Pacific Coast Joint Venture is a partnership established in 1991 between governments , organizations , and conservation groups along the Pacific Coast of the United States and Canada , established to protect and enhance wetlands important to migratory birds , within the framework of the North American Waterfowl Management Plan ( NAWMP ) . Participants include the provincial government of British Columbia in Canada , and the state governments of Alaska , California , Hawaii , Oregon and Washington in the United States . The venture 's scope covers an area from San Francisco Bay to Alaska , west of the Coast Mountains , and it was the first joint venture of the NAWMP to have an international scope . Between 2001 and 2004 , Ducks Unlimited Canada and the Canadian Wildlife Service ran a project supported by PBHJV partners to identify and map estuaries in British Columbia that would be targets for conservation . These are located in an expanse covered by the PBHJV of 220,000 km ² of landscape , 460,000 km ² of seascape , and over 30,000 km of shoreline . In California , the Joint Venture focuses on coastal northern California , specifically in Del Norte , Humboldt , Mendocino , Trinity , and Siskiyou Counties . The project in Washington focuses on bird habitats in its western and coastal regions , specifically the bays and straits of northern Washington , the southern Puget Sound and Hood Canal , the Olympic Peninsula , the southern Washington coast , and the Lower Columbia River . In British Columbia , the partnership is focused on the east coast of Vancouver Island and the Fraser River delta . with a goal to `` protect , restore , and enhance the natural integrity of coastal wetlands '' . It also launched Operation Orange , a scientific survey to track spartina , which is `` choking the Pacific shoreline and endangering native species '' . The project also extends to Washington , where the Washington State Department of Agriculture , The Nature Conservancy , and the Puget Sound Joint Venture team track spartina in Puget Sound and the Georgia Strait . Program execution is conducted by Ducks Unlimited Canada in British Columbia .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Pacific_Birds_Habitat_Joint_Venture\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 109181\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Temperate Northern Pacific Content: The Temperate Northern Pacific is a biogeographic region of the Earth 's seas , comprising the temperate waters of the northern Pacific Ocean . The Temperate Northern Pacific connects , via the Bering Sea , to the Arctic marine realm , which includes the polar waters of the Arctic Sea . To the south , it transitions to the tropical marine realms of the Pacific , including the Tropical Eastern Pacific along the Pacific coast of the Americas , the Eastern Indo-Pacific in the central Pacific Ocean , and the Central Indo-Pacific of the western Pacific basin . The Taiwan Strait forms the boundary between the Temperate Northern Pacific and the Central Indo-Pacific . Characteristic fauna include the Pacific salmon and trout ( Oncorhynchus spp . ) , gray whale ( Eschrichtius robustus ) , and North Pacific right whale ( Eubalaena japonica ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Temperate_Northern_Pacific\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 109000\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Middleton Island Content: Middleton Island is a small , uninhabited island in the U.S. state of Alaska , located in the Pacific Ocean approximately 80 mi southwest of Cordova . The island was briefly home to Middleton Island Air Force Station , an early warning radar station , from 1958 until the station 's closure in 1963 . During the 1964 Alaska earthquake the island was raised an additional 12 ft above sea level . The island now hosts the unattended Middleton Island Airport and a NEXRAD weather radar .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Middleton_Island\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 108966\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Lituya Mountain Content: Lituya Mountain is a peak in the Fairweather Range of Alaska , United States , south of Mount Fairweather . Its eastern slopes feed a branch of the Johns Hopkins Glacier , which flows into Glacier Bay . On its western side is a large cirque , shared with Mount Fairweather , Mount Quincy Adams , and Mount Salisbury , which heads the Fairweather Glacier ; this flows almost to the Pacific coast at Cape Fairweather . The Lituya Glacier flows from the south side of the mountain into Lituya Bay on the Pacific coast . Though not exceptional in terms of absolute elevation , Lituya Mountain does possess great vertical relief over local terrain . For example , the south side of the mountain drops 8000 ft to the Lituya Glacier in approximately 3 mi , and the southeast side drops the same distance in just over 2 mi . Lituya Mountain is not often climbed , partly due to its proximity to the higher and better-known Mount Fairweather , and partly due to difficult access and bad weather in the Fairweather Range .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Lituya_Mountain\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 108911\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Inside Passage Content: The Inside Passage is a coastal route for oceangoing vessels along a network of passages which weave through the islands on the Pacific coast of North America . The route extends from southeastern Alaska , in the United States , through western British Columbia , in Canada , to northwestern Washington state , in the United States . Ships using the route can avoid some of the bad weather in the open ocean and may visit some of the many isolated communities along the route . The Inside Passage is heavily travelled by cruise ships , freighters , tugs with tows , fishing craft and ships of the Alaska Marine Highway , BC Ferries , and Washington State Ferries systems . The term `` Inside Passage '' is also often used to refer to the ocean and islands around the passage itself . The Inside Passage is also sometimes referred to as the `` Inland Passage '' which is in turn a reference to early explorers ' quests to locate the Northwest Passage between the Pacific Ocean and the Atlantic Ocean .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Inside_Passage\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 108849\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea otter conservation Content: Modern efforts in sea otter conservation began in the early 19th century , when the sea otter was nearly extinct due to large-scale commercial hunting . The sea otter was once abundant in a wide arc across the North Pacific ocean , from northern Japan to Alaska to Mexico . By 1911 , hunting for the animal 's luxurious fur had reduced the sea otter population to fewer than 2000 individuals in the most remote and inaccessible parts of its range . During the 20th century , sea otter populations recovered from remnant populations in the far east of Russia , western Alaska , and California . Beginning in the 1960s , efforts to translocate sea otters to previously populated areas were also successful in restoring sea otters to other parts of the west coast of North America . Populations in some areas are now thriving , and the recovery of the sea otter is considered one of the greatest successes in marine conservation . In two important parts of its range , however , sea otter populations have recently declined or have plateaued at depressed levels . In the Aleutian Islands , a massive and unexpected disappearance of sea otters has occurred in recent decades . The cause of the decline is not known , although the observed pattern of disappearances is consistent with a rise in orca predation . Sea otters give live birth . In the 1990s , California 's sea otter population stopped growing for reasons that are probably different from the difficulties facing Alaska 's otters . A high prevalence of infectious disease in juveniles and adults has been found to cause many sea otter deaths , however it is not known why California sea otters would be more vulnerable to disease than populations elsewhere . Other threats to sea otters are well-known . In particular , sea otters are highly vulnerable to oil spills , and a major spill can rapidly kill thousands of the animals . The IUCN lists the sea otter as an endangered species .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea_otter_conservation\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 108806\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Paranthrene robiniae Content: Paranthrene robiniae , the western poplar clearwing , is a moth of the Sesiidae family . It is found from sea level to near the timber line from Alaska southward along the Pacific Coast to southern California and throughout the Rocky Mountains into the desert southwest and as far east as Kansas and North Dakota . The wingspan is 23 -- 30 mm for males and 30 -- 36 mm for females . Adults are yellow-black , with orange brown forewings with somewhat darker veins . The hindwings are transparent with a conspicuous deep yellow discal mark and fringed with dark brown scales . Adults emerge mostly from March to August , depending on location . In central California , most emerge by mid June , in eastern Washington as late as mid September and in the extreme southern range in California , specimens have been taken from February to May and again in November . The larvae feed on poplar , willow and birch . Poplars are generally favoured , although willows seem preferred in some areas of California and Oregon . Black cottonwood , balsam poplar , and white poplar , as well as several hybrids poplars , are also recorded as hosts . Newly hatched larvae crawl over the bark for a few hours before selecting suitable sites to begin feeding . The larvae initially excavate cavities in the phloem and cambium and later galleries into the wood . The larvae feed during two successive summer and fall seasons . The first winter in the galleries , which are loosely packed with frass and the second winter in pupal chambers near the distal ends of the galleries . These distal ends are capped with silk , but no cocoons are formed . Pupation lasts two to three weeks . A generation requires two years over most of its range but may be of shorter duration in its southern range .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Paranthrene_robiniae\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 108637\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coastal cutthroat trout Content: The coastal cutthroat trout ( Oncorhynchus clarkii clarkii ) also known as the sea run cutthroat , or harvest trout is one of the several subspecies of cutthroat trout found in Western North America . The coastal cutthroat trout occurs in four distinct forms . A semi-anadromous or sea-run form is the most well known . Freshwater forms occur in both large and small rivers and streams and lake environments . The native range of the coastal cutthroat trout extends south from the southern coastline of the Kenai Peninsula in Alaska to the Eel River in Northern California . Coastal cutthroat trout are resident in tributary streams and rivers of the Pacific basin and are rarely found more than 100 mi from the ocean . Adults migrate from the ocean to spawn in fresh water . Juveniles migrate to the sea where they feed and become sexually mature before returning to fresh water to overwinter and spawn . Unlike steelhead and Pacific salmon , coastal cutthroat do not make lengthy migrations out to sea . Generally speaking , coastal cutthroat will remain in or near estuarine waters , usually within 5 -- 10 mi ( 10 -- 15 km ) of their natal stream . Some cutthroat , however , have been shown to move as far as 70 mi ( 110 km ) into the open ocean . There are also lacustrine and riverine populations that spend their entire lives in freshwater . One such population is the trout of Lake Crescent in Washington state that was formerly considered to be a separate subspecies called the Crescenti trout , Oncorhynchus clarkii crescenti .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Coastal_cutthroat_trout\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 108456\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Spanish expeditions to the Pacific Northwest Content: Spanish claims to Alaska and the West Coast of North America date to the papal bull of 1493 , and the Treaty of Tordesillas . In 1513 , this claim was reinforced by Spanish explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa , the first European to sight the Pacific Ocean , when he claimed all lands adjoining this ocean for the Spanish Crown . Spain only started to colonize the claimed territory north of present-day Mexico in the 18th century , when it settled the northern coast of Las Californias ( California ) . Starting in the mid-18th century , Spain 's rights began to be challenged by British and Russian fur traders and colonizers . King Charles III of Spain and his successors sent a number of expeditions from New Spain to present-day Canada and Alaska between 1774 and 1793 , to counter this threat and to defend Spanish territorial rights . During this period in history , a nation 's claims or rights to a certain territory were legitimized by exploration and `` prior to Spanish discovery '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Spanish_expeditions_to_the_Pacific_Northwest\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 108441\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Seward Peninsula Content: The Seward Peninsula is a large peninsula on the western coast of the U.S. state of Alaska . It projects about 320 km into the Bering Sea between Norton Sound , the Bering Strait , the Chukchi Sea , and Kotzebue Sound , just below the Arctic Circle . The entire peninsula is about 330 km long and 145 km - 225 km wide . Like Seward , Alaska , it was named after William H. Seward , the United States Secretary of State who fought for the U.S. purchase of Alaska . The Seward Peninsula is a remnant of the Bering land bridge , a roughly thousand mile wide swath of land connecting Siberia with mainland Alaska during the Pleistocene Ice Age . This land bridge aided in the migration of humans , as well as plant and animal species from Asia to North America . Archeological discoveries throughout the Chukotka Peninsula and Seward Peninsula show proof that Inupiat people have been living in the region for thousands of years . Excavations at sites such as the Trail Creek Caves and Cape Espenberg in the Bering Land Bridge National Preserve as well as Cape Denbigh to the south have provided insight into the timeline of prehistorical migrations from Asia to the Seward Peninsula .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Seward_Peninsula\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 108405\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atanik Content: Atanik is a prehistoric and historic Native Alaskan community site on coast of the Chukchi Sea in North Slope Borough , Alaska . A Native village was documented to be at the site in 1838 , and the area may have evidence of much earlier habitation . Archaeological features of interest include the ruins of sod houses , ice cellars , a cemetery , and evidence of whaling-related activity . The site is also believed to have been a point from which inland hunting expeditions were launched . The site was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1980 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Atanik\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 108357\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in southeast Alaska Content: Climate change in southeast Alaska are changes which occur in southeast Alaska as average temperatures rise as a result of global warming . The temperate rainforest that covers this area is a result of humid summers and transient snow cover in winter . The conifers that thrive in this moist climate are free from fire risk as compared to the forests to both the north and south . Warmer weather will lengthen the growing period of the trees and the increase in evapotranspiration is likely to outweigh the increase of precipitation . Assuming a scenario involving a mid-range increase in emissions , the average temperature may rise by about 3 ° F by the year 2040 and by 6 ° F by 2080 . The trees will grow more vigorously but fungi that cause rot will also thrive , there is likely to be an increase in windthrow , and fire risk may rise . With winter temperatures increasing , the type of precipitation will change . Lack of snow cover on the ground will expose tree roots to colder soils , and yellow ceder is already showing the result of this with many trees dying . The melting of glaciers in the watershed is likely to accelerate and will cause hydrological changes that will impact the wetland habitats and the distribution of wildlife . Animals such as the black-tailed deer , moose and mountain goat may benefit from less snow cover , while such mammals as the northwestern deer mouse that tunnels under the snow are likely to be disadvantaged .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_southeast_Alaska\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 108345\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: British Columbia Coast Content: The British Columbia Coast or BC Coast is Canada 's western continental coastline on the Pacific Ocean . The usage is synonymous with the term West Coast of Canada . In a sense excluding the urban Lower Mainland area adjacent to the Canada -- United States border , which is considered `` The Coast , '' the British Columbia Coast refers to one of British Columbia 's three main regions , the others being the Lower Mainland and The Interior . The aerial distance from Victoria on the Strait of Juan de Fuca to Stewart , British Columbia on the Alaska border at the head of the Portland Canal is 965 km in length . However , because of its many deep inlets and complicated island shorelines -- and 40,000 islands of varying sizes , including Vancouver Island and Haida Gwaii -- the total length of the British Columbia Coast is over 25725 km , making up about 10 % of the Canadian coastline at 243042 km . The coastline 's geography , which is shared with Southeast Alaska and adjoining parts of northwest Washington , is most comparable to that of Norway and its heavily indented coastline of fjords , a landscape also found in southern Chile . The dominant landforms of the BC Coast are the Insular Mountains , comprising most of Vancouver Island and Haida Gwaii , and the Coast Mountains , which extend beyond into Alaska and the Yukon . The British Columbia Coast is mostly part of the Pacific temperate rain forests ecoregion as defined by the World Wide Fund for Nature . In the system used by Environment Canada , established by the Commission for Environmental Cooperation ( CEC ) , the area is defined as the Pacific Maritime Ecozone . In the geoclimatic zones system used by the British Columbia Ministry of Forests the bulk of the region comprises the Coastal Western Hemlock biogeoclimatic zone , although small areas flanking the Strait of Georgia at the coast 's southern extremity are classed in the Coastal Douglas-fir zone .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"British_Columbia_Coast\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 108148\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: East Pacific Rise Content: The East Pacific Rise is a mid-oceanic ridge , a divergent tectonic plate boundary located along the floor of the Pacific Ocean . It separates the Pacific Plate to the west from ( north to south ) the North American Plate , the Rivera Plate , the Cocos Plate , the Nazca Plate , and the Antarctic Plate . It runs from south from the Gulf of California in the Salton Sea basin in southern California to a point near 55 ° S , 130 ° W where it joins the Pacific-Antarctic Ridge trending west-southwest towards Antarctica near New Zealand ( though in some uses the PAR is regarded as the southern section of the EPR ) . Much of the rise lies about 3200 km ( 2000 mi ) off the South American coast and rises about 1,800 -- 2,700 m ( 6,000 -- 9,000 ft ) above the surrounding seafloor .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"East_Pacific_Rise\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 107962\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coast Guard Alaska Content: Coast Guard Alaska is an American reality documentary television series on The Weather Channel that premiered on November 9 , 2011 . The series follows members of the United States Coast Guard stationed in Kodiak , Alaska on the job . After a seven episode first season , the series was renewed for a split second season , of five and eight episodes premiering in April and October 2012 respectively . The first season saw ratings increase for The Weather Channel of 95 % on the same timeslot the year prior . A third season premiered on July 17 , 2013 , again made up of a split season of seven then six episodes . A fourth and final eight episode season premiered on February 23 , 2015 . A 13 episode spin-off titled Coast Guard Florida premiered in October 2012 . This was followed on December 5 , 2012 with an hour-long special , Coast Guard : HMS Bounty Rescue , detailing the Coast Guard 's attempt to rescue the replica of the HMS Bounty and its crew during Hurricane Sandy . Another 13 episode spin-off series , Coast Guard Cape Disappointment/Pacific Northwest , premiered in February 2014 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Coast_Guard_Alaska\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 107465\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Alaska Content: Alaska ( -LSB- əˈlæskə -RSB- ) is a U.S. state located in the northwest extremity of North America . The Canadian administrative divisions of British Columbia and Yukon border the state to the east ; its most extreme western part is Attu Island ; it has a maritime border with Russia to the west across the Bering Strait . To the north are the Chukchi and Beaufort seas -- the southern parts of the Arctic Ocean . The Pacific Ocean lies to the south and southwest . It is the largest state in the United States by area . In addition , it is the 3rd least populous and the most sparsely populated of the 50 United States ; nevertheless , it is by far the most populous territory located mostly north of the 60th parallel in North America , its population ( the total estimated at 738,432 by the U.S. Census Bureau in 2015 ) more than quadrupling the combined populations of Northern Canada and Greenland . Approximately half of Alaska 's residents live within the Anchorage metropolitan area . Alaska 's economy is dominated by the fishing , natural gas , and oil industries , resources which it has in abundance . Military bases and tourism are also a significant part of the economy . The United States purchased Alaska from the Russian Empire on March 30 , 1867 , for 7.2 million U.S. dollars at approximately two cents per acre ( $ 4.74 / km2 ) . The area went through several administrative changes before becoming organized as a territory on May 11 , 1912 . It was admitted as the 49th state of the U.S. on January 3 , 1959 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Alaska\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 107401\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast Content: The indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast are composed of many nations and tribal affiliations , each with distinctive cultural and political identities , but they share certain beliefs , traditions and practices , such as the centrality of salmon as a resource and spiritual symbol . The term Northwest Coast or North West Coast is used in anthropology to refer to the groups of Indigenous people residing along the coast of British Columbia , Washington state , parts of Alaska , Oregon , and northern California . The term Pacific Northwest is largely used in the American context . Prior to the contact with Westerners , warfare between nations , and the enslaving of captives was also an enterprise common to many of the groups . At one point the region had the highest population density of a region inhabited by Aboriginal peoples in Canada .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Pacific_Northwest_Coast\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 107375\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Slaty-backed gull Content: The slaty-backed gull ( Larus schistisagus ) is a large white-headed gull that breeds on the western coast of Alaska but travels widely during nonbreeding seasons . It is similar in appearance to the western gull and the glaucous-winged gull . Another alternate name is Pacific gull , though this also applies to a southern hemisphere species , Larus pacificus . Claims have been made as to its ( sometimes occasional ) presence throughout North America as well as the eastern coast of Asia . On November 3 , 2012 , an individual was spotted in Finland . The species has only been spotted three times before in Europe . This species is tied with the Yellow-footed Gull for fourth largest gull species . Measures 55 - in length , 132 - in wingspan and weighs 1.05 - . Among standard measurements , the wing chord is 40.6 to , the bill is 4.8 to and the tarsus is 6 to . It has a white head , belly , and tail with a dark slaty-gray back and wings with a broad white trailing edge . The wings and back are slightly darker than those of the Western Gull . The underside of the wings features a `` string of pearls '' pattern along their edges ; these can be seen from below when the bird is in flight . Its eyes are yellow . The legs are pink and short when compared with those of similar-looking gulls , and the body appears more stout . The bill is yellow with orange-red subterminal spot ( the spot near the end of the bill that chicks peck in order to stimulate regurgitative feeding ) . Immature gulls ' plumage is brown , similar to that of the great black-backed gull , but paler , and is practically indistinguishable from the immature herring gull in the field .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Slaty-backed_gull\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 107319\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Gumboot chiton Content: The gumboot chiton ( Cryptochiton stelleri ) also known as the giant western firey chiton , is the largest of the chitons , growing to 36 cm and over 2 kg . It is found along the shores of the northern Pacific Ocean from Central California to Alaska , across the Aleutian Islands to the Kamchatka Peninsula and south to Japan . It inhabits the lower intertidal and subtidal zones of rocky coastlines . Chitons are molluscs which have eight armored plates ( called valves ) running in a flexible line down their back . Unlike most chitons , the gumboot 's valves are completely hidden by its leathery upper skin or girdle , which is usually reddish-brown , brown , and occasionally orange in color . The gumboot chiton 's appearance has led some tidepoolers to fondly refer to it as the `` wandering meatloaf . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Gumboot_chiton\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 107201\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Blob (Pacific Ocean) Content: The Blob is the name given to a large mass of relatively warm water in the Pacific Ocean off the coast of North America . It was first detected in late 2013 and continued to spread throughout 2014 and 2015 . Sea surface temperature indicated that The Blob persisted into 2016 , but was thought to have dissipated later that year . By September 2016 , `` The Blob '' resurfaced and made itself known to meteorologists . This warm water mass is unusual in ocean conditions and is considered to have a role in the formation of the unusual weather conditions felt in the Pacific Coast . The warm waters of the Blob are nutrient poor and have adversely affected marine life .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Blob_(Pacific_Ocean)\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 107143\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pacific tree frog Content: The Pacific tree frog ( Pseudacris regilla ) , also known as the Pacific chorus frog , has a range from the West Coast of the United States ( from Northern California , Oregon , and Washington ) to British Columbia in Canada and extreme southern Alaska . They live from sea level to more than 10,000 feet in many types of habitats , reproducing in aquatic settings . They occur in shades of greens or browns and can change colors over periods of hours and weeks .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Pacific_tree_frog\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 106914\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kotzebue Sound Content: Kotzebue Sound is an arm of the Chukchi Sea in the western region of the U.S. state of Alaska . It is on the north side of the Seward Peninsula and bounded the east by the Baldwin Peninsula . It is 100 mi long and 70 mi wide . Kotzebue Sound is located in the transitional climate zone , which is characterized by long , cold winters and cool summers . The average low temperature during January is -12 ° F ; the average high during July is 58 ° F. Temperature extremes have been measured from -52 ° F to 85 ° F. Snowfall averages 40 in , with total precipitation of 9 in per year . Kotzebue Sound is ice-free from early July until early October . The towns of Kotzebue , Kiwalik and Deering are on the shores of Kotzebue Sound . Kotzebue Sound was explored and named in 1816 by Baltic German Lieutenant Otto von Kotzebue while searching for the Northeast Passage in the service of Russia .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Kotzebue_Sound\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 106903\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Fox Islands Passes Content: The Fox Islands Passess are waterways in the Fox Islands area of the U.S. state of Alaska , connecting the Bering Sea with the North Pacific Ocean . From the southward and eastward , bound for Bering Sea , there are three passes used by deep-draft vessels , known collectively as the Fox Islands Passes , and respectively as Unimak , Akutan , and Unalga passes . The largest and most desirable one to use in thick and foggy weather is the eastern one , Unimak Pass . This is clear of hidden dangers , the widest of the three , and is comparatively free from tide rips . It is especially recommended for sailing vessels , and for steamers bound direct to the northward . Akutan and Unalga passes are convenient for steam vessels bound to Unalaska Bay , but , being narrow and having strong currents and tide rips at times , are not recommended for sailing vessels bound north . A fair wind is almost necessary for the passage , and from the southward this would bring fog . The pass between Ashmiak and Ugamok islands on the east and Sea Lion Island on the west may be clear of dangers , but it is not recommended . All of the other minor passes between Unimak and Akutan passes are known to be full of rocks and reefs . The mountains in this vicinity would be excellent landmarks if they could be seen , but in summer they are almost always obscured by fogs or low-lying clouds . The lower hills and islands and objects near the sea level furnish the available landmarks . In coming from the southward or eastward in clear weather , and if bound through Akutan or Unalga passes , it is recommended to steer for Tigalda Island as the first land to be made . It is high and prominent , and when once made a course can be shaped for any of the three passes .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Fox_Islands_Passes\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 106835\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Alaskan Command Content: The Alaskan Command ( ALCOM ) is a joint sub-unified command of the United States Northern Command , ( formerly of United States Pacific Command ) responsible for operations in and around the state of Alaska . Alaskan Command is charged with maintaining air sovereignty , deploying forces for worldwide contingencies as directed by the Commander , Pacific Command , providing support to federal and state authorities during civil emergencies and conducting joint training for the rapid deployment of combat forces . ALCOM combined forces include more than 16,000 Air Force , Army , Navy and Coast Guard personnel , and 3,700 guardsmen and reservists . Recently , the Command Representative for Missile Defense position was created to be the focal point for all issues related to Ground-Based Midcourse Defense in Alaska , in support of Alaskan Command , the Alaska NORAD Region , and the Eleventh Air Force . ALCOM is headquartered at Joint Base Elmendorf-Richardson near Anchorage . The command is made up of the following military forces : Eleventh Air Force , headquartered at Elmendorf Air Force Base United States Army Alaska , headquartered at Fort Richardson United States Naval Forces , Alaska , headquartered in Juneau\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Alaskan_Command\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 106809\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1949 Queen Charlotte Islands earthquake Content: The 1949 Queen Charlotte Islands earthquake struck the sparsely populated Queen Charlotte Islands and the Pacific Northwest coast at 8:01 p.m. PDT on August 21 . The shock had a surface wave magnitude of 8.1 and a maximum Mercalli Intensity of VIII ( Severe ) . The interplate earthquake began in the ocean bottom just off the rugged coast of Graham Island . It ruptured along the Queen Charlotte Fault both northward and southward more than 500 km . Shaking was felt throughout British Columbia , parts of Washington , Oregon , Alberta , the Yukon , and Alaska . No deaths were reported in this earthquake .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"1949_Queen_Charlotte_Islands_earthquake\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 106792\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mount Salisbury Content: Mount Salisbury is a peak in the Fairweather Range of Alaska , 6 miles ( 10 km ) southeast of Mount Fairweather . Its east slopes feed one of the northern branches of the Johns Hopkins Glacier , which flows into Glacier Bay . On its western side is a large cirque , shared with Mount Fairweather , Mount Quincy Adams , and Lituya Mountain , which heads the Fairweather Glacier ; this flows almost to the Pacific coast at Cape Fairweather . Though not exceptional in terms of absolute elevation , Mount Salisbury does possess great vertical relief over local terrain : for example , the southwest side of the mountain drops over 10000 ft to the Johns Hopkins Glacier in only five miles . Mount Salisbury is not often climbed , partly due to its proximity to the higher and better-known Mount Fairweather , and partly due to difficult access and the typically bad weather that this range ironically possesses .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Mount_Salisbury\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 106443\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Geography of Yukon Content: Yukon '' ' is in the northwestern corner of Canada and is bordered by Alaska and the Northwest Territories . The sparsely populated territory abounds with natural scenic beauty , with snowmelt lakes and perennial white-capped mountains , including many of Canada 's highest mountains . The territory 's climate is Arctic in the north ( north of Old Crow ) , subarctic in the central region , between north of Whitehorse and Old Crow , and has a humid continental climate in the far south , south of Whitehorse and in areas close to the BC border . The long sunshine hours in the short summer allow a profusion of flowers and fruit to blossom . Most of the territory is boreal forest , tundra being the main vegetation zone only in the extreme north and at high elevations . The territory is about the shape of a right triangle , bordering the American state of Alaska to the west , the Northwest Territories to the east and British Columbia to the south . Yukon covers 482,443 km2 , of which 474,391 km2 is land and 8,052 km2 is water . It is bounded on the south by the 60th parallel of latitude . Its northern coast is on the Beaufort Sea . Its western boundary is 141 ° west longitude . Its ragged eastern boundary mostly follows the divide between the Yukon River Basin and the Mackenzie River watershed to the east in the Mackenzie mountains .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Geography_of_Yukon\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 106406\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Amukta Pass Content: Amukta Pass is a wide strait between the Bering Sea and the North Pacific Ocean in the Aleutian Islands in Alaska . It lies between Amukta Island to the east and Seguam Island to the west .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Amukta_Pass\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 106344\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sarichef Island Content: Sarichef Island is a long and narrow coastal island on the Chukchi Sea-facing coast of Alaska . It is located at the mouth of the Shishmaref Inlet , Kotzebue-Kobuk Low Sarichef Island is 7 km in length . The highest point on the island is 6 m above sea level . Shishmaref town and Shishmaref Airport are located on this island . This island was named in 1816 by explorer Lt. Otto von Kotzebue , of the Imperial Russian Navy , `` in the honor of his worthy '' Vice Admiral Gavril Sarychev ( 1763 -- 1831 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Sarichef_Island\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 106342\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Norton Sound Content: Norton Sound is an inlet of the Bering Sea on the western coast of the U.S. state of Alaska , south of the Seward Peninsula . It is about 240 km ( 150 mi ) long and 200 km ( 125 mi ) wide . The Yukon River delta forms a portion of the south shore and water from the Yukon influences this body of water . It is ice-free from June to October . Norton Sound was explored by Captain James Cook in September 1778 . He named the body of water after Sir Fletcher Norton , then Speaker of the British House of Commons . The Norton Sound area has been home to Yup ` ik and Inupiat for many centuries . It is the boundary between the two peoples ; the Inupiat live to the north and the Yup ` ik to the south . The town of Nome is along the northern edge of Norton Sound . The villages of Elim , Golovin , Stebbins , White Mountain , Koyuk , Shaktoolik , St. Michael , and Unalakleet are on the shores or waterways flowing into Norton Sound . The Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race runs through coastal villages between Unalakleet and Nome . The seaplane tender USS Norton Sound was named after the inlet .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Norton_Sound\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 106074\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Davidson Current Content: In oceanography , the Davidson Current is a coastal countercurrent of the Pacific Ocean running north along the western coast of the United States from Baja California , Mexico to northern California , ending at about latitude 48 ° N. Its flow is adjacent to the California Current , but it flows north rather than south and hugs the coastline . The current is active year-round at 650 feet ( 200 meters ) below sea level , but surfaces during the winter months , generally from mid-November through mid-February . In these months , northerly winds weaken and are replaced to some extent by southeasterly winds .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Davidson_Current\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 105762\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cape Sarichef Light Content: Cape Sarichef Light is a lighthouse located on the northwest tip of Unimak Island , approximately 630 mi southwest of Anchorage , Alaska . The most westerly and most isolated lighthouse in North America , Cape Sarichef Light marks the northwest end of Unimak Pass , the main passage through the Aleutian Islands between the Bering Sea and the Pacific Ocean . When it was first lit on July 1 , 1904 , it was Alaska 's second coastal lighthouse ( after Scotch Cap Light ) , and the only U.S. manned lighthouse on the Bering Sea . Today , the lighthouse is automated , and the beacon is mounted on a skeleton tower . Cape Sarichef was named in 1816 by Russian explorer Otto von Kotzebue after Admiral Gavril Sarychev of the Imperial Russian Navy .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Cape_Sarichef_Light\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 105727\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1964 Alaska earthquake Content: The 1964 Alaskan earthquake , also known as the Great Alaskan earthquake and Good Friday earthquake , occurred at 5:36 P.M. AST on Good Friday , March 27 . Across south-central Alaska , ground fissures , collapsing structures , and tsunamis resulting from the earthquake caused about 139 deaths . Lasting four minutes and thirty-eight seconds , the magnitude 9.2 megathrust earthquake was the most powerful recorded in North American history , and the second most powerful recorded in world history . Soil liquefaction , fissures , landslides , and other ground failures caused major structural damage in several communities and much damage to property . Anchorage sustained great destruction or damage to many inadequately earthquake engineered houses , buildings , and infrastructure ( paved streets , sidewalks , water and sewer mains , electrical systems , and other man-made equipment ) , particularly in the several landslide zones along Knik Arm . Two hundred miles southwest , some areas near Kodiak were permanently raised by 30 ft. Southeast of Anchorage , areas around the head of Turnagain Arm near Girdwood and Portage dropped as much as 8 ft , requiring reconstruction and fill to raise the Seward Highway above the new high tide mark . In Prince William Sound , Port Valdez suffered a massive underwater landslide , resulting in the deaths of 30 people between the collapse of the Valdez city harbor and docks , and inside the ship that was docked there at the time . Nearby , a 27 ft tsunami destroyed the village of Chenega , killing 23 of the 68 people who lived there ; survivors out-ran the wave , climbing to high ground . Post-quake tsunamis severely affected Whittier , Seward , Kodiak , and other Alaskan communities , as well as people and property in British Columbia , Washington , Oregon , and California . Tsunamis also caused damage in Hawaii and Japan . Evidence of motion directly related to the earthquake was also reported from Florida and Texas .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"1964_Alaska_earthquake\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 105709\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Fenimore Pass Content: Fenimore Pass is a strait between the Bering Sea and the North Pacific Ocean in the Aleutian Islands in Alaska . It lies between Oglodak Island to the east and Tagalak Island to the west .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Fenimore_Pass\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 105692\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Saint Elias Mountains Content: The Saint Elias Mountains are a subgroup of the Pacific Coast Ranges , located in southeastern Alaska in the United States , southwestern Yukon and the very far northwestern part of British Columbia in Canada . The range spans Wrangell-St . Elias National Park and Preserve in the USA and Kluane National Park and Reserve in Canada and includes all of Glacier Bay National Park in Alaska . In Alaska , the range includes parts of the city/borough of Yakutat and the Hoonah-Angoon and Valdez-Cordova census areas . This mountain range was named after Mount Saint Elias which had been named in 1741 by the Russian explorer Vitus Bering .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Saint_Elias_Mountains\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 105651\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Chrysaora fuscescens Content: Chrysaora fuscescens ( commonly known as the Pacific sea nettle or West Coast sea nettle ) is a common free-floating scyphozoan that lives in the East Pacific Ocean from Canada to Mexico . Sea nettles have a distinctive golden-brown bell with a reddish tint . The bell can grow to be larger than one meter ( three feet ) in diameter in the wild , though most are less than 50 cm across . The long , spiraling , white oral arms and the 24 undulating maroon tentacles may trail behind as far as 15 feet . For humans , its sting is often irritating , but rarely dangerous . Chrysaora fuscescens has proven to be very popular for display at public aquariums due to their bright colors and relatively easy maintenance . It is possible to establish polyps and culture Chrysaora in captivity . When provided appropriate aquarium conditions , the medusae do well under captive conditions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Chrysaora_fuscescens\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 105636\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cape Wrangell Content: Cape Wrangell is considered to be the westernmost point of Alaska and all of the United States by direction of travel . It is located on Attu Island , which is situated in the Near Islands . Following this definition of westernmost , an alternative westernmost point would be located on the tiny ( ca. 200m diameter ) Peaked Island , just off the coast to the west , but because both sit west of the 180th meridian , these two are at times viewed as the easternmost points of the United States .\",\n \"qid\": \"2720\",\n \"docid\": \"Cape_Wrangell\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 105489\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":1343,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"“Our analyses do not indicate acceleration in sea level in U.S. tide gauge records during the 20th century,” the study’s authors concluded."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: UK National Tide Gauge Network Content: The UK National Tide Gauge Network is part of the National Tidal and Sea Level Facility . It was set up in 1953 to record sea levels around the coast of the UK , after the east coast of England was affected by severe floods . Gauges positioned at 43 locations around the UK coast record data , which is archived at the British Oceanographic Data Centre in Liverpool . Once quality controlled , this data is made available for scientific use .","qid":"2721","docid":"UK_National_Tide_Gauge_Network","rank":1,"score":163638},{"content":"Title: Tide gauge Content: A tide gauge ( also known as mareograph or marigraph , as well as sea-level recorder ) is a device for measuring the change in sea level relative to a datum . Sensors continuously record the height of the water level with respect to a height reference surface close to the geoid . Water enters the device by the bottom pipe ( far end of the tube , see picture ) , and electronic sensors measure its height and send the data to a tiny computer . Historical data are available for about 1,450 stations worldwide , of which about 950 provided updates to the global data center since January 2010 . At some places records cover centuries , for example in Amsterdam where data dating back to 1700 is available . When it comes to estimating the greater ocean picture , new modern tide gauges can often be improved upon by using satellite data . Tide gauges are used to measure tides and quantify the size of tsunamis . The measurements make it possible to derive the mean sea level . Using this method , sea level slopes up to several 0.1 m/1000 km and more have been detected . A tsunami can be detected when the sea level begins to rise , although warnings from seismic activity can be more useful .","qid":"2721","docid":"Tide_gauge","rank":2,"score":163419},{"content":"Title: Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level Content: The Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level is a repository for tide gauge data used in the measurement of long-term sea level change . The PSMSL is based at the National Oceanography Centre in Liverpool , England . It was founded in 1933 as the IUGG Mean Sea Level Committee , and adopted as a Permanent Service of the International Council for Science in 1958 . The tide gauge data are freely accessible by all , and consist predominantly of monthly-mean and annual-mean sea levels . The primary , `` Revised Local Reference '' data set has a continuous history of benchmark surveys for each gauge , ensuring that sea level is measured relative to a known land-based datum . There is also a `` Metric '' data set without such datum control , and a set of hourly and daily ocean bottom pressure data from the open ocean . The latter has no datum control , and the instruments are prone to calibration drift , so the bottom pressure data are useful only for oscillations with periods significantly shorter than the length of an individual instrument deployment ( typically 1 year ) . The PSMSL is financially supported by the UK Natural Environment Research Council , the International Council for Science World Data System , and the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission .","qid":"2721","docid":"Permanent_Service_for_Mean_Sea_Level","rank":3,"score":137170},{"content":"Title: National Tidal and Sea Level Facility Content: Established in 2002 , The National Tidal and Sea Level Facility is responsible for monitoring sea levels in the UK . The NTSLF comprises the UK National Tide Gauge Network , geodetic networks , and gauges in the British Dependent Territories of the South Atlantic and Gibraltar . Data collected is used to create tidal predictions , monitor climate change and determine extreme sea levels for navigation and coastal engineering design . The Network is funded by the UK Environment Agency . Associated scientific research is funded by the Natural Environment Research Council ( NERC ) and the Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra ) .","qid":"2721","docid":"National_Tidal_and_Sea_Level_Facility","rank":4,"score":130008},{"content":"Title: Sea Level Datum of 1929 Content: The Sea Level Datum of 1929 was the vertical control datum established for vertical control surveying in the United States of America by the General Adjustment of 1929 . The datum was used to measure elevation ( altitude ) above , and depression ( depth ) below , mean sea level ( MSL ) . Mean sea level was measured at 26 tide gauges : 21 in the United States and 5 in Canada . The datum was defined by the observed heights of mean sea level at the 26 tide gauges and by the set of elevations of all bench marks resulting from the adjustment . The adjustment required a total of 66,315 miles ( 106,724 km ) of leveling with 246 closed circuits and 25 circuits at sea level . Since the Sea Level Datum of 1929 was a hybrid model , it was not a pure model of mean sea level , the geoid , or any other equipotential surface . Therefore , it was renamed the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 ( NGVD 29 ) in 1973 . NGVD29 was superseded by the North American Vertical Datum of 1988 ( NAVD 88 ) , based upon an equipotential definition and a readjustment , although many cities and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers projects with established data continued to use the older datum .","qid":"2721","docid":"Sea_Level_Datum_of_1929","rank":5,"score":124959},{"content":"Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .","qid":"2721","docid":"Future_sea_level","rank":6,"score":120562},{"content":"Title: Annual cycle of sea level height Content: The annual cycle of sea level height ( or seasonal cycle or annual harmonic ) describes the variation of sea level that occurs with a period of one year . Historically , analysis of the annual cycle has been limited by locations with tide gauge records , i.e. , coastlines and some islands in the deep ocean , and by sparse records in the Southern Hemisphere . Since 1992 , satellite-based altimeters have provided near global coverage of sea level variability , allowing for a more thorough understanding of the annual cycle both in the deep ocean and in coastal margins .","qid":"2721","docid":"Annual_cycle_of_sea_level_height","rank":7,"score":119766},{"content":"Title: Tide-predicting machine Content: A tide-predicting machine was a special-purpose mechanical analog computer of the late 19th and early 20th centuries , constructed and set up to predict the ebb and flow of sea tides and the irregular variations in their heights -- which change in mixtures of rhythms , that never ( in the aggregate ) repeat themselves exactly . Its purpose was to shorten the laborious and error-prone computations of tide-prediction . Such machines usually provided predictions valid from hour to hour and day to day for a year or more ahead . The first tide-predicting machine , designed and built in 1872-3 , and followed by two larger machines on similar principles in 1876 and 1879 , was conceived by Sir William Thomson ( who later became Lord Kelvin ) . Thomson had introduced the method of harmonic analysis of tidal patterns in the 1860s and the first machine was designed by Thomson with the collaboration of Edward Roberts ( assistant at the UK HM Nautical Almanac Office ) , and of Alexander Légé , who constructed it . In the US , another tide-predicting machine on a different pattern ( shown right ) was designed by William Ferrel and built in 1881-2 . Developments and improvements continued in the UK , US and Germany through the first half of the 20th century . The machines became widely used for constructing official tidal predictions for general marine navigation . They came to be regarded as of military strategic importance during World War I , and again during the second World War , when the US No. 2 Tide Predicting Machine , described below , was classified , along with the data that it produced , and used to predict tides for the D-day Normandy landings and all the island landings in the Pacific war . Military interest in such machines continued even for some time afterwards . They were made obsolete by digital electronic computers that can be programmed to carry out similar computations , but the tide-predicting machines continued in use until the 1960s and 1970s . Several examples of tide-predicting machines remain on display as museum pieces , occasionally put into operation for demonstration purposes , monuments to the mathematical and mechanical ingenuity of their creators .","qid":"2721","docid":"Tide-predicting_machine","rank":8,"score":114838},{"content":"Title: Tide Content: Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and the Sun and the rotation of the Earth . The times and amplitude of tides at any given locale are influenced by the alignment of the Sun and Moon , by the pattern of tides in the deep ocean , by the amphidromic systems of the oceans , and the shape of the coastline and near-shore bathymetry ( see Timing ) . Some shorelines experience a semi-diurnal tide -- two nearly equal high and low tides each day . Other locations experience a diurnal tide -- only one high and low tide each day . A `` mixed tide '' -- two uneven tides a day , or one high and one low -- is also possible . Tides vary on timescales ranging from hours to years due to a number of factors . To make accurate records , tide gauges at fixed stations measure water level over time . Gauges ignore variations caused by waves with periods shorter than minutes . These data are compared to the reference ( or datum ) level usually called mean sea level . While tides are usually the largest source of short-term sea-level fluctuations , sea levels are also subject to forces such as wind and barometric pressure changes , resulting in storm surges , especially in shallow seas and near coasts . Tidal phenomena are not limited to the oceans , but can occur in other systems whenever a gravitational field that varies in time and space is present . For example , the solid part of the Earth is affected by tides , though this is not as easily seen as the water tidal movements .","qid":"2721","docid":"Tide","rank":9,"score":114606},{"content":"Title: 20th century Content: The 20th century was a century that began on January 1 , 1901 and ended on December 31 , 2000 . It was the tenth and final century of the 2nd millennium . It is distinct from the century known as the 1900s which began on January 1 , 1900 , and ended on December 31 , 1999 . The 20th century was dominated by a chain of events that heralded significant changes in world history as to redefine the era : World War I and World War II , nuclear power and space exploration , nationalism and decolonization , the Cold War and post-Cold War conflicts ; intergovernmental organizations and cultural homogenization through developments in emerging transportation and communications technology ; poverty reduction and world population growth , awareness of environmental degradation , ecological extinction ; and the birth of the Digital Revolution . It saw great advances in communication and medical technology that by the late 1980s allowed for near-instantaneous worldwide computer communication and genetic modification of life . The term `` short twentieth century '' was coined to represent the events from 1914 to 1991 . Global total fertility rates , sea level rise and ecological collapses increased ; the resulting competition for land and dwindling resources accelerated deforestation , water depletion . and the mass extinction of half the world 's estimated nine million unique species and wildlife population ; consequences which are now being dealt with . It took all of human history up to 1804 for the world 's population to reach 1 billion ; world population reached an estimated 2 billion in 1927 ; by late 1999 , the global population reached 6 billion . Global literacy averaged 80 % ; global lifespan-averages exceeded 40 + years for the first time in history , with over half achieving 70 + years ( three decades longer than it was a century ago ) .","qid":"2721","docid":"20th_century","rank":10,"score":110492},{"content":"Title: 20th century in ichnology Content: The 20th century in ichnology refers to advances made between the years 1900 and 1999 in the scientific study of trace fossils , the preserved record of the behavior and physiological processes of ancient life forms , especially fossil footprints . Significant fossil trackway discoveries began almost immediately after the start of the 20th century with the 1900 discovery at Ipolytarnoc , Hungary of a wide variety of bird and mammal footprints left behind during the early Miocene . Not long after , fossil Iguanodon footprints were discovered in Sussex , England , a discovery that probably served as the inspiration for Sir Arthur Conan Doyle 's The Lost World . Several enduring mysteries from the 19th century continued to vex ichnologists , like the identity of the Chirotherium trackmaker . Renowned paleontologist Franz von Nopcsa attributed the ichnogenus to the prosauropod dinosaur Plateosaurus , despite an apparent mismatch between its number of toes ( 4 ) and the preserved digit traces of Chirotherium ( 5 ) . Von Nopcsa explained the discrepancy by arguing that one of the impressions in the Chirotherium tracks was left by a soft tissue structure that did not fossilize . However , it was Wolfgang Soergel who correctly hypothesized that Chirotherium was produced by a distant relative of modern crocodilians . Using only its footprints as a guide he reconstructed the life appearance of the Chirotherium trackmaker . Decades later paleontologists described an animal named Ticinosuchus which precisely fulfilling Soergel 's predictions . Ticinosuchus or a close relative seems to have been the true Chirotherium trackmaker . During the 20th century , many significant fossil trackway discoveries were made in the western United States . In the 1930s and 1940s , Roland T. Bird discovered the tracks of large sauropod and theropod dinosaurs in Texas . He excavated a major section of the track ways on behalf of the American Museum of Natural History . This was the first large scale excavation of fossil footprints in history . In the 1950s Lee Stokes reported unusual footprints he interpreted as the first known pterosaur tracks . This attribution would be controversial much of the rest of the century but has since been vindicated . The dinosaur footprints of Dinosaur Ridge in Colorado were also discovered and studied in the 20th century . The advent of the Dinosaur Renaissance and the publication by R. McNeil Alexander of a formula which could reconstruct their running speed based on data from fossil trackways brought renewed interest and prestige to ichnology during the late 20th century . This led to several symposia on the subject of vertebrate trace fossils . In 1986 such a conference dedicated to dinosaur footprints was held in New Mexico . Roughly a decade later renowned German ichnologist Heinrich Haubold organized a conference dedicated to the more ancient footprints of the Paleozoic Era . This gathering has been regarded as a turning point in the study of tracks of that age .","qid":"2721","docid":"20th_century_in_ichnology","rank":11,"score":107286},{"content":"Title: 20th century (disambiguation) Content: The 20th century of the Common Era began on 1 January 1901 and ended on 31 December 2000 , according to the Gregorian calendar . 20th century may also refer to : Twentieth Century ( play ) , a 1932 Broadway play Twentieth Century ( film ) , a 1934 American comedy Twentieth Century Pictures , a 1930s film studio The 20th Century , the 1950s television series Twentieth Century ( Cold Chisel album ) , 1984 Twentieth Century ( Alabama album ) , 1999 Twentieth Century ( typeface ) , a sans-serif typeface 20th Century ( album ) , an album 3X Krazy 20th Century ( cocktail ) , a gin cocktail 20th Century Fox , a movie and television production company 20th Century Limited , the flagship passenger train of the New York Central Railroad 20th Century Records , a record label begun as a soundtrack division of Twentieth Century Pictures 20th Century with Mike Wallace , the 1990s-2000s television series 20th Century , a sub-unit of Japanese boyband V6 `` Twentieth Century '' , a song from the 2006 album , Fundamental by the Pet Shop Boys","qid":"2721","docid":"20th_century_(disambiguation)","rank":12,"score":106101},{"content":"Title: The Boat Race 1863 Content: The 20th Boat Race between crews from the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge took place on the River Thames on 28 March 1863 . Oxford won by 15 lengths in a time of 23 minutes 6 seconds . It took the overall record to ten wins each , the first time since the 1836 race that the scores were level . The race was the third to be held on the ebb tide , along the Championship Course in reverse , from Mortlake to Putney . It was the first time since the race was held in the fashion since the 1856 race .","qid":"2721","docid":"The_Boat_Race_1863","rank":13,"score":105180},{"content":"Title: 20th Century Fox Records Content: 20th Century Fox Records , also known as 20th Fox Records and 20th Century Records , was a wholly owned subsidiary of film studio 20th Century Fox . The history of the label actually covers three distinct 20th Century Fox-related operations in the analog era , ranging chronologically from about 1938 to 1981 .","qid":"2721","docid":"20th_Century_Fox_Records","rank":14,"score":100587},{"content":"Title: List of 20th-century earthquakes Content: This list of 20th-century earthquakes is a global list of notable earthquakes that occurred in the 20th century . After 1900 most earthquakes have some degree of instrumental records and this means that the locations and magnitudes are more reliable than for earlier events . To prevent this list becoming unmanageable , only those of magnitude 6 and above are included unless they are notable for some other reason .","qid":"2721","docid":"List_of_20th-century_earthquakes","rank":15,"score":100138},{"content":"Title: Australian Height Datum Content: The Australian Height Datum is a geodetic datum for altitude measurement in Australia . According to Geoscience Australia , `` In 1971 the mean sea level for 1966-1968 was assigned the value of 0.000 m on the Australian Height Datum at thirty tide gauges around the coast of the Australian continent . The resulting datum surface , with minor modifications in two metropolitan areas , has been termed the Australian Height Datum ( AHD ) and was adopted by the National Mapping Council as the datum to which all vertical control for mapping ( and other surveying functions ) is to be referred . ''","qid":"2721","docid":"Australian_Height_Datum","rank":16,"score":98255},{"content":"Title: Storm tides of the North Sea Content: A storm tide is a tide with a high flood period caused by a storm . Storm tides can be a severe danger to the coast and the people living along the coast . The water level can rise to more than 5 metres ( 17 ft ) above the normal tide . The North Sea , especially the Netherlands , northern Germany and Denmark is particularly susceptible to storm tides . The coastline of the German Bight forms an L-shape facing northwest . Also vulnerable is the southern North Sea between England and the Netherlands , where the sea shallows and is funnelled between the land . For the protection of the low-lying areas along the coast , long and high dike systems have been built . Storm tides are a regular occurrence in these areas ; usually , there are several storm tides each winter . Most of them do not cause significant damage .","qid":"2721","docid":"Storm_tides_of_the_North_Sea","rank":17,"score":98116},{"content":"Title: 20th-century music Content: During the 20th century there was a vast increase in the variety of music that people had access to . Prior to the invention of mass market gramophone records ( developed in 1892 ) and radio broadcasting ( first commercially done ca. 1919 -- 20 ) , people mainly listened to music at live Classical music concerts or musical theatre shows , which were too expensive for many lower-income people ; on early phonograph players ( a technology invented in 1877 which was not mass-marketed until the mid-1890s ) ; or by individuals performing music or singing songs on an amateur basis at home , using sheet music , which required the ability to sing , play , and read music . These were skills that tended to be limited to middle-class and upper-class individuals . With the mass-market availability of gramophone records and radio broadcasts , listeners could purchase recordings of , or listen on radio to recordings or live broadcasts of a huge variety of songs and musical pieces from around the globe . This enabled a much wider range of the population to listen to performances of Classical music symphonies and operas that they would not be able to hear live , either due to not being able to afford live-concert tickets or because such music was not performed in their region . Sound recording was also a major influence on the development of popular music genres , because it enabled recordings of songs and bands to be inexpensively and widely distributed nationwide or even , for some artists , worldwide . The development of relatively inexpensive reproduction of music via a succession of formats including vinyl records , compact cassettes , compact discs ( introduced in 1983 ) and , by the mid-1990s , digital audio recordings , and the transmission or broadcast of audio recordings of music performances on radio , of video recordings or live performances on television , and by the 1990s , of audio and video recordings via the Internet , using file sharing of digital audio recordings , gave individuals from a wide range of socioeconomic classes access to a diverse selection of high-quality music performances by artists from around the world . The introduction of multitrack recording in 1955 and the use of mixing had a major influence on pop and rock music , because it enabled record producers to mix and overdub many layers of instrument tracks and vocals , creating new sounds that would not be possible in a live performance . The development of sound recording and audio engineering technologies and the ability to edit these recordings gave rise to new subgenres of classical music , including the Musique concrète ( 1949 ) and acousmatic ( 1955 ) schools of electronic composition . In the 1970s , African-American hip hop musicians began to use the record turntable as a musical instrument , creating rhythmic and percussive `` scratching '' effects by manipulating a vinyl record on the turntable . The 20th-century orchestra was far more flexible than its predecessors and used a much wider variety of instruments . In Beethoven 's and Felix Mendelssohn 's time in the 19th century , the orchestra was composed of a fairly standard core of instruments which was very rarely modified . As time progressed , and as the Romantic period saw changes in accepted modification with composers such as Berlioz and Mahler , the 20th century saw that instrumentation could practically be hand-picked by the composer . Saxophones were used in some 20th-century orchestra scores such as Vaughan Williams ' Symphonies No. 6 and 9 and William Walton 's Belshazzar 's Feast , and many other works as a member of the orchestral ensemble . Twentieth-century orchestras generally include a string section , woodwinds , brass instruments , percussion , piano , celeste , harp ( s ) , with other instruments called for occasionally , such as electric guitar and electric bass . The 20th century saw dramatic innovations in musical forms and styles . Composers and songwriters explored new forms and sounds that challenged the previously accepted rules of music of earlier periods , such as the use of altered chords and extended chords in 1940s-era Bebop jazz . The development of powerful , loud guitar amplifiers and sound reinforcement systems in the 1960s and 1970s permitted bands to hold large concerts where even those with the least expensive tickets could hear the show . Composers and songwriters experimented with new musical styles , such as genre fusions ( e.g. , the late 1960s fusion of jazz and rock music to create jazz fusion ) . As well , composers and musicians used new electric , electronic , and digital instruments and musical devices . In the 1980s , some styles of music , such as electronic dance music genres such as house music were created largely with synthesizers and drum machines . Faster modes of transportation such as jet flight allowed musicians and fans to travel more widely to perform or hear shows , which increased the spread of musical styles .","qid":"2721","docid":"20th-century_music","rank":18,"score":95162},{"content":"Title: USS Tide (AM-125) Content: USS Tide ( AM-125 ) was an acquired by the United States Navy for the dangerous task of removing mines from minefields laid in the water to prevent ships from passing . Tide was an oceangoing minesweeper built during World War II . Named for the cyclic rising and falling of Earth 's ocean surface , she was the only U.S. Naval vessel to bear the name . Tide was laid down on 16 March 1942 at Savannah , Georgia , by the Savannah Machinery and Foundry Company ; launched on 7 September 1942 ; sponsored by Mrs. Ruth Hangs ; and commissioned on 9 May 1943 , Lieutenant Commander Alvin Robinson , USNR , in command .","qid":"2721","docid":"USS_Tide_(AM-125)","rank":19,"score":94170},{"content":"Title: The Tide (Oceana album) Content: The Tide is the debut album from post-hardcore band Oceana . It was released through Rise Records on March 4 , 2008 .","qid":"2721","docid":"The_Tide_(Oceana_album)","rank":20,"score":93858},{"content":"Title: Tide table Content: Tide tables , sometimes called tide charts , are used for tidal prediction and show the daily times and levels of high and low tides , usually for a particular location . Tide heights at intermediate times ( between high and low water ) can be approximated by using the rule of twelfths or more accurately calculated by using a published tidal curve for the location .","qid":"2721","docid":"Tide_table","rank":21,"score":93830},{"content":"Title: 20th century in the United States Content: The 20th century in the United States refers to the period in the United States from 1901 through 2000 in the Gregorian calendar . For information on this period , see : : Category :20 th century in the United States History of the United States series : History of the United States ( 1865 -- 1918 ) History of the United States ( 1918 -- 1945 ) History of the United States ( 1945 -- 1964 ) History of the United States ( 1964 -- 1980 ) History of the United States ( 1980 -- 1991 ) History of the United States ( 1991 -- present ) Timeline of the United States *","qid":"2721","docid":"20th_century_in_the_United_States","rank":22,"score":93670},{"content":"Title: Rising Tide (Thesman novel) Content: Rising Tide ( 2003 ) is a historical young-adult novel by Jean Thesman and a sequel to her novel A Sea So Far ( 2001 ) .","qid":"2721","docid":"Rising_Tide_(Thesman_novel)","rank":23,"score":93240},{"content":"Title: Year 2000 problem Content: The Year 2000 problem , also known as the Y2K problem , the Millennium bug , the Y2K bug , or Y2K , was a computer bug related to the formatting and storage of calendar data . Problems were anticipated , and arose , because twentieth-century software often represented the four-digit year with only the final two digits -- making the year 2000 indistinguishable from 1900 . The assumption of a twentieth-century date in such programs caused various errors , such as the incorrect display of dates and the inaccurate ordering of automated dated records or real-time events . In 1997 the British Standards Institute ( BSI ) developed standard DISC PD2000-1 defining `` Year 2000 Conformity requirements '' as four rules : ( 1 ) No valid date will cause any interruption in operations ; ( 2 ) Calculation of durations between , or the sequence of , pairs of dates will be correct whether any dates are in different centuries ; ( 3 ) In all interfaces and in all storage , the century must be unambiguous , either specified , or calculable by algorithm ; ( 4 ) Year 2000 must be recognised as a leap year . It identifies two problems that may exist in many computer programs . First , the practice of representing the year with two digits became problematic with logical error ( s ) arising upon `` rollover '' from x99 to x00 . This had caused some date-related processing to operate incorrectly for dates and times on and after 1 January 2000 , and on other critical dates which were billed `` event horizons '' . Without corrective action , long-working systems would break down when the '' ... 97 , 98 , 99 , 00 ... '' ascending numbering assumption suddenly became invalid . Secondly , some programmers had misunderstood the Gregorian calendar rule that determines whether years that are exactly divisible by 100 are not leap years , and assumed the year 2000 would not be a leap year . Years divisible by 100 are not leap years , except for years that are divisible by 400 . Thus the year 2000 was a leap year . Companies and organisations worldwide checked , fixed , and upgraded their computer systems to address the anticipated problem . Very few computer failures were reported when the clocks rolled over into 2000 . It is not known how many problems went unrecorded .","qid":"2721","docid":"Year_2000_problem","rank":24,"score":92800},{"content":"Title: Rising Tide Records Content: Rising Tide Records was a record label started by Doug Morris , former head of Warner Music Group , and Daniel Glass , who became President . The label had success in breaking new artists , including the multi-platinum debut of Erykah Badu , Billie Myers and Lost Boyz . Recognizing the changing landscape of the industry , Glass strategically aligned Universal with such independent record labels as Kedar Entertainment , home to Erykah Badu , and Mojo Records , home to platinum artist Reel Big Fish and the Cherry Poppin ' Daddies . In 1995 it was founded as Rising Tide Records and shortly there after it was renamed Universal Records Group and Doug Morris was named Chairman/C . E.O. of MCA Music Entertainment Group . However , the Nashville branch stayed active until March 1998 . Acts on the Nashville branch included Matraca Berg , Scotty Emerick , The Buffalo Club , Rebecca Lynn Howard , J.C. Jones , Nitty Gritty Dirt Band , Delbert McClinton , Tony Toliver , Jack Ingram , Dolly Parton , Kris Tyler and Keith Sewell .","qid":"2721","docid":"Rising_Tide_Records","rank":25,"score":91799},{"content":"Title: Sea-level curve Content: The sea-level curve is the representation of the changes of the sea level throughout the geological history . The first such curve is the Vail curve or Exxon curve . The names of the curve refer to the fact that in 1977 a team of Exxon geologists from Esso Production Research headed by Peter Vail published a monograph on global eustatic sea-level changes . Their sea-level curve was based on seismic and biostratigraphic data accumulated during petroleum exploration . The Vail curve ( and the monograph itself ) was the subject of debate among geologists , because it was based on undisclosed commercially confidential stratigraphic data , and hence not independently verifiable . Because of this , there were later efforts to establish a sea-level curve based on non-commercial data . In 1987 -- 1988 a revised eustatic sea-level curve for the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras was published , now known as the Haq sea-level curve , in reference to the Pakistani-American Oceanographer Bilal Haq .","qid":"2721","docid":"Sea-level_curve","rank":26,"score":91605},{"content":"Title: Tide (disambiguation) Content: A tide is the rise and fall of a sea level caused by the Moon 's gravity and other factors . Tide may also refer to :","qid":"2721","docid":"Tide_(disambiguation)","rank":27,"score":91601},{"content":"Title: Sea level equation Content: The sea level equation ( SLE ) is the linear , integral equation that describes the sea-level variations associated with the Glacial Isostatic Adjustement ( GIA ) . The basic idea of the SLE dates back to 1888 , when Woodward published his pioneering work on the form and position of mean sea level , and only later has been refined by Platzman and Farrell in the context of the study of the ocean tides . In the words of Wu and Peltier , the solution of the SLE yields the space -- and time -- dependent change of ocean bathymetry which is required to keep the gravitational potential of the sea surface constant for a specific deglaciation chronology and viscoelastic earth model . The SLE theory was then developed by other authors as Mitrovica & Peltier , Mitrovica et al. and Spada & Stocchi . In its simplest form , the SLE reads where is the sea -- level change , is the sea surface variation as seen from Earth 's center of mass , and is vertical displacement . In a more explicit form the SLE can be written as follow : where is colatitude and is longitude , is time , and are the densities of ice and water , respectively , is the reference surface gravity , is the sea -- level Green 's function ( dependent upon the and viscoelastic load -- deformation coefficients - LDCs ) , is the ice thickness variation , represents the eustatic term ( i.e. the ocean -- averaged value of ) , and denote spatio-temporal convolutions over the ice - and ocean-covered regions , and the overbar indicates an average over the surface of the oceans that ensures mass conservation .","qid":"2721","docid":"Sea_level_equation","rank":28,"score":91544},{"content":"Title: Tidal range Content: The tidal range is the vertical difference between the high tide and the succeeding low tide . Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and the Sun and the rotation of the Earth . The tidal range is not constant , but changes depending on where the sun and the moon are . The most extreme tidal range occurs when the gravitational forces of both the Sun and Moon are aligned ( syzygy ) , reinforcing each other in the same direction ( new moon ) or in opposite directions ( full moon ) . This type of tide is known as a spring tide . During neap tides , when the Moon and Sun 's gravitational force vectors act in quadrature ( making a right angle to the Earth 's orbit ) , the difference between high and low tides is smaller . Neap tides occur during the first and last quarters of the moon 's phases . The largest annual tidal range can be expected around the time of the equinox , if coincidental with a spring tide . Tidal data for coastal areas is published by the national hydrographic service of the country concerned . Tidal data is based on astronomical phenomena and is predictable . Storm force winds blowing from a steady direction for a prolonged time interval combined with low barometric pressure can increase the tidal range , particularly in narrow bays . Such weather-related effects on the tide , which can cause ranges in excess of predicted values and can cause localized flooding , are not calculable in advance .","qid":"2721","docid":"Tidal_range","rank":29,"score":91419},{"content":"Title: The Tide (band) Content: The Tide is a band from Los Angeles , California formed in 2015 . They are currently signed to The Vamps ' new record label , Steady Records , under EMI Universal . They were the supporting act for The Vamps World Tour 2015 and again in 2016 along with other artists such as Before You Exit ( USA leg ) , Luke Friend ( UK leg ) , HomeTown ( UK leg ) and Union J ( UK leg ) .","qid":"2721","docid":"The_Tide_(band)","rank":30,"score":90832},{"content":"Title: Temperature record of the past 1000 years Content: For information on the description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in various IPCC reports see MWP and LIA in IPCC reportsThe temperature record of the past 1,000 years is reconstructed using data from climate proxy records in conjunction with the modern instrumental temperature record which only covers the last 150 years at a global scale . Large-scale reconstructions covering part or all of the 1st millennium and 2nd millennium have shown that recent temperatures are exceptional : the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report of 2007 concluded that `` Average Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the second half of the 20th century were very likely higher than during any other 50-year period in the last 500 years and likely '' the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . '' The curve shown in graphs of these reconstructions is widely known as the hockey stick graph because of the sharp increase in temperatures during the last century . As of 2010 this broad pattern was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th-century `` shaft '' appears . Sparseness of proxy records results in considerable uncertainty for earlier periods . Individual proxy records , such as tree ring widths and densities used in dendroclimatology , are calibrated against the instrumental record for the period of overlap . Networks of such records are used to reconstruct past temperatures for regions : tree ring proxies have been used to reconstruct Northern Hemisphere extratropical temperatures ( within the tropics trees do not form rings ) but are confined to land areas and are scarce in the Southern Hemisphere which is largely ocean . Wider coverage is provided by multiproxy reconstructions , incorporating proxies such as lake sediments , ice cores and corals which are found in different regions , and using statistical methods to relate these sparser proxies to the greater numbers of tree ring records . The `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method is widely used for large-scale multiproxy reconstructions of hemispheric or global average temperatures ; this is complemented by Climate Field Reconstruction ( CFR ) methods which show how climate patterns have developed over large spatial areas , making the reconstruction useful for investigating natural variability and long-term oscillations as well as for comparisons with patterns produced by climate models . During the 1,900 years before the 20th century , it is likely that the next warmest period was from 950 to 1100 , with peaks at different times in different regions . This has been called the Medieval Warm Period , and some evidence suggests widespread cooler conditions during a period around the 17th century known as the Little Ice Age . In the hockey stick controversy , contrarians have asserted that the Medieval Warm Period was warmer than at present , and have disputed the data and methods of climate reconstructions .","qid":"2721","docid":"Temperature_record_of_the_past_1000_years","rank":31,"score":90824},{"content":"Title: Century Records (disambiguation) Content: Century Records may refer to : Century Records , the former record label based in Sydney from the 1940s and 1950s Century Records , a former American nationally syndicated custom record label of Century Record Manufacturing Company based in Saugus , California , ( c. 1958 to the late 1970s ) Century Media Records , a heavy metal record label that , in 2015 , was acquired by Sony Music 20th Century Records , former record label that operated as a subsidiary of 20th Century Fox Another Century Records , alternative rock label that , in 2015 , was acquired by Sony Music Century Records , from about 1946 to 1947 , a re-issue label of early jazz of Paramount , Gennett , and QRS 78s ( re : King Oliver , et al. ) ; Century was owned by Sam Meltzer of 737 Fox Street , Bronx 55 , New York","qid":"2721","docid":"Century_Records_(disambiguation)","rank":32,"score":90747},{"content":"Title: Tide (album) Content: Tide is the sixth album by Antônio Carlos Jobim , released in 1970 on A&M Records and arranged by Deodato .","qid":"2721","docid":"Tide_(album)","rank":33,"score":90550},{"content":"Title: Rising Tide (Forgotten Realms novel) Content: Rising Tide is a fantasy novel by Mel Odom , set in the world of the Forgotten Realms , and based on the Dungeons & Dragons role-playing game . It is the first novel in `` The Threat from the Sea '' trilogy . It was published in paperback in January 1999 .","qid":"2721","docid":"Rising_Tide_(Forgotten_Realms_novel)","rank":34,"score":90288},{"content":"Title: Stonehenge in its landscape Content: Stonehenge in its landscape : Twentieth century excavations by R. M. J. Cleal , K. E. Walker and R. Montague is an archaeological report on Stonehenge published in 1995 . It presented the results of a two year intensive study of all the known records of the various excavations at Stonehenge in the twentieth century , including a rephasing of the development of the monument . Unlike popular books on the subject , Stonehenge in its landscape details the complex archaeological stratigraphy of the site . It has been described as `` an essential reference work for the specialist '' .","qid":"2721","docid":"Stonehenge_in_its_landscape","rank":35,"score":90111},{"content":"Title: Past sea level Content: Global or eustatic sea level has fluctuated significantly over the Earth 's history . The main factors affecting sea level are the amount and volume of available water and the shape and volume of the ocean basins . The primary influences on water volume are the temperature of the seawater , which affects density , and the amounts of water retained in other reservoirs like rivers , aquifers , lakes , glaciers , polar ice caps and sea ice . Over geological timescales , changes in the shape of the oceanic basins and in land/sea distribution affect sea level . In addition to eustatic changes , local changes in sea level are caused by tectonic uplift and subsidence . Over geologic time sea level has fluctuated by hundreds of meters . Today 's interglacial level is near historic highs and is 130 meters above the low level reached during the Last Glacial Maximum 19,000 -- 20,000 years ago . Observational and modeling studies of mass loss from glaciers and ice caps indicate a contribution to sea-level rise of 0.2 to 0.4 mm/yr averaged over the 20th century . Over this last million years , whereas it was higher most of the time before then , sea level was lower than today .","qid":"2721","docid":"Past_sea_level","rank":36,"score":89733},{"content":"Title: USS Tide (SP-953) Content: USS Tide ( SP-953 ) was a minesweeper in the United States Navy . Tide was a tug built in 1916 at Manitowoc , Wisconsin , by the Manitowoc Shipbuilding Co. -- was acquired by the U.S. Navy on 14 June 1918 from the Bay State Fishing Co. , of Boston , Massachusetts , to serve as a minesweeper in the 1st Naval District .","qid":"2721","docid":"USS_Tide_(SP-953)","rank":37,"score":89685},{"content":"Title: The 20th Century Content: The Twentieth Century was a documentary television program sponsored by the Prudential Insurance Company that ran on the CBS network from 20 October 1957 until 4 January 1970 . It was hosted by Walter Cronkite . The opening and closing theme music was written by composer George Antheil . The program presented filmed reports on news and cultural events that were important for the development of the 20th century . The show did not just present the events but also interpreted them . Such subjects as World War I and major assassinations were presented in context . On 20 January 1967 the show , sponsored by Union Carbide ( `` The Discovery Company '' ) , was renamed The 21st Century . The show 's focus changed to the future and to what mankind could look forward to . The 21st Century was cancelled after three seasons ( its final broadcast was on 4 January 1970 ) . The reason given was that the writers had run out of things to talk about . However , it is possible that CBS may have wished to replace it with a more commercially successful program .","qid":"2721","docid":"The_20th_Century","rank":38,"score":89633},{"content":"Title: 20th century in fashion Content:","qid":"2721","docid":"20th_century_in_fashion","rank":39,"score":89476},{"content":"Title: Tiden (newspaper) Content: Tiden , et offentlig Blad af blandet Indhold ( The Time , a Public Magazine of Mixed Content ) was a royalist and secessionist newspaper in 19th-century Norway . The first issue was published on 28 January 1808 in Christiania ( now Oslo ) ; the founding editor was Niels Wulfsberg . Its predecessor was Efterretninger og Opmuntringer angaaende de nærværende Krigsbegivenheder , a military periodical which was published in 43 issues in the autumn of 1807 . Great Britain 's blockade of Norway during the Napoleonic Wars prevented Copenhagen newspapers from being imported to Christiania ; Wulfsberg started both newspapers to fill the resulting lack of information . Tiden was published twice a week between 1808 and 1811 . Wulfsberg was an impetuous editor-in-chief , occasionally printing articles critical of the governing authorities . He used the newspaper to spread his own views on royalty and secession from Denmark ; on 29 January 1810 he published an issue fully devoted to Christian August , heir to the Swedish throne . Later the same year he received King Frederick VI 's ire , who during one of Wulfsberg 's visits to Copenhagen said : `` Be on guard , I do n't like your paper , be on guard , I have the power to stop it . '' Bemoaning the high costs of paper and the low subscription incomes , Wulfsberg decided to cease Tiden publication in 1811 . The newspaper did , however , recommence publication in 1813 , chiefly owing to Wulfsberg 's subservient support of stattholder Christian VIII 's governance in Norway . Press historian Svennik Høyer writes that Wulfsberg was subsequently `` paid and persuaded by the political key players . '' In 1814 , Tiden ceased publication again ; however , in the next year , Den norske Rigstidende was established as a sequel to the paper . It was edited by Wulfsberg and Christian Døderlein . The latter person was the key player in the newspaper ; Wulfsberg was primarily occupied with his newly established paper Morgenbladet . Following the cessation of Den norske Rigstidende publication in 1832 , Wulfsberg started a new newspaper named Tiden , without any obvious connection to the former newspaper . It is still published as of 2011 under the name Drammens Tidende .","qid":"2721","docid":"Tiden_(newspaper)","rank":40,"score":89415},{"content":"Title: Catholic Church in the 20th century Content: Christianity in the 20th century was characterized by an accelerating secularization of Western society . The Roman Catholic Church instituted many reforms in order to modernize . Catholic missionaries also made inroads in the Far East , establishing further followings in China , Taiwan , and Japan .","qid":"2721","docid":"Catholic_Church_in_the_20th_century","rank":41,"score":89295},{"content":"Title: The Tide (Lucy Kaplansky album) Content: The Tide is the debut album by American singer-songwriter Lucy Kaplansky , released in 1994 . Red House Records released a remastered version on October 4 , 2005 , including two bonus tracks .","qid":"2721","docid":"The_Tide_(Lucy_Kaplansky_album)","rank":42,"score":89184},{"content":"Title: The Rising Tide (Deland novel) Content: The Rising Tide is a novel about issues confronting women in the years just before suffrage by the American writer Margaret Deland ( 1857 -- 1945 ) set in the 19th century fictional locale of Mercer , an Ohio River community that represents Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania . The novel tells the story of Frederica Payton , a `` new woman '' who illustrates the extremes of the feminist question . It was first published in installments in Harper 's Monthly from December 1915 through October 1916 .","qid":"2721","docid":"The_Rising_Tide_(Deland_novel)","rank":43,"score":89114},{"content":"Title: Twentieth Century (Alabama album) Content: Twentieth Century is the eighteenth studio album of country music band Alabama , released in 1999 by RCA Records . It produced the singles '' ( God Must Have Spent ) A Little More Time on You '' , a collaboration with 'N Sync , `` Small Stuff '' , `` We Made Love '' and `` Twentieth Century '' , which respectively reached numbers 3 , 24 , 63 , and 51 on the Hot Country Songs charts . In addition , '' ( God Must Have Spent ) A Little More Time on You '' was the band 's last top ten hit on the country charts . '' ( God Must Have Spent ) A Little More Time On You '' was originally recorded by 'N Sync in 1998 on their first album * NSYNC .","qid":"2721","docid":"Twentieth_Century_(Alabama_album)","rank":44,"score":88527},{"content":"Title: Sea level rise Content: A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .","qid":"2721","docid":"Sea_level_rise","rank":45,"score":88372},{"content":"Title: 20th Century (cocktail) Content: The 20th Century is a cocktail created in 1937 by a British bartender named C.A. Tuck , and named in honor of the celebrated Twentieth Century Limited train which ran between New York City and Chicago from 1902 until 1967 . The recipe was first published in 1937 in the Café Royal Cocktail Book by William J Tarling , President of the United Kingdom Bartenders ' Guild and head bartender at the Café Royal .","qid":"2721","docid":"20th_Century_(cocktail)","rank":46,"score":88057},{"content":"Title: Twentieth century (disambiguation) Content: Twentieth century may refer to : The 20th century AD , the period between the years 1901 and 2000 of the Gregorian calendar The 20th century BC 20th Century Fox 20th Century Limited , a passenger train between Chicago and New York City that operated from 1902 to 1967 Twentieth Century ( play ) , a 1932 play Twentieth Century ( film ) , a 1934 film On the Twentieth Century , a 1978 musical based on the play and film Twentieth Century ( typeface ) , a geometric sans-serif typeface . 20th Century ( cocktail ) , a cocktail Twentieth Century ( TV series ) , a long-running TV documentary series telecast on CBS from 1957 to 1970 , and hosted by Walter Cronkite","qid":"2721","docid":"Twentieth_century_(disambiguation)","rank":47,"score":87745},{"content":"Title: Sea Level (album) Content: Sea Level is the 1977 eponymous debut album by Sea Level and was released on the Capricorn Records label .","qid":"2721","docid":"Sea_Level_(album)","rank":48,"score":87578},{"content":"Title: Wellen (novel) Content: Wellen ( lit . Waves ) , published in English in 1929 as Tides , is a novel by Eduard von Keyserling that was first published in German in 1911 . Set during a long hot summer in a small fishing village somewhere on the Baltic Sea , most likely on the Curonian Spit , it depicts a group of aristocratic city-dwellers spending their holidays in that remote part of the German Empire . However , rather than painting a rural idyll , Keyserling focuses on the follies of a doomed fin de siècle society whose self-imposed repressions eventually lead to catastrophe .","qid":"2721","docid":"Wellen_(novel)","rank":49,"score":87116},{"content":"Title: A Sea So Far Content: A Sea So Far ( 2001 ) is a historical young-adult novel by Jean Thesman . Its sequel is Rising Tide ( 2003 ) .","qid":"2721","docid":"A_Sea_So_Far","rank":50,"score":87016},{"content":"Title: Between Pacific Tides Content: Between Pacific Tides is a 1939 book by Ed Ricketts and Jack Calvin that explores the intertidal ecology of the Pacific coast of the United States . The book was originally titled `` Between Pacific Tides : An Account of the Habits and Habitats of Some Five Hundred of the Common , Conspicuous Seashore Invertebrates of the Pacific Coast Between Sitka , Alaska , and Northern Mexico '' . The book was out of print from 1942 to 1948 , but it has since been revised and updated to keep it current , and is now in its fifth edition with the size increasing around twenty percent from the original . Updated and expanded sections have been added since the original edition was published , including : John Steinbeck 's Foreword to the 1948 edition ; a new chapter regarding the influence on the distribution of shore organisms ; an updated Annotated Systematic Index and General Bibliography comprising 2,300 entries ; and the addition of 200 photographs and drawings . By 2004 , the book had sold around 100,000 copies , making it one of the best-selling books published by Stanford University Press .","qid":"2721","docid":"Between_Pacific_Tides","rank":51,"score":86989},{"content":"Title: Age wave Content: Age Wave refers to a massive population and cultural shift caused by three converging global demographic forces : The baby boom . In the middle of the twentieth century , fertility rates increased significantly in the United States , Canada , Australia , and most of Europe . For example , nearly one-third of Americans -- 76 million people -- were born between 1946 and 1964 . This period of increased fertility era occurred between the baby busts of the Depression and World War II and the Vietnam war . Elevating longevity . Due to advances in public health , nutrition management and medical advances , life expectancy vaulted during the 20th century . For example , in the United States , life expectancy at birth in 1900 was 47 . Today , life expectancy at birth in the United States is 78 . The birth dearth . The baby boom has been followed by a period of declining fertility rates , so that many parts of the world are now experiencing sub-replacement fertility levels . According to Ken Dychtwald , Ph.D. , who first envisioned this demographically-driven transformation and coined the term , the `` age wave '' has already reshaped social and cultural trends , marketplace opportunities , productivity , and consumption patterns . Because of its enormous size and unique preferences and priorities , the men and women of this generation do n't just populate existing lifestages or consumer trends , they transform them . Some examples of trends and events driven by the age wave include : Benjamin Spock 's book , The Common Sense Book of Baby and Child Care , published during the first year of the baby boom , sold at least one million copies a year for eight straight years . 1.5 million cans of baby food were consumed in 1953 , almost six times as many as a decade before . Enrollment in the Cub Scouts doubled between 1950 and 1955 . The toy industry increased fifteen-fold in the 1940s and 1950s to meet the needs of rapidly growing numbers of children . 83 percent of the total population growth in the United States during the 1950s was in the suburbs as parents of the baby boomers moved out of the cities to raise their larger families . In the 1960s , teenagers accounted for 55 percent of all soft drink sales , 53 percent of all movie tickets , and 43 percent of all records sold . Fast food franchisers grew 20 percent a year . Sales of home gym equipment rose from $ 75 million in 1982 to over $ 1 billion in 1985 . Minivans and SUVs were created and came to dominate the auto industry in the 1980s and 1990s as baby boomers began raising families . The age wave will cause a massive slowdown in workforce growth in the coming years . In the next decade , America 's workforce will grow only 4 percent as the boomers begin to retire , down from 12 percent in the current decade and 29 percent in the 1970s when the boomers were entering the workforce . Dychtwald argues that as the boomer generation continues to mature , life 's second half is about to be further transformed , and that in the next several decades , this age wave will shift the epicenter of consumer activity from a focus on youth to the needs , challenges , and aspirations of maturing consumers . Because of the aging of the boomer generation , we are about to see an explosion of maturity-oriented products and services such as : nutraceuticals , cosmeceuticals , fitness communes , re-careering , philanthropreneuring , career-transition coordinators , smart homes , long-term care and longevity insurance , equity-release , reverse mortgages , college campus-based retirement housing and Internet cemeteries . However , the age wave will also put unprecedented pressure on families , communities and governments as multiplying numbers of older adults strain entitlements , eldercare , healthcare delivery and pensions . Criticisms All of these ancedotes may not reflect purely demographic changes , but also changes in norms of social present in the period . Especially activities like baby food consumption or Boy Scout attendance . Baby food consumption points to changes in beliefs about childhood nutrition , marketing and increased wealth with which to buy packaged food . Boy Scout attendance is not a stable fraction of the population ( all those of a certain age ) but rather a reflection of trends in beliefs about proper young male socialization and ideology .","qid":"2721","docid":"Age_wave","rank":52,"score":86923},{"content":"Title: Christianity in the 20th century Content: Christianity in the 20th century was characterized by an accelerating secularization of Western society , which had begun in the 19th century , and by the spread of Christianity to non-Western regions of the world . Christian ecumenism grew in importance , beginning at the Edinburgh Missionary Conference in 1910 , and accelerated after the Second Vatican Council of the Catholic Church , The Liturgical Movement became significant in both Catholic and Protestant Christianity , especially in Anglicanism . At the same time , state-promoted atheism in communist Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union brought persecution to many Eastern Orthodox and other Christians . Many Orthodox came to Western Europe and the Americas , leading to greatly increased contact between Western and Eastern Christianity . Nevertheless , church attendance declined more in Western Europe than it did in the East . ( Christianity ) The Roman Catholic Church instituted many reforms in order to modernize . Catholic and Protestant missionaries also made inroads in the Far East , establishing further followings in mainland China , Taiwan , and Japan .","qid":"2721","docid":"Christianity_in_the_20th_century","rank":53,"score":86874},{"content":"Title: Time and Tide (magazine) Content: Time and Tide was a British weekly political and literary review magazine founded by Margaret , Lady Rhondda in 1920 . It started out as a supporter of left wing and feminist causes and the mouthpiece of the feminist Six Point Group . It later moved to the right along with the views of its owner . It always supported and published literary talent . The first editor was Helen Archdale . Lady Rhondda took over herself as editor in 1926 and remained for the rest of her life . Contributors included , Nancy Astor , Margaret Bondfield , Vera Brittain , John Brophy , Margery Corbett-Ashby , Anthony Cronin ( literary editor mid-1950s ) , E.M. Delafield , Charlotte Despard , Crystal Eastman , Emma Goldman , Robert Graves , Charlotte Haldane , Mary Hamilton , Winifred Holtby , Storm Jameson , Max Kenyon , D. H. Lawrence , C.S. Lewis , F. L. Lucas , Rose Macaulay , Naomi Mitchison , Eric Newton , George Orwell , Emmeline Pankhurst , Eleanor Rathbone , Elizabeth Robins , Olive Schreiner , George Bernard Shaw , Ethel Smyth , Helena Swanwick , Ernst Toller , Rebecca West , Ellen Wilkinson , Charles Williams , Margaret Wintringham , and Virginia Woolf . In 1940 , the article `` The Necessity of Chivalry '' by C.S. Lewis was published in Time and Tide , beginning an association between Lewis and the magazine that would last twenty years and include more articles and reviews . In 1944 , Lewis 's articles , `` Democratic Education '' and `` The Parthenon and the Optative '' were published , while `` Hedonics '' appeared in 1945 . In 1946 , the magazine published Lewis 's articles `` Different Tastes in Literature '' and `` Period Criticism '' . In 1954 , Lewis published one of the first reviews of J.R.R. Tolkien 's The Fellowship of the Ring , and in 1955 his reviews of The Two Towers and The Return of the King were published . Lewis also frequently contributed poetry to Time and Tide , including his poem `` The Meteorite '' ( 7 December 1946 ) which he used as the motto for his book Miracles ( 1947 ) . Another significant contributor was Lewis 's friend and fellow Oxford ` Inkling ' Charles Williams , who contributed regularly from 1937 until his death in 1945 . His important articles included a review of the ` B ' text of W.B. Yeats 's A Vision ( 1937 ) and an exposition of his own Arthurian sequence of poems , Taliessin Through Logres ( 1938 ) . Time and Tide never sold well ; its peak circulation was 14,000 copies . It is estimated that the magazine was subsidised by Lady Rhondda to the sum of # 500,000 during the thirty-eight years she owned it . With Lady Rhondda 's death in 1958 , it passed to the control of Rev Timothy Beaumont and editor John Thompson in March 1960 . Under their supervision it became a political news-magazine with a Christian flavour during the 1960s . It however continued to lose # 600 a week and , in June 1962 , he sold it to Brittain Publishing Company where it was continued by W. J. Brittain . It became a monthly in 1970 and closed in 1979 . The Time and Tide title was later purchased by Sidgwick and Jackson , a subsidiary of the hotel group Trust House Forte . They continued to publish it quarterly during 1984 - 1986 from their global headquarters in London with Alexander Chancellor as editor . Again it was propped-up by a very wealthy peer , Lord Forte of Ripley .","qid":"2721","docid":"Time_and_Tide_(magazine)","rank":54,"score":86657},{"content":"Title: Short twentieth century Content: The term `` short 20th century '' , originally proposed by Iván Berend ( Hungarian Academy of Sciences ) but defined by Eric Hobsbawm , a British Marxist historian and author , refers to the period between the years 1914 and 1991 . That period begins with the beginning of World War I , and ends with the fall of the Soviet Union . The chain of events represented such significant changes in world history as to redefine the era : It started with World War I , which caused the end of the German , Ottoman , Austro-Hungarian and Russian empires . World War II was greatly influenced by the outcome of World War I . The Cold War was a result of World War II and ended with the fall of the Soviet Union . The term is analogous to the long 19th century , also coined by Hobsbawm , denoting the period 1789 to 1914 , and to the long 18th century , or approximately 1688 to 1815 .","qid":"2721","docid":"Short_twentieth_century","rank":55,"score":86600},{"content":"Title: Transformative Innovation for Development and Emergency Support Content: The STAR-TIDES project ( Sustainable Technologies , Accelerated Research - Transformative Innovation for Development and Emergency Support ) is a research effort at the National Defense University that promotes sustainable support to stressed populations -- post-war , post-disaster , or impoverished , in foreign or domestic contexts , for short-term or long-term ( multi-year ) operations . The project provides reach-back `` knowledge on demand '' to decision-makers and those working in the field . It uses public-private partnerships and `` whole-of-government '' approaches to encourage unity of action among diverse organizations where there is no unity of command , and facilitates both inter-agency and international engagement .","qid":"2721","docid":"Transformative_Innovation_for_Development_and_Emergency_Support","rank":56,"score":86304},{"content":"Title: 20th century in poetry Content:","qid":"2721","docid":"20th_century_in_poetry","rank":57,"score":86130},{"content":"Title: Tidal acceleration Content: Tidal acceleration is an effect of the tidal forces between an orbiting natural satellite ( e.g. the Moon ) , and the primary planet that it orbits ( e.g. Earth ) . The acceleration causes a gradual recession of a satellite in a prograde orbit away from the primary , and a corresponding slowdown of the primary 's rotation . The process eventually leads to tidal locking , usually of the smaller first , and later the larger body . The Earth -- Moon system is the best studied case . The similar process of tidal deceleration occurs for satellites that have an orbital period that is shorter than the primary 's rotational period , or that orbit in a retrograde direction . The naming is somewhat confusing , because the speed of the satellite relative to the body it orbits is decreased as a result of tidal acceleration , and increased as a result of tidal deceleration .","qid":"2721","docid":"Tidal_acceleration","rank":58,"score":85900},{"content":"Title: Pink tide Content: `` Pink tide '' ( marea rosa , onda rosa ) and `` turn to the Left '' ( Sp. : vuelta hacia la izquierda , Pt. : Guinada à Esquerda ) are phrases used in contemporary 21st century political analysis in the media and elsewhere to describe the perception of a turn towards left wing governments in Latin-American democracies straying away from the then more frequent neo-liberal economic model . The shift represented a move toward more progressive economic policies , post-colonialism and direct democracy . The Latin American countries viewed as part of this ideological trend have been referred to as `` Pink Tide nations '' , with the term post-neoliberalism being used to describe the movement as well . Recently , analysts have characterized some of these government 's as having anti-American , populist , and authoritarian-leaning traits . The movement , which occurred primarily between 1998 and 2009 , entered into a state of stagnation and decline shortly thereafter .","qid":"2721","docid":"Pink_tide","rank":59,"score":85892},{"content":"Title: Tide (brand) Content: Tide ( Alo , Vizir or Ace in some countries ) is a laundry detergent manufactured by Procter & Gamble , introduced in 1946 .","qid":"2721","docid":"Tide_(brand)","rank":60,"score":85629},{"content":"Title: Society of Early Americanists Content: The Society of Early Americanists ( SEA ) was founded in 1990 as an interdisciplinary association of scholars who study the literature and culture of America prior to about the year 1800 . The non-profit society promotes the exchange of ideas and information among its members through a newsletter , which serves as the primary forum for members ' concerns , through an electronic bulletin board and a website , and through conferences and joint research projects . The SEA is an affiliate of both the American Literature Association and the American Society for Eighteenth-Century Studies .","qid":"2721","docid":"Society_of_Early_Americanists","rank":61,"score":85068},{"content":"Title: Tides (Phaeleh album) Content: Tides is the second full-length studio album by English electronic musician Phaeleh . It was released in July 2013 by Afterglo Records .","qid":"2721","docid":"Tides_(Phaeleh_album)","rank":62,"score":84914},{"content":"Title: 20th century BC Content: The 20th century BC was a century which lasted from the year 2000 BC to 1901 BC .","qid":"2721","docid":"20th_century_BC","rank":63,"score":84834},{"content":"Title: Tidevarvet Content: Tidevarvet ( meaning The Epoch in English ) was a Swedish weekly political and feminist magazine existed between November 1923 and December 1936 .","qid":"2721","docid":"Tidevarvet","rank":64,"score":84820},{"content":"Title: Lesbian Tide Content: The Lesbian Tide was an American lesbian newspaper that was first published in 1971 and discontinued in 1980 .","qid":"2721","docid":"Lesbian_Tide","rank":65,"score":84784},{"content":"Title: The Tidal Wave Content: The Tidal Wave is a 1920 British silent drama film directed by Sinclair Hill and starring Poppy Wyndham , Sydney Seaward and Pardoe Woodman . It is based on a short story by Ethel M. Dell . A fisherman rescues an artist from the sea , and falls in love with her .","qid":"2721","docid":"The_Tidal_Wave","rank":66,"score":84610},{"content":"Title: 20th-century events Content: The 20th-century events include many notable events which occurred throughout the 20th century , which began on January 1 , 1901 , and ended on December 31 , 2000 , according to the Gregorian calendar .","qid":"2721","docid":"20th-century_events","rank":67,"score":84568},{"content":"Title: Tide dial Content: A tide dial , also known as a mass or scratch dial , is a sundial marked with the canonical hours rather than or in addition to the standard hours of daylight . Such sundials were particularly common between the 7th and 14th centuries in Europe , at which point they began to be replaced by mechanical clocks . There are more than 3,000 surviving tide dials in England and at least 1,500 in France .","qid":"2721","docid":"Tide_dial","rank":68,"score":84563},{"content":"Title: Sea level Content: Mean sea level ( MSL ) ( abbreviated simply sea level ) is an average level of the surface of one or more of Earth 's oceans from which heights such as elevations may be measured . MSL is a type of vertical datuma standardised geodetic reference pointthat is used , for example , as a chart datum in cartography and marine navigation , or , in aviation , as the standard sea level at which atmospheric pressure is measured in order to calibrate altitude and , consequently , aircraft flight levels . A common and relatively straightforward mean sea-level standard is the midpoint between a mean low and mean high tide at a particular location . Sea levels can be affected by many factors and are known to have varied greatly over geological time scales . The careful measurement of variations in MSL can offer insights into ongoing climate change , and sea level rise has been widely quoted as evidence of ongoing global warming . The term above sea level generally refers to above mean sea level ( AMSL ) .","qid":"2721","docid":"Sea_level","rank":69,"score":84294},{"content":"Title: The Tides of Tragedy Content: The Tides Of Tragedy is the second full-length album by American metalcore band Age of Ruin . It was released in the United States on June 22 , 2004 via Eulogy Records and in Europe on December 13 , 2004 via Alveran Records .","qid":"2721","docid":"The_Tides_of_Tragedy","rank":70,"score":84253},{"content":"Title: December 1992 nor'easter Content: The December 1992 nor'easter produced record high tides and snowfall across the northeastern United States . It developed as a low pressure area on December 10 over Virginia , and for two days it remained over the Mid-Atlantic states before moving offshore . In Maryland , the snowfall unofficially reached 48 in ; if verified , the total would have been the highest in the state 's history . About 120,000 people were left without power in the state due to high winds . Along the Maryland coast , the storm was less severe than the Perfect Storm in the previous year , although the strongest portion of the storm remained over New Jersey for several days . In the state , winds reached 80 mph in Cape May , and tides peaked at 10.4 ft in Perth Amboy . The combination of high tides and 25 ft waves caused the most significant flooding in the state since the Ash Wednesday Storm of 1962 . Several highways and portions of the New York City Subway and Port Authority Trans-Hudson systems were closed due to the storm . Throughout New Jersey , the nor'easter damaged about 3,200 homes and caused an estimated $ 750 million in damage ( 1992 USD ) . The nor'easter increased tides across the northeastern United States for several days due to its slow movement . In New York City , tides reached 8.04 ft at Battery Park , which flooded Franklin D. Roosevelt East River Drive . Along Long Island , the nor'easter destroyed over 130 homes and left 454,000 people without power . In New England , 230,684 people lost power during the storm . Five houses were destroyed in Massachusetts , and flooding reached 5 ft deep in Boston . Further inland , the storm produced significant snowfall , estimated at around 4 ft in The Berkshires . The high snow totals closed schools for a week in western Massachusetts . Overall , the storm caused between $ 1 -- 2 billion in damage ( 1992 USD ) and 19 deaths , of which four were directly related to the storm . In March of the following year , the Storm of the Century caused worse damage across a larger region of the eastern United States .","qid":"2721","docid":"December_1992_nor'easter","rank":71,"score":84220},{"content":"Title: Nino and the Ebb Tides Content: Nino and the Ebb Tides were a doo-wop recording group based in the Bronx , New York , formed in 1956 . Their first recording , Franny Franny , released as `` The Ebb Tides '' , was the result of meeting talent scout Murray Jacobs in 1957 and was widely played by Alan Freed . Later releases were on Jacobs ' newly formed Recorte Records before moving on to Madison Records . One of their recordings , `` Jukebox Saturday Night '' was a cover of a Glenn Miller tune . On September 4 . 1961 , their `` Jukebox Saturday Night '' charted on Billboard 's Top 100 , reaching number 57 . the group was managed by Ralph Fusco also from the Bronx NY .","qid":"2721","docid":"Nino_and_the_Ebb_Tides","rank":72,"score":83845},{"content":"Title: 20th century in literature Content: Literature of the 20th century refers to world literature produced during the 20th century ( 1901 to 2000 ) . In terms of the Euro-American tradition , the main periods are captured in the bipartite division , Modernist literature and Postmodern literature , flowering from roughly 1900 to 1940 and 1960 to 1990 respectively , divided , as a rule of thumb , by World War II . The somewhat malleable term of contemporary literature is usually applied with a post-1960 cutoff point . Although these terms ( modern , contemporary and postmodern ) are most applicable to Western literary history , the rise of globalization has allowed European literary ideas to spread into non-Western cultures fairly rapidly , so that Asian and African literatures can be included into these divisions with only minor qualifications . And in some ways , such as in Postcolonial literature , writers from non-Western cultures were on the forefront of literary development . Technological advances during the 20th century allowed cheaper production of books , resulting in a significant rise in production of popular literature and trivial literature , comparable to the similar developments in music . The division of `` popular literature '' and `` high literature '' in the 20th century is by no means absolute , and various genres such as detectives or science fiction fluctuate between the two . Largely ignored by mainstream literary criticism for the most of the century , these genres developed their own establishments and critical awards ; these include the Nebula Award ( since 1965 ) , the British Fantasy Award ( since 1971 ) or the Mythopoeic Awards ( since 1971 ) . Towards the end of the 20th century , electronic literature developed due to the development of hypertext and later the world wide web . The Nobel Prize in Literature was awarded annually throughout the century ( with the exception of 1914 , 1918 , 1935 and 1940 -- 1943 ) , the first laureate ( 1901 ) being Sully Prudhomme . The New York Times Best Seller list has been published since 1942 . The best-selling literary works of the 20th century are estimated to be The Lord of the Rings ( 1954/55 , 150 million copies ) , Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone ( 1997 , 120 million copies ) and And Then There Were None ( 1939 , 115 million copies ) . The Lord of the Rings was also voted `` book of the century '' in various surveys . Perry Rhodan ( 1961 to present ) proclaimed as the best-selling book series , with an estimated total of 1 billion copies sold .","qid":"2721","docid":"20th_century_in_literature","rank":73,"score":83796},{"content":"Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .","qid":"2721","docid":"Copenhagen_Diagnosis","rank":74,"score":83784},{"content":"Title: Sea Level (band) Content: Sea Level is the name of a Southern rock/funk/fusion jam band that mixed jazz , blues and rock and existed between 1976 and 1981 . Initially it was an offshoot of The Allman Brothers Band , but as tensions grew between the loss of two of its founding members and personal grievances between Gregg Allman and other band mates and associates , Sea Level took on a life of its own as an independent band . After the initial breakup of the Allman Brothers Band when Gregg Allman and Dicky Betts left , most of the remaining members who evolved into Sea Level were the trio `` We Three '' comprising bassist Lamar Williams , drummer Jaimoe and Chuck Leavell ( piano , keyboards , vocals ) . The trio would occasionally open shows for the group in 1975 and 1976 . With the Allmans disbanding in 1976 , the trio added guitarist Jimmy Nalls and named the band based on a phonetic pun of their new bandleader Chuck Leavell 's name : `` C. Leavell . '' They toured relentlessly , experimenting and refining their sound , eventually signing with Capricorn Records ( home of the Allman Brothers ) and recording their self-titled debut album in 1977 . After the release of their first album , the group expanded to a septet with the additions of Davis Causey ( guitar ) , George Weaver ( drums , percussion ) and Randall Bramblett ( saxophones , keyboards and vocals ) . That configuration recorded the group 's second album , Cats on the Coast , in 1978 ( with the leadoff track , `` That 's Your Secret '' , reaching # 50 on the Billboard Hot 100 ) . By the time of the third album , On the Edge , Jaimoe and Weaver had both left , replaced by Joe English . The sextet of Bramblett , Causey , English , Leavell , Nalls and Williams recorded the fourth album , Long Walk on a Short Pier ( 1979 ) , unreleased in the United States for nearly twenty years , adding percussionist Matt Greeley for their fifth and final album , Ball Room , issued on Arista in 1980 . Their greatest hits album ( CD ) wrapped up their body of work , minus a handful of appearances on various compilation albums ( mostly Southern Rock ) . They were also featured on a 1978 live Southern Rock album which included a live version of `` Grand Larceny . '' Leavell later emerged as a much sought-after session musician and producer , touring with Eric Clapton and eventually becoming a `` permanent '' session player touring with the Rolling Stones . In 1998 , he issued his debut solo LP , a Christmas album called What 's in That Bag ? and more recently Forever Blue that includes solo versions of two classic Sea Level compositions : `` Whole Lotta Colada '' and `` Song for Amy . '' He also released Southscape , an album of Southern anthems that hearkens back to his Southern roots .","qid":"2721","docid":"Sea_Level_(band)","rank":75,"score":83746},{"content":"Title: Twentieth Century (Cold Chisel album) Content: Twentieth Century is the final studio album for Australian band Cold Chisel until the group reformed in 1998 . The album was written and recorded over various sessions during the period of the band 's break-up and during breaks in their final tour . It was released in early 1984 and peaked at No. 1 on the Australian albums chart , their 3rd consecutive album to do so . It charted for a total of 46 weeks .","qid":"2721","docid":"Twentieth_Century_(Cold_Chisel_album)","rank":76,"score":83725},{"content":"Title: Acceleration (human development) Content: thumb | 400px | Secular trend in decrease in age of menarche in Western European and North American girlsAfter : thumb | 400px | Stature comparison between American-born children of European descent and earlier populations of the same heritageAfter : Acceleration in human development process is the phenomenon which has been registered in many populations around the world . This applies equally to the growth of certain anthropometric parameters and the speed of reaching sexual maturity . These facts illustrate the results of secular changes in body height and appearance of the first menstruation ( menarche ) . Increases in human stature are a main indicator of improvements in the average health of populations . The newest data set for the average height of adult male birth cohorts , from the mid-nineteenth century to 1980 , in 15 European countries was studied ( in the populations listed ) . During a century average height increased by 11 cm representing a dramatic improvement of this phenomenon . It is interesting that the apparent acceleration of body height occurred during the Ĝ . Also , in the mid-nineteenth century young European women 's menarche occurred at the average age of 16.5 years . One hundred years later , this age was reduced to under 12 years . Increase in adult height of birth cohorts ( cm/decade )","qid":"2721","docid":"Acceleration_(human_development)","rank":77,"score":83550},{"content":"Title: North Sea flood of 1953 Content: The 1953 North Sea flood ( Watersnoodramp , literally `` water emergency disaster '' ) was a major flood caused by a heavy storm that occurred on the night of Saturday , 31 January 1953 and morning of Sunday , 1 February 1953 . The floods struck the Netherlands , Belgium , England and Scotland . A combination of a high spring tide and a severe European windstorm over the North Sea caused a storm tide ; the combination of wind , high tide , and low pressure led to a water level of more than 5.6 m above mean sea level in some locations . The flood and waves overwhelmed sea defences and caused extensive flooding . The Netherlands , a country with 20 % of its territory below mean sea level and 50 % less than 1 m above sea level and which relies heavily on sea defences , was worst affected , recording 1,836 deaths and widespread property damage . Most of the casualties occurred in the southern province of Zeeland . In England , 307 people were killed in the counties of Lincolnshire , Norfolk , Suffolk and Essex . Nineteen were killed in Scotland . Twenty-eight people were killed in West Flanders , Belgium . In addition , more than 230 deaths occurred on water craft along Northern European coasts as well as on ships in deeper waters of the North Sea . The ferry MV Princess Victoria was lost at sea in the North Channel east of Belfast with 133 fatalities , and many fishing trawlers sank . Realising that such infrequent events could recur , the Netherlands particularly , and the United Kingdom carried out major studies on strengthening of coastal defences . The Netherlands developed the Delta Works , an extensive system of dams and storm surge barriers . The UK constructed storm surge barriers on the River Thames below London and on the River Hull where it meets the Humber estuary .","qid":"2721","docid":"North_Sea_flood_of_1953","rank":78,"score":83511},{"content":"Title: Bedford Level experiment Content: The Bedford Level experiment is a series of observations carried out along a 6 mi length of the Old Bedford River on the Bedford Level , Norfolk , England , UK , during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries , to measure the curvature of the Earth . Samuel Birley Rowbotham , who conducted the first observations starting in 1838 , claimed he had proven the Earth to be flat . However , in 1870 , after adjusting Rowbotham 's method to avoid the effects of atmospheric refraction , Alfred Russel Wallace found a curvature consistent with a spherical Earth .","qid":"2721","docid":"Bedford_Level_experiment","rank":79,"score":83470},{"content":"Title: Terrorist Identities Datamart Environment Content: The Terrorist Identities Datamart Environment ( TIDE ) is the U.S. government 's central database on known or suspected international terrorists , and contains classified information provided by members of the Intelligence Community such as CIA , DIA , FBI , NSA , and many others . There are over one million names in TIDE . In 2008 , more than 27,000 names were removed from the list when it was determined they no longer met the criteria for inclusion . According to the FBI , international terrorists include those persons who carry out terrorist activities under foreign direction . For this purpose , they may include U.S. persons ( U.S. citizens and legal permanent residents ) . The Terrorist Identities Group ( TIG ) , located in NCTC 's Information Sharing & Knowledge Development Directorate ( ISKD ) , is responsible for building and maintaining TIDE . From the classified TIDE database , an unclassified , but sensitive , extract is provided to the FBI 's Terrorist Screening Center , which compiles the Terrorist Screening Database ( TSDB ) . This database , in turn , is used to compile various watch lists such as the TSA 's No Fly List , State Department 's Consular Lookout and Support System , Homeland Security 's Interagency Border Inspection System , and FBI 's NCIC ( National Crime Information Center ) for state and local law enforcement .","qid":"2721","docid":"Terrorist_Identities_Datamart_Environment","rank":80,"score":83363},{"content":"Title: 20th Century with Mike Wallace Content: 20th Century with Mike Wallace was a documentary television program produced by CBS News Productions in association with A&E Network . It aired on The History Channel , a unit of A&E Television Networks , LLC , from approximately 1994-2005 . It was hosted by veteran CBS correspondent and anchor Mike Wallace . The program used footage gathered by CBS crews and contemporary reporting by CBS correspondents to document great events and movements of the 20th century , mainly the latter decades of that era . The range of topics is suggested by some of the program titles -- `` Underwater : The Great -LSB- Mississippi River -RSB- Flood of ' 93 '' ( no. 52 , 1996-04-10 ) ; `` Coming home : Agent Orange and the Gulf War Syndrome '' ( no. 91 , 1998-11-18 ) ; `` Search for Peace in the Middle East '' ( no. 106 , 1998-12-14 ) ; `` China after Mao '' ( no. 116 , 1999-03-05 ) .","qid":"2721","docid":"20th_Century_with_Mike_Wallace","rank":81,"score":83300},{"content":"Title: 1920 Alabama Crimson Tide football team Content: The 1920 Alabama Crimson Tide football team ( variously `` Alabama '' , `` UA '' or `` Bama '' ) represented the University of Alabama in the 1920 Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association football season . It was the Crimson Tide 's 27th overall and 24th season as a member of the Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association ( SIAA ) . The team was led by head coach Xen C. Scott , in his second year , and played their home games at University/Denny Field in Tuscaloosa and at Rickwood Field in Birmingham , Alabama . They finished the season with a record of ten wins and one loss ( 10 -- 1 overall , 6 -- 1 in the SIAA ) . This marked the first ten win season in the history of Alabama football . Starting with Scott , every Alabama coach has won ten games in a season at least once , with the exception of Jennings B. Whitworth . Alabama opened the season with six consecutive shutout victories over the Southern Military Academy , Marion Military Institute , , , , and Sewanee . In their seventh game against Vanderbilt Alabama allowed its first touchdown of the season , but won 14 -- 7 after the Commodores threw an interception on a fourth and goal from the three-yard line in the fourth quarter . After their shutout victory over LSU on what was the first homecoming game played at Alabama , the Crimson Tide lost their only game of the season at Atlanta against Georgia . The Bulldogs did not score on offense but won 21 -- 14 after touchdowns were scored on a fumble return , a blocked punt return and a blocked field goal return . The loss snapped Alabama 's then school-record 11-game winning streak . Alabama won their final two games against Mississippi A&M and in Cleveland at and finished the season 10 -- 1 .","qid":"2721","docid":"1920_Alabama_Crimson_Tide_football_team","rank":82,"score":83217},{"content":"Title: Ed Ricketts Content: Edward Flanders Robb Ricketts ( May 14 , 1897 -- May 11 , 1948 ) commonly known as Ed Ricketts , was an American marine biologist , ecologist , and philosopher . He is best known for Between Pacific Tides ( 1939 ) , a pioneering study of intertidal ecology , and for his influence on writer John Steinbeck , which resulted in their collaboration on the Sea of Cortez , later republished as The Log from the Sea of Cortez ( 1951 ) .","qid":"2721","docid":"Ed_Ricketts","rank":83,"score":83188},{"content":"Title: Oceana (band) Content: Oceana is an American rock band from St. Petersburg , Florida . Formed in 2007 and beginning with a post-hardcore sound , they were signed to Rise Records released their debut album titled The Tide on March 4 , 2008 , followed by the album Birth.Eater on May 19 , 2009 . They debuted a lighter indie rock sound with their EP Clean Head released on May 11 , 2010 . While recording their third album , One Big Particular Loop , in 2012 , they reinvented themselves under the name Polyenso .","qid":"2721","docid":"Oceana_(band)","rank":84,"score":82997},{"content":"Title: SeaGen Content: SeaGen is the world 's first large scale commercial tidal stream generator . It was four times more powerful than any other tidal stream generator in the world at the time of installation . The first SeaGen generator was installed in Strangford Narrows between Strangford and Portaferry in Northern Ireland , in April 2008 and was connected to the grid in July 2008 . It generates 1.2 MW for between 18 and 20 hours a day while the tides are forced in and out of Strangford Lough through the Narrows . Strangford Lough was also the site of the very first known tide mill in the world , the Nendrum Monastery mill where remains dating from 787 have been excavated .","qid":"2721","docid":"SeaGen","rank":85,"score":82975},{"content":"Title: North American Vertical Datum of 1988 Content: The North American Vertical Datum of 1988 ( NAVD 88 ) is the vertical control datum of orthometric height established for vertical control surveying in the United States of America based upon the General Adjustment of the North American Datum of 1988 . NAVD 88 was established in 1991 by the minimum-constraint adjustment of geodetic leveling observations in Canada , the United States , and Mexico . It held fixed the height of the primary tidal bench mark , referenced to the International Great Lakes Datum of 1985 local mean sea level height value , at Rimouski , Quebec , Canada . Additional tidal bench mark elevations were not used due to the demonstrated variations in sea surface topography , i.e. , that mean sea level is not the same equipotential surface at all tidal bench marks . The definition of NAVD 88 uses the Helmert orthometric height , which calculates the location of the geoid ( which approximates sea level ) from modeled local gravity . The NAVD 88 model is based on then-available measurements , and remains fixed despite later improved geoid models . NAVD 88 replaced the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 ( NGVD 29 ) , previously known as the Sea Level Datum of 1929 . The elevation difference between points in a local area will show negligible change from one datum to the other , even though the elevation of both does change . NGVD 29 used a simple model of gravity based on latitude to calculate the geoid and did not take into account other variations . Thus , the elevation difference for points across the country does change between datums .","qid":"2721","docid":"North_American_Vertical_Datum_of_1988","rank":86,"score":82934},{"content":"Title: The Incredible Tide Content: The Incredible Tide is a post-apocalyptic science fiction novel for young adults written by Alexander Key , published in 1970 . It was the inspiration for the Japanese anime television series Future Boy Conan , directed by Hayao Miyazaki .","qid":"2721","docid":"The_Incredible_Tide","rank":87,"score":82885},{"content":"Title: Twentieth century studies in neuroscience Content: Twentieth century studies in neuroscience is an article detailing important and seminal studies and undertakings of scientists and doctors working in the field of neuroscience during the twentieth century .","qid":"2721","docid":"Twentieth_century_studies_in_neuroscience","rank":88,"score":82777},{"content":"Title: Tidelands Content: Tidelands are the territory between the high and low water tide line of sea coasts , and lands lying under the sea beyond the low-water limit of the tide , considered within the territorial waters of a nation . The United States Constitution does not specify whether ownership of these lands rests with the federal government or with individual states . Originally little commercial value was attached to tidelands , so ownership was never firmly established , but the coastal states generally proceeded as if they were the owners . Some states , such as Mississippi , directly administer these lands under the public trust doctrine . The question arose for federal nations whether the tidelands for formerly independent coastal states had been ceded to the federal union on admission , or retained . The admission of the former Republic of Texas as a state in the United States in 1845 stipulated that its tidelands remained the territory of Texas . This has been an issue for oil and natural gas leases and federally funded development that affects such tidelands . For other states that were formerly independent , such as the Thirteen Colonies , there was no explicit retention of state sovereignty and the federal government had long asserted its own sovereignty over their tidelands .","qid":"2721","docid":"Tidelands","rank":89,"score":82751},{"content":"Title: Team of the century Content: In team sport , team of the century and team of the decade are hypothetical best teams over a given time period . For the century team , it can be either 100 years , or for a century ( always the 20th ) . Similarly the team of the decade can be for 10 years or a decade ( for example the 1980s ) . Teams of the decade and century are selected for both leagues and clubs and sometimes selected for other reasons , such as to honour the contribution of a particular ethnic group . Teams of the 20th century in particular have been controversial due to their loose criteria and the systemic bias toward current players , given that the performance of players before the advent of broadcasting of matches can not be reviewed and relies on hearsay and archival records . The Team of the Century concept used extensively in the sport of Australian rules football , where , since the mid-1990s , leagues ( such as the VFL/AFL or SANFL ) , as well as football clubs , have named their best team ( see Football ( Australian rules ) positions ) . Teams of the decades followed . One of the most famous examples of the team of the century concept was in 1996 , when the AFL Team of the Century was named on 2 September 1996 , during the League 's centenary season . An example from Ireland was when in 1984 the GAA selected their Football Team of the Century and Hurling Team of the Century to celebrate the first 100 years of the GAA . The term was used again in 2011 when the Team of Century from the Sigerson Cup was chosen .","qid":"2721","docid":"Team_of_the_century","rank":90,"score":82582},{"content":"Title: USS Tide Content: USS Tide may refer to : , a tug built in 1916 at Manitowoc , Wis. , by the Manitowoc Shipbuilding Co , laid down on 16 March 1942 at Savannah , Ga. , by the Savannah Machinery and Foundry Company . Category : United States Navy ship names","qid":"2721","docid":"USS_Tide","rank":91,"score":82374},{"content":"Title: 1872 Baltic Sea flood Content: The 1872 Baltic Sea flood ( Ostseesturmhochwasser 1872 ) , often referred to as a storm flood , ravaged the Baltic Sea coast from Denmark to Pomerania in the night of 12/13 November 1872 and was , until then , the worst storm surge in the Baltic . The highest recorded peak water level was about 3.3 m above sea level ( NN ) .","qid":"2721","docid":"1872_Baltic_Sea_flood","rank":92,"score":82295},{"content":"Title: The Mystic Tide Content: The Mystic Tide were an American rock band who have been credited for creating some of the first psychedelic anthems . Despite their lack of commercial success , they are now highly regarded amongst followers of garage rock and are recognized for their innovative musical approach . The group formed on Long Island and released a total of four singles between 1965 and 1967 , all of which were written by the band 's guitar player , Joe Docko . The band broke up in 1967 after little commercial success . Many years later in 1994 Docko recorded some new material and that along with three demos , the band 's five original singles , and their B-sides would be put out as a CD by Distortions records . Released more than 25 years after the group had disbanded , Solid Sound/Solid Ground , was the first and only album the band ever made .","qid":"2721","docid":"The_Mystic_Tide","rank":93,"score":82235},{"content":"Title: North Sea flood of 2007 Content: The North Sea flood of 2007 also known as Cyclone Tilo , and as Andrea in Norway was a storm tide of the North Sea affecting the coastlines of the Netherlands , the United Kingdom , Germany , Denmark , Norway and Belgium , starting on the night of 8 -- 9 November 2007 .","qid":"2721","docid":"North_Sea_flood_of_2007","rank":94,"score":82098},{"content":"Title: Unit record equipment Content: Starting at the end of the nineteenth century , well before the advent of electronic computers , data processing was performed using electromechanical machines called unit record equipment , electric accounting machines ( EAM ) or tabulating machines . Unit record machines came to be as ubiquitous in industry and government in the first two-thirds of the twentieth century as computers became in the last third . They allowed large volume , sophisticated data-processing tasks to be accomplished before electronic computers were invented and while they were still in their infancy . This data processing was accomplished by processing punched cards through various unit record machines in a carefully choreographed progression . This progression , or flow , from machine to machine was often planned and documented with detailed flowcharts that used standardized symbols for documents and the various machine functions . All but the earliest machines had high-speed mechanical feeders to process cards at rates from around 100 to 2,000 per minute , sensing punched holes with mechanical , electrical , or , later , optical sensors . The operation of many machines was directed by the use of a removable plugboard , control panel , or connection box . . Initially all machines were manual or electromechanical . The first use of an electronic component was in 1940 when a gas triode vacuum tube replaced a relay in an IBM card sorter . Electronic components were used on other machines beginning in the late 1940s . IBM was the largest supplier of unit record equipment and this article largely reflects IBM practice and terminology .","qid":"2721","docid":"Unit_record_equipment","rank":95,"score":82062},{"content":"Title: Older Peron Content: The Older Peron was the name for a period identified in 1961 as an episode of a global sea-level ( i.e. eustatic ) high-stand during the Holocene Epoch . Modern understanding of the various factors involved in quantifying eustatic sea level , particularly processes relating to ocean siphoning and glacio-hydro-isostatic adjustment , claim that such previous instances of purported high-stands were not globally coherent , and do not constitute episodes of eustatic sea level higher than present .","qid":"2721","docid":"Older_Peron","rank":96,"score":81784},{"content":"Title: Salt tide Content: Salt tide is a phenomenon in which the lower course of a river , with its low altitude with respect to the sea level , becomes salty when the discharge of the river is low during dry season , usually worsened by the result of astronomical high tide . The lower course Xijiang ( West River ) in Guangdong , China was periodically affected and has been widely reported since 2004 , for bringing shortage of fresh water supply to the western part of the Pearl River Delta . The salinity level of tap water at Zhuhai was reported to be as high as 800 mg per litre in late February 2006 , more than 3 times higher than the World Health Organisation standard of 250 mg .","qid":"2721","docid":"Salt_tide","rank":97,"score":81763},{"content":"Title: American Century Content: American Century is a characterization of the period since the middle of the 20th century as being largely dominated by the United States in political , economic , and cultural terms . It is comparable to the description of the period 1815 -- 1914 as Britain 's Imperial Century . The United States ' influence grew throughout the 20th century , but became especially dominant after the end of World War II , when only two superpowers remained , the United States and the Soviet Union . After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 , the United States remained the world 's only superpower , and became the hegemon , or what some have termed a hyperpower .","qid":"2721","docid":"American_Century","rank":98,"score":81752},{"content":"Title: Draupner wave Content: The Draupner wave or New Year 's wave was the first rogue wave to be detected by a measuring instrument , occurring at the Draupner platform in the North Sea off the coast of Norway on 1 January 1995 . In an area with significant wave height of approximately 12 m , a freak wave with a maximum wave height of 25.6 m occurred ( peak elevation above still water level was 18.5 m ) . Prior to that measurement , no instrument-recorded evidence for rogue waves existed -- just anecdotal evidence provided by those who had encountered them at sea , although ships such as the British Ocean Weather Reporter had recorded very large waves that did not differ quite enough from their neighbors to be considered rogue . Minor damage was inflicted on the platform during this event , confirming the validity of the reading made by a downwards-pointing laser sensor .","qid":"2721","docid":"Draupner_wave","rank":99,"score":81713},{"content":"Title: 1 gauge Content: 1 gauge , gauge 1 or gauge one is a model railroading and toy train standard that was popular in the early 20th century , particularly with European manufacturers . Its track measures , making it larger than 0 gauge but slightly smaller than wide gauge , which came to be the dominant U.S. standard during the 1920s . Gauge one was standardised , according to Model Railways and Locomotive magazine of August 1909 , at . An exact 1:32 scale would yield for standard gauge prototype . The distance between the wheel tyres was set at 1 +17 / 32 in and between the centre of the track 48 mm ( no inch equivalent suggesting it was metric users ' requirement only ) . The wheel width was set at 19/64 in . Definitions using gauge , rather than scale , were more common in the early days with the four gauges for which standards were adopted being No. 0 ( commonly called O gauge currently ) , No. 1 , No. 2 and No. 3 .","qid":"2721","docid":"1_gauge","rank":100,"score":81486}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: UK National Tide Gauge Network Content: The UK National Tide Gauge Network is part of the National Tidal and Sea Level Facility . It was set up in 1953 to record sea levels around the coast of the UK , after the east coast of England was affected by severe floods . Gauges positioned at 43 locations around the UK coast record data , which is archived at the British Oceanographic Data Centre in Liverpool . Once quality controlled , this data is made available for scientific use .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"UK_National_Tide_Gauge_Network\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 163638\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tide gauge Content: A tide gauge ( also known as mareograph or marigraph , as well as sea-level recorder ) is a device for measuring the change in sea level relative to a datum . Sensors continuously record the height of the water level with respect to a height reference surface close to the geoid . Water enters the device by the bottom pipe ( far end of the tube , see picture ) , and electronic sensors measure its height and send the data to a tiny computer . Historical data are available for about 1,450 stations worldwide , of which about 950 provided updates to the global data center since January 2010 . At some places records cover centuries , for example in Amsterdam where data dating back to 1700 is available . When it comes to estimating the greater ocean picture , new modern tide gauges can often be improved upon by using satellite data . Tide gauges are used to measure tides and quantify the size of tsunamis . The measurements make it possible to derive the mean sea level . Using this method , sea level slopes up to several 0.1 m/1000 km and more have been detected . A tsunami can be detected when the sea level begins to rise , although warnings from seismic activity can be more useful .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"Tide_gauge\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 163419\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level Content: The Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level is a repository for tide gauge data used in the measurement of long-term sea level change . The PSMSL is based at the National Oceanography Centre in Liverpool , England . It was founded in 1933 as the IUGG Mean Sea Level Committee , and adopted as a Permanent Service of the International Council for Science in 1958 . The tide gauge data are freely accessible by all , and consist predominantly of monthly-mean and annual-mean sea levels . The primary , `` Revised Local Reference '' data set has a continuous history of benchmark surveys for each gauge , ensuring that sea level is measured relative to a known land-based datum . There is also a `` Metric '' data set without such datum control , and a set of hourly and daily ocean bottom pressure data from the open ocean . The latter has no datum control , and the instruments are prone to calibration drift , so the bottom pressure data are useful only for oscillations with periods significantly shorter than the length of an individual instrument deployment ( typically 1 year ) . The PSMSL is financially supported by the UK Natural Environment Research Council , the International Council for Science World Data System , and the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"Permanent_Service_for_Mean_Sea_Level\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 137170\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: National Tidal and Sea Level Facility Content: Established in 2002 , The National Tidal and Sea Level Facility is responsible for monitoring sea levels in the UK . The NTSLF comprises the UK National Tide Gauge Network , geodetic networks , and gauges in the British Dependent Territories of the South Atlantic and Gibraltar . Data collected is used to create tidal predictions , monitor climate change and determine extreme sea levels for navigation and coastal engineering design . The Network is funded by the UK Environment Agency . Associated scientific research is funded by the Natural Environment Research Council ( NERC ) and the Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"National_Tidal_and_Sea_Level_Facility\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 130008\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea Level Datum of 1929 Content: The Sea Level Datum of 1929 was the vertical control datum established for vertical control surveying in the United States of America by the General Adjustment of 1929 . The datum was used to measure elevation ( altitude ) above , and depression ( depth ) below , mean sea level ( MSL ) . Mean sea level was measured at 26 tide gauges : 21 in the United States and 5 in Canada . The datum was defined by the observed heights of mean sea level at the 26 tide gauges and by the set of elevations of all bench marks resulting from the adjustment . The adjustment required a total of 66,315 miles ( 106,724 km ) of leveling with 246 closed circuits and 25 circuits at sea level . Since the Sea Level Datum of 1929 was a hybrid model , it was not a pure model of mean sea level , the geoid , or any other equipotential surface . Therefore , it was renamed the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 ( NGVD 29 ) in 1973 . NGVD29 was superseded by the North American Vertical Datum of 1988 ( NAVD 88 ) , based upon an equipotential definition and a readjustment , although many cities and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers projects with established data continued to use the older datum .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea_Level_Datum_of_1929\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 124959\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"Future_sea_level\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 120562\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Annual cycle of sea level height Content: The annual cycle of sea level height ( or seasonal cycle or annual harmonic ) describes the variation of sea level that occurs with a period of one year . Historically , analysis of the annual cycle has been limited by locations with tide gauge records , i.e. , coastlines and some islands in the deep ocean , and by sparse records in the Southern Hemisphere . Since 1992 , satellite-based altimeters have provided near global coverage of sea level variability , allowing for a more thorough understanding of the annual cycle both in the deep ocean and in coastal margins .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"Annual_cycle_of_sea_level_height\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 119766\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tide-predicting machine Content: A tide-predicting machine was a special-purpose mechanical analog computer of the late 19th and early 20th centuries , constructed and set up to predict the ebb and flow of sea tides and the irregular variations in their heights -- which change in mixtures of rhythms , that never ( in the aggregate ) repeat themselves exactly . Its purpose was to shorten the laborious and error-prone computations of tide-prediction . Such machines usually provided predictions valid from hour to hour and day to day for a year or more ahead . The first tide-predicting machine , designed and built in 1872-3 , and followed by two larger machines on similar principles in 1876 and 1879 , was conceived by Sir William Thomson ( who later became Lord Kelvin ) . Thomson had introduced the method of harmonic analysis of tidal patterns in the 1860s and the first machine was designed by Thomson with the collaboration of Edward Roberts ( assistant at the UK HM Nautical Almanac Office ) , and of Alexander Légé , who constructed it . In the US , another tide-predicting machine on a different pattern ( shown right ) was designed by William Ferrel and built in 1881-2 . Developments and improvements continued in the UK , US and Germany through the first half of the 20th century . The machines became widely used for constructing official tidal predictions for general marine navigation . They came to be regarded as of military strategic importance during World War I , and again during the second World War , when the US No. 2 Tide Predicting Machine , described below , was classified , along with the data that it produced , and used to predict tides for the D-day Normandy landings and all the island landings in the Pacific war . Military interest in such machines continued even for some time afterwards . They were made obsolete by digital electronic computers that can be programmed to carry out similar computations , but the tide-predicting machines continued in use until the 1960s and 1970s . Several examples of tide-predicting machines remain on display as museum pieces , occasionally put into operation for demonstration purposes , monuments to the mathematical and mechanical ingenuity of their creators .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"Tide-predicting_machine\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 114838\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tide Content: Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and the Sun and the rotation of the Earth . The times and amplitude of tides at any given locale are influenced by the alignment of the Sun and Moon , by the pattern of tides in the deep ocean , by the amphidromic systems of the oceans , and the shape of the coastline and near-shore bathymetry ( see Timing ) . Some shorelines experience a semi-diurnal tide -- two nearly equal high and low tides each day . Other locations experience a diurnal tide -- only one high and low tide each day . A `` mixed tide '' -- two uneven tides a day , or one high and one low -- is also possible . Tides vary on timescales ranging from hours to years due to a number of factors . To make accurate records , tide gauges at fixed stations measure water level over time . Gauges ignore variations caused by waves with periods shorter than minutes . These data are compared to the reference ( or datum ) level usually called mean sea level . While tides are usually the largest source of short-term sea-level fluctuations , sea levels are also subject to forces such as wind and barometric pressure changes , resulting in storm surges , especially in shallow seas and near coasts . Tidal phenomena are not limited to the oceans , but can occur in other systems whenever a gravitational field that varies in time and space is present . For example , the solid part of the Earth is affected by tides , though this is not as easily seen as the water tidal movements .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"Tide\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 114606\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 20th century Content: The 20th century was a century that began on January 1 , 1901 and ended on December 31 , 2000 . It was the tenth and final century of the 2nd millennium . It is distinct from the century known as the 1900s which began on January 1 , 1900 , and ended on December 31 , 1999 . The 20th century was dominated by a chain of events that heralded significant changes in world history as to redefine the era : World War I and World War II , nuclear power and space exploration , nationalism and decolonization , the Cold War and post-Cold War conflicts ; intergovernmental organizations and cultural homogenization through developments in emerging transportation and communications technology ; poverty reduction and world population growth , awareness of environmental degradation , ecological extinction ; and the birth of the Digital Revolution . It saw great advances in communication and medical technology that by the late 1980s allowed for near-instantaneous worldwide computer communication and genetic modification of life . The term `` short twentieth century '' was coined to represent the events from 1914 to 1991 . Global total fertility rates , sea level rise and ecological collapses increased ; the resulting competition for land and dwindling resources accelerated deforestation , water depletion . and the mass extinction of half the world 's estimated nine million unique species and wildlife population ; consequences which are now being dealt with . It took all of human history up to 1804 for the world 's population to reach 1 billion ; world population reached an estimated 2 billion in 1927 ; by late 1999 , the global population reached 6 billion . Global literacy averaged 80 % ; global lifespan-averages exceeded 40 + years for the first time in history , with over half achieving 70 + years ( three decades longer than it was a century ago ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"20th_century\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 110492\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 20th century in ichnology Content: The 20th century in ichnology refers to advances made between the years 1900 and 1999 in the scientific study of trace fossils , the preserved record of the behavior and physiological processes of ancient life forms , especially fossil footprints . Significant fossil trackway discoveries began almost immediately after the start of the 20th century with the 1900 discovery at Ipolytarnoc , Hungary of a wide variety of bird and mammal footprints left behind during the early Miocene . Not long after , fossil Iguanodon footprints were discovered in Sussex , England , a discovery that probably served as the inspiration for Sir Arthur Conan Doyle 's The Lost World . Several enduring mysteries from the 19th century continued to vex ichnologists , like the identity of the Chirotherium trackmaker . Renowned paleontologist Franz von Nopcsa attributed the ichnogenus to the prosauropod dinosaur Plateosaurus , despite an apparent mismatch between its number of toes ( 4 ) and the preserved digit traces of Chirotherium ( 5 ) . Von Nopcsa explained the discrepancy by arguing that one of the impressions in the Chirotherium tracks was left by a soft tissue structure that did not fossilize . However , it was Wolfgang Soergel who correctly hypothesized that Chirotherium was produced by a distant relative of modern crocodilians . Using only its footprints as a guide he reconstructed the life appearance of the Chirotherium trackmaker . Decades later paleontologists described an animal named Ticinosuchus which precisely fulfilling Soergel 's predictions . Ticinosuchus or a close relative seems to have been the true Chirotherium trackmaker . During the 20th century , many significant fossil trackway discoveries were made in the western United States . In the 1930s and 1940s , Roland T. Bird discovered the tracks of large sauropod and theropod dinosaurs in Texas . He excavated a major section of the track ways on behalf of the American Museum of Natural History . This was the first large scale excavation of fossil footprints in history . In the 1950s Lee Stokes reported unusual footprints he interpreted as the first known pterosaur tracks . This attribution would be controversial much of the rest of the century but has since been vindicated . The dinosaur footprints of Dinosaur Ridge in Colorado were also discovered and studied in the 20th century . The advent of the Dinosaur Renaissance and the publication by R. McNeil Alexander of a formula which could reconstruct their running speed based on data from fossil trackways brought renewed interest and prestige to ichnology during the late 20th century . This led to several symposia on the subject of vertebrate trace fossils . In 1986 such a conference dedicated to dinosaur footprints was held in New Mexico . Roughly a decade later renowned German ichnologist Heinrich Haubold organized a conference dedicated to the more ancient footprints of the Paleozoic Era . This gathering has been regarded as a turning point in the study of tracks of that age .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"20th_century_in_ichnology\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 107286\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 20th century (disambiguation) Content: The 20th century of the Common Era began on 1 January 1901 and ended on 31 December 2000 , according to the Gregorian calendar . 20th century may also refer to : Twentieth Century ( play ) , a 1932 Broadway play Twentieth Century ( film ) , a 1934 American comedy Twentieth Century Pictures , a 1930s film studio The 20th Century , the 1950s television series Twentieth Century ( Cold Chisel album ) , 1984 Twentieth Century ( Alabama album ) , 1999 Twentieth Century ( typeface ) , a sans-serif typeface 20th Century ( album ) , an album 3X Krazy 20th Century ( cocktail ) , a gin cocktail 20th Century Fox , a movie and television production company 20th Century Limited , the flagship passenger train of the New York Central Railroad 20th Century Records , a record label begun as a soundtrack division of Twentieth Century Pictures 20th Century with Mike Wallace , the 1990s-2000s television series 20th Century , a sub-unit of Japanese boyband V6 `` Twentieth Century '' , a song from the 2006 album , Fundamental by the Pet Shop Boys\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"20th_century_(disambiguation)\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 106101\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Boat Race 1863 Content: The 20th Boat Race between crews from the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge took place on the River Thames on 28 March 1863 . Oxford won by 15 lengths in a time of 23 minutes 6 seconds . It took the overall record to ten wins each , the first time since the 1836 race that the scores were level . The race was the third to be held on the ebb tide , along the Championship Course in reverse , from Mortlake to Putney . It was the first time since the race was held in the fashion since the 1856 race .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Boat_Race_1863\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 105180\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 20th Century Fox Records Content: 20th Century Fox Records , also known as 20th Fox Records and 20th Century Records , was a wholly owned subsidiary of film studio 20th Century Fox . The history of the label actually covers three distinct 20th Century Fox-related operations in the analog era , ranging chronologically from about 1938 to 1981 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"20th_Century_Fox_Records\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 100587\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of 20th-century earthquakes Content: This list of 20th-century earthquakes is a global list of notable earthquakes that occurred in the 20th century . After 1900 most earthquakes have some degree of instrumental records and this means that the locations and magnitudes are more reliable than for earlier events . To prevent this list becoming unmanageable , only those of magnitude 6 and above are included unless they are notable for some other reason .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_20th-century_earthquakes\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 100138\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Australian Height Datum Content: The Australian Height Datum is a geodetic datum for altitude measurement in Australia . According to Geoscience Australia , `` In 1971 the mean sea level for 1966-1968 was assigned the value of 0.000 m on the Australian Height Datum at thirty tide gauges around the coast of the Australian continent . The resulting datum surface , with minor modifications in two metropolitan areas , has been termed the Australian Height Datum ( AHD ) and was adopted by the National Mapping Council as the datum to which all vertical control for mapping ( and other surveying functions ) is to be referred . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"Australian_Height_Datum\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 98255\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Storm tides of the North Sea Content: A storm tide is a tide with a high flood period caused by a storm . Storm tides can be a severe danger to the coast and the people living along the coast . The water level can rise to more than 5 metres ( 17 ft ) above the normal tide . The North Sea , especially the Netherlands , northern Germany and Denmark is particularly susceptible to storm tides . The coastline of the German Bight forms an L-shape facing northwest . Also vulnerable is the southern North Sea between England and the Netherlands , where the sea shallows and is funnelled between the land . For the protection of the low-lying areas along the coast , long and high dike systems have been built . Storm tides are a regular occurrence in these areas ; usually , there are several storm tides each winter . Most of them do not cause significant damage .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"Storm_tides_of_the_North_Sea\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 98116\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 20th-century music Content: During the 20th century there was a vast increase in the variety of music that people had access to . Prior to the invention of mass market gramophone records ( developed in 1892 ) and radio broadcasting ( first commercially done ca. 1919 -- 20 ) , people mainly listened to music at live Classical music concerts or musical theatre shows , which were too expensive for many lower-income people ; on early phonograph players ( a technology invented in 1877 which was not mass-marketed until the mid-1890s ) ; or by individuals performing music or singing songs on an amateur basis at home , using sheet music , which required the ability to sing , play , and read music . These were skills that tended to be limited to middle-class and upper-class individuals . With the mass-market availability of gramophone records and radio broadcasts , listeners could purchase recordings of , or listen on radio to recordings or live broadcasts of a huge variety of songs and musical pieces from around the globe . This enabled a much wider range of the population to listen to performances of Classical music symphonies and operas that they would not be able to hear live , either due to not being able to afford live-concert tickets or because such music was not performed in their region . Sound recording was also a major influence on the development of popular music genres , because it enabled recordings of songs and bands to be inexpensively and widely distributed nationwide or even , for some artists , worldwide . The development of relatively inexpensive reproduction of music via a succession of formats including vinyl records , compact cassettes , compact discs ( introduced in 1983 ) and , by the mid-1990s , digital audio recordings , and the transmission or broadcast of audio recordings of music performances on radio , of video recordings or live performances on television , and by the 1990s , of audio and video recordings via the Internet , using file sharing of digital audio recordings , gave individuals from a wide range of socioeconomic classes access to a diverse selection of high-quality music performances by artists from around the world . The introduction of multitrack recording in 1955 and the use of mixing had a major influence on pop and rock music , because it enabled record producers to mix and overdub many layers of instrument tracks and vocals , creating new sounds that would not be possible in a live performance . The development of sound recording and audio engineering technologies and the ability to edit these recordings gave rise to new subgenres of classical music , including the Musique concrète ( 1949 ) and acousmatic ( 1955 ) schools of electronic composition . In the 1970s , African-American hip hop musicians began to use the record turntable as a musical instrument , creating rhythmic and percussive `` scratching '' effects by manipulating a vinyl record on the turntable . The 20th-century orchestra was far more flexible than its predecessors and used a much wider variety of instruments . In Beethoven 's and Felix Mendelssohn 's time in the 19th century , the orchestra was composed of a fairly standard core of instruments which was very rarely modified . As time progressed , and as the Romantic period saw changes in accepted modification with composers such as Berlioz and Mahler , the 20th century saw that instrumentation could practically be hand-picked by the composer . Saxophones were used in some 20th-century orchestra scores such as Vaughan Williams ' Symphonies No. 6 and 9 and William Walton 's Belshazzar 's Feast , and many other works as a member of the orchestral ensemble . Twentieth-century orchestras generally include a string section , woodwinds , brass instruments , percussion , piano , celeste , harp ( s ) , with other instruments called for occasionally , such as electric guitar and electric bass . The 20th century saw dramatic innovations in musical forms and styles . Composers and songwriters explored new forms and sounds that challenged the previously accepted rules of music of earlier periods , such as the use of altered chords and extended chords in 1940s-era Bebop jazz . The development of powerful , loud guitar amplifiers and sound reinforcement systems in the 1960s and 1970s permitted bands to hold large concerts where even those with the least expensive tickets could hear the show . Composers and songwriters experimented with new musical styles , such as genre fusions ( e.g. , the late 1960s fusion of jazz and rock music to create jazz fusion ) . As well , composers and musicians used new electric , electronic , and digital instruments and musical devices . In the 1980s , some styles of music , such as electronic dance music genres such as house music were created largely with synthesizers and drum machines . Faster modes of transportation such as jet flight allowed musicians and fans to travel more widely to perform or hear shows , which increased the spread of musical styles .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"20th-century_music\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 95162\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: USS Tide (AM-125) Content: USS Tide ( AM-125 ) was an acquired by the United States Navy for the dangerous task of removing mines from minefields laid in the water to prevent ships from passing . Tide was an oceangoing minesweeper built during World War II . Named for the cyclic rising and falling of Earth 's ocean surface , she was the only U.S. Naval vessel to bear the name . Tide was laid down on 16 March 1942 at Savannah , Georgia , by the Savannah Machinery and Foundry Company ; launched on 7 September 1942 ; sponsored by Mrs. Ruth Hangs ; and commissioned on 9 May 1943 , Lieutenant Commander Alvin Robinson , USNR , in command .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"USS_Tide_(AM-125)\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 94170\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Tide (Oceana album) Content: The Tide is the debut album from post-hardcore band Oceana . It was released through Rise Records on March 4 , 2008 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Tide_(Oceana_album)\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 93858\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tide table Content: Tide tables , sometimes called tide charts , are used for tidal prediction and show the daily times and levels of high and low tides , usually for a particular location . Tide heights at intermediate times ( between high and low water ) can be approximated by using the rule of twelfths or more accurately calculated by using a published tidal curve for the location .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"Tide_table\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 93830\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 20th century in the United States Content: The 20th century in the United States refers to the period in the United States from 1901 through 2000 in the Gregorian calendar . For information on this period , see : : Category :20 th century in the United States History of the United States series : History of the United States ( 1865 -- 1918 ) History of the United States ( 1918 -- 1945 ) History of the United States ( 1945 -- 1964 ) History of the United States ( 1964 -- 1980 ) History of the United States ( 1980 -- 1991 ) History of the United States ( 1991 -- present ) Timeline of the United States *\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"20th_century_in_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 93670\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Rising Tide (Thesman novel) Content: Rising Tide ( 2003 ) is a historical young-adult novel by Jean Thesman and a sequel to her novel A Sea So Far ( 2001 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"Rising_Tide_(Thesman_novel)\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 93240\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Year 2000 problem Content: The Year 2000 problem , also known as the Y2K problem , the Millennium bug , the Y2K bug , or Y2K , was a computer bug related to the formatting and storage of calendar data . Problems were anticipated , and arose , because twentieth-century software often represented the four-digit year with only the final two digits -- making the year 2000 indistinguishable from 1900 . The assumption of a twentieth-century date in such programs caused various errors , such as the incorrect display of dates and the inaccurate ordering of automated dated records or real-time events . In 1997 the British Standards Institute ( BSI ) developed standard DISC PD2000-1 defining `` Year 2000 Conformity requirements '' as four rules : ( 1 ) No valid date will cause any interruption in operations ; ( 2 ) Calculation of durations between , or the sequence of , pairs of dates will be correct whether any dates are in different centuries ; ( 3 ) In all interfaces and in all storage , the century must be unambiguous , either specified , or calculable by algorithm ; ( 4 ) Year 2000 must be recognised as a leap year . It identifies two problems that may exist in many computer programs . First , the practice of representing the year with two digits became problematic with logical error ( s ) arising upon `` rollover '' from x99 to x00 . This had caused some date-related processing to operate incorrectly for dates and times on and after 1 January 2000 , and on other critical dates which were billed `` event horizons '' . Without corrective action , long-working systems would break down when the '' ... 97 , 98 , 99 , 00 ... '' ascending numbering assumption suddenly became invalid . Secondly , some programmers had misunderstood the Gregorian calendar rule that determines whether years that are exactly divisible by 100 are not leap years , and assumed the year 2000 would not be a leap year . Years divisible by 100 are not leap years , except for years that are divisible by 400 . Thus the year 2000 was a leap year . Companies and organisations worldwide checked , fixed , and upgraded their computer systems to address the anticipated problem . Very few computer failures were reported when the clocks rolled over into 2000 . It is not known how many problems went unrecorded .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"Year_2000_problem\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 92800\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Rising Tide Records Content: Rising Tide Records was a record label started by Doug Morris , former head of Warner Music Group , and Daniel Glass , who became President . The label had success in breaking new artists , including the multi-platinum debut of Erykah Badu , Billie Myers and Lost Boyz . Recognizing the changing landscape of the industry , Glass strategically aligned Universal with such independent record labels as Kedar Entertainment , home to Erykah Badu , and Mojo Records , home to platinum artist Reel Big Fish and the Cherry Poppin ' Daddies . In 1995 it was founded as Rising Tide Records and shortly there after it was renamed Universal Records Group and Doug Morris was named Chairman/C . E.O. of MCA Music Entertainment Group . However , the Nashville branch stayed active until March 1998 . Acts on the Nashville branch included Matraca Berg , Scotty Emerick , The Buffalo Club , Rebecca Lynn Howard , J.C. Jones , Nitty Gritty Dirt Band , Delbert McClinton , Tony Toliver , Jack Ingram , Dolly Parton , Kris Tyler and Keith Sewell .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"Rising_Tide_Records\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 91799\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea-level curve Content: The sea-level curve is the representation of the changes of the sea level throughout the geological history . The first such curve is the Vail curve or Exxon curve . The names of the curve refer to the fact that in 1977 a team of Exxon geologists from Esso Production Research headed by Peter Vail published a monograph on global eustatic sea-level changes . Their sea-level curve was based on seismic and biostratigraphic data accumulated during petroleum exploration . The Vail curve ( and the monograph itself ) was the subject of debate among geologists , because it was based on undisclosed commercially confidential stratigraphic data , and hence not independently verifiable . Because of this , there were later efforts to establish a sea-level curve based on non-commercial data . In 1987 -- 1988 a revised eustatic sea-level curve for the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras was published , now known as the Haq sea-level curve , in reference to the Pakistani-American Oceanographer Bilal Haq .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea-level_curve\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 91605\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tide (disambiguation) Content: A tide is the rise and fall of a sea level caused by the Moon 's gravity and other factors . Tide may also refer to :\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"Tide_(disambiguation)\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 91601\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea level equation Content: The sea level equation ( SLE ) is the linear , integral equation that describes the sea-level variations associated with the Glacial Isostatic Adjustement ( GIA ) . The basic idea of the SLE dates back to 1888 , when Woodward published his pioneering work on the form and position of mean sea level , and only later has been refined by Platzman and Farrell in the context of the study of the ocean tides . In the words of Wu and Peltier , the solution of the SLE yields the space -- and time -- dependent change of ocean bathymetry which is required to keep the gravitational potential of the sea surface constant for a specific deglaciation chronology and viscoelastic earth model . The SLE theory was then developed by other authors as Mitrovica & Peltier , Mitrovica et al. and Spada & Stocchi . In its simplest form , the SLE reads where is the sea -- level change , is the sea surface variation as seen from Earth 's center of mass , and is vertical displacement . In a more explicit form the SLE can be written as follow : where is colatitude and is longitude , is time , and are the densities of ice and water , respectively , is the reference surface gravity , is the sea -- level Green 's function ( dependent upon the and viscoelastic load -- deformation coefficients - LDCs ) , is the ice thickness variation , represents the eustatic term ( i.e. the ocean -- averaged value of ) , and denote spatio-temporal convolutions over the ice - and ocean-covered regions , and the overbar indicates an average over the surface of the oceans that ensures mass conservation .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea_level_equation\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 91544\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tidal range Content: The tidal range is the vertical difference between the high tide and the succeeding low tide . Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and the Sun and the rotation of the Earth . The tidal range is not constant , but changes depending on where the sun and the moon are . The most extreme tidal range occurs when the gravitational forces of both the Sun and Moon are aligned ( syzygy ) , reinforcing each other in the same direction ( new moon ) or in opposite directions ( full moon ) . This type of tide is known as a spring tide . During neap tides , when the Moon and Sun 's gravitational force vectors act in quadrature ( making a right angle to the Earth 's orbit ) , the difference between high and low tides is smaller . Neap tides occur during the first and last quarters of the moon 's phases . The largest annual tidal range can be expected around the time of the equinox , if coincidental with a spring tide . Tidal data for coastal areas is published by the national hydrographic service of the country concerned . Tidal data is based on astronomical phenomena and is predictable . Storm force winds blowing from a steady direction for a prolonged time interval combined with low barometric pressure can increase the tidal range , particularly in narrow bays . Such weather-related effects on the tide , which can cause ranges in excess of predicted values and can cause localized flooding , are not calculable in advance .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"Tidal_range\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 91419\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Tide (band) Content: The Tide is a band from Los Angeles , California formed in 2015 . They are currently signed to The Vamps ' new record label , Steady Records , under EMI Universal . They were the supporting act for The Vamps World Tour 2015 and again in 2016 along with other artists such as Before You Exit ( USA leg ) , Luke Friend ( UK leg ) , HomeTown ( UK leg ) and Union J ( UK leg ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Tide_(band)\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 90832\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Temperature record of the past 1000 years Content: For information on the description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in various IPCC reports see MWP and LIA in IPCC reportsThe temperature record of the past 1,000 years is reconstructed using data from climate proxy records in conjunction with the modern instrumental temperature record which only covers the last 150 years at a global scale . Large-scale reconstructions covering part or all of the 1st millennium and 2nd millennium have shown that recent temperatures are exceptional : the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report of 2007 concluded that `` Average Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the second half of the 20th century were very likely higher than during any other 50-year period in the last 500 years and likely '' the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . '' The curve shown in graphs of these reconstructions is widely known as the hockey stick graph because of the sharp increase in temperatures during the last century . As of 2010 this broad pattern was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th-century `` shaft '' appears . Sparseness of proxy records results in considerable uncertainty for earlier periods . Individual proxy records , such as tree ring widths and densities used in dendroclimatology , are calibrated against the instrumental record for the period of overlap . Networks of such records are used to reconstruct past temperatures for regions : tree ring proxies have been used to reconstruct Northern Hemisphere extratropical temperatures ( within the tropics trees do not form rings ) but are confined to land areas and are scarce in the Southern Hemisphere which is largely ocean . Wider coverage is provided by multiproxy reconstructions , incorporating proxies such as lake sediments , ice cores and corals which are found in different regions , and using statistical methods to relate these sparser proxies to the greater numbers of tree ring records . The `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method is widely used for large-scale multiproxy reconstructions of hemispheric or global average temperatures ; this is complemented by Climate Field Reconstruction ( CFR ) methods which show how climate patterns have developed over large spatial areas , making the reconstruction useful for investigating natural variability and long-term oscillations as well as for comparisons with patterns produced by climate models . During the 1,900 years before the 20th century , it is likely that the next warmest period was from 950 to 1100 , with peaks at different times in different regions . This has been called the Medieval Warm Period , and some evidence suggests widespread cooler conditions during a period around the 17th century known as the Little Ice Age . In the hockey stick controversy , contrarians have asserted that the Medieval Warm Period was warmer than at present , and have disputed the data and methods of climate reconstructions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"Temperature_record_of_the_past_1000_years\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 90824\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Century Records (disambiguation) Content: Century Records may refer to : Century Records , the former record label based in Sydney from the 1940s and 1950s Century Records , a former American nationally syndicated custom record label of Century Record Manufacturing Company based in Saugus , California , ( c. 1958 to the late 1970s ) Century Media Records , a heavy metal record label that , in 2015 , was acquired by Sony Music 20th Century Records , former record label that operated as a subsidiary of 20th Century Fox Another Century Records , alternative rock label that , in 2015 , was acquired by Sony Music Century Records , from about 1946 to 1947 , a re-issue label of early jazz of Paramount , Gennett , and QRS 78s ( re : King Oliver , et al. ) ; Century was owned by Sam Meltzer of 737 Fox Street , Bronx 55 , New York\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"Century_Records_(disambiguation)\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 90747\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tide (album) Content: Tide is the sixth album by Antônio Carlos Jobim , released in 1970 on A&M Records and arranged by Deodato .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"Tide_(album)\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 90550\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Rising Tide (Forgotten Realms novel) Content: Rising Tide is a fantasy novel by Mel Odom , set in the world of the Forgotten Realms , and based on the Dungeons & Dragons role-playing game . It is the first novel in `` The Threat from the Sea '' trilogy . It was published in paperback in January 1999 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"Rising_Tide_(Forgotten_Realms_novel)\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 90288\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Stonehenge in its landscape Content: Stonehenge in its landscape : Twentieth century excavations by R. M. J. Cleal , K. E. Walker and R. Montague is an archaeological report on Stonehenge published in 1995 . It presented the results of a two year intensive study of all the known records of the various excavations at Stonehenge in the twentieth century , including a rephasing of the development of the monument . Unlike popular books on the subject , Stonehenge in its landscape details the complex archaeological stratigraphy of the site . It has been described as `` an essential reference work for the specialist '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"Stonehenge_in_its_landscape\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 90111\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Past sea level Content: Global or eustatic sea level has fluctuated significantly over the Earth 's history . The main factors affecting sea level are the amount and volume of available water and the shape and volume of the ocean basins . The primary influences on water volume are the temperature of the seawater , which affects density , and the amounts of water retained in other reservoirs like rivers , aquifers , lakes , glaciers , polar ice caps and sea ice . Over geological timescales , changes in the shape of the oceanic basins and in land/sea distribution affect sea level . In addition to eustatic changes , local changes in sea level are caused by tectonic uplift and subsidence . Over geologic time sea level has fluctuated by hundreds of meters . Today 's interglacial level is near historic highs and is 130 meters above the low level reached during the Last Glacial Maximum 19,000 -- 20,000 years ago . Observational and modeling studies of mass loss from glaciers and ice caps indicate a contribution to sea-level rise of 0.2 to 0.4 mm/yr averaged over the 20th century . Over this last million years , whereas it was higher most of the time before then , sea level was lower than today .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"Past_sea_level\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 89733\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: USS Tide (SP-953) Content: USS Tide ( SP-953 ) was a minesweeper in the United States Navy . Tide was a tug built in 1916 at Manitowoc , Wisconsin , by the Manitowoc Shipbuilding Co. -- was acquired by the U.S. Navy on 14 June 1918 from the Bay State Fishing Co. , of Boston , Massachusetts , to serve as a minesweeper in the 1st Naval District .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"USS_Tide_(SP-953)\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 89685\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The 20th Century Content: The Twentieth Century was a documentary television program sponsored by the Prudential Insurance Company that ran on the CBS network from 20 October 1957 until 4 January 1970 . It was hosted by Walter Cronkite . The opening and closing theme music was written by composer George Antheil . The program presented filmed reports on news and cultural events that were important for the development of the 20th century . The show did not just present the events but also interpreted them . Such subjects as World War I and major assassinations were presented in context . On 20 January 1967 the show , sponsored by Union Carbide ( `` The Discovery Company '' ) , was renamed The 21st Century . The show 's focus changed to the future and to what mankind could look forward to . The 21st Century was cancelled after three seasons ( its final broadcast was on 4 January 1970 ) . The reason given was that the writers had run out of things to talk about . However , it is possible that CBS may have wished to replace it with a more commercially successful program .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"The_20th_Century\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 89633\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 20th century in fashion Content:\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"20th_century_in_fashion\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 89476\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tiden (newspaper) Content: Tiden , et offentlig Blad af blandet Indhold ( The Time , a Public Magazine of Mixed Content ) was a royalist and secessionist newspaper in 19th-century Norway . The first issue was published on 28 January 1808 in Christiania ( now Oslo ) ; the founding editor was Niels Wulfsberg . Its predecessor was Efterretninger og Opmuntringer angaaende de nærværende Krigsbegivenheder , a military periodical which was published in 43 issues in the autumn of 1807 . Great Britain 's blockade of Norway during the Napoleonic Wars prevented Copenhagen newspapers from being imported to Christiania ; Wulfsberg started both newspapers to fill the resulting lack of information . Tiden was published twice a week between 1808 and 1811 . Wulfsberg was an impetuous editor-in-chief , occasionally printing articles critical of the governing authorities . He used the newspaper to spread his own views on royalty and secession from Denmark ; on 29 January 1810 he published an issue fully devoted to Christian August , heir to the Swedish throne . Later the same year he received King Frederick VI 's ire , who during one of Wulfsberg 's visits to Copenhagen said : `` Be on guard , I do n't like your paper , be on guard , I have the power to stop it . '' Bemoaning the high costs of paper and the low subscription incomes , Wulfsberg decided to cease Tiden publication in 1811 . The newspaper did , however , recommence publication in 1813 , chiefly owing to Wulfsberg 's subservient support of stattholder Christian VIII 's governance in Norway . Press historian Svennik Høyer writes that Wulfsberg was subsequently `` paid and persuaded by the political key players . '' In 1814 , Tiden ceased publication again ; however , in the next year , Den norske Rigstidende was established as a sequel to the paper . It was edited by Wulfsberg and Christian Døderlein . The latter person was the key player in the newspaper ; Wulfsberg was primarily occupied with his newly established paper Morgenbladet . Following the cessation of Den norske Rigstidende publication in 1832 , Wulfsberg started a new newspaper named Tiden , without any obvious connection to the former newspaper . It is still published as of 2011 under the name Drammens Tidende .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"Tiden_(newspaper)\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 89415\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Catholic Church in the 20th century Content: Christianity in the 20th century was characterized by an accelerating secularization of Western society . The Roman Catholic Church instituted many reforms in order to modernize . Catholic missionaries also made inroads in the Far East , establishing further followings in China , Taiwan , and Japan .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"Catholic_Church_in_the_20th_century\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 89295\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Tide (Lucy Kaplansky album) Content: The Tide is the debut album by American singer-songwriter Lucy Kaplansky , released in 1994 . Red House Records released a remastered version on October 4 , 2005 , including two bonus tracks .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Tide_(Lucy_Kaplansky_album)\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 89184\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Rising Tide (Deland novel) Content: The Rising Tide is a novel about issues confronting women in the years just before suffrage by the American writer Margaret Deland ( 1857 -- 1945 ) set in the 19th century fictional locale of Mercer , an Ohio River community that represents Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania . The novel tells the story of Frederica Payton , a `` new woman '' who illustrates the extremes of the feminist question . It was first published in installments in Harper 's Monthly from December 1915 through October 1916 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Rising_Tide_(Deland_novel)\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 89114\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Twentieth Century (Alabama album) Content: Twentieth Century is the eighteenth studio album of country music band Alabama , released in 1999 by RCA Records . It produced the singles '' ( God Must Have Spent ) A Little More Time on You '' , a collaboration with 'N Sync , `` Small Stuff '' , `` We Made Love '' and `` Twentieth Century '' , which respectively reached numbers 3 , 24 , 63 , and 51 on the Hot Country Songs charts . In addition , '' ( God Must Have Spent ) A Little More Time on You '' was the band 's last top ten hit on the country charts . '' ( God Must Have Spent ) A Little More Time On You '' was originally recorded by 'N Sync in 1998 on their first album * NSYNC .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"Twentieth_Century_(Alabama_album)\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 88527\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea level rise Content: A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea_level_rise\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 88372\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 20th Century (cocktail) Content: The 20th Century is a cocktail created in 1937 by a British bartender named C.A. Tuck , and named in honor of the celebrated Twentieth Century Limited train which ran between New York City and Chicago from 1902 until 1967 . The recipe was first published in 1937 in the Café Royal Cocktail Book by William J Tarling , President of the United Kingdom Bartenders ' Guild and head bartender at the Café Royal .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"20th_Century_(cocktail)\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 88057\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Twentieth century (disambiguation) Content: Twentieth century may refer to : The 20th century AD , the period between the years 1901 and 2000 of the Gregorian calendar The 20th century BC 20th Century Fox 20th Century Limited , a passenger train between Chicago and New York City that operated from 1902 to 1967 Twentieth Century ( play ) , a 1932 play Twentieth Century ( film ) , a 1934 film On the Twentieth Century , a 1978 musical based on the play and film Twentieth Century ( typeface ) , a geometric sans-serif typeface . 20th Century ( cocktail ) , a cocktail Twentieth Century ( TV series ) , a long-running TV documentary series telecast on CBS from 1957 to 1970 , and hosted by Walter Cronkite\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"Twentieth_century_(disambiguation)\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 87745\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea Level (album) Content: Sea Level is the 1977 eponymous debut album by Sea Level and was released on the Capricorn Records label .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea_Level_(album)\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 87578\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wellen (novel) Content: Wellen ( lit . Waves ) , published in English in 1929 as Tides , is a novel by Eduard von Keyserling that was first published in German in 1911 . Set during a long hot summer in a small fishing village somewhere on the Baltic Sea , most likely on the Curonian Spit , it depicts a group of aristocratic city-dwellers spending their holidays in that remote part of the German Empire . However , rather than painting a rural idyll , Keyserling focuses on the follies of a doomed fin de siècle society whose self-imposed repressions eventually lead to catastrophe .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"Wellen_(novel)\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 87116\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: A Sea So Far Content: A Sea So Far ( 2001 ) is a historical young-adult novel by Jean Thesman . Its sequel is Rising Tide ( 2003 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"A_Sea_So_Far\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 87016\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Between Pacific Tides Content: Between Pacific Tides is a 1939 book by Ed Ricketts and Jack Calvin that explores the intertidal ecology of the Pacific coast of the United States . The book was originally titled `` Between Pacific Tides : An Account of the Habits and Habitats of Some Five Hundred of the Common , Conspicuous Seashore Invertebrates of the Pacific Coast Between Sitka , Alaska , and Northern Mexico '' . The book was out of print from 1942 to 1948 , but it has since been revised and updated to keep it current , and is now in its fifth edition with the size increasing around twenty percent from the original . Updated and expanded sections have been added since the original edition was published , including : John Steinbeck 's Foreword to the 1948 edition ; a new chapter regarding the influence on the distribution of shore organisms ; an updated Annotated Systematic Index and General Bibliography comprising 2,300 entries ; and the addition of 200 photographs and drawings . By 2004 , the book had sold around 100,000 copies , making it one of the best-selling books published by Stanford University Press .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"Between_Pacific_Tides\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 86989\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Age wave Content: Age Wave refers to a massive population and cultural shift caused by three converging global demographic forces : The baby boom . In the middle of the twentieth century , fertility rates increased significantly in the United States , Canada , Australia , and most of Europe . For example , nearly one-third of Americans -- 76 million people -- were born between 1946 and 1964 . This period of increased fertility era occurred between the baby busts of the Depression and World War II and the Vietnam war . Elevating longevity . Due to advances in public health , nutrition management and medical advances , life expectancy vaulted during the 20th century . For example , in the United States , life expectancy at birth in 1900 was 47 . Today , life expectancy at birth in the United States is 78 . The birth dearth . The baby boom has been followed by a period of declining fertility rates , so that many parts of the world are now experiencing sub-replacement fertility levels . According to Ken Dychtwald , Ph.D. , who first envisioned this demographically-driven transformation and coined the term , the `` age wave '' has already reshaped social and cultural trends , marketplace opportunities , productivity , and consumption patterns . Because of its enormous size and unique preferences and priorities , the men and women of this generation do n't just populate existing lifestages or consumer trends , they transform them . Some examples of trends and events driven by the age wave include : Benjamin Spock 's book , The Common Sense Book of Baby and Child Care , published during the first year of the baby boom , sold at least one million copies a year for eight straight years . 1.5 million cans of baby food were consumed in 1953 , almost six times as many as a decade before . Enrollment in the Cub Scouts doubled between 1950 and 1955 . The toy industry increased fifteen-fold in the 1940s and 1950s to meet the needs of rapidly growing numbers of children . 83 percent of the total population growth in the United States during the 1950s was in the suburbs as parents of the baby boomers moved out of the cities to raise their larger families . In the 1960s , teenagers accounted for 55 percent of all soft drink sales , 53 percent of all movie tickets , and 43 percent of all records sold . Fast food franchisers grew 20 percent a year . Sales of home gym equipment rose from $ 75 million in 1982 to over $ 1 billion in 1985 . Minivans and SUVs were created and came to dominate the auto industry in the 1980s and 1990s as baby boomers began raising families . The age wave will cause a massive slowdown in workforce growth in the coming years . In the next decade , America 's workforce will grow only 4 percent as the boomers begin to retire , down from 12 percent in the current decade and 29 percent in the 1970s when the boomers were entering the workforce . Dychtwald argues that as the boomer generation continues to mature , life 's second half is about to be further transformed , and that in the next several decades , this age wave will shift the epicenter of consumer activity from a focus on youth to the needs , challenges , and aspirations of maturing consumers . Because of the aging of the boomer generation , we are about to see an explosion of maturity-oriented products and services such as : nutraceuticals , cosmeceuticals , fitness communes , re-careering , philanthropreneuring , career-transition coordinators , smart homes , long-term care and longevity insurance , equity-release , reverse mortgages , college campus-based retirement housing and Internet cemeteries . However , the age wave will also put unprecedented pressure on families , communities and governments as multiplying numbers of older adults strain entitlements , eldercare , healthcare delivery and pensions . Criticisms All of these ancedotes may not reflect purely demographic changes , but also changes in norms of social present in the period . Especially activities like baby food consumption or Boy Scout attendance . Baby food consumption points to changes in beliefs about childhood nutrition , marketing and increased wealth with which to buy packaged food . Boy Scout attendance is not a stable fraction of the population ( all those of a certain age ) but rather a reflection of trends in beliefs about proper young male socialization and ideology .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"Age_wave\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 86923\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Christianity in the 20th century Content: Christianity in the 20th century was characterized by an accelerating secularization of Western society , which had begun in the 19th century , and by the spread of Christianity to non-Western regions of the world . Christian ecumenism grew in importance , beginning at the Edinburgh Missionary Conference in 1910 , and accelerated after the Second Vatican Council of the Catholic Church , The Liturgical Movement became significant in both Catholic and Protestant Christianity , especially in Anglicanism . At the same time , state-promoted atheism in communist Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union brought persecution to many Eastern Orthodox and other Christians . Many Orthodox came to Western Europe and the Americas , leading to greatly increased contact between Western and Eastern Christianity . Nevertheless , church attendance declined more in Western Europe than it did in the East . ( Christianity ) The Roman Catholic Church instituted many reforms in order to modernize . Catholic and Protestant missionaries also made inroads in the Far East , establishing further followings in mainland China , Taiwan , and Japan .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"Christianity_in_the_20th_century\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 86874\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Time and Tide (magazine) Content: Time and Tide was a British weekly political and literary review magazine founded by Margaret , Lady Rhondda in 1920 . It started out as a supporter of left wing and feminist causes and the mouthpiece of the feminist Six Point Group . It later moved to the right along with the views of its owner . It always supported and published literary talent . The first editor was Helen Archdale . Lady Rhondda took over herself as editor in 1926 and remained for the rest of her life . Contributors included , Nancy Astor , Margaret Bondfield , Vera Brittain , John Brophy , Margery Corbett-Ashby , Anthony Cronin ( literary editor mid-1950s ) , E.M. Delafield , Charlotte Despard , Crystal Eastman , Emma Goldman , Robert Graves , Charlotte Haldane , Mary Hamilton , Winifred Holtby , Storm Jameson , Max Kenyon , D. H. Lawrence , C.S. Lewis , F. L. Lucas , Rose Macaulay , Naomi Mitchison , Eric Newton , George Orwell , Emmeline Pankhurst , Eleanor Rathbone , Elizabeth Robins , Olive Schreiner , George Bernard Shaw , Ethel Smyth , Helena Swanwick , Ernst Toller , Rebecca West , Ellen Wilkinson , Charles Williams , Margaret Wintringham , and Virginia Woolf . In 1940 , the article `` The Necessity of Chivalry '' by C.S. Lewis was published in Time and Tide , beginning an association between Lewis and the magazine that would last twenty years and include more articles and reviews . In 1944 , Lewis 's articles , `` Democratic Education '' and `` The Parthenon and the Optative '' were published , while `` Hedonics '' appeared in 1945 . In 1946 , the magazine published Lewis 's articles `` Different Tastes in Literature '' and `` Period Criticism '' . In 1954 , Lewis published one of the first reviews of J.R.R. Tolkien 's The Fellowship of the Ring , and in 1955 his reviews of The Two Towers and The Return of the King were published . Lewis also frequently contributed poetry to Time and Tide , including his poem `` The Meteorite '' ( 7 December 1946 ) which he used as the motto for his book Miracles ( 1947 ) . Another significant contributor was Lewis 's friend and fellow Oxford ` Inkling ' Charles Williams , who contributed regularly from 1937 until his death in 1945 . His important articles included a review of the ` B ' text of W.B. Yeats 's A Vision ( 1937 ) and an exposition of his own Arthurian sequence of poems , Taliessin Through Logres ( 1938 ) . Time and Tide never sold well ; its peak circulation was 14,000 copies . It is estimated that the magazine was subsidised by Lady Rhondda to the sum of # 500,000 during the thirty-eight years she owned it . With Lady Rhondda 's death in 1958 , it passed to the control of Rev Timothy Beaumont and editor John Thompson in March 1960 . Under their supervision it became a political news-magazine with a Christian flavour during the 1960s . It however continued to lose # 600 a week and , in June 1962 , he sold it to Brittain Publishing Company where it was continued by W. J. Brittain . It became a monthly in 1970 and closed in 1979 . The Time and Tide title was later purchased by Sidgwick and Jackson , a subsidiary of the hotel group Trust House Forte . They continued to publish it quarterly during 1984 - 1986 from their global headquarters in London with Alexander Chancellor as editor . Again it was propped-up by a very wealthy peer , Lord Forte of Ripley .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"Time_and_Tide_(magazine)\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 86657\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Short twentieth century Content: The term `` short 20th century '' , originally proposed by Iván Berend ( Hungarian Academy of Sciences ) but defined by Eric Hobsbawm , a British Marxist historian and author , refers to the period between the years 1914 and 1991 . That period begins with the beginning of World War I , and ends with the fall of the Soviet Union . The chain of events represented such significant changes in world history as to redefine the era : It started with World War I , which caused the end of the German , Ottoman , Austro-Hungarian and Russian empires . World War II was greatly influenced by the outcome of World War I . The Cold War was a result of World War II and ended with the fall of the Soviet Union . The term is analogous to the long 19th century , also coined by Hobsbawm , denoting the period 1789 to 1914 , and to the long 18th century , or approximately 1688 to 1815 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"Short_twentieth_century\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 86600\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Transformative Innovation for Development and Emergency Support Content: The STAR-TIDES project ( Sustainable Technologies , Accelerated Research - Transformative Innovation for Development and Emergency Support ) is a research effort at the National Defense University that promotes sustainable support to stressed populations -- post-war , post-disaster , or impoverished , in foreign or domestic contexts , for short-term or long-term ( multi-year ) operations . The project provides reach-back `` knowledge on demand '' to decision-makers and those working in the field . It uses public-private partnerships and `` whole-of-government '' approaches to encourage unity of action among diverse organizations where there is no unity of command , and facilitates both inter-agency and international engagement .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"Transformative_Innovation_for_Development_and_Emergency_Support\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 86304\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 20th century in poetry Content:\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"20th_century_in_poetry\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 86130\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tidal acceleration Content: Tidal acceleration is an effect of the tidal forces between an orbiting natural satellite ( e.g. the Moon ) , and the primary planet that it orbits ( e.g. Earth ) . The acceleration causes a gradual recession of a satellite in a prograde orbit away from the primary , and a corresponding slowdown of the primary 's rotation . The process eventually leads to tidal locking , usually of the smaller first , and later the larger body . The Earth -- Moon system is the best studied case . The similar process of tidal deceleration occurs for satellites that have an orbital period that is shorter than the primary 's rotational period , or that orbit in a retrograde direction . The naming is somewhat confusing , because the speed of the satellite relative to the body it orbits is decreased as a result of tidal acceleration , and increased as a result of tidal deceleration .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"Tidal_acceleration\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 85900\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pink tide Content: `` Pink tide '' ( marea rosa , onda rosa ) and `` turn to the Left '' ( Sp. : vuelta hacia la izquierda , Pt. : Guinada à Esquerda ) are phrases used in contemporary 21st century political analysis in the media and elsewhere to describe the perception of a turn towards left wing governments in Latin-American democracies straying away from the then more frequent neo-liberal economic model . The shift represented a move toward more progressive economic policies , post-colonialism and direct democracy . The Latin American countries viewed as part of this ideological trend have been referred to as `` Pink Tide nations '' , with the term post-neoliberalism being used to describe the movement as well . Recently , analysts have characterized some of these government 's as having anti-American , populist , and authoritarian-leaning traits . The movement , which occurred primarily between 1998 and 2009 , entered into a state of stagnation and decline shortly thereafter .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"Pink_tide\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 85892\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tide (brand) Content: Tide ( Alo , Vizir or Ace in some countries ) is a laundry detergent manufactured by Procter & Gamble , introduced in 1946 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"Tide_(brand)\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 85629\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Society of Early Americanists Content: The Society of Early Americanists ( SEA ) was founded in 1990 as an interdisciplinary association of scholars who study the literature and culture of America prior to about the year 1800 . The non-profit society promotes the exchange of ideas and information among its members through a newsletter , which serves as the primary forum for members ' concerns , through an electronic bulletin board and a website , and through conferences and joint research projects . The SEA is an affiliate of both the American Literature Association and the American Society for Eighteenth-Century Studies .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"Society_of_Early_Americanists\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 85068\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tides (Phaeleh album) Content: Tides is the second full-length studio album by English electronic musician Phaeleh . It was released in July 2013 by Afterglo Records .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"Tides_(Phaeleh_album)\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 84914\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 20th century BC Content: The 20th century BC was a century which lasted from the year 2000 BC to 1901 BC .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"20th_century_BC\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 84834\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tidevarvet Content: Tidevarvet ( meaning The Epoch in English ) was a Swedish weekly political and feminist magazine existed between November 1923 and December 1936 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"Tidevarvet\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 84820\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Lesbian Tide Content: The Lesbian Tide was an American lesbian newspaper that was first published in 1971 and discontinued in 1980 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"Lesbian_Tide\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 84784\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Tidal Wave Content: The Tidal Wave is a 1920 British silent drama film directed by Sinclair Hill and starring Poppy Wyndham , Sydney Seaward and Pardoe Woodman . It is based on a short story by Ethel M. Dell . A fisherman rescues an artist from the sea , and falls in love with her .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Tidal_Wave\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 84610\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 20th-century events Content: The 20th-century events include many notable events which occurred throughout the 20th century , which began on January 1 , 1901 , and ended on December 31 , 2000 , according to the Gregorian calendar .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"20th-century_events\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 84568\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tide dial Content: A tide dial , also known as a mass or scratch dial , is a sundial marked with the canonical hours rather than or in addition to the standard hours of daylight . Such sundials were particularly common between the 7th and 14th centuries in Europe , at which point they began to be replaced by mechanical clocks . There are more than 3,000 surviving tide dials in England and at least 1,500 in France .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"Tide_dial\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 84563\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea level Content: Mean sea level ( MSL ) ( abbreviated simply sea level ) is an average level of the surface of one or more of Earth 's oceans from which heights such as elevations may be measured . MSL is a type of vertical datuma standardised geodetic reference pointthat is used , for example , as a chart datum in cartography and marine navigation , or , in aviation , as the standard sea level at which atmospheric pressure is measured in order to calibrate altitude and , consequently , aircraft flight levels . A common and relatively straightforward mean sea-level standard is the midpoint between a mean low and mean high tide at a particular location . Sea levels can be affected by many factors and are known to have varied greatly over geological time scales . The careful measurement of variations in MSL can offer insights into ongoing climate change , and sea level rise has been widely quoted as evidence of ongoing global warming . The term above sea level generally refers to above mean sea level ( AMSL ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea_level\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 84294\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Tides of Tragedy Content: The Tides Of Tragedy is the second full-length album by American metalcore band Age of Ruin . It was released in the United States on June 22 , 2004 via Eulogy Records and in Europe on December 13 , 2004 via Alveran Records .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Tides_of_Tragedy\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 84253\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: December 1992 nor'easter Content: The December 1992 nor'easter produced record high tides and snowfall across the northeastern United States . It developed as a low pressure area on December 10 over Virginia , and for two days it remained over the Mid-Atlantic states before moving offshore . In Maryland , the snowfall unofficially reached 48 in ; if verified , the total would have been the highest in the state 's history . About 120,000 people were left without power in the state due to high winds . Along the Maryland coast , the storm was less severe than the Perfect Storm in the previous year , although the strongest portion of the storm remained over New Jersey for several days . In the state , winds reached 80 mph in Cape May , and tides peaked at 10.4 ft in Perth Amboy . The combination of high tides and 25 ft waves caused the most significant flooding in the state since the Ash Wednesday Storm of 1962 . Several highways and portions of the New York City Subway and Port Authority Trans-Hudson systems were closed due to the storm . Throughout New Jersey , the nor'easter damaged about 3,200 homes and caused an estimated $ 750 million in damage ( 1992 USD ) . The nor'easter increased tides across the northeastern United States for several days due to its slow movement . In New York City , tides reached 8.04 ft at Battery Park , which flooded Franklin D. Roosevelt East River Drive . Along Long Island , the nor'easter destroyed over 130 homes and left 454,000 people without power . In New England , 230,684 people lost power during the storm . Five houses were destroyed in Massachusetts , and flooding reached 5 ft deep in Boston . Further inland , the storm produced significant snowfall , estimated at around 4 ft in The Berkshires . The high snow totals closed schools for a week in western Massachusetts . Overall , the storm caused between $ 1 -- 2 billion in damage ( 1992 USD ) and 19 deaths , of which four were directly related to the storm . In March of the following year , the Storm of the Century caused worse damage across a larger region of the eastern United States .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"December_1992_nor'easter\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 84220\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Nino and the Ebb Tides Content: Nino and the Ebb Tides were a doo-wop recording group based in the Bronx , New York , formed in 1956 . Their first recording , Franny Franny , released as `` The Ebb Tides '' , was the result of meeting talent scout Murray Jacobs in 1957 and was widely played by Alan Freed . Later releases were on Jacobs ' newly formed Recorte Records before moving on to Madison Records . One of their recordings , `` Jukebox Saturday Night '' was a cover of a Glenn Miller tune . On September 4 . 1961 , their `` Jukebox Saturday Night '' charted on Billboard 's Top 100 , reaching number 57 . the group was managed by Ralph Fusco also from the Bronx NY .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"Nino_and_the_Ebb_Tides\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 83845\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 20th century in literature Content: Literature of the 20th century refers to world literature produced during the 20th century ( 1901 to 2000 ) . In terms of the Euro-American tradition , the main periods are captured in the bipartite division , Modernist literature and Postmodern literature , flowering from roughly 1900 to 1940 and 1960 to 1990 respectively , divided , as a rule of thumb , by World War II . The somewhat malleable term of contemporary literature is usually applied with a post-1960 cutoff point . Although these terms ( modern , contemporary and postmodern ) are most applicable to Western literary history , the rise of globalization has allowed European literary ideas to spread into non-Western cultures fairly rapidly , so that Asian and African literatures can be included into these divisions with only minor qualifications . And in some ways , such as in Postcolonial literature , writers from non-Western cultures were on the forefront of literary development . Technological advances during the 20th century allowed cheaper production of books , resulting in a significant rise in production of popular literature and trivial literature , comparable to the similar developments in music . The division of `` popular literature '' and `` high literature '' in the 20th century is by no means absolute , and various genres such as detectives or science fiction fluctuate between the two . Largely ignored by mainstream literary criticism for the most of the century , these genres developed their own establishments and critical awards ; these include the Nebula Award ( since 1965 ) , the British Fantasy Award ( since 1971 ) or the Mythopoeic Awards ( since 1971 ) . Towards the end of the 20th century , electronic literature developed due to the development of hypertext and later the world wide web . The Nobel Prize in Literature was awarded annually throughout the century ( with the exception of 1914 , 1918 , 1935 and 1940 -- 1943 ) , the first laureate ( 1901 ) being Sully Prudhomme . The New York Times Best Seller list has been published since 1942 . The best-selling literary works of the 20th century are estimated to be The Lord of the Rings ( 1954/55 , 150 million copies ) , Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone ( 1997 , 120 million copies ) and And Then There Were None ( 1939 , 115 million copies ) . The Lord of the Rings was also voted `` book of the century '' in various surveys . Perry Rhodan ( 1961 to present ) proclaimed as the best-selling book series , with an estimated total of 1 billion copies sold .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"20th_century_in_literature\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 83796\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"Copenhagen_Diagnosis\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 83784\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea Level (band) Content: Sea Level is the name of a Southern rock/funk/fusion jam band that mixed jazz , blues and rock and existed between 1976 and 1981 . Initially it was an offshoot of The Allman Brothers Band , but as tensions grew between the loss of two of its founding members and personal grievances between Gregg Allman and other band mates and associates , Sea Level took on a life of its own as an independent band . After the initial breakup of the Allman Brothers Band when Gregg Allman and Dicky Betts left , most of the remaining members who evolved into Sea Level were the trio `` We Three '' comprising bassist Lamar Williams , drummer Jaimoe and Chuck Leavell ( piano , keyboards , vocals ) . The trio would occasionally open shows for the group in 1975 and 1976 . With the Allmans disbanding in 1976 , the trio added guitarist Jimmy Nalls and named the band based on a phonetic pun of their new bandleader Chuck Leavell 's name : `` C. Leavell . '' They toured relentlessly , experimenting and refining their sound , eventually signing with Capricorn Records ( home of the Allman Brothers ) and recording their self-titled debut album in 1977 . After the release of their first album , the group expanded to a septet with the additions of Davis Causey ( guitar ) , George Weaver ( drums , percussion ) and Randall Bramblett ( saxophones , keyboards and vocals ) . That configuration recorded the group 's second album , Cats on the Coast , in 1978 ( with the leadoff track , `` That 's Your Secret '' , reaching # 50 on the Billboard Hot 100 ) . By the time of the third album , On the Edge , Jaimoe and Weaver had both left , replaced by Joe English . The sextet of Bramblett , Causey , English , Leavell , Nalls and Williams recorded the fourth album , Long Walk on a Short Pier ( 1979 ) , unreleased in the United States for nearly twenty years , adding percussionist Matt Greeley for their fifth and final album , Ball Room , issued on Arista in 1980 . Their greatest hits album ( CD ) wrapped up their body of work , minus a handful of appearances on various compilation albums ( mostly Southern Rock ) . They were also featured on a 1978 live Southern Rock album which included a live version of `` Grand Larceny . '' Leavell later emerged as a much sought-after session musician and producer , touring with Eric Clapton and eventually becoming a `` permanent '' session player touring with the Rolling Stones . In 1998 , he issued his debut solo LP , a Christmas album called What 's in That Bag ? and more recently Forever Blue that includes solo versions of two classic Sea Level compositions : `` Whole Lotta Colada '' and `` Song for Amy . '' He also released Southscape , an album of Southern anthems that hearkens back to his Southern roots .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea_Level_(band)\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 83746\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Twentieth Century (Cold Chisel album) Content: Twentieth Century is the final studio album for Australian band Cold Chisel until the group reformed in 1998 . The album was written and recorded over various sessions during the period of the band 's break-up and during breaks in their final tour . It was released in early 1984 and peaked at No. 1 on the Australian albums chart , their 3rd consecutive album to do so . It charted for a total of 46 weeks .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"Twentieth_Century_(Cold_Chisel_album)\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 83725\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Acceleration (human development) Content: thumb | 400px | Secular trend in decrease in age of menarche in Western European and North American girlsAfter : thumb | 400px | Stature comparison between American-born children of European descent and earlier populations of the same heritageAfter : Acceleration in human development process is the phenomenon which has been registered in many populations around the world . This applies equally to the growth of certain anthropometric parameters and the speed of reaching sexual maturity . These facts illustrate the results of secular changes in body height and appearance of the first menstruation ( menarche ) . Increases in human stature are a main indicator of improvements in the average health of populations . The newest data set for the average height of adult male birth cohorts , from the mid-nineteenth century to 1980 , in 15 European countries was studied ( in the populations listed ) . During a century average height increased by 11 cm representing a dramatic improvement of this phenomenon . It is interesting that the apparent acceleration of body height occurred during the Ĝ . Also , in the mid-nineteenth century young European women 's menarche occurred at the average age of 16.5 years . One hundred years later , this age was reduced to under 12 years . Increase in adult height of birth cohorts ( cm/decade )\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"Acceleration_(human_development)\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 83550\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: North Sea flood of 1953 Content: The 1953 North Sea flood ( Watersnoodramp , literally `` water emergency disaster '' ) was a major flood caused by a heavy storm that occurred on the night of Saturday , 31 January 1953 and morning of Sunday , 1 February 1953 . The floods struck the Netherlands , Belgium , England and Scotland . A combination of a high spring tide and a severe European windstorm over the North Sea caused a storm tide ; the combination of wind , high tide , and low pressure led to a water level of more than 5.6 m above mean sea level in some locations . The flood and waves overwhelmed sea defences and caused extensive flooding . The Netherlands , a country with 20 % of its territory below mean sea level and 50 % less than 1 m above sea level and which relies heavily on sea defences , was worst affected , recording 1,836 deaths and widespread property damage . Most of the casualties occurred in the southern province of Zeeland . In England , 307 people were killed in the counties of Lincolnshire , Norfolk , Suffolk and Essex . Nineteen were killed in Scotland . Twenty-eight people were killed in West Flanders , Belgium . In addition , more than 230 deaths occurred on water craft along Northern European coasts as well as on ships in deeper waters of the North Sea . The ferry MV Princess Victoria was lost at sea in the North Channel east of Belfast with 133 fatalities , and many fishing trawlers sank . Realising that such infrequent events could recur , the Netherlands particularly , and the United Kingdom carried out major studies on strengthening of coastal defences . The Netherlands developed the Delta Works , an extensive system of dams and storm surge barriers . The UK constructed storm surge barriers on the River Thames below London and on the River Hull where it meets the Humber estuary .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"North_Sea_flood_of_1953\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 83511\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bedford Level experiment Content: The Bedford Level experiment is a series of observations carried out along a 6 mi length of the Old Bedford River on the Bedford Level , Norfolk , England , UK , during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries , to measure the curvature of the Earth . Samuel Birley Rowbotham , who conducted the first observations starting in 1838 , claimed he had proven the Earth to be flat . However , in 1870 , after adjusting Rowbotham 's method to avoid the effects of atmospheric refraction , Alfred Russel Wallace found a curvature consistent with a spherical Earth .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"Bedford_Level_experiment\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 83470\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Terrorist Identities Datamart Environment Content: The Terrorist Identities Datamart Environment ( TIDE ) is the U.S. government 's central database on known or suspected international terrorists , and contains classified information provided by members of the Intelligence Community such as CIA , DIA , FBI , NSA , and many others . There are over one million names in TIDE . In 2008 , more than 27,000 names were removed from the list when it was determined they no longer met the criteria for inclusion . According to the FBI , international terrorists include those persons who carry out terrorist activities under foreign direction . For this purpose , they may include U.S. persons ( U.S. citizens and legal permanent residents ) . The Terrorist Identities Group ( TIG ) , located in NCTC 's Information Sharing & Knowledge Development Directorate ( ISKD ) , is responsible for building and maintaining TIDE . From the classified TIDE database , an unclassified , but sensitive , extract is provided to the FBI 's Terrorist Screening Center , which compiles the Terrorist Screening Database ( TSDB ) . This database , in turn , is used to compile various watch lists such as the TSA 's No Fly List , State Department 's Consular Lookout and Support System , Homeland Security 's Interagency Border Inspection System , and FBI 's NCIC ( National Crime Information Center ) for state and local law enforcement .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"Terrorist_Identities_Datamart_Environment\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 83363\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 20th Century with Mike Wallace Content: 20th Century with Mike Wallace was a documentary television program produced by CBS News Productions in association with A&E Network . It aired on The History Channel , a unit of A&E Television Networks , LLC , from approximately 1994-2005 . It was hosted by veteran CBS correspondent and anchor Mike Wallace . The program used footage gathered by CBS crews and contemporary reporting by CBS correspondents to document great events and movements of the 20th century , mainly the latter decades of that era . The range of topics is suggested by some of the program titles -- `` Underwater : The Great -LSB- Mississippi River -RSB- Flood of ' 93 '' ( no. 52 , 1996-04-10 ) ; `` Coming home : Agent Orange and the Gulf War Syndrome '' ( no. 91 , 1998-11-18 ) ; `` Search for Peace in the Middle East '' ( no. 106 , 1998-12-14 ) ; `` China after Mao '' ( no. 116 , 1999-03-05 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"20th_Century_with_Mike_Wallace\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 83300\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1920 Alabama Crimson Tide football team Content: The 1920 Alabama Crimson Tide football team ( variously `` Alabama '' , `` UA '' or `` Bama '' ) represented the University of Alabama in the 1920 Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association football season . It was the Crimson Tide 's 27th overall and 24th season as a member of the Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association ( SIAA ) . The team was led by head coach Xen C. Scott , in his second year , and played their home games at University/Denny Field in Tuscaloosa and at Rickwood Field in Birmingham , Alabama . They finished the season with a record of ten wins and one loss ( 10 -- 1 overall , 6 -- 1 in the SIAA ) . This marked the first ten win season in the history of Alabama football . Starting with Scott , every Alabama coach has won ten games in a season at least once , with the exception of Jennings B. Whitworth . Alabama opened the season with six consecutive shutout victories over the Southern Military Academy , Marion Military Institute , , , , and Sewanee . In their seventh game against Vanderbilt Alabama allowed its first touchdown of the season , but won 14 -- 7 after the Commodores threw an interception on a fourth and goal from the three-yard line in the fourth quarter . After their shutout victory over LSU on what was the first homecoming game played at Alabama , the Crimson Tide lost their only game of the season at Atlanta against Georgia . The Bulldogs did not score on offense but won 21 -- 14 after touchdowns were scored on a fumble return , a blocked punt return and a blocked field goal return . The loss snapped Alabama 's then school-record 11-game winning streak . Alabama won their final two games against Mississippi A&M and in Cleveland at and finished the season 10 -- 1 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"1920_Alabama_Crimson_Tide_football_team\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 83217\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ed Ricketts Content: Edward Flanders Robb Ricketts ( May 14 , 1897 -- May 11 , 1948 ) commonly known as Ed Ricketts , was an American marine biologist , ecologist , and philosopher . He is best known for Between Pacific Tides ( 1939 ) , a pioneering study of intertidal ecology , and for his influence on writer John Steinbeck , which resulted in their collaboration on the Sea of Cortez , later republished as The Log from the Sea of Cortez ( 1951 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"Ed_Ricketts\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 83188\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Oceana (band) Content: Oceana is an American rock band from St. Petersburg , Florida . Formed in 2007 and beginning with a post-hardcore sound , they were signed to Rise Records released their debut album titled The Tide on March 4 , 2008 , followed by the album Birth.Eater on May 19 , 2009 . They debuted a lighter indie rock sound with their EP Clean Head released on May 11 , 2010 . While recording their third album , One Big Particular Loop , in 2012 , they reinvented themselves under the name Polyenso .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"Oceana_(band)\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 82997\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: SeaGen Content: SeaGen is the world 's first large scale commercial tidal stream generator . It was four times more powerful than any other tidal stream generator in the world at the time of installation . The first SeaGen generator was installed in Strangford Narrows between Strangford and Portaferry in Northern Ireland , in April 2008 and was connected to the grid in July 2008 . It generates 1.2 MW for between 18 and 20 hours a day while the tides are forced in and out of Strangford Lough through the Narrows . Strangford Lough was also the site of the very first known tide mill in the world , the Nendrum Monastery mill where remains dating from 787 have been excavated .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"SeaGen\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 82975\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: North American Vertical Datum of 1988 Content: The North American Vertical Datum of 1988 ( NAVD 88 ) is the vertical control datum of orthometric height established for vertical control surveying in the United States of America based upon the General Adjustment of the North American Datum of 1988 . NAVD 88 was established in 1991 by the minimum-constraint adjustment of geodetic leveling observations in Canada , the United States , and Mexico . It held fixed the height of the primary tidal bench mark , referenced to the International Great Lakes Datum of 1985 local mean sea level height value , at Rimouski , Quebec , Canada . Additional tidal bench mark elevations were not used due to the demonstrated variations in sea surface topography , i.e. , that mean sea level is not the same equipotential surface at all tidal bench marks . The definition of NAVD 88 uses the Helmert orthometric height , which calculates the location of the geoid ( which approximates sea level ) from modeled local gravity . The NAVD 88 model is based on then-available measurements , and remains fixed despite later improved geoid models . NAVD 88 replaced the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 ( NGVD 29 ) , previously known as the Sea Level Datum of 1929 . The elevation difference between points in a local area will show negligible change from one datum to the other , even though the elevation of both does change . NGVD 29 used a simple model of gravity based on latitude to calculate the geoid and did not take into account other variations . Thus , the elevation difference for points across the country does change between datums .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"North_American_Vertical_Datum_of_1988\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 82934\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Incredible Tide Content: The Incredible Tide is a post-apocalyptic science fiction novel for young adults written by Alexander Key , published in 1970 . It was the inspiration for the Japanese anime television series Future Boy Conan , directed by Hayao Miyazaki .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Incredible_Tide\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 82885\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Twentieth century studies in neuroscience Content: Twentieth century studies in neuroscience is an article detailing important and seminal studies and undertakings of scientists and doctors working in the field of neuroscience during the twentieth century .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"Twentieth_century_studies_in_neuroscience\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 82777\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tidelands Content: Tidelands are the territory between the high and low water tide line of sea coasts , and lands lying under the sea beyond the low-water limit of the tide , considered within the territorial waters of a nation . The United States Constitution does not specify whether ownership of these lands rests with the federal government or with individual states . Originally little commercial value was attached to tidelands , so ownership was never firmly established , but the coastal states generally proceeded as if they were the owners . Some states , such as Mississippi , directly administer these lands under the public trust doctrine . The question arose for federal nations whether the tidelands for formerly independent coastal states had been ceded to the federal union on admission , or retained . The admission of the former Republic of Texas as a state in the United States in 1845 stipulated that its tidelands remained the territory of Texas . This has been an issue for oil and natural gas leases and federally funded development that affects such tidelands . For other states that were formerly independent , such as the Thirteen Colonies , there was no explicit retention of state sovereignty and the federal government had long asserted its own sovereignty over their tidelands .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"Tidelands\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 82751\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Team of the century Content: In team sport , team of the century and team of the decade are hypothetical best teams over a given time period . For the century team , it can be either 100 years , or for a century ( always the 20th ) . Similarly the team of the decade can be for 10 years or a decade ( for example the 1980s ) . Teams of the decade and century are selected for both leagues and clubs and sometimes selected for other reasons , such as to honour the contribution of a particular ethnic group . Teams of the 20th century in particular have been controversial due to their loose criteria and the systemic bias toward current players , given that the performance of players before the advent of broadcasting of matches can not be reviewed and relies on hearsay and archival records . The Team of the Century concept used extensively in the sport of Australian rules football , where , since the mid-1990s , leagues ( such as the VFL/AFL or SANFL ) , as well as football clubs , have named their best team ( see Football ( Australian rules ) positions ) . Teams of the decades followed . One of the most famous examples of the team of the century concept was in 1996 , when the AFL Team of the Century was named on 2 September 1996 , during the League 's centenary season . An example from Ireland was when in 1984 the GAA selected their Football Team of the Century and Hurling Team of the Century to celebrate the first 100 years of the GAA . The term was used again in 2011 when the Team of Century from the Sigerson Cup was chosen .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"Team_of_the_century\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 82582\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: USS Tide Content: USS Tide may refer to : , a tug built in 1916 at Manitowoc , Wis. , by the Manitowoc Shipbuilding Co , laid down on 16 March 1942 at Savannah , Ga. , by the Savannah Machinery and Foundry Company . Category : United States Navy ship names\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"USS_Tide\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 82374\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1872 Baltic Sea flood Content: The 1872 Baltic Sea flood ( Ostseesturmhochwasser 1872 ) , often referred to as a storm flood , ravaged the Baltic Sea coast from Denmark to Pomerania in the night of 12/13 November 1872 and was , until then , the worst storm surge in the Baltic . The highest recorded peak water level was about 3.3 m above sea level ( NN ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"1872_Baltic_Sea_flood\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 82295\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Mystic Tide Content: The Mystic Tide were an American rock band who have been credited for creating some of the first psychedelic anthems . Despite their lack of commercial success , they are now highly regarded amongst followers of garage rock and are recognized for their innovative musical approach . The group formed on Long Island and released a total of four singles between 1965 and 1967 , all of which were written by the band 's guitar player , Joe Docko . The band broke up in 1967 after little commercial success . Many years later in 1994 Docko recorded some new material and that along with three demos , the band 's five original singles , and their B-sides would be put out as a CD by Distortions records . Released more than 25 years after the group had disbanded , Solid Sound/Solid Ground , was the first and only album the band ever made .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Mystic_Tide\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 82235\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: North Sea flood of 2007 Content: The North Sea flood of 2007 also known as Cyclone Tilo , and as Andrea in Norway was a storm tide of the North Sea affecting the coastlines of the Netherlands , the United Kingdom , Germany , Denmark , Norway and Belgium , starting on the night of 8 -- 9 November 2007 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"North_Sea_flood_of_2007\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 82098\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Unit record equipment Content: Starting at the end of the nineteenth century , well before the advent of electronic computers , data processing was performed using electromechanical machines called unit record equipment , electric accounting machines ( EAM ) or tabulating machines . Unit record machines came to be as ubiquitous in industry and government in the first two-thirds of the twentieth century as computers became in the last third . They allowed large volume , sophisticated data-processing tasks to be accomplished before electronic computers were invented and while they were still in their infancy . This data processing was accomplished by processing punched cards through various unit record machines in a carefully choreographed progression . This progression , or flow , from machine to machine was often planned and documented with detailed flowcharts that used standardized symbols for documents and the various machine functions . All but the earliest machines had high-speed mechanical feeders to process cards at rates from around 100 to 2,000 per minute , sensing punched holes with mechanical , electrical , or , later , optical sensors . The operation of many machines was directed by the use of a removable plugboard , control panel , or connection box . . Initially all machines were manual or electromechanical . The first use of an electronic component was in 1940 when a gas triode vacuum tube replaced a relay in an IBM card sorter . Electronic components were used on other machines beginning in the late 1940s . IBM was the largest supplier of unit record equipment and this article largely reflects IBM practice and terminology .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"Unit_record_equipment\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 82062\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Older Peron Content: The Older Peron was the name for a period identified in 1961 as an episode of a global sea-level ( i.e. eustatic ) high-stand during the Holocene Epoch . Modern understanding of the various factors involved in quantifying eustatic sea level , particularly processes relating to ocean siphoning and glacio-hydro-isostatic adjustment , claim that such previous instances of purported high-stands were not globally coherent , and do not constitute episodes of eustatic sea level higher than present .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"Older_Peron\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 81784\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Salt tide Content: Salt tide is a phenomenon in which the lower course of a river , with its low altitude with respect to the sea level , becomes salty when the discharge of the river is low during dry season , usually worsened by the result of astronomical high tide . The lower course Xijiang ( West River ) in Guangdong , China was periodically affected and has been widely reported since 2004 , for bringing shortage of fresh water supply to the western part of the Pearl River Delta . The salinity level of tap water at Zhuhai was reported to be as high as 800 mg per litre in late February 2006 , more than 3 times higher than the World Health Organisation standard of 250 mg .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"Salt_tide\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 81763\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: American Century Content: American Century is a characterization of the period since the middle of the 20th century as being largely dominated by the United States in political , economic , and cultural terms . It is comparable to the description of the period 1815 -- 1914 as Britain 's Imperial Century . The United States ' influence grew throughout the 20th century , but became especially dominant after the end of World War II , when only two superpowers remained , the United States and the Soviet Union . After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 , the United States remained the world 's only superpower , and became the hegemon , or what some have termed a hyperpower .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"American_Century\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 81752\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Draupner wave Content: The Draupner wave or New Year 's wave was the first rogue wave to be detected by a measuring instrument , occurring at the Draupner platform in the North Sea off the coast of Norway on 1 January 1995 . In an area with significant wave height of approximately 12 m , a freak wave with a maximum wave height of 25.6 m occurred ( peak elevation above still water level was 18.5 m ) . Prior to that measurement , no instrument-recorded evidence for rogue waves existed -- just anecdotal evidence provided by those who had encountered them at sea , although ships such as the British Ocean Weather Reporter had recorded very large waves that did not differ quite enough from their neighbors to be considered rogue . Minor damage was inflicted on the platform during this event , confirming the validity of the reading made by a downwards-pointing laser sensor .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"Draupner_wave\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 81713\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1 gauge Content: 1 gauge , gauge 1 or gauge one is a model railroading and toy train standard that was popular in the early 20th century , particularly with European manufacturers . Its track measures , making it larger than 0 gauge but slightly smaller than wide gauge , which came to be the dominant U.S. standard during the 1920s . Gauge one was standardised , according to Model Railways and Locomotive magazine of August 1909 , at . An exact 1:32 scale would yield for standard gauge prototype . The distance between the wheel tyres was set at 1 +17 / 32 in and between the centre of the track 48 mm ( no inch equivalent suggesting it was metric users ' requirement only ) . The wheel width was set at 19/64 in . Definitions using gauge , rather than scale , were more common in the early days with the four gauges for which standards were adopted being No. 0 ( commonly called O gauge currently ) , No. 1 , No. 2 and No. 3 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2721\",\n \"docid\": \"1_gauge\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 81486\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":1344,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"Humans are emitting 26 gigatonnes of CO2 into the atmosphere."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .","qid":"2726","docid":"Atmospheric_carbon_cycle","rank":1,"score":161285},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .","qid":"2726","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere","rank":2,"score":145545},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .","qid":"2726","docid":"Greenhouse_gas","rank":3,"score":136850},{"content":"Title: German response to Kyoto Protocol Content: Germany is Europe 's largest and the world 's 6th greatest single emitter of CO2 . In July 2007 , Germany had the largest European population , with 82.4 million people . Germany imports most of its materials and energy sources , and in 2004 imported 2.135 million barrels of oil and 85.02 billion m ³ ( 2003 ) of natural gas a day . In 2004 , Germany emitted 886 million metric tonnes of CO2 . In 2004 , there were approximately 45 million registered cars in Germany . Between March 1998 and March 1999 , 84 countries including Germany signed the Kyoto Protocol . In March 2002 , the Bundestag unanimously ratified Kyoto . In May 2002 , the European Union submitted the articles of ratification for all 15 of its then member states . As an Annex II nation , Germany 's commitment to the UNFCCC with respect to Kyoto was to reduce emissions as well as to provide an economic crutch to developing nations via Clean Development Mechanisms . In November 2006 , Germany 's planned annual quota was 482 million metric tonnes of CO2 . German Greenhouse Gas Emissions reduced by 17.2 % from 1990 to 2004 , according to UNFCCC . Germany actively promotes government carbon funds and supports multilateral carbon funds that are intent on purchasing Carbon Credits from non-Annex I parties . Government organizations work closely with major utility , energy , oil and gas , and chemicals conglomerates to try to acquire as many Greenhouse Gas Certificates as cheaply as possible . Since signing and ratifying the protocol , Germany has committed to reducing its emissions to 21 % below 1990 levels between 2008 and 2012 . In November 2008 , a study found that Germany had already reduced its greenhouse gas emissions by 22.4 % , which means it already reached its Kyoto Emissions Commitments .","qid":"2726","docid":"German_response_to_Kyoto_Protocol","rank":4,"score":132681},{"content":"Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .","qid":"2726","docid":"Low-carbon_emission","rank":5,"score":131785},{"content":"Title: Oceanic carbon cycle Content: The oceans contain around 36,000 gigatons of carbon , mostly in the form of bicarbonate ion ( over 90 % , with most of the remainder being carbonate ) . At the surface of the oceans towards the poles , seawater becomes cooler and more carbonic acid is formed as CO2 becomes more soluble . This is coupled to the ocean 's thermohaline circulation which transports dense surface water into the ocean 's interior ( see the entry on the solubility pump ) . Although the deep ocean contains much more dissolved inorganic carbon than the surface ocean , the concentration is only 15 % higher in the deep ocean as compared to the surface ocean due to the higher volume of the deep ocean . In upper ocean areas of high biological productivity , organisms convert reduced carbon to tissues , or carbonates to hard body parts such as shells and tests . These are , respectively , oxidized ( soft-tissue pump ) and redissolved ( carbonate pump ) at lower average levels of the ocean than those at which they formed , resulting in a downward flow of carbon ( see entry on the biological pump ) . The flux or absorption of carbon dioxide into the world 's oceans is influenced by the presence of widespread viruses within ocean water , that infect many species of bacteria . The resulting bacterial deaths spawn a sequence of events that lead to greatly enlarged respiration of carbon dioxide , enhancing the role of the oceans as a carbon sink . The balance of dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) : dissolved organic carbon ( DOC ) : particle organic carbon is about 2000:38:1 . The CaCO3 counter pump increases the partial pressure of CO2 in the ocean , thus leading to higher outgasing of carbon dioxide . Higher ocean temperatures lead to stronger layering , thus less mixing and less capacity for thermohaline circulation to bring carbon into lower ocean layers . The weathering of silicate rock ( see carbonate-silicate cycle ) . Carbonic acid reacts with weathered rock to produce bicarbonate ions . The bicarbonate ions produced are carried to the ocean , where they are used to make marine carbonates . Unlike dissolved CO2 in equilibrium or tissues , which decay , weathering does not move the carbon into a reservoir from which it can readily return to the atmosphere . Much remains to be learned about the cycling of carbon in the deep ocean . For example , a recent discovery is that larvacean mucus houses ( commonly known as `` sinkers '' ) are created in such large numbers that they can deliver as much carbon to the deep ocean as has been previously detected by sediment traps . Because of their size and composition , these houses are rarely collected in such traps , so most biogeochemical analyses have erroneously ignored them . The amount of dissolved inorganic carbon in the ocean is significantly higher in the deep layer ( below 300 m depth ) . This is caused by the solubility pump and the biological pump .","qid":"2726","docid":"Oceanic_carbon_cycle","rank":6,"score":129518},{"content":"Title: Carbon price Content: Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' . Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain . The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions . The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations .","qid":"2726","docid":"Carbon_price","rank":7,"score":127461},{"content":"Title: ACEA agreement Content: The ACEA agreement refers to a voluntary agreement between the European Automobile Manufacturers Association ( ACEA ) and the European Commission to limit the amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) emitted by passenger cars sold in Europe . With 18 million cars sold each year , Europe is the last major car market in the world . Signed in 1998 , the agreement sought to achieve an average of 140 g/km of CO2 by 2008 for new passenger vehicles sold by the association 's cars in Europe . This target represents a 25 % reduction from the 1995 level of 186 g/km and is equivalent to a fuel economy of 5.8 L/100 km or 5.25 L/100 km for petrol and diesel engines respectively . However , the average for the whole car market for 2008 was 153.7 g/km , so the target has not been achieved . Besides the agreement with ACEA , the European Commission also closed agreements with the Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association ( JAMA ) and Korea Automobile Manufacturers Association ( KAMA ) . However , for the latter two the target date is 2009 instead of 2008 and as ACEA accounts for 86.4 % of car sales in Europe , the impact of the latter two is much smaller . The ultimate EU target to which these agreements are to contribute , is to reach an average CO2 emission ( as measured according to Commission Directive 93/116/EC ) of 130 g/km for all new passenger cars by 2015 . The European Commission announced in late 2006 that it is working on a proposal for legally binding measures and limits . In February 2007 , the Commission acknowledged the failure of the voluntary agreement . Following this , a proposal of regulation was introduced by the Commission on 19 December 2007 .","qid":"2726","docid":"ACEA_agreement","rank":8,"score":123792},{"content":"Title: Atmosphere of Mars Content: The atmosphere of Mars is the layer of gases surrounding Mars . It is composed mostly of carbon dioxide . The atmospheric pressure on the Martian surface averages 600 Pa , about 0.6 % of Earth 's mean sea level pressure of 101.3 kPa . It ranges from a low of 30 Pa on Olympus Mons 's peak to over 1155 Pa in the depths of Hellas Planitia . This pressure is well below the Armstrong limit for the unprotected human body . Mars 's atmospheric mass of 25 teratonnes compares to Earth 's 5148 teratonnes with a scale height of about 11 km versus Earth 's 7 km . The Martian atmosphere consists of approximately 96 % carbon dioxide , 1.9 % argon , 1.9 % nitrogen , and traces of free oxygen , carbon monoxide , water and methane , among other gases , for a mean molar mass of 43.34 g/mol . There has been renewed interest in its composition since the detection of traces of methane in 2003 that may indicate life but may also be produced by a geochemical process , volcanic or hydrothermal activity . The atmosphere is quite dusty , giving the Martian sky a light brown or orange-red color when seen from the surface ; data from the Mars Exploration Rovers indicate suspended particles of roughly 1.5 micrometres in diameter . On 16 December 2014 , NASA reported detecting an unusual increase , then decrease , in the amounts of methane in the atmosphere of the planet Mars . Organic chemicals have been detected in powder drilled from a rock by the Curiosity rover . Based on deuterium to hydrogen ratio studies , much of the water at Gale Crater on Mars was found to have been lost during ancient times , before the lakebed in the crater was formed ; afterwards , large amounts of water continued to be lost . On 18 March 2015 , NASA reported the detection of an aurora that is not fully understood and an unexplained dust cloud in the atmosphere of Mars . On 4 April 2015 , NASA reported studies , based on measurements by the Sample Analysis at Mars ( SAM ) instrument on the Curiosity rover , of the Martian atmosphere using xenon and argon isotopes . Results provided support for a `` vigorous '' loss of atmosphere early in the history of Mars and were consistent with an atmospheric signature found in bits of atmosphere captured in some Martian meteorites found on Earth . This was further supported by results from the MAVEN orbiter circling Mars , that the solar wind is responsible for stripping away the atmosphere of Mars over the years .","qid":"2726","docid":"Atmosphere_of_Mars","rank":9,"score":123342},{"content":"Title: Carbon monoxide Content: Carbon monoxide ( CO ) is a colorless , odorless , and tasteless gas that is slightly less dense than air . It is toxic to hemoglobic animals ( both invertebrate and vertebrate , including humans ) when encountered in concentrations above about 35 ppm , although it is also produced in normal animal metabolism in low quantities , and is thought to have some normal biological functions . In the atmosphere , it is spatially variable and short lived , having a role in the formation of ground-level ozone . Carbon monoxide consists of one carbon atom and one oxygen atom , connected by a triple bond that consists of two covalent bonds as well as one dative covalent bond . It is the simplest oxocarbon and is isoelectronic with the cyanide anion , the nitrosonium cation and molecular nitrogen . In coordination complexes the carbon monoxide ligand is called carbonyl .","qid":"2726","docid":"Carbon_monoxide","rank":10,"score":122587},{"content":"Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions Content: -RSB- This is a list of sovereign states and territories by carbon dioxide emissions due to certain forms of human activity , based on the EDGAR database created by European Commission and Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency released in 2015 . The following table lists the 2015 annual emissions estimates ( in thousands of tonnes ) along with a list of emissions per capita ( in tonnes of per year ) from same source . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use , land-use change and forestry . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The top 10 largest emitter countries account for 67.6 % of the world total . Other powerful , more potent greenhouse gases , including methane , are not included in this data .","qid":"2726","docid":"List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions","rank":11,"score":121500},{"content":"Title: Andrew Himes Content: Andrew Himes ( born 1950 ) is director of network orchestration for Carbon Trifecta International , an initiative to capture gigatons of CO2 before ( and after ) it enters the atmosphere , using new technology designed to turn carbon-based businesses into allies by processing the CO2 into valuable graphene , and then accelerating market demand for graphene via 3D printing . Himes was the founding executive director of the Charter for Compassion , launched in 2008 by TED.com and Karen Armstrong , with the mission of supporting the emergence of a global compassion movement . He is the author of The Sword of the Lord : The Roots of Fundamentalism in an American Family . Himes ' grandfather was John R. Rice , dean of American fundamentalists for decades until his death in 1980 , and mentor to many younger Baptist preachers including Billy Graham and Jerry Falwell , as well as founding editor of The Sword of the Lord newspaper . Himes ' great-grandfather , Will Rice , was a preacher , a Texas State senator , and a leading member of the Ku Klux Klan in Texas during the 1920s . In 1989 , Himes was founding editor of MacTech , a journal of Macintosh software development . In 1992 , he was founding editor of the Microsoft Developer Network , and then led the first web development project in the history of the company , a project dubbed the MSDN OffRamp , aimed at making articles , resources , and technical information available on the Internet to an audience of software developers . Beginning in 1994 Himes managed Microsoft 's platform web team producing the sites for all of Microsoft 's operating systems , browsers , development tools , and technologies . After leaving Microsoft , he founded Project Alchemy , a non-profit company providing technology assistance , training , consulting , database and web solutions to hundreds of grassroots organizations working for social justice in the Pacific Northwest . Himes was co-founder in 2003 of the international movement , Poets Against the War , and produced the 2005 documentary Voices in Wartime an exploration of the trauma of war through the lens of poetry . In 2004 , Himes founded Voices Education Project , a web site dedicated to teaching peace and compassion , now the education program of the Charter for Compassion . In 2008 , Himes was a member of the organizing committee for the Seeds of Compassion event in Seattle , WA .","qid":"2726","docid":"Andrew_Himes","rank":12,"score":121245},{"content":"Title: Kaya identity Content: The Kaya identity is an identity stating that the total emission level of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide can be expressed as the product of four factors : human population , GDP per capita , energy intensity ( per unit of GDP ) , and carbon intensity ( emissions per unit of energy consumed ) . It is a concrete form of the more general I = PAT equation relating factors that determine the level of human impact on climate . The Kaya identity is both simple and tricky , as it can be reduced to only two terms , but it is developed so that the carbon emission calculation becomes easy , as per the available data , or generally in which format the data is available .","qid":"2726","docid":"Kaya_identity","rank":13,"score":120944},{"content":"Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .","qid":"2726","docid":"350.org","rank":14,"score":120393},{"content":"Title: Respiratory exchange ratio Content: The respiratory exchange ratio ( RER ) is the ratio between the amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) produced in metabolism and oxygen ( O2 ) used . Humans typically inhale more molecules of oxygen than they exhale of carbon dioxide because air contains much more oxygen by volume . The ratio is determined by comparing exhaled gases to room air . Measuring this ratio can be used for estimating the respiratory quotient ( RQ ) , an indicator of which fuel ( carbohydrate or fat ) is being metabolized to supply the body with energy . This estimation is only valid if metabolism is in a steady state . RER is about 0.8 at rest with a modern diet . This value however , can exceed 1 during intense exercise , as CO2 production by the working muscles becomes greater and more of the inhaled O2 gets used rather than being expelled . During moderate or higher intensity aerobic exercise and anaerobic exercise , using RER for estimating RQ loses accuracy because of factors including bicarbonate buffering of hydrogen ions , which affects the CO2 levels being expelled by the respiratory system . Calculation of RER is commonly done in conjunction with exercise tests such as the VO2 Max Test and can be used as an indicator that the participants are nearing exhaustion and the limits of their cardio-respiratory system . An RER greater than or equal to 1.15 is often used as a secondary endpoint criterion of a VO2 Max Test . An RER of 0.70 indicates that fat is the predominant fuel source , RER of 0.85 suggests a mix of fat and carbohydrates , and a value of 1.00 or above is indicative of carbohydrate being the predominant fuel source . Oxidation of a molecule of Carbohydrate 6 O2 + C6H12O6 = > 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + 38 ATP RER = VCO2/VO2 = 6 CO2/6 O2 = 1.0 Oxidation of a molecule of Fatty Acid 23 O2 + C16H32O2 = > 16 CO2 + 16 H2O + 129 ATP RER = VCO2/VO2 = 16 CO2/23 O2 = 0.7","qid":"2726","docid":"Respiratory_exchange_ratio","rank":15,"score":119285},{"content":"Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .","qid":"2726","docid":"CO2_fertilization_effect","rank":16,"score":118633},{"content":"Title: Airborne fraction Content: The airborne fraction is a scaling factor defined as the ratio of the annual increase in atmospheric to the emissions from anthropogenic sources . It represents the proportion of human emitted that remains in the atmosphere . The fraction averages about 45 % , meaning that approximately half the human-emitted is absorbed by ocean and land surfaces . There is some evidence for a recent increase in airborne fraction , which would imply a faster increase in atmospheric for a given rate of human fossil-fuel burning . However , other sources suggest that the `` fraction of carbon dioxide has not increased either during the past 150 years or during the most recent five decades '' . Changes in carbon sinks can affect the airborne fraction .","qid":"2726","docid":"Airborne_fraction","rank":17,"score":118624},{"content":"Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .","qid":"2726","docid":"Carbon_rift","rank":18,"score":117324},{"content":"Title: Carbon profiling Content: Carbon profiling is a mathematical process that calculates how much carbon dioxide is put into the atmosphere per m2 of space in a building over one year . The analysis is in two parts which are then added together to produce an overall figure which is termed the ` Carbon Profile ' : operational carbon emissions embodied carbon emissions . Embodied carbon emissions relate to the amount of carbon dioxide emitted into the atmosphere from creating and maintaining the materials that form the building e.g. the carbon dioxide released from the baking of bricks or smelting or iron . In the Carbon Profiling Model these emissions are measured as Embodied Carbon Efficiency ( ECE ) , measured as kg of CO2/m2/year . Occupational Carbon Emissions relate to the amount of Carbon Dioxide emitted into the atmosphere from the direct use of energy to run the building e.g. the heating or electricity used by the building over the year . In the Carbon Profiling Model these emissions are measured in BER 's ( Building Emission Rate ) in kg of / m2/year . The BER is a United Kingdom government accepted unit of measurement that comes from an approved calculation process called sBEM ( Simplified Building Emission Model ) The purpose of Carbon Profiling is to provide a method of analyzing and comparing both operational and embodied carbon emissions at the same time . With this information it is then possible to allocate a projects resources in such a way to minimize the total amount of Carbon Dioxide emitted into the atmosphere through the use of a given piece of space . A secondary benefit is that having quantified the Carbon Profiling of different buildings it is then possible to make comparisons and rank buildings in term of their performance . This allows investors and occupiers to identify which building are good and bad carbon investments . Simon Sturgis and Gareth Roberts of Sturgis Associates in the United Kingdom originally developed ` Carbon Profiling ' in December 2007 .","qid":"2726","docid":"Carbon_profiling","rank":19,"score":116185},{"content":"Title: Terrestrial biological carbon cycle Content: Carbon is an essential part of life on Earth . About half the dry weight of most living organisms is carbon . It plays an important role in the structure , biochemistry , and nutrition of all living cells . Living biomass holds between 600 and 1,000 gigatons of carbon , most of which is wood , while some 1,200 gigatons of carbon are stored in the terrestrial biosphere as dead biomass . Carbon is cycled through the terrestrial biosphere with varying speeds , depending on what form it is stored in and under which circumstances . It is exchanged most quickly with the atmosphere , although small amounts of carbon leave the terrestrial biosphere and enter the oceans as dissolved organic carbon ( DOC ) .","qid":"2726","docid":"Terrestrial_biological_carbon_cycle","rank":20,"score":112384},{"content":"Title: Carbon credit Content: A carbon credit is a generic term for any tradable certificate or permit representing the right to emit one tonne of carbon dioxide or the mass of another greenhouse gas with a carbon dioxide equivalent ( tCO2e ) equivalent to one tonne of carbon dioxide . Carbon credits and carbon markets are a component of national and international attempts to mitigate the growth in concentrations of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) . One carbon credit is equal to one tonne of carbon dioxide , or in some markets , carbon dioxide equivalent gases . Carbon trading is an application of an emissions trading approach . Greenhouse gas emissions are capped and then markets are used to allocate the emissions among the group of regulated sources . The goal is to allow market mechanisms to drive industrial and commercial processes in the direction of low emissions or less carbon intensive approaches than those used when there is no cost to emitting carbon dioxide and other GHGs into the atmosphere . Since GHG mitigation projects generate credits , this approach can be used to finance carbon reduction schemes between trading partners and around the world . There are also many companies that sell carbon credits to commercial and individual customers who are interested in lowering their carbon footprint on a voluntary basis . These carbon offsetters purchase the credits from an investment fund or a carbon development company that has aggregated the credits from individual projects . Buyers and sellers can also use an exchange platform to trade , which is like a stock exchange for carbon credits . The quality of the credits is based in part on the validation process and sophistication of the fund or development company that acted as the sponsor to the carbon project . This is reflected in their price ; voluntary units typically have less value than the units sold through the rigorously validated Clean Development Mechanism .","qid":"2726","docid":"Carbon_credit","rank":21,"score":112347},{"content":"Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .","qid":"2726","docid":"Carbon_diet","rank":22,"score":112246},{"content":"Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .","qid":"2726","docid":"Carbon_neutrality","rank":23,"score":110920},{"content":"Title: Contribution to global warming by Australia Content: Australia has one of the highest per capita emissions of carbon dioxide in the world , with 0.3 % of the world 's population it produces 1.8 % of the world 's greenhouse gasses . It was 18.3 tonnes per year per person and the 11th highest in the world per capita in 2009 . Australia uses principally coal power ( 70 % ) for electricity , with the remainder mainly gas , with no nuclear , low levels of hydro power , and low , but increasing , levels of solar , wind and wave power .","qid":"2726","docid":"Contribution_to_global_warming_by_Australia","rank":24,"score":110678},{"content":"Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .","qid":"2726","docid":"Low-carbon_economy","rank":25,"score":110659},{"content":"Title: Carbon emission trading Content: Carbon emissions trading is a form of emissions trading that specifically targets carbon dioxide ( calculated in tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent or tCO2e ) and it currently constitutes the bulk of emissions trading . This form of permit trading is a common method countries utilize in order to meet their obligations specified by the Kyoto Protocol ; namely the reduction of carbon emissions in an attempt to reduce ( mitigate ) future climate change . Under Carbon trading , a country having more emissions of carbon is able to purchase the right to emit more and the country having less emission trades the right to emit carbon to other countries . More carbon emitting countries , by this way try to keep the limit of carbon emission specified to them .","qid":"2726","docid":"Carbon_emission_trading","rank":26,"score":110464},{"content":"Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .","qid":"2726","docid":"Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact","rank":27,"score":110007},{"content":"Title: Modified atmosphere Content: Modified atmosphere is the practice of modifying the composition of the internal atmosphere of a package ( commonly food packages , drugs , etc. ) in order to improve the shelf life . The modification process often tries to lower the amount of oxygen ( O2 ) , moving it from 20.9 % to 0 % , in order to slow down the growth of aerobic organisms and prevent oxidation reactions . The removed oxygen can be replaced with nitrogen ( N2 ) , commonly acknowledged as an inert gas , or carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , which can lower the pH or inhibit the growth of bacteria . Carbon monoxide can be used for preserving the red color of meat . Re-balancing of gases inside the packaging can be achieved using active techniques such as gas flushing and compensated vacuum or passively by designing `` breathable '' films known as equilibrium modified atmosphere packaging ( EMAP ) . Packets containing scavengers may be used .","qid":"2726","docid":"Modified_atmosphere","rank":28,"score":109471},{"content":"Title: Atmosphere Content: An atmosphere is a layer of gases surrounding a planet or other material body , that is held in place by the gravity of that body . An atmosphere is more likely to be retained if the gravity it is subject to is high and the temperature of the atmosphere is low . The atmosphere of Earth is mostly composed of nitrogen ( about 78 % ) , oxygen ( about 21 % ) , argon ( about 0.9 % ) with carbon dioxide and other gases in trace amounts . Oxygen is used by most organisms for respiration , nitrogen is fixed by bacteria and lightning to produce ammonia used in the construction of nucleotides and amino acids and carbon dioxide is used by plants , algae and cyanobacteria for photosynthesis . The atmosphere helps protect living organisms from genetic damage by solar ultraviolet radiation , solar wind and cosmic rays . Its current composition is the product of billions of years of biochemical modification of the paleoatmosphere by living organisms . The term stellar atmosphere describes the outer region of a star , and typically includes the portion starting from the opaque photosphere outwards . Stars with sufficiently low temperatures may form compound molecules in their outer atmosphere .","qid":"2726","docid":"Atmosphere","rank":29,"score":109253},{"content":"Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .","qid":"2726","docid":"Environmental_impact_of_aviation","rank":30,"score":108958},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide Content: Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .","qid":"2726","docid":"Carbon_dioxide","rank":31,"score":108644},{"content":"Title: Flue-gas emissions from fossil-fuel combustion Content: Flue-gas emissions from fossil-fuel combustion refers to the combustion-product gas resulting from the burning of fossil fuels . Most fossil fuels are combusted with ambient air ( as differentiated from combustion with pure oxygen ) . Since ambient air contains about 79 volume percent gaseous nitrogen ( N2 ) , which is essentially non-combustible , the largest part of the flue gas from most fossil-fuel combustion is uncombusted nitrogen . Carbon dioxide , the next largest part of flue gas , can be as much as 10 − 25 volume percent or more of the flue gas . This is closely followed in volume by water vapor ( H2O ) created by the combustion of the hydrogen in the fuel with atmospheric oxygen . Much of the ` smoke ' seen pouring from flue gas stacks is this water vapor forming a cloud as it contacts cool air . A typical flue gas from the combustion of fossil fuels contains very small amounts of nitrogen oxides ( NOx ) , sulfur dioxide ( SO2 ) and particulate matter . The nitrogen oxides are derived from the nitrogen in the ambient air as well as from any nitrogen-containing compounds in the fossil fuel . The sulfur dioxide is derived from any sulfur-containing compounds in the fuels . The particulate matter is composed of very small particles of solid materials and very small liquid droplets which give flue gases their smoky appearance . The steam generators in large power plants and the process furnaces in large refineries , petrochemical and chemical plants , and incinerators burn considerable amounts of fossil fuels and therefore emit large amounts of flue gas to the ambient atmosphere . The table below presents the total amounts of flue gas typically generated by the burning of fossil fuels such as natural gas , fuel oil and coal . The data were obtained by stoichiometric calculations . It is of interest to note that the total amount of flue gas generated by coal combustion is only 10 percent higher than the flue gas generated by natural-gas combustion . Note : m ³ are standard cubic meters at 0 ° C and 101.325 kPa , and scf is standard cubic feet at 60 ° F and 14.696 psia .","qid":"2726","docid":"Flue-gas_emissions_from_fossil-fuel_combustion","rank":32,"score":108475},{"content":"Title: Carbon footprint Content: A carbon footprint is historically defined as the total set of greenhouse gas emissions caused by an individual , event , organisation , or product , expressed as carbon dioxide equivalent . In most cases , the total carbon footprint can not be exactly calculated because of inadequate knowledge of and data about the complex interactions between contributing processes , especially which including the influence on natural processes storing or releasing carbon dioxide . For this reason , Wright , Kemp , and Williams , have suggested to define the carbon footprint as : A measure of the total amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and methane ( CH4 ) emissions of a defined population , system or activity , considering all relevant sources , sinks and storage within the spatial and temporal boundary of the population , system or activity of interest . Calculated as carbon dioxide equivalent using the relevant 100-year global warming potential ( GWP100 ) . Greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) can be emitted through land clearance and the production and consumption of food , fuels , manufactured goods , materials , wood , roads , buildings , transportation and other services . For simplicity of reporting , it is often expressed in terms of the amount of carbon dioxide , or its equivalent of other GHGs , emitted . Most of the carbon footprint emissions for the average U.S. household come from `` indirect '' sources , i.e. fuel burned to produce goods far away from the final consumer . These are distinguished from emissions which come from burning fuel directly in one 's car or stove , commonly referred to as `` direct '' sources of the consumer 's carbon footprint . The concept name of the carbon footprint originates from ecological footprint , discussion , which was developed by Rees and Wackernagel in the 1990s which estimates the number of `` earths '' that would theoretically be required if everyone on the planet consumed resources at the same level as the person calculating their ecological footprint . However , given that ecological footprints are a measure of failure , Anindita Mitra ( CREA , Seattle ) chose the more easily calculated `` carbon footprint '' to easily measure use of carbon , as an indicator of unsustainable energy use . In 2007 , carbon footprint was used as a measure of carbon emissions to develop the energy plan for City of Lynnwood , Washington . Carbon footprints are much more specific than ecological footprints since they measure direct emissions of gases that cause climate change into the atmosphere . Carbon footprint is one of a family of footprint indicators , which also includes water footprint and land footprint .","qid":"2726","docid":"Carbon_footprint","rank":33,"score":107739},{"content":"Title: Atmosphere of Earth Content: The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases , commonly known as air , that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity . The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation , warming the surface through heat retention ( greenhouse effect ) , and reducing temperature extremes between day and night ( the diurnal temperature variation ) . By volume , dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen , 20.95 % oxygen , 0.93 % argon , 0.04 % carbon dioxide , and small amounts of other gases . Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor , on average around 1 % at sea level , and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere . Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers , and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres . The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 kg , three quarters of which is within about 11 km of the surface . The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude , with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space . The Kármán line , at 100 km , or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius , is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space . Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km . Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere , based on characteristics such as temperature and composition . The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science ( aerology ) . Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann .","qid":"2726","docid":"Atmosphere_of_Earth","rank":34,"score":107709},{"content":"Title: Orbiting Carbon Observatory Content: The Orbiting Carbon Observatory ( OCO ) is a NASA satellite mission intended to provide global space-based observations of atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . The original spacecraft was lost in a launch failure on 24 February 2009 , when the payload fairing of the Taurus rocket which was carrying it failed to separate during ascent . The added mass of the fairing prevented the satellite from reaching orbit . It subsequently re-entered the atmosphere and crashed into the Indian Ocean near Antarctica . The replacement satellite , Orbiting Carbon Observatory 2 , was launched 2 July 2014 aboard a Delta II rocket . The Orbiting Carbon Observatory 3 , a stand-alone payload built from the spare OCO-2 flight instrument , will be installed on the International Space Station Kibō Exposed Facility in December 2016 .","qid":"2726","docid":"Orbiting_Carbon_Observatory","rank":35,"score":107646},{"content":"Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .","qid":"2726","docid":"Global_Carbon_Project","rank":36,"score":107290},{"content":"Title: Carbon offset Content: A carbon offset is a reduction in emissions of carbon dioxide or greenhouse gases made in order to compensate for or to offset an emission made elsewhere . Carbon offsets are measured in metric tons of carbon dioxide-equivalent ( CO2e ) and may represent six primary categories of greenhouse gases : carbon dioxide , methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFCs ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) , and sulfur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . One carbon offset represents the reduction of one metric ton of carbon dioxide or its equivalent in other greenhouse gases . There are two markets for carbon offsets . In the larger , compliance market , companies , governments , or other entities buy carbon offsets in order to comply with caps on the total amount of carbon dioxide they are allowed to emit . This market exists in order to achieve compliance with obligations of Annex 1 Parties under the Kyoto Protocol , and of liable entities under the EU Emission Trading Scheme . In 2006 , about $ 5.5 billion of carbon offsets were purchased in the compliance market , representing about 1.6 billion metric tons of CO2e reductions . In the much smaller , voluntary market , individuals , companies , or governments purchase carbon offsets to mitigate their own greenhouse gas emissions from transportation , electricity use , and other sources . For example , an individual might purchase carbon offsets to compensate for the greenhouse gas emissions caused by personal air travel . Many companies ( see list ) offer carbon offsets as an up-sell during the sales process so that customers can mitigate the emissions related with their product or service purchase ( such as offsetting emissions related to a vacation flight , car rental , hotel stay , consumer good , etc. ) . In 2008 , about $ 705 million of carbon offsets were purchased in the voluntary market , representing about 123.4 million metric tons of CO2e reductions . Some fuel suppliers in the UK offer fuel which has been carbon offset such as Fuel dyes . Offsets are typically achieved through financial support of projects that reduce the emission of greenhouse gases in the short - or long-term . The most common project type is renewable energy , such as wind farms , biomass energy , or hydroelectric dams . Others include energy efficiency projects , the destruction of industrial pollutants or agricultural byproducts , destruction of landfill methane , and forestry projects . Some of the most popular carbon offset projects from a corporate perspective are energy efficiency and wind turbine projects . Carbon offsetting has gained some appeal and momentum mainly among consumers in western countries who have become aware and concerned about the potentially negative environmental effects of energy-intensive lifestyles and economies . The Kyoto Protocol has sanctioned offsets as a way for governments and private companies to earn carbon credits that can be traded on a marketplace . The protocol established the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) , which validates and measures projects to ensure they produce authentic benefits and are genuinely `` additional '' activities that would not otherwise have been undertaken . Organizations that are unable to meet their emissions quota can offset their emissions by buying CDM-approved Certified Emissions Reductions . Emissions from burning fuel , such as red diesel , has pushed one UK fuel supplier to create a carbon offset fuel named Carbon Offset Red Diesel . Offsets may be cheaper or more convenient alternatives to reducing one 's own fossil-fuel consumption . However , some critics object to carbon offsets , and question the benefits of certain types of offsets . Due diligence is recommended to help businesses in the assessment and identification of `` good quality '' offsets to ensure offsetting provides the desired additional environmental benefits , and to avoid reputational risk associated with poor quality offsets . Offsets are viewed as an important policy tool to maintain stable economies and to improve sustainability . One of the hidden dangers of climate change policy is unequal prices of carbon in the economy , which can cause economic collateral damage if production flows to regions or industries that have a lower price of carbon -- unless carbon can be purchased from that area , which offsets effectively permit , equalizing the price .","qid":"2726","docid":"Carbon_offset","rank":37,"score":107232},{"content":"Title: Amorphous carbonia Content: Amorphous carbonia , also called a-carbonia or a-CO2 , is an exotic amorphous solid form of carbon dioxide that is analogous to amorphous silica glass . It was first made in the laboratory in 2006 by subjecting dry ice to high pressures ( 40-48 gigapascal , or 400,000 to 480,000 atmospheres ) , in a diamond anvil cell . Amorphous carbonia is not stable at ordinary pressures -- it quickly reverts to normal CO2 . While normally carbon dioxide forms molecular crystals , where individual molecules are bound by Van der Waals forces , in amorphous carbonia a covalently bound three-dimensional network of atoms is formed , in a structure analogous to silicon dioxide or germanium dioxide glass . Mixtures of a-carbonia and a-silica may be a prospective very hard and stiff glass material stable at room temperature . Such glass may serve as protective coatings , e.g. in microelectronics . The discovery has implications for astrophysics , as interiors of massive planets may contain amorphous solid carbon dioxide .","qid":"2726","docid":"Amorphous_carbonia","rank":38,"score":107103},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide removal Content: Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions .","qid":"2726","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_removal","rank":39,"score":105396},{"content":"Title: CO2 content Content: content ( also known as `` Total '' ) is a blood test that usually appears on a `` Chem 19 '' or an electrolyte panel . The value measures the total dissolved Carbon dioxide in blood . It is determined by combining the Bicarbonate and the partial pressure of multiplied by a factor which estimates the amount of pure that is dissolved in its natural form ( usually 0.03 ) . One given reference range is 24 -- 32 mEq/L .","qid":"2726","docid":"CO2_content","rank":40,"score":104069},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide flooding Content: Carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) flooding is a process whereby carbon dioxide is injected into an oil reservoir in order to increase output when extracting oil . When a reservoir 's pressure is depleted through primary and secondary production , carbon dioxide flooding can be an ideal tertiary recovery method . It is particularly effective in reservoirs deeper than 2,500 ft. , where will be in a supercritical state , with API oil gravity greater than 22 -- 25 ° and remaining oil saturation greater than 20 % . It should also be noted that carbon dioxide flooding is not affected by the lithology of the reservoir area , but simply by the reservoir porosity and permeability , so that it is viable in both sandstone and carbonate reservoirs . By injecting CO2 into the reservoir , the viscosity of any hydrocarbon will be reduced and hence will be easier to sweep to the production well . As an oil field matures and production rates decline , there is growing incentive to intervene and attempt to increase oil output utilizing tertiary recovery techniques ( also termed improved or enhanced oil recovery ) . Petroleum engineers assess available options for increasing well productivity , options that include chemical injection , thermal/steam injection , and CO2 injection . Based on data-gathering and computer simulations , the most optimal enhanced oil-recovery technique to maximize well-productivity is determined . To increase the rate of oil production , the pressure within the reservoir must be increased . In CO2 flooding , the first step is injection of water into the reservoir , which will cause the reservoir pressure to increase . Once the reservoir has sufficient pressure , the next step is to pump the CO2 down through the same injection wells . The CO2 gas is forced into the reservoir to come into contact with the oil . This creates a miscible zone that can be moved more easily to the production well . Normally the CO2 injection is alternated with water injection and the water acts to sweep the oil towards the production zone . CO2 flooding is the second most common tertiary recovery technique and is used in facilities around the world . In connection with greenhouse gas emissions and global warming , CO2 flooding sequesters underground and therefore offsets CO2 emissions elsewhere .","qid":"2726","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_flooding","rank":41,"score":103776},{"content":"Title: Kyoto Protocol Content: The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , based on the fact that ( a ) global warming exists and ( b ) human-made CO2 emissions have caused it . The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto , Japan , on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005 . There are currently 192 parties ( Canada withdrew effective December 2012 ) to the Protocol . The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to `` a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' ( Art. 2 ) . The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities : it puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . The Protocol 's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012 . A second commitment period was agreed on in 2012 , known as the Doha Amendment to the protocol , in which 37 countries have binding targets : Australia , the European Union ( and its 28 member states ) , Belarus , Iceland , Kazakhstan , Liechtenstein , Norway , Switzerland , and Ukraine . Belarus , Kazakhstan and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets . Japan , New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyoto 's first-round but have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period . Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada ( which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012 ) and the United States ( which has not ratified the Protocol ) . As of July 2016 , 66 states have accepted the Doha Amendment , while entry into force requires the acceptances of 144 states . Of the 37 countries with binding commitments , 7 have ratified . Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ends in 2020 . This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the Paris Agreement , which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto protocol .","qid":"2726","docid":"Kyoto_Protocol","rank":42,"score":103458},{"content":"Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .","qid":"2726","docid":"Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change","rank":43,"score":102664},{"content":"Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .","qid":"2726","docid":"Global_warming_potential","rank":44,"score":102128},{"content":"Title: Environmental issue Content: Environmental issues are harmful trouble effects of human activity on the biophysical environment . Environmental protection is a practice of protecting the natural environment on individual , organizational or governmental levels , for the benefit of both the environment and humans . Environmentalism , a social and environmental movement , addresses environmental issues through advocacy , education and activism . The carbon dioxide equivalent of greenhouse gases ( GHG ) in the atmosphere has already exceeded 400 parts per million ( NOAA ) ( with total `` long-term '' GHG exceeding 455 parts per million ) . ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Report ) This level is considered a tipping point . `` The amount of greenhouse gas in the atmosphere is already above the threshold that can potentially cause dangerous climate change . We are already at risk of many areas of pollution ... It 's not next year or next decade , it 's now . '' Report from the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs ( OCHA ) : Environment destruction caused by humans is a global problem , and this is a problem that is on going every day . By year 2050 , the global human population is expected to grow by 2 billion people , thereby reaching a level of 9.6 billion people ( Living Blue Planet 24 ) . The human effects on Earth can be seen in many different ways . A main one is the temperature rise , and according to the report '' Our Changing Climate '' , the global warming that has been going on for the past 50 years is primarily due to human activities ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) . Since 1895 , the U.S. average temperature has increased from 1.3 ° F to 1.9 ° F , with most of the increase taken place since around year 1970 ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) .","qid":"2726","docid":"Environmental_issue","rank":45,"score":102080},{"content":"Title: Lake Nyos disaster Content: The Lake Nyos disaster occurred on 21 August 1986 , when a limnic eruption at Lake Nyos , in northwestern Cameroon , produced a large cloud of carbon dioxide , which descended onto nearby villages , killing 1,746 people and 3,500 livestock . The eruption triggered the sudden release of about 100,000 -- 300,000 tons ( some sources state as much as 1.6 million tons ) of CO2 . This gas cloud rose at nearly 100 km/h and spilled over the northern lip of the lake . It then rushed down two valleys , branching off to the north , displacing all the air and suffocating people and livestock within 25 km of the lake . A degassing system has since been installed at the lake , with the aim of reducing the concentration of in deep waters and therefore the risk of further eruptions .","qid":"2726","docid":"Lake_Nyos_disaster","rank":46,"score":102047},{"content":"Title: Carbon respiration Content: Carbon respiration ( also called carbon emissions and carbon releases ) is used in combination with carbon fixation to gauge carbon flux ( as CO2 ) between atmospheric carbon and the global carbon cycle .","qid":"2726","docid":"Carbon_respiration","rank":47,"score":101840},{"content":"Title: Assigned amount units Content: An Assigned Amount Unit ( AAU ) is a tradable ` Kyoto unit ' or ` carbon credit ' representing an allowance to emit greenhouse gases comprising one metric tonne of carbon dioxide equivalents calculated using their Global Warming Potential . Assigned Amount Units are issued up to the level of initial `` assigned amount '' of an Annex 1 Party to the Kyoto Protocol . The `` assigned amounts '' are the Kyoto Protocol Annex B emission targets ( or `` quantified emission limitation and reduction objectives '' ) expressed as levels of allowed emissions over the 2008-2012 commitment period .","qid":"2726","docid":"Assigned_amount_units","rank":48,"score":101695},{"content":"Title: List of U.S. states by carbon dioxide emissions Content: This is a list of U.S. states by carbon dioxide emissions due to human activity . The data presented below from the US Environmental Protection Agency and the US Energy Information Administration corresponds to emissions in 2014 . Interactive bar charts ( showing state rankings for total and per-capita emissions ) and interactive maps ( for both total emissions and per capita emissions ) for the 2014 data are available on Tableau Public . __ TOC __","qid":"2726","docid":"List_of_U.S._states_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions","rank":49,"score":101652},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .","qid":"2726","docid":"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States","rank":50,"score":101399},{"content":"Title: Carbon emissions reporting Content: Human activities continue to impact Earth 's climate through the emission of greenhouse gases . One of the proposed ways to combat this climate change is through reporting by businesses on the impact of their activities . Large power stations and manufacturing plants are often required to report their emissions to appropriate government entities , for example to the European Union as part of the Emissions Trading System or to the US EPA as part of the Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program . In the United Kingdom , Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra ) has described climate change as the `` greatest environmental challenge facing the world today , '' and it is now a legal requirement for all quoted companies to report their annual greenhouse gas emissions .","qid":"2726","docid":"Carbon_emissions_reporting","rank":51,"score":101387},{"content":"Title: The Green Initiative Content: The Green Initiative has as its main objective the offsetting of Greenhouse gases emitted by human activities that can range from complex industrial production processes to simply driving a car , with reforestation projects in riparian areas that need to be recovered . The trees planted will absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and provide , as well as environmental benefits , such as water and air quality preservation , and biodiversity protection .","qid":"2726","docid":"The_Green_Initiative","rank":52,"score":101102},{"content":"Title: Keeling Curve Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that plots the ongoing change in concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere since the 1950s . It is based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii that began under the supervision of Charles David Keeling . Keeling 's measurements showed the first significant evidence of rapidly increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere . Many scientists credit Keeling 's graph with first bringing the world 's attention to the current increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Charles David Keeling , of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego , was the first person to make frequent regular measurements of the atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) concentration , taking readings at the South Pole and in Hawaii from 1958 onwards . Measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had been taken prior to the Mauna Loa measurements , but on an ad-hoc basis across a variety of locations . Guy Stewart Callendar had shown a steady increase in concentrations since the 19th century . Keeling had perfected the measurement techniques and observed `` strong diurnal behavior with steady values of about 310 ppm in the afternoon '' at three locations : Big Sur near Monterey , the rain forests of Olympic Peninsula , and high mountain forests in Arizona . By measuring the ratio of two isotopes of carbon , Keeling attributed the diurnal change to respiration from local plants and soils , with afternoon values representative of the `` free atmosphere '' . By 1960 , Keeling and his group had determined that the measurement records from California , Antarctica , and Hawaii were long enough to see not just the diurnal and seasonal variations , but also a year-on-year increase that roughly matched the amount of fossil fuels burned per year . In the article that made him famous , Keeling observed : `` at the South Pole the observed rate of increase is nearly that to be expected from the combustion of fossil fuel '' .","qid":"2726","docid":"Keeling_Curve","rank":53,"score":100855},{"content":"Title: Climate change in China Content: The position of the Chinese government on climate change is contentious . China has ratified the Kyoto Protocol , but as a non-Annex I country which is not required to limit greenhouse gas emissions under terms of the agreement . In particular since 2007 the Chinese government has n't changed its attitude towards climate change policy and has become one of the major drivers of low-carbon technology developments . In 2002 , on the basis of an analysis of fossil fuel consumption ( including especially the coal power plants ) and cement production data , that China surpassed the United States as the world 's largest emitter of carbon dioxide , putting out 7,000 million tonnes , in comparison with America 's 5,800 million . According to data from the US Energy Information Administration China was the top emitter by fossil fuels CO2 in 2009 China : 7,710 million tonnes ( mt ) ( 25.4 % ) ahead of US : 5,420 mt ( 17.8 % ) , India : 5.3 % , Russia : 5.2 % and Japan : 3.6 % . China was also the top emitter of all greenhouse gas emissions including building and deforestation in 2005 : China : 7,220 mt ( 16.4 % ) , US : 6,930 mt ( 15.7 % ) , 3 . Brazil 6.5 % , 4 . Indonesia : 4.6 % , 5 . Russia 4.6 % , 6 . India 4.2 % , 7 . Japan 3.1 % , 8 . Germany 2.3 % , 9 . Canada 1.8 % , and 10 . Mexico 1.6 % . In the cumulative emissions between 1850 and 2007 the top emitters were : 1 . US 28.8 % 2 . China : 9.0 % , 3 . Russia 8.0 % , 4 . Germany 6.9 % , 5 . UK 5.8 % , 6 . Japan 3.9 % , 7 . France 2.8 % , 8 . India 2.4 % , 9 . Canada 2.2 % and 10 . Ukraine 2.2 % . According to BBC News , in September 2014 , China surpassed the European Union 's per capita carbon emissions for the first time in history . China 's per capita carbon emissions now stand at 7.2 t/capita . China 's carbon emissions have increased rapidly since its economic boom in the early 2000s . Since then , their per capita carbon emissions have increased by more than 2.5 times .","qid":"2726","docid":"Climate_change_in_China","rank":54,"score":100339},{"content":"Title: Recycled fuel Content: Fuel made of residues as CO2 produced by using a primary fuel . For example , CO2 pollution in the atmosphere , produced by petrol burning or other sources , can be extracted to produce fuel through an artificial photosynthesis based in nanotechnology , which helps to mitigate pollution , climate change and energy issues .","qid":"2726","docid":"Recycled_fuel","rank":55,"score":100101},{"content":"Title: Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage Content: Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage ( BECCS ) is a future greenhouse gas mitigation technology which produces negative carbon dioxide emissions by combining bioenergy ( energy from biomass ) use with geologic carbon capture and storage . The concept of BECCS is drawn from the integration of trees and crops , which extract carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the atmosphere as they grow , the use of this biomass in processing industries or power plants , and the application of carbon capture and storage via CO2 injection into geological formations . There are other non-BECCS forms of carbon dioxide removal and storage that include technologies such as biochar , carbon dioxide air capture and biomass burial . According to a recent Biorecro report , there is 550 000 tonnes CO2/year in total BECCS capacity currently operating , divided between three different facilities ( as of January 2012 ) . In the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , BECCS was indicated as a key technology for reaching low carbon dioxide atmospheric concentration targets . The negative emissions that can be produced by BECCS has been estimated by the Royal Society to be equivalent to a 50 to 150 ppm decrease in global atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations and according to the International Energy Agency , the BLUE map climate change mitigation scenario calls for more than 2 gigatonnes of negative CO2 emissions per year with BECCS in 2050 . According to Stanford University , 10 gigatonnes is achievable by this date . The Imperial College London , the UK Met Office Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research , the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research , the Walker Institute for Climate System Research , and the Grantham Institute for Climate Change issued a joint report on carbon dioxide removal technologies as part of the AVOID : Avoiding dangerous climate change research program , stating that `` Overall , of the technologies studied in this report , BECCS has the greatest maturity and there are no major practical barriers to its introduction into today 's energy system . The presence of a primary product will support early deployment . '' According to the OECD , `` Achieving lower concentration targets ( 450 ppm ) depends significantly on the use of BECCS '' .","qid":"2726","docid":"Bio-energy_with_carbon_capture_and_storage","rank":56,"score":99712},{"content":"Title: Total Carbon Column Observing Network Content: The Total Carbon Column Observing Network ( TCCON ) is a global network of instruments that measure the amount of carbon dioxide , methane , carbon monoxide , nitrous oxide and other trace gases in the Earth 's atmosphere . The TCCON ( -LSB- ˈtiːkɒn -RSB- ) began in 2004 with the installation of the first instrument in Park Falls , Wisconsin , USA , and has since grown to 23 operational instruments worldwide , with 7 former sites . The TCCON is designed to investigate several things , including the flow ( or flux ) of carbon between the atmosphere , land , and ocean ( the so-called carbon budget or carbon cycle ) . This is achieved by measuring the atmospheric mass of carbon ( the airborne fraction ) . The TCCON measurements have improved the scientific community 's understanding of the carbon cycle , and urban greenhouse gas emissions . The TCCON supports several satellite instruments by providing an independent measurement to compare ( or validate ) the satellite measurements of the atmosphere over the TCCON site locations . The TCCON provides the primary measurement validation dataset for the Orbiting Carbon Observatory ( OCO-2 ) mission , and has been used to validate other space-based measurements of carbon dioxide .","qid":"2726","docid":"Total_Carbon_Column_Observing_Network","rank":57,"score":99424},{"content":"Title: Carbon Engineering Content: Carbon Engineering is a Calgary , Alberta-based company commercializing technology to capture carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) directly from the atmosphere . The company was founded in 2009 by David Keith , now a professor of public policy and applied physics at Harvard University . It is based on his research conducted at the University of Calgary . Carbon Engineering is funded by several government and sustainability-focused agencies as well as by private investors , including Microsoft founder Bill Gates and oil sands financier N. Murray Edwards .","qid":"2726","docid":"Carbon_Engineering","rank":58,"score":99053},{"content":"Title: Mars atmospheric entry Content: Mars atmospheric entry is the entry into the atmosphere of Mars . High velocity entry into Martian air creates a CO2-N2 plasma , as opposed to O2-N2 for Earth air . Mars entry is affected by the radiative effects of hot CO2 gas and Martian dust suspended in the air . Flight regimes for entry , descent , and landing systems include aerocapture , hypersonic , supersonic , and subsonic . Thermal protection systems and atmospheric friction have been used historically to reduce most of the kinetic energy that needs to be lost prior to landing , with parachutes and , sometimes , a final bit of retropropulsion used in the final landing . High-altitude high-velocity retropropulsion is being researched for future transport flights landing heavier cargos . For example , Mars Pathfinder entered in 1997 . About 30 minutes prior to entry , the cruise stage and entry capsule separated . When the capsule hit the atmosphere it de-accelerated from about 7.3 km/s to 0.4 km/s ( 16330 mph to 900 mph ) over three minutes . As it descended the parachute opened to slow it down further , and soon after the heat shield was released . During entry a signal was relayed back to Earth , including semaphore signals for important events .","qid":"2726","docid":"Mars_atmospheric_entry","rank":59,"score":98705},{"content":"Title: Wetland methane emissions Content: As one of the most significant natural sources of atmospheric methane , wetlands remain a major area of concern with respect to climate change . Wetlands are characterized by water-logged soils and distinctive communities of plant and animal species that have evolved and adapted to the constant presence of water . Due to this high level of water saturation as well as warm weather , wetlands are one of the most significant natural sources of atmospheric methane . Most methanogenesis , or methane production , occurs in oxygen-poor environments . Because the microbes that live in warm , moist environments consume oxygen more rapidly than it can diffuse in from the atmosphere , wetlands are the ideal anaerobic , or oxygen poor , environments for fermentation . Fermentation is a process used by certain kinds of microorganisms to break down essential nutrients . In a process called acetoclastic methanogenesis , microorganisms from the classification domain archaea produce methane by fermenting acetate and H2-CO2 into methane and carbon dioxide . H3C-COOH → CH4 + CO2 Depending on the wetland and type of archaea , hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis , another process that yields methane , can also occur . This process occurs as a result of archaea oxidizing hydrogen with carbon dioxide to yield methane and water . 4H2 + CO2 → CH4 + 2H2O","qid":"2726","docid":"Wetland_methane_emissions","rank":60,"score":98551},{"content":"Title: Project Vulcan Content: Project Vulcan is a NASA/DOE funded effort under the North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) to quantify North American fossil fuel carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) emissions at space/time scales much finer than has been achieved in the past . The initial purpose of the Vulcan Project was to aid in quantification of the North American carbon budget , to support inverse estimation of carbon sources and sinks , and to support the demands posed by higher resolution CO2 observations . The detail and scope of the Vulcan CO2 inventory has now made it a valuable tool for policymakers , demographers , social scientists and the public at large . Project Vulcan has achieved U.S. fossil fuel CO2 emissions at < 10 km spatial scales and an hourly time scale , based on datasets such as air quality emissions reporting , census data , highway statistics , energy statistics , and econometric data . Furthermore , Vulcan includes significant process-level detail , dividing the emissions into economic sectors and sub-sectors in addition to 23 fuel types . It has been produced for the year 2002 , and an annual product spanning 1980-2006 will be available by late-2009 . The first Vulcan inventory ( v1 .0 ) was released to the public in early April 2008 . Version 1.1 was released in February 2009 and Version 1.2 is due out in early August 2009 . In addition to the data release , establishment of the Vulcan website and a press release , a video of various aspects of atmospheric transport was released on Purdue University 's YouTube website and portions of the Vulcan inventory are available on Google Earth . As of 2015 , version 2.2 has been published on a site hosted by Arizona State University .","qid":"2726","docid":"Project_Vulcan","rank":61,"score":98478},{"content":"Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .","qid":"2726","docid":"Economics_of_global_warming","rank":62,"score":98341},{"content":"Title: Revelle factor Content: The Revelle factor ( buffer factor ) is the ratio of instantaneous change in carbon dioxide to the change in total dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) , and is a measure of the resistance to atmospheric CO2 being absorbed by the ocean surface layer . The buffer factor is used to examine the distribution of CO2 between the atmosphere and the ocean , and measures the amount of CO2 that can be dissolved in the mixed surface layer . It is named after the oceanographer Roger Revelle , who was one of the first scientists to study global warming . Revelle factor = / ( Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- ) where DIC is dissolved inorganic carbon . Δ -LSB- -RSB- / -LSB- -RSB- is the instantaneous change in p and Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- is the instantaneous change in DIC .","qid":"2726","docid":"Revelle_factor","rank":63,"score":98241},{"content":"Title: C. Kumar N. Patel Content: Chandra Kumar Naranbhai Patel ( born 2 July 1938 ) is an electrical engineer . He developed the carbon dioxide laser in 1963 ; it is now widely used in industry for cutting and welding , as a laser scalpel in surgery , and in laser skin resurfacing . Because the atmosphere is quite transparent to infrared light , CO2 lasers are also used for military rangefinding using LIDAR techniques . Patel was born in Baramati , India , and received a Bachelor of Engineering ( B.E. ) degree from the Government College of Engineering , the University of Pune , India and the M.S. and Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Stanford University in 1959 and 1961 , respectively . Patel joined Bell Laboratories in 1961 , and subsequently became Executive Director of the Research , Materials Science , Engineering and Academic Affairs Division at AT&T Bell Laboratories in Murray Hill , New Jersey , where he developed the carbon dioxide laser . Patel 's discovery , in 1963 , of the laser action on the vibrational-rotational transitions of carbon dioxide and his discovery , in 1964 , of efficient vibrational energy transfer between molecules , led to a series of experiments which demonstrated that the carbon dioxide laser was capable of very high continuous-wave and pulsed power output at very high conversion efficiencies . From 1993-1999 , Patel served as Vice Chancellor for Research at the University of California , Los Angeles , where he is also Professor of Physics and Adjunct Professor of Electrical Engineering . In 1996 , President Bill Clinton awarded Patel the National Medal of Science , '' -LSB- f -RSB- or his fundamental contributions to quantum electronics and invention of the carbon dioxide laser , which have had significant impact on industrial , scientific , medical , and defense applications . '' In addition to the carbon dioxide laser , he also developed the `` spin-flip '' infrared Raman laser . Patel currently holds 36 U.S. patents relating to lasers and laser applications . He is a member of the National Academy of Engineering and the National Academy of Science , and a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences , the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences , the American Physical Society , the IEEE , the Optical Society of America , the Laser Institute of America , and the American Society of Laser Medicine .","qid":"2726","docid":"C._Kumar_N._Patel","rank":64,"score":98154},{"content":"Title: Carbon sink Content: A carbon sink is a natural or artificial reservoir that accumulates and stores some carbon-containing chemical compound for an indefinite period . The process by which carbon sinks remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere is known as carbon sequestration . Public awareness of the significance of CO2 sinks has grown since passage of the Kyoto Protocol , which promotes their use as a form of carbon offset . There are also different strategies used to enhance this process .","qid":"2726","docid":"Carbon_sink","rank":65,"score":98139},{"content":"Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .","qid":"2726","docid":"Deforestation_and_climate_change","rank":66,"score":98071},{"content":"Title: Hypercapnia Content: Hypercapnia , also known as hypercarbia and CO2 retention , is a condition of abnormally elevated carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels in the blood . Carbon dioxide is a gaseous product of the body 's metabolism and is normally expelled through the lungs . Hypercapnia normally triggers a reflex which increases breathing and access to oxygen ( O2 ) , such as arousal and turning the head during sleep . A failure of this reflex can be fatal , for example as a contributory factor in sudden infant death syndrome . Hypercapnia is the opposite of hypocapnia , the state of having abnormally reduced levels of carbon dioxide in the blood . The word is from the Greek hyper = `` above '' or `` too much '' and kapnos = `` smoke '' .","qid":"2726","docid":"Hypercapnia","rank":67,"score":97968},{"content":"Title: Sustainable automotive air conditioning Content: Sustainable automotive air conditioning is the subject of a debate -- nicknamed the Cool War -- about the next-generation refrigerant in car air conditioning . The Alliance for CO2 Solutions supports the uptake of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) as a refrigerant in passenger cars , and the chemical industry is developing new chemical blends . The Alliance and its supporters -- scientists , NGOs and business leaders -- urge the car industry to replace high global warming chemical substances with the natural refrigerant carbon dioxide ( CO2 , R744 / R-744 ) in car cooling and heating . This , they argue , would lead to 10 % less car emissions , and knock out 1 % of total greenhouse gas emissions worldwide . If CO2 Technology is applied in other sectors , such as commercial and industrial refrigeration , heat pumps for water heating etc. , it may even save up to 3 % of the world 's greenhouse gases . Opponents of the Alliance claim that CO2 Technology is not cost-efficient and safe , hence seeking to postpone the global industry decision to be taken to develop new chemical blends instead .","qid":"2726","docid":"Sustainable_automotive_air_conditioning","rank":68,"score":97539},{"content":"Title: North American Carbon Program Content: The North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) is one of the major elements of the Strategic Plan for the U.S. Climate Change Science Program . The central objective of NACP is to measure and understand carbon stocks and sources and sinks of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , and carbon monoxide ( CO ) in North America and adjacent ocean regions . The specific program goals are as followed : Develop quantitative scientific knowledge , robust observations , and models to determine the emissions and uptake of CO2 , CH4 , and CO , changes in carbon stocks , and the factors regulating these processes for North America and adjacent ocean basins . Develop the scientific basis to implement full carbon accounting on regional and continental scales . This is the knowledge base needed to design monitoring programs for natural and managed CO2 sinks and emissions of CH4 . Support long-term quantitative measurements of fluxes , sources , and sinks of atmospheric CO2 and CH4 , and develop forecasts for future trends . The North American Carbon Program was designed to help with the process of providing data needed to model the synthesis activities .","qid":"2726","docid":"North_American_Carbon_Program","rank":69,"score":97485},{"content":"Title: Chinese national carbon trading scheme Content: The Chinese national carbon trading scheme is a cap and trade system for carbon dioxide emissions set to be implemented in July 2017 . This emission trading scheme ( ETS ) creates a carbon market where emitters can buy and sell emission credits . From this scheme , China can limit emissions , but allow economic freedom for emitters to reduce emissions or purchase emission allowances from other emitters . China is currently the largest emitter of greenhouse gases and many major Chinese cities have severe air pollution . With this plan , China will soon be the largest market in carbon trading . The scheme will limit emissions from six of China 's top carbon dioxide emitting industries , including coal-fired power plants . China was able to gain experience in drafting and implementation of an ETS plan from the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , where China was part of the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) . From this experience with carbon markets , and lengthy discussions with the next largest carbon market , the European Union ( EU ) , as well as analysis of small scale pilot markets in major Chinese cities and provinces , China 's national ETS will be the largest of its kind and will help China achieve its Intended Nationally Determined Contribution ( INDC ) from the Paris Agreement in 2016 .","qid":"2726","docid":"Chinese_national_carbon_trading_scheme","rank":70,"score":97297},{"content":"Title: Human impact on the nitrogen cycle Content: Human impact on the nitrogen cycle is diverse . Agricultural and industrial nitrogen ( N ) inputs to the environment currently exceed inputs from natural N fixation . As a consequence of anthropogenic inputs , the global nitrogen cycle ( Fig. 1 ) has been significantly altered over the past century . Global atmospheric nitrous oxide ( N2O ) mole fractions have increased from a pre-industrial value of ~ 270 nmol/mol to ~ 319 nmol/mol in 2005 . Human activities account for over one-third of N2O emissions , most of which are due to the agricultural sector . This article is intended to give a brief review of the history of anthropogenic N inputs , and reported impacts of nitrogen inputs on selected terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems .","qid":"2726","docid":"Human_impact_on_the_nitrogen_cycle","rank":71,"score":97294},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide sensor Content: A carbon dioxide sensor or CO2 sensor is an instrument for the measurement of carbon dioxide gas . The most common principles for CO2 sensors are infrared gas sensors ( NDIR ) and chemical gas sensors . Measuring carbon dioxide is important in monitoring indoor air quality , the function of the lungs in the form of a capnograph device , and many industrial processes .","qid":"2726","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_sensor","rank":72,"score":97283},{"content":"Title: Quest Carbon Capture and Storage Project Content: The Quest Carbon Capture and Storage Project captures and stores underground one million tonnes of CO2 emissions per year . The capture unit is located at the Scotford Upgrader in Alberta , Canada , where hydrogen is produced to upgrade bitumen from oil sands into synthetic crude oil .","qid":"2726","docid":"Quest_Carbon_Capture_and_Storage_Project","rank":73,"score":96881},{"content":"Title: Suess effect Content: The Suess effect is a change in the ratio of the atmospheric concentrations of heavy isotopes of carbon ( 13C and 14C ) by the admixture of large amounts of fossil-fuel derived CO2 , which is depleted in 13CO2 and contains no 14CO2 . It is named for the Austrian chemist Hans Suess , who noted the influence of this effect on the accuracy of radiocarbon dating . More recently , the Suess effect has been used in studies of climate change . The term originally referred only to dilution of atmospheric 14CO2 . The concept was later extended to dilution of 13CO2 and to other reservoirs of carbon such as the oceans and soils .","qid":"2726","docid":"Suess_effect","rank":74,"score":96859},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide laser Content: The carbon dioxide laser ( CO2 laser ) was one of the earliest gas lasers to be developed . It was invented by Kumar Patel of Bell Labs in 1964 , and is still one of the most useful . Carbon dioxide lasers are the highest-power continuous wave lasers that are currently available . They are also quite efficient : the ratio of output power to pump power can be as large as 20 % . The CO2 laser produces a beam of infrared light with the principal wavelength bands centering on 9.4 and 10.6 micrometers ( μm ) .","qid":"2726","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_laser","rank":75,"score":96613},{"content":"Title: Environmental impact of shipping Content: The environmental impact of shipping includes greenhouse gas emissions , acoustic , and oil pollution . The International Maritime Organization ( IMO ) estimates that Carbon dioxide emissions from shipping were equal to 2.2 % of the global human-made emissions in 2012 and expects them to rise by as much as 2 to 3 times by 2050 if no action is taken . The First Intersessional Meeting of the IMO Working Group on Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Ships took place in Oslo , Norway on 23 -- 27 June 2008 . It was tasked with developing the technical basis for the reduction mechanisms that may form part of a future IMO regime to control greenhouse gas emissions from international shipping , and a draft of the actual reduction mechanisms themselves , for further consideration by IMO 's Marine Environment Protection Committee ( MEPC ) .","qid":"2726","docid":"Environmental_impact_of_shipping","rank":76,"score":96405},{"content":"Title: Michael Raupach Content: Michael Robin Raupach ( 30 October 1950 -- 10 February 2015 ) was an Australian climate scientist . He is credited with developing the concept of a carbon budget , the amount of CO2 that is emitted and absorbed in the global ecosystem in the course of a year . When the in balance , CO2 emissions and absorption in carbon sinks are roughly the same , but when disturbed , possibly large changes in the ecosystem ensue . He was a founding co-chair of the Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) , a network of the world 's leading carbon cycle researchers . He was instrumental in publishing the Annual Carbon Budget , which draws on a large amount of scientific data to determine the level of imbalance and options for addressing it . He worked for the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation before becoming the director of the Australian National University 's Climate Change Institute in 2014 . He was a co-chair of the Global Carbon Project from 2000 to 2008 , and contributed to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Fourth Assessment Report in 2007 . He chaired the steering committee of the ` Australia 2050 ' project of the Australian Academy of Science ( AAS ) . In 2009 -- 2010 he chaired the Expert Working Group on Challenges at the Intersection of Carbon , Energy and Water , reporting to the Prime Minister 's Science , Engineering and Innovation Council and the Office of the Chief Scientist of Australia . His career included the publication of 150 scientific papers and 50 reports . His research developed in three stages , the first focused on very localized flow and transport of matter and energy through and above plant canopies . At the next stage , he worked on quantification of CO2 transport through and above plant canopies , though still on a small scale . In the 1990s , his focus began to shift to global ecosystems when he became a member of the scientific steering committee of the Biospheric Aspects of the Hydrological Cycle core project of the IGBP ( International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme ) . One of the most fundamental and important questions that the project addressed was : does the land-surface matter in climate and weather ? His research contributed to addressing that question , through his work on turbulent fluxes near the land surface , boundary-layer budgeting and quantifying the water balance at broader scales . He was a fellow of the Australian Academy of Science , the Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering , and the American Geophysical Union . Just before his death following a short illness , he co-chaired the working group of the Australian Academy of Science drafting the AAS booklet The Science of Climate Change : Questions and Answers .","qid":"2726","docid":"Michael_Raupach","rank":77,"score":96348},{"content":"Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .","qid":"2726","docid":"Atmospheric_methane","rank":78,"score":96211},{"content":"Title: Carbon cycle re-balancing Content: The carbon cycle is the process by which carbon is exchanged between the four reservoirs of carbon : the biosphere , the earth , the air and water . Exchanges take place in several ways , including respiration , transpiration , combustion , and decomposition . The carbon balance , or carbon budget , is the balance of exchange between the four reservoirs . Debate about 're - balancing the carbon cycle ' arises from a concern that use of fossil fuels , which has accelerated since the start of the industrial revolution , has caused carbon to accumulate in the atmosphere . Levels of CO2 in the atmosphere are estimated to have risen from 280 ppm to almost 400 ppm since 1800 and this is linked to global warming . It is therefore argued that the carbon cycle should be re-balanced by reducing the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere . ` Carbon cycle re-balancing ' is a useful name for a group of environmental policies listed below . The name gives a specific reason for adopting these policies . Related names , including pleas for sustainable development and participation in the green movement are politics-based rather than science-based . Carbon offset - for example by photosynthesis ( e.g. in new forests ) Carbon capture and storage - extraction of CO2 and placing it underground or underwater Carbon capture and transformation - extraction of CO2 and reacting it with hydrogen via renewable energy electrolysis to create methane as an energy store/carrier . Low to neutral cycle Sustainable energy - a shift from fossil fuels energy to wind power and solar power Nuclear power - as an alternative to fossil fuels Sustainable design - to reduce inputs and outputs of energy Sustainable transport - to reduce reliance on fossil fuels Burning domestic refuse to generate power can be promoted as a recycling , and therefore sustainable , policy . But from a carbon cycle re-balancing standpoint it is better to compost as much domestic refuse as possible .","qid":"2726","docid":"Carbon_cycle_re-balancing","rank":79,"score":96072},{"content":"Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .","qid":"2726","docid":"Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center","rank":80,"score":95995},{"content":"Title: Fuel factor Content: The fuel factor , fo , is the ratio of created CO2 to depleted oxygen in a combustion reaction , used to check the accuracy of an emission measurement system . It can be calculated using the equation fo = ( 20.9 - % O2 ) / % CO2 , Where % O2 is the percent O2 by volume , dry basis , % CO2 is the percent CO2 by volume , dry basis , and 20.9 is the percent O2 by volume in ambient air . The Fuel factor can be corrected for the amount of CO , by adding the percent CO on a dry basis to the CO2 , and subtracting half of the percent CO from the O2 .","qid":"2726","docid":"Fuel_factor","rank":81,"score":95825},{"content":"Title: Katsuko Saruhashi Content: was a geochemist who made some of the first measurements of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels in seawater and subsequently showed the evidence in seawater and the atmosphere of the dangers of radioactive fallout .","qid":"2726","docid":"Katsuko_Saruhashi","rank":82,"score":95736},{"content":"Title: Flexible Mechanisms Content: Flexible mechanisms , also sometimes known as Flexibility Mechanisms or Kyoto Mechanisms ) , refers to Emissions Trading , the Clean Development Mechanism and Joint Implementation . These are mechanisms defined under the Kyoto Protocol intended to lower the overall costs of achieving its emissions targets . These mechanisms enable Parties to achieve emission reductions or to remove carbon from the atmosphere cost-effectively in other countries . While the cost of limiting emissions varies considerably from region to region , the benefit for the atmosphere is in principle the same , wherever the action is taken . Much of the negotiations on the mechanisms has been concerned with ensuring their integrity . There was concern that the mechanisms do not confer a `` right to emit '' on Annex 1 Parties or lead to exchanges of fictitious credits which would undermine the Protocol 's environmental goals . The negotiators of the Protocol and the Marrakesh Accords therefore sought to design a system that fulfilled the cost-effectiveness promise of the mechanisms , while addressing concerns about environmental integrity and equity . To participate in the mechanisms , Annex 1 Parties must meet the following eligibility requirements : They must have ratified the Kyoto Protocol . They must have calculated their assigned amount , as referred to in Articles 3.7 and 3.8 and Annex B of the Protocol in terms of tonnes of CO2-equivalent emissions . They must have in place a national system for estimating emissions and removals of greenhouse gases within their territory . They must have in place a national registry to record and track the creation and movement of Emission Reduction Units , Certified Emission Reductions , Assigned amount units and Removal Units ( RMU ) s and must annually report such information to the secretariat . They must annually report information on emissions and removals to the secretariat .","qid":"2726","docid":"Flexible_Mechanisms","rank":83,"score":95690},{"content":"Title: Zero-carbon city Content: A zero-carbon city runs entirely on renewable energy ; it has no carbon footprint and will in this respect not cause harm to the planet . Most cities throughout the world produce energy by burning coal , oil and gas , unintentionally emitting carbon . Almost every activity humans do involves burning one of these fossil fuels . To become a zero carbon city , an established modern city must collectively reduce emissions of greenhouse gases to zero and all practices that emit greenhouse gases must cease . Also , renewable energy must supersede other non-renewable energy sources and become the sole source of energy , so a zero-carbon city is a renewable-energy-economy city . This transition which includes decarbonising electricity ( increasing the importance of the sources of renewable electricity ) and zero-emission transport , is undertaken as a response to climate change . Zero-carbon cities maintain optimal living conditions while eliminating environmental impact . Instead of using established cities , many developers are starting from scratch in order to create a zero-carbon city . This way they can make sure every aspect of a city contributes to it being carbon free .","qid":"2726","docid":"Zero-carbon_city","rank":84,"score":95669},{"content":"Title: Black carbon Content: Chemically , black carbon ( BC ) is a component of fine particulate matter ( PM ≤ 2.5 µm in aerodynamic diameter ) . Black carbon consists of pure carbon in several linked forms . It is formed through the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels , biofuel , and biomass , and is emitted in both anthropogenic and naturally occurring soot . Black carbon causes human morbidity and premature mortality . In climatology , black carbon is a climate forcing agent . Black carbon warms the Earth by absorbing sunlight and heating the atmosphere and by reducing albedo when deposited on snow and ice ( direct effects ) and indirectly by interaction with clouds , with the total forcing of 1.1 W/m2 . Black carbon stays in the atmosphere for only several days to weeks , whereas carbon dioxide has an atmospheric lifetime of more than 100 years . The term black carbon is also used in soil sciences and geology , referring either to deposited atmospheric black carbon or to directly incorporated black carbon from vegetation fires . Especially in the tropics , black carbon in soils significantly contributes to fertility as it is able to absorb important plant nutrients .","qid":"2726","docid":"Black_carbon","rank":85,"score":94892},{"content":"Title: CO2 is Green Content: CO2 is Green is a non-profit organization supporting public policy on environmental issues . A main focus of the organization are federal proposals that may `` interfere with natures dependence on carbon dioxide . '' CO2 is Green does not view carbon dioxide as a pollutant and advocates for federal law and regulations to support this thinking .","qid":"2726","docid":"CO2_is_Green","rank":86,"score":94859},{"content":"Title: Extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal Content: Extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal ( ECCO2R ) is the removal of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the bloodstream in people who have elevated levels of carbon dioxide as a result of respiratory failure . The use of extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal is currently considered experimental , but it has been studied in a number of situations , specifically severe exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and in adult respiratory distress syndrome where conventional mechanical ventilation would cause excessive lung damage . It requires the insertion of a tube similar to a dialysis catheter into a large vein . Blood is pumped through a machine where the carbon dioxide is filtered out .","qid":"2726","docid":"Extracorporeal_carbon_dioxide_removal","rank":87,"score":94254},{"content":"Title: Soil respiration Content: Soil respiration refers to the production of carbon dioxide when soil organisms respire . This includes respiration of plant roots , the rhizosphere , microbes and fauna . Soil respiration is a key ecosystem process that releases carbon from the soil in the form of CO2 . CO2 is acquired from the atmosphere and converted into organic compounds in the process of photosynthesis . Plants use these organic compounds to build structural components or respire them to release energy . When plant respiration occurs below-ground in the roots , it adds to soil respiration . Over time , plant structural components are consumed by heterotrophs . This heterotrophic consumption releases CO2 and when this CO2 is released by below-ground organisms , it is considered soil respiration . The amount of soil respiration that occurs in an ecosystem is controlled by several factors . The temperature , moisture , nutrient content and level of oxygen in the soil can produce extremely disparate rates of respiration . These rates of respiration can be measured in a variety of methods . Other methods can be used to separate the source components , in this case the type of photosynthetic pathway ( C3/C4 ) , of the respired plant structures . Soil respiration rates can be largely affected by human activity . This is because humans have the ability to and have been changing the various controlling factors of soil respiration for numerous years . Global climate change is composed of numerous changing factors including rising atmospheric CO2 , increasing temperature and shifting precipitation patterns . All of these factors can affect the rate of global soil respiration . Increased nitrogen fertilization by humans also has the potential to effect rates over the entire Earth . Soil respiration and its rate across ecosystems is extremely important to understand . This is because soil respiration plays a large role in global carbon cycling as well as other nutrient cycles . The respiration of plant structures releases not only CO2 but also other nutrients in those structures , such as nitrogen . Soil respiration is also associated with positive feedbacks with global climate change . Positive feedbacks are when a change in a system produces response in the same direction of the change . Therefore , soil respiration rates can be effected by climate change and then respond by enhancing climate change .","qid":"2726","docid":"Soil_respiration","rank":88,"score":94098},{"content":"Title: Photoelectrochemical reduction of CO2 Content: Photoelectrochemical reduction of CO2 is a chemical process whereby carbon dioxide is reduced to carbon monoxide or hydrocarbons by the energy of incident light . This process needs to be catalyzed either homogeneously or heterogeneously in order to proceed , and current research is aimed at developing these catalysts , most of which are semiconducting materials . Semiconducting catalysts provide favourable electron transfer kinetics . Motivation for research in this area is strong due to the current attention to atmospheric carbon dioxide as the reduction of carbon dioxide would be one route for removal and sequestration . Furthermore , the reduced species may prove to be a valuable feedstock for other processes . If the incident light utilized is solar in nature then this process also potentially represents energy routes which combine renewable energy with CO2 reduction .","qid":"2726","docid":"Photoelectrochemical_reduction_of_CO2","rank":89,"score":93711},{"content":"Title: Carbon emission label Content: A carbon emission label or carbon label describes the carbon dioxide emissions created as a by-product of manufacturing , transporting , or disposing of a consumer product . This information is important to consumers wishing to minimize their ecological footprint and contribution to global warming made by their purchases .","qid":"2726","docid":"Carbon_emission_label","rank":90,"score":93532},{"content":"Title: Environmental impact of transport Content: The environmental impact of transport is significant because it is a major user of energy , and burns most of the world 's petroleum . This creates air pollution , including nitrous oxides and particulates , and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon dioxide , for sector . By subsector , road transport is the largest contributor to global warming . Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced the individual vehicle 's emission ; however , this has been offset by an increase in the number of vehicles , and more use of each vehicle . Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road vehicles considerably have been studied . Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes , causing environmentalists to call for a transition from air and road to rail and human-powered transport , and increase transport electrification and energy efficiency . The transportation sector is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) in the United States . An estimated 30 percent of national GHGs are directly attributable to transportation -- and in some regions , the proportion is even higher . Transportation methods are the greatest contributing source of GHGs in the U.S. , accounting for 47 percent of the net increase in total U.S. emissions since 1990 . Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urban sprawl , which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands . By reducing transportation emissions globally , it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects on Earth 's air quality , acid rain , smog and climate change . The health impact of transport emissions is also of concern . A recent survey of the studies on the effect of traffic emissions on pregnancy outcomes has linked exposure to emissions to adverse effects on gestational duration and possibly also intrauterine growth . As listed above direct impacts such as noise and carbon monoxide emissions create direct and harmful effects on the environment , along with indirect impacts . The indirect impacts are often of higher consequence which leads to the misconception that it 's the opposite since it is frequently understood that initial effects cause the most damage . For example , particulates which are the outcome of incomplete combustion done by an internal combustion engine , are not linked with respiratory and cardiovascular problems since they contribute to other factors not only to that specific condition . Even though the environmental impacts are usually listed individually there are also cumulative impacts . The synergetic consequences of transport activities . They take into account of the varied effects of direct and indirect impacts on an ecosystem . Climate change is the sum total impact of several natural and human-made factors . 15 % of global CO2 emissions are attributed to the transport sector .","qid":"2726","docid":"Environmental_impact_of_transport","rank":91,"score":93445},{"content":"Title: Pulmonary gas pressures Content: The factors that determine the values for alveolar pO2 and pCO2 are : The pressure of outside air The partial pressures of inspired oxygen and carbon dioxide The rates of total body oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide production The rates of alveolar ventilation and perfusion Following is a list of average partial pressures ( in torr ) for a human at rest :","qid":"2726","docid":"Pulmonary_gas_pressures","rank":92,"score":93386},{"content":"Title: Clean agent FS 49 C2 Content: Clean agent FS 49 C2 is an environmentally engineered , human safe , fast extinguishing Clean Agent fire extinguishing gas for gaseous fire suppression installed in a suited fire suppression system . The Clean agent FS 49 C2 is an extinguishing gas mixture that suppresses fire while maintaining breathable concentrations of oxygen in the air . This makes it possible to extinguish a fire with less danger to people in the room at extinguishing concentrations in contrast to pure Carbon Dioxide ( CO2 ) based fire suppression system which is deadly to humans when released . In the beginning the gas was called Halotron II B/FS49C2 but later only the name FS 49 C2 is used . It is a gaseous solution of 60-80 % tetrafluoroethane ( R-134a ) , 10-30 % pentafluoroethane ( R-125 ) and 10-30 % carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . Former fire chief Einar Gjessing made an article about the product to inform firemen how this gas works in case they need to enter a fire site with FS 49 C2 .","qid":"2726","docid":"Clean_agent_FS_49_C2","rank":93,"score":93265},{"content":"Title: Carbon sequestration Content: Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Carbon sequestration involves long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to mitigate or defer global warming . It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases , which are released by burning fossil fuels . Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological , chemical , and physical processes . Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects , including large-scale , artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced using subsurface saline aquifers , reservoirs , ocean water , aging oil fields , or other carbon sinks .","qid":"2726","docid":"Carbon_sequestration","rank":94,"score":93190},{"content":"Title: Cool Earth 50 Content: Cool Earth 50 ( also known as Cool Earth ) is a plan developed by Japan to reduce global CO2 emissions 50 % by 2050 , which was discussed at the 34th G8 summit . Cool Earth 50 is planned to be a framework that would continue towards the goals set forth in the Kyoto Protocols . This plan includes three proposals : a long-term strategy , a mid-term strategy and launching a national campaign for achieving the Kyoto Protocol Target . The plan was first proposed on May 24 , 2007 at an international conference called Asian Future and was initiated by Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe . The program 's goal is to reduce current global green house emissions by 50 % by the year 2050 the . The goal of reduction was aimed particular towards the largest green house emitting countries The United States , China , Japan , and India . Also , for the major green house emitters to create a frame work for reduction . Cool Earth aims at reducing green house emissions by improve technology in energy fields . A large goal of Cool Earth is to promote economic prosperity through green technology and to encourage political stability domestically and internationally .","qid":"2726","docid":"Cool_Earth_50","rank":95,"score":93007},{"content":"Title: Carbonic anhydrase II Content: Carbonic anhydrase II ( gene name CA2 ) , is one of fourteen forms of human α carbonic anhydrases . Carbonic anhydrase catalyzes reversible hydration of carbon dioxide . Defects in this enzyme are associated with osteopetrosis and renal tubular acidosis . Renal carbonic anhydrase allows the reabsorption of bicarbonate ions in the proximal tubule .","qid":"2726","docid":"Carbonic_anhydrase_II","rank":96,"score":93002},{"content":"Title: Politics of global warming Content: The complex politics of global warming results from numerous cofactors arising from the global economy 's interdependence on carbon dioxide emitting hydrocarbon energy sources and because carbon dioxide is directly implicated in global warming -- making global warming a non-traditional environmental challenge .","qid":"2726","docid":"Politics_of_global_warming","rank":97,"score":92947},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Wyoming Content: On a per-person basis , Wyoming emits more carbon dioxide than any other state or any other country : 276000 lb of it per capita a year , because of burning coal , which provides nearly all of the state 's electrical power . Over the last century , the average temperature in Laramie , Wyoming , has increased 1.5 ° F ( 0.8 ° C ) , and precipitation has decreased by up to 20 % in many parts of the state . Over the next century , climate in Wyoming may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Wyoming could increase by 4 ° F ( 2 ° C ) in spring and fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) , 5 ° F ( 2.5 ° C ) in summer ( with a range of 2-8 ° F ) , and 6 ° F ( 3 ° C ) in winter ( with a range of 3-11 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease slightly in summer ( with a range of 0-10 % ) , increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and increase by 30 % in winter ( with a range of 10-50 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .","qid":"2726","docid":"Climate_change_in_Wyoming","rank":98,"score":92726},{"content":"Title: Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative Content: ` The Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI , pronounced `` Reggie '' ) is the first mandatory market based program in the United States to reduce greenhouse gas emissions . RGGI is a cooperative effort among the states of Connecticut , Delaware , Maine , Maryland , Massachusetts , New Hampshire , New York , Rhode Island , and Vermont to cap and reduce CO2 emissions from the power sector . RGGI compliance obligations apply to fossil-fueled power plants 25MW and larger within the nine-state region . RGGI establishes a regional cap on the amount of CO2 pollution that power plants can emit by issuing a limited number of tradable CO2 allowances . Each allowance represents an authorization for a regulated power plant to emit one short ton of CO2 . Individual CO2 budget trading programs in each RGGI state together create a regional market for CO2 allowances . The RGGI states distribute over 90 percent of allowances through quarterly auctions . These allowance auctions generate proceeds , which participating states are able to invest in strategic energy and consumer benefit programs . Programs funded through RGGI have included energy efficiency , clean and renewable energy , greenhouse gas abatement , and direct bill assistance . An initial milestone program 's development occurred in 2005 , when seven states signed a Memorandum of Understanding ( MOU ) announcing an agreement to implement RGGI . The RGGI states then established individual CO2 budget trading programs , based on the RGGI Model Rule . The first pre-compliance RGGI auction took place in September 2008 , and the program became effective on January 1 , 2009 . The RGGI program is currently in its third three-year compliance period , which began January 1 , 2015 .","qid":"2726","docid":"Regional_Greenhouse_Gas_Initiative","rank":99,"score":92652},{"content":"Title: Carbon retirement Content: Carbon retirement involves retiring allowances from emission trading schemes as a method for offsetting carbon emissions . Under schemes such as the European Union Emission Trading Scheme , EU Emission Allowances ( EUAs ) represent the right to release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere , and are issued to all the largest polluters . Buying these allowances and permanently removing them forces industrial companies to reduce their emissions . Over time , the scheme will offer fewer allowances , making it much harder for industrial companies to sustain high emission levels without incurring financial penalties . Unlike traditional offsetting projects , retirement is straightforward and transparent . There are no complex projects , methodologies , brokers or intermediaries and the issue of additionality is overcome . Category : Carbon finance","qid":"2726","docid":"Carbon_retirement","rank":100,"score":92588}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmospheric_carbon_cycle\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 161285\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 145545\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 136850\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: German response to Kyoto Protocol Content: Germany is Europe 's largest and the world 's 6th greatest single emitter of CO2 . In July 2007 , Germany had the largest European population , with 82.4 million people . Germany imports most of its materials and energy sources , and in 2004 imported 2.135 million barrels of oil and 85.02 billion m ³ ( 2003 ) of natural gas a day . In 2004 , Germany emitted 886 million metric tonnes of CO2 . In 2004 , there were approximately 45 million registered cars in Germany . Between March 1998 and March 1999 , 84 countries including Germany signed the Kyoto Protocol . In March 2002 , the Bundestag unanimously ratified Kyoto . In May 2002 , the European Union submitted the articles of ratification for all 15 of its then member states . As an Annex II nation , Germany 's commitment to the UNFCCC with respect to Kyoto was to reduce emissions as well as to provide an economic crutch to developing nations via Clean Development Mechanisms . In November 2006 , Germany 's planned annual quota was 482 million metric tonnes of CO2 . German Greenhouse Gas Emissions reduced by 17.2 % from 1990 to 2004 , according to UNFCCC . Germany actively promotes government carbon funds and supports multilateral carbon funds that are intent on purchasing Carbon Credits from non-Annex I parties . Government organizations work closely with major utility , energy , oil and gas , and chemicals conglomerates to try to acquire as many Greenhouse Gas Certificates as cheaply as possible . Since signing and ratifying the protocol , Germany has committed to reducing its emissions to 21 % below 1990 levels between 2008 and 2012 . In November 2008 , a study found that Germany had already reduced its greenhouse gas emissions by 22.4 % , which means it already reached its Kyoto Emissions Commitments .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"German_response_to_Kyoto_Protocol\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 132681\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Low-carbon_emission\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 131785\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Oceanic carbon cycle Content: The oceans contain around 36,000 gigatons of carbon , mostly in the form of bicarbonate ion ( over 90 % , with most of the remainder being carbonate ) . At the surface of the oceans towards the poles , seawater becomes cooler and more carbonic acid is formed as CO2 becomes more soluble . This is coupled to the ocean 's thermohaline circulation which transports dense surface water into the ocean 's interior ( see the entry on the solubility pump ) . Although the deep ocean contains much more dissolved inorganic carbon than the surface ocean , the concentration is only 15 % higher in the deep ocean as compared to the surface ocean due to the higher volume of the deep ocean . In upper ocean areas of high biological productivity , organisms convert reduced carbon to tissues , or carbonates to hard body parts such as shells and tests . These are , respectively , oxidized ( soft-tissue pump ) and redissolved ( carbonate pump ) at lower average levels of the ocean than those at which they formed , resulting in a downward flow of carbon ( see entry on the biological pump ) . The flux or absorption of carbon dioxide into the world 's oceans is influenced by the presence of widespread viruses within ocean water , that infect many species of bacteria . The resulting bacterial deaths spawn a sequence of events that lead to greatly enlarged respiration of carbon dioxide , enhancing the role of the oceans as a carbon sink . The balance of dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) : dissolved organic carbon ( DOC ) : particle organic carbon is about 2000:38:1 . The CaCO3 counter pump increases the partial pressure of CO2 in the ocean , thus leading to higher outgasing of carbon dioxide . Higher ocean temperatures lead to stronger layering , thus less mixing and less capacity for thermohaline circulation to bring carbon into lower ocean layers . The weathering of silicate rock ( see carbonate-silicate cycle ) . Carbonic acid reacts with weathered rock to produce bicarbonate ions . The bicarbonate ions produced are carried to the ocean , where they are used to make marine carbonates . Unlike dissolved CO2 in equilibrium or tissues , which decay , weathering does not move the carbon into a reservoir from which it can readily return to the atmosphere . Much remains to be learned about the cycling of carbon in the deep ocean . For example , a recent discovery is that larvacean mucus houses ( commonly known as `` sinkers '' ) are created in such large numbers that they can deliver as much carbon to the deep ocean as has been previously detected by sediment traps . Because of their size and composition , these houses are rarely collected in such traps , so most biogeochemical analyses have erroneously ignored them . The amount of dissolved inorganic carbon in the ocean is significantly higher in the deep layer ( below 300 m depth ) . This is caused by the solubility pump and the biological pump .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Oceanic_carbon_cycle\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 129518\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon price Content: Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' . Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain . The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions . The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_price\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 127461\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: ACEA agreement Content: The ACEA agreement refers to a voluntary agreement between the European Automobile Manufacturers Association ( ACEA ) and the European Commission to limit the amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) emitted by passenger cars sold in Europe . With 18 million cars sold each year , Europe is the last major car market in the world . Signed in 1998 , the agreement sought to achieve an average of 140 g/km of CO2 by 2008 for new passenger vehicles sold by the association 's cars in Europe . This target represents a 25 % reduction from the 1995 level of 186 g/km and is equivalent to a fuel economy of 5.8 L/100 km or 5.25 L/100 km for petrol and diesel engines respectively . However , the average for the whole car market for 2008 was 153.7 g/km , so the target has not been achieved . Besides the agreement with ACEA , the European Commission also closed agreements with the Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association ( JAMA ) and Korea Automobile Manufacturers Association ( KAMA ) . However , for the latter two the target date is 2009 instead of 2008 and as ACEA accounts for 86.4 % of car sales in Europe , the impact of the latter two is much smaller . The ultimate EU target to which these agreements are to contribute , is to reach an average CO2 emission ( as measured according to Commission Directive 93/116/EC ) of 130 g/km for all new passenger cars by 2015 . The European Commission announced in late 2006 that it is working on a proposal for legally binding measures and limits . In February 2007 , the Commission acknowledged the failure of the voluntary agreement . Following this , a proposal of regulation was introduced by the Commission on 19 December 2007 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"ACEA_agreement\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 123792\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmosphere of Mars Content: The atmosphere of Mars is the layer of gases surrounding Mars . It is composed mostly of carbon dioxide . The atmospheric pressure on the Martian surface averages 600 Pa , about 0.6 % of Earth 's mean sea level pressure of 101.3 kPa . It ranges from a low of 30 Pa on Olympus Mons 's peak to over 1155 Pa in the depths of Hellas Planitia . This pressure is well below the Armstrong limit for the unprotected human body . Mars 's atmospheric mass of 25 teratonnes compares to Earth 's 5148 teratonnes with a scale height of about 11 km versus Earth 's 7 km . The Martian atmosphere consists of approximately 96 % carbon dioxide , 1.9 % argon , 1.9 % nitrogen , and traces of free oxygen , carbon monoxide , water and methane , among other gases , for a mean molar mass of 43.34 g/mol . There has been renewed interest in its composition since the detection of traces of methane in 2003 that may indicate life but may also be produced by a geochemical process , volcanic or hydrothermal activity . The atmosphere is quite dusty , giving the Martian sky a light brown or orange-red color when seen from the surface ; data from the Mars Exploration Rovers indicate suspended particles of roughly 1.5 micrometres in diameter . On 16 December 2014 , NASA reported detecting an unusual increase , then decrease , in the amounts of methane in the atmosphere of the planet Mars . Organic chemicals have been detected in powder drilled from a rock by the Curiosity rover . Based on deuterium to hydrogen ratio studies , much of the water at Gale Crater on Mars was found to have been lost during ancient times , before the lakebed in the crater was formed ; afterwards , large amounts of water continued to be lost . On 18 March 2015 , NASA reported the detection of an aurora that is not fully understood and an unexplained dust cloud in the atmosphere of Mars . On 4 April 2015 , NASA reported studies , based on measurements by the Sample Analysis at Mars ( SAM ) instrument on the Curiosity rover , of the Martian atmosphere using xenon and argon isotopes . Results provided support for a `` vigorous '' loss of atmosphere early in the history of Mars and were consistent with an atmospheric signature found in bits of atmosphere captured in some Martian meteorites found on Earth . This was further supported by results from the MAVEN orbiter circling Mars , that the solar wind is responsible for stripping away the atmosphere of Mars over the years .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmosphere_of_Mars\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 123342\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon monoxide Content: Carbon monoxide ( CO ) is a colorless , odorless , and tasteless gas that is slightly less dense than air . It is toxic to hemoglobic animals ( both invertebrate and vertebrate , including humans ) when encountered in concentrations above about 35 ppm , although it is also produced in normal animal metabolism in low quantities , and is thought to have some normal biological functions . In the atmosphere , it is spatially variable and short lived , having a role in the formation of ground-level ozone . Carbon monoxide consists of one carbon atom and one oxygen atom , connected by a triple bond that consists of two covalent bonds as well as one dative covalent bond . It is the simplest oxocarbon and is isoelectronic with the cyanide anion , the nitrosonium cation and molecular nitrogen . In coordination complexes the carbon monoxide ligand is called carbonyl .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_monoxide\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 122587\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions Content: -RSB- This is a list of sovereign states and territories by carbon dioxide emissions due to certain forms of human activity , based on the EDGAR database created by European Commission and Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency released in 2015 . The following table lists the 2015 annual emissions estimates ( in thousands of tonnes ) along with a list of emissions per capita ( in tonnes of per year ) from same source . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use , land-use change and forestry . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The top 10 largest emitter countries account for 67.6 % of the world total . Other powerful , more potent greenhouse gases , including methane , are not included in this data .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 121500\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Andrew Himes Content: Andrew Himes ( born 1950 ) is director of network orchestration for Carbon Trifecta International , an initiative to capture gigatons of CO2 before ( and after ) it enters the atmosphere , using new technology designed to turn carbon-based businesses into allies by processing the CO2 into valuable graphene , and then accelerating market demand for graphene via 3D printing . Himes was the founding executive director of the Charter for Compassion , launched in 2008 by TED.com and Karen Armstrong , with the mission of supporting the emergence of a global compassion movement . He is the author of The Sword of the Lord : The Roots of Fundamentalism in an American Family . Himes ' grandfather was John R. Rice , dean of American fundamentalists for decades until his death in 1980 , and mentor to many younger Baptist preachers including Billy Graham and Jerry Falwell , as well as founding editor of The Sword of the Lord newspaper . Himes ' great-grandfather , Will Rice , was a preacher , a Texas State senator , and a leading member of the Ku Klux Klan in Texas during the 1920s . In 1989 , Himes was founding editor of MacTech , a journal of Macintosh software development . In 1992 , he was founding editor of the Microsoft Developer Network , and then led the first web development project in the history of the company , a project dubbed the MSDN OffRamp , aimed at making articles , resources , and technical information available on the Internet to an audience of software developers . Beginning in 1994 Himes managed Microsoft 's platform web team producing the sites for all of Microsoft 's operating systems , browsers , development tools , and technologies . After leaving Microsoft , he founded Project Alchemy , a non-profit company providing technology assistance , training , consulting , database and web solutions to hundreds of grassroots organizations working for social justice in the Pacific Northwest . Himes was co-founder in 2003 of the international movement , Poets Against the War , and produced the 2005 documentary Voices in Wartime an exploration of the trauma of war through the lens of poetry . In 2004 , Himes founded Voices Education Project , a web site dedicated to teaching peace and compassion , now the education program of the Charter for Compassion . In 2008 , Himes was a member of the organizing committee for the Seeds of Compassion event in Seattle , WA .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Andrew_Himes\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 121245\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kaya identity Content: The Kaya identity is an identity stating that the total emission level of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide can be expressed as the product of four factors : human population , GDP per capita , energy intensity ( per unit of GDP ) , and carbon intensity ( emissions per unit of energy consumed ) . It is a concrete form of the more general I = PAT equation relating factors that determine the level of human impact on climate . The Kaya identity is both simple and tricky , as it can be reduced to only two terms , but it is developed so that the carbon emission calculation becomes easy , as per the available data , or generally in which format the data is available .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Kaya_identity\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 120944\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"350.org\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 120393\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Respiratory exchange ratio Content: The respiratory exchange ratio ( RER ) is the ratio between the amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) produced in metabolism and oxygen ( O2 ) used . Humans typically inhale more molecules of oxygen than they exhale of carbon dioxide because air contains much more oxygen by volume . The ratio is determined by comparing exhaled gases to room air . Measuring this ratio can be used for estimating the respiratory quotient ( RQ ) , an indicator of which fuel ( carbohydrate or fat ) is being metabolized to supply the body with energy . This estimation is only valid if metabolism is in a steady state . RER is about 0.8 at rest with a modern diet . This value however , can exceed 1 during intense exercise , as CO2 production by the working muscles becomes greater and more of the inhaled O2 gets used rather than being expelled . During moderate or higher intensity aerobic exercise and anaerobic exercise , using RER for estimating RQ loses accuracy because of factors including bicarbonate buffering of hydrogen ions , which affects the CO2 levels being expelled by the respiratory system . Calculation of RER is commonly done in conjunction with exercise tests such as the VO2 Max Test and can be used as an indicator that the participants are nearing exhaustion and the limits of their cardio-respiratory system . An RER greater than or equal to 1.15 is often used as a secondary endpoint criterion of a VO2 Max Test . An RER of 0.70 indicates that fat is the predominant fuel source , RER of 0.85 suggests a mix of fat and carbohydrates , and a value of 1.00 or above is indicative of carbohydrate being the predominant fuel source . Oxidation of a molecule of Carbohydrate 6 O2 + C6H12O6 = > 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + 38 ATP RER = VCO2/VO2 = 6 CO2/6 O2 = 1.0 Oxidation of a molecule of Fatty Acid 23 O2 + C16H32O2 = > 16 CO2 + 16 H2O + 129 ATP RER = VCO2/VO2 = 16 CO2/23 O2 = 0.7\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Respiratory_exchange_ratio\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 119285\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"CO2_fertilization_effect\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 118633\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Airborne fraction Content: The airborne fraction is a scaling factor defined as the ratio of the annual increase in atmospheric to the emissions from anthropogenic sources . It represents the proportion of human emitted that remains in the atmosphere . The fraction averages about 45 % , meaning that approximately half the human-emitted is absorbed by ocean and land surfaces . There is some evidence for a recent increase in airborne fraction , which would imply a faster increase in atmospheric for a given rate of human fossil-fuel burning . However , other sources suggest that the `` fraction of carbon dioxide has not increased either during the past 150 years or during the most recent five decades '' . Changes in carbon sinks can affect the airborne fraction .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Airborne_fraction\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 118624\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_rift\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 117324\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon profiling Content: Carbon profiling is a mathematical process that calculates how much carbon dioxide is put into the atmosphere per m2 of space in a building over one year . The analysis is in two parts which are then added together to produce an overall figure which is termed the ` Carbon Profile ' : operational carbon emissions embodied carbon emissions . Embodied carbon emissions relate to the amount of carbon dioxide emitted into the atmosphere from creating and maintaining the materials that form the building e.g. the carbon dioxide released from the baking of bricks or smelting or iron . In the Carbon Profiling Model these emissions are measured as Embodied Carbon Efficiency ( ECE ) , measured as kg of CO2/m2/year . Occupational Carbon Emissions relate to the amount of Carbon Dioxide emitted into the atmosphere from the direct use of energy to run the building e.g. the heating or electricity used by the building over the year . In the Carbon Profiling Model these emissions are measured in BER 's ( Building Emission Rate ) in kg of / m2/year . The BER is a United Kingdom government accepted unit of measurement that comes from an approved calculation process called sBEM ( Simplified Building Emission Model ) The purpose of Carbon Profiling is to provide a method of analyzing and comparing both operational and embodied carbon emissions at the same time . With this information it is then possible to allocate a projects resources in such a way to minimize the total amount of Carbon Dioxide emitted into the atmosphere through the use of a given piece of space . A secondary benefit is that having quantified the Carbon Profiling of different buildings it is then possible to make comparisons and rank buildings in term of their performance . This allows investors and occupiers to identify which building are good and bad carbon investments . Simon Sturgis and Gareth Roberts of Sturgis Associates in the United Kingdom originally developed ` Carbon Profiling ' in December 2007 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_profiling\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 116185\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Terrestrial biological carbon cycle Content: Carbon is an essential part of life on Earth . About half the dry weight of most living organisms is carbon . It plays an important role in the structure , biochemistry , and nutrition of all living cells . Living biomass holds between 600 and 1,000 gigatons of carbon , most of which is wood , while some 1,200 gigatons of carbon are stored in the terrestrial biosphere as dead biomass . Carbon is cycled through the terrestrial biosphere with varying speeds , depending on what form it is stored in and under which circumstances . It is exchanged most quickly with the atmosphere , although small amounts of carbon leave the terrestrial biosphere and enter the oceans as dissolved organic carbon ( DOC ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Terrestrial_biological_carbon_cycle\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 112384\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon credit Content: A carbon credit is a generic term for any tradable certificate or permit representing the right to emit one tonne of carbon dioxide or the mass of another greenhouse gas with a carbon dioxide equivalent ( tCO2e ) equivalent to one tonne of carbon dioxide . Carbon credits and carbon markets are a component of national and international attempts to mitigate the growth in concentrations of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) . One carbon credit is equal to one tonne of carbon dioxide , or in some markets , carbon dioxide equivalent gases . Carbon trading is an application of an emissions trading approach . Greenhouse gas emissions are capped and then markets are used to allocate the emissions among the group of regulated sources . The goal is to allow market mechanisms to drive industrial and commercial processes in the direction of low emissions or less carbon intensive approaches than those used when there is no cost to emitting carbon dioxide and other GHGs into the atmosphere . Since GHG mitigation projects generate credits , this approach can be used to finance carbon reduction schemes between trading partners and around the world . There are also many companies that sell carbon credits to commercial and individual customers who are interested in lowering their carbon footprint on a voluntary basis . These carbon offsetters purchase the credits from an investment fund or a carbon development company that has aggregated the credits from individual projects . Buyers and sellers can also use an exchange platform to trade , which is like a stock exchange for carbon credits . The quality of the credits is based in part on the validation process and sophistication of the fund or development company that acted as the sponsor to the carbon project . This is reflected in their price ; voluntary units typically have less value than the units sold through the rigorously validated Clean Development Mechanism .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_credit\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 112347\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_diet\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 112246\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_neutrality\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 110920\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Contribution to global warming by Australia Content: Australia has one of the highest per capita emissions of carbon dioxide in the world , with 0.3 % of the world 's population it produces 1.8 % of the world 's greenhouse gasses . It was 18.3 tonnes per year per person and the 11th highest in the world per capita in 2009 . Australia uses principally coal power ( 70 % ) for electricity , with the remainder mainly gas , with no nuclear , low levels of hydro power , and low , but increasing , levels of solar , wind and wave power .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Contribution_to_global_warming_by_Australia\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 110678\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Low-carbon_economy\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 110659\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon emission trading Content: Carbon emissions trading is a form of emissions trading that specifically targets carbon dioxide ( calculated in tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent or tCO2e ) and it currently constitutes the bulk of emissions trading . This form of permit trading is a common method countries utilize in order to meet their obligations specified by the Kyoto Protocol ; namely the reduction of carbon emissions in an attempt to reduce ( mitigate ) future climate change . Under Carbon trading , a country having more emissions of carbon is able to purchase the right to emit more and the country having less emission trades the right to emit carbon to other countries . More carbon emitting countries , by this way try to keep the limit of carbon emission specified to them .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_emission_trading\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 110464\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 110007\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Modified atmosphere Content: Modified atmosphere is the practice of modifying the composition of the internal atmosphere of a package ( commonly food packages , drugs , etc. ) in order to improve the shelf life . The modification process often tries to lower the amount of oxygen ( O2 ) , moving it from 20.9 % to 0 % , in order to slow down the growth of aerobic organisms and prevent oxidation reactions . The removed oxygen can be replaced with nitrogen ( N2 ) , commonly acknowledged as an inert gas , or carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , which can lower the pH or inhibit the growth of bacteria . Carbon monoxide can be used for preserving the red color of meat . Re-balancing of gases inside the packaging can be achieved using active techniques such as gas flushing and compensated vacuum or passively by designing `` breathable '' films known as equilibrium modified atmosphere packaging ( EMAP ) . Packets containing scavengers may be used .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Modified_atmosphere\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 109471\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmosphere Content: An atmosphere is a layer of gases surrounding a planet or other material body , that is held in place by the gravity of that body . An atmosphere is more likely to be retained if the gravity it is subject to is high and the temperature of the atmosphere is low . The atmosphere of Earth is mostly composed of nitrogen ( about 78 % ) , oxygen ( about 21 % ) , argon ( about 0.9 % ) with carbon dioxide and other gases in trace amounts . Oxygen is used by most organisms for respiration , nitrogen is fixed by bacteria and lightning to produce ammonia used in the construction of nucleotides and amino acids and carbon dioxide is used by plants , algae and cyanobacteria for photosynthesis . The atmosphere helps protect living organisms from genetic damage by solar ultraviolet radiation , solar wind and cosmic rays . Its current composition is the product of billions of years of biochemical modification of the paleoatmosphere by living organisms . The term stellar atmosphere describes the outer region of a star , and typically includes the portion starting from the opaque photosphere outwards . Stars with sufficiently low temperatures may form compound molecules in their outer atmosphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmosphere\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 109253\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_impact_of_aviation\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 108958\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide Content: Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 108644\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Flue-gas emissions from fossil-fuel combustion Content: Flue-gas emissions from fossil-fuel combustion refers to the combustion-product gas resulting from the burning of fossil fuels . Most fossil fuels are combusted with ambient air ( as differentiated from combustion with pure oxygen ) . Since ambient air contains about 79 volume percent gaseous nitrogen ( N2 ) , which is essentially non-combustible , the largest part of the flue gas from most fossil-fuel combustion is uncombusted nitrogen . Carbon dioxide , the next largest part of flue gas , can be as much as 10 − 25 volume percent or more of the flue gas . This is closely followed in volume by water vapor ( H2O ) created by the combustion of the hydrogen in the fuel with atmospheric oxygen . Much of the ` smoke ' seen pouring from flue gas stacks is this water vapor forming a cloud as it contacts cool air . A typical flue gas from the combustion of fossil fuels contains very small amounts of nitrogen oxides ( NOx ) , sulfur dioxide ( SO2 ) and particulate matter . The nitrogen oxides are derived from the nitrogen in the ambient air as well as from any nitrogen-containing compounds in the fossil fuel . The sulfur dioxide is derived from any sulfur-containing compounds in the fuels . The particulate matter is composed of very small particles of solid materials and very small liquid droplets which give flue gases their smoky appearance . The steam generators in large power plants and the process furnaces in large refineries , petrochemical and chemical plants , and incinerators burn considerable amounts of fossil fuels and therefore emit large amounts of flue gas to the ambient atmosphere . The table below presents the total amounts of flue gas typically generated by the burning of fossil fuels such as natural gas , fuel oil and coal . The data were obtained by stoichiometric calculations . It is of interest to note that the total amount of flue gas generated by coal combustion is only 10 percent higher than the flue gas generated by natural-gas combustion . Note : m ³ are standard cubic meters at 0 ° C and 101.325 kPa , and scf is standard cubic feet at 60 ° F and 14.696 psia .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Flue-gas_emissions_from_fossil-fuel_combustion\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 108475\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon footprint Content: A carbon footprint is historically defined as the total set of greenhouse gas emissions caused by an individual , event , organisation , or product , expressed as carbon dioxide equivalent . In most cases , the total carbon footprint can not be exactly calculated because of inadequate knowledge of and data about the complex interactions between contributing processes , especially which including the influence on natural processes storing or releasing carbon dioxide . For this reason , Wright , Kemp , and Williams , have suggested to define the carbon footprint as : A measure of the total amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and methane ( CH4 ) emissions of a defined population , system or activity , considering all relevant sources , sinks and storage within the spatial and temporal boundary of the population , system or activity of interest . Calculated as carbon dioxide equivalent using the relevant 100-year global warming potential ( GWP100 ) . Greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) can be emitted through land clearance and the production and consumption of food , fuels , manufactured goods , materials , wood , roads , buildings , transportation and other services . For simplicity of reporting , it is often expressed in terms of the amount of carbon dioxide , or its equivalent of other GHGs , emitted . Most of the carbon footprint emissions for the average U.S. household come from `` indirect '' sources , i.e. fuel burned to produce goods far away from the final consumer . These are distinguished from emissions which come from burning fuel directly in one 's car or stove , commonly referred to as `` direct '' sources of the consumer 's carbon footprint . The concept name of the carbon footprint originates from ecological footprint , discussion , which was developed by Rees and Wackernagel in the 1990s which estimates the number of `` earths '' that would theoretically be required if everyone on the planet consumed resources at the same level as the person calculating their ecological footprint . However , given that ecological footprints are a measure of failure , Anindita Mitra ( CREA , Seattle ) chose the more easily calculated `` carbon footprint '' to easily measure use of carbon , as an indicator of unsustainable energy use . In 2007 , carbon footprint was used as a measure of carbon emissions to develop the energy plan for City of Lynnwood , Washington . Carbon footprints are much more specific than ecological footprints since they measure direct emissions of gases that cause climate change into the atmosphere . Carbon footprint is one of a family of footprint indicators , which also includes water footprint and land footprint .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_footprint\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 107739\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmosphere of Earth Content: The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases , commonly known as air , that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity . The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation , warming the surface through heat retention ( greenhouse effect ) , and reducing temperature extremes between day and night ( the diurnal temperature variation ) . By volume , dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen , 20.95 % oxygen , 0.93 % argon , 0.04 % carbon dioxide , and small amounts of other gases . Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor , on average around 1 % at sea level , and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere . Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers , and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres . The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 kg , three quarters of which is within about 11 km of the surface . The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude , with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space . The Kármán line , at 100 km , or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius , is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space . Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km . Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere , based on characteristics such as temperature and composition . The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science ( aerology ) . Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmosphere_of_Earth\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 107709\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Orbiting Carbon Observatory Content: The Orbiting Carbon Observatory ( OCO ) is a NASA satellite mission intended to provide global space-based observations of atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . The original spacecraft was lost in a launch failure on 24 February 2009 , when the payload fairing of the Taurus rocket which was carrying it failed to separate during ascent . The added mass of the fairing prevented the satellite from reaching orbit . It subsequently re-entered the atmosphere and crashed into the Indian Ocean near Antarctica . The replacement satellite , Orbiting Carbon Observatory 2 , was launched 2 July 2014 aboard a Delta II rocket . The Orbiting Carbon Observatory 3 , a stand-alone payload built from the spare OCO-2 flight instrument , will be installed on the International Space Station Kibō Exposed Facility in December 2016 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Orbiting_Carbon_Observatory\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 107646\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Carbon_Project\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 107290\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon offset Content: A carbon offset is a reduction in emissions of carbon dioxide or greenhouse gases made in order to compensate for or to offset an emission made elsewhere . Carbon offsets are measured in metric tons of carbon dioxide-equivalent ( CO2e ) and may represent six primary categories of greenhouse gases : carbon dioxide , methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFCs ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) , and sulfur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . One carbon offset represents the reduction of one metric ton of carbon dioxide or its equivalent in other greenhouse gases . There are two markets for carbon offsets . In the larger , compliance market , companies , governments , or other entities buy carbon offsets in order to comply with caps on the total amount of carbon dioxide they are allowed to emit . This market exists in order to achieve compliance with obligations of Annex 1 Parties under the Kyoto Protocol , and of liable entities under the EU Emission Trading Scheme . In 2006 , about $ 5.5 billion of carbon offsets were purchased in the compliance market , representing about 1.6 billion metric tons of CO2e reductions . In the much smaller , voluntary market , individuals , companies , or governments purchase carbon offsets to mitigate their own greenhouse gas emissions from transportation , electricity use , and other sources . For example , an individual might purchase carbon offsets to compensate for the greenhouse gas emissions caused by personal air travel . Many companies ( see list ) offer carbon offsets as an up-sell during the sales process so that customers can mitigate the emissions related with their product or service purchase ( such as offsetting emissions related to a vacation flight , car rental , hotel stay , consumer good , etc. ) . In 2008 , about $ 705 million of carbon offsets were purchased in the voluntary market , representing about 123.4 million metric tons of CO2e reductions . Some fuel suppliers in the UK offer fuel which has been carbon offset such as Fuel dyes . Offsets are typically achieved through financial support of projects that reduce the emission of greenhouse gases in the short - or long-term . The most common project type is renewable energy , such as wind farms , biomass energy , or hydroelectric dams . Others include energy efficiency projects , the destruction of industrial pollutants or agricultural byproducts , destruction of landfill methane , and forestry projects . Some of the most popular carbon offset projects from a corporate perspective are energy efficiency and wind turbine projects . Carbon offsetting has gained some appeal and momentum mainly among consumers in western countries who have become aware and concerned about the potentially negative environmental effects of energy-intensive lifestyles and economies . The Kyoto Protocol has sanctioned offsets as a way for governments and private companies to earn carbon credits that can be traded on a marketplace . The protocol established the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) , which validates and measures projects to ensure they produce authentic benefits and are genuinely `` additional '' activities that would not otherwise have been undertaken . Organizations that are unable to meet their emissions quota can offset their emissions by buying CDM-approved Certified Emissions Reductions . Emissions from burning fuel , such as red diesel , has pushed one UK fuel supplier to create a carbon offset fuel named Carbon Offset Red Diesel . Offsets may be cheaper or more convenient alternatives to reducing one 's own fossil-fuel consumption . However , some critics object to carbon offsets , and question the benefits of certain types of offsets . Due diligence is recommended to help businesses in the assessment and identification of `` good quality '' offsets to ensure offsetting provides the desired additional environmental benefits , and to avoid reputational risk associated with poor quality offsets . Offsets are viewed as an important policy tool to maintain stable economies and to improve sustainability . One of the hidden dangers of climate change policy is unequal prices of carbon in the economy , which can cause economic collateral damage if production flows to regions or industries that have a lower price of carbon -- unless carbon can be purchased from that area , which offsets effectively permit , equalizing the price .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_offset\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 107232\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Amorphous carbonia Content: Amorphous carbonia , also called a-carbonia or a-CO2 , is an exotic amorphous solid form of carbon dioxide that is analogous to amorphous silica glass . It was first made in the laboratory in 2006 by subjecting dry ice to high pressures ( 40-48 gigapascal , or 400,000 to 480,000 atmospheres ) , in a diamond anvil cell . Amorphous carbonia is not stable at ordinary pressures -- it quickly reverts to normal CO2 . While normally carbon dioxide forms molecular crystals , where individual molecules are bound by Van der Waals forces , in amorphous carbonia a covalently bound three-dimensional network of atoms is formed , in a structure analogous to silicon dioxide or germanium dioxide glass . Mixtures of a-carbonia and a-silica may be a prospective very hard and stiff glass material stable at room temperature . Such glass may serve as protective coatings , e.g. in microelectronics . The discovery has implications for astrophysics , as interiors of massive planets may contain amorphous solid carbon dioxide .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Amorphous_carbonia\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 107103\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide removal Content: Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_removal\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 105396\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: CO2 content Content: content ( also known as `` Total '' ) is a blood test that usually appears on a `` Chem 19 '' or an electrolyte panel . The value measures the total dissolved Carbon dioxide in blood . It is determined by combining the Bicarbonate and the partial pressure of multiplied by a factor which estimates the amount of pure that is dissolved in its natural form ( usually 0.03 ) . One given reference range is 24 -- 32 mEq/L .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"CO2_content\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 104069\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide flooding Content: Carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) flooding is a process whereby carbon dioxide is injected into an oil reservoir in order to increase output when extracting oil . When a reservoir 's pressure is depleted through primary and secondary production , carbon dioxide flooding can be an ideal tertiary recovery method . It is particularly effective in reservoirs deeper than 2,500 ft. , where will be in a supercritical state , with API oil gravity greater than 22 -- 25 ° and remaining oil saturation greater than 20 % . It should also be noted that carbon dioxide flooding is not affected by the lithology of the reservoir area , but simply by the reservoir porosity and permeability , so that it is viable in both sandstone and carbonate reservoirs . By injecting CO2 into the reservoir , the viscosity of any hydrocarbon will be reduced and hence will be easier to sweep to the production well . As an oil field matures and production rates decline , there is growing incentive to intervene and attempt to increase oil output utilizing tertiary recovery techniques ( also termed improved or enhanced oil recovery ) . Petroleum engineers assess available options for increasing well productivity , options that include chemical injection , thermal/steam injection , and CO2 injection . Based on data-gathering and computer simulations , the most optimal enhanced oil-recovery technique to maximize well-productivity is determined . To increase the rate of oil production , the pressure within the reservoir must be increased . In CO2 flooding , the first step is injection of water into the reservoir , which will cause the reservoir pressure to increase . Once the reservoir has sufficient pressure , the next step is to pump the CO2 down through the same injection wells . The CO2 gas is forced into the reservoir to come into contact with the oil . This creates a miscible zone that can be moved more easily to the production well . Normally the CO2 injection is alternated with water injection and the water acts to sweep the oil towards the production zone . CO2 flooding is the second most common tertiary recovery technique and is used in facilities around the world . In connection with greenhouse gas emissions and global warming , CO2 flooding sequesters underground and therefore offsets CO2 emissions elsewhere .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_flooding\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 103776\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kyoto Protocol Content: The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , based on the fact that ( a ) global warming exists and ( b ) human-made CO2 emissions have caused it . The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto , Japan , on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005 . There are currently 192 parties ( Canada withdrew effective December 2012 ) to the Protocol . The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to `` a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' ( Art. 2 ) . The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities : it puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . The Protocol 's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012 . A second commitment period was agreed on in 2012 , known as the Doha Amendment to the protocol , in which 37 countries have binding targets : Australia , the European Union ( and its 28 member states ) , Belarus , Iceland , Kazakhstan , Liechtenstein , Norway , Switzerland , and Ukraine . Belarus , Kazakhstan and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets . Japan , New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyoto 's first-round but have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period . Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada ( which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012 ) and the United States ( which has not ratified the Protocol ) . As of July 2016 , 66 states have accepted the Doha Amendment , while entry into force requires the acceptances of 144 states . Of the 37 countries with binding commitments , 7 have ratified . Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ends in 2020 . This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the Paris Agreement , which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto protocol .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Kyoto_Protocol\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 103458\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 102664\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_potential\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 102128\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental issue Content: Environmental issues are harmful trouble effects of human activity on the biophysical environment . Environmental protection is a practice of protecting the natural environment on individual , organizational or governmental levels , for the benefit of both the environment and humans . Environmentalism , a social and environmental movement , addresses environmental issues through advocacy , education and activism . The carbon dioxide equivalent of greenhouse gases ( GHG ) in the atmosphere has already exceeded 400 parts per million ( NOAA ) ( with total `` long-term '' GHG exceeding 455 parts per million ) . ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Report ) This level is considered a tipping point . `` The amount of greenhouse gas in the atmosphere is already above the threshold that can potentially cause dangerous climate change . We are already at risk of many areas of pollution ... It 's not next year or next decade , it 's now . '' Report from the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs ( OCHA ) : Environment destruction caused by humans is a global problem , and this is a problem that is on going every day . By year 2050 , the global human population is expected to grow by 2 billion people , thereby reaching a level of 9.6 billion people ( Living Blue Planet 24 ) . The human effects on Earth can be seen in many different ways . A main one is the temperature rise , and according to the report '' Our Changing Climate '' , the global warming that has been going on for the past 50 years is primarily due to human activities ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) . Since 1895 , the U.S. average temperature has increased from 1.3 ° F to 1.9 ° F , with most of the increase taken place since around year 1970 ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_issue\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 102080\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Lake Nyos disaster Content: The Lake Nyos disaster occurred on 21 August 1986 , when a limnic eruption at Lake Nyos , in northwestern Cameroon , produced a large cloud of carbon dioxide , which descended onto nearby villages , killing 1,746 people and 3,500 livestock . The eruption triggered the sudden release of about 100,000 -- 300,000 tons ( some sources state as much as 1.6 million tons ) of CO2 . This gas cloud rose at nearly 100 km/h and spilled over the northern lip of the lake . It then rushed down two valleys , branching off to the north , displacing all the air and suffocating people and livestock within 25 km of the lake . A degassing system has since been installed at the lake , with the aim of reducing the concentration of in deep waters and therefore the risk of further eruptions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Lake_Nyos_disaster\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 102047\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon respiration Content: Carbon respiration ( also called carbon emissions and carbon releases ) is used in combination with carbon fixation to gauge carbon flux ( as CO2 ) between atmospheric carbon and the global carbon cycle .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_respiration\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 101840\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Assigned amount units Content: An Assigned Amount Unit ( AAU ) is a tradable ` Kyoto unit ' or ` carbon credit ' representing an allowance to emit greenhouse gases comprising one metric tonne of carbon dioxide equivalents calculated using their Global Warming Potential . Assigned Amount Units are issued up to the level of initial `` assigned amount '' of an Annex 1 Party to the Kyoto Protocol . The `` assigned amounts '' are the Kyoto Protocol Annex B emission targets ( or `` quantified emission limitation and reduction objectives '' ) expressed as levels of allowed emissions over the 2008-2012 commitment period .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Assigned_amount_units\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 101695\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of U.S. states by carbon dioxide emissions Content: This is a list of U.S. states by carbon dioxide emissions due to human activity . The data presented below from the US Environmental Protection Agency and the US Energy Information Administration corresponds to emissions in 2014 . Interactive bar charts ( showing state rankings for total and per-capita emissions ) and interactive maps ( for both total emissions and per capita emissions ) for the 2014 data are available on Tableau Public . __ TOC __\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_U.S._states_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 101652\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 101399\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon emissions reporting Content: Human activities continue to impact Earth 's climate through the emission of greenhouse gases . One of the proposed ways to combat this climate change is through reporting by businesses on the impact of their activities . Large power stations and manufacturing plants are often required to report their emissions to appropriate government entities , for example to the European Union as part of the Emissions Trading System or to the US EPA as part of the Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program . In the United Kingdom , Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra ) has described climate change as the `` greatest environmental challenge facing the world today , '' and it is now a legal requirement for all quoted companies to report their annual greenhouse gas emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_emissions_reporting\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 101387\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Green Initiative Content: The Green Initiative has as its main objective the offsetting of Greenhouse gases emitted by human activities that can range from complex industrial production processes to simply driving a car , with reforestation projects in riparian areas that need to be recovered . The trees planted will absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and provide , as well as environmental benefits , such as water and air quality preservation , and biodiversity protection .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Green_Initiative\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 101102\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Keeling Curve Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that plots the ongoing change in concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere since the 1950s . It is based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii that began under the supervision of Charles David Keeling . Keeling 's measurements showed the first significant evidence of rapidly increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere . Many scientists credit Keeling 's graph with first bringing the world 's attention to the current increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Charles David Keeling , of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego , was the first person to make frequent regular measurements of the atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) concentration , taking readings at the South Pole and in Hawaii from 1958 onwards . Measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had been taken prior to the Mauna Loa measurements , but on an ad-hoc basis across a variety of locations . Guy Stewart Callendar had shown a steady increase in concentrations since the 19th century . Keeling had perfected the measurement techniques and observed `` strong diurnal behavior with steady values of about 310 ppm in the afternoon '' at three locations : Big Sur near Monterey , the rain forests of Olympic Peninsula , and high mountain forests in Arizona . By measuring the ratio of two isotopes of carbon , Keeling attributed the diurnal change to respiration from local plants and soils , with afternoon values representative of the `` free atmosphere '' . By 1960 , Keeling and his group had determined that the measurement records from California , Antarctica , and Hawaii were long enough to see not just the diurnal and seasonal variations , but also a year-on-year increase that roughly matched the amount of fossil fuels burned per year . In the article that made him famous , Keeling observed : `` at the South Pole the observed rate of increase is nearly that to be expected from the combustion of fossil fuel '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Keeling_Curve\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 100855\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in China Content: The position of the Chinese government on climate change is contentious . China has ratified the Kyoto Protocol , but as a non-Annex I country which is not required to limit greenhouse gas emissions under terms of the agreement . In particular since 2007 the Chinese government has n't changed its attitude towards climate change policy and has become one of the major drivers of low-carbon technology developments . In 2002 , on the basis of an analysis of fossil fuel consumption ( including especially the coal power plants ) and cement production data , that China surpassed the United States as the world 's largest emitter of carbon dioxide , putting out 7,000 million tonnes , in comparison with America 's 5,800 million . According to data from the US Energy Information Administration China was the top emitter by fossil fuels CO2 in 2009 China : 7,710 million tonnes ( mt ) ( 25.4 % ) ahead of US : 5,420 mt ( 17.8 % ) , India : 5.3 % , Russia : 5.2 % and Japan : 3.6 % . China was also the top emitter of all greenhouse gas emissions including building and deforestation in 2005 : China : 7,220 mt ( 16.4 % ) , US : 6,930 mt ( 15.7 % ) , 3 . Brazil 6.5 % , 4 . Indonesia : 4.6 % , 5 . Russia 4.6 % , 6 . India 4.2 % , 7 . Japan 3.1 % , 8 . Germany 2.3 % , 9 . Canada 1.8 % , and 10 . Mexico 1.6 % . In the cumulative emissions between 1850 and 2007 the top emitters were : 1 . US 28.8 % 2 . China : 9.0 % , 3 . Russia 8.0 % , 4 . Germany 6.9 % , 5 . UK 5.8 % , 6 . Japan 3.9 % , 7 . France 2.8 % , 8 . India 2.4 % , 9 . Canada 2.2 % and 10 . Ukraine 2.2 % . According to BBC News , in September 2014 , China surpassed the European Union 's per capita carbon emissions for the first time in history . China 's per capita carbon emissions now stand at 7.2 t/capita . China 's carbon emissions have increased rapidly since its economic boom in the early 2000s . Since then , their per capita carbon emissions have increased by more than 2.5 times .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_China\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 100339\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Recycled fuel Content: Fuel made of residues as CO2 produced by using a primary fuel . For example , CO2 pollution in the atmosphere , produced by petrol burning or other sources , can be extracted to produce fuel through an artificial photosynthesis based in nanotechnology , which helps to mitigate pollution , climate change and energy issues .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Recycled_fuel\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 100101\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage Content: Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage ( BECCS ) is a future greenhouse gas mitigation technology which produces negative carbon dioxide emissions by combining bioenergy ( energy from biomass ) use with geologic carbon capture and storage . The concept of BECCS is drawn from the integration of trees and crops , which extract carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the atmosphere as they grow , the use of this biomass in processing industries or power plants , and the application of carbon capture and storage via CO2 injection into geological formations . There are other non-BECCS forms of carbon dioxide removal and storage that include technologies such as biochar , carbon dioxide air capture and biomass burial . According to a recent Biorecro report , there is 550 000 tonnes CO2/year in total BECCS capacity currently operating , divided between three different facilities ( as of January 2012 ) . In the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , BECCS was indicated as a key technology for reaching low carbon dioxide atmospheric concentration targets . The negative emissions that can be produced by BECCS has been estimated by the Royal Society to be equivalent to a 50 to 150 ppm decrease in global atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations and according to the International Energy Agency , the BLUE map climate change mitigation scenario calls for more than 2 gigatonnes of negative CO2 emissions per year with BECCS in 2050 . According to Stanford University , 10 gigatonnes is achievable by this date . The Imperial College London , the UK Met Office Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research , the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research , the Walker Institute for Climate System Research , and the Grantham Institute for Climate Change issued a joint report on carbon dioxide removal technologies as part of the AVOID : Avoiding dangerous climate change research program , stating that `` Overall , of the technologies studied in this report , BECCS has the greatest maturity and there are no major practical barriers to its introduction into today 's energy system . The presence of a primary product will support early deployment . '' According to the OECD , `` Achieving lower concentration targets ( 450 ppm ) depends significantly on the use of BECCS '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Bio-energy_with_carbon_capture_and_storage\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 99712\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Total Carbon Column Observing Network Content: The Total Carbon Column Observing Network ( TCCON ) is a global network of instruments that measure the amount of carbon dioxide , methane , carbon monoxide , nitrous oxide and other trace gases in the Earth 's atmosphere . The TCCON ( -LSB- ˈtiːkɒn -RSB- ) began in 2004 with the installation of the first instrument in Park Falls , Wisconsin , USA , and has since grown to 23 operational instruments worldwide , with 7 former sites . The TCCON is designed to investigate several things , including the flow ( or flux ) of carbon between the atmosphere , land , and ocean ( the so-called carbon budget or carbon cycle ) . This is achieved by measuring the atmospheric mass of carbon ( the airborne fraction ) . The TCCON measurements have improved the scientific community 's understanding of the carbon cycle , and urban greenhouse gas emissions . The TCCON supports several satellite instruments by providing an independent measurement to compare ( or validate ) the satellite measurements of the atmosphere over the TCCON site locations . The TCCON provides the primary measurement validation dataset for the Orbiting Carbon Observatory ( OCO-2 ) mission , and has been used to validate other space-based measurements of carbon dioxide .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Total_Carbon_Column_Observing_Network\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 99424\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon Engineering Content: Carbon Engineering is a Calgary , Alberta-based company commercializing technology to capture carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) directly from the atmosphere . The company was founded in 2009 by David Keith , now a professor of public policy and applied physics at Harvard University . It is based on his research conducted at the University of Calgary . Carbon Engineering is funded by several government and sustainability-focused agencies as well as by private investors , including Microsoft founder Bill Gates and oil sands financier N. Murray Edwards .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_Engineering\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 99053\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mars atmospheric entry Content: Mars atmospheric entry is the entry into the atmosphere of Mars . High velocity entry into Martian air creates a CO2-N2 plasma , as opposed to O2-N2 for Earth air . Mars entry is affected by the radiative effects of hot CO2 gas and Martian dust suspended in the air . Flight regimes for entry , descent , and landing systems include aerocapture , hypersonic , supersonic , and subsonic . Thermal protection systems and atmospheric friction have been used historically to reduce most of the kinetic energy that needs to be lost prior to landing , with parachutes and , sometimes , a final bit of retropropulsion used in the final landing . High-altitude high-velocity retropropulsion is being researched for future transport flights landing heavier cargos . For example , Mars Pathfinder entered in 1997 . About 30 minutes prior to entry , the cruise stage and entry capsule separated . When the capsule hit the atmosphere it de-accelerated from about 7.3 km/s to 0.4 km/s ( 16330 mph to 900 mph ) over three minutes . As it descended the parachute opened to slow it down further , and soon after the heat shield was released . During entry a signal was relayed back to Earth , including semaphore signals for important events .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Mars_atmospheric_entry\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 98705\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wetland methane emissions Content: As one of the most significant natural sources of atmospheric methane , wetlands remain a major area of concern with respect to climate change . Wetlands are characterized by water-logged soils and distinctive communities of plant and animal species that have evolved and adapted to the constant presence of water . Due to this high level of water saturation as well as warm weather , wetlands are one of the most significant natural sources of atmospheric methane . Most methanogenesis , or methane production , occurs in oxygen-poor environments . Because the microbes that live in warm , moist environments consume oxygen more rapidly than it can diffuse in from the atmosphere , wetlands are the ideal anaerobic , or oxygen poor , environments for fermentation . Fermentation is a process used by certain kinds of microorganisms to break down essential nutrients . In a process called acetoclastic methanogenesis , microorganisms from the classification domain archaea produce methane by fermenting acetate and H2-CO2 into methane and carbon dioxide . H3C-COOH → CH4 + CO2 Depending on the wetland and type of archaea , hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis , another process that yields methane , can also occur . This process occurs as a result of archaea oxidizing hydrogen with carbon dioxide to yield methane and water . 4H2 + CO2 → CH4 + 2H2O\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Wetland_methane_emissions\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 98551\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Project Vulcan Content: Project Vulcan is a NASA/DOE funded effort under the North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) to quantify North American fossil fuel carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) emissions at space/time scales much finer than has been achieved in the past . The initial purpose of the Vulcan Project was to aid in quantification of the North American carbon budget , to support inverse estimation of carbon sources and sinks , and to support the demands posed by higher resolution CO2 observations . The detail and scope of the Vulcan CO2 inventory has now made it a valuable tool for policymakers , demographers , social scientists and the public at large . Project Vulcan has achieved U.S. fossil fuel CO2 emissions at < 10 km spatial scales and an hourly time scale , based on datasets such as air quality emissions reporting , census data , highway statistics , energy statistics , and econometric data . Furthermore , Vulcan includes significant process-level detail , dividing the emissions into economic sectors and sub-sectors in addition to 23 fuel types . It has been produced for the year 2002 , and an annual product spanning 1980-2006 will be available by late-2009 . The first Vulcan inventory ( v1 .0 ) was released to the public in early April 2008 . Version 1.1 was released in February 2009 and Version 1.2 is due out in early August 2009 . In addition to the data release , establishment of the Vulcan website and a press release , a video of various aspects of atmospheric transport was released on Purdue University 's YouTube website and portions of the Vulcan inventory are available on Google Earth . As of 2015 , version 2.2 has been published on a site hosted by Arizona State University .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Project_Vulcan\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 98478\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Economics_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 98341\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Revelle factor Content: The Revelle factor ( buffer factor ) is the ratio of instantaneous change in carbon dioxide to the change in total dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) , and is a measure of the resistance to atmospheric CO2 being absorbed by the ocean surface layer . The buffer factor is used to examine the distribution of CO2 between the atmosphere and the ocean , and measures the amount of CO2 that can be dissolved in the mixed surface layer . It is named after the oceanographer Roger Revelle , who was one of the first scientists to study global warming . Revelle factor = / ( Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- ) where DIC is dissolved inorganic carbon . Δ -LSB- -RSB- / -LSB- -RSB- is the instantaneous change in p and Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- is the instantaneous change in DIC .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Revelle_factor\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 98241\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: C. Kumar N. Patel Content: Chandra Kumar Naranbhai Patel ( born 2 July 1938 ) is an electrical engineer . He developed the carbon dioxide laser in 1963 ; it is now widely used in industry for cutting and welding , as a laser scalpel in surgery , and in laser skin resurfacing . Because the atmosphere is quite transparent to infrared light , CO2 lasers are also used for military rangefinding using LIDAR techniques . Patel was born in Baramati , India , and received a Bachelor of Engineering ( B.E. ) degree from the Government College of Engineering , the University of Pune , India and the M.S. and Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Stanford University in 1959 and 1961 , respectively . Patel joined Bell Laboratories in 1961 , and subsequently became Executive Director of the Research , Materials Science , Engineering and Academic Affairs Division at AT&T Bell Laboratories in Murray Hill , New Jersey , where he developed the carbon dioxide laser . Patel 's discovery , in 1963 , of the laser action on the vibrational-rotational transitions of carbon dioxide and his discovery , in 1964 , of efficient vibrational energy transfer between molecules , led to a series of experiments which demonstrated that the carbon dioxide laser was capable of very high continuous-wave and pulsed power output at very high conversion efficiencies . From 1993-1999 , Patel served as Vice Chancellor for Research at the University of California , Los Angeles , where he is also Professor of Physics and Adjunct Professor of Electrical Engineering . In 1996 , President Bill Clinton awarded Patel the National Medal of Science , '' -LSB- f -RSB- or his fundamental contributions to quantum electronics and invention of the carbon dioxide laser , which have had significant impact on industrial , scientific , medical , and defense applications . '' In addition to the carbon dioxide laser , he also developed the `` spin-flip '' infrared Raman laser . Patel currently holds 36 U.S. patents relating to lasers and laser applications . He is a member of the National Academy of Engineering and the National Academy of Science , and a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences , the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences , the American Physical Society , the IEEE , the Optical Society of America , the Laser Institute of America , and the American Society of Laser Medicine .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"C._Kumar_N._Patel\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 98154\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon sink Content: A carbon sink is a natural or artificial reservoir that accumulates and stores some carbon-containing chemical compound for an indefinite period . The process by which carbon sinks remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere is known as carbon sequestration . Public awareness of the significance of CO2 sinks has grown since passage of the Kyoto Protocol , which promotes their use as a form of carbon offset . There are also different strategies used to enhance this process .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_sink\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 98139\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Deforestation_and_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 98071\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hypercapnia Content: Hypercapnia , also known as hypercarbia and CO2 retention , is a condition of abnormally elevated carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels in the blood . Carbon dioxide is a gaseous product of the body 's metabolism and is normally expelled through the lungs . Hypercapnia normally triggers a reflex which increases breathing and access to oxygen ( O2 ) , such as arousal and turning the head during sleep . A failure of this reflex can be fatal , for example as a contributory factor in sudden infant death syndrome . Hypercapnia is the opposite of hypocapnia , the state of having abnormally reduced levels of carbon dioxide in the blood . The word is from the Greek hyper = `` above '' or `` too much '' and kapnos = `` smoke '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Hypercapnia\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 97968\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sustainable automotive air conditioning Content: Sustainable automotive air conditioning is the subject of a debate -- nicknamed the Cool War -- about the next-generation refrigerant in car air conditioning . The Alliance for CO2 Solutions supports the uptake of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) as a refrigerant in passenger cars , and the chemical industry is developing new chemical blends . The Alliance and its supporters -- scientists , NGOs and business leaders -- urge the car industry to replace high global warming chemical substances with the natural refrigerant carbon dioxide ( CO2 , R744 / R-744 ) in car cooling and heating . This , they argue , would lead to 10 % less car emissions , and knock out 1 % of total greenhouse gas emissions worldwide . If CO2 Technology is applied in other sectors , such as commercial and industrial refrigeration , heat pumps for water heating etc. , it may even save up to 3 % of the world 's greenhouse gases . Opponents of the Alliance claim that CO2 Technology is not cost-efficient and safe , hence seeking to postpone the global industry decision to be taken to develop new chemical blends instead .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Sustainable_automotive_air_conditioning\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 97539\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: North American Carbon Program Content: The North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) is one of the major elements of the Strategic Plan for the U.S. Climate Change Science Program . The central objective of NACP is to measure and understand carbon stocks and sources and sinks of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , and carbon monoxide ( CO ) in North America and adjacent ocean regions . The specific program goals are as followed : Develop quantitative scientific knowledge , robust observations , and models to determine the emissions and uptake of CO2 , CH4 , and CO , changes in carbon stocks , and the factors regulating these processes for North America and adjacent ocean basins . Develop the scientific basis to implement full carbon accounting on regional and continental scales . This is the knowledge base needed to design monitoring programs for natural and managed CO2 sinks and emissions of CH4 . Support long-term quantitative measurements of fluxes , sources , and sinks of atmospheric CO2 and CH4 , and develop forecasts for future trends . The North American Carbon Program was designed to help with the process of providing data needed to model the synthesis activities .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"North_American_Carbon_Program\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 97485\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Chinese national carbon trading scheme Content: The Chinese national carbon trading scheme is a cap and trade system for carbon dioxide emissions set to be implemented in July 2017 . This emission trading scheme ( ETS ) creates a carbon market where emitters can buy and sell emission credits . From this scheme , China can limit emissions , but allow economic freedom for emitters to reduce emissions or purchase emission allowances from other emitters . China is currently the largest emitter of greenhouse gases and many major Chinese cities have severe air pollution . With this plan , China will soon be the largest market in carbon trading . The scheme will limit emissions from six of China 's top carbon dioxide emitting industries , including coal-fired power plants . China was able to gain experience in drafting and implementation of an ETS plan from the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , where China was part of the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) . From this experience with carbon markets , and lengthy discussions with the next largest carbon market , the European Union ( EU ) , as well as analysis of small scale pilot markets in major Chinese cities and provinces , China 's national ETS will be the largest of its kind and will help China achieve its Intended Nationally Determined Contribution ( INDC ) from the Paris Agreement in 2016 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Chinese_national_carbon_trading_scheme\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 97297\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Human impact on the nitrogen cycle Content: Human impact on the nitrogen cycle is diverse . Agricultural and industrial nitrogen ( N ) inputs to the environment currently exceed inputs from natural N fixation . As a consequence of anthropogenic inputs , the global nitrogen cycle ( Fig. 1 ) has been significantly altered over the past century . Global atmospheric nitrous oxide ( N2O ) mole fractions have increased from a pre-industrial value of ~ 270 nmol/mol to ~ 319 nmol/mol in 2005 . Human activities account for over one-third of N2O emissions , most of which are due to the agricultural sector . This article is intended to give a brief review of the history of anthropogenic N inputs , and reported impacts of nitrogen inputs on selected terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Human_impact_on_the_nitrogen_cycle\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 97294\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide sensor Content: A carbon dioxide sensor or CO2 sensor is an instrument for the measurement of carbon dioxide gas . The most common principles for CO2 sensors are infrared gas sensors ( NDIR ) and chemical gas sensors . Measuring carbon dioxide is important in monitoring indoor air quality , the function of the lungs in the form of a capnograph device , and many industrial processes .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_sensor\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 97283\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Quest Carbon Capture and Storage Project Content: The Quest Carbon Capture and Storage Project captures and stores underground one million tonnes of CO2 emissions per year . The capture unit is located at the Scotford Upgrader in Alberta , Canada , where hydrogen is produced to upgrade bitumen from oil sands into synthetic crude oil .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Quest_Carbon_Capture_and_Storage_Project\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 96881\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Suess effect Content: The Suess effect is a change in the ratio of the atmospheric concentrations of heavy isotopes of carbon ( 13C and 14C ) by the admixture of large amounts of fossil-fuel derived CO2 , which is depleted in 13CO2 and contains no 14CO2 . It is named for the Austrian chemist Hans Suess , who noted the influence of this effect on the accuracy of radiocarbon dating . More recently , the Suess effect has been used in studies of climate change . The term originally referred only to dilution of atmospheric 14CO2 . The concept was later extended to dilution of 13CO2 and to other reservoirs of carbon such as the oceans and soils .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Suess_effect\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 96859\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide laser Content: The carbon dioxide laser ( CO2 laser ) was one of the earliest gas lasers to be developed . It was invented by Kumar Patel of Bell Labs in 1964 , and is still one of the most useful . Carbon dioxide lasers are the highest-power continuous wave lasers that are currently available . They are also quite efficient : the ratio of output power to pump power can be as large as 20 % . The CO2 laser produces a beam of infrared light with the principal wavelength bands centering on 9.4 and 10.6 micrometers ( μm ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_laser\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 96613\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental impact of shipping Content: The environmental impact of shipping includes greenhouse gas emissions , acoustic , and oil pollution . The International Maritime Organization ( IMO ) estimates that Carbon dioxide emissions from shipping were equal to 2.2 % of the global human-made emissions in 2012 and expects them to rise by as much as 2 to 3 times by 2050 if no action is taken . The First Intersessional Meeting of the IMO Working Group on Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Ships took place in Oslo , Norway on 23 -- 27 June 2008 . It was tasked with developing the technical basis for the reduction mechanisms that may form part of a future IMO regime to control greenhouse gas emissions from international shipping , and a draft of the actual reduction mechanisms themselves , for further consideration by IMO 's Marine Environment Protection Committee ( MEPC ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_impact_of_shipping\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 96405\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Michael Raupach Content: Michael Robin Raupach ( 30 October 1950 -- 10 February 2015 ) was an Australian climate scientist . He is credited with developing the concept of a carbon budget , the amount of CO2 that is emitted and absorbed in the global ecosystem in the course of a year . When the in balance , CO2 emissions and absorption in carbon sinks are roughly the same , but when disturbed , possibly large changes in the ecosystem ensue . He was a founding co-chair of the Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) , a network of the world 's leading carbon cycle researchers . He was instrumental in publishing the Annual Carbon Budget , which draws on a large amount of scientific data to determine the level of imbalance and options for addressing it . He worked for the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation before becoming the director of the Australian National University 's Climate Change Institute in 2014 . He was a co-chair of the Global Carbon Project from 2000 to 2008 , and contributed to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Fourth Assessment Report in 2007 . He chaired the steering committee of the ` Australia 2050 ' project of the Australian Academy of Science ( AAS ) . In 2009 -- 2010 he chaired the Expert Working Group on Challenges at the Intersection of Carbon , Energy and Water , reporting to the Prime Minister 's Science , Engineering and Innovation Council and the Office of the Chief Scientist of Australia . His career included the publication of 150 scientific papers and 50 reports . His research developed in three stages , the first focused on very localized flow and transport of matter and energy through and above plant canopies . At the next stage , he worked on quantification of CO2 transport through and above plant canopies , though still on a small scale . In the 1990s , his focus began to shift to global ecosystems when he became a member of the scientific steering committee of the Biospheric Aspects of the Hydrological Cycle core project of the IGBP ( International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme ) . One of the most fundamental and important questions that the project addressed was : does the land-surface matter in climate and weather ? His research contributed to addressing that question , through his work on turbulent fluxes near the land surface , boundary-layer budgeting and quantifying the water balance at broader scales . He was a fellow of the Australian Academy of Science , the Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering , and the American Geophysical Union . Just before his death following a short illness , he co-chaired the working group of the Australian Academy of Science drafting the AAS booklet The Science of Climate Change : Questions and Answers .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Michael_Raupach\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 96348\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmospheric_methane\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 96211\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon cycle re-balancing Content: The carbon cycle is the process by which carbon is exchanged between the four reservoirs of carbon : the biosphere , the earth , the air and water . Exchanges take place in several ways , including respiration , transpiration , combustion , and decomposition . The carbon balance , or carbon budget , is the balance of exchange between the four reservoirs . Debate about 're - balancing the carbon cycle ' arises from a concern that use of fossil fuels , which has accelerated since the start of the industrial revolution , has caused carbon to accumulate in the atmosphere . Levels of CO2 in the atmosphere are estimated to have risen from 280 ppm to almost 400 ppm since 1800 and this is linked to global warming . It is therefore argued that the carbon cycle should be re-balanced by reducing the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere . ` Carbon cycle re-balancing ' is a useful name for a group of environmental policies listed below . The name gives a specific reason for adopting these policies . Related names , including pleas for sustainable development and participation in the green movement are politics-based rather than science-based . Carbon offset - for example by photosynthesis ( e.g. in new forests ) Carbon capture and storage - extraction of CO2 and placing it underground or underwater Carbon capture and transformation - extraction of CO2 and reacting it with hydrogen via renewable energy electrolysis to create methane as an energy store/carrier . Low to neutral cycle Sustainable energy - a shift from fossil fuels energy to wind power and solar power Nuclear power - as an alternative to fossil fuels Sustainable design - to reduce inputs and outputs of energy Sustainable transport - to reduce reliance on fossil fuels Burning domestic refuse to generate power can be promoted as a recycling , and therefore sustainable , policy . But from a carbon cycle re-balancing standpoint it is better to compost as much domestic refuse as possible .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_cycle_re-balancing\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 96072\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 95995\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Fuel factor Content: The fuel factor , fo , is the ratio of created CO2 to depleted oxygen in a combustion reaction , used to check the accuracy of an emission measurement system . It can be calculated using the equation fo = ( 20.9 - % O2 ) / % CO2 , Where % O2 is the percent O2 by volume , dry basis , % CO2 is the percent CO2 by volume , dry basis , and 20.9 is the percent O2 by volume in ambient air . The Fuel factor can be corrected for the amount of CO , by adding the percent CO on a dry basis to the CO2 , and subtracting half of the percent CO from the O2 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Fuel_factor\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 95825\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Katsuko Saruhashi Content: was a geochemist who made some of the first measurements of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels in seawater and subsequently showed the evidence in seawater and the atmosphere of the dangers of radioactive fallout .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Katsuko_Saruhashi\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 95736\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Flexible Mechanisms Content: Flexible mechanisms , also sometimes known as Flexibility Mechanisms or Kyoto Mechanisms ) , refers to Emissions Trading , the Clean Development Mechanism and Joint Implementation . These are mechanisms defined under the Kyoto Protocol intended to lower the overall costs of achieving its emissions targets . These mechanisms enable Parties to achieve emission reductions or to remove carbon from the atmosphere cost-effectively in other countries . While the cost of limiting emissions varies considerably from region to region , the benefit for the atmosphere is in principle the same , wherever the action is taken . Much of the negotiations on the mechanisms has been concerned with ensuring their integrity . There was concern that the mechanisms do not confer a `` right to emit '' on Annex 1 Parties or lead to exchanges of fictitious credits which would undermine the Protocol 's environmental goals . The negotiators of the Protocol and the Marrakesh Accords therefore sought to design a system that fulfilled the cost-effectiveness promise of the mechanisms , while addressing concerns about environmental integrity and equity . To participate in the mechanisms , Annex 1 Parties must meet the following eligibility requirements : They must have ratified the Kyoto Protocol . They must have calculated their assigned amount , as referred to in Articles 3.7 and 3.8 and Annex B of the Protocol in terms of tonnes of CO2-equivalent emissions . They must have in place a national system for estimating emissions and removals of greenhouse gases within their territory . They must have in place a national registry to record and track the creation and movement of Emission Reduction Units , Certified Emission Reductions , Assigned amount units and Removal Units ( RMU ) s and must annually report such information to the secretariat . They must annually report information on emissions and removals to the secretariat .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Flexible_Mechanisms\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 95690\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Zero-carbon city Content: A zero-carbon city runs entirely on renewable energy ; it has no carbon footprint and will in this respect not cause harm to the planet . Most cities throughout the world produce energy by burning coal , oil and gas , unintentionally emitting carbon . Almost every activity humans do involves burning one of these fossil fuels . To become a zero carbon city , an established modern city must collectively reduce emissions of greenhouse gases to zero and all practices that emit greenhouse gases must cease . Also , renewable energy must supersede other non-renewable energy sources and become the sole source of energy , so a zero-carbon city is a renewable-energy-economy city . This transition which includes decarbonising electricity ( increasing the importance of the sources of renewable electricity ) and zero-emission transport , is undertaken as a response to climate change . Zero-carbon cities maintain optimal living conditions while eliminating environmental impact . Instead of using established cities , many developers are starting from scratch in order to create a zero-carbon city . This way they can make sure every aspect of a city contributes to it being carbon free .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Zero-carbon_city\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 95669\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Black carbon Content: Chemically , black carbon ( BC ) is a component of fine particulate matter ( PM ≤ 2.5 µm in aerodynamic diameter ) . Black carbon consists of pure carbon in several linked forms . It is formed through the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels , biofuel , and biomass , and is emitted in both anthropogenic and naturally occurring soot . Black carbon causes human morbidity and premature mortality . In climatology , black carbon is a climate forcing agent . Black carbon warms the Earth by absorbing sunlight and heating the atmosphere and by reducing albedo when deposited on snow and ice ( direct effects ) and indirectly by interaction with clouds , with the total forcing of 1.1 W/m2 . Black carbon stays in the atmosphere for only several days to weeks , whereas carbon dioxide has an atmospheric lifetime of more than 100 years . The term black carbon is also used in soil sciences and geology , referring either to deposited atmospheric black carbon or to directly incorporated black carbon from vegetation fires . Especially in the tropics , black carbon in soils significantly contributes to fertility as it is able to absorb important plant nutrients .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Black_carbon\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 94892\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: CO2 is Green Content: CO2 is Green is a non-profit organization supporting public policy on environmental issues . A main focus of the organization are federal proposals that may `` interfere with natures dependence on carbon dioxide . '' CO2 is Green does not view carbon dioxide as a pollutant and advocates for federal law and regulations to support this thinking .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"CO2_is_Green\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 94859\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal Content: Extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal ( ECCO2R ) is the removal of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the bloodstream in people who have elevated levels of carbon dioxide as a result of respiratory failure . The use of extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal is currently considered experimental , but it has been studied in a number of situations , specifically severe exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and in adult respiratory distress syndrome where conventional mechanical ventilation would cause excessive lung damage . It requires the insertion of a tube similar to a dialysis catheter into a large vein . Blood is pumped through a machine where the carbon dioxide is filtered out .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Extracorporeal_carbon_dioxide_removal\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 94254\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Soil respiration Content: Soil respiration refers to the production of carbon dioxide when soil organisms respire . This includes respiration of plant roots , the rhizosphere , microbes and fauna . Soil respiration is a key ecosystem process that releases carbon from the soil in the form of CO2 . CO2 is acquired from the atmosphere and converted into organic compounds in the process of photosynthesis . Plants use these organic compounds to build structural components or respire them to release energy . When plant respiration occurs below-ground in the roots , it adds to soil respiration . Over time , plant structural components are consumed by heterotrophs . This heterotrophic consumption releases CO2 and when this CO2 is released by below-ground organisms , it is considered soil respiration . The amount of soil respiration that occurs in an ecosystem is controlled by several factors . The temperature , moisture , nutrient content and level of oxygen in the soil can produce extremely disparate rates of respiration . These rates of respiration can be measured in a variety of methods . Other methods can be used to separate the source components , in this case the type of photosynthetic pathway ( C3/C4 ) , of the respired plant structures . Soil respiration rates can be largely affected by human activity . This is because humans have the ability to and have been changing the various controlling factors of soil respiration for numerous years . Global climate change is composed of numerous changing factors including rising atmospheric CO2 , increasing temperature and shifting precipitation patterns . All of these factors can affect the rate of global soil respiration . Increased nitrogen fertilization by humans also has the potential to effect rates over the entire Earth . Soil respiration and its rate across ecosystems is extremely important to understand . This is because soil respiration plays a large role in global carbon cycling as well as other nutrient cycles . The respiration of plant structures releases not only CO2 but also other nutrients in those structures , such as nitrogen . Soil respiration is also associated with positive feedbacks with global climate change . Positive feedbacks are when a change in a system produces response in the same direction of the change . Therefore , soil respiration rates can be effected by climate change and then respond by enhancing climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Soil_respiration\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 94098\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Photoelectrochemical reduction of CO2 Content: Photoelectrochemical reduction of CO2 is a chemical process whereby carbon dioxide is reduced to carbon monoxide or hydrocarbons by the energy of incident light . This process needs to be catalyzed either homogeneously or heterogeneously in order to proceed , and current research is aimed at developing these catalysts , most of which are semiconducting materials . Semiconducting catalysts provide favourable electron transfer kinetics . Motivation for research in this area is strong due to the current attention to atmospheric carbon dioxide as the reduction of carbon dioxide would be one route for removal and sequestration . Furthermore , the reduced species may prove to be a valuable feedstock for other processes . If the incident light utilized is solar in nature then this process also potentially represents energy routes which combine renewable energy with CO2 reduction .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Photoelectrochemical_reduction_of_CO2\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 93711\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon emission label Content: A carbon emission label or carbon label describes the carbon dioxide emissions created as a by-product of manufacturing , transporting , or disposing of a consumer product . This information is important to consumers wishing to minimize their ecological footprint and contribution to global warming made by their purchases .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_emission_label\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 93532\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental impact of transport Content: The environmental impact of transport is significant because it is a major user of energy , and burns most of the world 's petroleum . This creates air pollution , including nitrous oxides and particulates , and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon dioxide , for sector . By subsector , road transport is the largest contributor to global warming . Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced the individual vehicle 's emission ; however , this has been offset by an increase in the number of vehicles , and more use of each vehicle . Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road vehicles considerably have been studied . Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes , causing environmentalists to call for a transition from air and road to rail and human-powered transport , and increase transport electrification and energy efficiency . The transportation sector is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) in the United States . An estimated 30 percent of national GHGs are directly attributable to transportation -- and in some regions , the proportion is even higher . Transportation methods are the greatest contributing source of GHGs in the U.S. , accounting for 47 percent of the net increase in total U.S. emissions since 1990 . Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urban sprawl , which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands . By reducing transportation emissions globally , it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects on Earth 's air quality , acid rain , smog and climate change . The health impact of transport emissions is also of concern . A recent survey of the studies on the effect of traffic emissions on pregnancy outcomes has linked exposure to emissions to adverse effects on gestational duration and possibly also intrauterine growth . As listed above direct impacts such as noise and carbon monoxide emissions create direct and harmful effects on the environment , along with indirect impacts . The indirect impacts are often of higher consequence which leads to the misconception that it 's the opposite since it is frequently understood that initial effects cause the most damage . For example , particulates which are the outcome of incomplete combustion done by an internal combustion engine , are not linked with respiratory and cardiovascular problems since they contribute to other factors not only to that specific condition . Even though the environmental impacts are usually listed individually there are also cumulative impacts . The synergetic consequences of transport activities . They take into account of the varied effects of direct and indirect impacts on an ecosystem . Climate change is the sum total impact of several natural and human-made factors . 15 % of global CO2 emissions are attributed to the transport sector .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_impact_of_transport\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 93445\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pulmonary gas pressures Content: The factors that determine the values for alveolar pO2 and pCO2 are : The pressure of outside air The partial pressures of inspired oxygen and carbon dioxide The rates of total body oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide production The rates of alveolar ventilation and perfusion Following is a list of average partial pressures ( in torr ) for a human at rest :\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Pulmonary_gas_pressures\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 93386\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Clean agent FS 49 C2 Content: Clean agent FS 49 C2 is an environmentally engineered , human safe , fast extinguishing Clean Agent fire extinguishing gas for gaseous fire suppression installed in a suited fire suppression system . The Clean agent FS 49 C2 is an extinguishing gas mixture that suppresses fire while maintaining breathable concentrations of oxygen in the air . This makes it possible to extinguish a fire with less danger to people in the room at extinguishing concentrations in contrast to pure Carbon Dioxide ( CO2 ) based fire suppression system which is deadly to humans when released . In the beginning the gas was called Halotron II B/FS49C2 but later only the name FS 49 C2 is used . It is a gaseous solution of 60-80 % tetrafluoroethane ( R-134a ) , 10-30 % pentafluoroethane ( R-125 ) and 10-30 % carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . Former fire chief Einar Gjessing made an article about the product to inform firemen how this gas works in case they need to enter a fire site with FS 49 C2 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Clean_agent_FS_49_C2\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 93265\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon sequestration Content: Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Carbon sequestration involves long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to mitigate or defer global warming . It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases , which are released by burning fossil fuels . Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological , chemical , and physical processes . Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects , including large-scale , artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced using subsurface saline aquifers , reservoirs , ocean water , aging oil fields , or other carbon sinks .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_sequestration\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 93190\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cool Earth 50 Content: Cool Earth 50 ( also known as Cool Earth ) is a plan developed by Japan to reduce global CO2 emissions 50 % by 2050 , which was discussed at the 34th G8 summit . Cool Earth 50 is planned to be a framework that would continue towards the goals set forth in the Kyoto Protocols . This plan includes three proposals : a long-term strategy , a mid-term strategy and launching a national campaign for achieving the Kyoto Protocol Target . The plan was first proposed on May 24 , 2007 at an international conference called Asian Future and was initiated by Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe . The program 's goal is to reduce current global green house emissions by 50 % by the year 2050 the . The goal of reduction was aimed particular towards the largest green house emitting countries The United States , China , Japan , and India . Also , for the major green house emitters to create a frame work for reduction . Cool Earth aims at reducing green house emissions by improve technology in energy fields . A large goal of Cool Earth is to promote economic prosperity through green technology and to encourage political stability domestically and internationally .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Cool_Earth_50\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 93007\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbonic anhydrase II Content: Carbonic anhydrase II ( gene name CA2 ) , is one of fourteen forms of human α carbonic anhydrases . Carbonic anhydrase catalyzes reversible hydration of carbon dioxide . Defects in this enzyme are associated with osteopetrosis and renal tubular acidosis . Renal carbonic anhydrase allows the reabsorption of bicarbonate ions in the proximal tubule .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbonic_anhydrase_II\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 93002\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Politics of global warming Content: The complex politics of global warming results from numerous cofactors arising from the global economy 's interdependence on carbon dioxide emitting hydrocarbon energy sources and because carbon dioxide is directly implicated in global warming -- making global warming a non-traditional environmental challenge .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Politics_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 92947\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Wyoming Content: On a per-person basis , Wyoming emits more carbon dioxide than any other state or any other country : 276000 lb of it per capita a year , because of burning coal , which provides nearly all of the state 's electrical power . Over the last century , the average temperature in Laramie , Wyoming , has increased 1.5 ° F ( 0.8 ° C ) , and precipitation has decreased by up to 20 % in many parts of the state . Over the next century , climate in Wyoming may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Wyoming could increase by 4 ° F ( 2 ° C ) in spring and fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) , 5 ° F ( 2.5 ° C ) in summer ( with a range of 2-8 ° F ) , and 6 ° F ( 3 ° C ) in winter ( with a range of 3-11 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease slightly in summer ( with a range of 0-10 % ) , increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and increase by 30 % in winter ( with a range of 10-50 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Wyoming\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 92726\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative Content: ` The Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI , pronounced `` Reggie '' ) is the first mandatory market based program in the United States to reduce greenhouse gas emissions . RGGI is a cooperative effort among the states of Connecticut , Delaware , Maine , Maryland , Massachusetts , New Hampshire , New York , Rhode Island , and Vermont to cap and reduce CO2 emissions from the power sector . RGGI compliance obligations apply to fossil-fueled power plants 25MW and larger within the nine-state region . RGGI establishes a regional cap on the amount of CO2 pollution that power plants can emit by issuing a limited number of tradable CO2 allowances . Each allowance represents an authorization for a regulated power plant to emit one short ton of CO2 . Individual CO2 budget trading programs in each RGGI state together create a regional market for CO2 allowances . The RGGI states distribute over 90 percent of allowances through quarterly auctions . These allowance auctions generate proceeds , which participating states are able to invest in strategic energy and consumer benefit programs . Programs funded through RGGI have included energy efficiency , clean and renewable energy , greenhouse gas abatement , and direct bill assistance . An initial milestone program 's development occurred in 2005 , when seven states signed a Memorandum of Understanding ( MOU ) announcing an agreement to implement RGGI . The RGGI states then established individual CO2 budget trading programs , based on the RGGI Model Rule . The first pre-compliance RGGI auction took place in September 2008 , and the program became effective on January 1 , 2009 . The RGGI program is currently in its third three-year compliance period , which began January 1 , 2015 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Regional_Greenhouse_Gas_Initiative\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 92652\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon retirement Content: Carbon retirement involves retiring allowances from emission trading schemes as a method for offsetting carbon emissions . Under schemes such as the European Union Emission Trading Scheme , EU Emission Allowances ( EUAs ) represent the right to release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere , and are issued to all the largest polluters . Buying these allowances and permanently removing them forces industrial companies to reduce their emissions . Over time , the scheme will offer fewer allowances , making it much harder for industrial companies to sustain high emission levels without incurring financial penalties . Unlike traditional offsetting projects , retirement is straightforward and transparent . There are no complex projects , methodologies , brokers or intermediaries and the issue of additionality is overcome . Category : Carbon finance\",\n \"qid\": \"2726\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_retirement\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 92588\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":1345,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"89 percent of the stations fail to meet the National Weather Service’s own siting requirements that stations must be 30 metres away from an artificial heating or radiating/reflecting heat source."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Sitheri Content: Sitheri ( Sitteri ) is a hill station in Dharmapuri district located in Tamil Nadu , India . In Tamil Language ' சித்தேரிமலை ' . Sitheri Hills are one of the segments of Eastern Ghats of Tamil Nadu . Which comes under the Pappireddipatti taluk . It is situated at an altitude of 1097.3 metres ( 3600 ft ) The area comprises various vegetation types such as the evergreen , semi-evergreen , riparian , dry deciduous scrub and southern thorn scrub forests . The minimum and maximum temperature is 19 ° C in winter and 40 ° C in summer respectively . The average annual rainfall is 900 mm attained from both northeast and southwest monsoons . Topographically , the area is undulating with an altitude varying from 240 to 1266 m.The total area of Sitheri village is found to be 400 km2 with a total population of 9045 ( Male 4656 & female 4389 ) as of 2010 . .","qid":"2729","docid":"Sitheri","rank":1,"score":119948},{"content":"Title: Reference distance Content: In broadcast engineering , the reference distance is the distance which , under normal circumstances and flat terrain , a radio station would reach with a particular level of signal strength . This distance depends on two factors : effective radiated power ( ERP ) and height above average terrain ( HAAT ) . The actual distance a station 's signal travels depends highly on weather , where factors like temperature inversions and heavy precipitation have a strong and highly variable influence on radio propagation . However , for purposes of broadcast law such as construction permits and broadcast licenses , fixed calculations called propagation curves are applied to determine the reference distances for all existing and proposed stations . These also take into account beam tilt , carrier frequency , and even the Earth 's curvature at longer distances . This is in turn used to define most broadcast classes for FM stations in North America . Each class ( except D ) is defined as having a maximum ERP and HAAT . If the HAAT of a station 's radio antenna exceeds that specified for the class , it must reduce ERP so that its signal does not exceed the reference distance . The signal strength used differs by class , but generally the value is 1.0 mV/m ( millivolt per meter ) or 60dBu ( decibels over one microvolt per meter ) for most of the United States , and 0.5 mV/m or 54dBu in Canada , and for some U.S. stations in parts of certain areas including California , the Great Lakes region , and the Northeast . This is considered the service contour of a station by the Federal Communications Commission ( FCC ) and the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission ( CRTC ) , and by COFETEL in Mexico , according to NARBA and other international agreements among the three . The reference distances are in turn used to create mandatory minimum spacing distances among co-channel stations , and certain adjacent channels as well . Real-world calculations can also be done by including data from digital topographical maps , typically along 12 or 16 radials , and including the specifications from the radiation pattern for a directional antenna . However , this does not fit the definition of a reference in this sense , even though it determines the actual broadcast range of a station . This actual range is used in the reserved band in the U.S. , while the reference distance is used for commercial radio stations . Category : Broadcast engineering Category : Broadcast law","qid":"2729","docid":"Reference_distance","rank":2,"score":117918},{"content":"Title: Sittingbourne railway station Content: Sittingbourne railway station is on the Chatham Main Line and the Sheerness Line in north Kent . The station is 44 miles 1260 yards from London Victoria according to the mileage sign on the footbridge . Train services are provided by Southeastern . Ticket barriers are sometimes in operation , depending on the time of day . Two new lifts linked by a new footbridge have created a step-free route between the station entrance and platforms to provide better access to train services . The improvements have been funded through the government 's Access for All programme and cost around # 1,800,000 . The work has also included a series of enhancements to station facilities funded through the National Stations Improvement Programme and include relocating and increasing the number of cycle parking spaces outside the station ; renovating all passenger toilets ; creating new waiting shelters on the platforms and a new waiting room on platform ; repositioning the ticket gates to create more space for passengers in the ticket office ; and installing a new customer information screen and non-slip flooring in the ticket office . The Sittingbourne & Kemsley Light Railway 's station , at Sittingbourne Viaduct , is a short walk away .","qid":"2729","docid":"Sittingbourne_railway_station","rank":3,"score":113472},{"content":"Title: Ice accretion indicator Content: The ice accretion indicator is an L-shaped piece of aluminium 38 cm long by 4 to wide . It is used to indicate the formation of ice , frost or the presence of freezing rain or freezing drizzle . It is normally attached to a Stevenson screen , about 1 m above ground , but may be mounted in other areas away from any artificial heat sources . The weather station would have two on site and they would be exchanged after every weather observation . The spare indicator should always be at the outside air temperature to ensure that it is ready for use and would normally be stored inside the screen . If the observer notes the presence of ice or frost on the indicator then a remark to that effect should be sent in the next weather observation . Examples of these are ` rime icing on indicator ' and ` FROIN ' ( frost on indicator ) . As the indicator is at air temperature and is kept horizontal it provides an excellent surface on which to observe freezing precipitation .","qid":"2729","docid":"Ice_accretion_indicator","rank":4,"score":111721},{"content":"Title: List of North American broadcast station classes Content: This is a list of broadcast station classes applicable in much of North America under international agreements between the United States , Canada and Mexico . Effective radiated power ( ERP ) and height above average terrain ( HAAT ) are listed unless otherwise noted . All radio and television stations within 320 kilometers ( about 200 miles ) of the US-Canada or US-Mexico border must get approval by both the domestic and foreign agency . These agencies are Industry Canada/Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission ( CRTC ) in Canada , the Federal Communications Commission ( FCC ) in the US , and the Federal Telecommunications Institute ( IFT ) in Mexico .","qid":"2729","docid":"List_of_North_American_broadcast_station_classes","rank":5,"score":107352},{"content":"Title: NOAA Weather Radio Content: NOAA Weather Radio ( NWR ; also known as NOAA Weather Radio All Hazards ) is a network of radio stations in the United States that broadcast continuous weather information directly from a nearby ( < 40 miles ) Weather Forecast Office of the service 's operator , the National Weather Service ( NWS ) , an agency of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) within the United States Department of Commerce . NOAA Weather Radio broadcasts National Weather Service warnings , watches , forecasts , weather observations and other hazard information 24 hours a day . It also broadcasts alerts of non-weather emergencies such as national security , natural , environmental and public safety ( such as an AMBER Alert ) through the U.S. Federal Communications Commission 's ( FCC ) Emergency Alert System .","qid":"2729","docid":"NOAA_Weather_Radio","rank":6,"score":106575},{"content":"Title: Explorer 7 Content: Explorer 7 was launched October 13 , 1959 at 10:36 a.m. Eastern Time by a Juno II rocket from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station to an orbit of 573 km by 1073 km and inclination of 50.27 ° . It was designed to measure solar x-ray and Lyman-alpha flux , trapped energetic particles , and heavy primary cosmic rays . Also Secondary objectives included collecting data on micrometeoroid penetration and molecular sputtering and studying the Earth-atmosphere heat balance . Launch was originally scheduled for late September 1959 , but the mission was delayed for a week after a Jupiter IRBM test on an adjacent pad failed shortly after liftoff , causing flying debris to hit Explorer 7 's launch vehicle . However , the damage to the booster was minor and could be easily repaired . Significantly , it also carried Verner Suomi 's flat-plate radiometer , improved with the help of Robert Parent , that took the first Earth radiation budget measurements from space and initiated the era of satellite studies of the climate . Using both satellite observations of the Earth 's heat balance and atmospheric cooling rates measured by net flux radiosondes , Suomi established the important role played by clouds in absorbing radiated solar energy . These observations established that Earth 's energy budget varies markedly due to the effect of clouds , the surface albedo , and other absorbing constituents . Using these instruments , Suomi and his team discovered that the Earth absorbed more of the Sun 's energy than originally thought and demonstrated that it was possible to measure and quantify seasonal changes in the global heat budget . The satellite weighed 41.5 kg , was 75 cm high and 75 cm wide . Powered by solar cells it also carried 15 nickel-cadmium batteries around its equator . It transmitted data continuously through to February 1961 and went dead on August 24 , 1961 . It is still in orbit .","qid":"2729","docid":"Explorer_7","rank":7,"score":104658},{"content":"Title: District heating substation Content: thumb | right | A district heating substation in a residential neighborhood with a thermal capacity of 300 kW . Two components of the heat meter are visible : the metering electronics unit on the right ( white/blue box ) , and the ultrasonic flow meter in the center ( bronze tube ) . A district heating substation is a component in a district heating system that connects the main network to a building 's own heating system . The station normally has one , or more of the following parts : Heat exchanger - to split primary and secondary side of the system Control valve - to regulate the flow through the heat exchanger Differential pressure controller - to balance the network and improve working conditions of control valve Strainer - to remove particles that could block heat exchanger or control valve Shut off valve - to stop the flow on primary side in case of service or emergency Heat meter - to measure energy consumption and allocate costs Temperature controller - to control temperature on secondary side by regulating the flow on primary side Temperature sensor - to sense flow and return temperatures required for temperature control In addition , a district heating substation may also include : Pump Safety valve Manometer Non-return valve","qid":"2729","docid":"District_heating_substation","rank":8,"score":102368},{"content":"Title: Radiator reflector Content: A radiator reflector is a thin sheet or foil applied to the wall behind , and closely spaced from , a domestic heating radiator . The intention is to reduce heat losses into the wall in the belief that this will increase the output of the radiator and thus reduce fuel expenditure . Although the foils are termed `` reflectors '' , they do not have much effect on radiated heat or its reflection . As radiators work at a relatively low temperature , the Stefan -- Boltzmann lawThe Stefan -- Boltzmann law states that the effectiveness of a thermal radiator is proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature . A hot-water radiator at 77 C has only 1/4 the radiated power of a stove at 220 C , or 1/16 that of a radiant element at 427 C means that they are weak radiators of heat . Most heat from a domestic radiator is as convection currents of heated air . Where a reflector foil also has some insulating ability against conduction ( i.e. losses through the wall ) , it may have some useful effect . This is most pronounced when the wall itself has poor insulation performance : in a wall constructed to modern standards of insulation , even this effect may be reduced to a negligible benefit . The effect of placing a 10mm combined insulation and reflection behind radiators is about the same as that of 15mm insulation without a reflective layer . When the wall thickness behind the radiator is at minimum 1980 German standards this will reduce total heat losses of a building by about 4 % . For a ( by 1980s standards ) well-insulated building heat losses can be reduced by about 1.6 % . N. König : `` Der Einfluß von wäremreflektierenden Folien in Heizkörpernischen auf den Heizenergieverbrauch eines Hauses '' https://www.ibp.fraunhofer.de/content/dam/ibp/de/documents/Publikationen/IBP-Mitteilungen-optimiert/058.pdf It is widely believed that a literal radiator reflector of ordinary aluminium kitchen foil is useful . This highly reflective foil is used with the shiny side facing towards the back of the radiator . However , as little of the radiator 's heat is released by radiation anyway , there is little advantage in reducing losses to it . There is also a risk that reflectors made from kitchen foil may soon become inefficient , as aluminium oxidizes very quickly and then loses its reflective quality . A more effective DIY radiator reflector is a thin insulating layer ( against conduction ) of a lightweight insulator such as expanded polystyrene foam veneerWidely sold in 2mm sheet rolls as an insulator beneath wallpaper . or 3mm polyethylene foam , as used for laminate flooring underlay . There are only two radiator reflectors approved for use in the UK Government 's Carbon Emission Reduction Target ( CERT ) Scheme administered by Ofgem ( the UK Regulator of energy companies ) -- Radflek and Heatkeeper ( also called Novitherm ) .","qid":"2729","docid":"Radiator_reflector","rank":9,"score":101550},{"content":"Title: Hohenpeißenberg Meteorological Observatory Content: The Meteorological Observatory Hohenpeißenberg is the oldest mountain weather station in the world . It is located in the municipality of Hohenpeißenberg , about 60 kilometres southwest of Munich , Germany , and at 977 metres above sea level . Meteorological data is collected on the site continuously since 1781 . The measurement series ranks among the longest ever , and was never impacted by urban heat island effects , a problem encountered by the comparably long records from the Basel and Prague observatories . As of today , it is operated by Deutscher Wetterdienst , and takes part in the Global Atmosphere Watch programme .","qid":"2729","docid":"Hohenpeißenberg_Meteorological_Observatory","rank":10,"score":100452},{"content":"Title: KHB49 Content: KHB49 ( sometimes referred to as San Francisco All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the San Francisco Bay Area and can be heard 40 miles into the Pacific Ocean . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Monterey , California with its transmitter located in Mt. Pise . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following counties : Alameda , Contra Costa , Marin , Napa , San Francisco , San Mateo , Santa Clara , and Sonoma .","qid":"2729","docid":"KHB49","rank":11,"score":99749},{"content":"Title: WNG677 Content: WNG677 ( also known as St. Croix All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the United States Virgin Islands and can be heard up to 80 miles into the Caribbean Sea . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in San Juan , Puerto Rico with its transmitter located in Saint Croix , U.S. Virgin Islands . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following counties : St. Croix , St. John & St. Thomas .","qid":"2729","docid":"WNG677","rank":12,"score":98993},{"content":"Title: NWS Content: NWS may refer to : National Weather Service , a U.S. government agency charged with issuing weather forecasts , advisories , watches , and warnings on a daily basis News Corporation 's NASDAQ ticker symbol for Class B stock NWS ( TV station ) , a television station in Adelaide , South Australia Nuclear Weapons State , a term relating to the U.S. , Russia , China , United Kingdom and France in the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty Not work safe , a web acronym interchangeable with the more widespread NSFW ( `` not safe for work '' ) Netherlands Worldwide Students , a worldwide network of Dutch students enrolled in foreign universities New Wrestling Stars , a wrestling company based in Puerto Rico North Warning System , a series of radar stations across Arctic North America Nintendo World Store , Nintendo 's showcase store in New York City Naval Wargames Society , the international society devoted to the advancement of naval wargames NWS Holdings , a listed company in Hong Kong North Wilkesboro Speedway , a track that was the site of NASCAR Sprint Cup Series racing until closing in 1996 , the track reopened in 2010 and will hold a USARacing event . Northwest Semitic languages , an ancient language family","qid":"2729","docid":"NWS","rank":13,"score":97021},{"content":"Title: KHB40 Content: KHB40 ( sometimes referred to as Galveston All Hazards ) is a U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Weather Radio station that serves the coastal communities of Greater Houston and can be heard over 40 miles into the Gulf of Mexico . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in League City , Texas with its transmitter located in Hitchcock , Texas . The transmitter used to be on top of the American National Insurance building in Galveston . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following counties : Brazoria , Chambers , Galveston , and Southeast Harris","qid":"2729","docid":"KHB40","rank":14,"score":96821},{"content":"Title: Remote Automated Weather Station Content: The Remote Automatic Weather Stations ( RAWS ) system is a network of automated weather stations run by the U.S. Forest Service ( USFS ) and Bureau of Land Management ( BLM ) and monitored by the National Interagency Fire Center ( NIFC ) , mainly to observe potential wildfire conditions . Unlike the automated airport weather stations which are located at significant airports , RAWS stations are often located in remote areas , particularly in national forests . Because of this , they usually are not connected to the electrical grid , but rather have their own solar panels , and a battery to store power for overnight reporting . Some instead run on a generator . In both cases , data important to operating the station itself , such as battery voltage or fuel level , is often included in the hourly reports . Also because of the remote locations , most communicate with a modem via telephone , or via a VSAT connection to a GOES satellite . In this regard , they are similar to mesonets and may be mesonets if the distance between stations ( spatial resolution ) is sufficiently dense . They often lack the consistently high-quality data needed for use in numerical weather prediction and climatology , however . Road Weather Information System ( RWIS ) may likewise be self-powered and located in remote areas .","qid":"2729","docid":"Remote_Automated_Weather_Station","rank":15,"score":95475},{"content":"Title: Excessive heat warning Content: An Excessive Heat Warning is issued by the National Weather Service of the United States within 12 hours of the heat index reaching one of two criteria levels . In most areas , a warning will be issued if there is a heat index of at least 105 ° F for more than 3 hours per day for 2 consecutive days , or if the heat index is greater than 115 ° F for any period of time . Note that local offices , particularly those where excessive heat is less frequent or in areas with deserts or mountainous terrain , often have their own criteria . High values of the heat index are caused by temperatures being significantly above normal and high humidities , and such high levels can pose a threat to human life through conditions such as heat stroke , Heat exhaustion , and other heat-related illnesses .","qid":"2729","docid":"Excessive_heat_warning","rank":16,"score":95364},{"content":"Title: Height above average terrain Content: Height above average terrain ( HAAT ) ( or less popularly , EHAAT , Effective Height Above Average Terrain ) is a measure of how high an antenna site is above the surrounding landscape . HAAT is used extensively in FM radio and television , as it is more important than effective radiated power ( ERP ) in determining the range of broadcasts ( VHF and UHF in particular , as they are line of sight transmissions ) . For international coordination , it is officially measured in meters , even by the Federal Communications Commission in the United States , as Canada and Mexico ( both of which officially use metric units ) have extensive border zones where international stations can be received on either side of the international boundaries . Stations that want to increase above a certain HAAT must reduce their power accordingly , based on the maximum distance their station class is allowed to cover ( see List of North American broadcast station classes for more information on this ) . Before metrification at the FCC , the procedure to figure HAAT was relatively simple : from the proposed or actual antenna site , either 12 or 16 radials were drawn , and points at 2 , 4 , 6 , 8 , and 10 mi radius along each radial were used . The entire radial graph could be rotated to achieve the best effect for the station . The altitude of the antenna site , minus the average altitude of all the specified points , was the HAAT . This can create some unusual cases , particularly in mountainous regions -- it is possible to have a negative number for HAAT ( the transmitter would not be located underground , but rather in a valley , with hills on both sides taller than the transmitter itself , for example ) . The FCC has divided the Contiguous United States into three zones for the determination of spacing between FM and TV stations using the same frequencies . FM and TV stations are assigned maximum ERP and HAAT values , depending on their assigned zones , to prevent co-channel interference . The FCC regulations for ERP and HAAT are listed under Title 47 , Part 73 of the Code of Federal Regulations ( CFR ) .","qid":"2729","docid":"Height_above_average_terrain","rank":17,"score":94730},{"content":"Title: Sornfelli Content: Sornfelli is a mountain plateau on the island of Streymoy in the Faroe Islands about 12 km from the capital Tórshavn ( 20 km by road ) . It is the site of a military station at 725 m asl . The Sornfelli Meteorological Station installed in 1999 is located in the middle of the 40000 m2 Sornfelli Mountain top plateau at 725 m asl . Temperatures at the meteorological station in 2000 were : Mean annual air temperature : +1.7 ° C Mean coldest month ( April ) : -2.2 ° C Mean warmest month ( August ) : 6.5 ° C From Tórshavn you can drive over the mountain road `` Oyggjarvegin '' to the Sornfelli Mountain plateau . There is a public road up to the Sornfelli Mountain plateau , but not the last 200 m to the radar base . The mountain Sornfelli has a height of 749 m.","qid":"2729","docid":"Sornfelli","rank":18,"score":94447},{"content":"Title: KEC62 Content: KEC62 ( sometimes referred to as San Diego All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the San Diego metropolitan area and can be heard 40 miles in the Pacific Ocean . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in San Diego , California with its transmitter located in Mt. Woodson . It broadcasts weather and hazard information only for San Diego County and the coastal waters from San Mateo Point to the Mexican border and out 60 nautical miles . The station 's forecast coverage includes the San Diego County Coast , San Diego County Valleys , San Diego County Mountains and San Diego County Deserts . Hourly weather observations are updated at 10 minutes past each hour , and covers mostly San Diego County , with conditions reported for most of Southern California as well as Las Vegas , Yuma and Phoenix .","qid":"2729","docid":"KEC62","rank":19,"score":94414},{"content":"Title: National Weather Service Miami, Florida Content: The National Weather Service Miami , Florida is a local weather forecast office of the National Weather Service ( NWS ) that serves six counties in South Florida -- Broward , Collier , Glades , Hendry , Miami-Dade , and Palm Beach -- as well as the mainland portion of Monroe County . This office was originally established in 1879 as a Signal Corps station near the Jupiter Inlet Light , before becoming a Weather Bureau Office ( WBO ) in 1891 . The WBO at Jupiter was moved southward to Miami , due to the city 's rapidly growing population . In 1930 , a separate Weather Bureau Airport Station ( WBAS ) was established at the Miami Municipal Airport . The WBAS was later moved to the Miami International Airport in 1942 and remained there until ceasing operations in 1975 . Under the leadership of Grady Norton , the joint hurricane warning service , which was a predecessor to the National Hurricane Center , was moved from the WBO Jacksonville to the WBO Miami in 1943 . The Weather Bureau was renamed the National Weather Service in October 1970 . Thus , WBO Miami became NWS Miami . As part of an organizational restructuring plan in the 1990s , an NWS office in West Palm Beach was merged with NWS Miami . Since 1995 , this office of the NWS has been located on the campus of Florida International University and adjacent to the National Hurricane Center .","qid":"2729","docid":"National_Weather_Service_Miami,_Florida","rank":20,"score":93998},{"content":"Title: Blizzard Warning Content: A Blizzard Warning ( SAME code : BZW ) is an advisory issued by the National Weather Service of the United States which means sustained winds or frequent gusts of 35 mph / 15 m/s or greater with heavy snow is forecast for a period of 3 hours or more . A blizzard tends to reduce visibilities to 1/4 of a mile ( 400 m ) or less . A Severe Blizzard Warning is a variation issued in some cases of winds above 45 mph / 20 m/s and temperatures below 10 ° F / -12 ° C. Most local weather offices will activate and broadcast the SAME alarm tone on relevant NOAA Weather Radio stations for both varieties of warning . In Canada , comparable warnings are issued by Environment Canada . These are the main two types of Canadian blizzard warnings as of 2010 : National Warning below tree line - when winds are 40 kilometres/hr or greater with widespread reductions in visibility to 400 metres ( 1/4 mile ) or less from blowing snow or blowing snow with falling snow for at least 4 hours . Northern ( Arctic ) Warning above tree line - same as National Warning but must last for at least 6 hours . The same warnings are issued by Weatheradio Canada and re-issued by media outlets like The Weather Network .","qid":"2729","docid":"Blizzard_Warning","rank":21,"score":93798},{"content":"Title: Hill station Content: A hill station is a town located at a higher elevation than the nearby plain or valley . The term was used mostly in colonial Asia , but also in Africa ( albeit rarely ) , for towns founded by European colonial rulers as refuges from the summer heat , up where temperatures are cooler . In the Indian context most hill stations are at an altitude of approximately 1,000 to 2,500 metres ( 3,500 to 7,500 feet ) ; very few are outside this range .","qid":"2729","docid":"Hill_station","rank":22,"score":93716},{"content":"Title: Weather station Content: A weather station is a facility , either on land or sea , with instruments and equipment for measuring atmospheric conditions to provide information for weather forecasts and to study the weather and climate . The measurements taken include temperature , atmospheric pressure , humidity , wind speed , wind direction , and precipitation amounts . Wind measurements are taken with as few other obstructions as possible , while temperature and humidity measurements are kept free from direct solar radiation , or insolation . Manual observations are taken at least once daily , while automated measurements are taken at least once an hour . Weather conditions out at sea are taken by ships and buoys , which measure slightly different meteorological quantities such as sea surface temperature ( SST ) , wave height , and wave period . Drifting weather buoys outnumber their moored versions by a significant amount .","qid":"2729","docid":"Weather_station","rank":23,"score":93630},{"content":"Title: Kiarighat Content: Kiarighat , Himachal Pradesh , India , is a small hill station situated at Kalka-Shimla National Highway , where tourists can stay for a while or stay overnight . The JP university is located at about 8 km from here . Access : Kiarighat is connected by Shimla-Kalka National Highway . It is 27 km away from Shimla and 19 km from Solan . The nearest Airport in Jubbal Hatti and nearest narrow gauge railway station is Kandaghat . Climate : In winter , the temperature can drop near to freezing point when heavy woolens are required and in summers , light woolens / cottons are recommended .","qid":"2729","docid":"Kiarighat","rank":24,"score":93329},{"content":"Title: Pole of Inaccessibility (Antarctic research station) Content: The Pole of Inaccessibility Research Station is a defunct Soviet research station in Kemp Land , Antarctica , at the southern pole of inaccessibility ( the point in Antarctica furthest from any ocean ) as it was defined in 1958 when the station was established . Later definitions give other locations , all relatively near this point . It performed meteorological observations from 14 December 1958 to 26 December 1958 . The Pole of Inaccessibility has the world 's coldest year-round average temperature of -58.2 ° C. It is 878 km from the South Pole , and approximately 600 km from Sovetskaya . The surface elevation is 3,800 m . It was reached on 14 December 1958 by an 18-man traversing party of the 3rd Soviet Antarctic Expedition . Its WMO ID is 89550 .","qid":"2729","docid":"Pole_of_Inaccessibility_(Antarctic_research_station)","rank":25,"score":93295},{"content":"Title: WNG637 Content: WNG637 ( sometimes referred to as San Diego Marine All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the coastal area of the San Diego metropolitan area and can be heard 40 miles in the Pacific Ocean . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in San Diego , California with its transmitter located in Mt. Soledad . Unlike its general weather radio counterpart KEC62 , it broadcasts marine forecasts and hazard information only for San Diego County .","qid":"2729","docid":"WNG637","rank":26,"score":92967},{"content":"Title: WXM85 Content: WXM85 ( sometimes referred to as Guam All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the island of Guam and Rota in the Northern Mariana Islands and can be heard 40 miles into the Pacific Ocean . It is programmed from the National Weather Service in Tiyan , Guam with its transmitter located in Nimitz Hill .","qid":"2729","docid":"WXM85","rank":27,"score":92894},{"content":"Title: KHB34 Content: KHB34 is a NOAA Weather Radio ( NWR ) station that serves a part of the South Florida metropolitan area on an assigned frequency of 162.550 MHz ; it can also be heard about 60 mi east into the Atlantic Ocean , nearly to the Bahamas . Programming originates from NOAA 's National Weather Service ( NWS ) weather forecast office ( WFO ) in Miami , Florida , with the transmitter located in Andover/Miami Gardens . It continuously broadcasts weather and marine forecasts , as well as civil hazards information , for the following counties in the South Florida region : Miami-Dade and Broward . The radio station plays a vital role in alerting the general public to hazardous weather conditions in an area prone to severe weather events such as lightning storms , tornadoes , waterspouts and hurricanes . The signal also reaches North Key Largo and inland parts of mainland Monroe , eastern Collier , far southeastern Hendry , and most of Palm Beach counties -- however it does not issue alerts for those areas . There are other adjacent NWR stations that serve the forecast area . WNG663 ( 162.425 MHz ) also covers Miami-Dade from Princeton , near Homestead , as well as mainland Monroe and the Upper Keys . Other stations programmed by the Miami-South Florida WFO include : KEC50 Mangonia Park/West Palm Beach ( 162.475 MHz ) to the north , serving Palm Beach County and the adjacent coastal waters ; WXM58 Belle Glade ( 162.400 MHz ) to the northwest , in western Palm Beach County near Lake Okeechobee ; and WWG92 Naples ( 162.525 MHz ) to the northwest , near Florida 's west coast , serving Collier , Hendry and a portion of mainland Monroe County . Recognizing the need to serve the local area 's large Spanish-speaking population , NWS added a low-power station in June 2012 , WZ2531 ( 162.500 MHz ) transmitting from Hialeah - the first dedicated Spanish language NWR station in Florida . Its broadcast , featuring a computer-synthesized voice known by the nickname `` Javier '' , covers Miami-Dade and Broward counties .","qid":"2729","docid":"KHB34","rank":28,"score":92846},{"content":"Title: NOAA's Environmental Real-time Observation Network Content: NOAA 's Environmental Real-time Observation Network ( NERON ) is a project to establish a nationwide network of weather monitoring stations across the United States . A 20-mile by 20-mile grid has been established , with the hopes of having one observation system within each grid cell . Effort is being put forth by local National Weather Service offices and other state climate groups to ensure that sites in the network meet important criteria . The network will be composed of existing ( and in some cases upgraded ) sites ( ASOS , Cooperative Observer Network , etc. ) as well as new sites being established for other local and state efforts . Many stations in New England and New York have already been installed .","qid":"2729","docid":"NOAA's_Environmental_Real-time_Observation_Network","rank":29,"score":92713},{"content":"Title: National Weather Service Content: The National Weather Service ( NWS ) is an agency of the United States federal government that is tasked with providing weather forecasts , warnings of hazardous weather , and other weather-related products to organizations and the public for the purposes of protection , safety , and general information . It is a part of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) branch of the Department of Commerce , and is headquartered in Silver Spring , Maryland ( located just outside Washington , D.C. ) . The agency was known as the United States Weather Bureau from 1890 until it adopted its current name in 1970 . The NWS performs its primary task through a collection of national and regional centers , and 122 local weather forecast offices ( WFOs ) . As the NWS is a government agency , most of its products are in the public domain and available free of charge .","qid":"2729","docid":"National_Weather_Service","rank":30,"score":92628},{"content":"Title: National Highway 30 (India) Content: National Highway 30 ( NH 30 ) ( previously National Highway 221 ) is a National Highway in India . NH 30 connects Sitarganj in Uttarakhand with Ibrahimpatnam in Andhra Pradesh . The total length of this highway is 2040 km ( 1267.5 mi ) t starts at the junction of NH 9 at Sitarganj and ends at the junction of NH 65 at Ibrahimpatnam .","qid":"2729","docid":"National_Highway_30_(India)","rank":31,"score":92499},{"content":"Title: KEC61 Content: KEC61 ( sometimes referred to as Mobile All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the Mobile metropolitan area and surrounding cities as well as 30 to 40 miles into the Gulf of Mexico . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Mobile , Alabama with its transmitter located in the same city . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following Counties : Baldwin and Mobile in Alabama and George and Jackson in Mississippi .","qid":"2729","docid":"KEC61","rank":32,"score":91813},{"content":"Title: National Weather Service Lincoln, Illinois Content: National Weather Service Lincoln , Illinois also known as National Weather Service Central Illinois is a weather forecast office responsible for monitoring weather conditions for 35 counties in Central and Southeastern Illinois . The Central Illinois office initially consisted of two forecast offices in Peoria and Springfield until the current location in Lincoln became the sole local forecast office in 1995 . Federal meteorology offices and stations in the region date back to the 19th century when the Army Signal Service began taking weather observations using weather equipment at the Springer Building in Springfield . Since that time the presence of the National Weather Service greatly increased with the instillation of new weather radars , stations and forecast offices . The current office in Lincoln maintains a WSR-88D ( NEXRAD ) radar system , and Advanced Weather Interactive Processing System ( AWIPS ) that greatly improve forecasting in the region . Lincoln is in charge of weather forecasts , warnings and local statements as well as aviation weather .","qid":"2729","docid":"National_Weather_Service_Lincoln,_Illinois","rank":33,"score":91550},{"content":"Title: KEC49 Content: KEC49 ( sometimes referred to as Monterey All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves Monterey , California and vicinity including some parts of the San Francisco Bay Area and can be heard 40 miles into the Pacific Ocean . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Monterey with its transmitter located atop McQueen Ridge near Mount Umunhum . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following counties : Alameda , Contra Costa , Monterey , Napa , San Benito , San Francisco , San Mateo , Santa Clara , and Santa Cruz .","qid":"2729","docid":"KEC49","rank":34,"score":91395},{"content":"Title: 15-meter band Content: The 15-meter band ( also called the 21-MHz band or 15 meters ) is an amateur radio frequency band spanning the shortwave spectrum from 21 to 21.45 MHz . Almost all countries permit amateur communications on the entire band . The 15 meter band is considered a DX band ( i.e. , used for long-distance communications ) . Since signals on 15 meters propagate primarily via reflection off of the F-2 layer of the ionosphere , the band is most useful for intercontinental communication during daylight hours , especially in years close to the solar maximum . However , the band also sees long-distance openings during solar minima , and into evening hours , and does not require high-power station equipment to make contacts even at these times . Because the 15-meter wavelength is harmonically related to that of the 40-meter band , it is often possible to use an antenna designed for 40 meters on the 15-meter band , as well .","qid":"2729","docid":"15-meter_band","rank":35,"score":90965},{"content":"Title: Kunlun Station (Antarctica) Content: Kunlun Station is one of four Chinese research stations in Antarctica . It is located in the Australian Antarctic Territory at 4087 m above sea level , the highest among all research stations , and 7.3 km southwest of Dome A and was officially opened on January 27 , 2009 . Fully constructed the station is planned to cover an area of 558 m ² . The main building , covering 236 m ² , is planned erected in April 2009 . The site is one of the coldest in the world , with temperatures occasionally reaching -80 ° C in the winter . It is indicated from satellite measurements that places nearby could reach a world record -90 ° C temperature . In April 2012 the first of three Antarctica Schmidt telescopes ( AST3 ) was installed at Kunlun Station . The other two were planned for installation in 2013 and 2014 . A bigger optical telescope , Kunlun Dark Universe Survey Telescope ( KDUST ) , is planned to be installed by 2020 .","qid":"2729","docid":"Kunlun_Station_(Antarctica)","rank":36,"score":90631},{"content":"Title: Excessive heat watch Content: An Excessive Heat Watch is issued by the National Weather Service of the United States when the heat index is expected to be greater than 105 ° F ( 41 ° C ) across the northern states or 110 ° F ( 43 ° C ) across the southern states during the day , and/or nighttime low temperature will be at least 75 ° F ( 24 ° C ) or higher for two consecutive days . Note that even with the usual northern/southern criteria , local offices , particularly those with deserts or mountainous terrain , often have their own criteria . High values of the heat index are caused by temperatures being significantly above normal and high humidities , and such high levels can pose a threat to human life through conditions such as heat stroke .","qid":"2729","docid":"Excessive_heat_watch","rank":37,"score":90630},{"content":"Title: WXM86 Content: WXM86 ( sometimes referred to as Saipan All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the Saipan and Tinian in the Northern Mariana Islands and can be heard 40 miles into the Pacific Ocean . It is programmed from the National Weather Service in Tiyan , Guam with its transmitter located in Mount Tapochau .","qid":"2729","docid":"WXM86","rank":38,"score":90590},{"content":"Title: Coast Guard Air Station Sitka Content: Coast Guard Air Station Sitka is an Air Station of the United States Coast Guard located in Sitka , Alaska . The station was originally established on Annette Island in March 1944 , until relocating to Sitka in 1977 . Early aircraft consisted of Grumman G-21 's , PBY 's , HU-16 's , HH-52 's , and HH-3 Pelicans . Primary missions performed by the air station are Search and Rescue ( SAR ) , law enforcement , and logistics covering the Southeast part of Alaska . Area of responsibility encompasses approximately 180,000 square miles of water and land extending across Southeast Alaska from Dixon Entrance to Icy Bay , and from the Alaskan-Canadian border to the central Gulf of Alaska . This includes 12,000 miles of coastline distinguished by a rugged coast , mountainous terrain , severe weather , and many remote villages . Today , Air Station Sitka utilizes three MH-60T Jayhawk helicopters and has 130 officers , enlisted , and civilian personnel . Each helicopter , is crewed by two pilots , a flight mechanic , and a rescue swimmer , has a 125-knot cruise speed , and 700-mile range . In a `` ready '' or `` alert '' status 24 hours a day for national defense , search and rescue . Sitka crews fly surveillance patrols and transport environmental response teams which protect the ecosystems located within the area . Additionally crews assists in the routine maintenance , outage response , and position verification of 75 aids-to-navigation ( ATON ) . Other missions include law enforcement duties in cooperation with federal , state , and local agencies .","qid":"2729","docid":"Coast_Guard_Air_Station_Sitka","rank":39,"score":90148},{"content":"Title: National Weather Service Baltimore/Washington Content: The National Weather Service Baltimore/Washington is a local office of the National Weather Service responsible for monitoring weather conditions in 44 counties in eastern West Virginia , northern and central Virginia , the majority of the state of Maryland , as well as the city of Washington , D.C. . Although labeled as the NWS Baltimore/Washington , its actual location is off Old Ox Road ( Virginia State Route 606 ) in the Dulles section of Sterling , Virginia , adjacent to Washington Dulles International Airport . The NWS Baltimore/Washington currently employs about 25 people including meteorologists , support personnel , and management staff , working rotating shifts 24 hours a day , 7 days a week .","qid":"2729","docid":"National_Weather_Service_Baltimore/Washington","rank":40,"score":89947},{"content":"Title: KWO35 Content: KWO35 ( the third character is the letter `` O '' ) is a NOAA Weather Radio ( NWR ) station that serves the greater New York metropolitan area ( which comprises New York City and the surrounding counties and municipalities in the Tri-state area ) , as well as marine interests from Sandy Hook , New Jersey to Fire island , New York ( out to 40 miles from the Atlantic coastline ) , as well as New York Harbor , the western Long Island Sound , and the Long Island South Shore Base , and extending southward from Sandy Hook , to Little Egg Inlet NJ ( out to 40 miles from the Atlantic coastline ) ( see County Cov . section for all marine zones ) . Programming originates from the National Weather Service weather forecast office ( WFO ) in Upton , New York ( located east of New York City , on the grounds of Brookhaven National Laboratory , in central Suffolk County on eastern Long Island ) . The transmitter , located in Manhattan , was originally atop 30 Rockefeller Plaza ( known then as RCA Building ) in Rockefeller Center . It was eventually moved to 200 Park Ave ( a.k.a. MetLife Building ) . In July 2013 interference with Coast Guard radio transmissions became a public safety issue , forcing KWO35 off-the-air for long periods . In March 2014 the transmitter was relocated atop a building near Times Square in an effort to mitigate disruptions in service , with primary and secondary transmitters tested for interference at a new location . A planned new , permanent , and more powerful transmitter was announced ( transmitter issues are discussed below ) . When operational , the station broadcasts 24 hours per day on a frequency of 162.55 MHz ( one of seven VHF radio frequencies allocated by the U.S. Government for NWR transmissions , known collectively as `` weather band '' ) , with a power output of 1000 ( formerly 750 ) Watts . On modern weather radio receivers it is often marked `` Channel 7 '' . KWO35 broadcasts weather and civil hazards information for the following counties within its coverage area : Bronx , Kings , Nassau , New York , Queens , Rockland , Richmond , -LSB- western -RSB- Suffolk , and Westchester counties in southeastern New York ; Bergen , Essex , Hudson , Hunterdon , Middlesex , Monmouth , Morris , -LSB- northern -RSB- Ocean , Passaic , Somerset , -LSB- eastern -RSB- Sussex , Union , and -LSB- eastern -RSB- Warren counties in northern and central New Jersey ; -LSB- southern -RSB- Fairfield County in southwestern Connecticut . In addition to broadcasting routine weather and marine forecasts and conditions , the station will also transmit public information statements , short term forecasts , special weather statements , advisories , watches and warnings issued by the WFOs in Upton , New York and Mount Holly , New Jersey when hazardous weather conditions threaten the coverage area . In severe weather situations , the NWR Public Alert system may be used to activate specially-equipped weather band receivers , using both Specific Area Message Encoding ( SAME ) and 1050 Hz alert tones . Radios that are SAME-capable can be configured to sound local alerts only ( for specific counties ) by programming in the corresponding Federal Information Processing Standards ( FIPS ) codes .","qid":"2729","docid":"KWO35","rank":41,"score":89682},{"content":"Title: KEB98 Content: KEB98 ( sometimes referred to as Buffalo All Hazards ) is an NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the Buffalo -- Niagara Falls metropolitan area and surrounding cities as well as 40 miles into Lake Erie and can be heard in the Southeastern tip of Ontario . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Buffalo , New York with its transmitter located in North Boston . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following Counties : Allegany , Cattaraugus , Chautauqua , Erie , Genesee , Niagara , Orleans , and Wyoming .","qid":"2729","docid":"KEB98","rank":42,"score":89518},{"content":"Title: KBA99 Content: KBA99 is a NOAA Weather Radio station that is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Honolulu , Hawaii with its transmitter located on Mt. Ka'ala in Oahu . Although this station primarily serves Honolulu and surrounding islands , several repeater translators are added , broadcasting weather and hazard information for the entire state of Hawaii and can be heard 40 miles into the Pacific Ocean . It also transmits on Oceanic Time Warner Cable digital channel 880 for all of Hawaii . It is the only NOAA station in the United States that still uses the early version of the `` Tom '' voice . Hourly conditions on this station are reported for the following cities - On Oahu : Honolulu International Airport , Kalaeloa , Kaneohe , and Wheeler Field . On Kauai : Lihue , and Barking Sands . On Molokai : Molokai Airport . On Lanai : Lanai City . On Maui : Kahului , Kapalua , and Haleakalā . On The Big Island : Hilo , Kona , and Bradshaw Field . As of June 25 , 2014 , translator WWF39 in Hawaii Kai has moved from frequency 162.400 MHz to 162.450 MHz as new upgraded equipment was installed at the station , producing an enhanced signal . This enhancement allows important emergency messages as well as weather forecasts and current conditions to be heard in portions of East Oahu where the broadcast was previously not available .","qid":"2729","docid":"KBA99","rank":43,"score":89424},{"content":"Title: TV and FM DX Content: TV DX and FM DX is the active search for distant radio or television stations received during unusual atmospheric conditions . The term DX is an old telegraphic term meaning `` long distance . '' VHF/UHF television and radio signals are normally limited to a maximum `` deep fringe '' reception service area of approximately 40 - in areas where the broadcast spectrum is congested , and about 50 percent farther in the absence of interference . However , providing favourable atmospheric conditions are present , television and radio signals sometimes can be received hundreds or even thousands of miles outside their intended coverage area . These signals are often received using a large outdoor antenna system connected to a sensitive TV or FM receiver , although this may not always be the case . Many times smaller antennas and receivers such as those in vehicles will receive stations farther than normal depending on how favourable conditions are . While only a limited number of local stations can normally be received at satisfactory signal strengths in any given area , tuning into other channels may reveal weaker signals from adjacent areas . More consistently strong signals , especially those accentuated by unusual atmospheric conditions , can be achieved by improving the antenna system . The development of interest in TV-FM DX as a hobby can arise after more distant signals are either intentionally or accidentally discovered , leading to a serious interest in improving the listener 's antenna and receiving installation for the purpose of actively seeking long-range television and radio reception . The TV-FM DX hobby is somewhat similar to other radio/electronic related hobbies such as amateur radio , Medium Wave DX , or short-wave radio , and organisations such as the Worldwide TV-FM DX Association have developed to coordinate and foster the further study and enjoyment of VHF/UHF television and FM broadcast DX .","qid":"2729","docid":"TV_and_FM_DX","rank":44,"score":89422},{"content":"Title: Sitkūnai Radio Station Content: Sitkūnai Radio Station is a large facility for medium wave and shortwave broadcasting at Sitkūnai , Lithuania . The decision to build a new transmitting centre near the village of Sitkunai , about 17 km north of Kaunas was made by the Government of Lithuania in 1937 . The building works started in 1939 , and after completion , a 120 kW medium wave transmitter from Standard Telephones and Cables in the United Kingdom was ordered . However , the outbreak of World War II stopped the shipment . The empty transmitter buildings in Sitkunai survived the war with almost no damage and were used as military compound by the German army in 1941-1944 , and later as a primary school . Because the Soviet Lithuania was badly covered by radio signals , the Soviet authorities decided to continue the building work at Sitkunai and turn the site into a main shortwave and medium wave transmitting centre . During 1951 and 1952 two 50 kW shortwave transmitters , dismantled from an East German utility site as war reparations were installed in Sitkūnai . Several curtain antennas were erected and one 150 kW mediumwave transmitter was installed ( 665 kHz ) . During the January Events in 1991 , Sitkūnai Radio Station was among those transmitting sites broadcasting to the world about the Soviet military actions in Vilnius when 14 civilians were killed and more than 600 injured . Now Sitkūnai Radio Station broadcasts on three frequencies in the medium wave band using two transmitters ( Russian made Shtorm , 150 kW , installed 1964 , and Russian made Vihr , 500 kW , installed 1977 ) and following antennas : one guyed mast 257 metre tall , two guyed masts 238 metre tall and two masts 150 metre tall . For short wave broadcasting , a Continental 418F 100 kW transmitter is used along with four antennas : three horizontal dipole arrays beamed at 259 , 79 and 310 degrees , and a dipole beamed at 259/79 degrees . The station is owned and operated by Lithuanian National Radio and Television Centre .","qid":"2729","docid":"Sitkūnai_Radio_Station","rank":45,"score":89411},{"content":"Title: KEC38 Content: KEC38 ( sometimes referred to as Largo All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the Tampa Bay Area and surrounding cities as well as Tampa Bay and 40 miles into the Gulf of Mexico . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Tampa , Florida with its transmitter located in the same city . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following Counties : Hillsborough , Manatee , Pasco , and Pinellas .","qid":"2729","docid":"KEC38","rank":46,"score":88920},{"content":"Title: National Data Buoy Center Content: The National Data Buoy Center ( NDBC ) is a part of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 's ( NOAA ) National Weather Service ( NWS ) . NDBC designs , develops , operates , and maintains a network of data collecting buoys and coastal stations . The NBDC is located in southern Mississippi as a tenant at the John C. Stennis Space Center , a National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA ) facility .","qid":"2729","docid":"National_Data_Buoy_Center","rank":47,"score":88821},{"content":"Title: National Campus Climate Survey Content: The National Campus Climate Survey ( NCCS ) is a service offered to institutions of higher education in the United States who would like to better understand and improve their campus climate with regards to sexual assault and related topics . The study is designed to : Meet all state and federal requirements for the conduct of sexual assault surveys . Provide a scientifically rigorous survey instrument to help schools learn about the campus climate concerning sexual misconduct . Provide varying survey implementation tiers to match institutions ' varying needs for defensible data . Provide a benchmarking tool to allow institutions to compare their results against other participating institutions , and where possible , peer groups . The National Campus Climate Survey was developed at the University of Michigan in collaboration with a local survey research firm , SoundRocket ( formerly known as Survey Sciences Group , LLC ) The study was developed in response to the report from the White House Task Force to Protect Students from Sexual Assault .","qid":"2729","docid":"National_Campus_Climate_Survey","rank":48,"score":88604},{"content":"Title: Grímsstaðir Content: Grímsstaðir is a settlement in north-east Iceland whose main claim to fame is that its weather station holds the low-temperature record for Iceland of -38 ° C : no doubt due to its sheltered location ( at altitude of about 400 metres ) between two upland areas ( above 800 metres ) . One of its recent records was recorded on December 8 , 2013 , when the temperature fell at -24,2 ° C. It is situated just off Route 1 ( the main ring road around the island ) , where it crosses the large river Jökulsá á Fjöllum , about 37 km or 23 miles east of Lake Mývatn . The river was bridged in 1947 : before that , traffic between north and east Iceland had to use a ferry . Currently the settlement has some accommodation for tourists , with discussions for growth . It also has an airstrip , in common with many isolated rural settlements in Iceland . It is a recognised stop on the bus route between Akureyri and Egilsstaðir ( up to one bus per day in summer ) although it is only during summer that the buses venture off the main road to the settlement itself .","qid":"2729","docid":"Grímsstaðir","rank":49,"score":88547},{"content":"Title: National Severe Weather Warning Service Content: The National Severe Weather Warning Service ( shortened to NSWWS ) is a service provided by the Met Office in the United Kingdom . The purpose of this service is to warn the public and emergency responders of severe or hazardous weather which has the potential to cause danger to life or widespread disruption . This allows emergency responders to put plans into place to help protect the public and allows the public to make necessary preparations .","qid":"2729","docid":"National_Severe_Weather_Warning_Service","rank":50,"score":88435},{"content":"Title: Troposphere Content: The troposphere is the lowest portion of Earth 's atmosphere , and is also where nearly all weather takes place . It contains approximately 75 % of the atmosphere 's mass and 99 % of the total mass of water vapor and aerosols . The average depths of the troposphere are 20 km in the tropics , 17 km in the mid latitudes , and 7 km in the polar regions in winter . The lowest part of the troposphere , where friction with the Earth 's surface influences air flow , is the planetary boundary layer . This layer is typically a few hundred meters to 2 km deep depending on the landform and time of day . Atop the troposphere is the tropopause , which is the border between the troposphere and stratosphere . The tropopause is an inversion layer , where the air temperature ceases to decrease with height and remains constant through its thickness . The word troposphere derives from the for `` turn , turn toward , trope '' and '' - sphere '' ( as in , the Earth ) , reflecting the fact that rotational turbulent mixing plays an important role in the troposphere 's structure and behaviour . Most of the phenomena associated with day-to-day weather occur in the troposphere .","qid":"2729","docid":"Troposphere","rank":51,"score":88354},{"content":"Title: National Weather Service Boise, Idaho Content: The National Weather Service Boise , Idaho is a weather forecast office responsible for weather forecasts , warnings and local statements as well as aviation weather forecasts and fire weather forecasts for 3 counties in Southeast Oregon and 14 counties in Southwest and South central Idaho . The U.S. Weather Bureau established an office in the Sonna Building on December 1 , 1898 . Since then , the U.S Weather Bureau office , now known as the National Weather Service forecast office gained forecast responsibility of Southern Idaho on June 22 , 1970 which was expanded to the entire state of Idaho in 1973 . After modernization in 1993 , the forecast responsibility was changed to Southeast Oregon and Southwest Idaho . The current office in Boise maintains a WSR-88D ( NEXRAD ) radar system , 8 Automated airport weather station ( ASOS ) systems and Advanced Weather Interactive Processing System ( AWIPS ) that greatly improve forecasting in the region . Continuous weather observations have been maintained for the city of Boise since February 1 , 1964 about 5 months after the U.S. Army established Fort Boise . The post surgeon for the U.S. Army took observations until July 1 , 1877 when the U.S Signal Service , established an office downtown . The Signal Office was discontinued on July 1 , 1890 .","qid":"2729","docid":"National_Weather_Service_Boise,_Idaho","rank":52,"score":88232},{"content":"Title: WNG663 Content: WNG663 is a NOAA Weather Radio ( NWR ) station serving the southern part of the South Florida metropolitan area and its adjacent coastal waters as well as the northern portion of the Florida Keys , broadcasting on an assigned frequency of 162.425 MHz ; it can also be heard 35 miles into the Atlantic Ocean . It is programmed by NOAA 's National Weather Service ( NWS ) weather forecast office ( WFO ) in Miami , Florida , with its transmitter located in Princeton , near Homestead . It continuously broadcasts weather and marine forecasts , as well as civil hazards information , for the following counties in the South Florida region : Miami-Dade and parts of Monroe ( mainland and Upper Keys ) . The radio station plays a vital role in alerting the general public to hazardous weather conditions in an area prone to severe weather events such as lightning storms , tornadoes , waterspouts and hurricanes . Although its signal also reaches extreme southern Broward County , WNG663 does not issue alerts for that area . There are other adjacent NWR stations that serve the forecast area . KHB34 Andover/Miami Gardens ( 162.550 MHz ) also covers Miami-Dade , as well as Broward and much of Palm Beach counties . Other stations programmed by the Miami-South Florida WFO include : KEC50 Mangonia Park/West Palm Beach ( 162.475 MHz ) to the north , serving Palm Beach County and the adjacent coastal waters ; WXM58 Belle Glade ( 162.400 MHz ) to the northwest , in western Palm Beach County near Lake Okeechobee ; and WWG92 Naples ( 162.525 MHz ) to the northwest , near Florida 's west coast , serving Collier , Hendry and a portion of mainland Monroe County . Recognizing the need to serve the local area 's large Spanish-speaking population , NWS added a low-power station in June 2012 , WZ2531 ( 162.500 MHz ) transmitting from Hialeah - the first dedicated Spanish language NWR station in Florida . Its broadcast , featuring a computer-synthesized voice known by the nickname `` Javier '' , covers Miami-Dade and Broward counties .","qid":"2729","docid":"WNG663","rank":53,"score":88217},{"content":"Title: Sura Ionospheric Heating Facility Content: The Sura Ionospheric Heating Facility , located near the small town of Vasilsursk about 100 km eastward from Nizhniy Novgorod in Russia , is a laboratory for ionosphere research . Sura is capable of radiating about 190 MW , effective radiated power ( ERP ) on short waves . This facility is operated by the radiophysical research institute NIRFI in Nizhny Novgorod . The Sura facility was commissioned in 1981 . Using this facility , Russian researchers studied the behaviour of the ionosphere and the effect of generation of low-frequency emission on modulation of ionosphere current . In the beginning , the Soviet Defense Department mostly footed the bill . The American HAARP ionospheric heater , whose operation began in 1993 , is similar to the Sura facility .","qid":"2729","docid":"Sura_Ionospheric_Heating_Facility","rank":54,"score":88073},{"content":"Title: Heat advisory Content: A Heat Advisory is issued by the National Weather Service of the United States . . Local offices often have their own criteria . High values of the heat index are caused by temperatures being significantly above normal and high humidities , and such high levels can pose a threat to human life through conditions such as heat stroke .","qid":"2729","docid":"Heat_advisory","rank":55,"score":88060},{"content":"Title: National Weather Service North Little Rock, Arkansas Content: National Weather Service - North Little Rock , AR , also known as National Weather Service - Little Rock , AR , is a local weather forecast office responsible for monitoring weather conditions for 45 of Arkansas 's 75 counties , excluding 7 counties in Northwestern Arkansas , 9 counties in Southwestern and South Central Arkansas , Ashley and Chicot counties in Extreme Southeastern Arkansas , and 12 counties in Eastern Arkansas . Those counties are monitored by the weather service offices in Tulsa , Shreveport , Jackson ( MS ) , and Memphis respectively . The current office in North Little Rock maintains a WSR-88D ( NEXRAD ) radar system and Advanced Weather Interactive Processing System ( AWIPS ) that greatly improve forecasting in the region . North Little Rock is in charge of weather forecasts , warnings and local statements as well as aviation weather . The name of the doppler radar ( WSR-88D ) code used by this office is LZK . The National Weather Service at North Little Rock , Arkansas programs 12 NOAA Weather Radio transmitters across Arkansas , with 25 transmitters statewide .","qid":"2729","docid":"National_Weather_Service_North_Little_Rock,_Arkansas","rank":56,"score":87950},{"content":"Title: Stevenson screen Content: A Stevenson screen or instrument shelter is a shelter or an enclosure to shield meteorological instruments against precipitation and direct heat radiation from outside sources , while still allowing air to circulate freely around them . It forms part of a standard weather station . The Stevenson screen holds instruments that may include thermometers ( ordinary , maximum/minimum ) , a hygrometer , a psychrometer , a dewcell , a barometer and a thermograph . Stevenson screens may also be known as a cotton region shelter , an instrument shelter , a thermometer shelter , a thermoscreen or a thermometer screen . Its purpose is to provide a standardised environment in which to measure temperature , humidity , dewpoint and atmospheric pressure .","qid":"2729","docid":"Stevenson_screen","rank":57,"score":87797},{"content":"Title: Weather radio Content: A weather radio service is a public broadcast service dedicated to airing continuous weather reports . In most locations , it requires a specially-designed radio capable of receiving `` weather band '' frequencies - when tuned to one of these channels , it receives a radio station that broadcasts both routine and emergency weather information . Some weather radio receivers are equipped with a standby alerting function - if the radio is off or tuned to another band and a severe weather bulletin is transmitted , it can automatically sound an alarm and/or switch to a pre-tuned weather channel for emergency weather information . Weather radio services may also broadcast non-weather-related emergency information , such as in the event of a natural disaster , an AMBER alert or a terrorist attack . They generally broadcast in a pre-allocated very high frequency ( VHF ) range using FM . Usually a dedicated weather radio receiver or radio scanner is needed for listening , although in some locations a weather radio broadcast may be retransmitted on a conventional AM or FM frequency ( as well as HD Radio substations ) , some terrestrial television stations broadcasting in MTS stereo transmit weather radio on their second audio program ( SAP ) channel as well as on one of its digital subchannels ( where news and weather are applicable ) , on local public , educational , and government access ( PEG ) cable TV channels or during Emergency Alert System activations for tornado warnings primarily on cable systems . These weather-specific channels have experienced very low adoption . In Chicago , for example , there are no dedicated stations that provide transmissions for these channels .","qid":"2729","docid":"Weather_radio","rank":58,"score":87235},{"content":"Title: Dickerson Whitewater Course Content: The Dickerson Whitewater Course , on the Potomac River near Dickerson , Maryland , was built for use by canoe and kayak paddlers training for the 1992 Olympic Games in Spain . It was the first pump-powered artificial whitewater course built in North America , and is still the only one anywhere with heated water . It remains an active training center for whitewater slalom racing , swiftwater rescue training , and other whitewater activities . The facility is owned by the NRG Energy company . Except during special events , access requires membership in the Potomac Whitewater Racing Center , a USA Canoe/Kayak National Training Center . The course was constructed in 1991 , inside a pre-existing straight , 900 ft-long concrete channel , 40 ft wide . Since 1959 , the channel has returned cooling water from the Dickerson Generating Station to the Potomac River , 41 mi upstream from Washington , D.C. Water is pumped from the river , warmed as much as 35 ° F ( 20 ° C ) as it cools the power plant 's three coal-fired generators , and then emptied into the channel for gravity flow back to the river . ( The plant has three other generators which use a different cooling system . ) Streamflow through the course is 200 cuft/s to 600 cuft/s , depending on the operation of the plant 's three coal-fired generators and their six cooling water pumps . In the summer months , when water temperature in the channel exceeds 100 ° F , the course is closed for health reasons . It is also closed when the Potomac River rises above 5 ft on the Little Falls gauge 20000 cuft/s , flooding the lower section of the course .","qid":"2729","docid":"Dickerson_Whitewater_Course","rank":59,"score":87197},{"content":"Title: WNG584 Content: WNG584 ( sometimes referred to as Avalon All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Los Angeles/Oxnard , California with its transmitter located in Avalon , California serving the Santa Catalina Island . It broadcasts marine weather and hazard information only for Los Angeles County as well as its coastal waters . The station 's forecast cycle includes marine forecasts for the inner coastal waters from Pont Mugu to San Mateo Point , outer waters from Santa Cruz Island to San Clemente Island , and inner waters from San Mateo Point to the Mexican border inside San Clemente Island at 20 minute intervals ; and the offshore waters forecast from Point Conception to Guadalupe Island extending 60 to 250 nautical miles offshore . Weather conditions are updated hourly for Avalon Airport , Long Beach Airport , Los Angeles Airport , Santa Ana John Wayne Airport , Oceanside and Carlsbad along with coastal conditions from the east Santa Barbara Channel to the Mexican Border .","qid":"2729","docid":"WNG584","rank":60,"score":87131},{"content":"Title: Säntis transmitter Content: The Säntis transmitter is a 123.5 m ( 405.3 ft ) high transmitting station on the summit of the 2,502 m ( 8,209 ft ) high Säntis mountain in Switzerland . It is operated by Swisscom . The original tower was built in 1955 , but due to the extreme weather at such a high altitude , it had to be repeatedly rebuilt . Finally in 1997 , a completely new tower has been built which is specifically suited to the icy temperatures .","qid":"2729","docid":"Säntis_transmitter","rank":61,"score":87078},{"content":"Title: WWF64 Content: WWF64 ( sometimes referred to as Monterey Marine All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves Monterey , California and vicinity including some parts of the San Francisco Bay Area and can be heard 40 miles into the Pacific Ocean . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Monterey with its transmitter located in Mount Umunhum . Unlike its general weather radio counterpart station KEC49 , this transmitter broadcasts marine forecasts and hazardous marine alerts for the following counties : Alameda , Contra Costa , Monterey , Napa , San Benito , San Francisco , San Mateo , Santa Clara , and Santa Cruz .","qid":"2729","docid":"WWF64","rank":62,"score":86853},{"content":"Title: R-905 Content: The R-905 is a microwave transmission station that is used in the Swiss Army . The directional station consists of a transmitting and receiving device ( SE R-905 ) - in which the antenna reflector is also integrated - the operator terminal ( BT ) - a handset with keypad and LCD - and a supply equipment ( SA 95/1 ) . There are a 24-V battery , a tripod with guy ropes , and a camouflage net . All the mentioned sums up to about 230 kg but can be man-carried separately . Over a maximum of 4 km of Optical fiber cable ( OFC ) a parabolic antenna `` Bündelschlüsselgerät '' ( BSG 93 ) is connected to the SE . The optical signal has a user Bit rate of either 2 or 8 MiBit . The frequency range is from 14.64 to 15.21 GHz , with a frequency difference of at least 150 MHz . The maximum range is about 35 km . The range can be increase by using up to two R-905 as relay stations . A relay station consists of two R-905s , which are connected to an optical fiber . Over an unencrypted service channel that is multiplexed to the utility and remote control signals can be telephoned with the other operators of the BSG93s and the SEs .","qid":"2729","docid":"R-905","rank":63,"score":86709},{"content":"Title: Earth's internal heat budget Content: The flow of heat from Earth 's interior to the surface is estimated at 47 terawatts ( TW ) and comes from two main sources in roughly equal amounts : the radiogenic heat produced by the radioactive decay of isotopes in the mantle and crust , and the primordial heat left over from the formation of the Earth . Earth 's internal heat powers most geological processes and drives plate tectonics . Despite its geological significance , this heat energy coming from Earth 's interior is actually only 0.03 % of Earth 's total energy budget at the surface , which is dominated by 173,000 TW of incoming solar radiation . The insolation that eventually , after reflection , reaches the surface penetrates only several tens of centimeters on the daily cycle and only several tens of meters on the annual cycle . This renders solar radiation irrelevant for internal processes .","qid":"2729","docid":"Earth's_internal_heat_budget","rank":64,"score":86578},{"content":"Title: KEC80 Content: KEC80 is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the Atlanta metro area with 500 watts effective radiated power on 162.550 MHz . Its radio transmitter is located east of the city atop Stone Mountain , with its radio antenna on the short tower owned by Georgia Public Broadcasting for transmitting WGTV TV 8 , within state-owned Stone Mountain Park . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office at Falcon Field airport in Peachtree City , which was originally at Hartsfield International Airport ( now Hartsfield-Jackson ) in Atlanta .","qid":"2729","docid":"KEC80","rank":65,"score":86515},{"content":"Title: Monthly Climatic Data for the World Content: Monthly Climatic Data for the World ( MCDW ) is a monthly publication of the National Climatic Data Center ( NCDC ) division of the National Environmental Satellite , Data , and Information Service ( NESDIS ) division of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) of the United States . According to the website , each monthly issue `` contains monthly mean temperature , pressure , precipitation , vapor pressure , and sunshine for approximately 2,000 surface data collection stations worldwide and monthly mean upper air temperatures , dew point depressions , and wind velocities for approximately 500 observing sites . This is the final quality controlled copy and generally has a 4 - 6 month time lag . '' The issues are available for download in portable document format .","qid":"2729","docid":"Monthly_Climatic_Data_for_the_World","rank":66,"score":86392},{"content":"Title: National Weather Service Tampa, Florida Content: The National Weather Service Tampa , Florida is a local office of the National Weather Service responsible for monitoring weather conditions in west-central Florida , United States . The office is located in Ruskin , and currently has 26 employees .","qid":"2729","docid":"National_Weather_Service_Tampa,_Florida","rank":67,"score":86369},{"content":"Title: MesoWest Content: MesoWest is an ongoing cooperative project , started in 1996 , to provide access to current and archive weather observations across the United States . Weather observations include but are not limited to : temperature , humidity , wind speed , wind direction , and precipitation . Data are collected from a variety of organizations . Some stations participate in voluntary weather observing networks such as the Citizen Weather Observer Program . Others are part of mesonets that are managed by private firms or federal/state/local agencies . These data are available for a multitude of uses . Over 20,000 weather stations actively report to the MesoWest database . Parties involved in this project include researchers at the University of Utah , forecasters at the Salt Lake City National Weather Service Office , the National Weather Service Western Region Headquarters , and personnel of participating agencies , universities , and commercial firms . Support for this project is being provided by the National Weather Service .","qid":"2729","docid":"MesoWest","rank":68,"score":86323},{"content":"Title: Mendenhall Glacier Content: Mendenhall Glacier ( also Sitaantaagu ) is a glacier about 13.6 miles long located in Mendenhall Valley , about 12 mi from downtown Juneau in the southeast area of the U.S. state of Alaska . The glacier and surrounding landscape is protected as part of the 5,815-acre Mendenhall Glacier Recreation Area , a federally designated unit of the Tongass National Forest . The Juneau Icefield Research Program has monitored the outlet glaciers of the Juneau Icefield since 1942 , including Mendenhall Glacier . The glacier has also retreated 1.75 mi since 1929 , when Mendenhall Lake was created , and over 2.5 mi since 1500 . The end of the glacier currently has a negative glacier mass balance and will continue to retreat in the foreseeable future . Given that average yearly temperatures are currently increasing , and the outlook is for this trend to continue , it is actually possible that the glacier might experience a period of stabilization or slight advance during its retreating march . This is because increasing amounts of warm , moist air will be carried up to the head of the icefield , where colder ambient temperatures will cause it to precipitate as snow . The increased amount of snow will feed the icefield , possibly enough to offset the continually increasing melting experienced at the glacier 's terminus . However , this interesting phenomenon will fade away if temperatures continue to climb , since the head of the glacier will no longer have cold enough ambient temperatures to cause snow to precipitate .","qid":"2729","docid":"Mendenhall_Glacier","rank":69,"score":86115},{"content":"Title: KGG68 Content: KGG68 ( sometimes referred to as Houston All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station operating at 162.40 MHz that serves the city proper and suburbs in Greater Houston . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in League City , Texas with its transmitter located in Tomball , Texas . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following Counties : Brazoria , Chambers , Fort Bend , Galveston , Harris , Liberty , Montgomery , and Waller .","qid":"2729","docid":"KGG68","rank":70,"score":86015},{"content":"Title: Videometer Content: A videometer is a European designed automatic docking system that guides an Automated Transfer Vehicle ( ATV ) towards the docking port of the Russian Zvezda Service Module of the International Space Station ( ISS ) . The ATV uses relative global positioning system ( GPS ) in order to close in on the ISS up to a distance of 249 m. Thereafter the ATV uses two videometers , together with additional data from telegoniometers , to automatically complete the docking maneuver . Both videometers are active during rendezvous with one acting as a back-up . Retroreflectors located on the aft end of Zvezda module accurately reflect pulsed laser beams emitted by the videometer on the front of the ATV . The spot patterns of laser light returned from the passive reflectors are analysed by the image processors on the ATV to give its relative position and orientation to the ISS . The beam travel time to the videometer 's 26 retroreflectors , contained in a 25mm cube , compute the distance between the two spacecraft and thus allowing it to identify , approach and mate to Zvezda 's docking mechanism .","qid":"2729","docid":"Videometer","rank":71,"score":85915},{"content":"Title: National Weather Service Amarillo, Texas Content: The National Weather Service Amarillo , Texas is a weather forecast office that serves 23 counties in the Texas and Oklahoma Panhandles by providing weather forecasts for the many communities it serves as well as airports in Guymon , Dalhart , and Amarillo . The office was established on January 1 , 1892 , only 5 years after the city of Amarillo was founded . The office operates a WSR-88D ( NEXRAD ) radar and a number of ASOS sensor suites in order to monitor the latest weather conditions . An AWIPS system is used by the office to produce forecasts , warnings , and advisories .","qid":"2729","docid":"National_Weather_Service_Amarillo,_Texas","rank":72,"score":85866},{"content":"Title: Sitarampur railway station Content: The Sitarampur , station code STN , is the railway station serving the neighbourhood of Neamatpur and Sitarampur in Asansol , Paschim Bardhaman district in the Indian state of West Bengal . Sitarampur Junction is part of the Asansol Division of the Eastern Railway Zone of the Indian Railway . Sitarampur Junction is connected to metropolitan areas of India , Delhi-Kolkata Main Line via Mugalsarai-Patna route as well as the Grand Chord route . Sitarampur is located at . It has an average elevation of 99 m.","qid":"2729","docid":"Sitarampur_railway_station","rank":73,"score":85818},{"content":"Title: National Hurricane Center Content: The National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) is the division of the United States ' National Weather Service responsible for tracking and predicting weather systems within the tropics between the Prime Meridian and the 140th meridian west poleward to the 30th parallel north in the northeast Pacific Ocean and the 31st parallel north in the northern Atlantic Ocean . The agency , which is co-located with the Miami branch of the National Weather Service , is situated on the campus of Florida International University in University Park , Florida . Its Tropical Analysis and Forecast Branch ( TAFB ) routinely issues marine forecasts , in the form of graphics and high seas forecasts , for this area year round , with the Ocean Prediction Center having backup responsibility for this unit . The Technology and Science Branch ( TSB ) provides technical support for the center , which includes new infusions of technology from abroad . The Chief , Aerial Reconnaissance Coordination , All Hurricanes ( CARCAH ) unit tasks planes , for research and operational purposes , to tropical cyclones during the Atlantic hurricane season and significant weather events , including snow storms , during winter and spring . Research to improve operational forecasts is done through the Hurricane Forecast Improvement Project ( HFIP ) and Joint Hurricane Test Bed ( JHT ) initiatives . During the Atlantic and northeast Pacific hurricane seasons , the Hurricane Specialists Unit ( HSU ) issues routine tropical weather outlooks for the northeast Pacific and northern Atlantic oceans . When tropical storm or hurricane conditions are expected within 48 hours , the center issues watches and warnings via the news media and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) Weather Radio . Although the NHC is an agency of the United States , the World Meteorological Organization has designated it as Regional Specialized Meteorological Center for the North Atlantic and eastern Pacific , making it the clearinghouse for tropical cyclone forecasts and observations occurring in these areas . If the center loses power or becomes incapacitated , the Central Pacific Hurricane Center backs tropical cyclone advisories and tropical weather outlooks for the northeast Pacific Ocean while the Weather Prediction Center backs up tropical cyclone advisories and tropical weather outlooks for the north Atlantic Ocean .","qid":"2729","docid":"National_Hurricane_Center","rank":74,"score":85723},{"content":"Title: Veerplas Content: Veerplas ( -LSB- ˌveːrˈplɑs -RSB- ) is an artificial lake directly east of the Dutch city of Haarlem . It was dug in 1994 , mainly for recreation purposes and forms part of the Spaarnwoude recreational area . The lake measures 450 by 400 metres . The southern shore is formed by a constructed wetland used for water purification . Large numbers of waterfowl may be found here and along the swampy eastern shore during the winter season ( e.g. greylag geese , wigeons , common goldeneyes ) . The local angling club has released carps into the lake . A sandy beach measuring some 300 m was created at the western shore . An area sufficiently shallow to accommodate safe swimming by inexperienced bathers is cordoned off . Furthermore , a grassy sunbathing area sporting a public toilet adjoins the lake , as well as a children 's adventure playground . The lake is only a short walking distance from Haarlem Spaarnwoude railway station and relatively close to the A200 and A9 motorways . This favourable location has helped to make it a popular area for organising mid to large-scale events . Thus , 2006 saw the Circus Herman Renz pitch its tent alongside the lake .","qid":"2729","docid":"Veerplas","rank":75,"score":85231},{"content":"Title: Giles Weather Station Content: Giles Weather Station ( also referred to as Giles Meteorological Station or Giles ) is located in Western Australia near the Northern Territory border , about 750 km west-south-west of Alice Springs and 330 km west of Uluru . It is the only staffed weather station within an area of about 2500000 km2 and is situated mid-continent and near the core of the subtropical jetstream . This means it plays an important role as a weather and climate observatory for the country , particularly eastern and southeastern Australia , and particularly for rainfall predictions . The station is on the Great Central Road and the nearest township is the Warakurna aboriginal settlement ( population 180 ) , 5 km North . Giles is within the Shire of Ngaanyatjarraku and is in the foothills of the Rawlinson Ranges . A staff of three ( reduced from four at the end of 2010 ) operate the remote station on six-monthly tours . A 1600 m airstrip services the station and the Warakurna community . Tourists are invited to watch the daily release of weather balloons and browse through the Visitor 's Centre . Station tours are no longer conducted on a regular basis .","qid":"2729","docid":"Giles_Weather_Station","rank":76,"score":85150},{"content":"Title: NTPC Dadri Content: National Capital Power Station ( NCPS ) Or NTPC Dadri , is the power project to meet the power demand of National Capital Region ( India ) . It has a huge coal-fired thermal power plant and a gas-fired plant and has a small township located in Uttar Pradesh , India for its employees . It is located in Gautam Budh Nagar district of Uttar Pradesh about 25 km from Ghaziabad and about 9 km from Dadri . It is nearly 48 km from New Delhi towards Hapur . The township has an area of about 500 acres over all . NTPC Dadri is a branch of National Thermal Power Corporation , which is a public sector now . It is about 20 km from Ghaziabad via Badalpur , Mahawar , Bamabawar , and Akilpur Jagir .","qid":"2729","docid":"NTPC_Dadri","rank":77,"score":85082},{"content":"Title: National Weather Service Duties Act of 2005 Content: The National Weather Service Duties Act of 2005 was a legislative proposal forwarded in April 2005 by United States Senator Rick Santorum ( R-PA ) to curtail perceived government competition with commercial weather services from the National Weather Service . Though the wording of the bill was generally considered unclear , the general consensus among observers was that its effect would be to eliminate public dissemination of National Weather Service data and forecasts except in case of severe weather alerts . The bill attracted no cosponsors in the Senate and eventually died in committee , and was roundly criticized by the general public for threatening to move taxpayer-funded data ( currently made available for free ) to commercial for-profit channels ( i.e. behind a pay wall ) . The bill had very few supporters outside the commercial weather industry . In the wake of the bill 's introduction , Santorum was accused of political impropriety and influence peddling because Joel Myers , the head of Pennsylvania-based AccuWeather and one of Santorum 's constituents , was also a Santorum campaign contributor . Myers and his brother , the executive vice president , donated over $ 11,000 to Santorum 's political campaigns , including $ 2,000 two days before Santorum introduced the bill . In September 2005 , while the bill was still in committee , Santorum criticized the National Weather Service 's forecasting of Hurricane Katrina , claiming that more lives could have been saved if the NWS 's operation focused on severe weather . However , both public and professional opinion held that the NWS 's forecasting had in fact been substantially better than most other sources , and Santorum 's comment was largely ignored .","qid":"2729","docid":"National_Weather_Service_Duties_Act_of_2005","rank":78,"score":85014},{"content":"Title: Kombayashi–Ingersoll limit Content: In planetary science , the Kombayashi -- Ingersoll limit represents the maximum solar flux a planet can handle without a runaway greenhouse effect setting in . For planets with temperature-dependent sources of greenhouse gases such as liquid water and optically thin atmospheres the outgoing longwave radiation curve ( which indicates how fast energy can be radiated away by the planet ) flattens at high temperatures , reaching a horizontal asymptote -- the Kombayashi -- Ingersoll limit itself . Since the equilibrium temperature is the intersection of this curve and a horizontal line representing solar flux , for fluxes above this point the planet heats up indefinitely . Kasting estimated the limit for Earth to be 320 watts per square meter . The limit is relevant for estimating the inner edge of the circumstellar habitable zone . However , the limit also depends on the surface gravity of the planet , making heavy worlds somewhat more resistant to the runaway effect .","qid":"2729","docid":"Kombayashi–Ingersoll_limit","rank":79,"score":84987},{"content":"Title: Patio heater Content: A patio heater ( also called a mushroom or umbrella heater ) is a radiant heating appliance for generating thermal radiation for outdoor use . A burner on top of a post , burns liquefied petroleum gas ( LPG ) , propane or butane , and directs the flames against a perforated metal screen . Heat is radiated from the surface of the screen in a circular pattern around the appliance . A reflector atop the burner reflects heat that would be otherwise lost upwards . This is because the reflecting hood is usually silvered which makes it a poor absorber/emitter of heat but excellent at reflecting infra-red radiation back . This reduces the amount of heat lost by conduction as silvered surfaces will not absorb infra-red light . The chimenea is an alternative to the patio heater for home use , which burns wood instead of gas . Some newer types of patio heaters are electrically powered radiative heaters that emit infrared energy onto nearby surfaces , which in turn heat up the surrounding air . Patio heaters have become popular with bars and restaurants since they extend the day and the season for their customers to sit outdoors . This increase in the popularity of the patio heater has led to concerns over their environmental effects . One patio heater can produce four tons of carbon dioxide annually .","qid":"2729","docid":"Patio_heater","rank":80,"score":84923},{"content":"Title: Global Historical Climatology Network Content: The Global Historical Climatology Network ( GHCN ) is a database of temperature , precipitation and pressure records managed by the National Climatic Data Center , Arizona State University and the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center . The aggregate data are collected from many continuously reporting fixed stations at the Earth 's surface and represent the input of approximately 6000 temperature stations , 7500 precipitation stations and 2000 pressure stations . This work has often been used as a foundation for reconstructing past global temperatures , and was used in previous versions of two of the best-known reconstructions , that prepared by the National Climatic Data Center ( NCDC ) , and that prepared by NASA as its Goddard Institute for Space Studies ( GISS ) temperature set . The average temperature record is 60 years long with ~ 1650 records greater than 100 years and ~ 220 greater than 150 years ( based on GHCN v2 in 2006 ) . The earliest data included in the database were collected in 1697 .","qid":"2729","docid":"Global_Historical_Climatology_Network","rank":81,"score":84741},{"content":"Title: Weather Info for All Initiative Content: The Weather Info for All ( WIFA ) Initiative is a public-private partnership that works to reinforce the capacities and the capabilities of national meteorological services with the goal of supporting local communities worst impacted by climate change through the improvement of weather monitoring . `` By bringing together the expertise and resources of different public and private actors , this project may help to save lives and improve the livelihoods of communities in Africa living on the frontlines of climate change . '' Kofi Annan , President of the Global Humanitarian Forum . The Forum , together with Ericsson , the World Meteorological Organization , National Meteorological Services ( NMSs ) , the Earth Institute at Columbia University , as well as Zain and other mobile phone operators aim to deploy up to 5,000 automatic weather stations ( AWSs ) at wireless network sites across Africa , where less than 300 are reporting today .","qid":"2729","docid":"Weather_Info_for_All_Initiative","rank":82,"score":84737},{"content":"Title: North Ice Content: North Ice was a research station of the British North Greenland Expedition ( 1952 to 1954 ) on the inland ice of Greenland . The coordinates of the station were , at an altitude of 2341 m above sea level . The British North Greenland Expedition was led by Commander James Simpson RN . The station recorded the lowest temperature ever in North America with -66.1 C on 9 January 1954 . The name of the station contrasts to the former British South Ice station in Antarctica .","qid":"2729","docid":"North_Ice","rank":83,"score":84729},{"content":"Title: Jack C. Davis Observatory Content: The Jack C. Davis Observatory is an astronomical observatory at Western Nevada College in Carson City , Nevada . The facility has three telescopes : two 0.4 m reflecting telescopes and one 0.25 m reflector . One telescope is equipped with a spectrograph . Outside the building , a 0.12 m refractor has been installed under a robotic dome and is used for studying sunspots . All of the telescopes are equipped with cameras , and are connected to the Internet so large groups can access images from remote locations . A Campbell Scientific research-grade weather station is installed outside the observatory . The solar-powered instrument collects weather data and sends it to the Desert Research Institute in Reno , Nevada for analysis and on-line publication . The Planetary Walkway connects the main campus with the observatory . Lining the walkway are massive sandstone monuments created by artistic inmates from the Nevada State Prison at the prison 's old quarry . The stones feature carved images of the planets , along with information about the planet and a dedication to the donors . The Western Nevada Astronomical Society is an observing group affiliated with Western Nevada College and the Jack C. Davis Observatory . The WNAS is dedicated to supporting the astronomical community through education , social functions , and service .","qid":"2729","docid":"Jack_C._Davis_Observatory","rank":84,"score":84629},{"content":"Title: List of National Weather Service Weather Forecast Offices Content: The National Weather Service operates 122 Weather Forecast Offices in six regions . Each Weather Forecast Office has a geographic area of responsibility , also known as a County Warning Area , for issuing local public , marine , aviation , fire , and hydrology forecasts . They also issue severe weather warnings , gather weather observations , and climate data for their assigned area . The local Weather Forecast Offices also control the broadcasts of weather information on the NOAA Weather Radio All Hazards stations .","qid":"2729","docid":"List_of_National_Weather_Service_Weather_Forecast_Offices","rank":85,"score":84594},{"content":"Title: KIH36 Content: KIH36 is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves Coastal Washington . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Seattle , Washington with its transmitter located on Bahokus Peak near Neah Bay . It has a repeater , KXI27 , that broadcasts from Mt. Octopus near Forks on a frequency of 162.425 MHz . It can be heard across Coastal Washington and Southwestern British Columbia . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for Clallam , Grays Harbor , Jefferson and Pacific counties in Washington .","qid":"2729","docid":"KIH36","rank":86,"score":84531},{"content":"Title: National Distress System Content: The U.S. National Distress System ( NDRS ) was established more than 30 years ago as a VHF-FM-based radio communication system that has a range of up to 20 nautical miles ( 40 km ) along most of the U.S. shoreline for the United States Coast Guard . While this system has served the Coast Guard well over the years , it consists of out-of-date and non-standard equipment with many limitations . This system is being replaced by Rescue 21 .","qid":"2729","docid":"National_Distress_System","rank":87,"score":84439},{"content":"Title: KHB37 Content: KHB37 is a NOAA Weather Radio station broadcasting at 162.55 megahertz and transmitting from Norfolk in Hampton Roads , Virginia . It covers most of southeastern Virginia , and northeastern North Carolina . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Wakefield , Virginia . The signal reliably covers the Virginia cities of Norfolk , Virginia Beach , Poquoson , Suffolk , Hampton , Newport News , Portsmouth , Williamsburg , Chesapeake , Franklin , and the Virginia counties of Isle of Wight , James City , Accomack , Surry , Sussex and York . Reception is also reliable in the North Carolina counties of Camden , Currituck , Gates , Perquimans , Hertford , and Pasquotank .","qid":"2729","docid":"KHB37","rank":88,"score":84384},{"content":"Title: Tankwa Karoo National Park Content: Tankwa Karoo National Park is a Scientific National Park in South Africa . The park lies about 70 km due west of Sutherland near the border of the Northern Cape and Western Cape , in one of the most arid regions of South Africa , with areas receiving less than 100 mm of average annual precipitation , moisture-bearing clouds from the Atlantic Ocean being largely stopped by the Cederberg . Other low areas receive little more , as the Roodewerf station ( coordinates : S32 ° 14 ' 27.9 '' E20 ° 05 ' 44.5 '' ) with 180 mm of mean annual rainfall . In the hottest areas of the park , the mean maximum temperature in January is 38.9 ° C , and in July the mean minimum temperature ranges from about 5 to 7 ° C. Before this Park 's proclamation , the only protected area of Succulent Karoo was the 2 square kilometre patch of the Gamkaberg Nature Reserve . Succulent Karoo has , together with the Cape Floral Kingdom , been declared a Biodiversity Hotspot by Conservation International . Tankwa 's area has been increased from an initial 260 to 1436 km2 . It is bounded on the east by the Roggeveld Mountains , on the west by the Cederberg , to the north by the Kouebokkeveld Mountains and on the south by the scattered foothills of the Koedoesberge and Klein Roggeveld Mountains , and the Tankwa River . The park 's headquarters are located at Roodewerf ( GPS coordinates : S 32 ° 14 ' 27.9 '' E 20 ° 5 ' 44.5 '' ) . Distances from the nearest towns to the park 's headquarters are : Ceres ( 180 km ) , Sutherland ( 120 km ) , Calvinia ( 110 km ) and Middelpos ( 52 km ) . In 1998 Conrad Strauss sold 280 km2 of sheep farm to the South African National Parks . The park has started with the reintroduction of game that used to occur naturally in the area . Research was done beforehand to ensure that introduced animals would survive on the overgrazed veld . The vegetation in the park falls within the Succulent Karoo biome and has been described as very sparse shrubland and dwarf shrubland . Several unique succulent genera occur here , such as Tanquana , Braunsia and Didymaotus . The park is home to a large variety of birds ( 188 species - 2015 figure ) , such as the black-headed canary , Ludwig 's bustard , and the black-eared sparrow-lark . Peak birding season is August to October .","qid":"2729","docid":"Tankwa_Karoo_National_Park","rank":89,"score":84319},{"content":"Title: Trent-class lifeboat Content: The Trent-class lifeboat is an all-weather lifeboat operated by the Royal National Lifeboat Institution ( RNLI ) from 30 stations around the coasts of Great Britain and Ireland to provide coverage up to 50 mi out to sea . Introduced to service in 1994 , the class is named after the River Trent , the second longest river wholly in England .","qid":"2729","docid":"Trent-class_lifeboat","rank":90,"score":84264},{"content":"Title: National Park railway station, Manawatu-Wanganui Content: National Park Railway Station is a station on the North Island Main Trunk serving the area around the town of National Park in New Zealand 's Ruapehu District . It is served by Kiwirail 's Northern Explorer long distance train between Wellington and Auckland . There is a licensed cafe on the platform . At an elevation of 806.8 m , it is the country 's highest station with a scheduled passenger stop ( although the now-closed Waiouru Railway Station is higher ) . About 5 km north of the station the railway performs the convoluted dance that is the Raurimu Spiral , one of New Zealand 's most impressive feats of engineering .","qid":"2729","docid":"National_Park_railway_station,_Manawatu-Wanganui","rank":91,"score":84253},{"content":"Title: Visual meteorological conditions Content: In aviation , visual meteorological conditions ( or VMC ) is an aviation flight category in which visual flight rules ( VFR ) flight is permitted -- that is , conditions in which pilots have sufficient visibility to fly the aircraft maintaining visual separation from terrain and other aircraft . They are the opposite of instrument meteorological conditions ( IMC ) . The boundary criteria between IMC and VMC are known as the VMC minima and are defined by : visibility , cloud ceilings ( for takeoffs and landings ) , and cloud clearances . The exact requirements vary by type of airspace , whether it is day or night ( for countries that permit night VFR ) , and from country to country . Typical visibility requirements vary from one statute mile to five statute miles ( many countries define these in metric units as 1,500 m to 8 km ) . Typical cloud clearance requirements vary from merely remaining clear of clouds to remaining at least one mile away ( 1,500 m in some countries ) from clouds horizontally and 1,000 feet away from clouds vertically . For instance , in Australia , VMC minima outside controlled airspace are clear of cloud with 5,000 m visibility below 3,000 ft AMSL or 1,000 ft AGL ( whichever is higher ) , and 1,000 ft vertical/1 ,500 m horizontal separation from cloud above these altitudes or in controlled airspace . Above 10,000 ft , 8,000 m visibility is required to maintain VMC . Air traffic control may also issue a `` special VFR '' clearance to VFR aircraft , to allow departure from a control zone in less than VMC -- this reduces the visibility minimum to 1,600 m. Generally , VMC requires greater visibility and cloud clearance in controlled airspace than in uncontrolled airspace . In uncontrolled airspace there is less risk of a VFR aircraft colliding with an instrument flight rules ( IFR ) aircraft emerging from a cloud , so aircraft are permitted to fly closer to clouds . An exception to this rule is class B airspace , in which ATC separates VFR traffic from all other traffic ( VFR or IFR ) , which is why in class B airspace lower cloud clearance is permitted .","qid":"2729","docid":"Visual_meteorological_conditions","rank":92,"score":84246},{"content":"Title: Sit (island) Content: Sit is an uninhabited Croatian island in the Adriatic Sea located between Žut and Pašman . Its area is 1.77 km2 . The coastline is not significantly indented , except for the bay Pahaljica ( Čitapićev port ) to the north of the island . Its middle width of 500 m consists of only one mountain ridge , where the highest elevation Veli vrh ( 84 m.a.s.l. ) is located in the eastern part of the island , the central hill Vlašić is 78 m.a.s.l. , and the northwest end Borovac is 60 m.a.s.l.","qid":"2729","docid":"Sit_(island)","rank":93,"score":84170},{"content":"Title: Automatic weather station Content: An automatic weather station ( AWS ) is an automated version of the traditional weather station , either to save human labour or to enable measurements from remote areas . An AWS will typically consist of a weather-proof enclosure containing the data logger , rechargeable battery , telemetry ( optional ) and the meteorological sensors with an attached solar panel or wind turbine and mounted upon a mast . The specific configuration may vary due to the purpose of the system . The system may report in near real time via the Argos System and the Global Telecommunications System , or save the data for later recovery . In the past , automatic weather stations were often placed where electricity and communication lines were available . Nowadays , the solar panel , wind turbine and mobile phone technology have made it possible to have wireless stations that are not connected to the electrical grid or hardline telecommunications network .","qid":"2729","docid":"Automatic_weather_station","rank":94,"score":84132},{"content":"Title: National Weather Service Training Center Content: The National Weather Service Training Center ( NWSTC ) provides initial and continuing education to NOAA/NWS employees in the areas of equipment ( operations , maintenance and repair ) , management , meteorology , hydrology , systems support , and related activities . NWSTC 's staff develop and deliver courses in a number of formats including residence classes and workshops , web-based and computer-based self-study tutorials , teletraining ( interactive web delivery ) , and work aides . It is located in Kansas City , Missouri . In addition , NWSTC staff provides consulting services , research and development ( R&D ) , technical and operational documentation assistance , and system deployment support . The NWSTC Leadership Academy also offers leadership training to all federal agencies . NWSTC 's goal is to teach job-specific and practical skills ; integrate systems so the whole , instead of individual parts of the problem , can be recognized ; emulate the NWS working field environment ; and provide students the ability to work and experiment with concepts or equipment as part of learning . NWSTC 's mission is to align the training of NOAA/NWS employees with the advancement of science and technology for NOAA to earn the public 's trust and perform with service-based excellence .","qid":"2729","docid":"National_Weather_Service_Training_Center","rank":95,"score":83968},{"content":"Title: Port Walter Content: Port Walter is located on the southeastern side of Baranof Island in Sitka City and Borough , Alaska . It is made up of two parts : Little Port Walter and Big Port Walter . Little Port Walter was the home of a herring saltery during the turn on the century and the ruins can still be seen . Little Port Walter had a small community at one time but has been replaced by a research station that studies the life cycles of several species of Salmon . There is a staff of 3 -- 15 state and federal employees running the research station year-round . There is a dock , and the harbor itself is a safe anchorage . Little Port Walter receives an average annual precipitation of over 225 in and as such is the wettest permanent settlement in the United States and among the wettest in the world with lengthy climate records . As many as seventy-eight days per year see over 1 in of rain and/or snowfall per year , while in October 1974 69.23 in of rain fell and in January 1985 61.67 in . The record daily rainfall was 14.84 in on 6 December 1964 . The driest month was February 1989 with 0.63 in , while the hottest day on record was 12 August 1990 with 88 F and the coldest 2 January 1966 with 0 F overnight . The heaviest snowfall in a month was 94.2 in in December 2001 .","qid":"2729","docid":"Port_Walter","rank":96,"score":83769},{"content":"Title: 600-meter amateur radio band Content: The 600 meter ( or 630 meter ) amateur radio band is a frequency band allocated by the International Telecommunication Union ( ITU ) to amateur radio operators , and it ranges from 472 to 479 kHz , or equivalently 625.9 to 635.1 meters wavelength . It was formally allocated to amateurs at the 2012 World Radiocommunication Conference ( WRC-12 ) . The band is available on a secondary basis in all ITU regions with the limitation that amateur stations have maximum radiated power of 1 Watt effective isotropic radiated power ( EIRP ) ; however , stations more than 800 km from certain countries may be permitted to use 5 Watts EIRP . The new WRC-12 allocation did not take formal effect until 1 January 2013 . However , several countries previously allocated the WRC-12 band to amateurs domestically . Previously , several other countries have authorized temporary allocations or experimental operations on nearby frequencies . The band is in the Medium Frequency ( MF ) region , within the greater 415 -- 526.5 kHz maritime band .","qid":"2729","docid":"600-meter_amateur_radio_band","rank":97,"score":83554},{"content":"Title: National Weather Service Louisville, Kentucky Content: National Weather Service Louisville is a weather forecast office responsible for monitoring weather conditions for 49 counties in north-central , south-central , and east-central Kentucky and 10 counties in southern Indiana . The office is in charge of weather forecasts , warnings and local statements as well as aviation weather . It is also equipped with a WSR-88D ( NEXRAD ) radar , and an Automated Surface Observing System ( ASOS ) that greatly increase the ability to forecast . The NEXRAD radar site utilized by the forecast office is located near West Point , Kentucky on the north side of the Fort Knox Military Reservation .","qid":"2729","docid":"National_Weather_Service_Louisville,_Kentucky","rank":98,"score":83509},{"content":"Title: Oklahoma Mesonet Content: The Oklahoma Mesonet is a network of environmental monitoring stations designed to measure the environment at the size and duration of mesoscale weather events . The phrase `` mesonet '' is a portmanteau of the words mesoscale and network . In meteorology , `` mesoscale '' refers to weather events that range in size from approximately 1 mi to 150 mi and can last from several minutes to several hours . Mesoscale events include thunderstorms , wind gusts , heat bursts , and dry lines . Without densely spaced weather observations , these mesoscale events might go undetected . In addition to surface weather observations , Oklahoma Mesonet stations also include environmental data such as on insolation and soil conditions , and some sites are co-located with wind profilers . The network consists of 121 automated stations covering Oklahoma and each of Oklahoma 's counties has at least one station . At each site , the environment is measured by a set of instruments located on or near a 10 m-tall tower . The measurements are packaged into `` observations '' and transmitted to a central facility every 5 minutes , 24 hours per day , every day of the year . Oklahoma Mesonet is a cooperative venture between Oklahoma State University ( OSU ) and the University of Oklahoma ( OU ) and is supported by the taxpayers of Oklahoma . It is headquartered at the National Weather Center ( NWC ) on the OU campus . Observations are available free of charge to the public .","qid":"2729","docid":"Oklahoma_Mesonet","rank":99,"score":83487},{"content":"Title: Cold weather rule Content: A cold weather rule or cold weather law is a law or regulation that prohibits public utility companies from disconnecting customers who are unable to pay for the energy used to heat their homes during the winter . Such regulations may also require utility companies to reconnect customers during those periods . Several U.S. states have such rules , including Kansas , Minnesota , and Missouri . The protection provided by a cold weather rule may not be automatic , and poor customers may have to register with their service provider to indicate either a complete inability to pay or to set up a special payment plan . In Minnesota , the rule is in effect between October 15 and April 15 of the next year , and requires reconnection of electricity and/or natural gas depending on which energy sources are necessary for heat . The state 's Public Utilities Commission does n't regulate liquefied petroleum gas or oil , so those services may not be provided . However , if an LP - or oil-fired heater requires electricity in order to function , the rule requires electrical service to be reconnected . In addition to providing warmth for residents , cold weather rules help prevent damage to homes . Wintertime temperatures can freeze Water pipes , potentially causing bursts in the lines as the water inside expands as it turns into ice . Cleaning up after this can lay heavy burdens upon people who are already of limited financial means . Category : Kansas law Category : Minnesota law Category : Missouri law","qid":"2729","docid":"Cold_weather_rule","rank":100,"score":83276}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sitheri Content: Sitheri ( Sitteri ) is a hill station in Dharmapuri district located in Tamil Nadu , India . In Tamil Language ' சித்தேரிமலை ' . Sitheri Hills are one of the segments of Eastern Ghats of Tamil Nadu . Which comes under the Pappireddipatti taluk . It is situated at an altitude of 1097.3 metres ( 3600 ft ) The area comprises various vegetation types such as the evergreen , semi-evergreen , riparian , dry deciduous scrub and southern thorn scrub forests . The minimum and maximum temperature is 19 ° C in winter and 40 ° C in summer respectively . The average annual rainfall is 900 mm attained from both northeast and southwest monsoons . Topographically , the area is undulating with an altitude varying from 240 to 1266 m.The total area of Sitheri village is found to be 400 km2 with a total population of 9045 ( Male 4656 & female 4389 ) as of 2010 . .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"Sitheri\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 119948\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Reference distance Content: In broadcast engineering , the reference distance is the distance which , under normal circumstances and flat terrain , a radio station would reach with a particular level of signal strength . This distance depends on two factors : effective radiated power ( ERP ) and height above average terrain ( HAAT ) . The actual distance a station 's signal travels depends highly on weather , where factors like temperature inversions and heavy precipitation have a strong and highly variable influence on radio propagation . However , for purposes of broadcast law such as construction permits and broadcast licenses , fixed calculations called propagation curves are applied to determine the reference distances for all existing and proposed stations . These also take into account beam tilt , carrier frequency , and even the Earth 's curvature at longer distances . This is in turn used to define most broadcast classes for FM stations in North America . Each class ( except D ) is defined as having a maximum ERP and HAAT . If the HAAT of a station 's radio antenna exceeds that specified for the class , it must reduce ERP so that its signal does not exceed the reference distance . The signal strength used differs by class , but generally the value is 1.0 mV/m ( millivolt per meter ) or 60dBu ( decibels over one microvolt per meter ) for most of the United States , and 0.5 mV/m or 54dBu in Canada , and for some U.S. stations in parts of certain areas including California , the Great Lakes region , and the Northeast . This is considered the service contour of a station by the Federal Communications Commission ( FCC ) and the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission ( CRTC ) , and by COFETEL in Mexico , according to NARBA and other international agreements among the three . The reference distances are in turn used to create mandatory minimum spacing distances among co-channel stations , and certain adjacent channels as well . Real-world calculations can also be done by including data from digital topographical maps , typically along 12 or 16 radials , and including the specifications from the radiation pattern for a directional antenna . However , this does not fit the definition of a reference in this sense , even though it determines the actual broadcast range of a station . This actual range is used in the reserved band in the U.S. , while the reference distance is used for commercial radio stations . Category : Broadcast engineering Category : Broadcast law\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"Reference_distance\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 117918\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sittingbourne railway station Content: Sittingbourne railway station is on the Chatham Main Line and the Sheerness Line in north Kent . The station is 44 miles 1260 yards from London Victoria according to the mileage sign on the footbridge . Train services are provided by Southeastern . Ticket barriers are sometimes in operation , depending on the time of day . Two new lifts linked by a new footbridge have created a step-free route between the station entrance and platforms to provide better access to train services . The improvements have been funded through the government 's Access for All programme and cost around # 1,800,000 . The work has also included a series of enhancements to station facilities funded through the National Stations Improvement Programme and include relocating and increasing the number of cycle parking spaces outside the station ; renovating all passenger toilets ; creating new waiting shelters on the platforms and a new waiting room on platform ; repositioning the ticket gates to create more space for passengers in the ticket office ; and installing a new customer information screen and non-slip flooring in the ticket office . The Sittingbourne & Kemsley Light Railway 's station , at Sittingbourne Viaduct , is a short walk away .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"Sittingbourne_railway_station\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 113472\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ice accretion indicator Content: The ice accretion indicator is an L-shaped piece of aluminium 38 cm long by 4 to wide . It is used to indicate the formation of ice , frost or the presence of freezing rain or freezing drizzle . It is normally attached to a Stevenson screen , about 1 m above ground , but may be mounted in other areas away from any artificial heat sources . The weather station would have two on site and they would be exchanged after every weather observation . The spare indicator should always be at the outside air temperature to ensure that it is ready for use and would normally be stored inside the screen . If the observer notes the presence of ice or frost on the indicator then a remark to that effect should be sent in the next weather observation . Examples of these are ` rime icing on indicator ' and ` FROIN ' ( frost on indicator ) . As the indicator is at air temperature and is kept horizontal it provides an excellent surface on which to observe freezing precipitation .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"Ice_accretion_indicator\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 111721\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of North American broadcast station classes Content: This is a list of broadcast station classes applicable in much of North America under international agreements between the United States , Canada and Mexico . Effective radiated power ( ERP ) and height above average terrain ( HAAT ) are listed unless otherwise noted . All radio and television stations within 320 kilometers ( about 200 miles ) of the US-Canada or US-Mexico border must get approval by both the domestic and foreign agency . These agencies are Industry Canada/Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission ( CRTC ) in Canada , the Federal Communications Commission ( FCC ) in the US , and the Federal Telecommunications Institute ( IFT ) in Mexico .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_North_American_broadcast_station_classes\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 107352\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: NOAA Weather Radio Content: NOAA Weather Radio ( NWR ; also known as NOAA Weather Radio All Hazards ) is a network of radio stations in the United States that broadcast continuous weather information directly from a nearby ( < 40 miles ) Weather Forecast Office of the service 's operator , the National Weather Service ( NWS ) , an agency of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) within the United States Department of Commerce . NOAA Weather Radio broadcasts National Weather Service warnings , watches , forecasts , weather observations and other hazard information 24 hours a day . It also broadcasts alerts of non-weather emergencies such as national security , natural , environmental and public safety ( such as an AMBER Alert ) through the U.S. Federal Communications Commission 's ( FCC ) Emergency Alert System .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"NOAA_Weather_Radio\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 106575\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Explorer 7 Content: Explorer 7 was launched October 13 , 1959 at 10:36 a.m. Eastern Time by a Juno II rocket from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station to an orbit of 573 km by 1073 km and inclination of 50.27 ° . It was designed to measure solar x-ray and Lyman-alpha flux , trapped energetic particles , and heavy primary cosmic rays . Also Secondary objectives included collecting data on micrometeoroid penetration and molecular sputtering and studying the Earth-atmosphere heat balance . Launch was originally scheduled for late September 1959 , but the mission was delayed for a week after a Jupiter IRBM test on an adjacent pad failed shortly after liftoff , causing flying debris to hit Explorer 7 's launch vehicle . However , the damage to the booster was minor and could be easily repaired . Significantly , it also carried Verner Suomi 's flat-plate radiometer , improved with the help of Robert Parent , that took the first Earth radiation budget measurements from space and initiated the era of satellite studies of the climate . Using both satellite observations of the Earth 's heat balance and atmospheric cooling rates measured by net flux radiosondes , Suomi established the important role played by clouds in absorbing radiated solar energy . These observations established that Earth 's energy budget varies markedly due to the effect of clouds , the surface albedo , and other absorbing constituents . Using these instruments , Suomi and his team discovered that the Earth absorbed more of the Sun 's energy than originally thought and demonstrated that it was possible to measure and quantify seasonal changes in the global heat budget . The satellite weighed 41.5 kg , was 75 cm high and 75 cm wide . Powered by solar cells it also carried 15 nickel-cadmium batteries around its equator . It transmitted data continuously through to February 1961 and went dead on August 24 , 1961 . It is still in orbit .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"Explorer_7\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 104658\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: District heating substation Content: thumb | right | A district heating substation in a residential neighborhood with a thermal capacity of 300 kW . Two components of the heat meter are visible : the metering electronics unit on the right ( white/blue box ) , and the ultrasonic flow meter in the center ( bronze tube ) . A district heating substation is a component in a district heating system that connects the main network to a building 's own heating system . The station normally has one , or more of the following parts : Heat exchanger - to split primary and secondary side of the system Control valve - to regulate the flow through the heat exchanger Differential pressure controller - to balance the network and improve working conditions of control valve Strainer - to remove particles that could block heat exchanger or control valve Shut off valve - to stop the flow on primary side in case of service or emergency Heat meter - to measure energy consumption and allocate costs Temperature controller - to control temperature on secondary side by regulating the flow on primary side Temperature sensor - to sense flow and return temperatures required for temperature control In addition , a district heating substation may also include : Pump Safety valve Manometer Non-return valve\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"District_heating_substation\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 102368\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Radiator reflector Content: A radiator reflector is a thin sheet or foil applied to the wall behind , and closely spaced from , a domestic heating radiator . The intention is to reduce heat losses into the wall in the belief that this will increase the output of the radiator and thus reduce fuel expenditure . Although the foils are termed `` reflectors '' , they do not have much effect on radiated heat or its reflection . As radiators work at a relatively low temperature , the Stefan -- Boltzmann lawThe Stefan -- Boltzmann law states that the effectiveness of a thermal radiator is proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature . A hot-water radiator at 77 C has only 1/4 the radiated power of a stove at 220 C , or 1/16 that of a radiant element at 427 C means that they are weak radiators of heat . Most heat from a domestic radiator is as convection currents of heated air . Where a reflector foil also has some insulating ability against conduction ( i.e. losses through the wall ) , it may have some useful effect . This is most pronounced when the wall itself has poor insulation performance : in a wall constructed to modern standards of insulation , even this effect may be reduced to a negligible benefit . The effect of placing a 10mm combined insulation and reflection behind radiators is about the same as that of 15mm insulation without a reflective layer . When the wall thickness behind the radiator is at minimum 1980 German standards this will reduce total heat losses of a building by about 4 % . For a ( by 1980s standards ) well-insulated building heat losses can be reduced by about 1.6 % . N. König : `` Der Einfluß von wäremreflektierenden Folien in Heizkörpernischen auf den Heizenergieverbrauch eines Hauses '' https://www.ibp.fraunhofer.de/content/dam/ibp/de/documents/Publikationen/IBP-Mitteilungen-optimiert/058.pdf It is widely believed that a literal radiator reflector of ordinary aluminium kitchen foil is useful . This highly reflective foil is used with the shiny side facing towards the back of the radiator . However , as little of the radiator 's heat is released by radiation anyway , there is little advantage in reducing losses to it . There is also a risk that reflectors made from kitchen foil may soon become inefficient , as aluminium oxidizes very quickly and then loses its reflective quality . A more effective DIY radiator reflector is a thin insulating layer ( against conduction ) of a lightweight insulator such as expanded polystyrene foam veneerWidely sold in 2mm sheet rolls as an insulator beneath wallpaper . or 3mm polyethylene foam , as used for laminate flooring underlay . There are only two radiator reflectors approved for use in the UK Government 's Carbon Emission Reduction Target ( CERT ) Scheme administered by Ofgem ( the UK Regulator of energy companies ) -- Radflek and Heatkeeper ( also called Novitherm ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"Radiator_reflector\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 101550\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hohenpeißenberg Meteorological Observatory Content: The Meteorological Observatory Hohenpeißenberg is the oldest mountain weather station in the world . It is located in the municipality of Hohenpeißenberg , about 60 kilometres southwest of Munich , Germany , and at 977 metres above sea level . Meteorological data is collected on the site continuously since 1781 . The measurement series ranks among the longest ever , and was never impacted by urban heat island effects , a problem encountered by the comparably long records from the Basel and Prague observatories . As of today , it is operated by Deutscher Wetterdienst , and takes part in the Global Atmosphere Watch programme .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"Hohenpeißenberg_Meteorological_Observatory\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 100452\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KHB49 Content: KHB49 ( sometimes referred to as San Francisco All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the San Francisco Bay Area and can be heard 40 miles into the Pacific Ocean . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Monterey , California with its transmitter located in Mt. Pise . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following counties : Alameda , Contra Costa , Marin , Napa , San Francisco , San Mateo , Santa Clara , and Sonoma .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"KHB49\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 99749\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: WNG677 Content: WNG677 ( also known as St. Croix All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the United States Virgin Islands and can be heard up to 80 miles into the Caribbean Sea . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in San Juan , Puerto Rico with its transmitter located in Saint Croix , U.S. Virgin Islands . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following counties : St. Croix , St. John & St. Thomas .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"WNG677\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 98993\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: NWS Content: NWS may refer to : National Weather Service , a U.S. government agency charged with issuing weather forecasts , advisories , watches , and warnings on a daily basis News Corporation 's NASDAQ ticker symbol for Class B stock NWS ( TV station ) , a television station in Adelaide , South Australia Nuclear Weapons State , a term relating to the U.S. , Russia , China , United Kingdom and France in the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty Not work safe , a web acronym interchangeable with the more widespread NSFW ( `` not safe for work '' ) Netherlands Worldwide Students , a worldwide network of Dutch students enrolled in foreign universities New Wrestling Stars , a wrestling company based in Puerto Rico North Warning System , a series of radar stations across Arctic North America Nintendo World Store , Nintendo 's showcase store in New York City Naval Wargames Society , the international society devoted to the advancement of naval wargames NWS Holdings , a listed company in Hong Kong North Wilkesboro Speedway , a track that was the site of NASCAR Sprint Cup Series racing until closing in 1996 , the track reopened in 2010 and will hold a USARacing event . Northwest Semitic languages , an ancient language family\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"NWS\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 97021\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KHB40 Content: KHB40 ( sometimes referred to as Galveston All Hazards ) is a U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Weather Radio station that serves the coastal communities of Greater Houston and can be heard over 40 miles into the Gulf of Mexico . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in League City , Texas with its transmitter located in Hitchcock , Texas . The transmitter used to be on top of the American National Insurance building in Galveston . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following counties : Brazoria , Chambers , Galveston , and Southeast Harris\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"KHB40\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 96821\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Remote Automated Weather Station Content: The Remote Automatic Weather Stations ( RAWS ) system is a network of automated weather stations run by the U.S. Forest Service ( USFS ) and Bureau of Land Management ( BLM ) and monitored by the National Interagency Fire Center ( NIFC ) , mainly to observe potential wildfire conditions . Unlike the automated airport weather stations which are located at significant airports , RAWS stations are often located in remote areas , particularly in national forests . Because of this , they usually are not connected to the electrical grid , but rather have their own solar panels , and a battery to store power for overnight reporting . Some instead run on a generator . In both cases , data important to operating the station itself , such as battery voltage or fuel level , is often included in the hourly reports . Also because of the remote locations , most communicate with a modem via telephone , or via a VSAT connection to a GOES satellite . In this regard , they are similar to mesonets and may be mesonets if the distance between stations ( spatial resolution ) is sufficiently dense . They often lack the consistently high-quality data needed for use in numerical weather prediction and climatology , however . Road Weather Information System ( RWIS ) may likewise be self-powered and located in remote areas .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"Remote_Automated_Weather_Station\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 95475\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Excessive heat warning Content: An Excessive Heat Warning is issued by the National Weather Service of the United States within 12 hours of the heat index reaching one of two criteria levels . In most areas , a warning will be issued if there is a heat index of at least 105 ° F for more than 3 hours per day for 2 consecutive days , or if the heat index is greater than 115 ° F for any period of time . Note that local offices , particularly those where excessive heat is less frequent or in areas with deserts or mountainous terrain , often have their own criteria . High values of the heat index are caused by temperatures being significantly above normal and high humidities , and such high levels can pose a threat to human life through conditions such as heat stroke , Heat exhaustion , and other heat-related illnesses .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"Excessive_heat_warning\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 95364\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Height above average terrain Content: Height above average terrain ( HAAT ) ( or less popularly , EHAAT , Effective Height Above Average Terrain ) is a measure of how high an antenna site is above the surrounding landscape . HAAT is used extensively in FM radio and television , as it is more important than effective radiated power ( ERP ) in determining the range of broadcasts ( VHF and UHF in particular , as they are line of sight transmissions ) . For international coordination , it is officially measured in meters , even by the Federal Communications Commission in the United States , as Canada and Mexico ( both of which officially use metric units ) have extensive border zones where international stations can be received on either side of the international boundaries . Stations that want to increase above a certain HAAT must reduce their power accordingly , based on the maximum distance their station class is allowed to cover ( see List of North American broadcast station classes for more information on this ) . Before metrification at the FCC , the procedure to figure HAAT was relatively simple : from the proposed or actual antenna site , either 12 or 16 radials were drawn , and points at 2 , 4 , 6 , 8 , and 10 mi radius along each radial were used . The entire radial graph could be rotated to achieve the best effect for the station . The altitude of the antenna site , minus the average altitude of all the specified points , was the HAAT . This can create some unusual cases , particularly in mountainous regions -- it is possible to have a negative number for HAAT ( the transmitter would not be located underground , but rather in a valley , with hills on both sides taller than the transmitter itself , for example ) . The FCC has divided the Contiguous United States into three zones for the determination of spacing between FM and TV stations using the same frequencies . FM and TV stations are assigned maximum ERP and HAAT values , depending on their assigned zones , to prevent co-channel interference . The FCC regulations for ERP and HAAT are listed under Title 47 , Part 73 of the Code of Federal Regulations ( CFR ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"Height_above_average_terrain\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 94730\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sornfelli Content: Sornfelli is a mountain plateau on the island of Streymoy in the Faroe Islands about 12 km from the capital Tórshavn ( 20 km by road ) . It is the site of a military station at 725 m asl . The Sornfelli Meteorological Station installed in 1999 is located in the middle of the 40000 m2 Sornfelli Mountain top plateau at 725 m asl . Temperatures at the meteorological station in 2000 were : Mean annual air temperature : +1.7 ° C Mean coldest month ( April ) : -2.2 ° C Mean warmest month ( August ) : 6.5 ° C From Tórshavn you can drive over the mountain road `` Oyggjarvegin '' to the Sornfelli Mountain plateau . There is a public road up to the Sornfelli Mountain plateau , but not the last 200 m to the radar base . The mountain Sornfelli has a height of 749 m.\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"Sornfelli\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 94447\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KEC62 Content: KEC62 ( sometimes referred to as San Diego All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the San Diego metropolitan area and can be heard 40 miles in the Pacific Ocean . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in San Diego , California with its transmitter located in Mt. Woodson . It broadcasts weather and hazard information only for San Diego County and the coastal waters from San Mateo Point to the Mexican border and out 60 nautical miles . The station 's forecast coverage includes the San Diego County Coast , San Diego County Valleys , San Diego County Mountains and San Diego County Deserts . Hourly weather observations are updated at 10 minutes past each hour , and covers mostly San Diego County , with conditions reported for most of Southern California as well as Las Vegas , Yuma and Phoenix .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"KEC62\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 94414\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: National Weather Service Miami, Florida Content: The National Weather Service Miami , Florida is a local weather forecast office of the National Weather Service ( NWS ) that serves six counties in South Florida -- Broward , Collier , Glades , Hendry , Miami-Dade , and Palm Beach -- as well as the mainland portion of Monroe County . This office was originally established in 1879 as a Signal Corps station near the Jupiter Inlet Light , before becoming a Weather Bureau Office ( WBO ) in 1891 . The WBO at Jupiter was moved southward to Miami , due to the city 's rapidly growing population . In 1930 , a separate Weather Bureau Airport Station ( WBAS ) was established at the Miami Municipal Airport . The WBAS was later moved to the Miami International Airport in 1942 and remained there until ceasing operations in 1975 . Under the leadership of Grady Norton , the joint hurricane warning service , which was a predecessor to the National Hurricane Center , was moved from the WBO Jacksonville to the WBO Miami in 1943 . The Weather Bureau was renamed the National Weather Service in October 1970 . Thus , WBO Miami became NWS Miami . As part of an organizational restructuring plan in the 1990s , an NWS office in West Palm Beach was merged with NWS Miami . Since 1995 , this office of the NWS has been located on the campus of Florida International University and adjacent to the National Hurricane Center .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"National_Weather_Service_Miami,_Florida\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 93998\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Blizzard Warning Content: A Blizzard Warning ( SAME code : BZW ) is an advisory issued by the National Weather Service of the United States which means sustained winds or frequent gusts of 35 mph / 15 m/s or greater with heavy snow is forecast for a period of 3 hours or more . A blizzard tends to reduce visibilities to 1/4 of a mile ( 400 m ) or less . A Severe Blizzard Warning is a variation issued in some cases of winds above 45 mph / 20 m/s and temperatures below 10 ° F / -12 ° C. Most local weather offices will activate and broadcast the SAME alarm tone on relevant NOAA Weather Radio stations for both varieties of warning . In Canada , comparable warnings are issued by Environment Canada . These are the main two types of Canadian blizzard warnings as of 2010 : National Warning below tree line - when winds are 40 kilometres/hr or greater with widespread reductions in visibility to 400 metres ( 1/4 mile ) or less from blowing snow or blowing snow with falling snow for at least 4 hours . Northern ( Arctic ) Warning above tree line - same as National Warning but must last for at least 6 hours . The same warnings are issued by Weatheradio Canada and re-issued by media outlets like The Weather Network .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"Blizzard_Warning\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 93798\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hill station Content: A hill station is a town located at a higher elevation than the nearby plain or valley . The term was used mostly in colonial Asia , but also in Africa ( albeit rarely ) , for towns founded by European colonial rulers as refuges from the summer heat , up where temperatures are cooler . In the Indian context most hill stations are at an altitude of approximately 1,000 to 2,500 metres ( 3,500 to 7,500 feet ) ; very few are outside this range .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"Hill_station\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 93716\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Weather station Content: A weather station is a facility , either on land or sea , with instruments and equipment for measuring atmospheric conditions to provide information for weather forecasts and to study the weather and climate . The measurements taken include temperature , atmospheric pressure , humidity , wind speed , wind direction , and precipitation amounts . Wind measurements are taken with as few other obstructions as possible , while temperature and humidity measurements are kept free from direct solar radiation , or insolation . Manual observations are taken at least once daily , while automated measurements are taken at least once an hour . Weather conditions out at sea are taken by ships and buoys , which measure slightly different meteorological quantities such as sea surface temperature ( SST ) , wave height , and wave period . Drifting weather buoys outnumber their moored versions by a significant amount .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"Weather_station\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 93630\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kiarighat Content: Kiarighat , Himachal Pradesh , India , is a small hill station situated at Kalka-Shimla National Highway , where tourists can stay for a while or stay overnight . The JP university is located at about 8 km from here . Access : Kiarighat is connected by Shimla-Kalka National Highway . It is 27 km away from Shimla and 19 km from Solan . The nearest Airport in Jubbal Hatti and nearest narrow gauge railway station is Kandaghat . Climate : In winter , the temperature can drop near to freezing point when heavy woolens are required and in summers , light woolens / cottons are recommended .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"Kiarighat\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 93329\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pole of Inaccessibility (Antarctic research station) Content: The Pole of Inaccessibility Research Station is a defunct Soviet research station in Kemp Land , Antarctica , at the southern pole of inaccessibility ( the point in Antarctica furthest from any ocean ) as it was defined in 1958 when the station was established . Later definitions give other locations , all relatively near this point . It performed meteorological observations from 14 December 1958 to 26 December 1958 . The Pole of Inaccessibility has the world 's coldest year-round average temperature of -58.2 ° C. It is 878 km from the South Pole , and approximately 600 km from Sovetskaya . The surface elevation is 3,800 m . It was reached on 14 December 1958 by an 18-man traversing party of the 3rd Soviet Antarctic Expedition . Its WMO ID is 89550 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"Pole_of_Inaccessibility_(Antarctic_research_station)\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 93295\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: WNG637 Content: WNG637 ( sometimes referred to as San Diego Marine All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the coastal area of the San Diego metropolitan area and can be heard 40 miles in the Pacific Ocean . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in San Diego , California with its transmitter located in Mt. Soledad . Unlike its general weather radio counterpart KEC62 , it broadcasts marine forecasts and hazard information only for San Diego County .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"WNG637\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 92967\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: WXM85 Content: WXM85 ( sometimes referred to as Guam All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the island of Guam and Rota in the Northern Mariana Islands and can be heard 40 miles into the Pacific Ocean . It is programmed from the National Weather Service in Tiyan , Guam with its transmitter located in Nimitz Hill .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"WXM85\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 92894\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KHB34 Content: KHB34 is a NOAA Weather Radio ( NWR ) station that serves a part of the South Florida metropolitan area on an assigned frequency of 162.550 MHz ; it can also be heard about 60 mi east into the Atlantic Ocean , nearly to the Bahamas . Programming originates from NOAA 's National Weather Service ( NWS ) weather forecast office ( WFO ) in Miami , Florida , with the transmitter located in Andover/Miami Gardens . It continuously broadcasts weather and marine forecasts , as well as civil hazards information , for the following counties in the South Florida region : Miami-Dade and Broward . The radio station plays a vital role in alerting the general public to hazardous weather conditions in an area prone to severe weather events such as lightning storms , tornadoes , waterspouts and hurricanes . The signal also reaches North Key Largo and inland parts of mainland Monroe , eastern Collier , far southeastern Hendry , and most of Palm Beach counties -- however it does not issue alerts for those areas . There are other adjacent NWR stations that serve the forecast area . WNG663 ( 162.425 MHz ) also covers Miami-Dade from Princeton , near Homestead , as well as mainland Monroe and the Upper Keys . Other stations programmed by the Miami-South Florida WFO include : KEC50 Mangonia Park/West Palm Beach ( 162.475 MHz ) to the north , serving Palm Beach County and the adjacent coastal waters ; WXM58 Belle Glade ( 162.400 MHz ) to the northwest , in western Palm Beach County near Lake Okeechobee ; and WWG92 Naples ( 162.525 MHz ) to the northwest , near Florida 's west coast , serving Collier , Hendry and a portion of mainland Monroe County . Recognizing the need to serve the local area 's large Spanish-speaking population , NWS added a low-power station in June 2012 , WZ2531 ( 162.500 MHz ) transmitting from Hialeah - the first dedicated Spanish language NWR station in Florida . Its broadcast , featuring a computer-synthesized voice known by the nickname `` Javier '' , covers Miami-Dade and Broward counties .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"KHB34\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 92846\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: NOAA's Environmental Real-time Observation Network Content: NOAA 's Environmental Real-time Observation Network ( NERON ) is a project to establish a nationwide network of weather monitoring stations across the United States . A 20-mile by 20-mile grid has been established , with the hopes of having one observation system within each grid cell . Effort is being put forth by local National Weather Service offices and other state climate groups to ensure that sites in the network meet important criteria . The network will be composed of existing ( and in some cases upgraded ) sites ( ASOS , Cooperative Observer Network , etc. ) as well as new sites being established for other local and state efforts . Many stations in New England and New York have already been installed .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"NOAA's_Environmental_Real-time_Observation_Network\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 92713\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: National Weather Service Content: The National Weather Service ( NWS ) is an agency of the United States federal government that is tasked with providing weather forecasts , warnings of hazardous weather , and other weather-related products to organizations and the public for the purposes of protection , safety , and general information . It is a part of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) branch of the Department of Commerce , and is headquartered in Silver Spring , Maryland ( located just outside Washington , D.C. ) . The agency was known as the United States Weather Bureau from 1890 until it adopted its current name in 1970 . The NWS performs its primary task through a collection of national and regional centers , and 122 local weather forecast offices ( WFOs ) . As the NWS is a government agency , most of its products are in the public domain and available free of charge .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"National_Weather_Service\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 92628\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: National Highway 30 (India) Content: National Highway 30 ( NH 30 ) ( previously National Highway 221 ) is a National Highway in India . NH 30 connects Sitarganj in Uttarakhand with Ibrahimpatnam in Andhra Pradesh . The total length of this highway is 2040 km ( 1267.5 mi ) t starts at the junction of NH 9 at Sitarganj and ends at the junction of NH 65 at Ibrahimpatnam .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"National_Highway_30_(India)\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 92499\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KEC61 Content: KEC61 ( sometimes referred to as Mobile All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the Mobile metropolitan area and surrounding cities as well as 30 to 40 miles into the Gulf of Mexico . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Mobile , Alabama with its transmitter located in the same city . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following Counties : Baldwin and Mobile in Alabama and George and Jackson in Mississippi .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"KEC61\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 91813\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: National Weather Service Lincoln, Illinois Content: National Weather Service Lincoln , Illinois also known as National Weather Service Central Illinois is a weather forecast office responsible for monitoring weather conditions for 35 counties in Central and Southeastern Illinois . The Central Illinois office initially consisted of two forecast offices in Peoria and Springfield until the current location in Lincoln became the sole local forecast office in 1995 . Federal meteorology offices and stations in the region date back to the 19th century when the Army Signal Service began taking weather observations using weather equipment at the Springer Building in Springfield . Since that time the presence of the National Weather Service greatly increased with the instillation of new weather radars , stations and forecast offices . The current office in Lincoln maintains a WSR-88D ( NEXRAD ) radar system , and Advanced Weather Interactive Processing System ( AWIPS ) that greatly improve forecasting in the region . Lincoln is in charge of weather forecasts , warnings and local statements as well as aviation weather .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"National_Weather_Service_Lincoln,_Illinois\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 91550\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KEC49 Content: KEC49 ( sometimes referred to as Monterey All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves Monterey , California and vicinity including some parts of the San Francisco Bay Area and can be heard 40 miles into the Pacific Ocean . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Monterey with its transmitter located atop McQueen Ridge near Mount Umunhum . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following counties : Alameda , Contra Costa , Monterey , Napa , San Benito , San Francisco , San Mateo , Santa Clara , and Santa Cruz .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"KEC49\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 91395\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 15-meter band Content: The 15-meter band ( also called the 21-MHz band or 15 meters ) is an amateur radio frequency band spanning the shortwave spectrum from 21 to 21.45 MHz . Almost all countries permit amateur communications on the entire band . The 15 meter band is considered a DX band ( i.e. , used for long-distance communications ) . Since signals on 15 meters propagate primarily via reflection off of the F-2 layer of the ionosphere , the band is most useful for intercontinental communication during daylight hours , especially in years close to the solar maximum . However , the band also sees long-distance openings during solar minima , and into evening hours , and does not require high-power station equipment to make contacts even at these times . Because the 15-meter wavelength is harmonically related to that of the 40-meter band , it is often possible to use an antenna designed for 40 meters on the 15-meter band , as well .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"15-meter_band\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 90965\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kunlun Station (Antarctica) Content: Kunlun Station is one of four Chinese research stations in Antarctica . It is located in the Australian Antarctic Territory at 4087 m above sea level , the highest among all research stations , and 7.3 km southwest of Dome A and was officially opened on January 27 , 2009 . Fully constructed the station is planned to cover an area of 558 m ² . The main building , covering 236 m ² , is planned erected in April 2009 . The site is one of the coldest in the world , with temperatures occasionally reaching -80 ° C in the winter . It is indicated from satellite measurements that places nearby could reach a world record -90 ° C temperature . In April 2012 the first of three Antarctica Schmidt telescopes ( AST3 ) was installed at Kunlun Station . The other two were planned for installation in 2013 and 2014 . A bigger optical telescope , Kunlun Dark Universe Survey Telescope ( KDUST ) , is planned to be installed by 2020 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"Kunlun_Station_(Antarctica)\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 90631\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Excessive heat watch Content: An Excessive Heat Watch is issued by the National Weather Service of the United States when the heat index is expected to be greater than 105 ° F ( 41 ° C ) across the northern states or 110 ° F ( 43 ° C ) across the southern states during the day , and/or nighttime low temperature will be at least 75 ° F ( 24 ° C ) or higher for two consecutive days . Note that even with the usual northern/southern criteria , local offices , particularly those with deserts or mountainous terrain , often have their own criteria . High values of the heat index are caused by temperatures being significantly above normal and high humidities , and such high levels can pose a threat to human life through conditions such as heat stroke .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"Excessive_heat_watch\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 90630\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: WXM86 Content: WXM86 ( sometimes referred to as Saipan All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the Saipan and Tinian in the Northern Mariana Islands and can be heard 40 miles into the Pacific Ocean . It is programmed from the National Weather Service in Tiyan , Guam with its transmitter located in Mount Tapochau .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"WXM86\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 90590\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coast Guard Air Station Sitka Content: Coast Guard Air Station Sitka is an Air Station of the United States Coast Guard located in Sitka , Alaska . The station was originally established on Annette Island in March 1944 , until relocating to Sitka in 1977 . Early aircraft consisted of Grumman G-21 's , PBY 's , HU-16 's , HH-52 's , and HH-3 Pelicans . Primary missions performed by the air station are Search and Rescue ( SAR ) , law enforcement , and logistics covering the Southeast part of Alaska . Area of responsibility encompasses approximately 180,000 square miles of water and land extending across Southeast Alaska from Dixon Entrance to Icy Bay , and from the Alaskan-Canadian border to the central Gulf of Alaska . This includes 12,000 miles of coastline distinguished by a rugged coast , mountainous terrain , severe weather , and many remote villages . Today , Air Station Sitka utilizes three MH-60T Jayhawk helicopters and has 130 officers , enlisted , and civilian personnel . Each helicopter , is crewed by two pilots , a flight mechanic , and a rescue swimmer , has a 125-knot cruise speed , and 700-mile range . In a `` ready '' or `` alert '' status 24 hours a day for national defense , search and rescue . Sitka crews fly surveillance patrols and transport environmental response teams which protect the ecosystems located within the area . Additionally crews assists in the routine maintenance , outage response , and position verification of 75 aids-to-navigation ( ATON ) . Other missions include law enforcement duties in cooperation with federal , state , and local agencies .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"Coast_Guard_Air_Station_Sitka\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 90148\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: National Weather Service Baltimore/Washington Content: The National Weather Service Baltimore/Washington is a local office of the National Weather Service responsible for monitoring weather conditions in 44 counties in eastern West Virginia , northern and central Virginia , the majority of the state of Maryland , as well as the city of Washington , D.C. . Although labeled as the NWS Baltimore/Washington , its actual location is off Old Ox Road ( Virginia State Route 606 ) in the Dulles section of Sterling , Virginia , adjacent to Washington Dulles International Airport . The NWS Baltimore/Washington currently employs about 25 people including meteorologists , support personnel , and management staff , working rotating shifts 24 hours a day , 7 days a week .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"National_Weather_Service_Baltimore/Washington\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 89947\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KWO35 Content: KWO35 ( the third character is the letter `` O '' ) is a NOAA Weather Radio ( NWR ) station that serves the greater New York metropolitan area ( which comprises New York City and the surrounding counties and municipalities in the Tri-state area ) , as well as marine interests from Sandy Hook , New Jersey to Fire island , New York ( out to 40 miles from the Atlantic coastline ) , as well as New York Harbor , the western Long Island Sound , and the Long Island South Shore Base , and extending southward from Sandy Hook , to Little Egg Inlet NJ ( out to 40 miles from the Atlantic coastline ) ( see County Cov . section for all marine zones ) . Programming originates from the National Weather Service weather forecast office ( WFO ) in Upton , New York ( located east of New York City , on the grounds of Brookhaven National Laboratory , in central Suffolk County on eastern Long Island ) . The transmitter , located in Manhattan , was originally atop 30 Rockefeller Plaza ( known then as RCA Building ) in Rockefeller Center . It was eventually moved to 200 Park Ave ( a.k.a. MetLife Building ) . In July 2013 interference with Coast Guard radio transmissions became a public safety issue , forcing KWO35 off-the-air for long periods . In March 2014 the transmitter was relocated atop a building near Times Square in an effort to mitigate disruptions in service , with primary and secondary transmitters tested for interference at a new location . A planned new , permanent , and more powerful transmitter was announced ( transmitter issues are discussed below ) . When operational , the station broadcasts 24 hours per day on a frequency of 162.55 MHz ( one of seven VHF radio frequencies allocated by the U.S. Government for NWR transmissions , known collectively as `` weather band '' ) , with a power output of 1000 ( formerly 750 ) Watts . On modern weather radio receivers it is often marked `` Channel 7 '' . KWO35 broadcasts weather and civil hazards information for the following counties within its coverage area : Bronx , Kings , Nassau , New York , Queens , Rockland , Richmond , -LSB- western -RSB- Suffolk , and Westchester counties in southeastern New York ; Bergen , Essex , Hudson , Hunterdon , Middlesex , Monmouth , Morris , -LSB- northern -RSB- Ocean , Passaic , Somerset , -LSB- eastern -RSB- Sussex , Union , and -LSB- eastern -RSB- Warren counties in northern and central New Jersey ; -LSB- southern -RSB- Fairfield County in southwestern Connecticut . In addition to broadcasting routine weather and marine forecasts and conditions , the station will also transmit public information statements , short term forecasts , special weather statements , advisories , watches and warnings issued by the WFOs in Upton , New York and Mount Holly , New Jersey when hazardous weather conditions threaten the coverage area . In severe weather situations , the NWR Public Alert system may be used to activate specially-equipped weather band receivers , using both Specific Area Message Encoding ( SAME ) and 1050 Hz alert tones . Radios that are SAME-capable can be configured to sound local alerts only ( for specific counties ) by programming in the corresponding Federal Information Processing Standards ( FIPS ) codes .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"KWO35\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 89682\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KEB98 Content: KEB98 ( sometimes referred to as Buffalo All Hazards ) is an NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the Buffalo -- Niagara Falls metropolitan area and surrounding cities as well as 40 miles into Lake Erie and can be heard in the Southeastern tip of Ontario . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Buffalo , New York with its transmitter located in North Boston . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following Counties : Allegany , Cattaraugus , Chautauqua , Erie , Genesee , Niagara , Orleans , and Wyoming .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"KEB98\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 89518\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KBA99 Content: KBA99 is a NOAA Weather Radio station that is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Honolulu , Hawaii with its transmitter located on Mt. Ka'ala in Oahu . Although this station primarily serves Honolulu and surrounding islands , several repeater translators are added , broadcasting weather and hazard information for the entire state of Hawaii and can be heard 40 miles into the Pacific Ocean . It also transmits on Oceanic Time Warner Cable digital channel 880 for all of Hawaii . It is the only NOAA station in the United States that still uses the early version of the `` Tom '' voice . Hourly conditions on this station are reported for the following cities - On Oahu : Honolulu International Airport , Kalaeloa , Kaneohe , and Wheeler Field . On Kauai : Lihue , and Barking Sands . On Molokai : Molokai Airport . On Lanai : Lanai City . On Maui : Kahului , Kapalua , and Haleakalā . On The Big Island : Hilo , Kona , and Bradshaw Field . As of June 25 , 2014 , translator WWF39 in Hawaii Kai has moved from frequency 162.400 MHz to 162.450 MHz as new upgraded equipment was installed at the station , producing an enhanced signal . This enhancement allows important emergency messages as well as weather forecasts and current conditions to be heard in portions of East Oahu where the broadcast was previously not available .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"KBA99\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 89424\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: TV and FM DX Content: TV DX and FM DX is the active search for distant radio or television stations received during unusual atmospheric conditions . The term DX is an old telegraphic term meaning `` long distance . '' VHF/UHF television and radio signals are normally limited to a maximum `` deep fringe '' reception service area of approximately 40 - in areas where the broadcast spectrum is congested , and about 50 percent farther in the absence of interference . However , providing favourable atmospheric conditions are present , television and radio signals sometimes can be received hundreds or even thousands of miles outside their intended coverage area . These signals are often received using a large outdoor antenna system connected to a sensitive TV or FM receiver , although this may not always be the case . Many times smaller antennas and receivers such as those in vehicles will receive stations farther than normal depending on how favourable conditions are . While only a limited number of local stations can normally be received at satisfactory signal strengths in any given area , tuning into other channels may reveal weaker signals from adjacent areas . More consistently strong signals , especially those accentuated by unusual atmospheric conditions , can be achieved by improving the antenna system . The development of interest in TV-FM DX as a hobby can arise after more distant signals are either intentionally or accidentally discovered , leading to a serious interest in improving the listener 's antenna and receiving installation for the purpose of actively seeking long-range television and radio reception . The TV-FM DX hobby is somewhat similar to other radio/electronic related hobbies such as amateur radio , Medium Wave DX , or short-wave radio , and organisations such as the Worldwide TV-FM DX Association have developed to coordinate and foster the further study and enjoyment of VHF/UHF television and FM broadcast DX .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"TV_and_FM_DX\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 89422\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sitkūnai Radio Station Content: Sitkūnai Radio Station is a large facility for medium wave and shortwave broadcasting at Sitkūnai , Lithuania . The decision to build a new transmitting centre near the village of Sitkunai , about 17 km north of Kaunas was made by the Government of Lithuania in 1937 . The building works started in 1939 , and after completion , a 120 kW medium wave transmitter from Standard Telephones and Cables in the United Kingdom was ordered . However , the outbreak of World War II stopped the shipment . The empty transmitter buildings in Sitkunai survived the war with almost no damage and were used as military compound by the German army in 1941-1944 , and later as a primary school . Because the Soviet Lithuania was badly covered by radio signals , the Soviet authorities decided to continue the building work at Sitkunai and turn the site into a main shortwave and medium wave transmitting centre . During 1951 and 1952 two 50 kW shortwave transmitters , dismantled from an East German utility site as war reparations were installed in Sitkūnai . Several curtain antennas were erected and one 150 kW mediumwave transmitter was installed ( 665 kHz ) . During the January Events in 1991 , Sitkūnai Radio Station was among those transmitting sites broadcasting to the world about the Soviet military actions in Vilnius when 14 civilians were killed and more than 600 injured . Now Sitkūnai Radio Station broadcasts on three frequencies in the medium wave band using two transmitters ( Russian made Shtorm , 150 kW , installed 1964 , and Russian made Vihr , 500 kW , installed 1977 ) and following antennas : one guyed mast 257 metre tall , two guyed masts 238 metre tall and two masts 150 metre tall . For short wave broadcasting , a Continental 418F 100 kW transmitter is used along with four antennas : three horizontal dipole arrays beamed at 259 , 79 and 310 degrees , and a dipole beamed at 259/79 degrees . The station is owned and operated by Lithuanian National Radio and Television Centre .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"Sitkūnai_Radio_Station\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 89411\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KEC38 Content: KEC38 ( sometimes referred to as Largo All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the Tampa Bay Area and surrounding cities as well as Tampa Bay and 40 miles into the Gulf of Mexico . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Tampa , Florida with its transmitter located in the same city . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following Counties : Hillsborough , Manatee , Pasco , and Pinellas .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"KEC38\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 88920\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: National Data Buoy Center Content: The National Data Buoy Center ( NDBC ) is a part of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 's ( NOAA ) National Weather Service ( NWS ) . NDBC designs , develops , operates , and maintains a network of data collecting buoys and coastal stations . The NBDC is located in southern Mississippi as a tenant at the John C. Stennis Space Center , a National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA ) facility .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"National_Data_Buoy_Center\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 88821\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: National Campus Climate Survey Content: The National Campus Climate Survey ( NCCS ) is a service offered to institutions of higher education in the United States who would like to better understand and improve their campus climate with regards to sexual assault and related topics . The study is designed to : Meet all state and federal requirements for the conduct of sexual assault surveys . Provide a scientifically rigorous survey instrument to help schools learn about the campus climate concerning sexual misconduct . Provide varying survey implementation tiers to match institutions ' varying needs for defensible data . Provide a benchmarking tool to allow institutions to compare their results against other participating institutions , and where possible , peer groups . The National Campus Climate Survey was developed at the University of Michigan in collaboration with a local survey research firm , SoundRocket ( formerly known as Survey Sciences Group , LLC ) The study was developed in response to the report from the White House Task Force to Protect Students from Sexual Assault .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"National_Campus_Climate_Survey\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 88604\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Grímsstaðir Content: Grímsstaðir is a settlement in north-east Iceland whose main claim to fame is that its weather station holds the low-temperature record for Iceland of -38 ° C : no doubt due to its sheltered location ( at altitude of about 400 metres ) between two upland areas ( above 800 metres ) . One of its recent records was recorded on December 8 , 2013 , when the temperature fell at -24,2 ° C. It is situated just off Route 1 ( the main ring road around the island ) , where it crosses the large river Jökulsá á Fjöllum , about 37 km or 23 miles east of Lake Mývatn . The river was bridged in 1947 : before that , traffic between north and east Iceland had to use a ferry . Currently the settlement has some accommodation for tourists , with discussions for growth . It also has an airstrip , in common with many isolated rural settlements in Iceland . It is a recognised stop on the bus route between Akureyri and Egilsstaðir ( up to one bus per day in summer ) although it is only during summer that the buses venture off the main road to the settlement itself .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"Grímsstaðir\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 88547\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: National Severe Weather Warning Service Content: The National Severe Weather Warning Service ( shortened to NSWWS ) is a service provided by the Met Office in the United Kingdom . The purpose of this service is to warn the public and emergency responders of severe or hazardous weather which has the potential to cause danger to life or widespread disruption . This allows emergency responders to put plans into place to help protect the public and allows the public to make necessary preparations .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"National_Severe_Weather_Warning_Service\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 88435\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Troposphere Content: The troposphere is the lowest portion of Earth 's atmosphere , and is also where nearly all weather takes place . It contains approximately 75 % of the atmosphere 's mass and 99 % of the total mass of water vapor and aerosols . The average depths of the troposphere are 20 km in the tropics , 17 km in the mid latitudes , and 7 km in the polar regions in winter . The lowest part of the troposphere , where friction with the Earth 's surface influences air flow , is the planetary boundary layer . This layer is typically a few hundred meters to 2 km deep depending on the landform and time of day . Atop the troposphere is the tropopause , which is the border between the troposphere and stratosphere . The tropopause is an inversion layer , where the air temperature ceases to decrease with height and remains constant through its thickness . The word troposphere derives from the for `` turn , turn toward , trope '' and '' - sphere '' ( as in , the Earth ) , reflecting the fact that rotational turbulent mixing plays an important role in the troposphere 's structure and behaviour . Most of the phenomena associated with day-to-day weather occur in the troposphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"Troposphere\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 88354\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: National Weather Service Boise, Idaho Content: The National Weather Service Boise , Idaho is a weather forecast office responsible for weather forecasts , warnings and local statements as well as aviation weather forecasts and fire weather forecasts for 3 counties in Southeast Oregon and 14 counties in Southwest and South central Idaho . The U.S. Weather Bureau established an office in the Sonna Building on December 1 , 1898 . Since then , the U.S Weather Bureau office , now known as the National Weather Service forecast office gained forecast responsibility of Southern Idaho on June 22 , 1970 which was expanded to the entire state of Idaho in 1973 . After modernization in 1993 , the forecast responsibility was changed to Southeast Oregon and Southwest Idaho . The current office in Boise maintains a WSR-88D ( NEXRAD ) radar system , 8 Automated airport weather station ( ASOS ) systems and Advanced Weather Interactive Processing System ( AWIPS ) that greatly improve forecasting in the region . Continuous weather observations have been maintained for the city of Boise since February 1 , 1964 about 5 months after the U.S. Army established Fort Boise . The post surgeon for the U.S. Army took observations until July 1 , 1877 when the U.S Signal Service , established an office downtown . The Signal Office was discontinued on July 1 , 1890 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"National_Weather_Service_Boise,_Idaho\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 88232\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: WNG663 Content: WNG663 is a NOAA Weather Radio ( NWR ) station serving the southern part of the South Florida metropolitan area and its adjacent coastal waters as well as the northern portion of the Florida Keys , broadcasting on an assigned frequency of 162.425 MHz ; it can also be heard 35 miles into the Atlantic Ocean . It is programmed by NOAA 's National Weather Service ( NWS ) weather forecast office ( WFO ) in Miami , Florida , with its transmitter located in Princeton , near Homestead . It continuously broadcasts weather and marine forecasts , as well as civil hazards information , for the following counties in the South Florida region : Miami-Dade and parts of Monroe ( mainland and Upper Keys ) . The radio station plays a vital role in alerting the general public to hazardous weather conditions in an area prone to severe weather events such as lightning storms , tornadoes , waterspouts and hurricanes . Although its signal also reaches extreme southern Broward County , WNG663 does not issue alerts for that area . There are other adjacent NWR stations that serve the forecast area . KHB34 Andover/Miami Gardens ( 162.550 MHz ) also covers Miami-Dade , as well as Broward and much of Palm Beach counties . Other stations programmed by the Miami-South Florida WFO include : KEC50 Mangonia Park/West Palm Beach ( 162.475 MHz ) to the north , serving Palm Beach County and the adjacent coastal waters ; WXM58 Belle Glade ( 162.400 MHz ) to the northwest , in western Palm Beach County near Lake Okeechobee ; and WWG92 Naples ( 162.525 MHz ) to the northwest , near Florida 's west coast , serving Collier , Hendry and a portion of mainland Monroe County . Recognizing the need to serve the local area 's large Spanish-speaking population , NWS added a low-power station in June 2012 , WZ2531 ( 162.500 MHz ) transmitting from Hialeah - the first dedicated Spanish language NWR station in Florida . Its broadcast , featuring a computer-synthesized voice known by the nickname `` Javier '' , covers Miami-Dade and Broward counties .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"WNG663\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 88217\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sura Ionospheric Heating Facility Content: The Sura Ionospheric Heating Facility , located near the small town of Vasilsursk about 100 km eastward from Nizhniy Novgorod in Russia , is a laboratory for ionosphere research . Sura is capable of radiating about 190 MW , effective radiated power ( ERP ) on short waves . This facility is operated by the radiophysical research institute NIRFI in Nizhny Novgorod . The Sura facility was commissioned in 1981 . Using this facility , Russian researchers studied the behaviour of the ionosphere and the effect of generation of low-frequency emission on modulation of ionosphere current . In the beginning , the Soviet Defense Department mostly footed the bill . The American HAARP ionospheric heater , whose operation began in 1993 , is similar to the Sura facility .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"Sura_Ionospheric_Heating_Facility\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 88073\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Heat advisory Content: A Heat Advisory is issued by the National Weather Service of the United States . . Local offices often have their own criteria . High values of the heat index are caused by temperatures being significantly above normal and high humidities , and such high levels can pose a threat to human life through conditions such as heat stroke .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"Heat_advisory\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 88060\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: National Weather Service North Little Rock, Arkansas Content: National Weather Service - North Little Rock , AR , also known as National Weather Service - Little Rock , AR , is a local weather forecast office responsible for monitoring weather conditions for 45 of Arkansas 's 75 counties , excluding 7 counties in Northwestern Arkansas , 9 counties in Southwestern and South Central Arkansas , Ashley and Chicot counties in Extreme Southeastern Arkansas , and 12 counties in Eastern Arkansas . Those counties are monitored by the weather service offices in Tulsa , Shreveport , Jackson ( MS ) , and Memphis respectively . The current office in North Little Rock maintains a WSR-88D ( NEXRAD ) radar system and Advanced Weather Interactive Processing System ( AWIPS ) that greatly improve forecasting in the region . North Little Rock is in charge of weather forecasts , warnings and local statements as well as aviation weather . The name of the doppler radar ( WSR-88D ) code used by this office is LZK . The National Weather Service at North Little Rock , Arkansas programs 12 NOAA Weather Radio transmitters across Arkansas , with 25 transmitters statewide .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"National_Weather_Service_North_Little_Rock,_Arkansas\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 87950\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Stevenson screen Content: A Stevenson screen or instrument shelter is a shelter or an enclosure to shield meteorological instruments against precipitation and direct heat radiation from outside sources , while still allowing air to circulate freely around them . It forms part of a standard weather station . The Stevenson screen holds instruments that may include thermometers ( ordinary , maximum/minimum ) , a hygrometer , a psychrometer , a dewcell , a barometer and a thermograph . Stevenson screens may also be known as a cotton region shelter , an instrument shelter , a thermometer shelter , a thermoscreen or a thermometer screen . Its purpose is to provide a standardised environment in which to measure temperature , humidity , dewpoint and atmospheric pressure .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"Stevenson_screen\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 87797\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Weather radio Content: A weather radio service is a public broadcast service dedicated to airing continuous weather reports . In most locations , it requires a specially-designed radio capable of receiving `` weather band '' frequencies - when tuned to one of these channels , it receives a radio station that broadcasts both routine and emergency weather information . Some weather radio receivers are equipped with a standby alerting function - if the radio is off or tuned to another band and a severe weather bulletin is transmitted , it can automatically sound an alarm and/or switch to a pre-tuned weather channel for emergency weather information . Weather radio services may also broadcast non-weather-related emergency information , such as in the event of a natural disaster , an AMBER alert or a terrorist attack . They generally broadcast in a pre-allocated very high frequency ( VHF ) range using FM . Usually a dedicated weather radio receiver or radio scanner is needed for listening , although in some locations a weather radio broadcast may be retransmitted on a conventional AM or FM frequency ( as well as HD Radio substations ) , some terrestrial television stations broadcasting in MTS stereo transmit weather radio on their second audio program ( SAP ) channel as well as on one of its digital subchannels ( where news and weather are applicable ) , on local public , educational , and government access ( PEG ) cable TV channels or during Emergency Alert System activations for tornado warnings primarily on cable systems . These weather-specific channels have experienced very low adoption . In Chicago , for example , there are no dedicated stations that provide transmissions for these channels .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"Weather_radio\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 87235\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Dickerson Whitewater Course Content: The Dickerson Whitewater Course , on the Potomac River near Dickerson , Maryland , was built for use by canoe and kayak paddlers training for the 1992 Olympic Games in Spain . It was the first pump-powered artificial whitewater course built in North America , and is still the only one anywhere with heated water . It remains an active training center for whitewater slalom racing , swiftwater rescue training , and other whitewater activities . The facility is owned by the NRG Energy company . Except during special events , access requires membership in the Potomac Whitewater Racing Center , a USA Canoe/Kayak National Training Center . The course was constructed in 1991 , inside a pre-existing straight , 900 ft-long concrete channel , 40 ft wide . Since 1959 , the channel has returned cooling water from the Dickerson Generating Station to the Potomac River , 41 mi upstream from Washington , D.C. Water is pumped from the river , warmed as much as 35 ° F ( 20 ° C ) as it cools the power plant 's three coal-fired generators , and then emptied into the channel for gravity flow back to the river . ( The plant has three other generators which use a different cooling system . ) Streamflow through the course is 200 cuft/s to 600 cuft/s , depending on the operation of the plant 's three coal-fired generators and their six cooling water pumps . In the summer months , when water temperature in the channel exceeds 100 ° F , the course is closed for health reasons . It is also closed when the Potomac River rises above 5 ft on the Little Falls gauge 20000 cuft/s , flooding the lower section of the course .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"Dickerson_Whitewater_Course\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 87197\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: WNG584 Content: WNG584 ( sometimes referred to as Avalon All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Los Angeles/Oxnard , California with its transmitter located in Avalon , California serving the Santa Catalina Island . It broadcasts marine weather and hazard information only for Los Angeles County as well as its coastal waters . The station 's forecast cycle includes marine forecasts for the inner coastal waters from Pont Mugu to San Mateo Point , outer waters from Santa Cruz Island to San Clemente Island , and inner waters from San Mateo Point to the Mexican border inside San Clemente Island at 20 minute intervals ; and the offshore waters forecast from Point Conception to Guadalupe Island extending 60 to 250 nautical miles offshore . Weather conditions are updated hourly for Avalon Airport , Long Beach Airport , Los Angeles Airport , Santa Ana John Wayne Airport , Oceanside and Carlsbad along with coastal conditions from the east Santa Barbara Channel to the Mexican Border .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"WNG584\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 87131\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Säntis transmitter Content: The Säntis transmitter is a 123.5 m ( 405.3 ft ) high transmitting station on the summit of the 2,502 m ( 8,209 ft ) high Säntis mountain in Switzerland . It is operated by Swisscom . The original tower was built in 1955 , but due to the extreme weather at such a high altitude , it had to be repeatedly rebuilt . Finally in 1997 , a completely new tower has been built which is specifically suited to the icy temperatures .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"Säntis_transmitter\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 87078\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: WWF64 Content: WWF64 ( sometimes referred to as Monterey Marine All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves Monterey , California and vicinity including some parts of the San Francisco Bay Area and can be heard 40 miles into the Pacific Ocean . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Monterey with its transmitter located in Mount Umunhum . Unlike its general weather radio counterpart station KEC49 , this transmitter broadcasts marine forecasts and hazardous marine alerts for the following counties : Alameda , Contra Costa , Monterey , Napa , San Benito , San Francisco , San Mateo , Santa Clara , and Santa Cruz .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"WWF64\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 86853\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: R-905 Content: The R-905 is a microwave transmission station that is used in the Swiss Army . The directional station consists of a transmitting and receiving device ( SE R-905 ) - in which the antenna reflector is also integrated - the operator terminal ( BT ) - a handset with keypad and LCD - and a supply equipment ( SA 95/1 ) . There are a 24-V battery , a tripod with guy ropes , and a camouflage net . All the mentioned sums up to about 230 kg but can be man-carried separately . Over a maximum of 4 km of Optical fiber cable ( OFC ) a parabolic antenna `` Bündelschlüsselgerät '' ( BSG 93 ) is connected to the SE . The optical signal has a user Bit rate of either 2 or 8 MiBit . The frequency range is from 14.64 to 15.21 GHz , with a frequency difference of at least 150 MHz . The maximum range is about 35 km . The range can be increase by using up to two R-905 as relay stations . A relay station consists of two R-905s , which are connected to an optical fiber . Over an unencrypted service channel that is multiplexed to the utility and remote control signals can be telephoned with the other operators of the BSG93s and the SEs .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"R-905\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 86709\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Earth's internal heat budget Content: The flow of heat from Earth 's interior to the surface is estimated at 47 terawatts ( TW ) and comes from two main sources in roughly equal amounts : the radiogenic heat produced by the radioactive decay of isotopes in the mantle and crust , and the primordial heat left over from the formation of the Earth . Earth 's internal heat powers most geological processes and drives plate tectonics . Despite its geological significance , this heat energy coming from Earth 's interior is actually only 0.03 % of Earth 's total energy budget at the surface , which is dominated by 173,000 TW of incoming solar radiation . The insolation that eventually , after reflection , reaches the surface penetrates only several tens of centimeters on the daily cycle and only several tens of meters on the annual cycle . This renders solar radiation irrelevant for internal processes .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"Earth's_internal_heat_budget\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 86578\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KEC80 Content: KEC80 is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the Atlanta metro area with 500 watts effective radiated power on 162.550 MHz . Its radio transmitter is located east of the city atop Stone Mountain , with its radio antenna on the short tower owned by Georgia Public Broadcasting for transmitting WGTV TV 8 , within state-owned Stone Mountain Park . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office at Falcon Field airport in Peachtree City , which was originally at Hartsfield International Airport ( now Hartsfield-Jackson ) in Atlanta .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"KEC80\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 86515\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Monthly Climatic Data for the World Content: Monthly Climatic Data for the World ( MCDW ) is a monthly publication of the National Climatic Data Center ( NCDC ) division of the National Environmental Satellite , Data , and Information Service ( NESDIS ) division of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) of the United States . According to the website , each monthly issue `` contains monthly mean temperature , pressure , precipitation , vapor pressure , and sunshine for approximately 2,000 surface data collection stations worldwide and monthly mean upper air temperatures , dew point depressions , and wind velocities for approximately 500 observing sites . This is the final quality controlled copy and generally has a 4 - 6 month time lag . '' The issues are available for download in portable document format .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"Monthly_Climatic_Data_for_the_World\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 86392\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: National Weather Service Tampa, Florida Content: The National Weather Service Tampa , Florida is a local office of the National Weather Service responsible for monitoring weather conditions in west-central Florida , United States . The office is located in Ruskin , and currently has 26 employees .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"National_Weather_Service_Tampa,_Florida\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 86369\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: MesoWest Content: MesoWest is an ongoing cooperative project , started in 1996 , to provide access to current and archive weather observations across the United States . Weather observations include but are not limited to : temperature , humidity , wind speed , wind direction , and precipitation . Data are collected from a variety of organizations . Some stations participate in voluntary weather observing networks such as the Citizen Weather Observer Program . Others are part of mesonets that are managed by private firms or federal/state/local agencies . These data are available for a multitude of uses . Over 20,000 weather stations actively report to the MesoWest database . Parties involved in this project include researchers at the University of Utah , forecasters at the Salt Lake City National Weather Service Office , the National Weather Service Western Region Headquarters , and personnel of participating agencies , universities , and commercial firms . Support for this project is being provided by the National Weather Service .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"MesoWest\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 86323\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mendenhall Glacier Content: Mendenhall Glacier ( also Sitaantaagu ) is a glacier about 13.6 miles long located in Mendenhall Valley , about 12 mi from downtown Juneau in the southeast area of the U.S. state of Alaska . The glacier and surrounding landscape is protected as part of the 5,815-acre Mendenhall Glacier Recreation Area , a federally designated unit of the Tongass National Forest . The Juneau Icefield Research Program has monitored the outlet glaciers of the Juneau Icefield since 1942 , including Mendenhall Glacier . The glacier has also retreated 1.75 mi since 1929 , when Mendenhall Lake was created , and over 2.5 mi since 1500 . The end of the glacier currently has a negative glacier mass balance and will continue to retreat in the foreseeable future . Given that average yearly temperatures are currently increasing , and the outlook is for this trend to continue , it is actually possible that the glacier might experience a period of stabilization or slight advance during its retreating march . This is because increasing amounts of warm , moist air will be carried up to the head of the icefield , where colder ambient temperatures will cause it to precipitate as snow . The increased amount of snow will feed the icefield , possibly enough to offset the continually increasing melting experienced at the glacier 's terminus . However , this interesting phenomenon will fade away if temperatures continue to climb , since the head of the glacier will no longer have cold enough ambient temperatures to cause snow to precipitate .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"Mendenhall_Glacier\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 86115\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KGG68 Content: KGG68 ( sometimes referred to as Houston All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station operating at 162.40 MHz that serves the city proper and suburbs in Greater Houston . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in League City , Texas with its transmitter located in Tomball , Texas . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following Counties : Brazoria , Chambers , Fort Bend , Galveston , Harris , Liberty , Montgomery , and Waller .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"KGG68\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 86015\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Videometer Content: A videometer is a European designed automatic docking system that guides an Automated Transfer Vehicle ( ATV ) towards the docking port of the Russian Zvezda Service Module of the International Space Station ( ISS ) . The ATV uses relative global positioning system ( GPS ) in order to close in on the ISS up to a distance of 249 m. Thereafter the ATV uses two videometers , together with additional data from telegoniometers , to automatically complete the docking maneuver . Both videometers are active during rendezvous with one acting as a back-up . Retroreflectors located on the aft end of Zvezda module accurately reflect pulsed laser beams emitted by the videometer on the front of the ATV . The spot patterns of laser light returned from the passive reflectors are analysed by the image processors on the ATV to give its relative position and orientation to the ISS . The beam travel time to the videometer 's 26 retroreflectors , contained in a 25mm cube , compute the distance between the two spacecraft and thus allowing it to identify , approach and mate to Zvezda 's docking mechanism .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"Videometer\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 85915\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: National Weather Service Amarillo, Texas Content: The National Weather Service Amarillo , Texas is a weather forecast office that serves 23 counties in the Texas and Oklahoma Panhandles by providing weather forecasts for the many communities it serves as well as airports in Guymon , Dalhart , and Amarillo . The office was established on January 1 , 1892 , only 5 years after the city of Amarillo was founded . The office operates a WSR-88D ( NEXRAD ) radar and a number of ASOS sensor suites in order to monitor the latest weather conditions . An AWIPS system is used by the office to produce forecasts , warnings , and advisories .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"National_Weather_Service_Amarillo,_Texas\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 85866\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sitarampur railway station Content: The Sitarampur , station code STN , is the railway station serving the neighbourhood of Neamatpur and Sitarampur in Asansol , Paschim Bardhaman district in the Indian state of West Bengal . Sitarampur Junction is part of the Asansol Division of the Eastern Railway Zone of the Indian Railway . Sitarampur Junction is connected to metropolitan areas of India , Delhi-Kolkata Main Line via Mugalsarai-Patna route as well as the Grand Chord route . Sitarampur is located at . It has an average elevation of 99 m.\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"Sitarampur_railway_station\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 85818\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: National Hurricane Center Content: The National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) is the division of the United States ' National Weather Service responsible for tracking and predicting weather systems within the tropics between the Prime Meridian and the 140th meridian west poleward to the 30th parallel north in the northeast Pacific Ocean and the 31st parallel north in the northern Atlantic Ocean . The agency , which is co-located with the Miami branch of the National Weather Service , is situated on the campus of Florida International University in University Park , Florida . Its Tropical Analysis and Forecast Branch ( TAFB ) routinely issues marine forecasts , in the form of graphics and high seas forecasts , for this area year round , with the Ocean Prediction Center having backup responsibility for this unit . The Technology and Science Branch ( TSB ) provides technical support for the center , which includes new infusions of technology from abroad . The Chief , Aerial Reconnaissance Coordination , All Hurricanes ( CARCAH ) unit tasks planes , for research and operational purposes , to tropical cyclones during the Atlantic hurricane season and significant weather events , including snow storms , during winter and spring . Research to improve operational forecasts is done through the Hurricane Forecast Improvement Project ( HFIP ) and Joint Hurricane Test Bed ( JHT ) initiatives . During the Atlantic and northeast Pacific hurricane seasons , the Hurricane Specialists Unit ( HSU ) issues routine tropical weather outlooks for the northeast Pacific and northern Atlantic oceans . When tropical storm or hurricane conditions are expected within 48 hours , the center issues watches and warnings via the news media and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) Weather Radio . Although the NHC is an agency of the United States , the World Meteorological Organization has designated it as Regional Specialized Meteorological Center for the North Atlantic and eastern Pacific , making it the clearinghouse for tropical cyclone forecasts and observations occurring in these areas . If the center loses power or becomes incapacitated , the Central Pacific Hurricane Center backs tropical cyclone advisories and tropical weather outlooks for the northeast Pacific Ocean while the Weather Prediction Center backs up tropical cyclone advisories and tropical weather outlooks for the north Atlantic Ocean .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"National_Hurricane_Center\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 85723\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Veerplas Content: Veerplas ( -LSB- ˌveːrˈplɑs -RSB- ) is an artificial lake directly east of the Dutch city of Haarlem . It was dug in 1994 , mainly for recreation purposes and forms part of the Spaarnwoude recreational area . The lake measures 450 by 400 metres . The southern shore is formed by a constructed wetland used for water purification . Large numbers of waterfowl may be found here and along the swampy eastern shore during the winter season ( e.g. greylag geese , wigeons , common goldeneyes ) . The local angling club has released carps into the lake . A sandy beach measuring some 300 m was created at the western shore . An area sufficiently shallow to accommodate safe swimming by inexperienced bathers is cordoned off . Furthermore , a grassy sunbathing area sporting a public toilet adjoins the lake , as well as a children 's adventure playground . The lake is only a short walking distance from Haarlem Spaarnwoude railway station and relatively close to the A200 and A9 motorways . This favourable location has helped to make it a popular area for organising mid to large-scale events . Thus , 2006 saw the Circus Herman Renz pitch its tent alongside the lake .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"Veerplas\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 85231\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Giles Weather Station Content: Giles Weather Station ( also referred to as Giles Meteorological Station or Giles ) is located in Western Australia near the Northern Territory border , about 750 km west-south-west of Alice Springs and 330 km west of Uluru . It is the only staffed weather station within an area of about 2500000 km2 and is situated mid-continent and near the core of the subtropical jetstream . This means it plays an important role as a weather and climate observatory for the country , particularly eastern and southeastern Australia , and particularly for rainfall predictions . The station is on the Great Central Road and the nearest township is the Warakurna aboriginal settlement ( population 180 ) , 5 km North . Giles is within the Shire of Ngaanyatjarraku and is in the foothills of the Rawlinson Ranges . A staff of three ( reduced from four at the end of 2010 ) operate the remote station on six-monthly tours . A 1600 m airstrip services the station and the Warakurna community . Tourists are invited to watch the daily release of weather balloons and browse through the Visitor 's Centre . Station tours are no longer conducted on a regular basis .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"Giles_Weather_Station\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 85150\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: NTPC Dadri Content: National Capital Power Station ( NCPS ) Or NTPC Dadri , is the power project to meet the power demand of National Capital Region ( India ) . It has a huge coal-fired thermal power plant and a gas-fired plant and has a small township located in Uttar Pradesh , India for its employees . It is located in Gautam Budh Nagar district of Uttar Pradesh about 25 km from Ghaziabad and about 9 km from Dadri . It is nearly 48 km from New Delhi towards Hapur . The township has an area of about 500 acres over all . NTPC Dadri is a branch of National Thermal Power Corporation , which is a public sector now . It is about 20 km from Ghaziabad via Badalpur , Mahawar , Bamabawar , and Akilpur Jagir .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"NTPC_Dadri\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 85082\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: National Weather Service Duties Act of 2005 Content: The National Weather Service Duties Act of 2005 was a legislative proposal forwarded in April 2005 by United States Senator Rick Santorum ( R-PA ) to curtail perceived government competition with commercial weather services from the National Weather Service . Though the wording of the bill was generally considered unclear , the general consensus among observers was that its effect would be to eliminate public dissemination of National Weather Service data and forecasts except in case of severe weather alerts . The bill attracted no cosponsors in the Senate and eventually died in committee , and was roundly criticized by the general public for threatening to move taxpayer-funded data ( currently made available for free ) to commercial for-profit channels ( i.e. behind a pay wall ) . The bill had very few supporters outside the commercial weather industry . In the wake of the bill 's introduction , Santorum was accused of political impropriety and influence peddling because Joel Myers , the head of Pennsylvania-based AccuWeather and one of Santorum 's constituents , was also a Santorum campaign contributor . Myers and his brother , the executive vice president , donated over $ 11,000 to Santorum 's political campaigns , including $ 2,000 two days before Santorum introduced the bill . In September 2005 , while the bill was still in committee , Santorum criticized the National Weather Service 's forecasting of Hurricane Katrina , claiming that more lives could have been saved if the NWS 's operation focused on severe weather . However , both public and professional opinion held that the NWS 's forecasting had in fact been substantially better than most other sources , and Santorum 's comment was largely ignored .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"National_Weather_Service_Duties_Act_of_2005\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 85014\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kombayashi–Ingersoll limit Content: In planetary science , the Kombayashi -- Ingersoll limit represents the maximum solar flux a planet can handle without a runaway greenhouse effect setting in . For planets with temperature-dependent sources of greenhouse gases such as liquid water and optically thin atmospheres the outgoing longwave radiation curve ( which indicates how fast energy can be radiated away by the planet ) flattens at high temperatures , reaching a horizontal asymptote -- the Kombayashi -- Ingersoll limit itself . Since the equilibrium temperature is the intersection of this curve and a horizontal line representing solar flux , for fluxes above this point the planet heats up indefinitely . Kasting estimated the limit for Earth to be 320 watts per square meter . The limit is relevant for estimating the inner edge of the circumstellar habitable zone . However , the limit also depends on the surface gravity of the planet , making heavy worlds somewhat more resistant to the runaway effect .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"Kombayashi–Ingersoll_limit\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 84987\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Patio heater Content: A patio heater ( also called a mushroom or umbrella heater ) is a radiant heating appliance for generating thermal radiation for outdoor use . A burner on top of a post , burns liquefied petroleum gas ( LPG ) , propane or butane , and directs the flames against a perforated metal screen . Heat is radiated from the surface of the screen in a circular pattern around the appliance . A reflector atop the burner reflects heat that would be otherwise lost upwards . This is because the reflecting hood is usually silvered which makes it a poor absorber/emitter of heat but excellent at reflecting infra-red radiation back . This reduces the amount of heat lost by conduction as silvered surfaces will not absorb infra-red light . The chimenea is an alternative to the patio heater for home use , which burns wood instead of gas . Some newer types of patio heaters are electrically powered radiative heaters that emit infrared energy onto nearby surfaces , which in turn heat up the surrounding air . Patio heaters have become popular with bars and restaurants since they extend the day and the season for their customers to sit outdoors . This increase in the popularity of the patio heater has led to concerns over their environmental effects . One patio heater can produce four tons of carbon dioxide annually .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"Patio_heater\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 84923\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Historical Climatology Network Content: The Global Historical Climatology Network ( GHCN ) is a database of temperature , precipitation and pressure records managed by the National Climatic Data Center , Arizona State University and the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center . The aggregate data are collected from many continuously reporting fixed stations at the Earth 's surface and represent the input of approximately 6000 temperature stations , 7500 precipitation stations and 2000 pressure stations . This work has often been used as a foundation for reconstructing past global temperatures , and was used in previous versions of two of the best-known reconstructions , that prepared by the National Climatic Data Center ( NCDC ) , and that prepared by NASA as its Goddard Institute for Space Studies ( GISS ) temperature set . The average temperature record is 60 years long with ~ 1650 records greater than 100 years and ~ 220 greater than 150 years ( based on GHCN v2 in 2006 ) . The earliest data included in the database were collected in 1697 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Historical_Climatology_Network\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 84741\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Weather Info for All Initiative Content: The Weather Info for All ( WIFA ) Initiative is a public-private partnership that works to reinforce the capacities and the capabilities of national meteorological services with the goal of supporting local communities worst impacted by climate change through the improvement of weather monitoring . `` By bringing together the expertise and resources of different public and private actors , this project may help to save lives and improve the livelihoods of communities in Africa living on the frontlines of climate change . '' Kofi Annan , President of the Global Humanitarian Forum . The Forum , together with Ericsson , the World Meteorological Organization , National Meteorological Services ( NMSs ) , the Earth Institute at Columbia University , as well as Zain and other mobile phone operators aim to deploy up to 5,000 automatic weather stations ( AWSs ) at wireless network sites across Africa , where less than 300 are reporting today .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"Weather_Info_for_All_Initiative\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 84737\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: North Ice Content: North Ice was a research station of the British North Greenland Expedition ( 1952 to 1954 ) on the inland ice of Greenland . The coordinates of the station were , at an altitude of 2341 m above sea level . The British North Greenland Expedition was led by Commander James Simpson RN . The station recorded the lowest temperature ever in North America with -66.1 C on 9 January 1954 . The name of the station contrasts to the former British South Ice station in Antarctica .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"North_Ice\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 84729\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Jack C. Davis Observatory Content: The Jack C. Davis Observatory is an astronomical observatory at Western Nevada College in Carson City , Nevada . The facility has three telescopes : two 0.4 m reflecting telescopes and one 0.25 m reflector . One telescope is equipped with a spectrograph . Outside the building , a 0.12 m refractor has been installed under a robotic dome and is used for studying sunspots . All of the telescopes are equipped with cameras , and are connected to the Internet so large groups can access images from remote locations . A Campbell Scientific research-grade weather station is installed outside the observatory . The solar-powered instrument collects weather data and sends it to the Desert Research Institute in Reno , Nevada for analysis and on-line publication . The Planetary Walkway connects the main campus with the observatory . Lining the walkway are massive sandstone monuments created by artistic inmates from the Nevada State Prison at the prison 's old quarry . The stones feature carved images of the planets , along with information about the planet and a dedication to the donors . The Western Nevada Astronomical Society is an observing group affiliated with Western Nevada College and the Jack C. Davis Observatory . The WNAS is dedicated to supporting the astronomical community through education , social functions , and service .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"Jack_C._Davis_Observatory\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 84629\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of National Weather Service Weather Forecast Offices Content: The National Weather Service operates 122 Weather Forecast Offices in six regions . Each Weather Forecast Office has a geographic area of responsibility , also known as a County Warning Area , for issuing local public , marine , aviation , fire , and hydrology forecasts . They also issue severe weather warnings , gather weather observations , and climate data for their assigned area . The local Weather Forecast Offices also control the broadcasts of weather information on the NOAA Weather Radio All Hazards stations .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_National_Weather_Service_Weather_Forecast_Offices\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 84594\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KIH36 Content: KIH36 is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves Coastal Washington . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Seattle , Washington with its transmitter located on Bahokus Peak near Neah Bay . It has a repeater , KXI27 , that broadcasts from Mt. Octopus near Forks on a frequency of 162.425 MHz . It can be heard across Coastal Washington and Southwestern British Columbia . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for Clallam , Grays Harbor , Jefferson and Pacific counties in Washington .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"KIH36\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 84531\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: National Distress System Content: The U.S. National Distress System ( NDRS ) was established more than 30 years ago as a VHF-FM-based radio communication system that has a range of up to 20 nautical miles ( 40 km ) along most of the U.S. shoreline for the United States Coast Guard . While this system has served the Coast Guard well over the years , it consists of out-of-date and non-standard equipment with many limitations . This system is being replaced by Rescue 21 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"National_Distress_System\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 84439\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KHB37 Content: KHB37 is a NOAA Weather Radio station broadcasting at 162.55 megahertz and transmitting from Norfolk in Hampton Roads , Virginia . It covers most of southeastern Virginia , and northeastern North Carolina . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Wakefield , Virginia . The signal reliably covers the Virginia cities of Norfolk , Virginia Beach , Poquoson , Suffolk , Hampton , Newport News , Portsmouth , Williamsburg , Chesapeake , Franklin , and the Virginia counties of Isle of Wight , James City , Accomack , Surry , Sussex and York . Reception is also reliable in the North Carolina counties of Camden , Currituck , Gates , Perquimans , Hertford , and Pasquotank .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"KHB37\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 84384\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tankwa Karoo National Park Content: Tankwa Karoo National Park is a Scientific National Park in South Africa . The park lies about 70 km due west of Sutherland near the border of the Northern Cape and Western Cape , in one of the most arid regions of South Africa , with areas receiving less than 100 mm of average annual precipitation , moisture-bearing clouds from the Atlantic Ocean being largely stopped by the Cederberg . Other low areas receive little more , as the Roodewerf station ( coordinates : S32 ° 14 ' 27.9 '' E20 ° 05 ' 44.5 '' ) with 180 mm of mean annual rainfall . In the hottest areas of the park , the mean maximum temperature in January is 38.9 ° C , and in July the mean minimum temperature ranges from about 5 to 7 ° C. Before this Park 's proclamation , the only protected area of Succulent Karoo was the 2 square kilometre patch of the Gamkaberg Nature Reserve . Succulent Karoo has , together with the Cape Floral Kingdom , been declared a Biodiversity Hotspot by Conservation International . Tankwa 's area has been increased from an initial 260 to 1436 km2 . It is bounded on the east by the Roggeveld Mountains , on the west by the Cederberg , to the north by the Kouebokkeveld Mountains and on the south by the scattered foothills of the Koedoesberge and Klein Roggeveld Mountains , and the Tankwa River . The park 's headquarters are located at Roodewerf ( GPS coordinates : S 32 ° 14 ' 27.9 '' E 20 ° 5 ' 44.5 '' ) . Distances from the nearest towns to the park 's headquarters are : Ceres ( 180 km ) , Sutherland ( 120 km ) , Calvinia ( 110 km ) and Middelpos ( 52 km ) . In 1998 Conrad Strauss sold 280 km2 of sheep farm to the South African National Parks . The park has started with the reintroduction of game that used to occur naturally in the area . Research was done beforehand to ensure that introduced animals would survive on the overgrazed veld . The vegetation in the park falls within the Succulent Karoo biome and has been described as very sparse shrubland and dwarf shrubland . Several unique succulent genera occur here , such as Tanquana , Braunsia and Didymaotus . The park is home to a large variety of birds ( 188 species - 2015 figure ) , such as the black-headed canary , Ludwig 's bustard , and the black-eared sparrow-lark . Peak birding season is August to October .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"Tankwa_Karoo_National_Park\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 84319\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Trent-class lifeboat Content: The Trent-class lifeboat is an all-weather lifeboat operated by the Royal National Lifeboat Institution ( RNLI ) from 30 stations around the coasts of Great Britain and Ireland to provide coverage up to 50 mi out to sea . Introduced to service in 1994 , the class is named after the River Trent , the second longest river wholly in England .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"Trent-class_lifeboat\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 84264\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: National Park railway station, Manawatu-Wanganui Content: National Park Railway Station is a station on the North Island Main Trunk serving the area around the town of National Park in New Zealand 's Ruapehu District . It is served by Kiwirail 's Northern Explorer long distance train between Wellington and Auckland . There is a licensed cafe on the platform . At an elevation of 806.8 m , it is the country 's highest station with a scheduled passenger stop ( although the now-closed Waiouru Railway Station is higher ) . About 5 km north of the station the railway performs the convoluted dance that is the Raurimu Spiral , one of New Zealand 's most impressive feats of engineering .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"National_Park_railway_station,_Manawatu-Wanganui\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 84253\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Visual meteorological conditions Content: In aviation , visual meteorological conditions ( or VMC ) is an aviation flight category in which visual flight rules ( VFR ) flight is permitted -- that is , conditions in which pilots have sufficient visibility to fly the aircraft maintaining visual separation from terrain and other aircraft . They are the opposite of instrument meteorological conditions ( IMC ) . The boundary criteria between IMC and VMC are known as the VMC minima and are defined by : visibility , cloud ceilings ( for takeoffs and landings ) , and cloud clearances . The exact requirements vary by type of airspace , whether it is day or night ( for countries that permit night VFR ) , and from country to country . Typical visibility requirements vary from one statute mile to five statute miles ( many countries define these in metric units as 1,500 m to 8 km ) . Typical cloud clearance requirements vary from merely remaining clear of clouds to remaining at least one mile away ( 1,500 m in some countries ) from clouds horizontally and 1,000 feet away from clouds vertically . For instance , in Australia , VMC minima outside controlled airspace are clear of cloud with 5,000 m visibility below 3,000 ft AMSL or 1,000 ft AGL ( whichever is higher ) , and 1,000 ft vertical/1 ,500 m horizontal separation from cloud above these altitudes or in controlled airspace . Above 10,000 ft , 8,000 m visibility is required to maintain VMC . Air traffic control may also issue a `` special VFR '' clearance to VFR aircraft , to allow departure from a control zone in less than VMC -- this reduces the visibility minimum to 1,600 m. Generally , VMC requires greater visibility and cloud clearance in controlled airspace than in uncontrolled airspace . In uncontrolled airspace there is less risk of a VFR aircraft colliding with an instrument flight rules ( IFR ) aircraft emerging from a cloud , so aircraft are permitted to fly closer to clouds . An exception to this rule is class B airspace , in which ATC separates VFR traffic from all other traffic ( VFR or IFR ) , which is why in class B airspace lower cloud clearance is permitted .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"Visual_meteorological_conditions\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 84246\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sit (island) Content: Sit is an uninhabited Croatian island in the Adriatic Sea located between Žut and Pašman . Its area is 1.77 km2 . The coastline is not significantly indented , except for the bay Pahaljica ( Čitapićev port ) to the north of the island . Its middle width of 500 m consists of only one mountain ridge , where the highest elevation Veli vrh ( 84 m.a.s.l. ) is located in the eastern part of the island , the central hill Vlašić is 78 m.a.s.l. , and the northwest end Borovac is 60 m.a.s.l.\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"Sit_(island)\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 84170\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Automatic weather station Content: An automatic weather station ( AWS ) is an automated version of the traditional weather station , either to save human labour or to enable measurements from remote areas . An AWS will typically consist of a weather-proof enclosure containing the data logger , rechargeable battery , telemetry ( optional ) and the meteorological sensors with an attached solar panel or wind turbine and mounted upon a mast . The specific configuration may vary due to the purpose of the system . The system may report in near real time via the Argos System and the Global Telecommunications System , or save the data for later recovery . In the past , automatic weather stations were often placed where electricity and communication lines were available . Nowadays , the solar panel , wind turbine and mobile phone technology have made it possible to have wireless stations that are not connected to the electrical grid or hardline telecommunications network .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"Automatic_weather_station\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 84132\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: National Weather Service Training Center Content: The National Weather Service Training Center ( NWSTC ) provides initial and continuing education to NOAA/NWS employees in the areas of equipment ( operations , maintenance and repair ) , management , meteorology , hydrology , systems support , and related activities . NWSTC 's staff develop and deliver courses in a number of formats including residence classes and workshops , web-based and computer-based self-study tutorials , teletraining ( interactive web delivery ) , and work aides . It is located in Kansas City , Missouri . In addition , NWSTC staff provides consulting services , research and development ( R&D ) , technical and operational documentation assistance , and system deployment support . The NWSTC Leadership Academy also offers leadership training to all federal agencies . NWSTC 's goal is to teach job-specific and practical skills ; integrate systems so the whole , instead of individual parts of the problem , can be recognized ; emulate the NWS working field environment ; and provide students the ability to work and experiment with concepts or equipment as part of learning . NWSTC 's mission is to align the training of NOAA/NWS employees with the advancement of science and technology for NOAA to earn the public 's trust and perform with service-based excellence .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"National_Weather_Service_Training_Center\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 83968\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Port Walter Content: Port Walter is located on the southeastern side of Baranof Island in Sitka City and Borough , Alaska . It is made up of two parts : Little Port Walter and Big Port Walter . Little Port Walter was the home of a herring saltery during the turn on the century and the ruins can still be seen . Little Port Walter had a small community at one time but has been replaced by a research station that studies the life cycles of several species of Salmon . There is a staff of 3 -- 15 state and federal employees running the research station year-round . There is a dock , and the harbor itself is a safe anchorage . Little Port Walter receives an average annual precipitation of over 225 in and as such is the wettest permanent settlement in the United States and among the wettest in the world with lengthy climate records . As many as seventy-eight days per year see over 1 in of rain and/or snowfall per year , while in October 1974 69.23 in of rain fell and in January 1985 61.67 in . The record daily rainfall was 14.84 in on 6 December 1964 . The driest month was February 1989 with 0.63 in , while the hottest day on record was 12 August 1990 with 88 F and the coldest 2 January 1966 with 0 F overnight . The heaviest snowfall in a month was 94.2 in in December 2001 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"Port_Walter\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 83769\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 600-meter amateur radio band Content: The 600 meter ( or 630 meter ) amateur radio band is a frequency band allocated by the International Telecommunication Union ( ITU ) to amateur radio operators , and it ranges from 472 to 479 kHz , or equivalently 625.9 to 635.1 meters wavelength . It was formally allocated to amateurs at the 2012 World Radiocommunication Conference ( WRC-12 ) . The band is available on a secondary basis in all ITU regions with the limitation that amateur stations have maximum radiated power of 1 Watt effective isotropic radiated power ( EIRP ) ; however , stations more than 800 km from certain countries may be permitted to use 5 Watts EIRP . The new WRC-12 allocation did not take formal effect until 1 January 2013 . However , several countries previously allocated the WRC-12 band to amateurs domestically . Previously , several other countries have authorized temporary allocations or experimental operations on nearby frequencies . The band is in the Medium Frequency ( MF ) region , within the greater 415 -- 526.5 kHz maritime band .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"600-meter_amateur_radio_band\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 83554\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: National Weather Service Louisville, Kentucky Content: National Weather Service Louisville is a weather forecast office responsible for monitoring weather conditions for 49 counties in north-central , south-central , and east-central Kentucky and 10 counties in southern Indiana . The office is in charge of weather forecasts , warnings and local statements as well as aviation weather . It is also equipped with a WSR-88D ( NEXRAD ) radar , and an Automated Surface Observing System ( ASOS ) that greatly increase the ability to forecast . The NEXRAD radar site utilized by the forecast office is located near West Point , Kentucky on the north side of the Fort Knox Military Reservation .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"National_Weather_Service_Louisville,_Kentucky\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 83509\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Oklahoma Mesonet Content: The Oklahoma Mesonet is a network of environmental monitoring stations designed to measure the environment at the size and duration of mesoscale weather events . The phrase `` mesonet '' is a portmanteau of the words mesoscale and network . In meteorology , `` mesoscale '' refers to weather events that range in size from approximately 1 mi to 150 mi and can last from several minutes to several hours . Mesoscale events include thunderstorms , wind gusts , heat bursts , and dry lines . Without densely spaced weather observations , these mesoscale events might go undetected . In addition to surface weather observations , Oklahoma Mesonet stations also include environmental data such as on insolation and soil conditions , and some sites are co-located with wind profilers . The network consists of 121 automated stations covering Oklahoma and each of Oklahoma 's counties has at least one station . At each site , the environment is measured by a set of instruments located on or near a 10 m-tall tower . The measurements are packaged into `` observations '' and transmitted to a central facility every 5 minutes , 24 hours per day , every day of the year . Oklahoma Mesonet is a cooperative venture between Oklahoma State University ( OSU ) and the University of Oklahoma ( OU ) and is supported by the taxpayers of Oklahoma . It is headquartered at the National Weather Center ( NWC ) on the OU campus . Observations are available free of charge to the public .\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"Oklahoma_Mesonet\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 83487\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cold weather rule Content: A cold weather rule or cold weather law is a law or regulation that prohibits public utility companies from disconnecting customers who are unable to pay for the energy used to heat their homes during the winter . Such regulations may also require utility companies to reconnect customers during those periods . Several U.S. states have such rules , including Kansas , Minnesota , and Missouri . The protection provided by a cold weather rule may not be automatic , and poor customers may have to register with their service provider to indicate either a complete inability to pay or to set up a special payment plan . In Minnesota , the rule is in effect between October 15 and April 15 of the next year , and requires reconnection of electricity and/or natural gas depending on which energy sources are necessary for heat . The state 's Public Utilities Commission does n't regulate liquefied petroleum gas or oil , so those services may not be provided . However , if an LP - or oil-fired heater requires electricity in order to function , the rule requires electrical service to be reconnected . In addition to providing warmth for residents , cold weather rules help prevent damage to homes . Wintertime temperatures can freeze Water pipes , potentially causing bursts in the lines as the water inside expands as it turns into ice . Cleaning up after this can lay heavy burdens upon people who are already of limited financial means . Category : Kansas law Category : Minnesota law Category : Missouri law\",\n \"qid\": \"2729\",\n \"docid\": \"Cold_weather_rule\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 83276\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":1346,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"A number of independent studies using near-global satellite data find positive feedback and high climate sensitivity."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Climate change feedback Content: Climate change feedback is important in the understanding of global warming because feedback processes may amplify or diminish the effect of each climate forcing , and so play an important part in determining the climate sensitivity and future climate state . Feedback in general is the process in which changing one quantity changes a second quantity , and the change in the second quantity in turn changes the first . Positive feedback amplifies the change in the first quantity while negative feedback reduces it . The term `` forcing '' means a change which may `` push '' the climate system in the direction of warming or cooling . An example of a climate forcing is increased atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases . By definition , forcings are external to the climate system while feedbacks are internal ; in essence , feedbacks represent the internal processes of the system . Some feedbacks may act in relative isolation to the rest of the climate system ; others may be tightly coupled ; hence it may be difficult to tell just how much a particular process contributes . Forcings , feedbacks and the dynamics of the climate system determine how much and how fast the climate changes . The main positive feedback in global warming is the tendency of warming to increase the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere , which in turn leads to further warming . The main negative feedback comes from the Stefan -- Boltzmann law , the amount of heat radiated from the Earth into space changes with the fourth power of the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere . Some observed and potential effects of global warming are positive feedbacks , which contribute directly to further global warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that `` Anthropogenic warming could lead to some effects that are abrupt or irreversible , depending upon the rate and magnitude of the climate change . ''","qid":"2733","docid":"Climate_change_feedback","rank":1,"score":173056},{"content":"Title: Climate sensitivity Content: Climate sensitivity is the equilibrium temperature change in response to changes of the radiative forcing . Therefore , climate sensitivity depends on the initial climate state , but potentially can be accurately inferred from precise palaeoclimate data . Slow climate feedbacks , especially changes of ice sheet size and atmospheric CO2 , amplify the total Earth system sensitivity by an amount that depends on the time scale considered . Although climate sensitivity is usually used in the context of radiative forcing by carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , it is thought of as a general property of the climate system : the change in surface air temperature ( ΔTs ) following a unit change in radiative forcing ( RF ) , and thus is expressed in units of ° C / ( W/m2 ) . For this to be useful , the measure must be independent of the nature of the forcing ( e.g. from greenhouse gases or solar variation ) ; to first order this is indeed found to be so . The climate sensitivity specifically due to is often expressed as the temperature change in ° C associated with a doubling of the concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere . For coupled atmosphere-ocean global climate models ( e.g. CMIP5 ) the climate sensitivity is an emergent property : it is not a model parameter , but rather a result of a combination of model physics and parameters . By contrast , simpler energy-balance models may have climate sensitivity as an explicit parameter . The terms represented in the equation relate radiative forcing ( RF ) to linear changes in global surface temperature change ( ΔTs ) via the climate sensitivity λ . It is also possible to estimate climate sensitivity from observations ; however , this is difficult due to uncertainties in the forcing and temperature histories .","qid":"2733","docid":"Climate_sensitivity","rank":2,"score":169969},{"content":"Title: Cloud feedback Content: Cloud feedback is the coupling between cloudiness and surface air temperature where a surface air temperature change leads to a change in clouds , which could then amplify or diminish the initial temperature perturbation . Cloud feedbacks can affect the magnitude of internally generated climate variability or they can affect the magnitude of climate change resulting from external radiative forcings . Global warming is expected to change the distribution and type of clouds . Seen from below , clouds emit infrared radiation back to the surface , and so exert a warming effect ; seen from above , clouds reflect sunlight and emit infrared radiation to space , and so exert a cooling effect . Cloud representations vary among global climate models , and small changes in cloud cover have a large impact on the climate . Differences in planetary boundary layer cloud modeling schemes can lead to large differences in derived values of climate sensitivity . A model that decreases boundary layer clouds in response to global warming has a climate sensitivity twice that of a model that does not include this feedback . However , satellite data show that cloud optical thickness actually increases with increasing temperature . Whether the net effect is warming or cooling depends on details such as the type and altitude of the cloud ; details that are difficult to represent in climate models .","qid":"2733","docid":"Cloud_feedback","rank":3,"score":162067},{"content":"Title: Satellite temperature measurements Content: The temperature of the atmosphere at various altitudes as well as sea and land surface temperatures can be inferred from satellite measurements . These measurements can be used to locate weather fronts , monitor the El Niño-Southern Oscillation , determine the strength of tropical cyclones , study urban heat islands and monitor the global climate . Wildfires , volcanos , and industrial hot spots can also be found via thermal imaging from weather satellites . Weather satellites do not measure temperature directly . They measure radiances in various wavelength bands . Since 1978 microwave sounding units ( MSUs ) on National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration polar orbiting satellites have measured the intensity of upwelling microwave radiation from atmospheric oxygen , which is related to the temperature of broad vertical layers of the atmosphere . Measurements of infrared radiation pertaining to sea surface temperature have been collected since 1967 . Satellite datasets show that over the past four decades the troposphere has warmed and the stratosphere has cooled . Both of these trends are consistent with the influence of increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases .","qid":"2733","docid":"Satellite_temperature_measurements","rank":4,"score":128115},{"content":"Title: Robert D. Cess Content: Robert D. Cess is professor emeritus of atmospheric sciences at Stony Brook University . He earned his bachelor of science degree in mechanical engineering from Oregon State University and his master 's degree from Purdue University in Indiana in 1956 . Cess received a Ph.D. from the University of Pittsburgh in 1959 . He is a recognized leader in the fields of climate change and atmospheric radiation transfer . His research interest involve modeling of climate feedbacks that can either amplify or diminish global climate change , and interpreting surface and satellite remote sensing data . He has been a part of studies which have found problems with the ability of model the transmission of shortwave radiation through a cloud-free atmosphere , and designed an experiment to test the accuracy of the models . They reported that they found agreement between the models and the observations of clear-sky shortwave radiation at the surface for the period studied , 1985 to 1988 . Cess was a lead author of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and worked with the National Science Foundation on understanding greenhouse warming and its associated policy implications .","qid":"2733","docid":"Robert_D._Cess","rank":5,"score":123950},{"content":"Title: Ghrsst-pp Content: The Group for High Resolution SST ( GHRSST ) is a follow on activity form the Global Ocean Data Assimilation Experiment ( GODAE ) high-resolution sea surface temperature pilot project ( GHRSST-PP ) provides a new generation of global high-resolution ( < 10 km ) SST data products to the operational oceanographic , meteorological , climate and general scientific community , in real time and delayed mode . See GHRSST for full details . Sea surface temperature ( SST ) measured from Earth Observation Satellites in considerable spatial detail and at high frequency , is increasingly required for use in the context of operational monitoring and forecasting of the ocean , for assimilation into coupled ocean-atmosphere model systems and for applications in short-term numerical weather prediction and longer term climate change detection . Currently there are many different SST data sets available derived from satellite systems . But , scientists and operational agencies alike are presented with a bewidering set of options in terms of SST product content , coverage , spatial resolution , timeliness , format and accuracy . The international GODAE steering committee realised that SST data products were not adequate for GODAE forecast systems and initiated the GODAE High Resolution SST Pilot Project ( GHRSST-PP ) . User Requirements were collected together to define the optimal SST data products that could be developed to suit the widest possible number of applications . In 2008 the GHRSST-PP Science Team agreed to close the Pilot Project as the GODAE project was completed . A follow on activity called the Group for High Resolution SST is now continuing the coordination of GHRSST activities .","qid":"2733","docid":"Ghrsst-pp","rank":6,"score":122608},{"content":"Title: Iris hypothesis Content: The iris hypothesis is a hypothesis proposed by Richard Lindzen et al. in 2001 that suggested increased sea surface temperature in the tropics would result in reduced cirrus clouds and thus more infrared radiation leakage from Earth 's atmosphere . His study of observed changes in cloud coverage and modeled effects on infrared radiation released to space as a result supported the hypothesis . This suggested infrared radiation leakage was hypothesized to be a negative feedback in which an initial warming would result in an overall cooling of the surface . The consensus view is that increased sea surface temperature would result in increased cirrus clouds and reduced infrared radiation leakage and therefore a positive feedback . Other scientists subsequently tested the hypothesis . Some concluded that there was no evidence supporting the hypothesis . Others found evidence suggesting that increased sea surface temperature in the tropics did indeed reduce cirrus clouds but found that the effect was nonetheless a positive feedback rather than the negative feedback that Lindzen had hypothesized . A later 2007 study conducted by Roy Spencer et al. using updated satellite data potentially supported the iris hypothesis . In 2011 , Lindzen published a rebuttal to the main criticisms . In 2015 a paper was published which again suggested the possibility of an `` Iris Effect '' . It also proposed what it called a `` plausible physical mechanism for an iris effect . ''","qid":"2733","docid":"Iris_hypothesis","rank":7,"score":122446},{"content":"Title: International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project Content: The International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project ( ISCCP ) was established as the first project of the World Climate Research Program ( WCRP ) . Since its inception in 1982 , there have been two phases , 1983 -- 1995 and 1995 -- 2009 . The project is responsible for collection and analysis of weather satellite radiance measurements . It infers clouds ' global distribution and properties , along with their diurnal , seasonal , and interannual variations . The results are studied to understand clouds in climate , including their effects on radiative energy exchanges , plus their role in the global water cycle . These datasets provide a systematic view of cloud behavior . The ISCCP headquarters are located at the Goddard Institute for Space Studies in New York City . ISCCP data is stored at the ISCCP Central Archive and at NASA . While the data are typically used for climate study , they are also a valuable resource for astronomical pursuits . From 1983 , institutions from around the world have collected and analyzed satellite radiance measurements from two polar orbiting and five geostationary satellites .","qid":"2733","docid":"International_Satellite_Cloud_Climatology_Project","rank":8,"score":121902},{"content":"Title: Ice-albedo feedback Content: Ice-albedo feedback ( or snow-albedo feedback ) is a positive feedback climate process where a change in the area of snow-covered land , ice caps , glaciers or sea ice alters the albedo . This change in albedo acts to reinforce the initial alteration in ice area . Cooling tends to increase ice cover and hence the albedo , reducing the amount of solar energy absorbed and leading to more cooling . Conversely , warming tends to decrease ice cover and hence the albedo , increasing the amount of solar energy absorbed , leading to more warming . The effect also applies on the small scale to snow-covered surfaces . A small amount of snow melt exposes darker ground which absorbs more radiation , leading to more snowmelt . The effect has mostly been discussed in terms of the recent trend of declining Arctic sea ice . Internal feedback processes may also potentially occur , as land ice melts and causes eustatic sea level rise , and also potentially induces earthquakes as a result of isostatic rebound , which further acts to disrupt glaciers , ice shelves , etc. .","qid":"2733","docid":"Ice-albedo_feedback","rank":9,"score":121395},{"content":"Title: Joint Polar Satellite System Content: Joint Polar Satellite System ( JPSS ) is the latest generation of U.S. polar-orbiting , non-geosynchronous , environmental satellites . JPSS will provide the global environmental data used in numerical weather prediction models for forecasts , and scientific data used for climate monitoring . JPSS will aid in fulfilling the mission of the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , an agency of the Department of Commerce . Data and imagery obtained from the JPSS will increase timeliness and accuracy of public warnings and forecasts of climate and weather events , thus reducing the potential loss of human life and property and advancing the national economy . The JPSS is developed by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA ) for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , who is responsible for operation of JPSS . Two satellites are planned for the JPSS constellation of satellites . JPSS satellites will be flown and the scientific data from JPSS will be processed by the JPSS - Common Ground System ( JPSS-CGS ) .","qid":"2733","docid":"Joint_Polar_Satellite_System","rank":10,"score":117191},{"content":"Title: UAH satellite temperature dataset Content: The UAH satellite temperature dataset , developed at the University of Alabama in Huntsville , infers the temperature of various atmospheric layers from satellite measurements of radiance . It was the first global temperature datasets developed from satellite information and has been used as a tool for research into surface and atmospheric temperature changes . The dataset is published by John Christy et al. and formerly jointly with Roy Spencer .","qid":"2733","docid":"UAH_satellite_temperature_dataset","rank":11,"score":113936},{"content":"Title: List of climate research satellites Content: The invention of climate research through the use of satellite remote telemetry began in the 1960s through development of space probes to study other planets . During the U.S. economic decline in 1977 , with much of NASA 's money going toward the Shuttle program , the Reagan Administration proposed to reduce spending on planetary exploration . During this time , new scientific evidence emerged from ice and sediment cores that Earth 's climate had experienced rapid changes in temperature , running contrary to the previously held belief that the climate changed on a geological time scale . These changes increased political interest in gathering remote-sensing data on the Earth itself and stimulated the science of climatology .","qid":"2733","docid":"List_of_climate_research_satellites","rank":12,"score":113527},{"content":"Title: Peter Thejll Content: Peter Andreas Thejll ( born 1956 ) is a Danish astrophysicist and climate researcher . His research in solar variation helped provide evidence of the greenhouse effect on the Earth 's climate in the late 20th century . In particular , his study with Knud Lassen on Northern Hemisphere land air temperature showed that the rise of 0.4 degrees Celsius since 1980 could not be accounted for by the solar cycle . Climatologists have pointed to this finding as an `` actual piece of evidence for greenhouse warming '' . Thejll received his undergraduate education at the University of Copenhagen . He received an M.S. in physics and a Ph.D. in astrophysics from the University of Delaware . Thejll was a Carlsberg Fellow at the Niels Bohr Institute and worked at the Nordic Institute for Theoretical Physics . Thejll currently is a senior scientist at the Danish Meteorological Institute in Copenhagen . He is currently involved in the creation of a global automatic system to observe the Earth 's reflectivity - albedo - using observations of the earthshine on the Moon . Such data can be used for climate change studies and calibration of satellite data as the measurements deliver independent data on the albedo . A telescope is now installed on Hawaii at the Mauna Loa Observatory . The Swedish research agency VINNOVA is funding this project .","qid":"2733","docid":"Peter_Thejll","rank":13,"score":112833},{"content":"Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .","qid":"2733","docid":"Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change","rank":14,"score":111278},{"content":"Title: Climate Data Records Content: A Climate Data Record ( CDR ) is a specific definition of a climate data series , developed by the Committee on Climate Data Records from NOAA Operational Satellites of the National Research Council at the request of NOAA in the context of satellite records . It is defined as `` a time series of measurements of sufficient length , consistency , and continuity to determine climate variability and change . '' . Such measurements provide an objective basis for the understanding and prediction of climate and its variability , such as global warming .","qid":"2733","docid":"Climate_Data_Records","rank":15,"score":111167},{"content":"Title: AATSR Content: The Advanced Along Track Scanning Radiometer ( AATSR ) is one of the Announcement of Opportunity ( AO ) instruments on board the European Space Agency ( ESA ) 's Envisat satellite . This instrument is a multi-channel imaging radiometer with the principal objective of providing data concerning global Sea Surface Temperature ( SST ) to the high levels of accuracy and stability required for monitoring and carrying out research into the behaviour of the Earth 's climate . AATSR can measure Earth 's surface temperature to a precision of 0.3 K-change , for climate research . Among the secondary objectives of AATSR is the observation of environmental parameters such as aerosols , clouds , fires , gas flares , water content , biomass , and vegetal health and growth . AATSR is the successor of ATSR-1 and ATSR-2 , payloads of ERS-1 and ERS-2 .","qid":"2733","docid":"AATSR","rank":16,"score":109310},{"content":"Title: Runaway climate change Content: Runaway climate change or runaway global warming is hypothesized to follow a tipping point in the climate system , after accumulated climate change initiates a reinforcing positive feedback . This is thought to cause the climate to rapidly change until it reaches a new stable condition . These phrases may be used with reference to concerns about rapid global warming . Some astronomers use the expression runaway greenhouse effect to describe a situation where the climate deviates catastrophically and permanently from the original state -- as happened on Venus . Although these terms are rarely used in the peer-reviewed climatological literature , that literature does use the similar phrase `` runaway greenhouse effect '' , which refers specifically to climate changes that cause a planetary body 's water to boil off .","qid":"2733","docid":"Runaway_climate_change","rank":17,"score":109190},{"content":"Title: Weather satellite Content: The weather satellite is a type of satellite that is primarily used to monitor the weather and climate of the Earth . Satellites can be polar orbiting , covering the entire Earth asynchronously , or geostationary , hovering over the same spot on the equator . Meteorological satellites see more than clouds and cloud systems . City lights , fires , effects of pollution , auroras , sand and dust storms , snow cover , ice mapping , boundaries of ocean currents , energy flows , etc. . Other types of environmental information are collected using weather satellites . Weather satellite images helped in monitoring the volcanic ash cloud from Mount St. Helens and activity from other volcanoes such as Mount Etna . Smoke from fires in the western United States such as Colorado and Utah have also been monitored . Other environmental satellites can detect changes in the Earth 's vegetation , sea state , ocean color , and ice fields . For example , the 2002 Prestige oil spill off the northwest coast of Spain was watched carefully by the European ENVISAT , which , though not a weather satellite , flies an instrument ( ASAR ) which can see changes in the sea surface . El Niño and its effects on weather are monitored daily from satellite images . The Antarctic ozone hole is mapped from weather satellite data . Collectively , weather satellites flown by the U.S. , Europe , India , China , Russia , and Japan provide nearly continuous observations for a global weather watch .","qid":"2733","docid":"Weather_satellite","rank":18,"score":107568},{"content":"Title: Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment Content: The Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment ( SORCE ) is a NASA-sponsored satellite mission that measures incoming X-ray , ultraviolet , visible , near-infrared , and total solar radiation . These measurements specifically address long-term climate change , natural variability and enhanced climate prediction , and atmospheric ozone and UV-B radiation . These measurements are critical to studies of the Sun , its effect on our Earth system and its influence on humankind . The SORCE spacecraft launched on January 25 , 2003 on a Pegasus XL launch vehicle to provide NASA 's Earth Science Enterprise ( ESE ) with precise measurements of solar radiation . SORCE measures the Sun 's output using radiometers , spectrometers , photodiodes , detectors , and bolometers mounted on a satellite observatory . The SORCE satellite orbits the Earth accumulating solar data . Spectral measurements identify the irradiance of the Sun by characterizing the Sun 's energy and emissions in the form of color that can then be translated into quantities and elements of matter . Data obtained by the SORCE experiment can be used to model the Sun 's output and to explain and predict the effect of the Sun 's radiation on the Earth 's atmosphere and climate . Flying in a 645 km , 40 degree orbit , SORCE is operated by the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics ( LASP ) at the University of Colorado at Boulder , Colorado . It will continue the precise measurements of total solar irradiance that began with the ERB instrument in 1979 and has continued to the present with the ACRIM series of measurements . SORCE will also provide the measurements of the solar spectral irradiance from 1 nm to 2000 nm , accounting for 95 % of the spectral contribution to the total solar irradiance . SORCE carries four instruments including the Total Irradiance Monitor ( TIM ) , Solar Stellar Irradiance Comparison Experiment ( SOLSTICE ) , Spectral Irradiance Monitor ( SIM ) , and the XUV Photometer System ( XPS ) .","qid":"2733","docid":"Solar_Radiation_and_Climate_Experiment","rank":19,"score":107202},{"content":"Title: Climate Vulnerability Monitor Content: The Climate Vulnerability Monitor ( CVM ) is an independent global assessment of the effect of climate change on the world 's populations brought together by panels of key international authorities . The Monitor was launched in December 2010 in London and Cancun to coincide with the UN Cancun Summit on climate change ( COP-16 ) . Developed by DARA and the Climate Vulnerable Forum , the report is meant to serve as a new tool to assess global vulnerability to various effects of climate change within different nations . The report distills leading science and research for a clearer explanation of how and where populations are being affected by climate change today ( 2010 ) and in the near future ( 2030 ) , while pointing to key actions that reduce these impacts . DARA and the Climate Vulnerable Forum launched the 2nd edition of the Climate Vulnerability Monitor on 26 September 2012 at the Asia Society , New York .","qid":"2733","docid":"Climate_Vulnerability_Monitor","rank":20,"score":107038},{"content":"Title: Duncan Wingham Content: Duncan John Wingham ( born 12 October 1957 ) is a British physicist who is Professor of Climate Physics at University College London , and was the first Director of the Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling . He is chief executive of the Natural Environment Research Council and Principal Scientist for the CryoSat Satellite Mission . In the 1990s , Wingham was involved in a four-year satellite study of the Antarctic ice sheet . His conclusion then , and from later research , is that the Antarctic has contributed little to observed rising sea levels in the 20th century . However , he has also stated that `` it is possible that the consequences of global warming on sea level rise have been underestimated ... Other sources of rise must be underestimated . In particular it is possible that the effect of global warming on thermal expansion -LSB- on the oceans -RSB- is larger than we thought '' . In a 2005 interview Wingham stated '' -LSB- t -RSB- he Antarctic is to some extent insulated from global warming because to its north are zonal flows in the atmosphere and ocean , unimpeded by other landmasses ... I am not denying global warming . ''","qid":"2733","docid":"Duncan_Wingham","rank":21,"score":106784},{"content":"Title: Electrothermal feedback Content: In electronics , electrothermal feedback is the interaction of the electric current and the temperature in a device with a temperature-dependent electrical resistance . This interaction arises from Joule heating . The temperature-dependence of the electrical resistance is described by the derivative of the resistance with respect to temperature dR/dT . Semiconductors typically exhibit a negative dR/dT . Superconductors exhibit a large positive dR/dT on the superconducting phase transition . Normal ( non-superconducting ) metals typically exhibit a positive dR/dT that decreases to zero at very low temperatures . If a device has a positive dR/dT , an increase in temperature ( for example , due to thermal fluctuations or the absorption of a photon ) will increase the electrical resistance R . If the device is biased with a constant voltage V , this increase in resistance will decrease the Joule power P = V2/R . The decrease in Joule heating will cause the device to return to its equilibrium temperature . This is known as negative electrothermal feedback , as the change in Joule heating opposes the change in temperature . If the device is instead biased with a constant current I , the Joule power P = I2R will increase if the temperature increases . Thus the Joule heating amplifies a change in temperature , an effect known as positive electrothermal feedback . The situation is reversed for the case of a negative dR/dT . Electrothermal feedback is important for describing the performance of several types of photodetectors such as the bolometer , the transition edge sensor , and the superconducting nanowire single-photon detector .","qid":"2733","docid":"Electrothermal_feedback","rank":22,"score":104720},{"content":"Title: Global Climate Observing System Content: As an outcome of the Second World Climate Conference , the Global Climate Observing System ( GCOS ) was established in 1992 to ensure that the observations and information needed to address climate-related issues are obtained and made available to all potential users . The GCOS is co-sponsored by the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) , the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission ( IOC ) of UNESCO , the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) , and the International Council for Science ( ICSU ) . In order to assess and monitor the adequacy of in-situ observation networks as well as satellite-based observing systems , GCOS regularly reports on the adequacy of the current climate observing system to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , and thereby identifies the needs of the current climate observing system . The Global Climate Observing System ( GCOS ) is a system that comprises the climate-relevant components of many contributing observing systems and networks . The mission of the GCOS programme is to help ensure that these contributing systems , taken as a whole , provide the comprehensive information on the global climate system that is required by users , including individuals , national and international organizations , institutions and agencies . The programme promotes the sustained provision and availability of reliable physical , chemical and biological observations and data records for the total climate system - across the atmospheric , oceanic and terrestrial domains , including the Hydrological cycle , the Carbon cycle and the Cryosphere .","qid":"2733","docid":"Global_Climate_Observing_System","rank":23,"score":103635},{"content":"Title: Runaway greenhouse effect Content: A runaway greenhouse effect is a process in which a net positive feedback between surface temperature and atmospheric opacity increases the strength of the greenhouse effect on a planet until its oceans boil away . An example of this is believed to have happened in the early history of Venus . On the Earth , the IPCC states that `` a ` runaway greenhouse effect ' -- analogous to -LSB- that of -RSB- Venus -- appears to have virtually no chance of being induced by anthropogenic activities . '' Other large-scale climate changes are sometimes loosely called a `` runaway greenhouse effect '' although it is not an appropriate description . For example , it has been hypothesized that large releases of greenhouse gases may have occurred concurrently with the Permian -- Triassic extinction event or Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum . Other terms , such as `` abrupt climate change '' , or tipping points could be used when describing such scenarios .","qid":"2733","docid":"Runaway_greenhouse_effect","rank":24,"score":103553},{"content":"Title: Atmospheric Infrared Sounder Content: The Atmospheric Infrared Sounder ( AIRS ) is one of six instruments flying on board NASA 's Aqua satellite , launched on May 4 , 2002 . The instrument is designed to support climate research and improve weather forecasting . Working in combination with its partner microwave instrument , the Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit ( AMSU-A ) , AIRS observes the global water and energy cycles , climate variation and trends , and the response of the climate system to increased greenhouse gases . AIRS uses infrared technology to create three-dimensional maps of air and surface temperature , water vapor , and cloud properties . AIRS can also measure trace greenhouse gases such as ozone , carbon monoxide , carbon dioxide , and methane . AIRS and AMSU-A share the Aqua satellite with the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer ( MODIS ) , Clouds and the Earth 's Radiant Energy System ( CERES ) , and the Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer-EOS ( AMSR-E ) . Aqua is part of NASA 's `` A-train , '' a series of high-inclination , Sun-synchronous satellites in low Earth orbit designed to make long-term global observations of the land surface , biosphere , solid Earth , atmosphere , and ocean . AIRS data is free and available to the public through the Goddard Earth Sciences Data Information and Services Center . NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena , California , manages AIRS for NASA 's Science Mission Directorate in Washington , D.C.","qid":"2733","docid":"Atmospheric_Infrared_Sounder","rank":25,"score":103385},{"content":"Title: The Revenge of Gaia Content: The Revenge of Gaia : Why the Earth is Fighting Back -- and How we Can Still Save Humanity ( 2006 ) is a book by James Lovelock . Some editions of the book have a different , less optimistic subtitle : `` Earth 's Climate Crisis and the Fate of Humanity . '' The book introduces the concept of the anti-CLAW hypothesis . Lovelock proposed that instead of providing negative feedback in the climate system , the components of the CLAW hypothesis may act to create a positive feedback loop . Under future global warming , increasing temperature may stratify the world ocean , decreasing the supply of nutrients from the deep ocean to its productive euphotic zone . Consequently , phytoplankton activity will decline with a concomitant fall in the production of DMS . In a reverse of the CLAW hypothesis , this decline in DMS production will lead to a decrease in cloud condensation nuclei and a fall in cloud albedo . The consequence of this will be further climate warming which may lead to even less DMS production ( and further climate warming ) . The figure to the right shows a summarising schematic diagram . Evidence for the anti-CLAW hypothesis is constrained by similar uncertainties as those of the sulfur cycle feedback loop of the CLAW hypothesis . However , researchers simulating future oceanic primary production have found evidence of declining production with increasing ocean stratification , leaving open the possibility that such a mechanism may exist .","qid":"2733","docid":"The_Revenge_of_Gaia","rank":26,"score":103231},{"content":"Title: Monthly Climatic Data for the World Content: Monthly Climatic Data for the World ( MCDW ) is a monthly publication of the National Climatic Data Center ( NCDC ) division of the National Environmental Satellite , Data , and Information Service ( NESDIS ) division of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) of the United States . According to the website , each monthly issue `` contains monthly mean temperature , pressure , precipitation , vapor pressure , and sunshine for approximately 2,000 surface data collection stations worldwide and monthly mean upper air temperatures , dew point depressions , and wind velocities for approximately 500 observing sites . This is the final quality controlled copy and generally has a 4 - 6 month time lag . '' The issues are available for download in portable document format .","qid":"2733","docid":"Monthly_Climatic_Data_for_the_World","rank":27,"score":103139},{"content":"Title: Global Sea Level Observing System Content: The Global Sea Level Observing System ( GLOSS ) is an Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission program whose purpose is to measure sea level globally for long-term climate change studies . The program 's purpose has changed since the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and the program now collects realtime measurements of sea level . The project is currently upgrading the over 290 stations it currently runs , so that they can send realtime data via satellite to newly set up national tsunami centres . They are also fitting the stations with solar panels so they can continue to operate even if the mains power supply is interrupted by severe weather . The Global Sea Level Observing System does not compete with Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis as most GLOSS transducers are located close to land masses while DART 's transducers are far out in the ocean .","qid":"2733","docid":"Global_Sea_Level_Observing_System","rank":28,"score":102654},{"content":"Title: Glory (satellite) Content: The Glory satellite was a planned NASA satellite mission that would have collected data on the chemical , micro-physical and optical properties -- and the spatial and temporal distributions -- of sulfate and other aerosols , and would have collected solar irradiance data for the long-term climate record . The science focus areas served by Glory included : atmospheric composition ; carbon cycle , ecosystems , and biogeochemistry ; climate variability and change ; and water and energy cycles . The US$ 424 million satellite was lost on March 4 , 2011 , when its Taurus XL carrier rocket malfunctioned . A subsequent investigation revealed that the fairing system failed to open fully , causing the satellite to reenter the atmosphere at which point it likely broke up and burned .","qid":"2733","docid":"Glory_(satellite)","rank":29,"score":102182},{"content":"Title: Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment Content: The Gravity Recovery And Climate Experiment ( GRACE ) , a joint mission of NASA and the German Aerospace Center , has been making detailed measurements of Earth 's gravity field anomalies since its launch in March 2002 . By measuring gravity anomalies , GRACE shows how mass is distributed around the planet and how it varies over time . Data from the GRACE satellites is an important tool for studying Earth 's ocean , geology , and climate . GRACE is a collaborative endeavor involving the Center for Space Research at the University of Texas , Austin ; NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory , Pasadena , Calif. ; the German Space Agency and Germany 's National Research Center for Geosciences , Potsdam . The Jet Propulsion Laboratory is responsible for the overall mission management under the NASA ESSP program . The principal investigator is Dr. Byron Tapley of the University of Texas Center for Space Research , and the co-principal investigator is Dr. Christoph Reigber of the GeoForschungsZentrum ( GFZ ) Potsdam . The GRACE satellites were launched from Plesetsk Cosmodrome , Russia on a Rockot ( SS-19 + Breeze upper stage ) launch vehicle , on 17 March 2002 . The spacecraft were launched to an initial altitude of approximately 500 km at a near-polar inclination of 89 ° . The satellites are separated by approximately 200 km along their orbit track . GRACE has far exceeded its designed five-year lifespan . the GRACE spacecrafts orbit has decayed by 150 km , and is continuing to decay at 30 km/year . Its successor , GRACE Follow-On , is expected to launch in 2017/18","qid":"2733","docid":"Gravity_Recovery_and_Climate_Experiment","rank":30,"score":101973},{"content":"Title: CLARREO Content: CLARREO ( Climate Absolute Radiance and Refractivity Observatory ) is a high-priority NASA decadal survey mission , originally selected as such by the National Research Council in 2007 . The CLARREO mission is intended to provide a metrology laboratory in orbit to accurately quantify and attribute Earth 's climate change ( see List of climate research satellites ) . If launched at the earliest opportunity , CLARREO 's observations could be used to detect the largest of climate trends above natural variability by the year 2039 . Then it may go on to further test , validate , and improve prediction by climate models . The mission also might provide the first orbiting radiometers with enough accuracy to serve as reference calibration standards that can fine-tune other spaceborne sensors and climate research , making climate trends apparent in their data sets within a 30-year time frame . Due to funding cuts in announced for the 2012 budget , the CLARREO mission was significantly scaled back , while remaining spaceborne projects were eyed to fill the gap . In the President 's FY16 budget request , CLARREO was provided $ 76.9 M to demonstrate essential measurement technologies of the CLARREO Tier 1 Decadal Survey mission . That funding will potentially support the flight of two instruments , Reflected Solar ( RS ) and Infrared ( IR ) spectrometers , hosted on the International Space Station in FY 2019 .","qid":"2733","docid":"CLARREO","rank":31,"score":101589},{"content":"Title: Glacier mass balance Content: Crucial to the survival of a glacier is its mass balance or surface mass balance ( SMB ) , the difference between accumulation and ablation ( sublimation and melting ) . Climate change may cause variations in both temperature and snowfall , causing changes in the surface mass balance . Changes in mass balance control a glacier 's long-term behavior and are the most sensitive climate indicators on a glacier . From 1980 -- 2012 the mean cumulative mass loss of glaciers reporting mass balance to the World Glacier Monitoring Service is − 16 m . This includes 23 consecutive years of negative mass balances . A glacier with a sustained negative balance is out of equilibrium and will retreat , while one with a sustained positive balance is out of equilibrium and will advance . Glacier retreat results in the loss of the low elevation region of the glacier . Since higher elevations are cooler than lower ones , the disappearance of the lowest portion of the glacier reduces overall ablation , thereby increasing mass balance and potentially reestablishing equilibrium . However , if the mass balance of a significant portion of the accumulation zone of the glacier is negative , it is in disequilibrium with the local climate . Such a glacier will melt away with a continuation of this local climate . The key symptom of a glacier in disequilibrium is thinning along the entire length of the glacier . For example , Easton Glacier ( pictured below ) will likely shrink to half its size , but at a slowing rate of reduction , and stabilize at that size , despite the warmer temperature , over a few decades . However , the Grinnell Glacier ( pictured below ) will shrink at an increasing rate until it disappears . The difference is that the upper section of Easton Glacier remains healthy and snow-covered , while even the upper section of the Grinnell Glacier is bare , melting and has thinned . Small glaciers with shallow slopes such as Grinnell Glacier are most likely to fall into disequilibrium if there is a change in the local climate . In the case of positive mass balance , the glacier will continue to advance expanding its low elevation area , resulting in more melting . If this still does not create an equilibrium balance the glacier will continue to advance . If a glacier is near a large body of water , especially an ocean , the glacier may advance until iceberg calving losses bring about equilibrium .","qid":"2733","docid":"Glacier_mass_balance","rank":32,"score":101345},{"content":"Title: Negative feedback Content: Negative feedback occurs when some function of the output of a system , process , or mechanism is fed back in a manner that tends to reduce the fluctuations in the output , whether caused by changes in the input or by other disturbances . Whereas positive feedback tends to lead to instability via exponential growth , oscillation or chaotic behavior , negative feedback generally promotes stability . Negative feedback tends to promote a settling to equilibrium , and reduces the effects of perturbations . Negative feedback loops in which just the right amount of correction is applied with optimum timing can be very stable , accurate , and responsive . Negative feedback is widely used in mechanical and electronic engineering , but it also occurs naturally within living organisms , and can be seen in many other fields from chemistry and economics to physical systems such as the climate . General negative feedback systems are studied in control systems engineering .","qid":"2733","docid":"Negative_feedback","rank":33,"score":101323},{"content":"Title: John Christy Content: John Raymond Christy is a climate scientist at the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) whose chief interests are satellite remote sensing of global climate and global climate change . He is best known , jointly with Roy Spencer , for the first successful development of a satellite temperature record .","qid":"2733","docid":"John_Christy","rank":34,"score":101310},{"content":"Title: Megha-Tropiques Content: Megha-Tropiques is a satellite mission to study the water cycle in the tropical atmosphere in the context of climate change A collaborative effort between Indian Space Research Organisation ( ISRO ) and French Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales ( CNES ) , Megha-Tropiques was successfully deployed into orbit by a PSLV rocket in October 2011 . Megha-Tropiques was initially scrapped in 2003 , but later revived in 2004 after India increased its contribution and overall costs were lowered . With the progress made by GEWEX ( Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment ) , Megha-Tropiques is designed to understand tropical meteorological and climatic processes , by obtaining reliable statistics on the water and energy budget of the tropical atmosphere . Megha-Tropiques complements other data in the current regional monsoon projects such as MAHASRI and the completed GAME project . Megha-Tropiques also seeks to describe the evolution of major tropical weather systems . The focus will be the repetitive measurement of the tropics .","qid":"2733","docid":"Megha-Tropiques","rank":35,"score":101269},{"content":"Title: Michael Schlesinger Content: Dr. Michael Earl Schlesinger ( born February 23 , 1943 ) is a Professor of Atmospheric Sciences and director of the Climate Research Group at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign . He received his Ph.D. ( meteorology ) in 1976 from the University of California , Los Angeles . Michael Schlesinger is an expert in the modeling , simulation and analysis of climate and climate change , with interests in simulating and understanding the climates of the geologic past and possible future climates resulting from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases and human-made aerosols . He has been instrumental in developing a range of simple and complex climate models , which have been used by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and the Energy Modeling Forum . His research currently focuses on : ( 1 ) simulating and understanding the effects on climate of a human-induced melting of the Greenland ice sheet ; ( 2 ) simulating and understanding the coupled climate-chemistry system , including the influences of the Sun - both irradiance and energetic electron precipitation - and volcanoes ; ( 3 ) understanding and reducing the uncertainty in the estimation of climate sensitivity and climate feedbacks ; and ( 4 ) performing integrative assessment of climate change , including further development of the robust adaptive decision strategy for mitigating and adapting to human-induced climate change . He is known for his work on oscillations in the global climate system , on estimating the climate sensitivity , and on seasonal climate change . He has edited four books , most recently Human-induced climate change : An interdisciplinary assessment . He regularly appears in the media .","qid":"2733","docid":"Michael_Schlesinger","rank":36,"score":100989},{"content":"Title: Negative-feedback amplifier Content: A negative-feedback amplifier ( or feedback amplifier ) is an electronic amplifier that subtracts a fraction of its output from its input , so that negative feedback opposes the original signal . The applied negative feedback improves performance ( gain stability , linearity , frequency response , step response ) and reduces sensitivity to parameter variations due to manufacturing or environment . Because of these advantages , many amplifiers and control systems use negative feedback . An idealized negative-feedback amplifier as shown in the diagram is a system of three elements ( see Figure 1 ) : an amplifier with gain AOL , a feedback network β , which senses the output signal and possibly transforms it in some way ( for example by attenuating or filtering it ) , a summing circuit that acts as a subtractor ( the circle in the figure ) , which combines the input and the transformed output .","qid":"2733","docid":"Negative-feedback_amplifier","rank":37,"score":100858},{"content":"Title: Radarsat-1 Content: RADARSAT-1 is Canada 's first commercial Earth observation satellite . It utilized synthetic aperture radar ( SAR ) to obtain images of the Earth 's surface to manage natural resources and monitor global climate change . As of March 2013 , the satellite was declared non-operational and is no longer collecting data .","qid":"2733","docid":"Radarsat-1","rank":38,"score":100544},{"content":"Title: Cochlear amplifier Content: The cochlear amplifier is a positive feedback mechanism within the cochlea that provides acute sensitivity in the mammalian auditory system . The main component of the cochlear amplifier is the outer hair cell ( OHC ) which increases the amplitude and frequency selectivity of sound vibrations using electromechanical feedback .","qid":"2733","docid":"Cochlear_amplifier","rank":39,"score":100343},{"content":"Title: Jason-1 Content: Jason-1 is a satellite oceanography mission to monitor global ocean circulation , study the ties between the ocean and the atmosphere , improve global climate forecasts and predictions , and monitor events such as El Niño and ocean eddies .","qid":"2733","docid":"Jason-1","rank":40,"score":99620},{"content":"Title: Positive feedback Content: Positive feedback is a process that occurs in a feedback loop in which the effects of a small disturbance on a system include an increase in the magnitude of the perturbation . That is , A produces more of B which in turn produces more of A . In contrast , a system in which the results of a change act to reduce or counteract it has negative feedback . Both concepts play an important role in science and engineering , including biology , chemistry , and cybernetics . Mathematically , positive feedback is defined as a positive loop gain around a closed loop of cause and effect . That is , positive feedback is in phase with the input , in the sense that it adds to make the input larger . Positive feedback tends to cause system instability . When the loop gain is positive and above 1 , there will typically be exponential growth , increasing oscillations , chaotic behavior or other divergences from equilibrium . System parameters will typically accelerate towards extreme values , which may damage or destroy the system , or may end with the system latched into a new stable state . Positive feedback may be controlled by signals in the system being filtered , damped , or limited , or it can be cancelled or reduced by adding negative feedback . Positive feedback is used in digital electronics to force voltages away from intermediate voltages into ' 0 ' and ' 1 ' states . On the other hand , thermal runaway is a positive feedback that can destroy semiconductor junctions . Positive feedback in chemical reactions can increase the rate of reactions , and in some cases can lead to explosions . Positive feedback in mechanical design causes tipping-point , or ` over-centre ' , mechanisms to snap into position , for example in switches and locking pliers . Out of control , it can cause bridges to collapse . Positive feedback in economic systems can cause boom-then-bust cycles . A familiar example of positive feedback is the loud squealing or howling sound produced by audio feedback in public address systems : the microphone picks up sound from its own loudspeakers , amplifies it , and sends it through the speakers again .","qid":"2733","docid":"Positive_feedback","rank":41,"score":99300},{"content":"Title: Seita Emori Content: Seita Emori ( born 1970 in Kanagawa , Japan ) is a Japanese environmental scientist whose most noted work focuses upon the worldwide effects of Global Warming . He completed his Doctorate at the University of Tokyo in 1997 and thereafter joined the National Institute of Environmental Studies , Japan where he is currently the Chief of the Climate Risk Assessment Research Section at the Center for Global Environmental Research . Emori is a contributing author to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and a member of the IPCC Steering Committee for the `` Expert Meeting on New Scenarios '' , for which the IPCC received a Noble Prize in 2007 . Among Emori 's publications are the academic paper `` Sensitivity Map of LAI to Precipitation and Surface Air Temperature Variations in a Global Scale '' ( co-authored with his Japans colleague Hiroshi Kanzawa and Jiahua Zhang and Congbin Fu of the START , Institute of Atmospheric Physics in Beijing , China ) .","qid":"2733","docid":"Seita_Emori","rank":42,"score":99085},{"content":"Title: NOAA-6 Content: NOAA-6 , designated NOAA-A before launch , was a weather satellite operated by NOAA as part of its National Operational Environmental Satellite System . It was launched into a Sun-synchronous orbit by NASA aboard an Atlas F launch vehicle on 27 June 1979 from Vandenberg Air Force Base SLC-3W . Based on the experimental TIROS-N satellite , it performed monitoring of ice and snow cover , agriculture , oceanography , volcanism , ozone and the space environment , in addition to its regular meteorological observations . Its instruments included the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer ( AVHRR/1 ) for global cloud cover observations , the TIROS Operational Vertical Sounder ( TOVS ) suite for atmospheric temperature and water vapor profiling , the Space Environment Monitor ( SEM ) for measuring proton and electron fluxes , and the Data Collection and Platform Location System ( DCPLS ) for relaying data from balloons and ocean buoys . The TOVS suite consists of three subsystems : the High Resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder 2 ( HIRS/2 ) , the Stratospheric Sounding Unit ( SSU ) , and the Microwave Sounding Unit ( MSU ) . The HIRS/2 instrument failed on 19 September 1983 , and the spacecraft was placed in reserve in early 1984 as NOAA prioritized operations of NOAA-7 and NOAA-8 . It was returned to operational status after NOAA-8 failed in June 1984 , and continued to return data until its decommissioning on 31 March 1987 .","qid":"2733","docid":"NOAA-6","rank":43,"score":98833},{"content":"Title: Sentinel-3 Content: Sentinel-3 is an Earth observation satellite constellation developed by the European Space Agency as part of the Copernicus Programme . Copernicus , formerly Global Monitoring for Environment and Security , is the European programme to establish a European capacity for Earth observation designed to provide European policy makers and public authorities with accurate and timely information to better manage the environment , and to understand and mitigate the effects of climate change .","qid":"2733","docid":"Sentinel-3","rank":44,"score":98734},{"content":"Title: Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite Content: The Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite system ( GOES ) , operated by the United States ' National Environmental Satellite , Data , and Information Service ( NESDIS ) , supports weather forecasting , severe storm tracking , and meteorology research . Spacecraft and ground-based elements of the system work together to provide a continuous stream of environmental data . The National Weather Service ( NWS ) and the Meteorological Service of Canada use the GOES system for their North American weather monitoring and forecasting operations , and scientific researchers use the data to better understand land , atmosphere , ocean , and climate interactions . The GOES system uses geosynchronous satellites which -- since the launch of SMS-1 in 1974 -- have been a basic element of U.S. weather monitoring and forecasting . GOES data can be accessed using the SPEDAS software .","qid":"2733","docid":"Geostationary_Operational_Environmental_Satellite","rank":45,"score":98533},{"content":"Title: Satellite laser ranging Content: In satellite laser ranging ( SLR ) a global network of observation stations measures the round trip time of flight of ultrashort pulses of light to satellites equipped with retroreflectors . This provides instantaneous range measurements of millimeter level precision which can be accumulated to provide accurate measurement of orbits and a host of important scientific data . Satellite laser ranging is a proven geodetic technique with significant potential for important contributions to scientific studies of the earth/atmosphere/ocean system . It is the most accurate technique currently available to determine the geocentric position of an Earth satellite , allowing for the precise calibration of radar altimeters and separation of long-term instrumentation drift from secular changes in ocean topography . Its ability to measure the variations over time in Earth 's gravity field and to monitor motion of the station network with respect to the geocenter , together with the capability to monitor vertical motion in an absolute system , makes it unique for modeling and evaluating long-term climate change by : providing a reference system for post-glacial rebound , sea level and ice volume change determining the temporal mass redistribution of the solid earth , ocean , and atmosphere system monitoring the response of the atmosphere to seasonal variations in solar heating . SLR provides a unique capability for verification of the predictions of the theory of general relativity , such as the frame-dragging effect . SLR stations form an important part of the international network of space geodetic observatories , which include VLBI , GPS , DORIS and PRARE systems . On several critical missions , SLR has provided failsafe redundancy when other radiometric tracking systems have failed .","qid":"2733","docid":"Satellite_laser_ranging","rank":46,"score":98407},{"content":"Title: Remote Sensing Systems Content: Remote Sensing Systems ( RSS ) is a private research company founded in 1974 by Frank Wentz . It processes microwave data from a variety of NASA satellites . Most of their research is supported by the Earth Science Enterprise program . The company is based in Santa Rosa , California . They are a widely cited source of data , on the satellite temperature record . Their data is one source of evidence for global warming . Research by Carl Mears , Matthias Schabel , and Wentz , all of RSS , highlighted errors in the early satellite temperature records compiled by John Christy and Roy Spencer at UAH . The UAH data had previously showed no significant temperature trend , bringing the derived satellite data into closer agreement with surface temperature trends , radiosonde data and computer models . The UAH data is now closer to the RSS data but differences remain , for example the Lower Troposphere global average trend since 1979 , RSS currently have +0.133 K/decade while UAH have 0.140 K/decade , while the mid troposphere difference is even more marked at 0.079 K/decade and 0.052 K/decade respectively . However , in a recent online YouTube video , Dr. Carl Mears , a senior scientist with the team behind the satellite data , explained how he believes his data set needed correction . I would have to say that the surface data seems that it 's more accurate , because a number of groups analyze the surface data , including some who set out to prove the other ones wrong , and they all get more or less the same answer .","qid":"2733","docid":"Remote_Sensing_Systems","rank":47,"score":98182},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite Content: The Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite ( GOSat ) , also known as , is an Earth observation satellite and the world 's first satellite dedicated to greenhouse-gas-monitoring . It measures the densities of carbon dioxide and methane from 56,000 locations on the Earth 's atmosphere . The GOSAT was developed by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency ( JAXA ) and launched on 23 January 2009 , from the Tanegashima Space Center . Japan 's Ministry of the Environment , and the National Institute for Environmental Studies ( NIES ) use the data to track gases causing the greenhouse effect , and share the data with NASA and other international scientific organizations .","qid":"2733","docid":"Greenhouse_Gases_Observing_Satellite","rank":48,"score":98077},{"content":"Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference) Content: In 2005, an international conference titled Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and global warming and its effects. The conference name was derived from Article 2 of the charter for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The conference explored the possible impacts at different levels of greenhouse gas emissions and how the climate might be stabilized at a desired level. The conference took place under the United Kingdom's presidency of the G8, with the participation of around 200 \"internationally renowned\" scientists from 30 countries. It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter, from 1 February to 3 February. The conference was one of many meetings leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, at which the international community agreed to limit global warming to no more than 2C in order to have a 50-50 chance of avoiding dangerous climate change. However, a 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting it is below the 2 degree temperature target.","qid":"2733","docid":"Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change_(2005_conference)","rank":49,"score":97564},{"content":"Title: VNREDSat 1A Content: VNREDSat-1 ( short for Vietnam Natural Resources , Environment and Disaster Monitoring Satellite ) is the first optical Earth Observing satellite of Vietnam ; its primary mission is to monitor and study the effects of climate change , predict and take measures to prevent natural disasters , and optimise the management of Vietnam 's natural resources .","qid":"2733","docid":"VNREDSat_1A","rank":50,"score":97273},{"content":"Title: CLAW hypothesis Content: The CLAW hypothesis proposes a negative feedback loop that operates between ocean ecosystems and the Earth 's climate . The hypothesis specifically proposes that particular phytoplankton that produce dimethyl sulfide are responsive to variations in climate forcing , and that these responses act to stabilise the temperature of the Earth 's atmosphere . The CLAW hypothesis was originally proposed by Robert Jay Charlson , James Lovelock , Meinrat Andreae and Stephen G. Warren , and takes its acronym from the first letter of their surnames .","qid":"2733","docid":"CLAW_hypothesis","rank":51,"score":96647},{"content":"Title: Climate system Content: Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.","qid":"2733","docid":"Climate_system","rank":52,"score":96553},{"content":"Title: Sensitivity (control systems) Content: The controller parameters are typically matched to the process characteristics and since the process may change , it is important that the controller parameters are chosen in such a way that the closed loop system is not sensitive to variations in process dynamics . One way to characterize sensitivity is through the nominal sensitivity peak : where and denote the plant and controller 's transfer function in a basic closed loop control System , using unity negative feedback . The sensitivity function , which appears in the above formula also describes the transfer function from external disturbance to process output . Hence , lower values of suggest further attenuation of the external disturbance . The sensitivity function tells us how the disturbances are influenced by feedback . Disturbances with frequencies such that is less than one are reduced by an amount equal to the distance to the critical point and disturbances with frequencies such that is larger than one are amplified by the feedback . It is important that the largest value of the sensitivity function be limited for a control system and it is common to require that the maximum value of the sensitivity function , , be in a range of 1.3 to 2 .","qid":"2733","docid":"Sensitivity_(control_systems)","rank":53,"score":95743},{"content":"Title: Global Historical Climatology Network Content: The Global Historical Climatology Network ( GHCN ) is a database of temperature , precipitation and pressure records managed by the National Climatic Data Center , Arizona State University and the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center . The aggregate data are collected from many continuously reporting fixed stations at the Earth 's surface and represent the input of approximately 6000 temperature stations , 7500 precipitation stations and 2000 pressure stations . This work has often been used as a foundation for reconstructing past global temperatures , and was used in previous versions of two of the best-known reconstructions , that prepared by the National Climatic Data Center ( NCDC ) , and that prepared by NASA as its Goddard Institute for Space Studies ( GISS ) temperature set . The average temperature record is 60 years long with ~ 1650 records greater than 100 years and ~ 220 greater than 150 years ( based on GHCN v2 in 2006 ) . The earliest data included in the database were collected in 1697 .","qid":"2733","docid":"Global_Historical_Climatology_Network","rank":54,"score":95727},{"content":"Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .","qid":"2733","docid":"Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans","rank":55,"score":95387},{"content":"Title: Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Climate Research Facility Content: The Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Climate Research Facility ( ARM Climate Research Facility ) is a United States Department of Energy scientific user facility for the study of global climate change by the national and international research community . The ARM Climate Research Facility consists of global observation sites and research aircraft that measure radiative properties of the atmosphere , particularly cloud and aerosol formation processes . Continuous data from these sites , as well as supplemental data obtained through intensive field research campaigns , are available to scientists online through the ARM Data Archive . ARM is collaboratively managed by nine DOE national laboratories .","qid":"2733","docid":"Atmospheric_Radiation_Measurement_Climate_Research_Facility","rank":56,"score":94883},{"content":"Title: Steve Running Content: Steven W. Running , ( born 1950 ) Regents Professor , Forest Ecology , College of Forestry & Conservation at the University of Montana , and Director of the Numerical Terradynamics Simulation Group , is responsible for developing the earth observing-oriented algorithms used by the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer ( MODIS ) on board NASA 's satellites , Terra and Aqua . He continues to be the lead investigator on this project . Running 's MOD17 algorithms are used to provide accurate and continuous global monitoring of the terrestrial biosphere , specifically , generating near-real-time data sets for repeated monitoring of vegetation primary production on vegetated land at 1-km resolution at 8-day intervals . These datasets are unique in that they provide global data on primary productivity and span a decade . A recognized expert in global ecosystem monitoring , Running was invited to serve on the board of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . In 2007 , the IPCC was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize `` for their efforts to build up and disseminate greater knowledge about man-made climate change , and to lay the foundations for the measures that are needed to counteract such change '' . Running made the following statement about winning the prize : `` We 've got to get past all the petty bickering and get to work . This is about a big transition for society over the next 50 years . The path we are on is unsustainable . What the Nobel committee is saying is that we 've got to wake up . We 've got to change the course of the whole world . '' Steve Running is co-author of the 2007 book , Forest Ecosystems , and has published over 240 scientific papers . In 2012 , Running suggested a tenth planetary boundary , the annual net global primary production of all terrestrial plants , as an easily determinable measure integrating many variables that will give `` a clear signal about the health of ecosystems '' .","qid":"2733","docid":"Steve_Running","rank":57,"score":94287},{"content":"Title: Global Telecommunications System Content: The Global Telecommunication System ( GTS ) is a global network for the transmission of meteorological data from weather stations , satellites and numerical weather prediction centres . The GTS consists of an integrated network of point-to-point circuits , and multi-point circuits which interconnect meteorological telecommunication centres . The circuits of the GTS are composed of a combination of terrestrial and satellite telecommunication links . They comprise point-to-point circuits , point-to-multi-point circuits for data distribution , multi-point-to-point circuits for data collection , as well as two-way multi-point circuits . Meteorological Telecommunication Centres are responsible for receiving data and relaying it selectively on GTS circuits . The GTS is organized on a three level basis : The Main Telecommunication Network ( MTN ) The Regional Meteorological Telecommunication Networks ( RMTNs ) The National Meteorological Telecommunication Networks ( NMTNs ) Satellite-based data collection and/or data distribution systems are integrated in the GTS as an essential element of the global , regional and national levels of the GTS . Data collection systems operated via geostationary or near-polar orbiting meteorological/environmental satellites , including the Argos System , are widely used for the collection of observational data from data collection platforms . Marine data are also collected through the International Maritime Mobile Service and Inmarsat satellites .","qid":"2733","docid":"Global_Telecommunications_System","rank":58,"score":94219},{"content":"Title: Climate Positive Development Program Content: The C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group 's Climate Positive Development Program ( Climate Positive ) was launched in May 2009 in partnership with the Clinton Climate Initiative and the U.S. Green Building Council . The program brings together leading district-scale new-build and regeneration projects working to achieve `` Climate Positive '' -- or net carbon negative -- outcomes in cities around the world . As part of the C40 's Sustainable Communities Initiative , it aims to create a model for large-scale urban communities and to support projects that serve as urban laboratories for cities seeking to grow in ways that are environmentally sustainable , climate resilient , and economically viable . Climate Positive is an exclusive program , with a competitive application process , and currently comprises 17 global projects that will collectively reduce the emissions impact of more than one million people . The cities in which the Climate Positive projects are located support the implementation process locally and share best practices globally through participation in the C40 Climate Positive Network. , The projects are in different stages of development , but share key characteristics like high densities , highly efficient buildings , mixed-use zoning and transit accessibility .","qid":"2733","docid":"Climate_Positive_Development_Program","rank":59,"score":93801},{"content":"Title: Gaofen 1 Content: Gaofen-1 is a high resolution Chinese Earth observation satellite . Gaofen-1 was launched on April 26 , 2013 at 4:13 UTC with a Long March 2D carrier rocket from the Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center along with the three small experimental satellites : Turksat 3USat ( Turkey ) , CubeBug-1 ( Argentina ) and NEE-01 Pegaso ( Ecuador ) in a sun-synchronous orbit . The civilian HDEOS ( High-Definition Earth Observation Satellite ) program was proposed in 2006 and received approval in 2010 . Gaofen-1 is the first of six planned HDEOS spacecraft to be launched between 2013 and 2016 . The satellite 's primary goal is to provide NRT ( Near-Real-Time ) observations for disaster prevention and relief , climate change monitoring , geographical mapping , environmental and resource surveying , as well as precision agriculture support .","qid":"2733","docid":"Gaofen_1","rank":60,"score":93367},{"content":"Title: Climatic Research Unit Content: The Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) is a component of the University of East Anglia and is one of the leading institutions concerned with the study of natural and anthropogenic climate change . With a staff of some thirty research scientists and students , the CRU has contributed to the development of a number of the data sets widely used in climate research , including one of the global temperature records used to monitor the state of the climate system , as well as statistical software packages and climate models .","qid":"2733","docid":"Climatic_Research_Unit","rank":61,"score":93328},{"content":"Title: NOAA-7 Content: NOAA-7 , designated NOAA-C before launch , was an American weather satellite launched in June 1981 as part of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 's Polar Operational Environmental Satellites ( POES ) program . It was used to support the Global Atmospheric Research Program ( GARP ) during 1978 -- 1984 . An earlier launch , NOAA-B , was scheduled to become NOAA-7 , however NOAA-B failed to reach its required orbit . The launch of NOAA-7 took place at 10:52:59 UTC ( 3:53 a.m. PST ) on 23 June 1981 from Space Launch Complex 3W at the Vandenberg Air Force Base in California . NOAA-7 was launched atop an Atlas E/F rocket with a Star-37S-ISS upper stage . The NOAA-7 satellite had a mass of 588.9 kg . The satellite 's design provided an economical and stable sun synchronous platform for advanced operational instruments to measure the Earth 's atmosphere , its surface and cloud cover , and the near space environment . The primary sensors included an Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer ( AVHRR ) and a TIROS Operational Vertical Sounder ( TOVS ) . One of the primary mission sensors , the High Resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder ( HIRS ) , failed 7 February 1985 . There were a number of secondary experiments on-board NOAA-7 . These include a Space Environment Monitor ( SEM ) and a Data Collection and Platform Location System ( DCPLS ) . The United States Air Force also provided a contamination monitor to assess contamination sources , levels and effects for consideration on future spacecraft . NOAA-7 was based upon the Block 5D spacecraft bus developed for the U.S. Air Force . The satellite was capable of maintaining an earth-pointing accuracy of better than ± 0.1 ° with a motion rate of less than 0.035 degrees/second . NOAA-7 was withdrawn from use in June 1986 after its power system malfunctioned . In August 1997 the decommissioned satellite experienced an abrupt 1 second change in orbital period . At the same time 3 new debris particles were observed . It is unclear if this was caused by an internal release of energy or collision with an unidentified object . As of 8 December 2013 , the derelict satellite remains in a 834 by orbit , inclined at 98.87 degrees and with a period of 101.62 minutes .","qid":"2733","docid":"NOAA-7","rank":62,"score":93022},{"content":"Title: GRACE and GRACE-FO Content: The Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) was a joint mission of NASA and the German Aerospace Center (DLR). Twin satellites took detailed measurements of Earth's gravity field anomalies from its launch in March 2002 to the end of its science mission in October 2017. The Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment Follow-On (GRACE-FO) is a continuation of the mission on near-identical hardware, launched in May 2018. By measuring gravity anomalies, GRACE showed how mass is distributed around the planet and how it varies over time. Data from the GRACE satellites is an important tool for studying Earth's ocean, geology, and climate. GRACE was a collaborative endeavor involving the Center for Space Research at the University of Texas at Austin, NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, the German Aerospace Center and Germany's National Research Center for Geosciences, Potsdam. The Jet Propulsion Laboratory was responsible for the overall mission management under the NASA ESSP (Earth System Science Pathfinder) program. The principal investigator is Byron Tapley of the University of Texas Center for Space Research, and the co-principal investigator is Christoph Reigber of the GeoForschungsZentrum (GFZ) Potsdam.The two GRACE satellites (GRACE-1 and GRACE-2) were launched from Plesetsk Cosmodrome, Russia, on a Rockot (SS-19 + Breeze upper stage) launch vehicle on 17 March 2002. The spacecraft were launched to an initial altitude of approximately 500 km at a near-polar inclination of 89°. During normal operations, the satellites were separated by 220 km along their orbit track. This system was able to gather global coverage every 30 days. GRACE far exceeded its 5-year design lifespan, operating for 15 years until the decommissioning of GRACE-2 on 27 October 2017. Its successor, GRACE-FO, was successfully launched on 22 May 2018. In 2019, a glacier in West Antarctica was named after the GRACE mission.","qid":"2733","docid":"GRACE_and_GRACE-FO","rank":63,"score":92581},{"content":"Title: EUMETSAT Content: EUMETSAT ( European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites ) is an intergovernmental organisation created through an international convention agreed by a current total of 30 European Member States : Austria , Belgium , Bulgaria , Croatia , the Czech Republic , Denmark , Estonia , Finland , France , Germany , Greece , Hungary , Ireland , Iceland , Italy , Latvia , Lithuania , Luxembourg , the Netherlands , Norway , Poland , Portugal , Romania , Slovakia , Slovenia , Spain , Sweden , Switzerland , Turkey , and the United Kingdom . These States fund the EUMETSAT programs and are the principal users of the systems . EUMETSAT also has 1 Cooperating State . Cooperation agreements with Serbia have entered into force . The convention establishing EUMETSAT was opened for signature in 1983 and entered into force on 19 June 1986 . EUMETSAT 's primary objective is to establish , maintain and exploit European systems of operational meteorological satellites . EUMETSAT is responsible for the launch and operation of the satellites and for delivering satellite data to end-users as well as contributing to the operational monitoring of climate and the detection of global climate changes . The activities of EUMETSAT contribute to a global meteorological satellite observing system coordinated with other space-faring nations . Satellite observations are an essential input to numerical weather prediction systems and also assist the human forecaster in the diagnosis of potentially hazardous weather developments . Of growing importance is the capacity of weather satellites to gather long-term measurements from space in support of climate change studies . EUMETSAT is not part of the European Union , but became a signatory to the International Charter on Space and Major Disasters in 2012 , thus providing for the global charitable use of its space assets .","qid":"2733","docid":"EUMETSAT","rank":64,"score":92061},{"content":"Title: Surface Ocean Lower Atmosphere Study Content: The Surface Ocean Lower Atmosphere Study or Surface Ocean - Lower Atmosphere Study ( SOLAS ) is an international scientific research initiative that is one of the core projects of the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme . SOLAS has a goal to achieve quantitative understanding of the key biogeochemical-physical interactions and feedbacks between the ocean and atmosphere , and of how this coupled system affects and is affected by climate and environmental change . Thus , this international project is a critical component to understanding the Earth system and the effects of climate change on this system . The project includes meteorologists , oceanographers , marine biologists , and policy-makers . SOLAS has three major focus areas : Biogeochemical interactions and feedbacks between ocean and atmosphere , Exchange processes at the air-sea interface and the role of transport and transformation in the atmospheric and oceanic boundary layers , and Air-sea flux of carbon dioxide and other long-lived radiatively active gases ( this last focus is developed jointly with the Integrated Marine and Biogeochemistry and Ecosystem Research project ; IMBER ) . These three focuses are detailed in the project 's Science Plan and Implementation Strategy and in three separate Implementation Plans , and each focus has its own Implementation Working Group . The project is administered by a panel of scientific experts in the Scientific Steering Committee , and project coordination is handled by the SOLAS International Project Office at the University of East Anglia in Norwich UK . Scientific research is conducted by nations across the globe , and SOLAS has 23 established National Networks . SOLAS runs a successful biennial International Summer School , held at the Institut d'Etudes Scientifiques de Cargèse in Corsica France , and the next Summer School is scheduled for 2007 . Communications from SOLAS include a monthly e-bulletin , a biannual newsletter , and a website . An Open Science Meeting was held in Xiamen China in March 2007 .","qid":"2733","docid":"Surface_Ocean_Lower_Atmosphere_Study","rank":65,"score":92014},{"content":"Title: Bode's sensitivity integral Content: Bode 's sensitivity integral , discovered by Hendrik Wade Bode , is a formula that quantifies some of the limitations in feedback control of linear parameter invariant systems . Let L be the loop transfer function and S be the sensitivity function . Then the following holds : where are the poles of L in the right half plane ( unstable poles ) . If L has at least two more poles than zeros , and has no poles in the right half plane ( is stable ) , the equation simplifies to : This equality shows that if sensitivity to disturbance is suppressed at some frequency range , it is necessarily increased at some other range . This has been called the `` waterbed effect . ''","qid":"2733","docid":"Bode's_sensitivity_integral","rank":66,"score":91998},{"content":"Title: Downscaling Content: Global Climate Models ( GCMs ) used for climate studies and climate projections are run at coarse spatial resolution ( in 2012 , typically of the order 50 km ) and are unable to resolve important sub-grid scale features such as clouds and topography . As a result , GCM output can not be used for local impact studies . To overcome this problem downscaling methods are developed to obtain local-scale weather and climate , particularly at the surface level , from regional-scale atmospheric variables that are provided by GCMs . Two main forms of downscaling technique exist . One form is dynamical downscaling , where output from the GCM is used to drive a regional , numerical model in higher spatial resolution , which therefore is able to simulate local conditions in greater detail . The other form is statistical downscaling , where a statistical relationship is established from observations between large scale variables , like atmospheric surface pressure , and a local variable , like the wind speed at a particular site . The relationship is then subsequently used on the GCM data to obtain the local variables from the GCM output . In 1997 , Wilby and Wigley divided downscaling into four categories : regression methods , weather pattern-based approaches , stochastic weather generators , which are all statistical downscaling methods , and limited-area modeling . Among these approaches regression methods are preferred because of its ease of implementation and low computation requirements .","qid":"2733","docid":"Downscaling","rank":67,"score":91944},{"content":"Title: Deep Space Climate Observatory Content: Deep Space Climate Observatory ( DSCOVR ; formerly known as Triana , unofficially known as GoreSat ) is a NOAA Earth observation and space weather satellite launched by SpaceX on a Falcon 9 launch vehicle on February 11 , 2015 from Cape Canaveral . It was originally developed as a NASA satellite proposed in 1998 by then-Vice President Al Gore for the purpose of Earth observation . It is in a Lissajous orbit at the Sun-Earth Lagrangian point , 1500000 km from Earth , to monitor variable solar wind condition , provide early warning of approaching coronal mass ejections and observe phenomena on Earth including changes in ozone , aerosols , dust and volcanic ash , cloud height , vegetation cover and climate . At this location it has a continuous view of the Sun and the sunlit side of the Earth . The satellite is orbiting the Sun-Earth point in a six-month period , with a spacecraft-Earth-Sun angle varying from 4 to 15 degrees . It takes full-Earth pictures about every two hours and is able to process them faster than other Earth observation satellites . DSCOVR started orbiting around by June 8 , 2015 , just over 100 days after launch . After the spacecraft arrived on site and entered its operational phase , NASA began releasing near-real time images of Earth through the EPIC instrument 's website .","qid":"2733","docid":"Deep_Space_Climate_Observatory","rank":68,"score":91829},{"content":"Title: Ukrainian Optical Facilities for Near-Earth Space Surveillance Network Content: Ukrainian Optical Facilities for Near-Earth Space Surveillance Network , the UMOS ( from Ukrainian acronym : УМОС = Українська мережа оптичних станцій дослідження навколоземного космічного простору ) is an alliance of Ukrainian institutional research observatories and optical facilities of State Space Agency . Its strategic tasks include near-Earth space research ( from LEO to HEO ) , and the studies of motion of selected objects by development and improvement of theory , models and algorithms . Also it is aimed at addressing tactical problems like assistance in Ukrainian or international space launches . The UMOS 's field of view covers large area of space , its facilities arrangement allows to carry out the observations of 3-4 consecutive passes of LEO satellites , as well as synchronous and complementing observations . The UMOS has conducted the ground-based surveillance of Near-Earth objects since the establishment of the network . The results of data processing earned positive feedbacks from customers in Ukraine : the State Space Agency , the Main Astronomical Observatory as well as our partners abroad . In particular , since 2011 the UMOS ( some of the observatories since 2005 ) has conducted maintenance the first circuits after launching into orbit ( Sun-synchronous ) with Dnepr to identify and/or refine orbits of space objects ( e.g. RapidEye , EgyptSat‑1 , CryoSat‑2 , Sich‑2 , corresponding R/B of launcher ) . Also the UMOS carries out optical observations of active satellites and space debris on a single joint list to produce independent TLE catalog and to estimate the probabilities of satellite orbital conjunction for priority satellites , which meets the requirements of national Control Systems and Space Environment Analysis ( i.e. similar to Space Situational Awareness ) . During just 2012 over 130,000 of position estimates for 194 LEO space objects ( including series RapidEye , Orbcomm , CubeSat ) , 37 MEO objects , 29 GEO and GSO objects and also HEO space observatory Radioastron were obtained . As a result , the observation-based database was created , which had comprised 1509 sets of TLE for 183 space objects until the end of 2012 . Recently , due to the increase in number of space debris and solar activity maximum , the operational failures at satellites are much more frequent . Photometric observations can aid in satellite in-orbit status analysis and provide with necessary data for the assessment of feasibility of their recovery . The photometric observations and data analysis for five tumbling satellites have been made since 2010 . Among these five satellites were : two launch failures - Express-AM4 ( 5,775 kg mass at altitude of 1,000 km ) , Phobos-Grunt ( 13,200 kg mass on the low reference orbit of 250 km ) ; as well as three accidents of satellite malfunction , when the appropriate control center has lost the connection - CBERS-2B ( 1,450 kg at altitude of 780 km ) , EgyptSat-1 ( 160 kg at altitude of 670 km ) , Sich-2 ( 170 kg at altitude of 670 km ) . All these satellites , except Phobos-Grunt , are non-resolved objects , thus photometry has been the only source of in-orbit status information . Over 50,000 photometric brightness estimates were obtained for the satellites both in the integral light and broadband BVR Johnson system filters . The UMOS is proven capable to run the whole study , from primary observations to analysis of the light curves and further determination of satellite orientation variations and origin of its possible damage .","qid":"2733","docid":"Ukrainian_Optical_Facilities_for_Near-Earth_Space_Surveillance_Network","rank":69,"score":91775},{"content":"Title: Tipping points in the climate system Content: A tipping point in the climate system is a threshold that, when exceeded, can lead to large changes in the state of the system. Potential tipping points have been identified in the physical climate system, in impacted ecosystems, and sometimes in both. For instance, feedback from the global carbon cycle is a driver for the transition between glacial and interglacial periods, with orbital forcing providing the initial trigger. Earth's geologic temperature record includes many more examples of geologically rapid transitions between different climate states.Climate tipping points are of particular interest in reference to concerns about global warming in the modern era. Possible tipping point behaviour has been identified for the global mean surface temperature by studying self-reinforcing feedbacks and the past behavior of Earth's climate system. Self-reinforcing feedbacks in the carbon cycle and planetary reflectivity could trigger a cascading set of tipping points that lead the world into a hothouse climate state.Large-scale components of the Earth system that may pass a tipping point have been referred to as tipping elements. Tipping elements are found in the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets, possibly causing tens of meters of sea level rise. These tipping points are not always abrupt. For example, at some level of temperature rise the melt of a large part of the Greenland ice sheet and/or West Antarctic Ice Sheet will become inevitable; but the ice sheet itself may persist for many centuries. Some tipping elements, like the collapse of ecosystems, are irreversible.","qid":"2733","docid":"Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system","rank":70,"score":91642},{"content":"Title: Global Change Observation Mission Content: GCOM ( Global Change Observation Mission ) , is a series of JAXA Earth observation satellites as a successor to the ill-fated ADEOS 2 satellite and to the Aqua Mission . GCOM is , together with the GPM Mission , Japan 's contribution to the GEOSS ( Global Earth Observation System of Systems ) . To increase security and scientific output , JAXA made the decision to split the original ADEOS 2 mission into two models of smaller satellites , GCOM-W for water observation and GCOM-C for climate observation . It is planned to launch three satellites for each mission during the next decade , with each subsequent satellite overlapping to provide continuous coverage .","qid":"2733","docid":"Global_Change_Observation_Mission","rank":71,"score":91500},{"content":"Title: Berkeley Earth Content: Berkeley Earth is a Berkeley , California based independent 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit focused on land temperature data analysis for climate science . Berkeley Earth was founded in early 2010 ( originally called the Berkeley Earth Surface Temperature project ) with the goal of addressing the major concerns from outside the scientific community regarding global warming and the instrumental temperature record . The project 's stated aim was a `` transparent approach , based on data analysis . '' In February 2013 , Berkeley Earth became an independent non-profit . In August 2013 , Berkeley Earth was granted 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) tax-exempt status by the US government . The primary product is air temperatures over land , but they also produce a global dataset resulting from a merge of their land data with HadSST . Berkeley Earth founder Richard A. Muller told The Guardian '' ... we are bringing the spirit of science back to a subject that has become too argumentative and too contentious , ... we are an independent , non-political , non-partisan group . We will gather the data , do the analysis , present the results and make all of it available . There will be no spin , whatever we find . We are doing this because it is the most important project in the world today . Nothing else comes close . '' Berkeley Earth has been funded by unrestricted educational grants totaling ( as of December 2013 ) about $ 1,394,500 . Large donors include Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory , the Charles G. Koch Foundation , the Fund for Innovative Climate and Energy Research ( FICER ) , and the William K. Bowes , Jr. . Foundation . The donors have no control over how Berkeley Earth conducts the research or what they publish . The team 's preliminary findings , data sets and programs were published in journals operated by OMICS Group , a predatory open access publisher beginning in December 2012 . The study addressed scientific concerns including urban heat island effect , poor station quality , and the risk of data selection bias . The Berkeley Earth group concluded that the warming trend is real , that over the past 50 years ( between the decades of the 1950s and 2000s ) the land surface warmed by 0.91 ± 0.05 ° C , and their results mirror those obtained from earlier studies carried out by the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , the Hadley Centre , NASA 's Goddard Institute for Space Studies ( GISS ) Surface Temperature Analysis , and the Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) at the University of East Anglia . The study also found that the urban heat island effect and poor station quality did not bias the results obtained from these earlier studies .","qid":"2733","docid":"Berkeley_Earth","rank":72,"score":91293},{"content":"Title: Constellation Observing System for Meteorology, Ionosphere, and Climate Content: Constellation Observing System for Meteorology , Ionosphere , and Climate ( COSMIC ) is a program designed to provide advances in meteorology , ionospheric research , climatology , and space weather by using GPS satellites in conjunction with low Earth orbiting ( LEO ) satellites . The term `` COSMIC '' may refer to either the organization itself or the constellation of satellites ( also known as FORMOSAT-3 , 福爾摩沙衛星三號 , in Taiwan ) . The constellation is a joint U.S.-Taiwanese project with major participants including the University Corporation for Atmospheric Research ( UCAR ) , the National Science Foundation , the Naval Research Laboratory ( NRL ) , the Air Force Research Laboratory ( AFRL ) on the U.S. side and the National Space Organization ( NSPO ) on the Taiwanese side . The total cost of the project is US$ 100 million , 80 % of which is being provided by NSPO , and the remainder by various U.S. agencies . After experiencing several delays , the launch of the COSMIC satellite constellation atop a Minotaur launch vehicle from Vandenberg AFB occurred at 01:40 GMT , on April 15 , 2006 , despite heavy fog . The satellites , which orbit at an altitude of 500 miles , required over a year to move into the correct positions to provide full global coverage .","qid":"2733","docid":"Constellation_Observing_System_for_Meteorology,_Ionosphere,_and_Climate","rank":73,"score":91049},{"content":"Title: STEP (satellite) Content: The Satellite Test of the Equivalence Principle ( STEP ) is a proposed space science experiment to test the equivalence principle of general relativity . The experiment is thought to be sensitive enough to test Einstein 's theory of gravity and other theories . The basic configuration is that of a drag-free satellite where an outer shell around an inner test mass is used to block solar wind , atmospheric drag , the Earth 's magnetic field and other effects which might disturb the motion of a freely-falling inner object . It is designed for an expected sensitivity of one part in 1018 . `` Research on the STEP accelerometers began in 1971 at Stanford University , and has been supported since 1977 with NASA funding . STEP has been studied twice by ESA at the Phase-A level and has led two other space agencies ( CNES and ASI ) to study projects aimed at testing the Equivalence Principle in space . STEP is currently undergoing a Phase A study for NASA 's office of Space Science Small Explorer program . ''","qid":"2733","docid":"STEP_(satellite)","rank":74,"score":90867},{"content":"Title: Surveys of scientists' views on climate change Content: Surveys of scientists ' views on climate change - with a focus on human-caused or anthropogenic global warming ( AGW ) - have been undertaken since the 1990s . A 2016 paper ( which was co-authored by Naomi Oreskes , Peter Doran , William Anderegg , Bart Verheggen , Ed Maibach , J. Stuart Carlton and John Cook , and which was based on a half a dozen independent studies by the authors ) concluded that `` the finding of 97 % consensus -LSB- that humans are causing recent global warming -RSB- in published climate research is robust and consistent with other surveys of climate scientists and peer-reviewed studies . ''","qid":"2733","docid":"Surveys_of_scientists'_views_on_climate_change","rank":75,"score":90565},{"content":"Title: Atmospheric Model Intercomparison Project Content: Atmospheric Model Intercomparison Project ( AMIP ) is a standard experimental protocol for global atmospheric general circulation models ( AGCMs ) . It provides a community-based infrastructure in support of climate model diagnosis , validation , intercomparison , documentation and data access . Virtually the entire international climate modeling community has participated in this project since its inception in 1990 . AMIP is endorsed by the Working Group on Numerical Experimentation ( WGNE ) of the World Climate Research Programme , and is managed by the Program for Climate Model Diagnosis and Intercomparison with the guidance of the WGNE AMIP Panel . The AMIP experiment itself is simple by design ; an AGCM is constrained by realistic sea surface temperature and sea ice from 1979 to near present , with a comprehensive set of fields saved for diagnostic research . This model configuration removes the added complexity of ocean-atmosphere feedbacks in the climate system . It is not meant to be used for climate change prediction , an endeavor that requires a coupled atmosphere-ocean model ( e.g. , see AMIP 's sister project CMIP ) .","qid":"2733","docid":"Atmospheric_Model_Intercomparison_Project","rank":76,"score":90545},{"content":"Title: Cooperative Institute for Meteorological Satellite Studies Content: __ NOTOC __ The Cooperative Institute for Meteorological Satellite Studies ( CIMSS ) is a research institute where scientists study the use of data from geostationary and polar orbit weather satellites to improve forecasts of weather ( including tropical cyclones and severe storms . CIMSS was formed through a Memorandum of Understanding between the University of Wisconsin -- Madison , the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA ) . CIMSS parent organization , the Space Science and Engineering Center ( SSEC ) is a primary developer and operator of environmental satellite technologies . It is one of 16 NOAA Cooperative Institutes ( CIs ) .","qid":"2733","docid":"Cooperative_Institute_for_Meteorological_Satellite_Studies","rank":77,"score":90239},{"content":"Title: Copernicus Programme Content: Copernicus is the world 's largest single earth observation programme and is directed by the European Commission in partnership with the European Space Agency ( ESA ) . It aims at achieving a global , continuous , autonomous , high quality , wide range Earth observation capacity . Providing accurate , timely and easily accessible information to , among other things , improve the management of the environment , understand and mitigate the effects of climate change , and ensure civil security . It follows and greatly expands on the work of the previous 2.3 billion euros European Envisat program which operated from 2002 to 2012 . Its cost during 1998 to 2020 are estimated at 6.7 billion euros with around $ 4.3 bn spend in the period 2014 to 2020 and shared between the EU ( 66 % ) and ESA ( 33 % ) with benefits of the data to the EU economy estimated at roughly 30 billion euros through 2030 . ESA as a main partner has performed much of the design and oversees and co-funds the development of Sentinel mission 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 and 6 with each sentinel mission consisting of at least 2 satellites and some like sentinel 1 consisting of 4 satellites . They will also provide the instruments for MTG and MetOp-SG weather satellites of EUMETSAT where ESA and EUMETSAT will also coordinate the delivery of data from upwards of 30 satellites that form the contributing satellite missions to Copernicus . The objective is to use multi-source data to get timely and quality information , services and knowledge , and to provide autonomous and independent access to information in relation to the environment and security on a global level . In other words , it will pull together all the information obtained by the Copernicus environmental satellites , air and ground stations to provide a comprehensive picture of the `` health '' of Earth . The geo-spatial information services offered by Copernicus can be grouped into six main interacting themes : land , ocean , emergency response , atmosphere , security and climate change . The first three Copernicus services under the land , ocean and emergency response themes and two additional services addressing the atmosphere and security themes were unveiled at the Copernicus Forum held in Lille in September 2008 . Copernicus builds upon three components : the space component ( observation satellites and associated ground segment with missions observing land , atmospheric and oceanographic parameters ) This comprises two types of satellite missions , ESA 's five families of dedicated Sentinel ( space missions ) and missions from other space agencies , called Contributing Missions . in-situ measurements ( ground-based and airborne data gathering networks providing information on oceans , continental surface and atmosphere ) services to users .","qid":"2733","docid":"Copernicus_Programme","rank":78,"score":90176},{"content":"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .","qid":"2733","docid":"Global_warming","rank":79,"score":90093},{"content":"Title: Climate Change Science Program Content: The Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) was the program responsible for coordinating and integrating research on global warming by U.S. government agencies from February 2002 to June 2009 . Toward the end of that period , CCSP issued 21 separate climate assessment reports that addressed climate observations , changes in the atmosphere , expected climate change , impacts and adaptation , and risk management issues . Shortly after President Obama took office , the program 's name was changed to U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which was also the program 's name before 2002 . Nevertheless , the Obama Administration generally embraced the CCSP products as sound science providing a basis for climate policy . Because those reports were mostly issued after the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and in some cases focused specifically on the United States , they were generally viewed within the United States as having an importance and scientific credibility comparable to the IPCC assessments for the first few years of the Obama Administration .","qid":"2733","docid":"Climate_Change_Science_Program","rank":80,"score":89828},{"content":"Title: James Hansen Content: James Edward Hansen ( born 29 March 1941 ) is an American adjunct professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University . He is best known for his research in climatology , his 1988 Congressional testimony on climate change that helped raise broad awareness of global warming , and his advocacy of action to avoid dangerous climate change . In recent years he has become a climate activist to mitigate the effects of climate change , on a few occasions leading to his arrest . In 2000 , Hansen advanced an alternative view of global warming over the last 100 years , arguing that during that time frame the negative forcing via aerosols and the positive forcing via largely balanced each other out , and that the 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide , such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons . However , even then he wrote `` the future balance of forcings is likely to shift toward dominance of CO2 over aerosols ''","qid":"2733","docid":"James_Hansen","rank":81,"score":89486},{"content":"Title: Morris method Content: In applied statistics , the Morris method for global sensitivity analysis is a so-called one-step-at-a-time method ( OAT ) , meaning that in each run only one input parameter is given a new value . It facilitates a global sensitivity analysis by making a number r of local changes at different points x ( 1 → r ) of the possible range of input values .","qid":"2733","docid":"Morris_method","rank":82,"score":89465},{"content":"Title: Alaska Satellite Facility Content: The Alaska Satellite Facility is a data processing facility and satellite-tracking ground station within the Geophysical Institute at the University of Alaska Fairbanks . The facility 's mission is to make remote-sensing data accessible Its work is central to polar processes research including wetlands , glaciers , sea ice , climate change , permafrost , flooding and land cover such as changes in the Amazon rainforest .","qid":"2733","docid":"Alaska_Satellite_Facility","rank":83,"score":89321},{"content":"Title: Simon Tett Content: Simon Tett is a climatologist working at the University of Edinburgh . He used to work at the Hadley Centre . His most-cited paper , is , and of it he says : All attempts at detecting and attributing climate change signals need a reliable observed data set and simulations with mechanisms that drive climate change included . In a nutshell , this paper is important because it was the first study to investigate the effect of sulphate aerosols in a general circulation model of the climate system . The experiments simulate the climate back to 1860 ( which is when the global records of surface temperature became reliable ) ... After 1970 our model with greenhouse gases alone begins to depart significantly from the observations . However , when we included sulphate aerosols , which have a cooling effect , the model agreed with the data from the 1930s and onwards . The rapid warming that has taken place since 1970 is , according to the model , attributable to a heating effect from greenhouse gases and a cooling effect from sulphate aerosols .","qid":"2733","docid":"Simon_Tett","rank":84,"score":89187},{"content":"Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.","qid":"2733","docid":"Media_coverage_of_global_warming","rank":85,"score":89152},{"content":"Title: Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment Content: The Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment ( GEWEX ) is a research program of the World Climate Research Programme intended to observe , comprehend and model the Earth 's water cycle . The experiment also observes how much energy the Earth receives , studies how much of that energy reaches surfaces of the Earth and how that energy is transformed . Sunlight 's energy evaporates water to produce clouds and rain , and dries out land masses after rain . Rain that falls on land becomes the water budget which can be used by people for agricultural and other processes . GEWEX is a collaboration of researchers worldwide to find better ways of studying the water cycle and how it transforms energy through the atmosphere . If the Earth 's climates were identical from year to year , then people could predict when , where and what crops to plant . However , instability created by solar variation , weather trends , and chaotic events create weather that is unpredictable on seasonal scales . Through weather patterns such as droughts and higher rainfall these cycles impact ecosystems and human activities . GEWEX is designed to collect a much greater amount of data , and see if better models of that data can forecast weather and climate change into the future . GEWEX is organized into several structures . As GEWEX was conceived projects were organized by participating factions , this task is now done by the International GEWEX Project Office ( IGPO ) . IGPO oversees major initiatives and coordinates between national projects in an effort to bring about communication of researchers . IGPO claims to support communication exchange between 2000 scientist and is the instrument for publication of major reports . The Scientific Steering Group organizes the projects and assigns them to panels , which oversee progress and provide critique . The Coordinated Energy and Water Cycle Observations Project ( CEOP ) the ` Hydrology Project ' is a major instrument in GEWEX . This panel includes geographic study areas such as the Climate Prediction Program for the Americas operated by NOAA , but also examines several types of climate zones ( e.g. high altitude and semi-arid ) . Another panel , the GEWEX Radiation Panel oversees the coordinated use of satellites and ground based observation to better estimate energy and water fluxes . One recent result GEWEX 's Radiation panel has assessed data on rainfall for the last 25 years and determined that global rainfall is 2.61 mm/day with a small statistical variation . While the study period is short , after 25 years of measurement regional trends are beginning to appear . The GEWEX Modeling and Prediction Panel takes current models and analyzes the models when climate forcing phenomena occur ( global warming as an example of a ` climate forcing ' event ) . GEWEX is now the core project of WCRP .","qid":"2733","docid":"Global_Energy_and_Water_Cycle_Experiment","rank":86,"score":89118},{"content":"Title: EdGCM Content: The Educational Global Climate Model or EdGCM is a fully functional global climate model ( GCM ) that has been ported for use on desktop computers ( Windows PCs and Macs ) . It operates through a graphical user interface and is integrated with a relational database and scientific visualization utllities , all of which aim at helping improve the quality of teaching and understanding of climatology by making real-world research experiences more accessible . EdGCM is designed to permit teachers and students to conduct in-depth investigations of past , present and future climate scenarios in a manner that is essentially identical to the techniques used by national and international climate research organizations . EdGCM was developed at the Goddard Institute for Space Studies as a joint project of Columbia University and NASA scientists and programmers . The Global Climate Model at the core of EdGCM is GISS Model II . During the 1980s and early 1990s this GCM was one of NASA 's primary climate research tools . Results from the model have appeared in hundreds of scientific publications . The coarser resolution of the climate model in EdGCM ( 8 ° x 10 ° , latitude x longitude ) makes it inexpensive to run . But , because it contains most of the key atmospheric physics of modern GCMs , EdGCM is also used by climate researchers who do not have access to the most recent GCM versions .","qid":"2733","docid":"EdGCM","rank":87,"score":89060},{"content":"Title: Argos system Content: Argos is a satellite-based system which collects , processes and disseminates environmental data from fixed and mobile platforms worldwide . What makes Argos unique is the ability to clearly geographically locate the source of the data anywhere on the Earth utilizing the Doppler effect . Argos was established in 1978 and since that time , it has provided data to environmental research and protection communities that , in many cases , was otherwise unobtainable . The system is fully proven and highly reliable . Many remote automatic weather stations report via Argos . Argos is a key component of many global research programs including : Tropical Ocean-Global Atmosphere program ( TOGA ) , Tagging of Pacific Pelagics ( TOPP ) , World Ocean Circulation Experiment ( WOCE ) , Argo , and others . There are currently 22,000 active transmitters , 8,000 of which are used in animal tracking , and over 100 countries utilize the Argos system . Since the late 1980s Argos transmitters have routinely been deployed on a large number of marine mammals and sea turtles and it continues to serve as the most important tool for tracking long distance movements of both coastal and oceanic species . Through upload of data from , for example , pressure transducers , it has also been possible to obtain a wealth of knowledge about dive and foraging behavior from unrestrained animals in the wild . Argos was developed under a Memorandum of Understanding ( MOU ) between the Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales ( CNES , the French space agency ) , the National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA , USA ) and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA , USA ) . The system utilizes both ground and satellite-based resources to accomplish its mission . These include : instruments carried aboard the NOAA polar orbiting environmental satellites ( POES ) , the EUMETSAT MetOp satellites , and ISRO satellites , receiving stations around the world , and major processing facilities in Toulouse in France and Lanham , Maryland in the United States . This fully integrated system works to conveniently locate and deliver data from the most remote platforms to the user 's desktop , often in near real-time . Argos is operated by CLS/Argos , based in Toulouse , France . CLS has a subsidiary in the U.S. , CLS America , Inc. . These companies together operate the system and promote its use .","qid":"2733","docid":"Argos_system","rank":88,"score":88935},{"content":"Title: Global Precipitation Measurement Content: Global Precipitation Measurement ( GPM ) is a joint mission between JAXA and NASA as well as other international space agencies to make frequent ( every 2 -- 3 hours ) observations of Earth 's precipitation . It is part of NASA 's Earth Systematic Missions program and works with a satellite constellation to provide full global coverage . The project provides global precipitation maps to assist researchers in improving the forecasting of extreme events , studying global climate , and adding to current capabilities for using such satellite data to benefit society . GPM builds on the notable successes of the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission ( TRMM ) , which was also a joint NASA-JAXA activity . The project is managed by NASA 's Goddard Space Flight Center , and consists of a GPM Core Observatory satellite assisted by a constellation of spacecraft from other agencies and missions . The Core Observatory satellite measures the two and three dimensional structure of Earth 's precipitation patterns and provides a new calibration standard for the rest of the satellite constellation . The GPM Core Observatory was assembled and tested at Goddard Space Flight Center , and launched from Tanegashima Space Center , Japan , on a Mitsubishi Heavy Industries H-IIA rocket . The launch occurred on February 28 , 2014 at 3:37 am JST on the first attempt . Agencies in the United States , Japan , India and France ( together with Eumetsat ) operate the remaining satellites in the constellation for agency-specific goals , but also cooperatively provide data for GPM . __ TOC __","qid":"2733","docid":"Global_Precipitation_Measurement","rank":89,"score":88926},{"content":"Title: CloudSat Content: CloudSat is a NASA Earth observation satellite , which was launched on a Delta II rocket on April 28 , 2006 . It uses radar to measure the altitude and properties of clouds , adding to information on the relationship between clouds and climate in order to help resolve questions about global warming . CloudSat flies in formation in the `` A Train '' , with several other satellites : Aqua , Aura , CALIPSO and the French PARASOL . The mission was selected under NASA 's Earth System Science Pathfinder program in 1999 . Ball Aerospace & Technologies Corp. in Boulder , Colorado , designed and built the spacecraft . CloudSat 's primary mission was scheduled to continue for 22 months in order to allow more than one seasonal cycle to be observed .","qid":"2733","docid":"CloudSat","rank":90,"score":88561},{"content":"Title: PERSIANN Content: PERSIANN , `` Precipitation Estimation from Remotely Sensed Information using Artificial Neural Networks '' , is a satellite-based precipitation retrieval algorithm that provides near real-time rainfall information . The algorithm uses infrared ( IR ) satellite data from global geosynchronous satellites as the primary source of precipitation information . Precipitation from IR images is based on statistical relationship between cloud top temperature and precipitation rates . The IR-based precipitation estimates are then calibrated using satellite microwave data available from low Earth orbit satellites ( e.g. , Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission Microwave Imager , Special Sensor Microwave Imager , Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer‐Earth observing system ) . The calibration technique relies on an adaptive training algorithm that updates the retrieval parameters when microwave observations become available ( approximately at 3 hours intervals ) . The PERSIANN satellite precipitation data sets have been validated with ground-based observations and other satellite data products . The PERSIANN data has been used in a wide variety of studies including hydrologic modeling , drought monitoring , soil moisture analysis , and flood forecasting . The PERSIANN data are freely available to the public .","qid":"2733","docid":"PERSIANN","rank":91,"score":88548},{"content":"Title: World Climate Research Programme Content: The World Climate Research Programme ( WCRP ) was established in 1980 , under the joint sponsorship of International Council for Science and the World Meteorological Organization , and has also been sponsored by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO since 1993 . It is a component of the World Climate Programme . The objectives of the programme are to develop the fundamental scientific understanding of the physical climate system and climate processes needed to determine to what extent climate can be predicted and the extent of human influence on climate . The programme encompasses studies of the global atmosphere , oceans , sea ice , land ice ( such as glaciers , ice caps and ice sheets ) , and the land surface which together constitute the Earth 's physical climate system . WCRP activities address issues of scientific uncertainty in the Earth 's climate system including transport and storage of heat by the ocean , the global energy and hydrological cycle , the formation of clouds and their effects on radiative transfer , and the role of the cryosphere in climate . These activities match the scientific priorities identified by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , and provide the basis for responding to issues raised in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change . WCRP also lays the scientific foundation for meeting the research challenges posed in Agenda 21 . Together with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme and the International Human Dimensions of Global Environmental Change Programme , WCRP provides the international framework for scientific cooperation in the study of global climate change . Scientific guidance for the programme is provided by a Joint Scientific Committee consisting of 18 scientists selected by mutual agreement between the three sponsoring organizations .","qid":"2733","docid":"World_Climate_Research_Programme","rank":92,"score":88354},{"content":"Title: Brokaw bandgap reference Content: Brokaw bandgap reference is a voltage reference circuit widely used in integrated circuits , with an output voltage around 1.25 V with low temperature dependence . This particular circuit is one type of a bandgap voltage reference , named after Paul Brokaw , the author of its first publication . Like all temperature-independent bandgap references , the circuit maintains an internal voltage source that has a positive temperature coefficient and another internal voltage source that has a negative temperature coefficient . By summing the two together , the temperature dependence can be canceled . Additionally , either of the two internal sources can be used as a temperature sensor . In the Brokaw bandgap reference , the circuit uses negative feedback ( e.g. , an operational amplifier ) to force a constant current through two bipolar transistors with different emitter areas . By the Ebers -- Moll model of a transistor , The transistor with the larger emitter area requires a smaller base -- emitter voltage for the same current . The base -- emitter voltage for each transistor has a negative temperature coefficient ( i.e. , it decreases with temperature ) . The difference between the two base -- emitter voltages has a positive temperature coefficient ( i.e. , it increases with temperature ) . The circuit output is the sum of the base -- emitter voltage difference with one of the base -- emitter voltages . With proper component choices , the two opposing temperature coefficients will cancel each other exactly and the output will have no temperature dependence .","qid":"2733","docid":"Brokaw_bandgap_reference","rank":93,"score":88215},{"content":"Title: Giovanni (meteorology) Content: Giovanni ( meteorology ) - Web interface that allows users to analyze NASA 's gridded data from various satellite and surface observations . Giovanni provides researchers with the capability to examine data on atmospheric chemistry , atmospheric temperature , water vapor and clouds , atmospheric aerosols , precipitation , and ocean chlorophyll and surface temperature . The primary data consist of global gridded data sets with reduced spatial resolution . Basic analytical functions performed by Giovanni currently are carried out by the Grid Analysis and Display System ( GrADS ) . The GES-DISC Interactive Online Visualization ANd aNalysis Infrastructure ( Giovanni ) allows to explore satellite data using sophisticated analyses and visualizations . Giovanni allows access to data from multiple remote sites , supports multiple data formats including Hierarchical Data Format ( HDF ) , HDF-EOS , network Common Data Form ( netCDF ) , GRIdded Binary ( GRIB ) , and binary , and multiple plot types including area , time , Hovmoller , and image animation .","qid":"2733","docid":"Giovanni_(meteorology)","rank":94,"score":88040},{"content":"Title: Satellite Cloud Image Content: A Satellite Cloud Image is an image based on data from meteorological satellite instruments . It captures the distribution of clouds in the atmosphere , to find the weather system and verify the correctness of surface weather maps that have been drawn . It can also be used with observations of sea ice distribution to determine the sea surface temperature and the medium-and long-term weather forecast oceanographic data . This technology can be a single image to show a variety of scales of weather phenomena to provide a very useful remote sensing data , weather analysis and forecasting . In general , the satellite cloud can be divided into the Infra-red satellite , visible satellite cloud images and color enhancement of satellite cloud . Category : Weather prediction","qid":"2733","docid":"Satellite_Cloud_Image","rank":95,"score":87778},{"content":"Title: Centre for International Climate and Environmental Research Content: The Centre for International Climate and Environmental Research ( abbreviated CICERO ; Senter for klimaforskning ) is an interdisciplinary research centre for climate research and environmental science/environmental studies in Oslo . CICERO was established by the Government of Norway in 1990 . It is organised as an independent foundation and is affiliated with the University of Oslo . The current director is Kristin Halvorsen , former Minister of Finance .","qid":"2733","docid":"Centre_for_International_Climate_and_Environmental_Research","rank":96,"score":87604},{"content":"Title: Solar weather Content: Solar weather is branch of meteorology , which studies behavior of sun and what type of predictions can be done . Solar weather research includes for instance doing simulations of possible behavior of sun . Uses are for instance giving warnings to satellites about possible solar storms . Due to enormous size and mass of sun and complicated feedback systems solar weather predictions are n't as good as normal -- earth - weather predictions . ( Exceptions with sun spots ) Solar weather is closely related to space weather and often included in same category .","qid":"2733","docid":"Solar_weather","rank":97,"score":87520},{"content":"Title: MSU temperature measurements Content: Microwave sounding unit temperature measurements have been obtained from the troposphere since 1979 , when they were included within NOAA weather satellites . By comparison , the usable balloon ( radiosonde ) record begins in 1958 but has less geographic coverage and is less uniform . Satellites do not measure temperature . They measure radiances in various wavelength bands , which must then be mathematically inverted to obtain indirect inferences of temperature . The resulting temperature profiles depend on details of the methods that are used to obtain temperatures from radiances . As a result , different groups that have analyzed the satellite data have obtained different temperature trends . Among these groups are Remote Sensing Systems ( RSS ) and the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) . The satellite series is not fully homogeneous - the record is constructed from a series of satellites with similar but not identical instrumentation . The sensors deteriorate over time , and corrections are necessary for satellite drift in orbit . Particularly large differences between reconstructed temperature series occur at the few times when there is little temporal overlap between successive satellites , making intercalibration difficult . To compare to the trend from the surface temperature record ( approximately +0.07 ° C/decade over the past century and +0.15 -0.16 ° C/decade since 1979 ) it is most appropriate to derive trends for the part of the atmosphere nearest the surface , i.e. , the lower troposphere . Doing this , through January 2012 : RSS v3 .3 finds a trend of +0.137 ° C/decade . UAH v5 .4 finds a trend of +0.136 ° C/decade . An alternative adjustment introduced by Fu et al. ( 2004 ) finds trends ( 1979 -- 2011 ) of +0.14 ° C/decade when applied to the RSS data set and +0.11 ° C/decade when applied to the UAH data set . Using the T2 channel ( which include significant contributions from the stratosphere , which has cooled ) , Mears et al. of Remote Sensing Systems ( RSS ) find ( through January 2012 ) a trend of +0.082 ° C/decade . Spencer and Christy of the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) , find a smaller trend of +0.046 ° C/decade . A no longer updated analysis of Vinnikov and Grody found +0.20 ° C/decade ( 1978 -- 2005 ) . Another satellite temperature analysis is provided by NOAA/NESDIS STAR Center for Satellite Application and Research and use simultaneous nadir overpasses ( SNO ) to remove satellite intercalibration biases yielding more accurate temperature trends . The SNO analysis finds a 1979-2011 trend of +0.128 ° C/decade for T2 channel . The satellite records have the advantage of greater spatial coverage , whereas the radiosonde record is longer . There have been complaints of data problems with both records , and difficulty reconciling climate model predictions with the observed data .","qid":"2733","docid":"MSU_temperature_measurements","rank":98,"score":87392},{"content":"Title: Thermal runaway Content: Thermal runaway occurs in situations where an increase in temperature changes the conditions in a way that causes a further increase in temperature , often leading to a destructive result . It is a kind of uncontrolled positive feedback . In other words , `` thermal runaway '' describes a process which is accelerated by increased temperature , in turn releasing energy that further increases temperature . In chemistry ( and chemical engineering ) , it is associated with strongly exothermic reactions that are accelerated by temperature rise . In electrical engineering , thermal runaway is typically associated with increased current flow and power dissipation , although exothermic chemical reactions can be of concern here too . Thermal runaway can occur in civil engineering , notably when the heat released by large amounts of curing concrete is not controlled -LCB- Citation needed -RCB- . In astrophysics , runaway nuclear fusion reactions in stars can lead to nova and several types of supernova explosions , and also occur as a less dramatic event in the normal evolution of solar mass stars , the `` helium flash '' . There are also concerns regarding global warming that a global average increase of 3 -- 4 degrees Celsius above the preindustrial baseline could lead to a further unchecked increase in surface temperatures . For example , releases of methane , a greenhouse gas more potent than CO2 , from wetlands , melting permafrost and continental margin seabed clathrate deposits could be subject to positive feedback .","qid":"2733","docid":"Thermal_runaway","rank":99,"score":87118},{"content":"Title: Elektro–L Content: Elektro -- L is a new-generation series of meteorological satellites developed for the Russian Federal Space Agency by NPO Lavochkin . The first satellite , Elektro-L No. 1 , was launched on 20 January 2011 . It is the first Russian weather satellite that successfully operates in geostationary orbit , and is currently the second operational Russian weather satellite . The satellites have a mass of about 1620 kg and are designed to operate for 10 years each . They are capable of producing images of the Earth 's whole hemisphere in both visible and infrared frequencies , providing data for climate change and ocean monitoring in addition to their primary weather forecasting role .","qid":"2733","docid":"Elektro–L","rank":100,"score":87103}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change feedback Content: Climate change feedback is important in the understanding of global warming because feedback processes may amplify or diminish the effect of each climate forcing , and so play an important part in determining the climate sensitivity and future climate state . Feedback in general is the process in which changing one quantity changes a second quantity , and the change in the second quantity in turn changes the first . Positive feedback amplifies the change in the first quantity while negative feedback reduces it . The term `` forcing '' means a change which may `` push '' the climate system in the direction of warming or cooling . An example of a climate forcing is increased atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases . By definition , forcings are external to the climate system while feedbacks are internal ; in essence , feedbacks represent the internal processes of the system . Some feedbacks may act in relative isolation to the rest of the climate system ; others may be tightly coupled ; hence it may be difficult to tell just how much a particular process contributes . Forcings , feedbacks and the dynamics of the climate system determine how much and how fast the climate changes . The main positive feedback in global warming is the tendency of warming to increase the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere , which in turn leads to further warming . The main negative feedback comes from the Stefan -- Boltzmann law , the amount of heat radiated from the Earth into space changes with the fourth power of the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere . Some observed and potential effects of global warming are positive feedbacks , which contribute directly to further global warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that `` Anthropogenic warming could lead to some effects that are abrupt or irreversible , depending upon the rate and magnitude of the climate change . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_feedback\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 173056\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate sensitivity Content: Climate sensitivity is the equilibrium temperature change in response to changes of the radiative forcing . Therefore , climate sensitivity depends on the initial climate state , but potentially can be accurately inferred from precise palaeoclimate data . Slow climate feedbacks , especially changes of ice sheet size and atmospheric CO2 , amplify the total Earth system sensitivity by an amount that depends on the time scale considered . Although climate sensitivity is usually used in the context of radiative forcing by carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , it is thought of as a general property of the climate system : the change in surface air temperature ( ΔTs ) following a unit change in radiative forcing ( RF ) , and thus is expressed in units of ° C / ( W/m2 ) . For this to be useful , the measure must be independent of the nature of the forcing ( e.g. from greenhouse gases or solar variation ) ; to first order this is indeed found to be so . The climate sensitivity specifically due to is often expressed as the temperature change in ° C associated with a doubling of the concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere . For coupled atmosphere-ocean global climate models ( e.g. CMIP5 ) the climate sensitivity is an emergent property : it is not a model parameter , but rather a result of a combination of model physics and parameters . By contrast , simpler energy-balance models may have climate sensitivity as an explicit parameter . The terms represented in the equation relate radiative forcing ( RF ) to linear changes in global surface temperature change ( ΔTs ) via the climate sensitivity λ . It is also possible to estimate climate sensitivity from observations ; however , this is difficult due to uncertainties in the forcing and temperature histories .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_sensitivity\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 169969\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cloud feedback Content: Cloud feedback is the coupling between cloudiness and surface air temperature where a surface air temperature change leads to a change in clouds , which could then amplify or diminish the initial temperature perturbation . Cloud feedbacks can affect the magnitude of internally generated climate variability or they can affect the magnitude of climate change resulting from external radiative forcings . Global warming is expected to change the distribution and type of clouds . Seen from below , clouds emit infrared radiation back to the surface , and so exert a warming effect ; seen from above , clouds reflect sunlight and emit infrared radiation to space , and so exert a cooling effect . Cloud representations vary among global climate models , and small changes in cloud cover have a large impact on the climate . Differences in planetary boundary layer cloud modeling schemes can lead to large differences in derived values of climate sensitivity . A model that decreases boundary layer clouds in response to global warming has a climate sensitivity twice that of a model that does not include this feedback . However , satellite data show that cloud optical thickness actually increases with increasing temperature . Whether the net effect is warming or cooling depends on details such as the type and altitude of the cloud ; details that are difficult to represent in climate models .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Cloud_feedback\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 162067\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Satellite temperature measurements Content: The temperature of the atmosphere at various altitudes as well as sea and land surface temperatures can be inferred from satellite measurements . These measurements can be used to locate weather fronts , monitor the El Niño-Southern Oscillation , determine the strength of tropical cyclones , study urban heat islands and monitor the global climate . Wildfires , volcanos , and industrial hot spots can also be found via thermal imaging from weather satellites . Weather satellites do not measure temperature directly . They measure radiances in various wavelength bands . Since 1978 microwave sounding units ( MSUs ) on National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration polar orbiting satellites have measured the intensity of upwelling microwave radiation from atmospheric oxygen , which is related to the temperature of broad vertical layers of the atmosphere . Measurements of infrared radiation pertaining to sea surface temperature have been collected since 1967 . Satellite datasets show that over the past four decades the troposphere has warmed and the stratosphere has cooled . Both of these trends are consistent with the influence of increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Satellite_temperature_measurements\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 128115\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Robert D. Cess Content: Robert D. Cess is professor emeritus of atmospheric sciences at Stony Brook University . He earned his bachelor of science degree in mechanical engineering from Oregon State University and his master 's degree from Purdue University in Indiana in 1956 . Cess received a Ph.D. from the University of Pittsburgh in 1959 . He is a recognized leader in the fields of climate change and atmospheric radiation transfer . His research interest involve modeling of climate feedbacks that can either amplify or diminish global climate change , and interpreting surface and satellite remote sensing data . He has been a part of studies which have found problems with the ability of model the transmission of shortwave radiation through a cloud-free atmosphere , and designed an experiment to test the accuracy of the models . They reported that they found agreement between the models and the observations of clear-sky shortwave radiation at the surface for the period studied , 1985 to 1988 . Cess was a lead author of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and worked with the National Science Foundation on understanding greenhouse warming and its associated policy implications .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Robert_D._Cess\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 123950\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ghrsst-pp Content: The Group for High Resolution SST ( GHRSST ) is a follow on activity form the Global Ocean Data Assimilation Experiment ( GODAE ) high-resolution sea surface temperature pilot project ( GHRSST-PP ) provides a new generation of global high-resolution ( < 10 km ) SST data products to the operational oceanographic , meteorological , climate and general scientific community , in real time and delayed mode . See GHRSST for full details . Sea surface temperature ( SST ) measured from Earth Observation Satellites in considerable spatial detail and at high frequency , is increasingly required for use in the context of operational monitoring and forecasting of the ocean , for assimilation into coupled ocean-atmosphere model systems and for applications in short-term numerical weather prediction and longer term climate change detection . Currently there are many different SST data sets available derived from satellite systems . But , scientists and operational agencies alike are presented with a bewidering set of options in terms of SST product content , coverage , spatial resolution , timeliness , format and accuracy . The international GODAE steering committee realised that SST data products were not adequate for GODAE forecast systems and initiated the GODAE High Resolution SST Pilot Project ( GHRSST-PP ) . User Requirements were collected together to define the optimal SST data products that could be developed to suit the widest possible number of applications . In 2008 the GHRSST-PP Science Team agreed to close the Pilot Project as the GODAE project was completed . A follow on activity called the Group for High Resolution SST is now continuing the coordination of GHRSST activities .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Ghrsst-pp\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 122608\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Iris hypothesis Content: The iris hypothesis is a hypothesis proposed by Richard Lindzen et al. in 2001 that suggested increased sea surface temperature in the tropics would result in reduced cirrus clouds and thus more infrared radiation leakage from Earth 's atmosphere . His study of observed changes in cloud coverage and modeled effects on infrared radiation released to space as a result supported the hypothesis . This suggested infrared radiation leakage was hypothesized to be a negative feedback in which an initial warming would result in an overall cooling of the surface . The consensus view is that increased sea surface temperature would result in increased cirrus clouds and reduced infrared radiation leakage and therefore a positive feedback . Other scientists subsequently tested the hypothesis . Some concluded that there was no evidence supporting the hypothesis . Others found evidence suggesting that increased sea surface temperature in the tropics did indeed reduce cirrus clouds but found that the effect was nonetheless a positive feedback rather than the negative feedback that Lindzen had hypothesized . A later 2007 study conducted by Roy Spencer et al. using updated satellite data potentially supported the iris hypothesis . In 2011 , Lindzen published a rebuttal to the main criticisms . In 2015 a paper was published which again suggested the possibility of an `` Iris Effect '' . It also proposed what it called a `` plausible physical mechanism for an iris effect . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Iris_hypothesis\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 122446\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project Content: The International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project ( ISCCP ) was established as the first project of the World Climate Research Program ( WCRP ) . Since its inception in 1982 , there have been two phases , 1983 -- 1995 and 1995 -- 2009 . The project is responsible for collection and analysis of weather satellite radiance measurements . It infers clouds ' global distribution and properties , along with their diurnal , seasonal , and interannual variations . The results are studied to understand clouds in climate , including their effects on radiative energy exchanges , plus their role in the global water cycle . These datasets provide a systematic view of cloud behavior . The ISCCP headquarters are located at the Goddard Institute for Space Studies in New York City . ISCCP data is stored at the ISCCP Central Archive and at NASA . While the data are typically used for climate study , they are also a valuable resource for astronomical pursuits . From 1983 , institutions from around the world have collected and analyzed satellite radiance measurements from two polar orbiting and five geostationary satellites .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"International_Satellite_Cloud_Climatology_Project\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 121902\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ice-albedo feedback Content: Ice-albedo feedback ( or snow-albedo feedback ) is a positive feedback climate process where a change in the area of snow-covered land , ice caps , glaciers or sea ice alters the albedo . This change in albedo acts to reinforce the initial alteration in ice area . Cooling tends to increase ice cover and hence the albedo , reducing the amount of solar energy absorbed and leading to more cooling . Conversely , warming tends to decrease ice cover and hence the albedo , increasing the amount of solar energy absorbed , leading to more warming . The effect also applies on the small scale to snow-covered surfaces . A small amount of snow melt exposes darker ground which absorbs more radiation , leading to more snowmelt . The effect has mostly been discussed in terms of the recent trend of declining Arctic sea ice . Internal feedback processes may also potentially occur , as land ice melts and causes eustatic sea level rise , and also potentially induces earthquakes as a result of isostatic rebound , which further acts to disrupt glaciers , ice shelves , etc. .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Ice-albedo_feedback\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 121395\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Joint Polar Satellite System Content: Joint Polar Satellite System ( JPSS ) is the latest generation of U.S. polar-orbiting , non-geosynchronous , environmental satellites . JPSS will provide the global environmental data used in numerical weather prediction models for forecasts , and scientific data used for climate monitoring . JPSS will aid in fulfilling the mission of the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , an agency of the Department of Commerce . Data and imagery obtained from the JPSS will increase timeliness and accuracy of public warnings and forecasts of climate and weather events , thus reducing the potential loss of human life and property and advancing the national economy . The JPSS is developed by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA ) for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , who is responsible for operation of JPSS . Two satellites are planned for the JPSS constellation of satellites . JPSS satellites will be flown and the scientific data from JPSS will be processed by the JPSS - Common Ground System ( JPSS-CGS ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Joint_Polar_Satellite_System\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 117191\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: UAH satellite temperature dataset Content: The UAH satellite temperature dataset , developed at the University of Alabama in Huntsville , infers the temperature of various atmospheric layers from satellite measurements of radiance . It was the first global temperature datasets developed from satellite information and has been used as a tool for research into surface and atmospheric temperature changes . The dataset is published by John Christy et al. and formerly jointly with Roy Spencer .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"UAH_satellite_temperature_dataset\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 113936\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of climate research satellites Content: The invention of climate research through the use of satellite remote telemetry began in the 1960s through development of space probes to study other planets . During the U.S. economic decline in 1977 , with much of NASA 's money going toward the Shuttle program , the Reagan Administration proposed to reduce spending on planetary exploration . During this time , new scientific evidence emerged from ice and sediment cores that Earth 's climate had experienced rapid changes in temperature , running contrary to the previously held belief that the climate changed on a geological time scale . These changes increased political interest in gathering remote-sensing data on the Earth itself and stimulated the science of climatology .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_climate_research_satellites\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 113527\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Peter Thejll Content: Peter Andreas Thejll ( born 1956 ) is a Danish astrophysicist and climate researcher . His research in solar variation helped provide evidence of the greenhouse effect on the Earth 's climate in the late 20th century . In particular , his study with Knud Lassen on Northern Hemisphere land air temperature showed that the rise of 0.4 degrees Celsius since 1980 could not be accounted for by the solar cycle . Climatologists have pointed to this finding as an `` actual piece of evidence for greenhouse warming '' . Thejll received his undergraduate education at the University of Copenhagen . He received an M.S. in physics and a Ph.D. in astrophysics from the University of Delaware . Thejll was a Carlsberg Fellow at the Niels Bohr Institute and worked at the Nordic Institute for Theoretical Physics . Thejll currently is a senior scientist at the Danish Meteorological Institute in Copenhagen . He is currently involved in the creation of a global automatic system to observe the Earth 's reflectivity - albedo - using observations of the earthshine on the Moon . Such data can be used for climate change studies and calibration of satellite data as the measurements deliver independent data on the albedo . A telescope is now installed on Hawaii at the Mauna Loa Observatory . The Swedish research agency VINNOVA is funding this project .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Peter_Thejll\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 112833\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 111278\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Data Records Content: A Climate Data Record ( CDR ) is a specific definition of a climate data series , developed by the Committee on Climate Data Records from NOAA Operational Satellites of the National Research Council at the request of NOAA in the context of satellite records . It is defined as `` a time series of measurements of sufficient length , consistency , and continuity to determine climate variability and change . '' . Such measurements provide an objective basis for the understanding and prediction of climate and its variability , such as global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Data_Records\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 111167\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: AATSR Content: The Advanced Along Track Scanning Radiometer ( AATSR ) is one of the Announcement of Opportunity ( AO ) instruments on board the European Space Agency ( ESA ) 's Envisat satellite . This instrument is a multi-channel imaging radiometer with the principal objective of providing data concerning global Sea Surface Temperature ( SST ) to the high levels of accuracy and stability required for monitoring and carrying out research into the behaviour of the Earth 's climate . AATSR can measure Earth 's surface temperature to a precision of 0.3 K-change , for climate research . Among the secondary objectives of AATSR is the observation of environmental parameters such as aerosols , clouds , fires , gas flares , water content , biomass , and vegetal health and growth . AATSR is the successor of ATSR-1 and ATSR-2 , payloads of ERS-1 and ERS-2 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"AATSR\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 109310\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Runaway climate change Content: Runaway climate change or runaway global warming is hypothesized to follow a tipping point in the climate system , after accumulated climate change initiates a reinforcing positive feedback . This is thought to cause the climate to rapidly change until it reaches a new stable condition . These phrases may be used with reference to concerns about rapid global warming . Some astronomers use the expression runaway greenhouse effect to describe a situation where the climate deviates catastrophically and permanently from the original state -- as happened on Venus . Although these terms are rarely used in the peer-reviewed climatological literature , that literature does use the similar phrase `` runaway greenhouse effect '' , which refers specifically to climate changes that cause a planetary body 's water to boil off .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Runaway_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 109190\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Weather satellite Content: The weather satellite is a type of satellite that is primarily used to monitor the weather and climate of the Earth . Satellites can be polar orbiting , covering the entire Earth asynchronously , or geostationary , hovering over the same spot on the equator . Meteorological satellites see more than clouds and cloud systems . City lights , fires , effects of pollution , auroras , sand and dust storms , snow cover , ice mapping , boundaries of ocean currents , energy flows , etc. . Other types of environmental information are collected using weather satellites . Weather satellite images helped in monitoring the volcanic ash cloud from Mount St. Helens and activity from other volcanoes such as Mount Etna . Smoke from fires in the western United States such as Colorado and Utah have also been monitored . Other environmental satellites can detect changes in the Earth 's vegetation , sea state , ocean color , and ice fields . For example , the 2002 Prestige oil spill off the northwest coast of Spain was watched carefully by the European ENVISAT , which , though not a weather satellite , flies an instrument ( ASAR ) which can see changes in the sea surface . El Niño and its effects on weather are monitored daily from satellite images . The Antarctic ozone hole is mapped from weather satellite data . Collectively , weather satellites flown by the U.S. , Europe , India , China , Russia , and Japan provide nearly continuous observations for a global weather watch .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Weather_satellite\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 107568\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment Content: The Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment ( SORCE ) is a NASA-sponsored satellite mission that measures incoming X-ray , ultraviolet , visible , near-infrared , and total solar radiation . These measurements specifically address long-term climate change , natural variability and enhanced climate prediction , and atmospheric ozone and UV-B radiation . These measurements are critical to studies of the Sun , its effect on our Earth system and its influence on humankind . The SORCE spacecraft launched on January 25 , 2003 on a Pegasus XL launch vehicle to provide NASA 's Earth Science Enterprise ( ESE ) with precise measurements of solar radiation . SORCE measures the Sun 's output using radiometers , spectrometers , photodiodes , detectors , and bolometers mounted on a satellite observatory . The SORCE satellite orbits the Earth accumulating solar data . Spectral measurements identify the irradiance of the Sun by characterizing the Sun 's energy and emissions in the form of color that can then be translated into quantities and elements of matter . Data obtained by the SORCE experiment can be used to model the Sun 's output and to explain and predict the effect of the Sun 's radiation on the Earth 's atmosphere and climate . Flying in a 645 km , 40 degree orbit , SORCE is operated by the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics ( LASP ) at the University of Colorado at Boulder , Colorado . It will continue the precise measurements of total solar irradiance that began with the ERB instrument in 1979 and has continued to the present with the ACRIM series of measurements . SORCE will also provide the measurements of the solar spectral irradiance from 1 nm to 2000 nm , accounting for 95 % of the spectral contribution to the total solar irradiance . SORCE carries four instruments including the Total Irradiance Monitor ( TIM ) , Solar Stellar Irradiance Comparison Experiment ( SOLSTICE ) , Spectral Irradiance Monitor ( SIM ) , and the XUV Photometer System ( XPS ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Solar_Radiation_and_Climate_Experiment\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 107202\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Vulnerability Monitor Content: The Climate Vulnerability Monitor ( CVM ) is an independent global assessment of the effect of climate change on the world 's populations brought together by panels of key international authorities . The Monitor was launched in December 2010 in London and Cancun to coincide with the UN Cancun Summit on climate change ( COP-16 ) . Developed by DARA and the Climate Vulnerable Forum , the report is meant to serve as a new tool to assess global vulnerability to various effects of climate change within different nations . The report distills leading science and research for a clearer explanation of how and where populations are being affected by climate change today ( 2010 ) and in the near future ( 2030 ) , while pointing to key actions that reduce these impacts . DARA and the Climate Vulnerable Forum launched the 2nd edition of the Climate Vulnerability Monitor on 26 September 2012 at the Asia Society , New York .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Vulnerability_Monitor\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 107038\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Duncan Wingham Content: Duncan John Wingham ( born 12 October 1957 ) is a British physicist who is Professor of Climate Physics at University College London , and was the first Director of the Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling . He is chief executive of the Natural Environment Research Council and Principal Scientist for the CryoSat Satellite Mission . In the 1990s , Wingham was involved in a four-year satellite study of the Antarctic ice sheet . His conclusion then , and from later research , is that the Antarctic has contributed little to observed rising sea levels in the 20th century . However , he has also stated that `` it is possible that the consequences of global warming on sea level rise have been underestimated ... Other sources of rise must be underestimated . In particular it is possible that the effect of global warming on thermal expansion -LSB- on the oceans -RSB- is larger than we thought '' . In a 2005 interview Wingham stated '' -LSB- t -RSB- he Antarctic is to some extent insulated from global warming because to its north are zonal flows in the atmosphere and ocean , unimpeded by other landmasses ... I am not denying global warming . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Duncan_Wingham\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 106784\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Electrothermal feedback Content: In electronics , electrothermal feedback is the interaction of the electric current and the temperature in a device with a temperature-dependent electrical resistance . This interaction arises from Joule heating . The temperature-dependence of the electrical resistance is described by the derivative of the resistance with respect to temperature dR/dT . Semiconductors typically exhibit a negative dR/dT . Superconductors exhibit a large positive dR/dT on the superconducting phase transition . Normal ( non-superconducting ) metals typically exhibit a positive dR/dT that decreases to zero at very low temperatures . If a device has a positive dR/dT , an increase in temperature ( for example , due to thermal fluctuations or the absorption of a photon ) will increase the electrical resistance R . If the device is biased with a constant voltage V , this increase in resistance will decrease the Joule power P = V2/R . The decrease in Joule heating will cause the device to return to its equilibrium temperature . This is known as negative electrothermal feedback , as the change in Joule heating opposes the change in temperature . If the device is instead biased with a constant current I , the Joule power P = I2R will increase if the temperature increases . Thus the Joule heating amplifies a change in temperature , an effect known as positive electrothermal feedback . The situation is reversed for the case of a negative dR/dT . Electrothermal feedback is important for describing the performance of several types of photodetectors such as the bolometer , the transition edge sensor , and the superconducting nanowire single-photon detector .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Electrothermal_feedback\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 104720\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Climate Observing System Content: As an outcome of the Second World Climate Conference , the Global Climate Observing System ( GCOS ) was established in 1992 to ensure that the observations and information needed to address climate-related issues are obtained and made available to all potential users . The GCOS is co-sponsored by the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) , the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission ( IOC ) of UNESCO , the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) , and the International Council for Science ( ICSU ) . In order to assess and monitor the adequacy of in-situ observation networks as well as satellite-based observing systems , GCOS regularly reports on the adequacy of the current climate observing system to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , and thereby identifies the needs of the current climate observing system . The Global Climate Observing System ( GCOS ) is a system that comprises the climate-relevant components of many contributing observing systems and networks . The mission of the GCOS programme is to help ensure that these contributing systems , taken as a whole , provide the comprehensive information on the global climate system that is required by users , including individuals , national and international organizations , institutions and agencies . The programme promotes the sustained provision and availability of reliable physical , chemical and biological observations and data records for the total climate system - across the atmospheric , oceanic and terrestrial domains , including the Hydrological cycle , the Carbon cycle and the Cryosphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Climate_Observing_System\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 103635\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Runaway greenhouse effect Content: A runaway greenhouse effect is a process in which a net positive feedback between surface temperature and atmospheric opacity increases the strength of the greenhouse effect on a planet until its oceans boil away . An example of this is believed to have happened in the early history of Venus . On the Earth , the IPCC states that `` a ` runaway greenhouse effect ' -- analogous to -LSB- that of -RSB- Venus -- appears to have virtually no chance of being induced by anthropogenic activities . '' Other large-scale climate changes are sometimes loosely called a `` runaway greenhouse effect '' although it is not an appropriate description . For example , it has been hypothesized that large releases of greenhouse gases may have occurred concurrently with the Permian -- Triassic extinction event or Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum . Other terms , such as `` abrupt climate change '' , or tipping points could be used when describing such scenarios .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Runaway_greenhouse_effect\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 103553\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmospheric Infrared Sounder Content: The Atmospheric Infrared Sounder ( AIRS ) is one of six instruments flying on board NASA 's Aqua satellite , launched on May 4 , 2002 . The instrument is designed to support climate research and improve weather forecasting . Working in combination with its partner microwave instrument , the Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit ( AMSU-A ) , AIRS observes the global water and energy cycles , climate variation and trends , and the response of the climate system to increased greenhouse gases . AIRS uses infrared technology to create three-dimensional maps of air and surface temperature , water vapor , and cloud properties . AIRS can also measure trace greenhouse gases such as ozone , carbon monoxide , carbon dioxide , and methane . AIRS and AMSU-A share the Aqua satellite with the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer ( MODIS ) , Clouds and the Earth 's Radiant Energy System ( CERES ) , and the Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer-EOS ( AMSR-E ) . Aqua is part of NASA 's `` A-train , '' a series of high-inclination , Sun-synchronous satellites in low Earth orbit designed to make long-term global observations of the land surface , biosphere , solid Earth , atmosphere , and ocean . AIRS data is free and available to the public through the Goddard Earth Sciences Data Information and Services Center . NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena , California , manages AIRS for NASA 's Science Mission Directorate in Washington , D.C.\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmospheric_Infrared_Sounder\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 103385\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Revenge of Gaia Content: The Revenge of Gaia : Why the Earth is Fighting Back -- and How we Can Still Save Humanity ( 2006 ) is a book by James Lovelock . Some editions of the book have a different , less optimistic subtitle : `` Earth 's Climate Crisis and the Fate of Humanity . '' The book introduces the concept of the anti-CLAW hypothesis . Lovelock proposed that instead of providing negative feedback in the climate system , the components of the CLAW hypothesis may act to create a positive feedback loop . Under future global warming , increasing temperature may stratify the world ocean , decreasing the supply of nutrients from the deep ocean to its productive euphotic zone . Consequently , phytoplankton activity will decline with a concomitant fall in the production of DMS . In a reverse of the CLAW hypothesis , this decline in DMS production will lead to a decrease in cloud condensation nuclei and a fall in cloud albedo . The consequence of this will be further climate warming which may lead to even less DMS production ( and further climate warming ) . The figure to the right shows a summarising schematic diagram . Evidence for the anti-CLAW hypothesis is constrained by similar uncertainties as those of the sulfur cycle feedback loop of the CLAW hypothesis . However , researchers simulating future oceanic primary production have found evidence of declining production with increasing ocean stratification , leaving open the possibility that such a mechanism may exist .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Revenge_of_Gaia\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 103231\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Monthly Climatic Data for the World Content: Monthly Climatic Data for the World ( MCDW ) is a monthly publication of the National Climatic Data Center ( NCDC ) division of the National Environmental Satellite , Data , and Information Service ( NESDIS ) division of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) of the United States . According to the website , each monthly issue `` contains monthly mean temperature , pressure , precipitation , vapor pressure , and sunshine for approximately 2,000 surface data collection stations worldwide and monthly mean upper air temperatures , dew point depressions , and wind velocities for approximately 500 observing sites . This is the final quality controlled copy and generally has a 4 - 6 month time lag . '' The issues are available for download in portable document format .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Monthly_Climatic_Data_for_the_World\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 103139\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Sea Level Observing System Content: The Global Sea Level Observing System ( GLOSS ) is an Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission program whose purpose is to measure sea level globally for long-term climate change studies . The program 's purpose has changed since the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and the program now collects realtime measurements of sea level . The project is currently upgrading the over 290 stations it currently runs , so that they can send realtime data via satellite to newly set up national tsunami centres . They are also fitting the stations with solar panels so they can continue to operate even if the mains power supply is interrupted by severe weather . The Global Sea Level Observing System does not compete with Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis as most GLOSS transducers are located close to land masses while DART 's transducers are far out in the ocean .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Sea_Level_Observing_System\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 102654\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Glory (satellite) Content: The Glory satellite was a planned NASA satellite mission that would have collected data on the chemical , micro-physical and optical properties -- and the spatial and temporal distributions -- of sulfate and other aerosols , and would have collected solar irradiance data for the long-term climate record . The science focus areas served by Glory included : atmospheric composition ; carbon cycle , ecosystems , and biogeochemistry ; climate variability and change ; and water and energy cycles . The US$ 424 million satellite was lost on March 4 , 2011 , when its Taurus XL carrier rocket malfunctioned . A subsequent investigation revealed that the fairing system failed to open fully , causing the satellite to reenter the atmosphere at which point it likely broke up and burned .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Glory_(satellite)\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 102182\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment Content: The Gravity Recovery And Climate Experiment ( GRACE ) , a joint mission of NASA and the German Aerospace Center , has been making detailed measurements of Earth 's gravity field anomalies since its launch in March 2002 . By measuring gravity anomalies , GRACE shows how mass is distributed around the planet and how it varies over time . Data from the GRACE satellites is an important tool for studying Earth 's ocean , geology , and climate . GRACE is a collaborative endeavor involving the Center for Space Research at the University of Texas , Austin ; NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory , Pasadena , Calif. ; the German Space Agency and Germany 's National Research Center for Geosciences , Potsdam . The Jet Propulsion Laboratory is responsible for the overall mission management under the NASA ESSP program . The principal investigator is Dr. Byron Tapley of the University of Texas Center for Space Research , and the co-principal investigator is Dr. Christoph Reigber of the GeoForschungsZentrum ( GFZ ) Potsdam . The GRACE satellites were launched from Plesetsk Cosmodrome , Russia on a Rockot ( SS-19 + Breeze upper stage ) launch vehicle , on 17 March 2002 . The spacecraft were launched to an initial altitude of approximately 500 km at a near-polar inclination of 89 ° . The satellites are separated by approximately 200 km along their orbit track . GRACE has far exceeded its designed five-year lifespan . the GRACE spacecrafts orbit has decayed by 150 km , and is continuing to decay at 30 km/year . Its successor , GRACE Follow-On , is expected to launch in 2017/18\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Gravity_Recovery_and_Climate_Experiment\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 101973\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: CLARREO Content: CLARREO ( Climate Absolute Radiance and Refractivity Observatory ) is a high-priority NASA decadal survey mission , originally selected as such by the National Research Council in 2007 . The CLARREO mission is intended to provide a metrology laboratory in orbit to accurately quantify and attribute Earth 's climate change ( see List of climate research satellites ) . If launched at the earliest opportunity , CLARREO 's observations could be used to detect the largest of climate trends above natural variability by the year 2039 . Then it may go on to further test , validate , and improve prediction by climate models . The mission also might provide the first orbiting radiometers with enough accuracy to serve as reference calibration standards that can fine-tune other spaceborne sensors and climate research , making climate trends apparent in their data sets within a 30-year time frame . Due to funding cuts in announced for the 2012 budget , the CLARREO mission was significantly scaled back , while remaining spaceborne projects were eyed to fill the gap . In the President 's FY16 budget request , CLARREO was provided $ 76.9 M to demonstrate essential measurement technologies of the CLARREO Tier 1 Decadal Survey mission . That funding will potentially support the flight of two instruments , Reflected Solar ( RS ) and Infrared ( IR ) spectrometers , hosted on the International Space Station in FY 2019 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"CLARREO\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 101589\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Glacier mass balance Content: Crucial to the survival of a glacier is its mass balance or surface mass balance ( SMB ) , the difference between accumulation and ablation ( sublimation and melting ) . Climate change may cause variations in both temperature and snowfall , causing changes in the surface mass balance . Changes in mass balance control a glacier 's long-term behavior and are the most sensitive climate indicators on a glacier . From 1980 -- 2012 the mean cumulative mass loss of glaciers reporting mass balance to the World Glacier Monitoring Service is − 16 m . This includes 23 consecutive years of negative mass balances . A glacier with a sustained negative balance is out of equilibrium and will retreat , while one with a sustained positive balance is out of equilibrium and will advance . Glacier retreat results in the loss of the low elevation region of the glacier . Since higher elevations are cooler than lower ones , the disappearance of the lowest portion of the glacier reduces overall ablation , thereby increasing mass balance and potentially reestablishing equilibrium . However , if the mass balance of a significant portion of the accumulation zone of the glacier is negative , it is in disequilibrium with the local climate . Such a glacier will melt away with a continuation of this local climate . The key symptom of a glacier in disequilibrium is thinning along the entire length of the glacier . For example , Easton Glacier ( pictured below ) will likely shrink to half its size , but at a slowing rate of reduction , and stabilize at that size , despite the warmer temperature , over a few decades . However , the Grinnell Glacier ( pictured below ) will shrink at an increasing rate until it disappears . The difference is that the upper section of Easton Glacier remains healthy and snow-covered , while even the upper section of the Grinnell Glacier is bare , melting and has thinned . Small glaciers with shallow slopes such as Grinnell Glacier are most likely to fall into disequilibrium if there is a change in the local climate . In the case of positive mass balance , the glacier will continue to advance expanding its low elevation area , resulting in more melting . If this still does not create an equilibrium balance the glacier will continue to advance . If a glacier is near a large body of water , especially an ocean , the glacier may advance until iceberg calving losses bring about equilibrium .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Glacier_mass_balance\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 101345\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Negative feedback Content: Negative feedback occurs when some function of the output of a system , process , or mechanism is fed back in a manner that tends to reduce the fluctuations in the output , whether caused by changes in the input or by other disturbances . Whereas positive feedback tends to lead to instability via exponential growth , oscillation or chaotic behavior , negative feedback generally promotes stability . Negative feedback tends to promote a settling to equilibrium , and reduces the effects of perturbations . Negative feedback loops in which just the right amount of correction is applied with optimum timing can be very stable , accurate , and responsive . Negative feedback is widely used in mechanical and electronic engineering , but it also occurs naturally within living organisms , and can be seen in many other fields from chemistry and economics to physical systems such as the climate . General negative feedback systems are studied in control systems engineering .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Negative_feedback\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 101323\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: John Christy Content: John Raymond Christy is a climate scientist at the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) whose chief interests are satellite remote sensing of global climate and global climate change . He is best known , jointly with Roy Spencer , for the first successful development of a satellite temperature record .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"John_Christy\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 101310\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Megha-Tropiques Content: Megha-Tropiques is a satellite mission to study the water cycle in the tropical atmosphere in the context of climate change A collaborative effort between Indian Space Research Organisation ( ISRO ) and French Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales ( CNES ) , Megha-Tropiques was successfully deployed into orbit by a PSLV rocket in October 2011 . Megha-Tropiques was initially scrapped in 2003 , but later revived in 2004 after India increased its contribution and overall costs were lowered . With the progress made by GEWEX ( Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment ) , Megha-Tropiques is designed to understand tropical meteorological and climatic processes , by obtaining reliable statistics on the water and energy budget of the tropical atmosphere . Megha-Tropiques complements other data in the current regional monsoon projects such as MAHASRI and the completed GAME project . Megha-Tropiques also seeks to describe the evolution of major tropical weather systems . The focus will be the repetitive measurement of the tropics .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Megha-Tropiques\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 101269\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Michael Schlesinger Content: Dr. Michael Earl Schlesinger ( born February 23 , 1943 ) is a Professor of Atmospheric Sciences and director of the Climate Research Group at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign . He received his Ph.D. ( meteorology ) in 1976 from the University of California , Los Angeles . Michael Schlesinger is an expert in the modeling , simulation and analysis of climate and climate change , with interests in simulating and understanding the climates of the geologic past and possible future climates resulting from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases and human-made aerosols . He has been instrumental in developing a range of simple and complex climate models , which have been used by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and the Energy Modeling Forum . His research currently focuses on : ( 1 ) simulating and understanding the effects on climate of a human-induced melting of the Greenland ice sheet ; ( 2 ) simulating and understanding the coupled climate-chemistry system , including the influences of the Sun - both irradiance and energetic electron precipitation - and volcanoes ; ( 3 ) understanding and reducing the uncertainty in the estimation of climate sensitivity and climate feedbacks ; and ( 4 ) performing integrative assessment of climate change , including further development of the robust adaptive decision strategy for mitigating and adapting to human-induced climate change . He is known for his work on oscillations in the global climate system , on estimating the climate sensitivity , and on seasonal climate change . He has edited four books , most recently Human-induced climate change : An interdisciplinary assessment . He regularly appears in the media .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Michael_Schlesinger\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 100989\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Negative-feedback amplifier Content: A negative-feedback amplifier ( or feedback amplifier ) is an electronic amplifier that subtracts a fraction of its output from its input , so that negative feedback opposes the original signal . The applied negative feedback improves performance ( gain stability , linearity , frequency response , step response ) and reduces sensitivity to parameter variations due to manufacturing or environment . Because of these advantages , many amplifiers and control systems use negative feedback . An idealized negative-feedback amplifier as shown in the diagram is a system of three elements ( see Figure 1 ) : an amplifier with gain AOL , a feedback network β , which senses the output signal and possibly transforms it in some way ( for example by attenuating or filtering it ) , a summing circuit that acts as a subtractor ( the circle in the figure ) , which combines the input and the transformed output .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Negative-feedback_amplifier\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 100858\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Radarsat-1 Content: RADARSAT-1 is Canada 's first commercial Earth observation satellite . It utilized synthetic aperture radar ( SAR ) to obtain images of the Earth 's surface to manage natural resources and monitor global climate change . As of March 2013 , the satellite was declared non-operational and is no longer collecting data .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Radarsat-1\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 100544\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cochlear amplifier Content: The cochlear amplifier is a positive feedback mechanism within the cochlea that provides acute sensitivity in the mammalian auditory system . The main component of the cochlear amplifier is the outer hair cell ( OHC ) which increases the amplitude and frequency selectivity of sound vibrations using electromechanical feedback .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Cochlear_amplifier\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 100343\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Jason-1 Content: Jason-1 is a satellite oceanography mission to monitor global ocean circulation , study the ties between the ocean and the atmosphere , improve global climate forecasts and predictions , and monitor events such as El Niño and ocean eddies .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Jason-1\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 99620\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Positive feedback Content: Positive feedback is a process that occurs in a feedback loop in which the effects of a small disturbance on a system include an increase in the magnitude of the perturbation . That is , A produces more of B which in turn produces more of A . In contrast , a system in which the results of a change act to reduce or counteract it has negative feedback . Both concepts play an important role in science and engineering , including biology , chemistry , and cybernetics . Mathematically , positive feedback is defined as a positive loop gain around a closed loop of cause and effect . That is , positive feedback is in phase with the input , in the sense that it adds to make the input larger . Positive feedback tends to cause system instability . When the loop gain is positive and above 1 , there will typically be exponential growth , increasing oscillations , chaotic behavior or other divergences from equilibrium . System parameters will typically accelerate towards extreme values , which may damage or destroy the system , or may end with the system latched into a new stable state . Positive feedback may be controlled by signals in the system being filtered , damped , or limited , or it can be cancelled or reduced by adding negative feedback . Positive feedback is used in digital electronics to force voltages away from intermediate voltages into ' 0 ' and ' 1 ' states . On the other hand , thermal runaway is a positive feedback that can destroy semiconductor junctions . Positive feedback in chemical reactions can increase the rate of reactions , and in some cases can lead to explosions . Positive feedback in mechanical design causes tipping-point , or ` over-centre ' , mechanisms to snap into position , for example in switches and locking pliers . Out of control , it can cause bridges to collapse . Positive feedback in economic systems can cause boom-then-bust cycles . A familiar example of positive feedback is the loud squealing or howling sound produced by audio feedback in public address systems : the microphone picks up sound from its own loudspeakers , amplifies it , and sends it through the speakers again .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Positive_feedback\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 99300\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Seita Emori Content: Seita Emori ( born 1970 in Kanagawa , Japan ) is a Japanese environmental scientist whose most noted work focuses upon the worldwide effects of Global Warming . He completed his Doctorate at the University of Tokyo in 1997 and thereafter joined the National Institute of Environmental Studies , Japan where he is currently the Chief of the Climate Risk Assessment Research Section at the Center for Global Environmental Research . Emori is a contributing author to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and a member of the IPCC Steering Committee for the `` Expert Meeting on New Scenarios '' , for which the IPCC received a Noble Prize in 2007 . Among Emori 's publications are the academic paper `` Sensitivity Map of LAI to Precipitation and Surface Air Temperature Variations in a Global Scale '' ( co-authored with his Japans colleague Hiroshi Kanzawa and Jiahua Zhang and Congbin Fu of the START , Institute of Atmospheric Physics in Beijing , China ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Seita_Emori\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 99085\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: NOAA-6 Content: NOAA-6 , designated NOAA-A before launch , was a weather satellite operated by NOAA as part of its National Operational Environmental Satellite System . It was launched into a Sun-synchronous orbit by NASA aboard an Atlas F launch vehicle on 27 June 1979 from Vandenberg Air Force Base SLC-3W . Based on the experimental TIROS-N satellite , it performed monitoring of ice and snow cover , agriculture , oceanography , volcanism , ozone and the space environment , in addition to its regular meteorological observations . Its instruments included the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer ( AVHRR/1 ) for global cloud cover observations , the TIROS Operational Vertical Sounder ( TOVS ) suite for atmospheric temperature and water vapor profiling , the Space Environment Monitor ( SEM ) for measuring proton and electron fluxes , and the Data Collection and Platform Location System ( DCPLS ) for relaying data from balloons and ocean buoys . The TOVS suite consists of three subsystems : the High Resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder 2 ( HIRS/2 ) , the Stratospheric Sounding Unit ( SSU ) , and the Microwave Sounding Unit ( MSU ) . The HIRS/2 instrument failed on 19 September 1983 , and the spacecraft was placed in reserve in early 1984 as NOAA prioritized operations of NOAA-7 and NOAA-8 . It was returned to operational status after NOAA-8 failed in June 1984 , and continued to return data until its decommissioning on 31 March 1987 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"NOAA-6\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 98833\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sentinel-3 Content: Sentinel-3 is an Earth observation satellite constellation developed by the European Space Agency as part of the Copernicus Programme . Copernicus , formerly Global Monitoring for Environment and Security , is the European programme to establish a European capacity for Earth observation designed to provide European policy makers and public authorities with accurate and timely information to better manage the environment , and to understand and mitigate the effects of climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Sentinel-3\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 98734\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite Content: The Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite system ( GOES ) , operated by the United States ' National Environmental Satellite , Data , and Information Service ( NESDIS ) , supports weather forecasting , severe storm tracking , and meteorology research . Spacecraft and ground-based elements of the system work together to provide a continuous stream of environmental data . The National Weather Service ( NWS ) and the Meteorological Service of Canada use the GOES system for their North American weather monitoring and forecasting operations , and scientific researchers use the data to better understand land , atmosphere , ocean , and climate interactions . The GOES system uses geosynchronous satellites which -- since the launch of SMS-1 in 1974 -- have been a basic element of U.S. weather monitoring and forecasting . GOES data can be accessed using the SPEDAS software .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Geostationary_Operational_Environmental_Satellite\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 98533\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Satellite laser ranging Content: In satellite laser ranging ( SLR ) a global network of observation stations measures the round trip time of flight of ultrashort pulses of light to satellites equipped with retroreflectors . This provides instantaneous range measurements of millimeter level precision which can be accumulated to provide accurate measurement of orbits and a host of important scientific data . Satellite laser ranging is a proven geodetic technique with significant potential for important contributions to scientific studies of the earth/atmosphere/ocean system . It is the most accurate technique currently available to determine the geocentric position of an Earth satellite , allowing for the precise calibration of radar altimeters and separation of long-term instrumentation drift from secular changes in ocean topography . Its ability to measure the variations over time in Earth 's gravity field and to monitor motion of the station network with respect to the geocenter , together with the capability to monitor vertical motion in an absolute system , makes it unique for modeling and evaluating long-term climate change by : providing a reference system for post-glacial rebound , sea level and ice volume change determining the temporal mass redistribution of the solid earth , ocean , and atmosphere system monitoring the response of the atmosphere to seasonal variations in solar heating . SLR provides a unique capability for verification of the predictions of the theory of general relativity , such as the frame-dragging effect . SLR stations form an important part of the international network of space geodetic observatories , which include VLBI , GPS , DORIS and PRARE systems . On several critical missions , SLR has provided failsafe redundancy when other radiometric tracking systems have failed .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Satellite_laser_ranging\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 98407\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Remote Sensing Systems Content: Remote Sensing Systems ( RSS ) is a private research company founded in 1974 by Frank Wentz . It processes microwave data from a variety of NASA satellites . Most of their research is supported by the Earth Science Enterprise program . The company is based in Santa Rosa , California . They are a widely cited source of data , on the satellite temperature record . Their data is one source of evidence for global warming . Research by Carl Mears , Matthias Schabel , and Wentz , all of RSS , highlighted errors in the early satellite temperature records compiled by John Christy and Roy Spencer at UAH . The UAH data had previously showed no significant temperature trend , bringing the derived satellite data into closer agreement with surface temperature trends , radiosonde data and computer models . The UAH data is now closer to the RSS data but differences remain , for example the Lower Troposphere global average trend since 1979 , RSS currently have +0.133 K/decade while UAH have 0.140 K/decade , while the mid troposphere difference is even more marked at 0.079 K/decade and 0.052 K/decade respectively . However , in a recent online YouTube video , Dr. Carl Mears , a senior scientist with the team behind the satellite data , explained how he believes his data set needed correction . I would have to say that the surface data seems that it 's more accurate , because a number of groups analyze the surface data , including some who set out to prove the other ones wrong , and they all get more or less the same answer .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Remote_Sensing_Systems\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 98182\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite Content: The Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite ( GOSat ) , also known as , is an Earth observation satellite and the world 's first satellite dedicated to greenhouse-gas-monitoring . It measures the densities of carbon dioxide and methane from 56,000 locations on the Earth 's atmosphere . The GOSAT was developed by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency ( JAXA ) and launched on 23 January 2009 , from the Tanegashima Space Center . Japan 's Ministry of the Environment , and the National Institute for Environmental Studies ( NIES ) use the data to track gases causing the greenhouse effect , and share the data with NASA and other international scientific organizations .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_Gases_Observing_Satellite\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 98077\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference) Content: In 2005, an international conference titled Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and global warming and its effects. The conference name was derived from Article 2 of the charter for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The conference explored the possible impacts at different levels of greenhouse gas emissions and how the climate might be stabilized at a desired level. The conference took place under the United Kingdom's presidency of the G8, with the participation of around 200 \\\"internationally renowned\\\" scientists from 30 countries. It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter, from 1 February to 3 February. The conference was one of many meetings leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, at which the international community agreed to limit global warming to no more than 2C in order to have a 50-50 chance of avoiding dangerous climate change. However, a 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting it is below the 2 degree temperature target.\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change_(2005_conference)\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 97564\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: VNREDSat 1A Content: VNREDSat-1 ( short for Vietnam Natural Resources , Environment and Disaster Monitoring Satellite ) is the first optical Earth Observing satellite of Vietnam ; its primary mission is to monitor and study the effects of climate change , predict and take measures to prevent natural disasters , and optimise the management of Vietnam 's natural resources .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"VNREDSat_1A\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 97273\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: CLAW hypothesis Content: The CLAW hypothesis proposes a negative feedback loop that operates between ocean ecosystems and the Earth 's climate . The hypothesis specifically proposes that particular phytoplankton that produce dimethyl sulfide are responsive to variations in climate forcing , and that these responses act to stabilise the temperature of the Earth 's atmosphere . The CLAW hypothesis was originally proposed by Robert Jay Charlson , James Lovelock , Meinrat Andreae and Stephen G. Warren , and takes its acronym from the first letter of their surnames .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"CLAW_hypothesis\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 96647\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate system Content: Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_system\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 96553\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sensitivity (control systems) Content: The controller parameters are typically matched to the process characteristics and since the process may change , it is important that the controller parameters are chosen in such a way that the closed loop system is not sensitive to variations in process dynamics . One way to characterize sensitivity is through the nominal sensitivity peak : where and denote the plant and controller 's transfer function in a basic closed loop control System , using unity negative feedback . The sensitivity function , which appears in the above formula also describes the transfer function from external disturbance to process output . Hence , lower values of suggest further attenuation of the external disturbance . The sensitivity function tells us how the disturbances are influenced by feedback . Disturbances with frequencies such that is less than one are reduced by an amount equal to the distance to the critical point and disturbances with frequencies such that is larger than one are amplified by the feedback . It is important that the largest value of the sensitivity function be limited for a control system and it is common to require that the maximum value of the sensitivity function , , be in a range of 1.3 to 2 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Sensitivity_(control_systems)\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 95743\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Historical Climatology Network Content: The Global Historical Climatology Network ( GHCN ) is a database of temperature , precipitation and pressure records managed by the National Climatic Data Center , Arizona State University and the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center . The aggregate data are collected from many continuously reporting fixed stations at the Earth 's surface and represent the input of approximately 6000 temperature stations , 7500 precipitation stations and 2000 pressure stations . This work has often been used as a foundation for reconstructing past global temperatures , and was used in previous versions of two of the best-known reconstructions , that prepared by the National Climatic Data Center ( NCDC ) , and that prepared by NASA as its Goddard Institute for Space Studies ( GISS ) temperature set . The average temperature record is 60 years long with ~ 1650 records greater than 100 years and ~ 220 greater than 150 years ( based on GHCN v2 in 2006 ) . The earliest data included in the database were collected in 1697 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Historical_Climatology_Network\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 95727\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 95387\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Climate Research Facility Content: The Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Climate Research Facility ( ARM Climate Research Facility ) is a United States Department of Energy scientific user facility for the study of global climate change by the national and international research community . The ARM Climate Research Facility consists of global observation sites and research aircraft that measure radiative properties of the atmosphere , particularly cloud and aerosol formation processes . Continuous data from these sites , as well as supplemental data obtained through intensive field research campaigns , are available to scientists online through the ARM Data Archive . ARM is collaboratively managed by nine DOE national laboratories .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmospheric_Radiation_Measurement_Climate_Research_Facility\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 94883\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Steve Running Content: Steven W. Running , ( born 1950 ) Regents Professor , Forest Ecology , College of Forestry & Conservation at the University of Montana , and Director of the Numerical Terradynamics Simulation Group , is responsible for developing the earth observing-oriented algorithms used by the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer ( MODIS ) on board NASA 's satellites , Terra and Aqua . He continues to be the lead investigator on this project . Running 's MOD17 algorithms are used to provide accurate and continuous global monitoring of the terrestrial biosphere , specifically , generating near-real-time data sets for repeated monitoring of vegetation primary production on vegetated land at 1-km resolution at 8-day intervals . These datasets are unique in that they provide global data on primary productivity and span a decade . A recognized expert in global ecosystem monitoring , Running was invited to serve on the board of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . In 2007 , the IPCC was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize `` for their efforts to build up and disseminate greater knowledge about man-made climate change , and to lay the foundations for the measures that are needed to counteract such change '' . Running made the following statement about winning the prize : `` We 've got to get past all the petty bickering and get to work . This is about a big transition for society over the next 50 years . The path we are on is unsustainable . What the Nobel committee is saying is that we 've got to wake up . We 've got to change the course of the whole world . '' Steve Running is co-author of the 2007 book , Forest Ecosystems , and has published over 240 scientific papers . In 2012 , Running suggested a tenth planetary boundary , the annual net global primary production of all terrestrial plants , as an easily determinable measure integrating many variables that will give `` a clear signal about the health of ecosystems '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Steve_Running\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 94287\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Telecommunications System Content: The Global Telecommunication System ( GTS ) is a global network for the transmission of meteorological data from weather stations , satellites and numerical weather prediction centres . The GTS consists of an integrated network of point-to-point circuits , and multi-point circuits which interconnect meteorological telecommunication centres . The circuits of the GTS are composed of a combination of terrestrial and satellite telecommunication links . They comprise point-to-point circuits , point-to-multi-point circuits for data distribution , multi-point-to-point circuits for data collection , as well as two-way multi-point circuits . Meteorological Telecommunication Centres are responsible for receiving data and relaying it selectively on GTS circuits . The GTS is organized on a three level basis : The Main Telecommunication Network ( MTN ) The Regional Meteorological Telecommunication Networks ( RMTNs ) The National Meteorological Telecommunication Networks ( NMTNs ) Satellite-based data collection and/or data distribution systems are integrated in the GTS as an essential element of the global , regional and national levels of the GTS . Data collection systems operated via geostationary or near-polar orbiting meteorological/environmental satellites , including the Argos System , are widely used for the collection of observational data from data collection platforms . Marine data are also collected through the International Maritime Mobile Service and Inmarsat satellites .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Telecommunications_System\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 94219\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Positive Development Program Content: The C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group 's Climate Positive Development Program ( Climate Positive ) was launched in May 2009 in partnership with the Clinton Climate Initiative and the U.S. Green Building Council . The program brings together leading district-scale new-build and regeneration projects working to achieve `` Climate Positive '' -- or net carbon negative -- outcomes in cities around the world . As part of the C40 's Sustainable Communities Initiative , it aims to create a model for large-scale urban communities and to support projects that serve as urban laboratories for cities seeking to grow in ways that are environmentally sustainable , climate resilient , and economically viable . Climate Positive is an exclusive program , with a competitive application process , and currently comprises 17 global projects that will collectively reduce the emissions impact of more than one million people . The cities in which the Climate Positive projects are located support the implementation process locally and share best practices globally through participation in the C40 Climate Positive Network. , The projects are in different stages of development , but share key characteristics like high densities , highly efficient buildings , mixed-use zoning and transit accessibility .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Positive_Development_Program\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 93801\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Gaofen 1 Content: Gaofen-1 is a high resolution Chinese Earth observation satellite . Gaofen-1 was launched on April 26 , 2013 at 4:13 UTC with a Long March 2D carrier rocket from the Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center along with the three small experimental satellites : Turksat 3USat ( Turkey ) , CubeBug-1 ( Argentina ) and NEE-01 Pegaso ( Ecuador ) in a sun-synchronous orbit . The civilian HDEOS ( High-Definition Earth Observation Satellite ) program was proposed in 2006 and received approval in 2010 . Gaofen-1 is the first of six planned HDEOS spacecraft to be launched between 2013 and 2016 . The satellite 's primary goal is to provide NRT ( Near-Real-Time ) observations for disaster prevention and relief , climate change monitoring , geographical mapping , environmental and resource surveying , as well as precision agriculture support .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Gaofen_1\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 93367\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climatic Research Unit Content: The Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) is a component of the University of East Anglia and is one of the leading institutions concerned with the study of natural and anthropogenic climate change . With a staff of some thirty research scientists and students , the CRU has contributed to the development of a number of the data sets widely used in climate research , including one of the global temperature records used to monitor the state of the climate system , as well as statistical software packages and climate models .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Climatic_Research_Unit\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 93328\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: NOAA-7 Content: NOAA-7 , designated NOAA-C before launch , was an American weather satellite launched in June 1981 as part of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 's Polar Operational Environmental Satellites ( POES ) program . It was used to support the Global Atmospheric Research Program ( GARP ) during 1978 -- 1984 . An earlier launch , NOAA-B , was scheduled to become NOAA-7 , however NOAA-B failed to reach its required orbit . The launch of NOAA-7 took place at 10:52:59 UTC ( 3:53 a.m. PST ) on 23 June 1981 from Space Launch Complex 3W at the Vandenberg Air Force Base in California . NOAA-7 was launched atop an Atlas E/F rocket with a Star-37S-ISS upper stage . The NOAA-7 satellite had a mass of 588.9 kg . The satellite 's design provided an economical and stable sun synchronous platform for advanced operational instruments to measure the Earth 's atmosphere , its surface and cloud cover , and the near space environment . The primary sensors included an Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer ( AVHRR ) and a TIROS Operational Vertical Sounder ( TOVS ) . One of the primary mission sensors , the High Resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder ( HIRS ) , failed 7 February 1985 . There were a number of secondary experiments on-board NOAA-7 . These include a Space Environment Monitor ( SEM ) and a Data Collection and Platform Location System ( DCPLS ) . The United States Air Force also provided a contamination monitor to assess contamination sources , levels and effects for consideration on future spacecraft . NOAA-7 was based upon the Block 5D spacecraft bus developed for the U.S. Air Force . The satellite was capable of maintaining an earth-pointing accuracy of better than ± 0.1 ° with a motion rate of less than 0.035 degrees/second . NOAA-7 was withdrawn from use in June 1986 after its power system malfunctioned . In August 1997 the decommissioned satellite experienced an abrupt 1 second change in orbital period . At the same time 3 new debris particles were observed . It is unclear if this was caused by an internal release of energy or collision with an unidentified object . As of 8 December 2013 , the derelict satellite remains in a 834 by orbit , inclined at 98.87 degrees and with a period of 101.62 minutes .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"NOAA-7\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 93022\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: GRACE and GRACE-FO Content: The Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) was a joint mission of NASA and the German Aerospace Center (DLR). Twin satellites took detailed measurements of Earth's gravity field anomalies from its launch in March 2002 to the end of its science mission in October 2017. The Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment Follow-On (GRACE-FO) is a continuation of the mission on near-identical hardware, launched in May 2018. By measuring gravity anomalies, GRACE showed how mass is distributed around the planet and how it varies over time. Data from the GRACE satellites is an important tool for studying Earth's ocean, geology, and climate. GRACE was a collaborative endeavor involving the Center for Space Research at the University of Texas at Austin, NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, the German Aerospace Center and Germany's National Research Center for Geosciences, Potsdam. The Jet Propulsion Laboratory was responsible for the overall mission management under the NASA ESSP (Earth System Science Pathfinder) program. The principal investigator is Byron Tapley of the University of Texas Center for Space Research, and the co-principal investigator is Christoph Reigber of the GeoForschungsZentrum (GFZ) Potsdam.The two GRACE satellites (GRACE-1 and GRACE-2) were launched from Plesetsk Cosmodrome, Russia, on a Rockot (SS-19 + Breeze upper stage) launch vehicle on 17 March 2002. The spacecraft were launched to an initial altitude of approximately 500 km at a near-polar inclination of 89°. During normal operations, the satellites were separated by 220 km along their orbit track. This system was able to gather global coverage every 30 days. GRACE far exceeded its 5-year design lifespan, operating for 15 years until the decommissioning of GRACE-2 on 27 October 2017. Its successor, GRACE-FO, was successfully launched on 22 May 2018. In 2019, a glacier in West Antarctica was named after the GRACE mission.\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"GRACE_and_GRACE-FO\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 92581\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: EUMETSAT Content: EUMETSAT ( European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites ) is an intergovernmental organisation created through an international convention agreed by a current total of 30 European Member States : Austria , Belgium , Bulgaria , Croatia , the Czech Republic , Denmark , Estonia , Finland , France , Germany , Greece , Hungary , Ireland , Iceland , Italy , Latvia , Lithuania , Luxembourg , the Netherlands , Norway , Poland , Portugal , Romania , Slovakia , Slovenia , Spain , Sweden , Switzerland , Turkey , and the United Kingdom . These States fund the EUMETSAT programs and are the principal users of the systems . EUMETSAT also has 1 Cooperating State . Cooperation agreements with Serbia have entered into force . The convention establishing EUMETSAT was opened for signature in 1983 and entered into force on 19 June 1986 . EUMETSAT 's primary objective is to establish , maintain and exploit European systems of operational meteorological satellites . EUMETSAT is responsible for the launch and operation of the satellites and for delivering satellite data to end-users as well as contributing to the operational monitoring of climate and the detection of global climate changes . The activities of EUMETSAT contribute to a global meteorological satellite observing system coordinated with other space-faring nations . Satellite observations are an essential input to numerical weather prediction systems and also assist the human forecaster in the diagnosis of potentially hazardous weather developments . Of growing importance is the capacity of weather satellites to gather long-term measurements from space in support of climate change studies . EUMETSAT is not part of the European Union , but became a signatory to the International Charter on Space and Major Disasters in 2012 , thus providing for the global charitable use of its space assets .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"EUMETSAT\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 92061\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Surface Ocean Lower Atmosphere Study Content: The Surface Ocean Lower Atmosphere Study or Surface Ocean - Lower Atmosphere Study ( SOLAS ) is an international scientific research initiative that is one of the core projects of the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme . SOLAS has a goal to achieve quantitative understanding of the key biogeochemical-physical interactions and feedbacks between the ocean and atmosphere , and of how this coupled system affects and is affected by climate and environmental change . Thus , this international project is a critical component to understanding the Earth system and the effects of climate change on this system . The project includes meteorologists , oceanographers , marine biologists , and policy-makers . SOLAS has three major focus areas : Biogeochemical interactions and feedbacks between ocean and atmosphere , Exchange processes at the air-sea interface and the role of transport and transformation in the atmospheric and oceanic boundary layers , and Air-sea flux of carbon dioxide and other long-lived radiatively active gases ( this last focus is developed jointly with the Integrated Marine and Biogeochemistry and Ecosystem Research project ; IMBER ) . These three focuses are detailed in the project 's Science Plan and Implementation Strategy and in three separate Implementation Plans , and each focus has its own Implementation Working Group . The project is administered by a panel of scientific experts in the Scientific Steering Committee , and project coordination is handled by the SOLAS International Project Office at the University of East Anglia in Norwich UK . Scientific research is conducted by nations across the globe , and SOLAS has 23 established National Networks . SOLAS runs a successful biennial International Summer School , held at the Institut d'Etudes Scientifiques de Cargèse in Corsica France , and the next Summer School is scheduled for 2007 . Communications from SOLAS include a monthly e-bulletin , a biannual newsletter , and a website . An Open Science Meeting was held in Xiamen China in March 2007 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Surface_Ocean_Lower_Atmosphere_Study\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 92014\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bode's sensitivity integral Content: Bode 's sensitivity integral , discovered by Hendrik Wade Bode , is a formula that quantifies some of the limitations in feedback control of linear parameter invariant systems . Let L be the loop transfer function and S be the sensitivity function . Then the following holds : where are the poles of L in the right half plane ( unstable poles ) . If L has at least two more poles than zeros , and has no poles in the right half plane ( is stable ) , the equation simplifies to : This equality shows that if sensitivity to disturbance is suppressed at some frequency range , it is necessarily increased at some other range . This has been called the `` waterbed effect . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Bode's_sensitivity_integral\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 91998\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Downscaling Content: Global Climate Models ( GCMs ) used for climate studies and climate projections are run at coarse spatial resolution ( in 2012 , typically of the order 50 km ) and are unable to resolve important sub-grid scale features such as clouds and topography . As a result , GCM output can not be used for local impact studies . To overcome this problem downscaling methods are developed to obtain local-scale weather and climate , particularly at the surface level , from regional-scale atmospheric variables that are provided by GCMs . Two main forms of downscaling technique exist . One form is dynamical downscaling , where output from the GCM is used to drive a regional , numerical model in higher spatial resolution , which therefore is able to simulate local conditions in greater detail . The other form is statistical downscaling , where a statistical relationship is established from observations between large scale variables , like atmospheric surface pressure , and a local variable , like the wind speed at a particular site . The relationship is then subsequently used on the GCM data to obtain the local variables from the GCM output . In 1997 , Wilby and Wigley divided downscaling into four categories : regression methods , weather pattern-based approaches , stochastic weather generators , which are all statistical downscaling methods , and limited-area modeling . Among these approaches regression methods are preferred because of its ease of implementation and low computation requirements .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Downscaling\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 91944\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Deep Space Climate Observatory Content: Deep Space Climate Observatory ( DSCOVR ; formerly known as Triana , unofficially known as GoreSat ) is a NOAA Earth observation and space weather satellite launched by SpaceX on a Falcon 9 launch vehicle on February 11 , 2015 from Cape Canaveral . It was originally developed as a NASA satellite proposed in 1998 by then-Vice President Al Gore for the purpose of Earth observation . It is in a Lissajous orbit at the Sun-Earth Lagrangian point , 1500000 km from Earth , to monitor variable solar wind condition , provide early warning of approaching coronal mass ejections and observe phenomena on Earth including changes in ozone , aerosols , dust and volcanic ash , cloud height , vegetation cover and climate . At this location it has a continuous view of the Sun and the sunlit side of the Earth . The satellite is orbiting the Sun-Earth point in a six-month period , with a spacecraft-Earth-Sun angle varying from 4 to 15 degrees . It takes full-Earth pictures about every two hours and is able to process them faster than other Earth observation satellites . DSCOVR started orbiting around by June 8 , 2015 , just over 100 days after launch . After the spacecraft arrived on site and entered its operational phase , NASA began releasing near-real time images of Earth through the EPIC instrument 's website .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Deep_Space_Climate_Observatory\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 91829\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ukrainian Optical Facilities for Near-Earth Space Surveillance Network Content: Ukrainian Optical Facilities for Near-Earth Space Surveillance Network , the UMOS ( from Ukrainian acronym : УМОС = Українська мережа оптичних станцій дослідження навколоземного космічного простору ) is an alliance of Ukrainian institutional research observatories and optical facilities of State Space Agency . Its strategic tasks include near-Earth space research ( from LEO to HEO ) , and the studies of motion of selected objects by development and improvement of theory , models and algorithms . Also it is aimed at addressing tactical problems like assistance in Ukrainian or international space launches . The UMOS 's field of view covers large area of space , its facilities arrangement allows to carry out the observations of 3-4 consecutive passes of LEO satellites , as well as synchronous and complementing observations . The UMOS has conducted the ground-based surveillance of Near-Earth objects since the establishment of the network . The results of data processing earned positive feedbacks from customers in Ukraine : the State Space Agency , the Main Astronomical Observatory as well as our partners abroad . In particular , since 2011 the UMOS ( some of the observatories since 2005 ) has conducted maintenance the first circuits after launching into orbit ( Sun-synchronous ) with Dnepr to identify and/or refine orbits of space objects ( e.g. RapidEye , EgyptSat‑1 , CryoSat‑2 , Sich‑2 , corresponding R/B of launcher ) . Also the UMOS carries out optical observations of active satellites and space debris on a single joint list to produce independent TLE catalog and to estimate the probabilities of satellite orbital conjunction for priority satellites , which meets the requirements of national Control Systems and Space Environment Analysis ( i.e. similar to Space Situational Awareness ) . During just 2012 over 130,000 of position estimates for 194 LEO space objects ( including series RapidEye , Orbcomm , CubeSat ) , 37 MEO objects , 29 GEO and GSO objects and also HEO space observatory Radioastron were obtained . As a result , the observation-based database was created , which had comprised 1509 sets of TLE for 183 space objects until the end of 2012 . Recently , due to the increase in number of space debris and solar activity maximum , the operational failures at satellites are much more frequent . Photometric observations can aid in satellite in-orbit status analysis and provide with necessary data for the assessment of feasibility of their recovery . The photometric observations and data analysis for five tumbling satellites have been made since 2010 . Among these five satellites were : two launch failures - Express-AM4 ( 5,775 kg mass at altitude of 1,000 km ) , Phobos-Grunt ( 13,200 kg mass on the low reference orbit of 250 km ) ; as well as three accidents of satellite malfunction , when the appropriate control center has lost the connection - CBERS-2B ( 1,450 kg at altitude of 780 km ) , EgyptSat-1 ( 160 kg at altitude of 670 km ) , Sich-2 ( 170 kg at altitude of 670 km ) . All these satellites , except Phobos-Grunt , are non-resolved objects , thus photometry has been the only source of in-orbit status information . Over 50,000 photometric brightness estimates were obtained for the satellites both in the integral light and broadband BVR Johnson system filters . The UMOS is proven capable to run the whole study , from primary observations to analysis of the light curves and further determination of satellite orientation variations and origin of its possible damage .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Ukrainian_Optical_Facilities_for_Near-Earth_Space_Surveillance_Network\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 91775\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tipping points in the climate system Content: A tipping point in the climate system is a threshold that, when exceeded, can lead to large changes in the state of the system. Potential tipping points have been identified in the physical climate system, in impacted ecosystems, and sometimes in both. For instance, feedback from the global carbon cycle is a driver for the transition between glacial and interglacial periods, with orbital forcing providing the initial trigger. Earth's geologic temperature record includes many more examples of geologically rapid transitions between different climate states.Climate tipping points are of particular interest in reference to concerns about global warming in the modern era. Possible tipping point behaviour has been identified for the global mean surface temperature by studying self-reinforcing feedbacks and the past behavior of Earth's climate system. Self-reinforcing feedbacks in the carbon cycle and planetary reflectivity could trigger a cascading set of tipping points that lead the world into a hothouse climate state.Large-scale components of the Earth system that may pass a tipping point have been referred to as tipping elements. Tipping elements are found in the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets, possibly causing tens of meters of sea level rise. These tipping points are not always abrupt. For example, at some level of temperature rise the melt of a large part of the Greenland ice sheet and/or West Antarctic Ice Sheet will become inevitable; but the ice sheet itself may persist for many centuries. Some tipping elements, like the collapse of ecosystems, are irreversible.\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 91642\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Change Observation Mission Content: GCOM ( Global Change Observation Mission ) , is a series of JAXA Earth observation satellites as a successor to the ill-fated ADEOS 2 satellite and to the Aqua Mission . GCOM is , together with the GPM Mission , Japan 's contribution to the GEOSS ( Global Earth Observation System of Systems ) . To increase security and scientific output , JAXA made the decision to split the original ADEOS 2 mission into two models of smaller satellites , GCOM-W for water observation and GCOM-C for climate observation . It is planned to launch three satellites for each mission during the next decade , with each subsequent satellite overlapping to provide continuous coverage .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Change_Observation_Mission\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 91500\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Berkeley Earth Content: Berkeley Earth is a Berkeley , California based independent 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit focused on land temperature data analysis for climate science . Berkeley Earth was founded in early 2010 ( originally called the Berkeley Earth Surface Temperature project ) with the goal of addressing the major concerns from outside the scientific community regarding global warming and the instrumental temperature record . The project 's stated aim was a `` transparent approach , based on data analysis . '' In February 2013 , Berkeley Earth became an independent non-profit . In August 2013 , Berkeley Earth was granted 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) tax-exempt status by the US government . The primary product is air temperatures over land , but they also produce a global dataset resulting from a merge of their land data with HadSST . Berkeley Earth founder Richard A. Muller told The Guardian '' ... we are bringing the spirit of science back to a subject that has become too argumentative and too contentious , ... we are an independent , non-political , non-partisan group . We will gather the data , do the analysis , present the results and make all of it available . There will be no spin , whatever we find . We are doing this because it is the most important project in the world today . Nothing else comes close . '' Berkeley Earth has been funded by unrestricted educational grants totaling ( as of December 2013 ) about $ 1,394,500 . Large donors include Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory , the Charles G. Koch Foundation , the Fund for Innovative Climate and Energy Research ( FICER ) , and the William K. Bowes , Jr. . Foundation . The donors have no control over how Berkeley Earth conducts the research or what they publish . The team 's preliminary findings , data sets and programs were published in journals operated by OMICS Group , a predatory open access publisher beginning in December 2012 . The study addressed scientific concerns including urban heat island effect , poor station quality , and the risk of data selection bias . The Berkeley Earth group concluded that the warming trend is real , that over the past 50 years ( between the decades of the 1950s and 2000s ) the land surface warmed by 0.91 ± 0.05 ° C , and their results mirror those obtained from earlier studies carried out by the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , the Hadley Centre , NASA 's Goddard Institute for Space Studies ( GISS ) Surface Temperature Analysis , and the Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) at the University of East Anglia . The study also found that the urban heat island effect and poor station quality did not bias the results obtained from these earlier studies .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Berkeley_Earth\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 91293\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Constellation Observing System for Meteorology, Ionosphere, and Climate Content: Constellation Observing System for Meteorology , Ionosphere , and Climate ( COSMIC ) is a program designed to provide advances in meteorology , ionospheric research , climatology , and space weather by using GPS satellites in conjunction with low Earth orbiting ( LEO ) satellites . The term `` COSMIC '' may refer to either the organization itself or the constellation of satellites ( also known as FORMOSAT-3 , 福爾摩沙衛星三號 , in Taiwan ) . The constellation is a joint U.S.-Taiwanese project with major participants including the University Corporation for Atmospheric Research ( UCAR ) , the National Science Foundation , the Naval Research Laboratory ( NRL ) , the Air Force Research Laboratory ( AFRL ) on the U.S. side and the National Space Organization ( NSPO ) on the Taiwanese side . The total cost of the project is US$ 100 million , 80 % of which is being provided by NSPO , and the remainder by various U.S. agencies . After experiencing several delays , the launch of the COSMIC satellite constellation atop a Minotaur launch vehicle from Vandenberg AFB occurred at 01:40 GMT , on April 15 , 2006 , despite heavy fog . The satellites , which orbit at an altitude of 500 miles , required over a year to move into the correct positions to provide full global coverage .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Constellation_Observing_System_for_Meteorology,_Ionosphere,_and_Climate\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 91049\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: STEP (satellite) Content: The Satellite Test of the Equivalence Principle ( STEP ) is a proposed space science experiment to test the equivalence principle of general relativity . The experiment is thought to be sensitive enough to test Einstein 's theory of gravity and other theories . The basic configuration is that of a drag-free satellite where an outer shell around an inner test mass is used to block solar wind , atmospheric drag , the Earth 's magnetic field and other effects which might disturb the motion of a freely-falling inner object . It is designed for an expected sensitivity of one part in 1018 . `` Research on the STEP accelerometers began in 1971 at Stanford University , and has been supported since 1977 with NASA funding . STEP has been studied twice by ESA at the Phase-A level and has led two other space agencies ( CNES and ASI ) to study projects aimed at testing the Equivalence Principle in space . STEP is currently undergoing a Phase A study for NASA 's office of Space Science Small Explorer program . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"STEP_(satellite)\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 90867\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Surveys of scientists' views on climate change Content: Surveys of scientists ' views on climate change - with a focus on human-caused or anthropogenic global warming ( AGW ) - have been undertaken since the 1990s . A 2016 paper ( which was co-authored by Naomi Oreskes , Peter Doran , William Anderegg , Bart Verheggen , Ed Maibach , J. Stuart Carlton and John Cook , and which was based on a half a dozen independent studies by the authors ) concluded that `` the finding of 97 % consensus -LSB- that humans are causing recent global warming -RSB- in published climate research is robust and consistent with other surveys of climate scientists and peer-reviewed studies . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Surveys_of_scientists'_views_on_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 90565\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmospheric Model Intercomparison Project Content: Atmospheric Model Intercomparison Project ( AMIP ) is a standard experimental protocol for global atmospheric general circulation models ( AGCMs ) . It provides a community-based infrastructure in support of climate model diagnosis , validation , intercomparison , documentation and data access . Virtually the entire international climate modeling community has participated in this project since its inception in 1990 . AMIP is endorsed by the Working Group on Numerical Experimentation ( WGNE ) of the World Climate Research Programme , and is managed by the Program for Climate Model Diagnosis and Intercomparison with the guidance of the WGNE AMIP Panel . The AMIP experiment itself is simple by design ; an AGCM is constrained by realistic sea surface temperature and sea ice from 1979 to near present , with a comprehensive set of fields saved for diagnostic research . This model configuration removes the added complexity of ocean-atmosphere feedbacks in the climate system . It is not meant to be used for climate change prediction , an endeavor that requires a coupled atmosphere-ocean model ( e.g. , see AMIP 's sister project CMIP ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmospheric_Model_Intercomparison_Project\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 90545\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cooperative Institute for Meteorological Satellite Studies Content: __ NOTOC __ The Cooperative Institute for Meteorological Satellite Studies ( CIMSS ) is a research institute where scientists study the use of data from geostationary and polar orbit weather satellites to improve forecasts of weather ( including tropical cyclones and severe storms . CIMSS was formed through a Memorandum of Understanding between the University of Wisconsin -- Madison , the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA ) . CIMSS parent organization , the Space Science and Engineering Center ( SSEC ) is a primary developer and operator of environmental satellite technologies . It is one of 16 NOAA Cooperative Institutes ( CIs ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Cooperative_Institute_for_Meteorological_Satellite_Studies\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 90239\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Copernicus Programme Content: Copernicus is the world 's largest single earth observation programme and is directed by the European Commission in partnership with the European Space Agency ( ESA ) . It aims at achieving a global , continuous , autonomous , high quality , wide range Earth observation capacity . Providing accurate , timely and easily accessible information to , among other things , improve the management of the environment , understand and mitigate the effects of climate change , and ensure civil security . It follows and greatly expands on the work of the previous 2.3 billion euros European Envisat program which operated from 2002 to 2012 . Its cost during 1998 to 2020 are estimated at 6.7 billion euros with around $ 4.3 bn spend in the period 2014 to 2020 and shared between the EU ( 66 % ) and ESA ( 33 % ) with benefits of the data to the EU economy estimated at roughly 30 billion euros through 2030 . ESA as a main partner has performed much of the design and oversees and co-funds the development of Sentinel mission 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 and 6 with each sentinel mission consisting of at least 2 satellites and some like sentinel 1 consisting of 4 satellites . They will also provide the instruments for MTG and MetOp-SG weather satellites of EUMETSAT where ESA and EUMETSAT will also coordinate the delivery of data from upwards of 30 satellites that form the contributing satellite missions to Copernicus . The objective is to use multi-source data to get timely and quality information , services and knowledge , and to provide autonomous and independent access to information in relation to the environment and security on a global level . In other words , it will pull together all the information obtained by the Copernicus environmental satellites , air and ground stations to provide a comprehensive picture of the `` health '' of Earth . The geo-spatial information services offered by Copernicus can be grouped into six main interacting themes : land , ocean , emergency response , atmosphere , security and climate change . The first three Copernicus services under the land , ocean and emergency response themes and two additional services addressing the atmosphere and security themes were unveiled at the Copernicus Forum held in Lille in September 2008 . Copernicus builds upon three components : the space component ( observation satellites and associated ground segment with missions observing land , atmospheric and oceanographic parameters ) This comprises two types of satellite missions , ESA 's five families of dedicated Sentinel ( space missions ) and missions from other space agencies , called Contributing Missions . in-situ measurements ( ground-based and airborne data gathering networks providing information on oceans , continental surface and atmosphere ) services to users .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Copernicus_Programme\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 90176\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 90093\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Change Science Program Content: The Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) was the program responsible for coordinating and integrating research on global warming by U.S. government agencies from February 2002 to June 2009 . Toward the end of that period , CCSP issued 21 separate climate assessment reports that addressed climate observations , changes in the atmosphere , expected climate change , impacts and adaptation , and risk management issues . Shortly after President Obama took office , the program 's name was changed to U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which was also the program 's name before 2002 . Nevertheless , the Obama Administration generally embraced the CCSP products as sound science providing a basis for climate policy . Because those reports were mostly issued after the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and in some cases focused specifically on the United States , they were generally viewed within the United States as having an importance and scientific credibility comparable to the IPCC assessments for the first few years of the Obama Administration .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Change_Science_Program\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 89828\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: James Hansen Content: James Edward Hansen ( born 29 March 1941 ) is an American adjunct professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University . He is best known for his research in climatology , his 1988 Congressional testimony on climate change that helped raise broad awareness of global warming , and his advocacy of action to avoid dangerous climate change . In recent years he has become a climate activist to mitigate the effects of climate change , on a few occasions leading to his arrest . In 2000 , Hansen advanced an alternative view of global warming over the last 100 years , arguing that during that time frame the negative forcing via aerosols and the positive forcing via largely balanced each other out , and that the 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide , such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons . However , even then he wrote `` the future balance of forcings is likely to shift toward dominance of CO2 over aerosols ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"James_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 89486\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Morris method Content: In applied statistics , the Morris method for global sensitivity analysis is a so-called one-step-at-a-time method ( OAT ) , meaning that in each run only one input parameter is given a new value . It facilitates a global sensitivity analysis by making a number r of local changes at different points x ( 1 → r ) of the possible range of input values .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Morris_method\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 89465\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Alaska Satellite Facility Content: The Alaska Satellite Facility is a data processing facility and satellite-tracking ground station within the Geophysical Institute at the University of Alaska Fairbanks . The facility 's mission is to make remote-sensing data accessible Its work is central to polar processes research including wetlands , glaciers , sea ice , climate change , permafrost , flooding and land cover such as changes in the Amazon rainforest .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Alaska_Satellite_Facility\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 89321\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Simon Tett Content: Simon Tett is a climatologist working at the University of Edinburgh . He used to work at the Hadley Centre . His most-cited paper , is , and of it he says : All attempts at detecting and attributing climate change signals need a reliable observed data set and simulations with mechanisms that drive climate change included . In a nutshell , this paper is important because it was the first study to investigate the effect of sulphate aerosols in a general circulation model of the climate system . The experiments simulate the climate back to 1860 ( which is when the global records of surface temperature became reliable ) ... After 1970 our model with greenhouse gases alone begins to depart significantly from the observations . However , when we included sulphate aerosols , which have a cooling effect , the model agreed with the data from the 1930s and onwards . The rapid warming that has taken place since 1970 is , according to the model , attributable to a heating effect from greenhouse gases and a cooling effect from sulphate aerosols .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Simon_Tett\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 89187\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Media_coverage_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 89152\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment Content: The Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment ( GEWEX ) is a research program of the World Climate Research Programme intended to observe , comprehend and model the Earth 's water cycle . The experiment also observes how much energy the Earth receives , studies how much of that energy reaches surfaces of the Earth and how that energy is transformed . Sunlight 's energy evaporates water to produce clouds and rain , and dries out land masses after rain . Rain that falls on land becomes the water budget which can be used by people for agricultural and other processes . GEWEX is a collaboration of researchers worldwide to find better ways of studying the water cycle and how it transforms energy through the atmosphere . If the Earth 's climates were identical from year to year , then people could predict when , where and what crops to plant . However , instability created by solar variation , weather trends , and chaotic events create weather that is unpredictable on seasonal scales . Through weather patterns such as droughts and higher rainfall these cycles impact ecosystems and human activities . GEWEX is designed to collect a much greater amount of data , and see if better models of that data can forecast weather and climate change into the future . GEWEX is organized into several structures . As GEWEX was conceived projects were organized by participating factions , this task is now done by the International GEWEX Project Office ( IGPO ) . IGPO oversees major initiatives and coordinates between national projects in an effort to bring about communication of researchers . IGPO claims to support communication exchange between 2000 scientist and is the instrument for publication of major reports . The Scientific Steering Group organizes the projects and assigns them to panels , which oversee progress and provide critique . The Coordinated Energy and Water Cycle Observations Project ( CEOP ) the ` Hydrology Project ' is a major instrument in GEWEX . This panel includes geographic study areas such as the Climate Prediction Program for the Americas operated by NOAA , but also examines several types of climate zones ( e.g. high altitude and semi-arid ) . Another panel , the GEWEX Radiation Panel oversees the coordinated use of satellites and ground based observation to better estimate energy and water fluxes . One recent result GEWEX 's Radiation panel has assessed data on rainfall for the last 25 years and determined that global rainfall is 2.61 mm/day with a small statistical variation . While the study period is short , after 25 years of measurement regional trends are beginning to appear . The GEWEX Modeling and Prediction Panel takes current models and analyzes the models when climate forcing phenomena occur ( global warming as an example of a ` climate forcing ' event ) . GEWEX is now the core project of WCRP .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Energy_and_Water_Cycle_Experiment\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 89118\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: EdGCM Content: The Educational Global Climate Model or EdGCM is a fully functional global climate model ( GCM ) that has been ported for use on desktop computers ( Windows PCs and Macs ) . It operates through a graphical user interface and is integrated with a relational database and scientific visualization utllities , all of which aim at helping improve the quality of teaching and understanding of climatology by making real-world research experiences more accessible . EdGCM is designed to permit teachers and students to conduct in-depth investigations of past , present and future climate scenarios in a manner that is essentially identical to the techniques used by national and international climate research organizations . EdGCM was developed at the Goddard Institute for Space Studies as a joint project of Columbia University and NASA scientists and programmers . The Global Climate Model at the core of EdGCM is GISS Model II . During the 1980s and early 1990s this GCM was one of NASA 's primary climate research tools . Results from the model have appeared in hundreds of scientific publications . The coarser resolution of the climate model in EdGCM ( 8 ° x 10 ° , latitude x longitude ) makes it inexpensive to run . But , because it contains most of the key atmospheric physics of modern GCMs , EdGCM is also used by climate researchers who do not have access to the most recent GCM versions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"EdGCM\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 89060\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Argos system Content: Argos is a satellite-based system which collects , processes and disseminates environmental data from fixed and mobile platforms worldwide . What makes Argos unique is the ability to clearly geographically locate the source of the data anywhere on the Earth utilizing the Doppler effect . Argos was established in 1978 and since that time , it has provided data to environmental research and protection communities that , in many cases , was otherwise unobtainable . The system is fully proven and highly reliable . Many remote automatic weather stations report via Argos . Argos is a key component of many global research programs including : Tropical Ocean-Global Atmosphere program ( TOGA ) , Tagging of Pacific Pelagics ( TOPP ) , World Ocean Circulation Experiment ( WOCE ) , Argo , and others . There are currently 22,000 active transmitters , 8,000 of which are used in animal tracking , and over 100 countries utilize the Argos system . Since the late 1980s Argos transmitters have routinely been deployed on a large number of marine mammals and sea turtles and it continues to serve as the most important tool for tracking long distance movements of both coastal and oceanic species . Through upload of data from , for example , pressure transducers , it has also been possible to obtain a wealth of knowledge about dive and foraging behavior from unrestrained animals in the wild . Argos was developed under a Memorandum of Understanding ( MOU ) between the Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales ( CNES , the French space agency ) , the National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA , USA ) and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA , USA ) . The system utilizes both ground and satellite-based resources to accomplish its mission . These include : instruments carried aboard the NOAA polar orbiting environmental satellites ( POES ) , the EUMETSAT MetOp satellites , and ISRO satellites , receiving stations around the world , and major processing facilities in Toulouse in France and Lanham , Maryland in the United States . This fully integrated system works to conveniently locate and deliver data from the most remote platforms to the user 's desktop , often in near real-time . Argos is operated by CLS/Argos , based in Toulouse , France . CLS has a subsidiary in the U.S. , CLS America , Inc. . These companies together operate the system and promote its use .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Argos_system\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 88935\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Precipitation Measurement Content: Global Precipitation Measurement ( GPM ) is a joint mission between JAXA and NASA as well as other international space agencies to make frequent ( every 2 -- 3 hours ) observations of Earth 's precipitation . It is part of NASA 's Earth Systematic Missions program and works with a satellite constellation to provide full global coverage . The project provides global precipitation maps to assist researchers in improving the forecasting of extreme events , studying global climate , and adding to current capabilities for using such satellite data to benefit society . GPM builds on the notable successes of the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission ( TRMM ) , which was also a joint NASA-JAXA activity . The project is managed by NASA 's Goddard Space Flight Center , and consists of a GPM Core Observatory satellite assisted by a constellation of spacecraft from other agencies and missions . The Core Observatory satellite measures the two and three dimensional structure of Earth 's precipitation patterns and provides a new calibration standard for the rest of the satellite constellation . The GPM Core Observatory was assembled and tested at Goddard Space Flight Center , and launched from Tanegashima Space Center , Japan , on a Mitsubishi Heavy Industries H-IIA rocket . The launch occurred on February 28 , 2014 at 3:37 am JST on the first attempt . Agencies in the United States , Japan , India and France ( together with Eumetsat ) operate the remaining satellites in the constellation for agency-specific goals , but also cooperatively provide data for GPM . __ TOC __\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Precipitation_Measurement\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 88926\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: CloudSat Content: CloudSat is a NASA Earth observation satellite , which was launched on a Delta II rocket on April 28 , 2006 . It uses radar to measure the altitude and properties of clouds , adding to information on the relationship between clouds and climate in order to help resolve questions about global warming . CloudSat flies in formation in the `` A Train '' , with several other satellites : Aqua , Aura , CALIPSO and the French PARASOL . The mission was selected under NASA 's Earth System Science Pathfinder program in 1999 . Ball Aerospace & Technologies Corp. in Boulder , Colorado , designed and built the spacecraft . CloudSat 's primary mission was scheduled to continue for 22 months in order to allow more than one seasonal cycle to be observed .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"CloudSat\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 88561\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: PERSIANN Content: PERSIANN , `` Precipitation Estimation from Remotely Sensed Information using Artificial Neural Networks '' , is a satellite-based precipitation retrieval algorithm that provides near real-time rainfall information . The algorithm uses infrared ( IR ) satellite data from global geosynchronous satellites as the primary source of precipitation information . Precipitation from IR images is based on statistical relationship between cloud top temperature and precipitation rates . The IR-based precipitation estimates are then calibrated using satellite microwave data available from low Earth orbit satellites ( e.g. , Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission Microwave Imager , Special Sensor Microwave Imager , Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer‐Earth observing system ) . The calibration technique relies on an adaptive training algorithm that updates the retrieval parameters when microwave observations become available ( approximately at 3 hours intervals ) . The PERSIANN satellite precipitation data sets have been validated with ground-based observations and other satellite data products . The PERSIANN data has been used in a wide variety of studies including hydrologic modeling , drought monitoring , soil moisture analysis , and flood forecasting . The PERSIANN data are freely available to the public .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"PERSIANN\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 88548\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: World Climate Research Programme Content: The World Climate Research Programme ( WCRP ) was established in 1980 , under the joint sponsorship of International Council for Science and the World Meteorological Organization , and has also been sponsored by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO since 1993 . It is a component of the World Climate Programme . The objectives of the programme are to develop the fundamental scientific understanding of the physical climate system and climate processes needed to determine to what extent climate can be predicted and the extent of human influence on climate . The programme encompasses studies of the global atmosphere , oceans , sea ice , land ice ( such as glaciers , ice caps and ice sheets ) , and the land surface which together constitute the Earth 's physical climate system . WCRP activities address issues of scientific uncertainty in the Earth 's climate system including transport and storage of heat by the ocean , the global energy and hydrological cycle , the formation of clouds and their effects on radiative transfer , and the role of the cryosphere in climate . These activities match the scientific priorities identified by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , and provide the basis for responding to issues raised in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change . WCRP also lays the scientific foundation for meeting the research challenges posed in Agenda 21 . Together with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme and the International Human Dimensions of Global Environmental Change Programme , WCRP provides the international framework for scientific cooperation in the study of global climate change . Scientific guidance for the programme is provided by a Joint Scientific Committee consisting of 18 scientists selected by mutual agreement between the three sponsoring organizations .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"World_Climate_Research_Programme\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 88354\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Brokaw bandgap reference Content: Brokaw bandgap reference is a voltage reference circuit widely used in integrated circuits , with an output voltage around 1.25 V with low temperature dependence . This particular circuit is one type of a bandgap voltage reference , named after Paul Brokaw , the author of its first publication . Like all temperature-independent bandgap references , the circuit maintains an internal voltage source that has a positive temperature coefficient and another internal voltage source that has a negative temperature coefficient . By summing the two together , the temperature dependence can be canceled . Additionally , either of the two internal sources can be used as a temperature sensor . In the Brokaw bandgap reference , the circuit uses negative feedback ( e.g. , an operational amplifier ) to force a constant current through two bipolar transistors with different emitter areas . By the Ebers -- Moll model of a transistor , The transistor with the larger emitter area requires a smaller base -- emitter voltage for the same current . The base -- emitter voltage for each transistor has a negative temperature coefficient ( i.e. , it decreases with temperature ) . The difference between the two base -- emitter voltages has a positive temperature coefficient ( i.e. , it increases with temperature ) . The circuit output is the sum of the base -- emitter voltage difference with one of the base -- emitter voltages . With proper component choices , the two opposing temperature coefficients will cancel each other exactly and the output will have no temperature dependence .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Brokaw_bandgap_reference\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 88215\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Giovanni (meteorology) Content: Giovanni ( meteorology ) - Web interface that allows users to analyze NASA 's gridded data from various satellite and surface observations . Giovanni provides researchers with the capability to examine data on atmospheric chemistry , atmospheric temperature , water vapor and clouds , atmospheric aerosols , precipitation , and ocean chlorophyll and surface temperature . The primary data consist of global gridded data sets with reduced spatial resolution . Basic analytical functions performed by Giovanni currently are carried out by the Grid Analysis and Display System ( GrADS ) . The GES-DISC Interactive Online Visualization ANd aNalysis Infrastructure ( Giovanni ) allows to explore satellite data using sophisticated analyses and visualizations . Giovanni allows access to data from multiple remote sites , supports multiple data formats including Hierarchical Data Format ( HDF ) , HDF-EOS , network Common Data Form ( netCDF ) , GRIdded Binary ( GRIB ) , and binary , and multiple plot types including area , time , Hovmoller , and image animation .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Giovanni_(meteorology)\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 88040\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Satellite Cloud Image Content: A Satellite Cloud Image is an image based on data from meteorological satellite instruments . It captures the distribution of clouds in the atmosphere , to find the weather system and verify the correctness of surface weather maps that have been drawn . It can also be used with observations of sea ice distribution to determine the sea surface temperature and the medium-and long-term weather forecast oceanographic data . This technology can be a single image to show a variety of scales of weather phenomena to provide a very useful remote sensing data , weather analysis and forecasting . In general , the satellite cloud can be divided into the Infra-red satellite , visible satellite cloud images and color enhancement of satellite cloud . Category : Weather prediction\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Satellite_Cloud_Image\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 87778\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Centre for International Climate and Environmental Research Content: The Centre for International Climate and Environmental Research ( abbreviated CICERO ; Senter for klimaforskning ) is an interdisciplinary research centre for climate research and environmental science/environmental studies in Oslo . CICERO was established by the Government of Norway in 1990 . It is organised as an independent foundation and is affiliated with the University of Oslo . The current director is Kristin Halvorsen , former Minister of Finance .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Centre_for_International_Climate_and_Environmental_Research\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 87604\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Solar weather Content: Solar weather is branch of meteorology , which studies behavior of sun and what type of predictions can be done . Solar weather research includes for instance doing simulations of possible behavior of sun . Uses are for instance giving warnings to satellites about possible solar storms . Due to enormous size and mass of sun and complicated feedback systems solar weather predictions are n't as good as normal -- earth - weather predictions . ( Exceptions with sun spots ) Solar weather is closely related to space weather and often included in same category .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Solar_weather\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 87520\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: MSU temperature measurements Content: Microwave sounding unit temperature measurements have been obtained from the troposphere since 1979 , when they were included within NOAA weather satellites . By comparison , the usable balloon ( radiosonde ) record begins in 1958 but has less geographic coverage and is less uniform . Satellites do not measure temperature . They measure radiances in various wavelength bands , which must then be mathematically inverted to obtain indirect inferences of temperature . The resulting temperature profiles depend on details of the methods that are used to obtain temperatures from radiances . As a result , different groups that have analyzed the satellite data have obtained different temperature trends . Among these groups are Remote Sensing Systems ( RSS ) and the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) . The satellite series is not fully homogeneous - the record is constructed from a series of satellites with similar but not identical instrumentation . The sensors deteriorate over time , and corrections are necessary for satellite drift in orbit . Particularly large differences between reconstructed temperature series occur at the few times when there is little temporal overlap between successive satellites , making intercalibration difficult . To compare to the trend from the surface temperature record ( approximately +0.07 ° C/decade over the past century and +0.15 -0.16 ° C/decade since 1979 ) it is most appropriate to derive trends for the part of the atmosphere nearest the surface , i.e. , the lower troposphere . Doing this , through January 2012 : RSS v3 .3 finds a trend of +0.137 ° C/decade . UAH v5 .4 finds a trend of +0.136 ° C/decade . An alternative adjustment introduced by Fu et al. ( 2004 ) finds trends ( 1979 -- 2011 ) of +0.14 ° C/decade when applied to the RSS data set and +0.11 ° C/decade when applied to the UAH data set . Using the T2 channel ( which include significant contributions from the stratosphere , which has cooled ) , Mears et al. of Remote Sensing Systems ( RSS ) find ( through January 2012 ) a trend of +0.082 ° C/decade . Spencer and Christy of the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) , find a smaller trend of +0.046 ° C/decade . A no longer updated analysis of Vinnikov and Grody found +0.20 ° C/decade ( 1978 -- 2005 ) . Another satellite temperature analysis is provided by NOAA/NESDIS STAR Center for Satellite Application and Research and use simultaneous nadir overpasses ( SNO ) to remove satellite intercalibration biases yielding more accurate temperature trends . The SNO analysis finds a 1979-2011 trend of +0.128 ° C/decade for T2 channel . The satellite records have the advantage of greater spatial coverage , whereas the radiosonde record is longer . There have been complaints of data problems with both records , and difficulty reconciling climate model predictions with the observed data .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"MSU_temperature_measurements\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 87392\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Thermal runaway Content: Thermal runaway occurs in situations where an increase in temperature changes the conditions in a way that causes a further increase in temperature , often leading to a destructive result . It is a kind of uncontrolled positive feedback . In other words , `` thermal runaway '' describes a process which is accelerated by increased temperature , in turn releasing energy that further increases temperature . In chemistry ( and chemical engineering ) , it is associated with strongly exothermic reactions that are accelerated by temperature rise . In electrical engineering , thermal runaway is typically associated with increased current flow and power dissipation , although exothermic chemical reactions can be of concern here too . Thermal runaway can occur in civil engineering , notably when the heat released by large amounts of curing concrete is not controlled -LCB- Citation needed -RCB- . In astrophysics , runaway nuclear fusion reactions in stars can lead to nova and several types of supernova explosions , and also occur as a less dramatic event in the normal evolution of solar mass stars , the `` helium flash '' . There are also concerns regarding global warming that a global average increase of 3 -- 4 degrees Celsius above the preindustrial baseline could lead to a further unchecked increase in surface temperatures . For example , releases of methane , a greenhouse gas more potent than CO2 , from wetlands , melting permafrost and continental margin seabed clathrate deposits could be subject to positive feedback .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Thermal_runaway\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 87118\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Elektro–L Content: Elektro -- L is a new-generation series of meteorological satellites developed for the Russian Federal Space Agency by NPO Lavochkin . The first satellite , Elektro-L No. 1 , was launched on 20 January 2011 . It is the first Russian weather satellite that successfully operates in geostationary orbit , and is currently the second operational Russian weather satellite . The satellites have a mass of about 1620 kg and are designed to operate for 10 years each . They are capable of producing images of the Earth 's whole hemisphere in both visible and infrared frequencies , providing data for climate change and ocean monitoring in addition to their primary weather forecasting role .\",\n \"qid\": \"2733\",\n \"docid\": \"Elektro–L\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 87103\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":1347,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"It appears, for the entire tropics, the observed outgoing radiation fluxes increase with the increase in sea surface temperatures (SSTs)."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Iris hypothesis Content: The iris hypothesis is a hypothesis proposed by Richard Lindzen et al. in 2001 that suggested increased sea surface temperature in the tropics would result in reduced cirrus clouds and thus more infrared radiation leakage from Earth 's atmosphere . His study of observed changes in cloud coverage and modeled effects on infrared radiation released to space as a result supported the hypothesis . This suggested infrared radiation leakage was hypothesized to be a negative feedback in which an initial warming would result in an overall cooling of the surface . The consensus view is that increased sea surface temperature would result in increased cirrus clouds and reduced infrared radiation leakage and therefore a positive feedback . Other scientists subsequently tested the hypothesis . Some concluded that there was no evidence supporting the hypothesis . Others found evidence suggesting that increased sea surface temperature in the tropics did indeed reduce cirrus clouds but found that the effect was nonetheless a positive feedback rather than the negative feedback that Lindzen had hypothesized . A later 2007 study conducted by Roy Spencer et al. using updated satellite data potentially supported the iris hypothesis . In 2011 , Lindzen published a rebuttal to the main criticisms . In 2015 a paper was published which again suggested the possibility of an `` Iris Effect '' . It also proposed what it called a `` plausible physical mechanism for an iris effect . ''","qid":"2735","docid":"Iris_hypothesis","rank":1,"score":182274},{"content":"Title: Sea surface temperature Content: Sea surface temperature ( SST ) is the water temperature close to the ocean 's surface . The exact meaning of surface varies according to the measurement method used , but it is between 1 mm and 20 m below the sea surface . Air masses in the Earth 's atmosphere are highly modified by sea surface temperatures within a short distance of the shore . Localized areas of heavy snow can form in bands downwind of warm water bodies within an otherwise cold air mass . Warm sea surface temperatures are known to be a cause of tropical cyclogenesis over the Earth 's oceans . Tropical cyclones can also cause a cool wake , due to turbulent mixing of the upper 30 m of the ocean . SST changes diurnally , like the air above it , but to a lesser degree . There is less SST variation on breezy days than on calm days . In addition , ocean currents such as the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation ( AMO ) , can effect SST 's on multi-decadal time scales , a major impact results from the global thermohaline circulation , which affects average SST significantly throughout most of the world 's oceans . Coastal SSTs can cause offshore winds to generate upwelling , which can significantly cool or warm nearby landmasses , but shallower waters over a continental shelf are often warmer . Onshore winds can cause a considerable warm-up even in areas where upwelling is fairly constant , such as the northwest coast of South America . Its values are important within numerical weather prediction as the SST influences the atmosphere above , such as in the formation of sea breezes and sea fog . It is also used to calibrate measurements from weather satellites .","qid":"2735","docid":"Sea_surface_temperature","rank":2,"score":167883},{"content":"Title: AATSR Content: The Advanced Along Track Scanning Radiometer ( AATSR ) is one of the Announcement of Opportunity ( AO ) instruments on board the European Space Agency ( ESA ) 's Envisat satellite . This instrument is a multi-channel imaging radiometer with the principal objective of providing data concerning global Sea Surface Temperature ( SST ) to the high levels of accuracy and stability required for monitoring and carrying out research into the behaviour of the Earth 's climate . AATSR can measure Earth 's surface temperature to a precision of 0.3 K-change , for climate research . Among the secondary objectives of AATSR is the observation of environmental parameters such as aerosols , clouds , fires , gas flares , water content , biomass , and vegetal health and growth . AATSR is the successor of ATSR-1 and ATSR-2 , payloads of ERS-1 and ERS-2 .","qid":"2735","docid":"AATSR","rank":3,"score":156930},{"content":"Title: Ghrsst-pp Content: The Group for High Resolution SST ( GHRSST ) is a follow on activity form the Global Ocean Data Assimilation Experiment ( GODAE ) high-resolution sea surface temperature pilot project ( GHRSST-PP ) provides a new generation of global high-resolution ( < 10 km ) SST data products to the operational oceanographic , meteorological , climate and general scientific community , in real time and delayed mode . See GHRSST for full details . Sea surface temperature ( SST ) measured from Earth Observation Satellites in considerable spatial detail and at high frequency , is increasingly required for use in the context of operational monitoring and forecasting of the ocean , for assimilation into coupled ocean-atmosphere model systems and for applications in short-term numerical weather prediction and longer term climate change detection . Currently there are many different SST data sets available derived from satellite systems . But , scientists and operational agencies alike are presented with a bewidering set of options in terms of SST product content , coverage , spatial resolution , timeliness , format and accuracy . The international GODAE steering committee realised that SST data products were not adequate for GODAE forecast systems and initiated the GODAE High Resolution SST Pilot Project ( GHRSST-PP ) . User Requirements were collected together to define the optimal SST data products that could be developed to suit the widest possible number of applications . In 2008 the GHRSST-PP Science Team agreed to close the Pilot Project as the GODAE project was completed . A follow on activity called the Group for High Resolution SST is now continuing the coordination of GHRSST activities .","qid":"2735","docid":"Ghrsst-pp","rank":4,"score":152108},{"content":"Title: Outgoing longwave radiation Content: Outgoing Longwave Radiation ( OLR ) is the energy radiating from the Earth as infrared radiation at low energy to Space . OLR is electromagnetic radiation emitted from Earth and its atmosphere out to space in the form of thermal radiation . The flux of energy transported by outgoing longwave radiation is measured in W/m ² . Over 99 % of outgoing longwave radiation has wavelengths between 4 µm and 100 µm , in the thermal infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum . Contributions with wavelengths larger than 40 µm are small , therefore often only wavelengths up to 50 µm are considered . In the wavelength range between 4 µm and 10 µm the spectrum of outgoing longwave radiation overlaps that of solar radiation , and for various applications different cut-off wavelengths between the two may be chosen . Radiative cooling by outgoing longwave radiation is the primary way the Earth System loses energy . The balance between this loss and the energy gained by radiative heating from incoming solar shortwave radiation determines global heating or cooling of the Earth system ( Energy budget of Earth 's climate ) . Local differences between radiative heating and cooling provide the energy that drives atmospheric dynamics .","qid":"2735","docid":"Outgoing_longwave_radiation","rank":5,"score":151893},{"content":"Title: Kombayashi–Ingersoll limit Content: In planetary science , the Kombayashi -- Ingersoll limit represents the maximum solar flux a planet can handle without a runaway greenhouse effect setting in . For planets with temperature-dependent sources of greenhouse gases such as liquid water and optically thin atmospheres the outgoing longwave radiation curve ( which indicates how fast energy can be radiated away by the planet ) flattens at high temperatures , reaching a horizontal asymptote -- the Kombayashi -- Ingersoll limit itself . Since the equilibrium temperature is the intersection of this curve and a horizontal line representing solar flux , for fluxes above this point the planet heats up indefinitely . Kasting estimated the limit for Earth to be 320 watts per square meter . The limit is relevant for estimating the inner edge of the circumstellar habitable zone . However , the limit also depends on the surface gravity of the planet , making heavy worlds somewhat more resistant to the runaway effect .","qid":"2735","docid":"Kombayashi–Ingersoll_limit","rank":6,"score":147358},{"content":"Title: Tropical Atlantic SST Dipole Content: The Tropical Atlantic SST Dipole refers to a cross-equatorial sea surface temperature ( SST ) pattern that appears dominant on decadal timescales . It has a period of about 12 years , with the SST anomalies manifesting their most pronounced features around 10 -- 15 degrees of latitude off of the Equator . The term Tropical Atlantic SST dipole is only one of the characteristic names used to refer to this mode of variability ; other definitions include the interhemispheric SST gradient or the Meridional Atlantic mode . This decadal-scale SST pattern constitutes one of the key features of SST variability in the Tropical Atlantic ocean , with another one being the Atlantic Equatorial Mode or Atlantic Niño , which occurs in the zonal ( east-west ) direction at interannual timescales , with sea surface temperature and heat content anomalies being observed in the eastern equatorial basin . Its importance in climate dynamics and decadal-scale climate prediction is evident when investigating its impact on adjacent continental regions such as the Northeast Brazil , the Sahel as well as its influence on North Atlantic cyclogenesis .","qid":"2735","docid":"Tropical_Atlantic_SST_Dipole","rank":7,"score":140906},{"content":"Title: Albrecht effect Content: The Albrecht effect describes how cloud condensation nuclei ( CCN ) , possibly from anthropogenic pollution , may increase cloud lifetime and hence increase the amount of solar radiation reflected from clouds . Because it does not directly interact with incoming or outgoing radiation , it has an indirect effect on climate . Aerosol particles act as CCNs creating more droplets of a smaller size . These take more time to coalesce to raindrop size ( > 100μm ) , reducing precipitation efficiency and hence increasing the lifetime of the cloud . The increased scattering of incoming radiation leads to a cooling of -0.3 to -1.4 Wm − 2 . This effect is not as well understood as the Twomey effect . There are many other effects , indirect and semi-direct aerosol effects resulting in a large uncertainty in the radiative forcing due to aerosols .","qid":"2735","docid":"Albrecht_effect","rank":8,"score":137741},{"content":"Title: Subtropical Indian Ocean Dipole Content: The Subtropical Indian Ocean Dipole ( SIOD ) is featured by the oscillation of sea surface temperatures ( SST ) in which the southwest Indian Ocean i.e. south of Madagascar is warmer and then colder than the eastern part i.e. off Australia . It was first identified in the studies of the relationship between the SST anomaly and the south-central Africa rainfall anomaly ; the existence of such a dipole was identified from both observational studies and model simulations .","qid":"2735","docid":"Subtropical_Indian_Ocean_Dipole","rank":9,"score":130196},{"content":"Title: Super soft X-ray source Content: A luminous supersoft X-ray source ( SSXS , or SSS ) is an astronomical source that emits only low energy ( i.e. , soft ) X-rays . Soft X-rays have energies in the 0.09 to 2.5 keV range , whereas hard X-rays are in the 1-20 keV range . SSSs emit few or no photons with energies above 1 keV , and most have effective temperatures below 100 eV . This means that the radiation they emit is highly ionizing and is readily absorbed by the interstellar medium . Most SSSs within our own galaxy are hidden by interstellar absorption in the galactic disk . They are readily evident in external galaxies , with ~ 10 found in the Magellanic Clouds and at least 15 seen in M31 . As of early 2005 , more than 100 SSSs have been reported in ~ 20 external galaxies , the Large Magellanic Cloud ( LMC ) , Small Magellanic Cloud ( SMC ) , and the Milky Way ( MW ) . Those with luminosities below ~ 3 x 1038 erg/s are consistent with steady nuclear burning in accreting white dwarfs ( WD ) s or post-novae . There are a few SSS with luminosities ≥ 1039 erg/s . Super soft X-rays are believed to be produced by steady nuclear fusion on a white dwarf 's surface of material pulled from a binary companion , the so-called close-binary supersoft source ( CBSS ) . This requires a flow of material sufficiently high to sustain the fusion . Contrast this with the nova , where less flow causes the material to only fuse sporadically . Super soft X-ray sources can evolve into type Ia supernova , where a sudden fusion of material destroys the white dwarf , and neutron stars , through collapse . Super soft X-ray sources were first discovered by the Einstein Observatory . Further discoveries were made by ROSAT . Many different classes of objects emit supersoft X-radiation ( emission dominantly below 0.5 keV ) .","qid":"2735","docid":"Super_soft_X-ray_source","rank":10,"score":129281},{"content":"Title: Coronal radiative losses Content: In astronomy and in astrophysics , for radiative losses of the solar corona , it is meant the energy flux irradiated from the external atmosphere of the Sun ( traditionally divided into chromosphere , transition region and corona ) , and , in particular , the processes of production of the radiation coming from the solar corona and transition region , where the plasma is optically-thin . On the contrary , in the chromosphere , where the temperature decreases from the photospheric value of 6000 K to the minimum of 4400 K , the optical depth is about 1 , and the radiation is thermal . The corona extends much further than a solar radius from the photosphere and looks very complex and inhomogeneous in the X-rays images taken by satellites ( see the figure on the right taken by the XRT on board Hinode ) . The structure and dynamics of the corona are dominated by the solar magnetic field . There are strong evidences that even the heating mechanism , responsible for its high temperature of million degrees , is linked to the magnetic field of the Sun . The energy flux irradiated from the corona changes in active regions , in the quiet Sun and in coronal holes ; actually , part of the energy is irradiated outwards , but approximately the same amount of the energy flux is conducted back towards the chromosphere , through the steep transition region . In active regions the energy flux is about 107 erg cm − 2sec − 1 , in the quiet Sun it is roughly 8 105 -- 106 erg cm − 2sec − 1 , and in coronal holes 5 105 - 8 105 erg cm − 2sec − 1 , including the losses due to the solar wind . The required power is a small fraction of the total flux irradiated from the Sun , but this energy is enough to maintain the plasma at the temperature of million degrees , since the density is very low and the processes of radiation are different from those occurring in the photosphere , as it is shown in detail in the next section .","qid":"2735","docid":"Coronal_radiative_losses","rank":11,"score":129057},{"content":"Title: Wind-induced surface heat exchange Content: The wind-induced surface heat exchange ( WISHE ) is a positive feedback mechanism between the ocean and atmosphere in which a stronger ocean-to-atmosphere heat flux results in a stronger atmospheric circulation , which results in a strong heat flux . It has been hypothesized that this is the mechanism by which low pressure areas in the tropics develop into tropical cyclones .","qid":"2735","docid":"Wind-induced_surface_heat_exchange","rank":12,"score":126759},{"content":"Title: Special sensor microwave/imager Content: The special sensor microwave/imager ( SSM/I ) is a seven-channel , four-frequency , linearly polarized passive microwave radiometer system . It is flown on board the United States Air Force Defense Meteorological Satellite Program ( DMSP ) Block 5D-2 satellites . The instrument measures surface/atmospheric microwave brightness temperatures ( TBs ) at 19.35 , 22.235 , 37.0 and 85.5 GHz . The four frequencies are sampled in both horizontal and vertical polarizations , except the 22 GHz which is sampled in the vertical only . The SSM/I has been a very successful instrument , superseding the across-track and Dicke radiometer designs of previous systems . Its combination of constant-angle rotary-scanning and total power radiometer design has become standard for passive microwave imagers , e.g. TRMM Microwave Imager , AMSR . Its predecessor , the scanning multichannel microwave radiometer ( SMMR ) , provided similar information . Its successor , the Special Sensor Microwave Imager / Sounder ( SSMIS ) , is an enhanced eleven-channel , eight-frequency system .","qid":"2735","docid":"Special_sensor_microwave/imager","rank":13,"score":123673},{"content":"Title: Sea ice emissivity modelling Content: With increased interest in sea ice and its effects on the global climate , efficient methods are required to monitor both its extent and exchange processes . Satellite-mounted , microwave radiometers , such SSMI , AMSR and AMSU , are an ideal tool for the task because they can see through cloud cover , and they have frequent , global coverage . A passive microwave instrument detects objects through emitted radiation since different substance have different emission spectra . To help us detect sea ice more efficiently , we need to model these emission processes . The interaction of sea ice with electromagnetic radiation in the microwave range is still not well understood . In general is collected information limited because of the large-scale variability due to the emissivity of sea ice .","qid":"2735","docid":"Sea_ice_emissivity_modelling","rank":14,"score":123415},{"content":"Title: Kernel function for solving integral equation of surface radiation exchanges Content: In physics and engineering , the radiative heat transfer from one surface to another is the equal to the difference of incoming and outgoing radiation from the first surface . In general , the heat transfer between surfaces is governed by temperature , surface emissivity properties and the geometry of the surfaces . The relation for heat transfer can be written as an integral equation with boundary conditions based upon surface conditions . Kernel functions can be useful in approximating and solving this integral equation .","qid":"2735","docid":"Kernel_function_for_solving_integral_equation_of_surface_radiation_exchanges","rank":15,"score":123129},{"content":"Title: Effect of radiation on perceived temperature Content: The `` radiation effect '' results from radiation heat exchange between human bodies and surrounding surfaces , such as walls and ceilings . It may lead to phenomena such as houses feeling cooler in the winter and warmer in the summer at the same temperature . For example , in a room in which air temperature is maintained at 22 ° Celsius at all times , but in which the inner surfaces of the house is estimated to be an average temperature of 10 ° Celsius in the winter or 25 ° Celsius in the summer , heat transfer from the surfaces to the individual will occur , resulting in a difference in the perceived temperature . We can observe and compare the rate of radiation heat transfer between a person and the surrounding surfaces if we first make a few simplifying assumptions : The heat exchange in the environment is in a `` steady state '' , meaning that there is a constant flow of heat either into or out of the house . The person is completely surrounded by the interior surfaces of the room . Heat transfer by convection is not considered . The walls , ceiling , and floor are all at the same temperature . For an average person , the outer surface area is 1.4 m ² , the surface temperature is 30 ° Celsius , and the emissivity is 0.95 . Emissivity is the ability of a surface to emit radiant energy compared to that of a black body at the same temperature . We will be using the following equation to find out how much heat is lost by a person standing in the same room in summertime as compared to the winter , at exactly the same thermostat reading temperature : Q ̇ = εσA_s ( T_s ^ 4-T_surr ^ 4 ) Where Q ̇ is the rate of heat loss ( W ) , ε is the emissivity ( or the ability of an objects surface to emit energy by radiation ) of a person , σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant ( 5.670 x 10 ^ ( -8 ) W/m2 ∙ K4 ) , As is the surface area of a person , Ts is the surface temperature of a person ( K ) , and Tsurr is the surface temperature of the walls , ceiling , and floor ( K ) . Please note that this equation is only valid for an object standing in a completely enclosed room , box , etc. . In the winter , the amount of heat loss from a person , when the inner surfaces of the room were 10 degrees Celsius , was found to be 152 Watts . ( Q ̇ = ( 0.95 ) ( 5.67 x 10 ^ ( -8 ) ) ( 1.4 ) -LSB- ( 30 +273 ) ^ 4 - ( 10 +273 ) ^ 4 -RSB- = 152 ) ̇ In the summer , the amount of heat loss from a person , when the inner surfaces of the room were 25 degrees Celsius , was found to be 40.9 Watts . ( Q ̇ = ( 0.95 ) ( 5.67 x 10 ^ ( -8 ) ) ( 1.4 ) -LSB- ( 30 +273 ) ^ 4 - ( 25 +273 ) ^ 4 -RSB- = 40.9 ) ̇ Thermal radiation is the form of radiation emitted by bodies because of their temperature . It differs from other forms of electromagnetic radiation such as x-rays , gamma rays , microwaves , radio waves , and television rays that are not related to temperature . Scientists have found that all bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal radiation . People are constantly radiating their body heat , but at different rates . From these values , the rate of heat loss from a person is almost four times as large in the winter than in the summer , which explains the `` chill '' we feel in the winter even if the thermostat setting is kept the same .","qid":"2735","docid":"Effect_of_radiation_on_perceived_temperature","rank":16,"score":122486},{"content":"Title: El Niño–Southern Oscillation Content: El Niño -- Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) is an irregularly periodical variation in winds and sea surface temperatures over the tropical eastern Pacific Ocean , affecting much of the tropics and subtropics . The warming phase is known as El Niño and the cooling phase as La Niña . Southern Oscillation is the accompanying atmospheric component , coupled with the sea temperature change : El Niño is accompanied with high , and La Niña with low air surface pressure in the tropical western Pacific . The two periods last several months each ( typically occur every few years ) and their effects vary in intensity . The two phases relate to the Walker circulation , discovered by Gilbert Walker during the early twentieth century . The Walker circulation is caused by the pressure gradient force that results from a high pressure system over the eastern Pacific Ocean , and a low pressure system over Indonesia . When the Walker circulation weakens or reverses , an El Niño results , causing the ocean surface to be warmer than average , as upwelling of cold water occurs less or not at all . An especially strong Walker circulation causes a La Niña , resulting in cooler ocean temperatures due to increased upwelling . Mechanisms that cause the oscillation remain under study . The extremes of this climate pattern 's oscillations cause extreme weather ( such as floods and droughts ) in many regions of the world . Developing countries dependent upon agriculture and fishing , particularly those bordering the Pacific Ocean , are the most affected .","qid":"2735","docid":"El_Niño–Southern_Oscillation","rank":17,"score":122395},{"content":"Title: Anti-greenhouse effect Content: The anti-greenhouse effect is a mechanism similar to the greenhouse effect , but with the opposite consequence of cooling the surface temperature of a planet . If gases in the atmosphere of a planet have a lesser transmittance for inbound radiation ( for instance , solar rays in the Solar System ) than for outbound radiation ( typically thermal radiation of the planet 's surface in the infrared domain ) , the surface temperature at which inbound and outbound heat fluxes are at equilibrium is lower .","qid":"2735","docid":"Anti-greenhouse_effect","rank":18,"score":121514},{"content":"Title: Polar amplification Content: Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict . In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .","qid":"2735","docid":"Polar_amplification","rank":19,"score":121118},{"content":"Title: NOAA-6 Content: NOAA-6 , designated NOAA-A before launch , was a weather satellite operated by NOAA as part of its National Operational Environmental Satellite System . It was launched into a Sun-synchronous orbit by NASA aboard an Atlas F launch vehicle on 27 June 1979 from Vandenberg Air Force Base SLC-3W . Based on the experimental TIROS-N satellite , it performed monitoring of ice and snow cover , agriculture , oceanography , volcanism , ozone and the space environment , in addition to its regular meteorological observations . Its instruments included the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer ( AVHRR/1 ) for global cloud cover observations , the TIROS Operational Vertical Sounder ( TOVS ) suite for atmospheric temperature and water vapor profiling , the Space Environment Monitor ( SEM ) for measuring proton and electron fluxes , and the Data Collection and Platform Location System ( DCPLS ) for relaying data from balloons and ocean buoys . The TOVS suite consists of three subsystems : the High Resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder 2 ( HIRS/2 ) , the Stratospheric Sounding Unit ( SSU ) , and the Microwave Sounding Unit ( MSU ) . The HIRS/2 instrument failed on 19 September 1983 , and the spacecraft was placed in reserve in early 1984 as NOAA prioritized operations of NOAA-7 and NOAA-8 . It was returned to operational status after NOAA-8 failed in June 1984 , and continued to return data until its decommissioning on 31 March 1987 .","qid":"2735","docid":"NOAA-6","rank":20,"score":120390},{"content":"Title: Radiation zone Content: A radiation zone , radiative zone or radiative region is a layer of a star 's interior where energy is primarily transported toward the exterior by means of radiative diffusion and thermal conduction , rather than by convection . Energy travels through the radiation zone in the form of electromagnetic radiation as photons . Matter in a radiation zone is so dense that photons can travel only a short distance before they are absorbed or scattered by another particle , gradually shifting to longer wavelength as they do so . For this reason , it takes an average of 171,000 years for gamma rays from the core of the Sun to leave the radiation zone . Over this range , the temperature of the plasma drops from 15 million K near the core down to 1.5 million K at the base of the convection zone . In a radiative zone , the temperature gradient -- the change in temperature ( T ) as a function of radius ( r ) -- is given by : where κ ( r ) is the opacity , ρ ( r ) is the matter density , L ( r ) is the luminosity , and σ is the Stefan -- Boltzmann constant . Hence the opacity and radiation flux ( L ) within a given layer of a star are important factors in determining how effective radiative diffusion is at transporting energy . A high opacity or high luminosity can cause a high temperature gradient , which results from a slow flow of energy . Those layers where convection is more effective than radiative diffusion at transporting energy , thereby creating a lower temperature gradient , will become convection zones .","qid":"2735","docid":"Radiation_zone","rank":21,"score":119770},{"content":"Title: Earth's energy budget Content: Earth 's energy budget accounts for the energy Earth receives from the Sun . Much of this energy is lost when the earth re-radiates it back into outer space , and the rest of the energy is distributed throughout the five components of Earth 's climate system . This system is made up of earth 's water , ice , atmosphere , rocky crust , and all living things . Quantifying changes in these amounts is required to accurately model the Earth 's climate . Received radiation is unevenly distributed over the planet , because the Sun heats equatorial regions more than polar regions . Energy is absorbed by the atmosphere , hydrosphere , and lithosphere , and , in a process informally described as Earth 's heat engine , the solar heating is redistributed through evaporation of surface water , convection , rainfall , winds , and ocean circulation . When the incoming solar energy is balanced by an equal flow of heat to space , the Earth is said to be in radiative equilibrium and under that condition , global temperatures will be stable . Disturbances of Earth 's radiative equilibrium , such as an increase of greenhouse gases , will change global temperatures in response . However , Earth 's energy balance and heat fluxes depend on many factors , such as atmospheric composition ( mainly aerosols and greenhouse gases ) , the albedo ( reflectivity ) of surface properties , cloud cover and vegetation and land use patterns . Changes in surface temperature due to Earth 's energy budget do not occur instantaneously , due to the inertia of the oceans and the cryosphere . The net heat flux is buffered primarily by becoming part of the ocean 's heat content , until a new equilibrium state is established between radiative forcings and the climate response .","qid":"2735","docid":"Earth's_energy_budget","rank":22,"score":119041},{"content":"Title: Solar Submillimeter Telescope Content: The Solar Submillimeter Telescope ( SST ) is a solar dedicated instrument with the aim to study the radiation produced by high-energy particles during solar flares . Observing at 212 and 405 GHz with a focal array since 2001 , it is a unique instrument that has produced a wealth of new information . Some of its discoveries are still unexplained by current theories . SST construction started in 1995 , and it saw the first light in April 1999 ; since April 2001 it operates on a daily basis . It is installed at Complejo Astronomico El Leoncito ( San Juan Province , Argentina ) under agreement between the Argentinian National Scientific and Technical Research Council ( CONICET ) and the Brazilian Universidade Presbiteriana Mackenzie .","qid":"2735","docid":"Solar_Submillimeter_Telescope","rank":23,"score":119006},{"content":"Title: Hurricane dynamics and cloud microphysics Content: Tropical convective clouds play an important part in the Earth 's climate system . Convection and release of latent heat transports energy from the surface into the upper atmosphere . Clouds have a higher albedo than the underlying ocean , which causes more incoming solar radiation to be reflected back to space . Since the tops of tropical systems are much cooler than the surface of the Earth , the presence of high convective clouds cools the climate system . The most recognizable cloud system in the tropics is the hurricane . In addition to the important climatic effects of tropical weather systems , hurricanes possess enough energy to cause massive death and destruction . Therefore , their accurate prediction is of utmost importance . Cloud microphysics describe the structure and properties of clouds on the microscopic scale .","qid":"2735","docid":"Hurricane_dynamics_and_cloud_microphysics","rank":24,"score":118714},{"content":"Title: Tropical rain belt Content: Rainfall and the tropical climate dominate the tropical rain belt , which oscillates from the northern to the southern tropics over the course of the year , roughly following the solar equator . The tropical rain belt is an area of active rain that is positioned mostly around the tropics . According to the website Journey North , the reason the rain belt is situated near the tropics can be attributed to the fact that most of the sun 's radiation is directed toward the equator , which is located in the middle of the tropics . This solar radiation generates large amounts of heat near the equator providing tropical regions with higher temperatures than most other regions on Earth . With all this solar radiation , the air around the tropics begins to warm up . Because hot air is less dense than cold air , the hot air rises into the upper levels of the atmosphere and as a result , cold air filters down into the lower levels of the atmosphere . The dynamics that provide the tropics with the rain belt are founded on the principal that warmer air is able to retain more moisture than colder air . When the colder air replaces the warmer air in the lower atmosphere , the abundant moisture from the tropics loses the ability to be stored in the atmosphere . As a result , the excess moisture that can not be held by the colder air is then turned into thunderstorms and rain showers . These thunderstorms and rain showers are usually located along the equator , but they will extend out to the Tropic of Cancer , which is the 23.5 north latitude , as well as the Tropic of Capricorn , which is the 23.5 south latitude . It is largely a manifestation of the ITCH ( incorrect citation ) . The tropical rain belt lies in the southern hemisphere of the Indian ocean and western Pacific ocean roughly from October to March , and during this time the northern tropics experience a dry season in which precipitation is very rare , and days are typically hot and sunny throughout . From April to September , the rain belt lies in the northern hemisphere , and a wet season occurs there , while the southern tropics experience their dry season . The rain belt reaches roughly as far north as the Tropic of Cancer and as far south as the Tropic of Capricorn in the western Pacific ocean . Its variation in the Western Hemisphere is minimal , roughly between the equator and the 15th parallel north latitude . Near these latitudes , there is one wet season and one dry season annually . On the equator , there are two wet and two dry seasons as the rain belt passes over twice a year , one moving north and one moving south . Between the tropics and the equator , locations may experience both a short wet and a long wet season . Local geography may substantially modify these climate patterns .","qid":"2735","docid":"Tropical_rain_belt","rank":25,"score":117618},{"content":"Title: Sudden stratospheric warming Content: A sudden stratospheric warming ( SSW ) is an event where the polar vortex of westerly winds in the winter hemisphere slows down or even reverses direction over the course of a few days . The change is accompanied by a rise of stratospheric temperature by several tens of kelvins .","qid":"2735","docid":"Sudden_stratospheric_warming","rank":26,"score":117426},{"content":"Title: Thermal radiation Content: Thermal radiation is electromagnetic radiation generated by the thermal motion of charged particles in matter . All matter with a temperature greater than absolute zero emits thermal radiation . When the temperature of a body is greater than absolute zero , inter-atomic collisions cause the kinetic energy of the atoms or molecules to change . This results in charge-acceleration and/or dipole oscillation which produces electromagnetic radiation , and the wide spectrum of radiation reflects the wide spectrum of energies and accelerations that occur even at a single temperature . Examples of thermal radiation include the visible light and infrared light emitted by an incandescent light bulb , the infrared radiation emitted by animals is detectable with an infrared camera , and the cosmic microwave background radiation . Thermal radiation is different from thermal convection and thermal conduction -- a person near a raging bonfire feels radiant heating from the fire , even if the surrounding air is very cold . Sunlight is part of thermal radiation generated by the hot plasma of the Sun . The Earth also emits thermal radiation , but at a much lower intensity and different spectral distribution ( infrared rather than visible ) because it is cooler . The Earth 's absorption of solar radiation , followed by its outgoing thermal radiation are the two most important processes that determine the temperature and climate of the Earth . If a radiation-emitting object meets the physical characteristics of a black body in thermodynamic equilibrium , the radiation is called blackbody radiation . Planck 's law describes the spectrum of blackbody radiation , which depends only on the object 's temperature . Wien 's displacement law determines the most likely frequency of the emitted radiation , and the Stefan -- Boltzmann law gives the radiant intensity . Thermal radiation is one of the fundamental mechanisms of heat transfer .","qid":"2735","docid":"Thermal_radiation","rank":27,"score":115896},{"content":"Title: Radiative flux Content: Radiative flux , also known as radiative flux density or radiation flux , is the amount of power radiated through a given area , in the form of photons or other elementary particles , typically measured in W/m2 . It is used in astronomy to determine the magnitude and spectral class of a star . Radiative flux also acts as a generalization of heat flux , which is equal to the radiative flux when restricted to the infrared spectrum . When radiative flux is incident on a surface , it is often called irradiance . Flux emitted from a surface may be called radiant exitance or radiant emittance .","qid":"2735","docid":"Radiative_flux","rank":28,"score":115538},{"content":"Title: Stratosphere Content: The stratosphere ( -LSB- ˈstrætəˌsfɪər , _ - toʊ - -RSB- ) is the second major layer of Earth 's atmosphere , just above the troposphere , and below the mesosphere . About 20 % of the atmosphere 's mass is contained in the stratosphere . The stratosphere is stratified in temperature , with warmer layers higher and cooler layers closer to the Earth . The increase of temperature with altitude is a result of the absorption of the Sun 's ultraviolet radiation by the ozone . This is in contrast to the troposphere , near the Earth 's surface , where temperatures decreases with altitude . The border between the troposphere and stratosphere , the tropopause , marks where this temperature inversion begins . Near the equator , the stratosphere starts at 18 km ; at mid latitudes , it starts at 10 - and ends at 50 km ; at the poles , it starts at about 8 km . Temperatures vary within the stratosphere with the seasons , in particular with the polar night ( winter ) . The greatest variation of temperature takes place over the poles in the lower stratosphere ; those variations are largely steady at lower latitudes and higher altitudes .","qid":"2735","docid":"Stratosphere","rank":29,"score":114384},{"content":"Title: Climate model Content: Climate models use quantitative methods to simulate the interactions of the important drivers of climate , including atmosphere , oceans , land surface and ice . They are used for a variety of purposes from study of the dynamics of the climate system to projections of future climate . All climate models take account of incoming energy from the sun as short wave electromagnetic radiation , chiefly visible and short-wave ( near ) infrared , as well as outgoing long wave ( far ) infrared electromagnetic . Any imbalance results in a change in temperature . Models vary in complexity : A simple radiant heat transfer model treats the earth as a single point and averages outgoing energy This can be expanded vertically ( radiative-convective models ) and/or horizontally Finally , ( coupled ) atmosphere -- ocean -- sea ice global climate models solve the full equations for mass and energy transfer and radiant exchange . Box models can treat flows across and within ocean basins . Other types of modelling can be interlinked , such as land use , allowing researchers to predict the interaction between climate and ecosystems .","qid":"2735","docid":"Climate_model","rank":30,"score":113458},{"content":"Title: Tropospheric propagation Content: Tropospheric propagation describes electromagnetic propagation in relation to the troposphere . The service area from a VHF or UHF radio transmitter extends to just beyond the optical horizon , at which point signals start to rapidly reduce in strength . Viewers living in such a `` deep fringe '' reception area will notice that during certain conditions , weak signals normally masked by noise increase in signal strength to allow quality reception . Such conditions are related to the current state of the troposphere . Tropospheric propagated signals travel in the part of the atmosphere adjacent to the surface and extending to some 25,000 feet ( 7,620 m ) . Such signals are thus directly affected by weather conditions extending over some hundreds of miles . During very settled , warm anticyclonic weather ( i.e. , high pressure ) , usually weak signals from distant transmitters improve in strength . Another symptom during such conditions may be interference to the local transmitter resulting in co-channel interference , usually horizontal lines or an extra floating picture with analog broadcasts and break-up with digital broadcasts . A settled high-pressure system gives the characteristic conditions for enhanced tropospheric propagation , in particular favouring signals which travel along the prevailing isobar pattern ( rather than across it ) . Such weather conditions can occur at any time , but generally the summer and autumn months are the best periods . In certain favourable locations , enhanced tropospheric propagation may enable reception of ultra high frequency ( UHF ) TV signals up to 1,000 mi or more . The observable characteristics of such high-pressure systems are usually clear , cloudless days with little or no wind . At sunset the upper air cools , as does the surface temperature , but at different rates . This produces a boundary or temperature gradient , which allows an inversion level to form -- a similar effect occurs at sunrise . The inversion is capable of allowing very high frequency ( VHF ) and UHF signal propagation well beyond the normal radio horizon distance . The inversion effectively reduces sky wave radiation from a transmitter -- normally VHF and UHF signals travel on into space when they reach the horizon , the refractive index of the ionosphere preventing signal return . With temperature inversion , however , the signal is to a large extent refracted over the horizon rather than continuing along a direct path into outer space . Fog also produces good tropospheric results , again due to inversion effects . Fog occurs during high-pressure weather , and if such conditions result in a large belt of fog with clear sky above , there will be heating of the upper fog level and thus an inversion . This situation often arises towards night fall , continues overnight and clears with the sunrise over a period of around 4 -- 5 hours .","qid":"2735","docid":"Tropospheric_propagation","rank":31,"score":113186},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse effect Content: The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet 's atmosphere warms the planet 's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere . If a planet 's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases ( i.e. , greenhouse gases ) the atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions . Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface , warming it . The downward component of this radiation -- that is , the strength of the greenhouse effect -- will depend on the atmosphere 's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains . On Earth , the atmosphere is warmed by absorption of infrared thermal radiation from the underlying surface ( heated by the sun ) , absorption of shorter wavelength radiant energy from the sun , and convective heat fluxes from the surface . Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere radiate energy , some of which is directed to the surface and lower atmosphere . The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect . Earth 's natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life . Human activities , primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests , have intensified the natural greenhouse effect , causing global warming . The mechanism is named after a faulty analogy with the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a greenhouse . The way a greenhouse retains heat is fundamentally different , as a greenhouse works by reducing airflow and retaining warm air inside the structure .","qid":"2735","docid":"Greenhouse_effect","rank":32,"score":111946},{"content":"Title: Volcanic winter Content: A volcanic winter is a reduction in global temperatures caused by volcanic ash and droplets of sulfuric acid and water obscuring the Sun and raising Earth 's albedo ( increasing the reflection of solar radiation ) after a large particularly explosive volcanic eruption . Long-term cooling effects are primarily dependent upon injection of sulfur gasses into the stratosphere where they undergo a series of reactions to create sulfuric acid which can nucleate and form aerosols . Volcanic stratospheric aerosols cool the surface by reflecting solar radiation and warm the stratosphere by absorbing terrestrial radiation . The volcanic aerosols , resulting from the 1991 Pinatubo eruption and others , have been shown to contribute to anthropogenic ozone depletion . The variations in atmospheric warming and cooling results in changes in tropospheric and stratospheric circulation .","qid":"2735","docid":"Volcanic_winter","rank":33,"score":111812},{"content":"Title: South Atlantic Anomaly Content: The South Atlantic Anomaly ( SAA ) is an area where the Earth 's inner Van Allen radiation belt comes closest to the Earth 's surface , dipping down to an altitude of 200 km . This leads to an increased flux of energetic particles in this region and exposes orbiting satellites to higher-than-usual levels of radiation . The effect is caused by the non-concentricity of the Earth and its magnetic dipole . The SAA is the near-Earth region where the Earth 's magnetic field is weakest relative to an idealized Earth-centered dipole field .","qid":"2735","docid":"South_Atlantic_Anomaly","rank":34,"score":111206},{"content":"Title: Radiation stress Content: In fluid dynamics , the radiation stress is the depth-integrated -- and thereafter phase-averaged -- excess momentum flux caused by the presence of the surface gravity waves , which is exerted on the mean flow . The radiation stresses behave as a second-order tensor . The radiation stress tensor describes the additional forcing due to the presence of the waves , which changes the mean depth-integrated horizontal momentum in the fluid layer . As a result , varying radiation stresses induce changes in the mean surface elevation ( wave setup ) and the mean flow ( wave-induced currents ) . For the mean energy density in the oscillatory part of the fluid motion , the radiation stress tensor is important for its dynamics , in case of an inhomogeneous mean-flow field . The radiation stress tensor , as well as several of its implications on the physics of surface gravity waves and mean flows , were formulated in a series of papers by Longuet-Higgins and Stewart in 1960 -- 1964 . Radiation stress derives its name from the analogous effect of radiation pressure for electromagnetic radiation .","qid":"2735","docid":"Radiation_stress","rank":35,"score":111011},{"content":"Title: Sea ice thickness Content: Sea ice thickness spatial extent , and open water within ice packs can vary rapidly in response to weather and climate . Sea ice concentration are measured by satellites , with the Special Sensor Microwave Imager / Sounder ( SSMIS ) , and the European Space Agency 's Cryosat-2 satellite to map the thickness and shape of the Earth 's polar ice cover . The sea ice volume is calculated with the Pan-Arctic Ice Ocean Modeling and Assimilation System ( PIOMAS ) , which blends satellite-observed data , such as sea ice concentrations into model calculations to estimate sea ice thickness and volume . Sea ice thickness determines a number of important fluxes such as heat flux between the air and ocean surface -- see below -- as well as salt and fresh water fluxes between the ocean since saline water ejects much of its salt content when frozen -- see sea ice growth processes . It is also important for navigators on icebreakers since there is an upper limit to the thickness of ice any ship can sail through .","qid":"2735","docid":"Sea_ice_thickness","rank":36,"score":110578},{"content":"Title: Weather station Content: A weather station is a facility , either on land or sea , with instruments and equipment for measuring atmospheric conditions to provide information for weather forecasts and to study the weather and climate . The measurements taken include temperature , atmospheric pressure , humidity , wind speed , wind direction , and precipitation amounts . Wind measurements are taken with as few other obstructions as possible , while temperature and humidity measurements are kept free from direct solar radiation , or insolation . Manual observations are taken at least once daily , while automated measurements are taken at least once an hour . Weather conditions out at sea are taken by ships and buoys , which measure slightly different meteorological quantities such as sea surface temperature ( SST ) , wave height , and wave period . Drifting weather buoys outnumber their moored versions by a significant amount .","qid":"2735","docid":"Weather_station","rank":37,"score":110521},{"content":"Title: Intensity (heat transfer) Content: In the field of heat transfer , intensity of radiation is a measure of the distribution of radiant heat flux per unit area and solid angle , in a particular direction , defined according to where is the infinitesimal source area is the outgoing heat transfer from the area is the solid angle subtended by the infinitesimal ` target ' ( or ` aperture ' ) area is the angle between the source area normal vector and the line-of-sight between the source and the target areas . Typical units of intensity are W · m − 2 · sr − 1 . Intensity can sometimes be called radiance , especially in other fields of study . The emissive power of a surface can be determined by integrating the intensity of emitted radiation over a hemisphere surrounding the surface : For diffuse emitters , the emitted radiation intensity is the same in all directions , with the result that The factor ( which really should have the units of steradians ) is a result of the fact that intensity is defined to exclude the effect of reduced view factor at large values ; note that the solid angle corresponding to a hemisphere is equal to steradians . Spectral intensity is the corresponding spectral measurement of intensity ; in other words , the intensity as a function of wavelength .","qid":"2735","docid":"Intensity_(heat_transfer)","rank":38,"score":110375},{"content":"Title: Twomey effect Content: The Twomey effect describes how cloud condensation nuclei ( CCN ) , possibly from anthropogenic pollution , may increase the amount of solar radiation reflected by clouds . This is an indirect effect . Aerosol particles can act as CCN 's creating more droplets which have a smaller size distribution . The reduction in size distribution increases the Optical depth of the cloud . This increases the cloud albedo as clouds appear whiter and larger , leading to a cooling of between -0.3 and -1.8 Wm − 2 . For example , on satellite imagery we observe trails of white clouds from ships crossing the oceans due to this effect .","qid":"2735","docid":"Twomey_effect","rank":39,"score":110144},{"content":"Title: Radiative forcing Content: Radiative forcing or climate forcing is the difference between insolation ( sunlight ) absorbed by the Earth and energy radiated back to space . Typically , radiative forcing is quantified at the tropopause in units of watts per square meter of the Earth 's surface . Positive forcing ( incoming energy exceeding outgoing energy ) warms the system , while negative forcing ( outgoing energy exceeding incoming energy ) cools it . Causes of radiative forcing include changes in insolation and the concentrations of radiatively active gases , commonly known as greenhouse gases and aerosols .","qid":"2735","docid":"Radiative_forcing","rank":40,"score":109892},{"content":"Title: Ice-albedo feedback Content: Ice-albedo feedback ( or snow-albedo feedback ) is a positive feedback climate process where a change in the area of snow-covered land , ice caps , glaciers or sea ice alters the albedo . This change in albedo acts to reinforce the initial alteration in ice area . Cooling tends to increase ice cover and hence the albedo , reducing the amount of solar energy absorbed and leading to more cooling . Conversely , warming tends to decrease ice cover and hence the albedo , increasing the amount of solar energy absorbed , leading to more warming . The effect also applies on the small scale to snow-covered surfaces . A small amount of snow melt exposes darker ground which absorbs more radiation , leading to more snowmelt . The effect has mostly been discussed in terms of the recent trend of declining Arctic sea ice . Internal feedback processes may also potentially occur , as land ice melts and causes eustatic sea level rise , and also potentially induces earthquakes as a result of isostatic rebound , which further acts to disrupt glaciers , ice shelves , etc. .","qid":"2735","docid":"Ice-albedo_feedback","rank":41,"score":108486},{"content":"Title: Mesozoic–Cenozoic radiation Content: The Mesozoic -- Cenozoic Radiation is the third major extended increase in biodiversity in the Phanerozoic , after the Cambrian Explosion and the Great Ordovician Biodiversification Event . The Mesozoic -- Cenozoic Radiation began in the mid-Mesozoic and extends through the Cenozoic , with no indication of having yet ended . It differs from the earlier radiations in that the diversity appears largely in the variety of species and other taxa below the level of Order ( biology ) . `` The spectacular radiation of the angiosperms , mammals and certain reptile groups ( such as the snakes ) on land is matched by that of the planktonic foraminifera , neogastropods , heteroconch bivalves , cheilostome bryozoans , decapod crustaceans and teleost fish in shallow seas . '' The marine diversification is largely that represented by the Modern Evolutionary Fauna , and there are also the terrestrial diversifications of the birds and among the insects .","qid":"2735","docid":"Mesozoic–Cenozoic_radiation","rank":42,"score":108373},{"content":"Title: Subtropical Countercurrent Content: The subtropical countercurrent ( STCC ) is a narrow eastward ocean current in the central North Pacific Ocean ( 20 -- 30 ° N ) where the Sverdrup theory predicts a broad westward flow . It originates in the western North Pacific around 20 ° N , and flows eastward against the northeast trade winds and stretches northeastward to the north of Hawaii . It is accompanied by a subsurface temperature and density front called the subtropical front , in thermal wind relation with the STCC . Furthermore , the STCC maintains a sea surface temperature front during winter and spring . During April and May when the SST front is still strong , the seasonal warming makes the region conductive to atmospheric convection , and surface wind stress curls turn weakly positive along the front on the background of negative curls that drive the subtropical gyre . On the weather timescale , positive wind curls are related to low-pressure systems of a subsynoptic scale in space , energized by surface baroclinicity and latent heat release along the STF front . The SST front also anchors a meridional maximum in column-integrated water vapor , indicating a deep structure of the atmosphere response .","qid":"2735","docid":"Subtropical_Countercurrent","rank":43,"score":108084},{"content":"Title: Solar phenomena Content: Solar phenomena are the natural phenomena occurring within the magnetically heated outer atmospheres in the Sun . These phenomena take many forms , including solar wind , radio wave flux , energy bursts such as solar flares , coronal mass ejection or solar eruptions , coronal heating and sunspots . These phenomena are generated by a helical dynamo near the center of the Sun 's mass that generates strong magnetic fields and a chaotic dynamo near the surface that generates smaller magnetic field fluctuations . The total sum of all solar fluctuations is referred to as solar variation . The collective effect of all solar variations within the Sun 's gravitational field is referred to as space weather . A major weather component is the solar wind , a stream of plasma released from the Sun 's upper atmosphere . It is responsible for the aurora , natural light displays in the sky in the Arctic and Antarctic . Space weather disturbances can cause solar storms on Earth , disrupting communications , as well as geomagnetic storms in Earth 's magnetosphere and sudden ionospheric disturbances in the ionosphere . Variations in solar intensity also affect Earth 's climate . These variations can explain events such as ice ages and the Great Oxygenation Event , while the Sun 's future expansion into a red giant will likely end life on Earth . Solar activity and related events have been recorded since the 8th century BCE . Babylonians inscribed and possibly predicted solar eclipses , while the earliest extant report of sunspots dates back to the Chinese Book of Changes , . The first extant description of the solar corona was in 968 , while the earliest sunspot drawing was in 1128 and a solar prominence was described in 1185 in the Russian Chronicle of Novgorod . The invention of the telescope allowed major advances in understanding , allowing the first detailed observations in the 1600s . Solar spectroscopy began in the 1800s , from which properties of the solar atmosphere could be determined , while the creation of daguerreotypy led to the first solar photographs on 2 April 1845 . Photography assisted in the study of solar prominences , granulation and spectroscopy . Early in the 20th century , interest in astrophysics surged in America . A number of new observatories were built with solar telescopes around the world . The 1931 invention of the coronagraph allowed the corona to be studied in full daylight .","qid":"2735","docid":"Solar_phenomena","rank":44,"score":107615},{"content":"Title: Mukul Kundu Content: Mukul R. Kundu ( 10 February 1930 - 16 June 2010 ) , was an Indian solar physicist , known best as a pioneer of radio observations of the Sun . Early in his career , he showed that the Sun 's 10.7 centimetre radio flux is correlated with the level of ionisation in the Earth 's ionosphere . The 10.7 cm flux is now used as a standard proxy for the level of magnetic activity on the Sun . He served on the editorial board of the journal Solar Physics and was awarded the George Ellery Hale Prize in 2007 .","qid":"2735","docid":"Mukul_Kundu","rank":45,"score":106967},{"content":"Title: Radiation flux Content: Radiation flux is a measure of the amount of radiation received by an object from a given source . This can be any type of radiation , including electromagnetic , sound , and particles from a radioactive source . Φ = is the radiation flux , L is the luminosity , or total power output of the source , and r is the distance from the radiation source . The units of radiation flux are W · m − 2 , or kg · s − 3 . Radiation flux density is a related measure that takes into account the area the radiation flux passes through , and is defined as the flux divided by the area it passes through . The Radiation flux density is also known as Intensity where I =","qid":"2735","docid":"Radiation_flux","rank":46,"score":106791},{"content":"Title: Unruh effect Content: The Unruh effect ( or sometimes Fulling -- Davies -- Unruh effect ) is the prediction that an accelerating observer will observe blackbody radiation where an inertial observer would observe none . In other words , the background appears to be warm from an accelerating reference frame ; in layman 's terms , a thermometer waved around in empty space , subtracting any other contribution to its temperature , will record a non-zero temperature . The ground state for an inertial observer is seen as in thermodynamic equilibrium with a non-zero temperature by the uniformly accelerating observer . The Unruh effect was first described by Stephen Fulling in 1973 , Paul Davies in 1975 and W. G. Unruh in 1976 . It is currently not clear whether the Unruh effect has actually been observed , since the claimed observations are disputed . There is also some doubt about whether the Unruh effect implies the existence of Unruh radiation .","qid":"2735","docid":"Unruh_effect","rank":47,"score":106086},{"content":"Title: Radiometry Content: Radiometry is a set of techniques for measuring electromagnetic radiation , including visible light . Radiometric techniques in optics characterize the distribution of the radiation 's power in space , as opposed to photometric techniques , which characterize the light 's interaction with the human eye . Radiometry is distinct from quantum techniques such as photon counting . The use of radiometers to determine the temperature of objects and gasses by measuring radiation flux is called pyrometry . Handheld pyrometer devices are often marketed as infrared thermometers . Radiometry is important in astronomy , especially radio astronomy , and plays a significant role in Earth remote sensing . The measurement techniques categorized as radiometry in optics are called photometry in some astronomical applications , contrary to the optics usage of the term . Spectroradiometry is the measurement of absolute radiometric quantities in narrow bands of wavelength .","qid":"2735","docid":"Radiometry","rank":48,"score":105375},{"content":"Title: Effects of nuclear explosions Content: The energy released from a nuclear weapon detonated in the troposphere can be divided into four basic categories : Blast -- 40 -- 50 % of total energy Thermal radiation -- 30 -- 50 % of total energy Ionizing radiation -- 5 % of total energy ( more in a neutron bomb ) Residual radiation -- 5 -- 10 % of total energy with the mass of the explosion Depending on the design of the weapon and the environment in which it is detonated the energy distributed to these categories can be increased or decreased . The blast effect is created by the coupling of immense amounts of energy , spanning the electromagnetic spectrum , with the surroundings . Locations such as submarine , ground burst , air burst , or exo-atmospheric determine how much energy is produced as blast and how much as radiation . In general , denser media around the bomb , like water , absorb more energy , and create more powerful shockwaves while at the same time limiting the area of its effect . When an air burst occurs , lethal blast and thermal effects proportionally scale much more rapidly than lethal radiation effects , as higher and higher yield nuclear weapons are used . The physical-damage mechanisms of a nuclear weapon ( blast and thermal radiation ) are identical to those of conventional explosives , but the energy produced by a nuclear explosive is millions of times more powerful per gram and the temperatures reached are briefly in the tens of millions of degrees . Energy from a nuclear explosive is initially released in several forms of penetrating radiation . When there is a surrounding material such as air , rock , or water , this radiation interacts with and rapidly heats it to an equilibrium temperature ( i.e. so that the matter is at the same temperature as the atomic bomb 's matter ) . This causes vaporization of surrounding material resulting in its rapid expansion . Kinetic energy created by this expansion contributes to the formation of a shockwave . When a nuclear detonation occurs in air near sea level , much of the released energy interacts with the atmosphere and creates a shockwave which expands spherically from the center . Intense thermal radiation at the hypocenter forms a nuclear fireball and if the burst is low enough , it is often associated with a mushroom cloud . In a burst at high altitude , where the air density is low , more energy is released as ionizing gamma radiation and x-rays than an atmosphere-displacing shockwave . In 1942 there was some initial speculation among the scientists developing the first nuclear weapons that there might be a possibility of igniting the Earth 's atmosphere with a large enough nuclear explosion . This would concern a nuclear reaction of two nitrogen atoms forming a carbon and an oxygen atom , with release of energy . This energy would heat up the remaining nitrogen enough to keep the reaction going until all nitrogen atoms were consumed . Hans Bethe was assigned the task of studying whether there was a possibility in the very early days , and concluded there was no possibility due to inverse Compton effect cooling of the fireball . Richard Hamming , a mathematician , was asked to make a similar calculation just before Trinity , with the same result . Nevertheless , the notion has persisted as a rumor for many years , and was the source of black humor at the Trinity test .","qid":"2735","docid":"Effects_of_nuclear_explosions","rank":49,"score":105264},{"content":"Title: Special Sensor Ultraviolet Limb Imager Content: The Special Sensor Ultraviolet Limb Imager ( SSULI ) is an imaging spectrometer that is used to observe the earth 's ionosphere and thermosphere . These sensors provide vertical intensity profiles of airglow emissions in the extreme ultraviolet and far ultraviolet spectral range of 800 to 1700 Angstrom ( 80 to 170 nanometre ) and scan from 75 km to 750 km tangent altitude . The data from these sensors will be used to infer altitude profiles of ion , electron and neutral density . The Naval Research Laboratory ( NRL ) has developed five ultraviolet remote sensing instruments for the Air Force Defense Meteorological Satellite Program ( DMSP ) . These instruments known as SSULI ( Special Sensor Ultraviolet Limb Imager ) will launch aboard the DMSP block of 5D3 satellites , which started in 2003 . SSULI measures vertical profiles of the natural airglow radiation from atoms , molecules and ions in the upper atmosphere and ionosphere by viewing the Earth 's limb at a tangent altitude of approximately 50 km to 750 km . The second SSULI flight was launched on November 4 , 2006 . The remaining sensors are scheduled for launch approximately every 24 months .","qid":"2735","docid":"Special_Sensor_Ultraviolet_Limb_Imager","rank":50,"score":105243},{"content":"Title: Solar gain Content: Solar gain ( also known as solar heat gain or passive solar gain ) refers to the increase in temperature ( heat gain ) in a space , object or structure that results from solar radiation . The amount of solar gain increases with the strength of the sunlight , and with the ability of any intervening material to transmit or resist the radiation . Objects struck by sunlight absorb the short-wave radiation from the light and reradiate the heat at longer infrared wavelengths . Certain materials and substances , such as glass , are more transparent to the shorter wavelengths than the longer ; when the sun shines through such materials , the net result is an increase in temperature -- solar gain . This effect , the greenhouse effect , so called due to the solar gain that is experienced behind the glass of a greenhouse , has since become well known in the context of global warming .","qid":"2735","docid":"Solar_gain","rank":51,"score":104481},{"content":"Title: Schottky anomaly Content: The Schottky anomaly is an effect observed in solid-state physics where the specific heat capacity of a solid at low temperature has a peak . It is called anomalous because the heat capacity usually increases with temperature , or stays constant . It occurs in systems with a limited number of energy levels so that E ( T ) increases with sharp steps , one for each energy level that becomes available . Since Cv = ( dE/dT ) , it will experience a large peak as the temperature crosses over from one step to the next . This effect can be explained by looking at the change in entropy of the system . At zero temperature only the lowest energy level is occupied , entropy is zero , and there is very little probability of a transition to a higher energy level . As the temperature increases , there is an increase in entropy and thus the probability of a transition goes up . As the temperature approaches the difference between the energy levels there is a broad peak in the specific heat corresponding to a large change in entropy for a small change in temperature . At high temperatures all of the levels are populated evenly , so there is again little change in entropy for small changes in temperature , and thus a lower specific heat capacity . For a two level system the specific heat coming from the Schottky anomaly has the form : Where kBΔ is the energy between the two levels . This anomaly is usually seen in paramagnetic salts or even ordinary glass ( due to paramagnetic iron impurities ) at low temperature . At high temperature the paramagnetic spins have many spin states available , but at low temperatures some of the spin states are `` frozen out '' ( having too high energy due to crystal field splitting ) , and the entropy per impurity is lowered . It was named after Walter H. Schottky .","qid":"2735","docid":"Schottky_anomaly","rank":52,"score":104321},{"content":"Title: Tip of the red-giant branch Content: Tip of the red-giant branch ( TRGB ) is a primary distance indicator used in astronomy . It uses the luminosity of the brightest red-giant-branch stars in a galaxy as a standard candle to gauge the distance to that galaxy . It has been used in conjunction with observations from the Hubble Space Telescope to determine the relative motions of the Local Cluster of galaxies within the Local Supercluster . The Hertzsprung -- Russell diagram ( HR diagram ) is a plot of stellar luminosity versus surface temperature for a population of stars . During the core hydrogen burning phase of a Sun-like star 's lifetime , it will appear on the HR diagram at a position along a diagonal band called the main sequence . When the hydrogen at the core is exhausted , energy will continue to be generated by hydrogen fusion in a shell around the core . The center of the star will accumulate the helium `` ash '' from this fusion and the star will migrate along an evolutionary branch of the HR diagram that leads toward the upper right . That is , the surface temperature will decrease and the total energy output ( luminosity ) of the star will increase as the surface area increases . At a certain point , the helium at the core of the star will reach a pressure and temperature where it can begin to undergo nuclear fusion through the triple-alpha process . For a star with less than 1.8 times the mass of the Sun , this will occur in a process called the helium flash . The evolutionary track of the star will then carry it toward the left of the HR diagram as the surface temperature increases under the new equilibrium . The result is a sharp discontinuity in the evolutionary track of the star on the HR diagram . This discontinuity is called the tip of the red-giant branch . When distant stars at the TRGB are measured in the I-band ( in the infrared ) , their luminosity is somewhat insensitive to their composition of elements heavier than helium ( metallicity ) or their mass ; they are a standard candle with an I-band absolute magnitude of -- 4.0 ± 0.1 . This makes the technique especially useful as a distance indicator . The TRGB indicator uses stars in the old stellar populations ( Population II ) .","qid":"2735","docid":"Tip_of_the_red-giant_branch","rank":53,"score":103586},{"content":"Title: Thermosphere Content: The thermosphere is the layer of the Earth 's atmosphere directly above the mesosphere . The exosphere is above that but is a minor layer of the atmosphere . Within this layer of the atmosphere , ultraviolet radiation causes photoionization/photodissociation of molecules , creating ions in the ionosphere . Taking its name from the Greek θερμός ( pronounced thermos ) meaning heat , the thermosphere begins about 85 km above the Earth . At these high altitudes , the residual atmospheric gases sort into strata according to molecular mass ( see turbosphere ) . Thermospheric temperatures increase with altitude due to absorption of highly energetic solar radiation . Temperatures are highly dependent on solar activity , and can rise to 2000 C. Radiation causes the atmosphere particles in this layer to become electrically charged ( see ionosphere ) , enabling radio waves to be refracted and thus be received beyond the horizon . In the exosphere , beginning at 500 to above the Earth 's surface , the atmosphere turns into space , although by the criteria set for the definition of the Karman line , the thermosphere itself is part of space . The highly diluted gas in this layer can reach 2500 C during the day . Even though the temperature is so high , one would not feel warm in the thermosphere , because it is so near vacuum that there is not enough contact with the few atoms of gas to transfer much heat . A normal thermometer might be significantly below 0 C , at least at night , because the energy lost by thermal radiation would exceed the energy acquired from the atmospheric gas by direct contact . In the anacoustic zone above 160 km , the density is so low that molecular interactions are too infrequent to permit the transmission of sound . The dynamics of the thermosphere are dominated by atmospheric tides , which are driven by the very significant diurnal heating . Atmospheric waves dissipate above this level because of collisions between the neutral gas and the ionospheric plasma . The International Space Station orbits the Earth within the middle of the thermosphere , between 330 and .","qid":"2735","docid":"Thermosphere","rank":54,"score":103501},{"content":"Title: Western Hemisphere Warm Pool Content: The Western Hemisphere Warm Pool ( WHWP ) is a region of sea surface temperatures ( SST ) warmer than 28.5 ° C that develops west of Central America in the spring , then expands to the tropical waters to the east . The WHWP includes the tropical Atlantic Ocean ( TNA ) east of the Lesser Antilles , Caribbean Sea , Gulf of Mexico , and eastern north Pacific Ocean ( ENP ) . A WHWP heating cycle begins with warmth in the eastern North Pacific in the spring . A dipole pattern off Central America appears due to surges of cooler , drier air through the gap at the Isthmus of Tehuantepec . During spring , the warm pools grow and merge . Their warmth and moisture feed the Mexican monsoon . By summer , the warmth spreads across the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean areas .","qid":"2735","docid":"Western_Hemisphere_Warm_Pool","rank":55,"score":103194},{"content":"Title: Tropospheric scatter Content: Tropospheric scatter ( also known as troposcatter ) is a method of communicating with microwave radio signals over considerable distances -- often up to 300 km , and further depending on terrain and climate factors . This method of propagation uses the tropospheric scatter phenomenon , where radio waves at UHF and SHF frequencies are randomly scattered as they pass through the upper layers of the troposphere . Radio signals are transmitted in a narrow beam aimed just above the horizon in the direction of the receiver station . As the signals pass through the troposphere , some of the energy is scattered back toward the Earth , allowing the receiver station to pick up the signal . Normally , signals in the microwave frequency range travel in straight lines , and so are limited to line of sight applications , in which the receiver can be ` seen ' by the transmitter . Communication distances are limited by the visual horizon to around 30 -- 40 miles ( 48 -- 64 km ) . Troposcatter allows microwave communication beyond the horizon . Because the troposphere is turbulent and has a high proportion of moisture the tropospheric scatter radio signals are refracted and consequently only a tiny proportion of the radio energy is collected by the receiving antennas . Frequencies of transmission around 2 GHz are best suited for tropospheric scatter systems as at this frequency the wavelength of the signal interacts well with the moist , turbulent areas of the troposphere , improving signal to noise ratios .","qid":"2735","docid":"Tropospheric_scatter","rank":56,"score":102774},{"content":"Title: Explorer 7 Content: Explorer 7 was launched October 13 , 1959 at 10:36 a.m. Eastern Time by a Juno II rocket from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station to an orbit of 573 km by 1073 km and inclination of 50.27 ° . It was designed to measure solar x-ray and Lyman-alpha flux , trapped energetic particles , and heavy primary cosmic rays . Also Secondary objectives included collecting data on micrometeoroid penetration and molecular sputtering and studying the Earth-atmosphere heat balance . Launch was originally scheduled for late September 1959 , but the mission was delayed for a week after a Jupiter IRBM test on an adjacent pad failed shortly after liftoff , causing flying debris to hit Explorer 7 's launch vehicle . However , the damage to the booster was minor and could be easily repaired . Significantly , it also carried Verner Suomi 's flat-plate radiometer , improved with the help of Robert Parent , that took the first Earth radiation budget measurements from space and initiated the era of satellite studies of the climate . Using both satellite observations of the Earth 's heat balance and atmospheric cooling rates measured by net flux radiosondes , Suomi established the important role played by clouds in absorbing radiated solar energy . These observations established that Earth 's energy budget varies markedly due to the effect of clouds , the surface albedo , and other absorbing constituents . Using these instruments , Suomi and his team discovered that the Earth absorbed more of the Sun 's energy than originally thought and demonstrated that it was possible to measure and quantify seasonal changes in the global heat budget . The satellite weighed 41.5 kg , was 75 cm high and 75 cm wide . Powered by solar cells it also carried 15 nickel-cadmium batteries around its equator . It transmitted data continuously through to February 1961 and went dead on August 24 , 1961 . It is still in orbit .","qid":"2735","docid":"Explorer_7","rank":57,"score":101972},{"content":"Title: MAR-1 Content: The MAR-1 is an air-to-surface ( ASM ) and surface-to-surface ( SSM ) anti-radiation missile ( ARM ) with INS/GPS capability under development by Brazil 's Mectron and the Aerospace Technology and Science Department ( Departamento de Ciência e Tecnologia Aeroespacial , DCTA ) of the Brazilian Air Force . It is designed to suppress enemy air defenses ( SEAD ) by targeting surveillance radars and fire-control radars .","qid":"2735","docid":"MAR-1","rank":58,"score":101402},{"content":"Title: Pyrgeometer Content: A pyrgeometer is a device that measures near-surface infra-red radiation spectrum in the wavelength spectrum approximately from 4.5 µm to 100 µm . It measures the resistance/voltage changes in a material that is sensitive to the net energy transfer by radiation that occurs between itself and its surroundings ( which can be either in or out ) . By also measuring its own temperature and making some assumptions about the nature of its surroundings it can infer a temperature of the local atmosphere with which it is exchanging radiation . These instruments generally have no spectral ( frequency/wavelength ) measurement capabilities -- they use a single ( non-frequency resolved ) resistance/voltage measurement . They are constructed to be sensitive to the infra-red radiation spectrum that extends approximately from 4.5 µm to 100 µm , thus excluding the main shortwave ( solar ) spectrum . Since the mean free path of IR radiation in the atmosphere is ~ 25 meters , this device typically measures IR flux in the nearest 25 meter layer .","qid":"2735","docid":"Pyrgeometer","rank":59,"score":101379},{"content":"Title: Stefan–Boltzmann law Content: The Stefan -- Boltzmann law describes the power radiated from a black body in terms of its temperature . Specifically , the Stefan -- Boltzmann law states that the total energy radiated per unit surface area of a black body across all wavelengths per unit time ( also known as the black-body radiant emittance or radiant exitance ) , , is directly proportional to the fourth power of the black body 's thermodynamic temperature T : The constant of proportionality σ , called the Stefan -- Boltzmann constant derives from other known constants of nature . The value of the constant is where k is the Boltzmann constant , h is Planck 's constant , and c is the speed of light in a vacuum . Thus at 100 K the energy flux is 5.67 W/m2 , at 1000 K 56,700 W/m2 , etc. . The radiance ( watts per square metre per steradian ) is given by A body that does not absorb all incident radiation ( sometimes known as a grey body ) emits less total energy than a black body and is characterized by an emissivity , : The irradiance has dimensions of energy flux ( energy per time per area ) , and the SI units of measure are joules per second per square metre , or equivalently , watts per square metre . The SI unit for absolute temperature T is the kelvin . is the emissivity of the grey body ; if it is a perfect blackbody , . In the still more general ( and realistic ) case , the emissivity depends on the wavelength , . To find the total power radiated from an object , multiply by its surface area , : Wavelength - and subwavelength-scale particles , metamaterials , and other nanostructures are not subject to ray-optical limits and may be designed to exceed the Stefan -- Boltzmann law .","qid":"2735","docid":"Stefan–Boltzmann_law","rank":60,"score":100016},{"content":"Title: Fin (extended surface) Content: In the study of heat transfer , fins are surfaces that extend from an object to increase the rate of heat transfer to or from the environment by increasing convection . The amount of conduction , convection , or radiation of an object determines the amount of heat it transfers . Increasing the temperature gradient between the object and the environment , increasing the convection heat transfer coefficient , or increasing the surface area of the object increases the heat transfer . Sometimes it is not feasible or economical to change the first two options . Thus , adding a fin to an object , increases the surface area and can sometimes be an economical solution to heat transfer problems .","qid":"2735","docid":"Fin_(extended_surface)","rank":61,"score":100005},{"content":"Title: Tropical upper tropospheric trough Content: A tropical upper tropospheric trough ( TUTT ) , also known as the mid-oceanic trough , is a trough situated in upper-level ( at about 200 hPa ) tropics . Its formation is usually caused by the intrusion of energy and wind from the mid-latitudes into the tropics . It can also develop from the inverted trough adjacent to an upper level anticyclone . TUTTs are different from mid-latitude troughs in the sense that they are maintained by subsidence warming near the tropopause which balances radiational cooling . When strong , they can present a significant vertical wind shear to the tropics and subdue tropical cyclogenesis . When upper cold lows break off from their base , they tend to retrograde and force the development , or enhance , surface troughs and tropical waves to their east . Under special circumstances , they can induce thunderstorm activity and lead to the formation of tropical cyclones .","qid":"2735","docid":"Tropical_upper_tropospheric_trough","rank":62,"score":99943},{"content":"Title: Electrically scanning microwave radiometer Content: The electrically scanning microwave radiometer ( ESMR ) was an instrument carried by the Nimbus-5 satellite , precursor to the scanning multichannel microwave radiometer ( SMMR ) and special sensor microwave/imager ( SSM/I ) instruments . The ESMR instrument only senses horizontally polarized radiation at a frequency of 19 GHz , and can be used to calculate sea ice concentration . However , results are difficult to intercompare to SMMR / SSMI . The ESMR scanned along the satellite track , leading to a wide range of incident angles ; SMMR scanned with a constant angle of 50 degrees , allowing both horizontally and vertically polarised data to be received ; SMMR also had 5 instead of one channels , leading to improved sea ice retrievals .","qid":"2735","docid":"Electrically_scanning_microwave_radiometer","rank":63,"score":99924},{"content":"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .","qid":"2735","docid":"Regional_effects_of_global_warming","rank":64,"score":98997},{"content":"Title: Sea level rise Content: A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .","qid":"2735","docid":"Sea_level_rise","rank":65,"score":98858},{"content":"Title: Troposphere Content: The troposphere is the lowest portion of Earth 's atmosphere , and is also where nearly all weather takes place . It contains approximately 75 % of the atmosphere 's mass and 99 % of the total mass of water vapor and aerosols . The average depths of the troposphere are 20 km in the tropics , 17 km in the mid latitudes , and 7 km in the polar regions in winter . The lowest part of the troposphere , where friction with the Earth 's surface influences air flow , is the planetary boundary layer . This layer is typically a few hundred meters to 2 km deep depending on the landform and time of day . Atop the troposphere is the tropopause , which is the border between the troposphere and stratosphere . The tropopause is an inversion layer , where the air temperature ceases to decrease with height and remains constant through its thickness . The word troposphere derives from the for `` turn , turn toward , trope '' and '' - sphere '' ( as in , the Earth ) , reflecting the fact that rotational turbulent mixing plays an important role in the troposphere 's structure and behaviour . Most of the phenomena associated with day-to-day weather occur in the troposphere .","qid":"2735","docid":"Troposphere","rank":66,"score":98730},{"content":"Title: Volcanic impacts on the oceans Content: Explosive volcanic eruptions affect the global climate mainly through injecting sulfur bearing gases into the stratosphere , which oxidize to form sulfate aerosols . Stratospheric sulfur aerosols spread around the globe by the atmospheric circulation , producing surface cooling by scattering solar radiation back to space . This cooling effect on the ocean surface usually lasts for several years as the lifetime of sulfate aerosols is about 2 -- 3 years . However , in the subsurface ocean the cooling signal may persist for a longer time and may have impacts on some decadal variabilities , such as the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation ( AMOC ) .","qid":"2735","docid":"Volcanic_impacts_on_the_oceans","rank":67,"score":98581},{"content":"Title: Spectral flux density Content: In spectroscopy , spectral flux density is the quantity that describes the rate at which energy is transferred by electromagnetic radiation through a real or virtual surface , per unit surface area and per unit wavelength . It is a radiometric measure , as distinct from measures that characterize light in terms of the electromagnetic field or photons . In SI units it is measured in W m − 3 , although it can be more practical to use W m − 2 nm − 1 ( 1 W m − 2 nm − 1 = 1 GW m − 3 = 1 W mm − 3 ) or W m − 2 μm − 1 ( 1 W m − 2 μm − 1 = 1 MW m − 3 ) , W · m − 2 · Hz − 1 , Jansky or solar flux units . The terms irradiance , radiant exitance , radiant emittance , and radiosity are closely related to spectral flux density . The terms used to describe spectral flux density vary between fields , sometimes including adjectives such as `` electromagnetic '' or `` radiative '' , and sometimes dropping the word `` density '' . Applications include : Characterizing remote telescopically unresolved sources such as stars , observed from a specified observation point such as an observatory on earth . Characterizing a natural electromagnetic radiative field at a point , measured there with an instrument that collects radiation from a whole sphere or hemisphere of remote sources . Characterizing an artificial collimated electromagnetic radiative beam .","qid":"2735","docid":"Spectral_flux_density","rank":68,"score":98504},{"content":"Title: SS Tropic (1871) Content: SS Tropic was a steamship operated by the White Star Line . Built in 1871 by shipbuilders Thos . Royden & Co , the 2,122 gross-ton vessel operated on the Liverpool to Calcutta run in 1871 , and in 1872 began serving South American ports from Liverpool . In 1873 , the ship was sold to Serra y Font , Bilbao , and renamed Federico .","qid":"2735","docid":"SS_Tropic_(1871)","rank":69,"score":98376},{"content":"Title: Phytodetritus Content: In oceanography , phytodetritus is the organic particulate matter resulting from phytoplankton and other organic material in surface waters falling to the seabed . This process takes place almost continuously as a `` marine snow '' of descending particles , falling at the rate of about 100 to per day . Under certain conditions , phytoplankton may aggregate and fall rapidly through the water column to arrive little changed on the seabed . These fluxes sometimes occur seasonally or periodically , are sometimes associated with algal blooms and may constitute the greater part of descending organic matter . If the amount is greater than the benthic detritivores can process , the phytodetritus forms a fluffy layer on the surface of the sediment . It accumulates in many shallow and deep water locations throughout the world . Phytodetritus varies in colour and appearance and may be greenish , brown or grey , flocculent or gelatinous . It includes the microscopic remains of diatoms , dinoflagellates , dictyochales , coccolithophores , foraminiferans , phaeodareans , tintinnids , crustacean eggs and moults , protozoan faecal pellets , picoplankton and other planktonic matter embedded in a membranous gelatinous matrix . One of the most important genera of forams is Globigerina ; vast areas of the ocean floor are covered with `` Globigerina ooze '' , so named by Murray and Renard in 1873 , dominated by the shells of planktonic forms . Larger materials may also be present including large animal remains such as carcases , large fragments of plant and faecal matter .","qid":"2735","docid":"Phytodetritus","rank":70,"score":98359},{"content":"Title: Tropospheric wave Content: In telecommunication , a tropospheric wave is a radio wave that is propagated by reflection from a place of abrupt change in the dielectric constant , or its gradient , in the troposphere . In some cases , a ground wave may be so altered that new components appear to arise from reflection in regions of rapidly changing dielectric constant . When these components are distinguishable from the other components , they are called `` tropospheric waves . ''","qid":"2735","docid":"Tropospheric_wave","rank":71,"score":97917},{"content":"Title: Satellite temperature measurements Content: The temperature of the atmosphere at various altitudes as well as sea and land surface temperatures can be inferred from satellite measurements . These measurements can be used to locate weather fronts , monitor the El Niño-Southern Oscillation , determine the strength of tropical cyclones , study urban heat islands and monitor the global climate . Wildfires , volcanos , and industrial hot spots can also be found via thermal imaging from weather satellites . Weather satellites do not measure temperature directly . They measure radiances in various wavelength bands . Since 1978 microwave sounding units ( MSUs ) on National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration polar orbiting satellites have measured the intensity of upwelling microwave radiation from atmospheric oxygen , which is related to the temperature of broad vertical layers of the atmosphere . Measurements of infrared radiation pertaining to sea surface temperature have been collected since 1967 . Satellite datasets show that over the past four decades the troposphere has warmed and the stratosphere has cooled . Both of these trends are consistent with the influence of increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases .","qid":"2735","docid":"Satellite_temperature_measurements","rank":72,"score":97835},{"content":"Title: Wave setup Content: In fluid dynamics , wave setup is the increase in mean water level due to the presence of breaking waves . Similarly , wave setdown is a wave-induced decrease of the mean water level before the waves break ( during the shoaling process ) . For short , the whole phenomenon is often denoted as wave setup , including both increase and decrease of mean elevation . This setup is primarily present in and near the coastal surf zone . Besides a spatial variation in the ( mean ) wave setup , also a variation in time may be present -- known as surf beat -- causing infragravity wave radiation . Wave setup can be mathematically modeled by considering the variation in radiation stress . Radiation stress is the tensor of excess horizontal-momentum fluxes due to the presence of the waves .","qid":"2735","docid":"Wave_setup","rank":73,"score":97831},{"content":"Title: Ocean surface topography Content: The ocean surface has highs and lows , similar to the hills and valleys of Earth 's land surface depicted on a topographic map . These variations , called ocean surface topography ( or sea surface topography ) , also dynamic topography , are mapped using direct ( usually satellite-based ) or indirect measurements of sea surface height relative to Earth 's geoid . Earth 's geoid is a calculated surface of equal gravitational potential energy and represents the shape the sea surface would be if the ocean were not in motion . The main purpose of measuring ocean surface topography is to understand the large-scale circulation of the ocean . On a daily basis , SSH is most obviously affected by the tidal forces of the Moon and the Sun acting on the Earth . Over longer timescales , SSH is influenced by ocean circulation . Typically , SSH anomalies resulting from these forces differ from the mean by less than ± 1 m at the global scale . Other influences include temperature , salinity , tides , waves , and the loading of atmospheric pressure . The slowest and largest variations are due to changes in the Earth 's gravitational field ( geoid ) due to the rearrangement of continents , formation of sea mounts and other redistribution of rock . Since the Earth 's gravitational field is relatively stable on decadal to centennial timescales , ocean circulation plays a more significant role in the observed variation of SSH . Across the seasonal cycle changes in patterns of warming , cooling and surface wind forcing affect circulation and influence SSH . Variations in SSH can be measured by satellite altimetry ( e.g. TOPEX/Poseidon ) and used to calculate determine sea level rise and properties such as ocean heat storage .","qid":"2735","docid":"Ocean_surface_topography","rank":74,"score":97802},{"content":"Title: Clathrate gun hypothesis Content: The clathrate gun hypothesis is the popular name given to the hypothesis that increases in sea temperatures ( and/or drops in sea levels ) can trigger the sudden release of methane from methane clathrate compounds buried in seabeds and that are contained within seabed permafrost which , because methane itself is a powerful greenhouse gas , leads to further temperature rise and further methane clathrate destabilization -- in effect initiating a runaway process as irreversible , once started , as the firing of a gun . In its original form , the hypothesis proposed that the `` clathrate gun '' could cause abrupt runaway warming on a timescale less than a human lifetime . It was thought to be responsible for warming events in and at the end of the last glacial maximum , however this is now thought to be unlikely . However , there is stronger evidence that runaway methane clathrate breakdown may have caused drastic alteration of the ocean environment ( such as ocean acidification and ocean stratification ) and of the atmosphere of earth on a number of occasions in the past , over timescales of tens of thousands of years . These events include the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum 56 million years ago , and most notably the Permian -- Triassic extinction event , when up to 96 % of all marine species became extinct , 252 million years ago .","qid":"2735","docid":"Clathrate_gun_hypothesis","rank":75,"score":97094},{"content":"Title: Shortwave radiation Content: Shortwave radiation ( SW ) is radiant energy with wavelengths in the visible ( VIS ) , near-ultraviolet ( UV ) , and near-infrared ( NIR ) spectra . There is no standard cut-off for the near-infrared range ; therefore , the shortwave radiation range is also variously defined . It may be broadly defined to include all radiation with a wavelength between 0.1 μm and 5.0 μm or narrowly defined so as to include only radiation between 0.2 μm and 3.0 μm . There is little radiation flux ( in terms of W/m ² ) to the Earth 's surface below 0.2 μm or above 3.0 μm , although photon flux remains significant as far as 6.0 μm , compared to shorter wavelength fluxes . UV-C radiation spans from 0.1 μm to .28 μm , UV-B from 0.28 μm to 0.315 μm , UV-A from 0.315 μm to 0.4 μm , the visible spectrum from 0.4 μm to 0.7 μm , and NIR arguably from 0.7 μm to 5.0 μm , beyond which the infrared is thermal . Shortwave radiation is distinguished from longwave radiation . Downward shortwave radiation is sensitive to solar zenith angle , cloud cover and surface albedo .","qid":"2735","docid":"Shortwave_radiation","rank":76,"score":96158},{"content":"Title: Mixed layer Content: The oceanic or limnological mixed layer is a layer in which active turbulence has homogenized some range of depths . The surface mixed layer is a layer where this turbulence is generated by winds , surface heat fluxes , or processes such as evaporation or sea ice formation which result in an increase in salinity . The atmospheric mixed layer is a zone having nearly constant potential temperature and specific humidity with height . The depth of the atmospheric mixed layer is known as the mixing height . Turbulence typically plays a role in the formation of fluid mixed layers .","qid":"2735","docid":"Mixed_layer","rank":77,"score":96071},{"content":"Title: Net radiometer Content: A net radiometer is a type of actinometer used to measure net radiation ( NR ) at the Earth 's surface for meteorological applications . The name net radiometer reflects the fact that it measures the difference between downward/incoming and upward/outgoing radiation from Earth . It is most commonly used in the field of ecophysiology .","qid":"2735","docid":"Net_radiometer","rank":78,"score":95861},{"content":"Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .","qid":"2735","docid":"Future_sea_level","rank":79,"score":95718},{"content":"Title: HadCM3 Content: HadCM3 ( abbreviation for Hadley Centre Coupled Model , version 3 ) is a coupled atmosphere-ocean general circulation model ( AOGCM ) developed at the Hadley Centre in the United Kingdom . It was one of the major models used in the IPCC Third Assessment Report in 2001 . Unlike earlier AOGCMs at the Hadley Centre and elsewhere ( including its predecessor HadCM2 ) , HadCM3 does not need flux adjustment ( additional `` artificial '' heat and freshwater fluxes at the ocean surface ) to produce a good simulation . The higher ocean resolution of HadCM3 is a major factor in this ; other factors include a good match between the atmospheric and oceanic components ; and an improved ocean mixing scheme ( Gent and McWilliams ) . HadCM3 has been run to produce simulations for periods of over a thousand years , showing little drift in its surface climate . HadCM3 is composed of two components : the atmospheric model HadAM3 and the ocean model HadOM3 ( which includes a sea ice model ) . Simulations use a 360-day calendar , where each month is 30 days .","qid":"2735","docid":"HadCM3","rank":80,"score":95644},{"content":"Title: Cool tropics paradox Content: The cool tropics paradox refers to an apparent difference between modeled estimates of tropical temperatures during warm , ice-free periods of the Cretaceous and Eocene , and the colder temperatures which proxies suggested were present . The long-standing paradox was resolved when novel proxy derived temperatures showed significantly warmer tropics during past greenhouse climates . The low-gradient problem , i.e. the very warm polar regions with respect to present day , is still an issue for state-of-the-art climate models .","qid":"2735","docid":"Cool_tropics_paradox","rank":81,"score":95206},{"content":"Title: Helmholtz reciprocity Content: The Helmholtz reciprocity principle describes how a ray of light and its reverse ray encounter matched optical adventures , such as reflections , refractions , and absorptions in a passive medium , or at an interface . It does not apply to moving , non-linear , or magnetic media . For example , incoming and outgoing light can be considered as reversals of each other , without affecting the bidirectional reflectance distribution function ( BRDF ) outcome . If light was measured with a sensor and that light reflected on a material with a BRDF that obeys the Helmholtz reciprocity principle one would be able to swap the sensor and light source and the measurement of flux would remain equal . In the computer graphics scheme of global illumination , the Helmholtz reciprocity principle is important if the global illumination algorithm reverses light paths ( for example Raytracing versus classic light path tracing ) .","qid":"2735","docid":"Helmholtz_reciprocity","rank":82,"score":95186},{"content":"Title: Upwelling Content: Upwelling is an oceanographic phenomenon that involves wind-driven motion of dense , cooler , and usually nutrient-rich water towards the ocean surface , replacing the warmer , usually nutrient-depleted surface water . The nutrient-rich upwelled water stimulates the growth and reproduction of primary producers such as phytoplankton . Due to the biomass of phytoplankton and presence of cool water in these regions , upwelling zones can be identified by cool sea surface temperatures ( SST ) and high concentrations of chlorophyll-a . The increased availability in upwelling regions results in high levels of primary productivity and thus fishery production . Approximately 25 % of the total global marine fish catches come from five upwellings that occupy only 5 % of the total ocean area . Upwellings that are driven by coastal currents or diverging open ocean have the greatest impact on nutrient-enriched waters and global fishery yields . __ TOC __","qid":"2735","docid":"Upwelling","rank":83,"score":95093},{"content":"Title: F2 propagation Content: The E layer of the ionosphere is not the only layer that can reflect VHF television signals . Less frequently , the higher F2 layer can also propagate VHF signals several thousand miles beyond their intended area of reception . Solar activity has a cycle of approximately 11 years . During this period , sunspot activity rises to a peak and gradually falls again to a low level . When sunspot activity increases , the reflecting capabilities of the F1 layer surrounding earth enable high frequency short-wave communications . The highest-reflecting layer , the F2 layer , which is approximately 200 miles ( 320 km ) above earth , receives ultraviolet radiation from the sun , causing ionisation of the gases within this layer . During the daytime when sunspot activity is at a maximum , the F2 layer can become intensely ionized due to radiation from the sun . When solar activity is sufficiently high , the MUF ( Maximum Usable Frequency ) rises , hence the ionisation density is sufficient to reflect signals well into the 30 -- 50 MHz VHF spectrum . Since the MUF progressively increases , F2 reception on lower frequencies can indicate potential low band 45-55 MHz VHF TV as well as VHF amateur radio paths . A rising MUF will initially affect the 27 MHz CB band , and the amateur 28 MHz 10 meters band before reaching 45-55 MHz TV and the 6 Meter amateur band . The F2 MUF generally increases at a slower rate compared to the Es MUF . Since the height of the F2 layer is some 200 miles ( 320 km ) , it follows that single-hop F2 signals will be received at thousands rather than hundreds of miles . A single-hop F2 signal will usually be around 2,000 miles ( 3,200 km ) minimum . A maximum F2 single-hop can reach up to approximately 3,000 miles ( 4,800 km ) . Multi-hop F2 propagation has enabled Band 1 VHF reception to over 11,000 miles ( 17,700 km ) . Since F2 reception is directly related to radiation from the Sun on both a daily basis and in relation to the sunspot cycle , it follows that for optimum reception the centre of the signal path will be roughly at midday . The F2 layer tends to predominantly propagate signals below 40 MHz , which includes the 27 MHz CB band , and 28 MHz 10-metre Amateur radio band . Less frequently , television and amateur signals in the 45 -- 55 MHz VHF band are also propagated over considerable distances . In North America , F2 is most likely to only affect VHF TV channel 2 , in Europe and middle east channel E2 and E3 ( and the now deprecated channel itA ) and in eastern Europe channel R1 . Television pictures propagated via F2 tend to suffer from characteristic ghosting and smearing . Picture degradation and signal strength attenuation increases with each subsequent F2 hop .","qid":"2735","docid":"F2_propagation","rank":84,"score":95017},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .","qid":"2735","docid":"Greenhouse_gas","rank":85,"score":95015},{"content":"Title: Idealized greenhouse model Content: The surface of the Sun radiates light and heat at approximately 5,500 ° C . The Earth is much cooler and so radiates heat back away from itself at much longer wavelengths , mostly in the infrared range . The idealized greenhouse model is based on the fact that certain gases in the Earth 's atmosphere , including carbon dioxide and water vapour , are transparent to the high-frequency , high-energy solar radiation , but are much more opaque to the lower frequency infrared radiation leaving the surface of the earth . Thus heat is easily let in , but is partially trapped by these gases as it tries to leave . Rather than get hotter and hotter , Kirchhoff 's law of thermal radiation says that the gases of the atmosphere also have to re-emit the infrared energy that they absorb , and they do so , also at long infrared wavelengths , both upwards into space as well as downwards back towards the Earth 's surface . In the long-term , thermal equilibrium is reached when all the heat energy arriving on the planet is leaving again at the same rate . In this idealized model , the greenhouse gases cause the surface of the planet to be warmer than it would be without them , in order for the required amount of heat energy finally to be radiated out into space from the top of the atmosphere . The greenhouse effect can be illustrated with an idealized planet . This is a common `` textbook model '' : the planet will have a constant surface temperature Ts and an atmosphere with constant temperature Ta . For diagrammatic clarity , a gap can be depicted between the atmosphere and the surface . Alternatively , Ts could be interpreted as a temperature representative of the surface and the lower atmosphere , and Ta could be interpreted as the temperature of the upper atmosphere . In order to justify that Ta and Ts remain constant over the planet , strong ocean and atmospheric currents can be imagined to provide plentiful lateral mixing . Furthermore , any daily or seasonal cycles in temperature are assumed to be insignificant .","qid":"2735","docid":"Idealized_greenhouse_model","rank":86,"score":94987},{"content":"Title: Serotonin syndrome Content: Serotonin syndrome ( SS ) is a group of symptoms that may occur following use of certain serotonergic medications or drugs . The degree of symptoms can range from mild to severe . Symptoms include high body temperature , agitation , increased reflexes , tremor , sweating , dilated pupils , and diarrhea . Body temperature can increase to greater than 41.1 C. Complications may include seizures and extensive muscle breakdown . Serotonin syndrome is typically caused by the use of two or more serotonergic medications or drugs . This may include selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor ( SSRI ) , serotonin norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor ( SNRI ) , monoamine oxidase inhibitor ( MAOI ) , tricyclic antidepressants ( TCAs ) , amphetamines , pethidine ( meperidine ) , tramadol , dextromethorphan , buspirone , L-tryptophan , St. John 's wort , triptans , ecstasy , metoclopramide , ondansetron , or cocaine . It occurs in about 15 % of SSRI overdoses . It is a predictable consequence of excess serotonin on the central nervous system ( CNS ) . Onset of symptoms is typically within a day of the extra serotonin . Diagnosis is based on a person 's symptoms and history of medication use . Other conditions that can produce similar symptoms such as neuroleptic malignant syndrome , malignant hyperthermia , anticholinergic toxicity , heat stroke , and meningitis should be ruled out . No laboratory tests can confirm the diagnosis . Initial treatment consists of discontinuing medications which may be contributing . In those who are agitated benzodiazepines may be used . If this is not sufficient , a serotonin antagonist such as cyproheptadine may be used . In those with a high body temperatures active cooling measures may be needed . The number of cases of serotonin syndrome that occur each year is unclear . With appropriate treatment the risk of death is less than one percent . The high-profile case of Libby Zion , who is generally accepted to have died from serotonin syndrome , resulted in changes to graduate medical education in New York State .","qid":"2735","docid":"Serotonin_syndrome","rank":87,"score":94665},{"content":"Title: Evolutionary radiation Content: An evolutionary radiation is an increase in taxonomic diversity or morphological disparity , due to adaptive change or the opening of ecospace . Radiations may affect one clade or many , and be rapid or gradual ; where they are rapid , and driven by a single lineage 's adaptation to their environment , they are termed adaptive radiations . Caribbean anoline lizards are a particularly interesting example of an adaptive radiation .","qid":"2735","docid":"Evolutionary_radiation","rank":88,"score":94518},{"content":"Title: Atlantic multidecadal oscillation Content: The Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation ( AMO ) is a climate cycle that affects the sea surface temperature of the North Atlantic Ocean based on different modes on multidecadal timescales . While there is some support for this mode in models and in historical observations , controversy exists with regard to its amplitude , and in particular , the attribution of sea surface temperature change to natural or anthropogenic causes , especially in tropical Atlantic areas important for hurricane development .","qid":"2735","docid":"Atlantic_multidecadal_oscillation","rank":89,"score":94514},{"content":"Title: Arctic geoengineering Content: Temperatures in the Arctic region have tended to increase more rapidly than the global average . Projections of sea ice loss that are adjusted to take account of recent rapid Arctic shrinkage suggest that the Arctic will likely be free of summer sea ice sometime between 2059 and 2078 . Various climate engineering schemes have been suggested to reduce the chance of significant and irreversible effects such as Arctic methane release . Several climate engineering proposals have been made which are specific to the Arctic . They are usually hydrological in nature , and principally centre upon measures to prevent Arctic ice loss . In addition , other solar radiation management climate engineering techniques , such as stratospheric sulfate aerosols have been proposed . These would cool the Arctic by adjusting the albedo of the atmosphere .","qid":"2735","docid":"Arctic_geoengineering","rank":90,"score":94296},{"content":"Title: Kerry Emanuel Content: Kerry Andrew Emanuel ( born April 21 , 1955 ) is an American professor of meteorology currently working at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge . In particular he has specialized in atmospheric convection and the mechanisms acting to intensify hurricanes . He was named one of the Time 100 influential people of 2006 . In 2007 , he was elected as a member of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences . He hypothesized in 1994 about a superpowerful type of hurricane which could be formed if average sea surface temperature increased another 15C more than it 's ever been ( see `` hypercane '' ) . In a March 2008 paper published in the Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society , he put forward the conclusion that global warming is likely to increase the intensity but decrease the frequency of hurricane and cyclone activity . Gabriel Vecchi , of NOAA said of Emanuel 's announcement , `` While his results do n't rule out the possibility that global warming has contributed to the recent increase in activity in the Atlantic , they suggest that other factors -- possibly in addition to global warming -- are likely to have been substantial contributors to the observed increase in activity . '' In 2013 , with other leading experts , he was co-author of an open letter to policy makers , which stated that `` continued opposition to nuclear power threatens humanity 's ability to avoid dangerous climate change . ''","qid":"2735","docid":"Kerry_Emanuel","rank":91,"score":94276},{"content":"Title: Amundsen-Nobile Climate Change Tower Content: The Amundsen-Nobile Climate Change Tower ( CCT ) is a 34-meter research tower installed in Ny-Ålesund , Svalbard , Norway , for the study of various physical parameters in the boundary layer of the lower troposphere . In particular it continuously measured meteorological parameters ( temperature , relative humidity , intensity and direction of the wind ) at four different levels of height , and the four components of solar radiation and infrared at the top of the tower itself . They also measure the height of the layer of snow and its temperature at two depths . The tower was funded by the Department of Earth and Environment ( DTA ) of the National Research Council of Italy ( CNR ) and installed by Kings Bay in science village of Ny-Ålesund on Svalbard island . The inauguration took place on30 April 2009 . The CCT is an important point of reference for the study of the energy balance at the surface , and the processes of interaction and exchange between the various components of the climate system . The structure is dedicated to the Arctic expeditions of Norwegian Roald Amundsen and Italian Umberto Nobile explorers .","qid":"2735","docid":"Amundsen-Nobile_Climate_Change_Tower","rank":92,"score":94234},{"content":"Title: Hypercane Content: A hypercane is a hypothetical class of extreme tropical cyclone that could form if ocean temperatures reached 50 C , which is 15 C-change warmer than the warmest ocean temperature ever recorded . Such an increase could be caused by a large asteroid or comet impact , a large supervolcanic eruption , or extensive global warming . There is some speculation that a series of hypercanes resulting from an impact by a large asteroid or comet contributed to the demise of the non-avian dinosaurs . The hypothesis was created by Kerry Emanuel of MIT who also coined the term .","qid":"2735","docid":"Hypercane","rank":93,"score":93826},{"content":"Title: SSTD Content: The United Kingdom Surface Ship Torpedo Defence ( SSTD ) system entered into service with the Royal Navy in 2004 . The system is produced by Ultra Electronics and is known as S2170 by the Royal Navy and as Sea Sentor in the export market . The system consists of an acoustic passive towed array a towed acoustic countermeasure ( flexible ) a single-drum winch a processing cabinet 2 display consoles 2 expendable acoustic device launchers ( 1 port , 1 starboard ) 16 expendable acoustic devices ( 8 in each launcher ) The system is a foot-print compatible replacement for the AN/SLQ -25 Nixie system previously installed on RN warships . The passive acoustic towed array is specifically designed to detect torpedoes ( unlike traditional ASW sonars ) and has additional in-built non-acoustic as well as acoustic intercept sensors . Through advanced AI processing it is able to generically identify torpedoes as well as classify specific weapon types and modes and undertake threat evaluation and posturing analysis . The system provides tactical advice dependent upon the specific threat weapon , mode and posture to maximise vessel survivability , which typically involves vessel manoeuvres and also includes the deployment of countermeasures . The countermeasures - both towed and expendable variants - lure the threat away from the vessel in a soft-kill manner . Ultra Electronics also produces a hard-kill variant known as the TRAPR DCL system currently under development for the US Navy .","qid":"2735","docid":"SSTD","rank":94,"score":93460},{"content":"Title: Wave shoaling Content: In fluid dynamics , wave shoaling is the effect by which surface waves entering shallower water change in wave height . It is caused by the fact that the group velocity , which is also the wave-energy transport velocity , changes with water depth . Under stationary conditions , a decrease in transport speed must be compensated by an increase in energy density in order to maintain a constant energy flux . Shoaling waves will also exhibit a reduction in wavelength while the frequency remains constant . In shallow water and parallel depth contours , non-breaking waves will increase in wave height as the wave packet enters shallower water . This is particularly evident for tsunamis as they wax in height when approaching a coastline , with devastating results .","qid":"2735","docid":"Wave_shoaling","rank":95,"score":93347},{"content":"Title: Jansky Content: The jansky ( symbol Jy ) is a non-SI unit of spectral flux density , or spectral irradiance , used especially in radio astronomy . It is equivalent to 10 − 26 watts per square metre per hertz . The flux density or monochromatic flux , , of a source is the integral of the spectral radiance , , over the source solid angle : The unit is named after pioneering US radio astronomer Karl Guthe Jansky and is defined as ( SI ) ( cgs ) . Since the jansky is obtained by integrating over the whole source solid angle , it is most simply used to describe point sources ; for example , the Third Cambridge Catalogue of Radio Sources ( 3C ) reports results in Jy . For extended sources , the surface brightness is often described with units of Jy per solid angle ; for example , far-infrared ( FIR ) maps from the IRAS satellite are in MJy/sr . Although extended sources at all wavelengths can be reported with these units , for radio-frequency maps , extended sources have traditionally been described in terms of a brightness temperature ; for example the Haslam et al. 408 MHz all-sky continuum survey is reported in terms of a brightness temperature in K.","qid":"2735","docid":"Jansky","rank":96,"score":93301},{"content":"Title: Baseline Surface Radiation Network Content: Baseline Surface Radiation Network ( BSRN ) is a project of the World Climate Research Programme ( WCRP ) and the Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment ( GEWEX ) and as such is aimed detecting important changes in the Earth 's radiation field at the Earth 's surface which may be related to climate changes . The central archive of the BSRN is the World Radiation Monitoring Center ( WRMC ) which was initiated by Atsumu Ohmura in 1992 and operated at ETH until 2007 . Since 2008 the WRMC is operated by the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research ( AWI ) , Germany .","qid":"2735","docid":"Baseline_Surface_Radiation_Network","rank":97,"score":93279},{"content":"Title: Critical heat flux Content: Critical heat flux ( CHF ) describes the thermal limit of a phenomenon where a phase change occurs during heating ( such as bubbles forming on a metal surface used to heat water ) , which suddenly decreases the efficiency of heat transfer , thus causing localised overheating of the heating surface . The critical heat flux for ignition is the lowest thermal load per unit area capable of initiating a combustion reaction on a given material ( either flame or smoulder ignition ) .","qid":"2735","docid":"Critical_heat_flux","rank":98,"score":93014},{"content":"Title: Radiolysis Content: Radiolysis is the dissociation of molecules by ionizing radiation . It is the cleavage of one or several chemical bonds resulting from exposure to high-energy flux . The radiation in this context is associated with ionizing radiation ; radiolysis is therefore distinguished from , for example , photolysis of the Cl2 molecule into two Cl-radicals , where ( ultraviolet or visible ) light is used . For example , water dissociates under alpha radiation into a hydrogen radical and a hydroxyl radical , unlike ionization of water which produces a hydrogen ion and a hydroxide ion . The chemistry of concentrated solutions under ionizing radiation is extremely complex . Radiolysis can locally modify redox conditions , and therefore the speciation and the solubility of the compounds .","qid":"2735","docid":"Radiolysis","rank":99,"score":92683},{"content":"Title: Thermohaline circulation Content: Thermohaline circulation ( THC ) is a part of the large-scale ocean circulation that is driven by global density gradients created by surface heat and freshwater fluxes . The adjective thermohaline derives from thermo - referring to temperature and referring to salt content , factors which together determine the density of sea water . Wind-driven surface currents ( such as the Gulf Stream ) travel polewards from the equatorial Atlantic Ocean , cooling en route , and eventually sinking at high latitudes ( forming North Atlantic Deep Water ) . This dense water then flows into the ocean basins . While the bulk of it upwells in the Southern Ocean , the oldest waters ( with a transit time of around 1000 years ) upwell in the North Pacific . Extensive mixing therefore takes place between the ocean basins , reducing differences between them and making the Earth 's oceans a global system . On their journey , the water masses transport both energy ( in the form of heat ) and matter ( solids , dissolved substances and gases ) around the globe . As such , the state of the circulation has a large impact on the climate of the Earth . The thermohaline circulation is sometimes called the ocean conveyor belt , the great ocean conveyor , or the global conveyor belt . On occasion , it is used to refer to the meridional overturning circulation ( often abbreviated as MOC ) . The term MOC is more accurate and well defined , as it is difficult to separate the part of the circulation which is driven by temperature and salinity alone as opposed to other factors such as the wind and tidal forces . Moreover , temperature and salinity gradients can also lead to circulation effects that are not included in the MOC itself .","qid":"2735","docid":"Thermohaline_circulation","rank":100,"score":92602}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Iris hypothesis Content: The iris hypothesis is a hypothesis proposed by Richard Lindzen et al. in 2001 that suggested increased sea surface temperature in the tropics would result in reduced cirrus clouds and thus more infrared radiation leakage from Earth 's atmosphere . His study of observed changes in cloud coverage and modeled effects on infrared radiation released to space as a result supported the hypothesis . This suggested infrared radiation leakage was hypothesized to be a negative feedback in which an initial warming would result in an overall cooling of the surface . The consensus view is that increased sea surface temperature would result in increased cirrus clouds and reduced infrared radiation leakage and therefore a positive feedback . Other scientists subsequently tested the hypothesis . Some concluded that there was no evidence supporting the hypothesis . Others found evidence suggesting that increased sea surface temperature in the tropics did indeed reduce cirrus clouds but found that the effect was nonetheless a positive feedback rather than the negative feedback that Lindzen had hypothesized . A later 2007 study conducted by Roy Spencer et al. using updated satellite data potentially supported the iris hypothesis . In 2011 , Lindzen published a rebuttal to the main criticisms . In 2015 a paper was published which again suggested the possibility of an `` Iris Effect '' . It also proposed what it called a `` plausible physical mechanism for an iris effect . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Iris_hypothesis\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 182274\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea surface temperature Content: Sea surface temperature ( SST ) is the water temperature close to the ocean 's surface . The exact meaning of surface varies according to the measurement method used , but it is between 1 mm and 20 m below the sea surface . Air masses in the Earth 's atmosphere are highly modified by sea surface temperatures within a short distance of the shore . Localized areas of heavy snow can form in bands downwind of warm water bodies within an otherwise cold air mass . Warm sea surface temperatures are known to be a cause of tropical cyclogenesis over the Earth 's oceans . Tropical cyclones can also cause a cool wake , due to turbulent mixing of the upper 30 m of the ocean . SST changes diurnally , like the air above it , but to a lesser degree . There is less SST variation on breezy days than on calm days . In addition , ocean currents such as the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation ( AMO ) , can effect SST 's on multi-decadal time scales , a major impact results from the global thermohaline circulation , which affects average SST significantly throughout most of the world 's oceans . Coastal SSTs can cause offshore winds to generate upwelling , which can significantly cool or warm nearby landmasses , but shallower waters over a continental shelf are often warmer . Onshore winds can cause a considerable warm-up even in areas where upwelling is fairly constant , such as the northwest coast of South America . Its values are important within numerical weather prediction as the SST influences the atmosphere above , such as in the formation of sea breezes and sea fog . It is also used to calibrate measurements from weather satellites .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea_surface_temperature\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 167883\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: AATSR Content: The Advanced Along Track Scanning Radiometer ( AATSR ) is one of the Announcement of Opportunity ( AO ) instruments on board the European Space Agency ( ESA ) 's Envisat satellite . This instrument is a multi-channel imaging radiometer with the principal objective of providing data concerning global Sea Surface Temperature ( SST ) to the high levels of accuracy and stability required for monitoring and carrying out research into the behaviour of the Earth 's climate . AATSR can measure Earth 's surface temperature to a precision of 0.3 K-change , for climate research . Among the secondary objectives of AATSR is the observation of environmental parameters such as aerosols , clouds , fires , gas flares , water content , biomass , and vegetal health and growth . AATSR is the successor of ATSR-1 and ATSR-2 , payloads of ERS-1 and ERS-2 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"AATSR\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 156930\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ghrsst-pp Content: The Group for High Resolution SST ( GHRSST ) is a follow on activity form the Global Ocean Data Assimilation Experiment ( GODAE ) high-resolution sea surface temperature pilot project ( GHRSST-PP ) provides a new generation of global high-resolution ( < 10 km ) SST data products to the operational oceanographic , meteorological , climate and general scientific community , in real time and delayed mode . See GHRSST for full details . Sea surface temperature ( SST ) measured from Earth Observation Satellites in considerable spatial detail and at high frequency , is increasingly required for use in the context of operational monitoring and forecasting of the ocean , for assimilation into coupled ocean-atmosphere model systems and for applications in short-term numerical weather prediction and longer term climate change detection . Currently there are many different SST data sets available derived from satellite systems . But , scientists and operational agencies alike are presented with a bewidering set of options in terms of SST product content , coverage , spatial resolution , timeliness , format and accuracy . The international GODAE steering committee realised that SST data products were not adequate for GODAE forecast systems and initiated the GODAE High Resolution SST Pilot Project ( GHRSST-PP ) . User Requirements were collected together to define the optimal SST data products that could be developed to suit the widest possible number of applications . In 2008 the GHRSST-PP Science Team agreed to close the Pilot Project as the GODAE project was completed . A follow on activity called the Group for High Resolution SST is now continuing the coordination of GHRSST activities .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Ghrsst-pp\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 152108\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Outgoing longwave radiation Content: Outgoing Longwave Radiation ( OLR ) is the energy radiating from the Earth as infrared radiation at low energy to Space . OLR is electromagnetic radiation emitted from Earth and its atmosphere out to space in the form of thermal radiation . The flux of energy transported by outgoing longwave radiation is measured in W/m ² . Over 99 % of outgoing longwave radiation has wavelengths between 4 µm and 100 µm , in the thermal infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum . Contributions with wavelengths larger than 40 µm are small , therefore often only wavelengths up to 50 µm are considered . In the wavelength range between 4 µm and 10 µm the spectrum of outgoing longwave radiation overlaps that of solar radiation , and for various applications different cut-off wavelengths between the two may be chosen . Radiative cooling by outgoing longwave radiation is the primary way the Earth System loses energy . The balance between this loss and the energy gained by radiative heating from incoming solar shortwave radiation determines global heating or cooling of the Earth system ( Energy budget of Earth 's climate ) . Local differences between radiative heating and cooling provide the energy that drives atmospheric dynamics .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Outgoing_longwave_radiation\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 151893\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kombayashi–Ingersoll limit Content: In planetary science , the Kombayashi -- Ingersoll limit represents the maximum solar flux a planet can handle without a runaway greenhouse effect setting in . For planets with temperature-dependent sources of greenhouse gases such as liquid water and optically thin atmospheres the outgoing longwave radiation curve ( which indicates how fast energy can be radiated away by the planet ) flattens at high temperatures , reaching a horizontal asymptote -- the Kombayashi -- Ingersoll limit itself . Since the equilibrium temperature is the intersection of this curve and a horizontal line representing solar flux , for fluxes above this point the planet heats up indefinitely . Kasting estimated the limit for Earth to be 320 watts per square meter . The limit is relevant for estimating the inner edge of the circumstellar habitable zone . However , the limit also depends on the surface gravity of the planet , making heavy worlds somewhat more resistant to the runaway effect .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Kombayashi–Ingersoll_limit\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 147358\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tropical Atlantic SST Dipole Content: The Tropical Atlantic SST Dipole refers to a cross-equatorial sea surface temperature ( SST ) pattern that appears dominant on decadal timescales . It has a period of about 12 years , with the SST anomalies manifesting their most pronounced features around 10 -- 15 degrees of latitude off of the Equator . The term Tropical Atlantic SST dipole is only one of the characteristic names used to refer to this mode of variability ; other definitions include the interhemispheric SST gradient or the Meridional Atlantic mode . This decadal-scale SST pattern constitutes one of the key features of SST variability in the Tropical Atlantic ocean , with another one being the Atlantic Equatorial Mode or Atlantic Niño , which occurs in the zonal ( east-west ) direction at interannual timescales , with sea surface temperature and heat content anomalies being observed in the eastern equatorial basin . Its importance in climate dynamics and decadal-scale climate prediction is evident when investigating its impact on adjacent continental regions such as the Northeast Brazil , the Sahel as well as its influence on North Atlantic cyclogenesis .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Tropical_Atlantic_SST_Dipole\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 140906\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Albrecht effect Content: The Albrecht effect describes how cloud condensation nuclei ( CCN ) , possibly from anthropogenic pollution , may increase cloud lifetime and hence increase the amount of solar radiation reflected from clouds . Because it does not directly interact with incoming or outgoing radiation , it has an indirect effect on climate . Aerosol particles act as CCNs creating more droplets of a smaller size . These take more time to coalesce to raindrop size ( > 100μm ) , reducing precipitation efficiency and hence increasing the lifetime of the cloud . The increased scattering of incoming radiation leads to a cooling of -0.3 to -1.4 Wm − 2 . This effect is not as well understood as the Twomey effect . There are many other effects , indirect and semi-direct aerosol effects resulting in a large uncertainty in the radiative forcing due to aerosols .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Albrecht_effect\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 137741\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Subtropical Indian Ocean Dipole Content: The Subtropical Indian Ocean Dipole ( SIOD ) is featured by the oscillation of sea surface temperatures ( SST ) in which the southwest Indian Ocean i.e. south of Madagascar is warmer and then colder than the eastern part i.e. off Australia . It was first identified in the studies of the relationship between the SST anomaly and the south-central Africa rainfall anomaly ; the existence of such a dipole was identified from both observational studies and model simulations .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Subtropical_Indian_Ocean_Dipole\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 130196\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Super soft X-ray source Content: A luminous supersoft X-ray source ( SSXS , or SSS ) is an astronomical source that emits only low energy ( i.e. , soft ) X-rays . Soft X-rays have energies in the 0.09 to 2.5 keV range , whereas hard X-rays are in the 1-20 keV range . SSSs emit few or no photons with energies above 1 keV , and most have effective temperatures below 100 eV . This means that the radiation they emit is highly ionizing and is readily absorbed by the interstellar medium . Most SSSs within our own galaxy are hidden by interstellar absorption in the galactic disk . They are readily evident in external galaxies , with ~ 10 found in the Magellanic Clouds and at least 15 seen in M31 . As of early 2005 , more than 100 SSSs have been reported in ~ 20 external galaxies , the Large Magellanic Cloud ( LMC ) , Small Magellanic Cloud ( SMC ) , and the Milky Way ( MW ) . Those with luminosities below ~ 3 x 1038 erg/s are consistent with steady nuclear burning in accreting white dwarfs ( WD ) s or post-novae . There are a few SSS with luminosities ≥ 1039 erg/s . Super soft X-rays are believed to be produced by steady nuclear fusion on a white dwarf 's surface of material pulled from a binary companion , the so-called close-binary supersoft source ( CBSS ) . This requires a flow of material sufficiently high to sustain the fusion . Contrast this with the nova , where less flow causes the material to only fuse sporadically . Super soft X-ray sources can evolve into type Ia supernova , where a sudden fusion of material destroys the white dwarf , and neutron stars , through collapse . Super soft X-ray sources were first discovered by the Einstein Observatory . Further discoveries were made by ROSAT . Many different classes of objects emit supersoft X-radiation ( emission dominantly below 0.5 keV ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Super_soft_X-ray_source\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 129281\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coronal radiative losses Content: In astronomy and in astrophysics , for radiative losses of the solar corona , it is meant the energy flux irradiated from the external atmosphere of the Sun ( traditionally divided into chromosphere , transition region and corona ) , and , in particular , the processes of production of the radiation coming from the solar corona and transition region , where the plasma is optically-thin . On the contrary , in the chromosphere , where the temperature decreases from the photospheric value of 6000 K to the minimum of 4400 K , the optical depth is about 1 , and the radiation is thermal . The corona extends much further than a solar radius from the photosphere and looks very complex and inhomogeneous in the X-rays images taken by satellites ( see the figure on the right taken by the XRT on board Hinode ) . The structure and dynamics of the corona are dominated by the solar magnetic field . There are strong evidences that even the heating mechanism , responsible for its high temperature of million degrees , is linked to the magnetic field of the Sun . The energy flux irradiated from the corona changes in active regions , in the quiet Sun and in coronal holes ; actually , part of the energy is irradiated outwards , but approximately the same amount of the energy flux is conducted back towards the chromosphere , through the steep transition region . In active regions the energy flux is about 107 erg cm − 2sec − 1 , in the quiet Sun it is roughly 8 105 -- 106 erg cm − 2sec − 1 , and in coronal holes 5 105 - 8 105 erg cm − 2sec − 1 , including the losses due to the solar wind . The required power is a small fraction of the total flux irradiated from the Sun , but this energy is enough to maintain the plasma at the temperature of million degrees , since the density is very low and the processes of radiation are different from those occurring in the photosphere , as it is shown in detail in the next section .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Coronal_radiative_losses\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 129057\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wind-induced surface heat exchange Content: The wind-induced surface heat exchange ( WISHE ) is a positive feedback mechanism between the ocean and atmosphere in which a stronger ocean-to-atmosphere heat flux results in a stronger atmospheric circulation , which results in a strong heat flux . It has been hypothesized that this is the mechanism by which low pressure areas in the tropics develop into tropical cyclones .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Wind-induced_surface_heat_exchange\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 126759\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Special sensor microwave/imager Content: The special sensor microwave/imager ( SSM/I ) is a seven-channel , four-frequency , linearly polarized passive microwave radiometer system . It is flown on board the United States Air Force Defense Meteorological Satellite Program ( DMSP ) Block 5D-2 satellites . The instrument measures surface/atmospheric microwave brightness temperatures ( TBs ) at 19.35 , 22.235 , 37.0 and 85.5 GHz . The four frequencies are sampled in both horizontal and vertical polarizations , except the 22 GHz which is sampled in the vertical only . The SSM/I has been a very successful instrument , superseding the across-track and Dicke radiometer designs of previous systems . Its combination of constant-angle rotary-scanning and total power radiometer design has become standard for passive microwave imagers , e.g. TRMM Microwave Imager , AMSR . Its predecessor , the scanning multichannel microwave radiometer ( SMMR ) , provided similar information . Its successor , the Special Sensor Microwave Imager / Sounder ( SSMIS ) , is an enhanced eleven-channel , eight-frequency system .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Special_sensor_microwave/imager\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 123673\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea ice emissivity modelling Content: With increased interest in sea ice and its effects on the global climate , efficient methods are required to monitor both its extent and exchange processes . Satellite-mounted , microwave radiometers , such SSMI , AMSR and AMSU , are an ideal tool for the task because they can see through cloud cover , and they have frequent , global coverage . A passive microwave instrument detects objects through emitted radiation since different substance have different emission spectra . To help us detect sea ice more efficiently , we need to model these emission processes . The interaction of sea ice with electromagnetic radiation in the microwave range is still not well understood . In general is collected information limited because of the large-scale variability due to the emissivity of sea ice .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea_ice_emissivity_modelling\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 123415\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kernel function for solving integral equation of surface radiation exchanges Content: In physics and engineering , the radiative heat transfer from one surface to another is the equal to the difference of incoming and outgoing radiation from the first surface . In general , the heat transfer between surfaces is governed by temperature , surface emissivity properties and the geometry of the surfaces . The relation for heat transfer can be written as an integral equation with boundary conditions based upon surface conditions . Kernel functions can be useful in approximating and solving this integral equation .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Kernel_function_for_solving_integral_equation_of_surface_radiation_exchanges\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 123129\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effect of radiation on perceived temperature Content: The `` radiation effect '' results from radiation heat exchange between human bodies and surrounding surfaces , such as walls and ceilings . It may lead to phenomena such as houses feeling cooler in the winter and warmer in the summer at the same temperature . For example , in a room in which air temperature is maintained at 22 ° Celsius at all times , but in which the inner surfaces of the house is estimated to be an average temperature of 10 ° Celsius in the winter or 25 ° Celsius in the summer , heat transfer from the surfaces to the individual will occur , resulting in a difference in the perceived temperature . We can observe and compare the rate of radiation heat transfer between a person and the surrounding surfaces if we first make a few simplifying assumptions : The heat exchange in the environment is in a `` steady state '' , meaning that there is a constant flow of heat either into or out of the house . The person is completely surrounded by the interior surfaces of the room . Heat transfer by convection is not considered . The walls , ceiling , and floor are all at the same temperature . For an average person , the outer surface area is 1.4 m ² , the surface temperature is 30 ° Celsius , and the emissivity is 0.95 . Emissivity is the ability of a surface to emit radiant energy compared to that of a black body at the same temperature . We will be using the following equation to find out how much heat is lost by a person standing in the same room in summertime as compared to the winter , at exactly the same thermostat reading temperature : Q ̇ = εσA_s ( T_s ^ 4-T_surr ^ 4 ) Where Q ̇ is the rate of heat loss ( W ) , ε is the emissivity ( or the ability of an objects surface to emit energy by radiation ) of a person , σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant ( 5.670 x 10 ^ ( -8 ) W/m2 ∙ K4 ) , As is the surface area of a person , Ts is the surface temperature of a person ( K ) , and Tsurr is the surface temperature of the walls , ceiling , and floor ( K ) . Please note that this equation is only valid for an object standing in a completely enclosed room , box , etc. . In the winter , the amount of heat loss from a person , when the inner surfaces of the room were 10 degrees Celsius , was found to be 152 Watts . ( Q ̇ = ( 0.95 ) ( 5.67 x 10 ^ ( -8 ) ) ( 1.4 ) -LSB- ( 30 +273 ) ^ 4 - ( 10 +273 ) ^ 4 -RSB- = 152 ) ̇ In the summer , the amount of heat loss from a person , when the inner surfaces of the room were 25 degrees Celsius , was found to be 40.9 Watts . ( Q ̇ = ( 0.95 ) ( 5.67 x 10 ^ ( -8 ) ) ( 1.4 ) -LSB- ( 30 +273 ) ^ 4 - ( 25 +273 ) ^ 4 -RSB- = 40.9 ) ̇ Thermal radiation is the form of radiation emitted by bodies because of their temperature . It differs from other forms of electromagnetic radiation such as x-rays , gamma rays , microwaves , radio waves , and television rays that are not related to temperature . Scientists have found that all bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal radiation . People are constantly radiating their body heat , but at different rates . From these values , the rate of heat loss from a person is almost four times as large in the winter than in the summer , which explains the `` chill '' we feel in the winter even if the thermostat setting is kept the same .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Effect_of_radiation_on_perceived_temperature\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 122486\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: El Niño–Southern Oscillation Content: El Niño -- Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) is an irregularly periodical variation in winds and sea surface temperatures over the tropical eastern Pacific Ocean , affecting much of the tropics and subtropics . The warming phase is known as El Niño and the cooling phase as La Niña . Southern Oscillation is the accompanying atmospheric component , coupled with the sea temperature change : El Niño is accompanied with high , and La Niña with low air surface pressure in the tropical western Pacific . The two periods last several months each ( typically occur every few years ) and their effects vary in intensity . The two phases relate to the Walker circulation , discovered by Gilbert Walker during the early twentieth century . The Walker circulation is caused by the pressure gradient force that results from a high pressure system over the eastern Pacific Ocean , and a low pressure system over Indonesia . When the Walker circulation weakens or reverses , an El Niño results , causing the ocean surface to be warmer than average , as upwelling of cold water occurs less or not at all . An especially strong Walker circulation causes a La Niña , resulting in cooler ocean temperatures due to increased upwelling . Mechanisms that cause the oscillation remain under study . The extremes of this climate pattern 's oscillations cause extreme weather ( such as floods and droughts ) in many regions of the world . Developing countries dependent upon agriculture and fishing , particularly those bordering the Pacific Ocean , are the most affected .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"El_Niño–Southern_Oscillation\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 122395\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Anti-greenhouse effect Content: The anti-greenhouse effect is a mechanism similar to the greenhouse effect , but with the opposite consequence of cooling the surface temperature of a planet . If gases in the atmosphere of a planet have a lesser transmittance for inbound radiation ( for instance , solar rays in the Solar System ) than for outbound radiation ( typically thermal radiation of the planet 's surface in the infrared domain ) , the surface temperature at which inbound and outbound heat fluxes are at equilibrium is lower .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Anti-greenhouse_effect\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 121514\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Polar amplification Content: Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict . In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Polar_amplification\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 121118\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: NOAA-6 Content: NOAA-6 , designated NOAA-A before launch , was a weather satellite operated by NOAA as part of its National Operational Environmental Satellite System . It was launched into a Sun-synchronous orbit by NASA aboard an Atlas F launch vehicle on 27 June 1979 from Vandenberg Air Force Base SLC-3W . Based on the experimental TIROS-N satellite , it performed monitoring of ice and snow cover , agriculture , oceanography , volcanism , ozone and the space environment , in addition to its regular meteorological observations . Its instruments included the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer ( AVHRR/1 ) for global cloud cover observations , the TIROS Operational Vertical Sounder ( TOVS ) suite for atmospheric temperature and water vapor profiling , the Space Environment Monitor ( SEM ) for measuring proton and electron fluxes , and the Data Collection and Platform Location System ( DCPLS ) for relaying data from balloons and ocean buoys . The TOVS suite consists of three subsystems : the High Resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder 2 ( HIRS/2 ) , the Stratospheric Sounding Unit ( SSU ) , and the Microwave Sounding Unit ( MSU ) . The HIRS/2 instrument failed on 19 September 1983 , and the spacecraft was placed in reserve in early 1984 as NOAA prioritized operations of NOAA-7 and NOAA-8 . It was returned to operational status after NOAA-8 failed in June 1984 , and continued to return data until its decommissioning on 31 March 1987 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"NOAA-6\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 120390\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Radiation zone Content: A radiation zone , radiative zone or radiative region is a layer of a star 's interior where energy is primarily transported toward the exterior by means of radiative diffusion and thermal conduction , rather than by convection . Energy travels through the radiation zone in the form of electromagnetic radiation as photons . Matter in a radiation zone is so dense that photons can travel only a short distance before they are absorbed or scattered by another particle , gradually shifting to longer wavelength as they do so . For this reason , it takes an average of 171,000 years for gamma rays from the core of the Sun to leave the radiation zone . Over this range , the temperature of the plasma drops from 15 million K near the core down to 1.5 million K at the base of the convection zone . In a radiative zone , the temperature gradient -- the change in temperature ( T ) as a function of radius ( r ) -- is given by : where κ ( r ) is the opacity , ρ ( r ) is the matter density , L ( r ) is the luminosity , and σ is the Stefan -- Boltzmann constant . Hence the opacity and radiation flux ( L ) within a given layer of a star are important factors in determining how effective radiative diffusion is at transporting energy . A high opacity or high luminosity can cause a high temperature gradient , which results from a slow flow of energy . Those layers where convection is more effective than radiative diffusion at transporting energy , thereby creating a lower temperature gradient , will become convection zones .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Radiation_zone\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 119770\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Earth's energy budget Content: Earth 's energy budget accounts for the energy Earth receives from the Sun . Much of this energy is lost when the earth re-radiates it back into outer space , and the rest of the energy is distributed throughout the five components of Earth 's climate system . This system is made up of earth 's water , ice , atmosphere , rocky crust , and all living things . Quantifying changes in these amounts is required to accurately model the Earth 's climate . Received radiation is unevenly distributed over the planet , because the Sun heats equatorial regions more than polar regions . Energy is absorbed by the atmosphere , hydrosphere , and lithosphere , and , in a process informally described as Earth 's heat engine , the solar heating is redistributed through evaporation of surface water , convection , rainfall , winds , and ocean circulation . When the incoming solar energy is balanced by an equal flow of heat to space , the Earth is said to be in radiative equilibrium and under that condition , global temperatures will be stable . Disturbances of Earth 's radiative equilibrium , such as an increase of greenhouse gases , will change global temperatures in response . However , Earth 's energy balance and heat fluxes depend on many factors , such as atmospheric composition ( mainly aerosols and greenhouse gases ) , the albedo ( reflectivity ) of surface properties , cloud cover and vegetation and land use patterns . Changes in surface temperature due to Earth 's energy budget do not occur instantaneously , due to the inertia of the oceans and the cryosphere . The net heat flux is buffered primarily by becoming part of the ocean 's heat content , until a new equilibrium state is established between radiative forcings and the climate response .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Earth's_energy_budget\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 119041\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Solar Submillimeter Telescope Content: The Solar Submillimeter Telescope ( SST ) is a solar dedicated instrument with the aim to study the radiation produced by high-energy particles during solar flares . Observing at 212 and 405 GHz with a focal array since 2001 , it is a unique instrument that has produced a wealth of new information . Some of its discoveries are still unexplained by current theories . SST construction started in 1995 , and it saw the first light in April 1999 ; since April 2001 it operates on a daily basis . It is installed at Complejo Astronomico El Leoncito ( San Juan Province , Argentina ) under agreement between the Argentinian National Scientific and Technical Research Council ( CONICET ) and the Brazilian Universidade Presbiteriana Mackenzie .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Solar_Submillimeter_Telescope\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 119006\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hurricane dynamics and cloud microphysics Content: Tropical convective clouds play an important part in the Earth 's climate system . Convection and release of latent heat transports energy from the surface into the upper atmosphere . Clouds have a higher albedo than the underlying ocean , which causes more incoming solar radiation to be reflected back to space . Since the tops of tropical systems are much cooler than the surface of the Earth , the presence of high convective clouds cools the climate system . The most recognizable cloud system in the tropics is the hurricane . In addition to the important climatic effects of tropical weather systems , hurricanes possess enough energy to cause massive death and destruction . Therefore , their accurate prediction is of utmost importance . Cloud microphysics describe the structure and properties of clouds on the microscopic scale .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Hurricane_dynamics_and_cloud_microphysics\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 118714\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tropical rain belt Content: Rainfall and the tropical climate dominate the tropical rain belt , which oscillates from the northern to the southern tropics over the course of the year , roughly following the solar equator . The tropical rain belt is an area of active rain that is positioned mostly around the tropics . According to the website Journey North , the reason the rain belt is situated near the tropics can be attributed to the fact that most of the sun 's radiation is directed toward the equator , which is located in the middle of the tropics . This solar radiation generates large amounts of heat near the equator providing tropical regions with higher temperatures than most other regions on Earth . With all this solar radiation , the air around the tropics begins to warm up . Because hot air is less dense than cold air , the hot air rises into the upper levels of the atmosphere and as a result , cold air filters down into the lower levels of the atmosphere . The dynamics that provide the tropics with the rain belt are founded on the principal that warmer air is able to retain more moisture than colder air . When the colder air replaces the warmer air in the lower atmosphere , the abundant moisture from the tropics loses the ability to be stored in the atmosphere . As a result , the excess moisture that can not be held by the colder air is then turned into thunderstorms and rain showers . These thunderstorms and rain showers are usually located along the equator , but they will extend out to the Tropic of Cancer , which is the 23.5 north latitude , as well as the Tropic of Capricorn , which is the 23.5 south latitude . It is largely a manifestation of the ITCH ( incorrect citation ) . The tropical rain belt lies in the southern hemisphere of the Indian ocean and western Pacific ocean roughly from October to March , and during this time the northern tropics experience a dry season in which precipitation is very rare , and days are typically hot and sunny throughout . From April to September , the rain belt lies in the northern hemisphere , and a wet season occurs there , while the southern tropics experience their dry season . The rain belt reaches roughly as far north as the Tropic of Cancer and as far south as the Tropic of Capricorn in the western Pacific ocean . Its variation in the Western Hemisphere is minimal , roughly between the equator and the 15th parallel north latitude . Near these latitudes , there is one wet season and one dry season annually . On the equator , there are two wet and two dry seasons as the rain belt passes over twice a year , one moving north and one moving south . Between the tropics and the equator , locations may experience both a short wet and a long wet season . Local geography may substantially modify these climate patterns .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Tropical_rain_belt\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 117618\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sudden stratospheric warming Content: A sudden stratospheric warming ( SSW ) is an event where the polar vortex of westerly winds in the winter hemisphere slows down or even reverses direction over the course of a few days . The change is accompanied by a rise of stratospheric temperature by several tens of kelvins .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Sudden_stratospheric_warming\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 117426\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Thermal radiation Content: Thermal radiation is electromagnetic radiation generated by the thermal motion of charged particles in matter . All matter with a temperature greater than absolute zero emits thermal radiation . When the temperature of a body is greater than absolute zero , inter-atomic collisions cause the kinetic energy of the atoms or molecules to change . This results in charge-acceleration and/or dipole oscillation which produces electromagnetic radiation , and the wide spectrum of radiation reflects the wide spectrum of energies and accelerations that occur even at a single temperature . Examples of thermal radiation include the visible light and infrared light emitted by an incandescent light bulb , the infrared radiation emitted by animals is detectable with an infrared camera , and the cosmic microwave background radiation . Thermal radiation is different from thermal convection and thermal conduction -- a person near a raging bonfire feels radiant heating from the fire , even if the surrounding air is very cold . Sunlight is part of thermal radiation generated by the hot plasma of the Sun . The Earth also emits thermal radiation , but at a much lower intensity and different spectral distribution ( infrared rather than visible ) because it is cooler . The Earth 's absorption of solar radiation , followed by its outgoing thermal radiation are the two most important processes that determine the temperature and climate of the Earth . If a radiation-emitting object meets the physical characteristics of a black body in thermodynamic equilibrium , the radiation is called blackbody radiation . Planck 's law describes the spectrum of blackbody radiation , which depends only on the object 's temperature . Wien 's displacement law determines the most likely frequency of the emitted radiation , and the Stefan -- Boltzmann law gives the radiant intensity . Thermal radiation is one of the fundamental mechanisms of heat transfer .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Thermal_radiation\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 115896\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Radiative flux Content: Radiative flux , also known as radiative flux density or radiation flux , is the amount of power radiated through a given area , in the form of photons or other elementary particles , typically measured in W/m2 . It is used in astronomy to determine the magnitude and spectral class of a star . Radiative flux also acts as a generalization of heat flux , which is equal to the radiative flux when restricted to the infrared spectrum . When radiative flux is incident on a surface , it is often called irradiance . Flux emitted from a surface may be called radiant exitance or radiant emittance .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Radiative_flux\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 115538\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Stratosphere Content: The stratosphere ( -LSB- ˈstrætəˌsfɪər , _ - toʊ - -RSB- ) is the second major layer of Earth 's atmosphere , just above the troposphere , and below the mesosphere . About 20 % of the atmosphere 's mass is contained in the stratosphere . The stratosphere is stratified in temperature , with warmer layers higher and cooler layers closer to the Earth . The increase of temperature with altitude is a result of the absorption of the Sun 's ultraviolet radiation by the ozone . This is in contrast to the troposphere , near the Earth 's surface , where temperatures decreases with altitude . The border between the troposphere and stratosphere , the tropopause , marks where this temperature inversion begins . Near the equator , the stratosphere starts at 18 km ; at mid latitudes , it starts at 10 - and ends at 50 km ; at the poles , it starts at about 8 km . Temperatures vary within the stratosphere with the seasons , in particular with the polar night ( winter ) . The greatest variation of temperature takes place over the poles in the lower stratosphere ; those variations are largely steady at lower latitudes and higher altitudes .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Stratosphere\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 114384\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate model Content: Climate models use quantitative methods to simulate the interactions of the important drivers of climate , including atmosphere , oceans , land surface and ice . They are used for a variety of purposes from study of the dynamics of the climate system to projections of future climate . All climate models take account of incoming energy from the sun as short wave electromagnetic radiation , chiefly visible and short-wave ( near ) infrared , as well as outgoing long wave ( far ) infrared electromagnetic . Any imbalance results in a change in temperature . Models vary in complexity : A simple radiant heat transfer model treats the earth as a single point and averages outgoing energy This can be expanded vertically ( radiative-convective models ) and/or horizontally Finally , ( coupled ) atmosphere -- ocean -- sea ice global climate models solve the full equations for mass and energy transfer and radiant exchange . Box models can treat flows across and within ocean basins . Other types of modelling can be interlinked , such as land use , allowing researchers to predict the interaction between climate and ecosystems .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_model\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 113458\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tropospheric propagation Content: Tropospheric propagation describes electromagnetic propagation in relation to the troposphere . The service area from a VHF or UHF radio transmitter extends to just beyond the optical horizon , at which point signals start to rapidly reduce in strength . Viewers living in such a `` deep fringe '' reception area will notice that during certain conditions , weak signals normally masked by noise increase in signal strength to allow quality reception . Such conditions are related to the current state of the troposphere . Tropospheric propagated signals travel in the part of the atmosphere adjacent to the surface and extending to some 25,000 feet ( 7,620 m ) . Such signals are thus directly affected by weather conditions extending over some hundreds of miles . During very settled , warm anticyclonic weather ( i.e. , high pressure ) , usually weak signals from distant transmitters improve in strength . Another symptom during such conditions may be interference to the local transmitter resulting in co-channel interference , usually horizontal lines or an extra floating picture with analog broadcasts and break-up with digital broadcasts . A settled high-pressure system gives the characteristic conditions for enhanced tropospheric propagation , in particular favouring signals which travel along the prevailing isobar pattern ( rather than across it ) . Such weather conditions can occur at any time , but generally the summer and autumn months are the best periods . In certain favourable locations , enhanced tropospheric propagation may enable reception of ultra high frequency ( UHF ) TV signals up to 1,000 mi or more . The observable characteristics of such high-pressure systems are usually clear , cloudless days with little or no wind . At sunset the upper air cools , as does the surface temperature , but at different rates . This produces a boundary or temperature gradient , which allows an inversion level to form -- a similar effect occurs at sunrise . The inversion is capable of allowing very high frequency ( VHF ) and UHF signal propagation well beyond the normal radio horizon distance . The inversion effectively reduces sky wave radiation from a transmitter -- normally VHF and UHF signals travel on into space when they reach the horizon , the refractive index of the ionosphere preventing signal return . With temperature inversion , however , the signal is to a large extent refracted over the horizon rather than continuing along a direct path into outer space . Fog also produces good tropospheric results , again due to inversion effects . Fog occurs during high-pressure weather , and if such conditions result in a large belt of fog with clear sky above , there will be heating of the upper fog level and thus an inversion . This situation often arises towards night fall , continues overnight and clears with the sunrise over a period of around 4 -- 5 hours .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Tropospheric_propagation\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 113186\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse effect Content: The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet 's atmosphere warms the planet 's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere . If a planet 's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases ( i.e. , greenhouse gases ) the atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions . Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface , warming it . The downward component of this radiation -- that is , the strength of the greenhouse effect -- will depend on the atmosphere 's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains . On Earth , the atmosphere is warmed by absorption of infrared thermal radiation from the underlying surface ( heated by the sun ) , absorption of shorter wavelength radiant energy from the sun , and convective heat fluxes from the surface . Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere radiate energy , some of which is directed to the surface and lower atmosphere . The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect . Earth 's natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life . Human activities , primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests , have intensified the natural greenhouse effect , causing global warming . The mechanism is named after a faulty analogy with the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a greenhouse . The way a greenhouse retains heat is fundamentally different , as a greenhouse works by reducing airflow and retaining warm air inside the structure .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_effect\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 111946\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Volcanic winter Content: A volcanic winter is a reduction in global temperatures caused by volcanic ash and droplets of sulfuric acid and water obscuring the Sun and raising Earth 's albedo ( increasing the reflection of solar radiation ) after a large particularly explosive volcanic eruption . Long-term cooling effects are primarily dependent upon injection of sulfur gasses into the stratosphere where they undergo a series of reactions to create sulfuric acid which can nucleate and form aerosols . Volcanic stratospheric aerosols cool the surface by reflecting solar radiation and warm the stratosphere by absorbing terrestrial radiation . The volcanic aerosols , resulting from the 1991 Pinatubo eruption and others , have been shown to contribute to anthropogenic ozone depletion . The variations in atmospheric warming and cooling results in changes in tropospheric and stratospheric circulation .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Volcanic_winter\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 111812\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: South Atlantic Anomaly Content: The South Atlantic Anomaly ( SAA ) is an area where the Earth 's inner Van Allen radiation belt comes closest to the Earth 's surface , dipping down to an altitude of 200 km . This leads to an increased flux of energetic particles in this region and exposes orbiting satellites to higher-than-usual levels of radiation . The effect is caused by the non-concentricity of the Earth and its magnetic dipole . The SAA is the near-Earth region where the Earth 's magnetic field is weakest relative to an idealized Earth-centered dipole field .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"South_Atlantic_Anomaly\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 111206\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Radiation stress Content: In fluid dynamics , the radiation stress is the depth-integrated -- and thereafter phase-averaged -- excess momentum flux caused by the presence of the surface gravity waves , which is exerted on the mean flow . The radiation stresses behave as a second-order tensor . The radiation stress tensor describes the additional forcing due to the presence of the waves , which changes the mean depth-integrated horizontal momentum in the fluid layer . As a result , varying radiation stresses induce changes in the mean surface elevation ( wave setup ) and the mean flow ( wave-induced currents ) . For the mean energy density in the oscillatory part of the fluid motion , the radiation stress tensor is important for its dynamics , in case of an inhomogeneous mean-flow field . The radiation stress tensor , as well as several of its implications on the physics of surface gravity waves and mean flows , were formulated in a series of papers by Longuet-Higgins and Stewart in 1960 -- 1964 . Radiation stress derives its name from the analogous effect of radiation pressure for electromagnetic radiation .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Radiation_stress\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 111011\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea ice thickness Content: Sea ice thickness spatial extent , and open water within ice packs can vary rapidly in response to weather and climate . Sea ice concentration are measured by satellites , with the Special Sensor Microwave Imager / Sounder ( SSMIS ) , and the European Space Agency 's Cryosat-2 satellite to map the thickness and shape of the Earth 's polar ice cover . The sea ice volume is calculated with the Pan-Arctic Ice Ocean Modeling and Assimilation System ( PIOMAS ) , which blends satellite-observed data , such as sea ice concentrations into model calculations to estimate sea ice thickness and volume . Sea ice thickness determines a number of important fluxes such as heat flux between the air and ocean surface -- see below -- as well as salt and fresh water fluxes between the ocean since saline water ejects much of its salt content when frozen -- see sea ice growth processes . It is also important for navigators on icebreakers since there is an upper limit to the thickness of ice any ship can sail through .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea_ice_thickness\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 110578\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Weather station Content: A weather station is a facility , either on land or sea , with instruments and equipment for measuring atmospheric conditions to provide information for weather forecasts and to study the weather and climate . The measurements taken include temperature , atmospheric pressure , humidity , wind speed , wind direction , and precipitation amounts . Wind measurements are taken with as few other obstructions as possible , while temperature and humidity measurements are kept free from direct solar radiation , or insolation . Manual observations are taken at least once daily , while automated measurements are taken at least once an hour . Weather conditions out at sea are taken by ships and buoys , which measure slightly different meteorological quantities such as sea surface temperature ( SST ) , wave height , and wave period . Drifting weather buoys outnumber their moored versions by a significant amount .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Weather_station\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 110521\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Intensity (heat transfer) Content: In the field of heat transfer , intensity of radiation is a measure of the distribution of radiant heat flux per unit area and solid angle , in a particular direction , defined according to where is the infinitesimal source area is the outgoing heat transfer from the area is the solid angle subtended by the infinitesimal ` target ' ( or ` aperture ' ) area is the angle between the source area normal vector and the line-of-sight between the source and the target areas . Typical units of intensity are W · m − 2 · sr − 1 . Intensity can sometimes be called radiance , especially in other fields of study . The emissive power of a surface can be determined by integrating the intensity of emitted radiation over a hemisphere surrounding the surface : For diffuse emitters , the emitted radiation intensity is the same in all directions , with the result that The factor ( which really should have the units of steradians ) is a result of the fact that intensity is defined to exclude the effect of reduced view factor at large values ; note that the solid angle corresponding to a hemisphere is equal to steradians . Spectral intensity is the corresponding spectral measurement of intensity ; in other words , the intensity as a function of wavelength .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Intensity_(heat_transfer)\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 110375\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Twomey effect Content: The Twomey effect describes how cloud condensation nuclei ( CCN ) , possibly from anthropogenic pollution , may increase the amount of solar radiation reflected by clouds . This is an indirect effect . Aerosol particles can act as CCN 's creating more droplets which have a smaller size distribution . The reduction in size distribution increases the Optical depth of the cloud . This increases the cloud albedo as clouds appear whiter and larger , leading to a cooling of between -0.3 and -1.8 Wm − 2 . For example , on satellite imagery we observe trails of white clouds from ships crossing the oceans due to this effect .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Twomey_effect\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 110144\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Radiative forcing Content: Radiative forcing or climate forcing is the difference between insolation ( sunlight ) absorbed by the Earth and energy radiated back to space . Typically , radiative forcing is quantified at the tropopause in units of watts per square meter of the Earth 's surface . Positive forcing ( incoming energy exceeding outgoing energy ) warms the system , while negative forcing ( outgoing energy exceeding incoming energy ) cools it . Causes of radiative forcing include changes in insolation and the concentrations of radiatively active gases , commonly known as greenhouse gases and aerosols .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Radiative_forcing\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 109892\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ice-albedo feedback Content: Ice-albedo feedback ( or snow-albedo feedback ) is a positive feedback climate process where a change in the area of snow-covered land , ice caps , glaciers or sea ice alters the albedo . This change in albedo acts to reinforce the initial alteration in ice area . Cooling tends to increase ice cover and hence the albedo , reducing the amount of solar energy absorbed and leading to more cooling . Conversely , warming tends to decrease ice cover and hence the albedo , increasing the amount of solar energy absorbed , leading to more warming . The effect also applies on the small scale to snow-covered surfaces . A small amount of snow melt exposes darker ground which absorbs more radiation , leading to more snowmelt . The effect has mostly been discussed in terms of the recent trend of declining Arctic sea ice . Internal feedback processes may also potentially occur , as land ice melts and causes eustatic sea level rise , and also potentially induces earthquakes as a result of isostatic rebound , which further acts to disrupt glaciers , ice shelves , etc. .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Ice-albedo_feedback\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 108486\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mesozoic–Cenozoic radiation Content: The Mesozoic -- Cenozoic Radiation is the third major extended increase in biodiversity in the Phanerozoic , after the Cambrian Explosion and the Great Ordovician Biodiversification Event . The Mesozoic -- Cenozoic Radiation began in the mid-Mesozoic and extends through the Cenozoic , with no indication of having yet ended . It differs from the earlier radiations in that the diversity appears largely in the variety of species and other taxa below the level of Order ( biology ) . `` The spectacular radiation of the angiosperms , mammals and certain reptile groups ( such as the snakes ) on land is matched by that of the planktonic foraminifera , neogastropods , heteroconch bivalves , cheilostome bryozoans , decapod crustaceans and teleost fish in shallow seas . '' The marine diversification is largely that represented by the Modern Evolutionary Fauna , and there are also the terrestrial diversifications of the birds and among the insects .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Mesozoic–Cenozoic_radiation\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 108373\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Subtropical Countercurrent Content: The subtropical countercurrent ( STCC ) is a narrow eastward ocean current in the central North Pacific Ocean ( 20 -- 30 ° N ) where the Sverdrup theory predicts a broad westward flow . It originates in the western North Pacific around 20 ° N , and flows eastward against the northeast trade winds and stretches northeastward to the north of Hawaii . It is accompanied by a subsurface temperature and density front called the subtropical front , in thermal wind relation with the STCC . Furthermore , the STCC maintains a sea surface temperature front during winter and spring . During April and May when the SST front is still strong , the seasonal warming makes the region conductive to atmospheric convection , and surface wind stress curls turn weakly positive along the front on the background of negative curls that drive the subtropical gyre . On the weather timescale , positive wind curls are related to low-pressure systems of a subsynoptic scale in space , energized by surface baroclinicity and latent heat release along the STF front . The SST front also anchors a meridional maximum in column-integrated water vapor , indicating a deep structure of the atmosphere response .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Subtropical_Countercurrent\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 108084\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Solar phenomena Content: Solar phenomena are the natural phenomena occurring within the magnetically heated outer atmospheres in the Sun . These phenomena take many forms , including solar wind , radio wave flux , energy bursts such as solar flares , coronal mass ejection or solar eruptions , coronal heating and sunspots . These phenomena are generated by a helical dynamo near the center of the Sun 's mass that generates strong magnetic fields and a chaotic dynamo near the surface that generates smaller magnetic field fluctuations . The total sum of all solar fluctuations is referred to as solar variation . The collective effect of all solar variations within the Sun 's gravitational field is referred to as space weather . A major weather component is the solar wind , a stream of plasma released from the Sun 's upper atmosphere . It is responsible for the aurora , natural light displays in the sky in the Arctic and Antarctic . Space weather disturbances can cause solar storms on Earth , disrupting communications , as well as geomagnetic storms in Earth 's magnetosphere and sudden ionospheric disturbances in the ionosphere . Variations in solar intensity also affect Earth 's climate . These variations can explain events such as ice ages and the Great Oxygenation Event , while the Sun 's future expansion into a red giant will likely end life on Earth . Solar activity and related events have been recorded since the 8th century BCE . Babylonians inscribed and possibly predicted solar eclipses , while the earliest extant report of sunspots dates back to the Chinese Book of Changes , . The first extant description of the solar corona was in 968 , while the earliest sunspot drawing was in 1128 and a solar prominence was described in 1185 in the Russian Chronicle of Novgorod . The invention of the telescope allowed major advances in understanding , allowing the first detailed observations in the 1600s . Solar spectroscopy began in the 1800s , from which properties of the solar atmosphere could be determined , while the creation of daguerreotypy led to the first solar photographs on 2 April 1845 . Photography assisted in the study of solar prominences , granulation and spectroscopy . Early in the 20th century , interest in astrophysics surged in America . A number of new observatories were built with solar telescopes around the world . The 1931 invention of the coronagraph allowed the corona to be studied in full daylight .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Solar_phenomena\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 107615\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mukul Kundu Content: Mukul R. Kundu ( 10 February 1930 - 16 June 2010 ) , was an Indian solar physicist , known best as a pioneer of radio observations of the Sun . Early in his career , he showed that the Sun 's 10.7 centimetre radio flux is correlated with the level of ionisation in the Earth 's ionosphere . The 10.7 cm flux is now used as a standard proxy for the level of magnetic activity on the Sun . He served on the editorial board of the journal Solar Physics and was awarded the George Ellery Hale Prize in 2007 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Mukul_Kundu\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 106967\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Radiation flux Content: Radiation flux is a measure of the amount of radiation received by an object from a given source . This can be any type of radiation , including electromagnetic , sound , and particles from a radioactive source . Φ = is the radiation flux , L is the luminosity , or total power output of the source , and r is the distance from the radiation source . The units of radiation flux are W · m − 2 , or kg · s − 3 . Radiation flux density is a related measure that takes into account the area the radiation flux passes through , and is defined as the flux divided by the area it passes through . The Radiation flux density is also known as Intensity where I =\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Radiation_flux\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 106791\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Unruh effect Content: The Unruh effect ( or sometimes Fulling -- Davies -- Unruh effect ) is the prediction that an accelerating observer will observe blackbody radiation where an inertial observer would observe none . In other words , the background appears to be warm from an accelerating reference frame ; in layman 's terms , a thermometer waved around in empty space , subtracting any other contribution to its temperature , will record a non-zero temperature . The ground state for an inertial observer is seen as in thermodynamic equilibrium with a non-zero temperature by the uniformly accelerating observer . The Unruh effect was first described by Stephen Fulling in 1973 , Paul Davies in 1975 and W. G. Unruh in 1976 . It is currently not clear whether the Unruh effect has actually been observed , since the claimed observations are disputed . There is also some doubt about whether the Unruh effect implies the existence of Unruh radiation .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Unruh_effect\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 106086\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Radiometry Content: Radiometry is a set of techniques for measuring electromagnetic radiation , including visible light . Radiometric techniques in optics characterize the distribution of the radiation 's power in space , as opposed to photometric techniques , which characterize the light 's interaction with the human eye . Radiometry is distinct from quantum techniques such as photon counting . The use of radiometers to determine the temperature of objects and gasses by measuring radiation flux is called pyrometry . Handheld pyrometer devices are often marketed as infrared thermometers . Radiometry is important in astronomy , especially radio astronomy , and plays a significant role in Earth remote sensing . The measurement techniques categorized as radiometry in optics are called photometry in some astronomical applications , contrary to the optics usage of the term . Spectroradiometry is the measurement of absolute radiometric quantities in narrow bands of wavelength .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Radiometry\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 105375\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of nuclear explosions Content: The energy released from a nuclear weapon detonated in the troposphere can be divided into four basic categories : Blast -- 40 -- 50 % of total energy Thermal radiation -- 30 -- 50 % of total energy Ionizing radiation -- 5 % of total energy ( more in a neutron bomb ) Residual radiation -- 5 -- 10 % of total energy with the mass of the explosion Depending on the design of the weapon and the environment in which it is detonated the energy distributed to these categories can be increased or decreased . The blast effect is created by the coupling of immense amounts of energy , spanning the electromagnetic spectrum , with the surroundings . Locations such as submarine , ground burst , air burst , or exo-atmospheric determine how much energy is produced as blast and how much as radiation . In general , denser media around the bomb , like water , absorb more energy , and create more powerful shockwaves while at the same time limiting the area of its effect . When an air burst occurs , lethal blast and thermal effects proportionally scale much more rapidly than lethal radiation effects , as higher and higher yield nuclear weapons are used . The physical-damage mechanisms of a nuclear weapon ( blast and thermal radiation ) are identical to those of conventional explosives , but the energy produced by a nuclear explosive is millions of times more powerful per gram and the temperatures reached are briefly in the tens of millions of degrees . Energy from a nuclear explosive is initially released in several forms of penetrating radiation . When there is a surrounding material such as air , rock , or water , this radiation interacts with and rapidly heats it to an equilibrium temperature ( i.e. so that the matter is at the same temperature as the atomic bomb 's matter ) . This causes vaporization of surrounding material resulting in its rapid expansion . Kinetic energy created by this expansion contributes to the formation of a shockwave . When a nuclear detonation occurs in air near sea level , much of the released energy interacts with the atmosphere and creates a shockwave which expands spherically from the center . Intense thermal radiation at the hypocenter forms a nuclear fireball and if the burst is low enough , it is often associated with a mushroom cloud . In a burst at high altitude , where the air density is low , more energy is released as ionizing gamma radiation and x-rays than an atmosphere-displacing shockwave . In 1942 there was some initial speculation among the scientists developing the first nuclear weapons that there might be a possibility of igniting the Earth 's atmosphere with a large enough nuclear explosion . This would concern a nuclear reaction of two nitrogen atoms forming a carbon and an oxygen atom , with release of energy . This energy would heat up the remaining nitrogen enough to keep the reaction going until all nitrogen atoms were consumed . Hans Bethe was assigned the task of studying whether there was a possibility in the very early days , and concluded there was no possibility due to inverse Compton effect cooling of the fireball . Richard Hamming , a mathematician , was asked to make a similar calculation just before Trinity , with the same result . Nevertheless , the notion has persisted as a rumor for many years , and was the source of black humor at the Trinity test .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_nuclear_explosions\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 105264\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Special Sensor Ultraviolet Limb Imager Content: The Special Sensor Ultraviolet Limb Imager ( SSULI ) is an imaging spectrometer that is used to observe the earth 's ionosphere and thermosphere . These sensors provide vertical intensity profiles of airglow emissions in the extreme ultraviolet and far ultraviolet spectral range of 800 to 1700 Angstrom ( 80 to 170 nanometre ) and scan from 75 km to 750 km tangent altitude . The data from these sensors will be used to infer altitude profiles of ion , electron and neutral density . The Naval Research Laboratory ( NRL ) has developed five ultraviolet remote sensing instruments for the Air Force Defense Meteorological Satellite Program ( DMSP ) . These instruments known as SSULI ( Special Sensor Ultraviolet Limb Imager ) will launch aboard the DMSP block of 5D3 satellites , which started in 2003 . SSULI measures vertical profiles of the natural airglow radiation from atoms , molecules and ions in the upper atmosphere and ionosphere by viewing the Earth 's limb at a tangent altitude of approximately 50 km to 750 km . The second SSULI flight was launched on November 4 , 2006 . The remaining sensors are scheduled for launch approximately every 24 months .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Special_Sensor_Ultraviolet_Limb_Imager\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 105243\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Solar gain Content: Solar gain ( also known as solar heat gain or passive solar gain ) refers to the increase in temperature ( heat gain ) in a space , object or structure that results from solar radiation . The amount of solar gain increases with the strength of the sunlight , and with the ability of any intervening material to transmit or resist the radiation . Objects struck by sunlight absorb the short-wave radiation from the light and reradiate the heat at longer infrared wavelengths . Certain materials and substances , such as glass , are more transparent to the shorter wavelengths than the longer ; when the sun shines through such materials , the net result is an increase in temperature -- solar gain . This effect , the greenhouse effect , so called due to the solar gain that is experienced behind the glass of a greenhouse , has since become well known in the context of global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Solar_gain\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 104481\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Schottky anomaly Content: The Schottky anomaly is an effect observed in solid-state physics where the specific heat capacity of a solid at low temperature has a peak . It is called anomalous because the heat capacity usually increases with temperature , or stays constant . It occurs in systems with a limited number of energy levels so that E ( T ) increases with sharp steps , one for each energy level that becomes available . Since Cv = ( dE/dT ) , it will experience a large peak as the temperature crosses over from one step to the next . This effect can be explained by looking at the change in entropy of the system . At zero temperature only the lowest energy level is occupied , entropy is zero , and there is very little probability of a transition to a higher energy level . As the temperature increases , there is an increase in entropy and thus the probability of a transition goes up . As the temperature approaches the difference between the energy levels there is a broad peak in the specific heat corresponding to a large change in entropy for a small change in temperature . At high temperatures all of the levels are populated evenly , so there is again little change in entropy for small changes in temperature , and thus a lower specific heat capacity . For a two level system the specific heat coming from the Schottky anomaly has the form : Where kBΔ is the energy between the two levels . This anomaly is usually seen in paramagnetic salts or even ordinary glass ( due to paramagnetic iron impurities ) at low temperature . At high temperature the paramagnetic spins have many spin states available , but at low temperatures some of the spin states are `` frozen out '' ( having too high energy due to crystal field splitting ) , and the entropy per impurity is lowered . It was named after Walter H. Schottky .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Schottky_anomaly\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 104321\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tip of the red-giant branch Content: Tip of the red-giant branch ( TRGB ) is a primary distance indicator used in astronomy . It uses the luminosity of the brightest red-giant-branch stars in a galaxy as a standard candle to gauge the distance to that galaxy . It has been used in conjunction with observations from the Hubble Space Telescope to determine the relative motions of the Local Cluster of galaxies within the Local Supercluster . The Hertzsprung -- Russell diagram ( HR diagram ) is a plot of stellar luminosity versus surface temperature for a population of stars . During the core hydrogen burning phase of a Sun-like star 's lifetime , it will appear on the HR diagram at a position along a diagonal band called the main sequence . When the hydrogen at the core is exhausted , energy will continue to be generated by hydrogen fusion in a shell around the core . The center of the star will accumulate the helium `` ash '' from this fusion and the star will migrate along an evolutionary branch of the HR diagram that leads toward the upper right . That is , the surface temperature will decrease and the total energy output ( luminosity ) of the star will increase as the surface area increases . At a certain point , the helium at the core of the star will reach a pressure and temperature where it can begin to undergo nuclear fusion through the triple-alpha process . For a star with less than 1.8 times the mass of the Sun , this will occur in a process called the helium flash . The evolutionary track of the star will then carry it toward the left of the HR diagram as the surface temperature increases under the new equilibrium . The result is a sharp discontinuity in the evolutionary track of the star on the HR diagram . This discontinuity is called the tip of the red-giant branch . When distant stars at the TRGB are measured in the I-band ( in the infrared ) , their luminosity is somewhat insensitive to their composition of elements heavier than helium ( metallicity ) or their mass ; they are a standard candle with an I-band absolute magnitude of -- 4.0 ± 0.1 . This makes the technique especially useful as a distance indicator . The TRGB indicator uses stars in the old stellar populations ( Population II ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Tip_of_the_red-giant_branch\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 103586\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Thermosphere Content: The thermosphere is the layer of the Earth 's atmosphere directly above the mesosphere . The exosphere is above that but is a minor layer of the atmosphere . Within this layer of the atmosphere , ultraviolet radiation causes photoionization/photodissociation of molecules , creating ions in the ionosphere . Taking its name from the Greek θερμός ( pronounced thermos ) meaning heat , the thermosphere begins about 85 km above the Earth . At these high altitudes , the residual atmospheric gases sort into strata according to molecular mass ( see turbosphere ) . Thermospheric temperatures increase with altitude due to absorption of highly energetic solar radiation . Temperatures are highly dependent on solar activity , and can rise to 2000 C. Radiation causes the atmosphere particles in this layer to become electrically charged ( see ionosphere ) , enabling radio waves to be refracted and thus be received beyond the horizon . In the exosphere , beginning at 500 to above the Earth 's surface , the atmosphere turns into space , although by the criteria set for the definition of the Karman line , the thermosphere itself is part of space . The highly diluted gas in this layer can reach 2500 C during the day . Even though the temperature is so high , one would not feel warm in the thermosphere , because it is so near vacuum that there is not enough contact with the few atoms of gas to transfer much heat . A normal thermometer might be significantly below 0 C , at least at night , because the energy lost by thermal radiation would exceed the energy acquired from the atmospheric gas by direct contact . In the anacoustic zone above 160 km , the density is so low that molecular interactions are too infrequent to permit the transmission of sound . The dynamics of the thermosphere are dominated by atmospheric tides , which are driven by the very significant diurnal heating . Atmospheric waves dissipate above this level because of collisions between the neutral gas and the ionospheric plasma . The International Space Station orbits the Earth within the middle of the thermosphere , between 330 and .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Thermosphere\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 103501\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Western Hemisphere Warm Pool Content: The Western Hemisphere Warm Pool ( WHWP ) is a region of sea surface temperatures ( SST ) warmer than 28.5 ° C that develops west of Central America in the spring , then expands to the tropical waters to the east . The WHWP includes the tropical Atlantic Ocean ( TNA ) east of the Lesser Antilles , Caribbean Sea , Gulf of Mexico , and eastern north Pacific Ocean ( ENP ) . A WHWP heating cycle begins with warmth in the eastern North Pacific in the spring . A dipole pattern off Central America appears due to surges of cooler , drier air through the gap at the Isthmus of Tehuantepec . During spring , the warm pools grow and merge . Their warmth and moisture feed the Mexican monsoon . By summer , the warmth spreads across the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean areas .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Western_Hemisphere_Warm_Pool\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 103194\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tropospheric scatter Content: Tropospheric scatter ( also known as troposcatter ) is a method of communicating with microwave radio signals over considerable distances -- often up to 300 km , and further depending on terrain and climate factors . This method of propagation uses the tropospheric scatter phenomenon , where radio waves at UHF and SHF frequencies are randomly scattered as they pass through the upper layers of the troposphere . Radio signals are transmitted in a narrow beam aimed just above the horizon in the direction of the receiver station . As the signals pass through the troposphere , some of the energy is scattered back toward the Earth , allowing the receiver station to pick up the signal . Normally , signals in the microwave frequency range travel in straight lines , and so are limited to line of sight applications , in which the receiver can be ` seen ' by the transmitter . Communication distances are limited by the visual horizon to around 30 -- 40 miles ( 48 -- 64 km ) . Troposcatter allows microwave communication beyond the horizon . Because the troposphere is turbulent and has a high proportion of moisture the tropospheric scatter radio signals are refracted and consequently only a tiny proportion of the radio energy is collected by the receiving antennas . Frequencies of transmission around 2 GHz are best suited for tropospheric scatter systems as at this frequency the wavelength of the signal interacts well with the moist , turbulent areas of the troposphere , improving signal to noise ratios .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Tropospheric_scatter\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 102774\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Explorer 7 Content: Explorer 7 was launched October 13 , 1959 at 10:36 a.m. Eastern Time by a Juno II rocket from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station to an orbit of 573 km by 1073 km and inclination of 50.27 ° . It was designed to measure solar x-ray and Lyman-alpha flux , trapped energetic particles , and heavy primary cosmic rays . Also Secondary objectives included collecting data on micrometeoroid penetration and molecular sputtering and studying the Earth-atmosphere heat balance . Launch was originally scheduled for late September 1959 , but the mission was delayed for a week after a Jupiter IRBM test on an adjacent pad failed shortly after liftoff , causing flying debris to hit Explorer 7 's launch vehicle . However , the damage to the booster was minor and could be easily repaired . Significantly , it also carried Verner Suomi 's flat-plate radiometer , improved with the help of Robert Parent , that took the first Earth radiation budget measurements from space and initiated the era of satellite studies of the climate . Using both satellite observations of the Earth 's heat balance and atmospheric cooling rates measured by net flux radiosondes , Suomi established the important role played by clouds in absorbing radiated solar energy . These observations established that Earth 's energy budget varies markedly due to the effect of clouds , the surface albedo , and other absorbing constituents . Using these instruments , Suomi and his team discovered that the Earth absorbed more of the Sun 's energy than originally thought and demonstrated that it was possible to measure and quantify seasonal changes in the global heat budget . The satellite weighed 41.5 kg , was 75 cm high and 75 cm wide . Powered by solar cells it also carried 15 nickel-cadmium batteries around its equator . It transmitted data continuously through to February 1961 and went dead on August 24 , 1961 . It is still in orbit .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Explorer_7\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 101972\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: MAR-1 Content: The MAR-1 is an air-to-surface ( ASM ) and surface-to-surface ( SSM ) anti-radiation missile ( ARM ) with INS/GPS capability under development by Brazil 's Mectron and the Aerospace Technology and Science Department ( Departamento de Ciência e Tecnologia Aeroespacial , DCTA ) of the Brazilian Air Force . It is designed to suppress enemy air defenses ( SEAD ) by targeting surveillance radars and fire-control radars .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"MAR-1\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 101402\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pyrgeometer Content: A pyrgeometer is a device that measures near-surface infra-red radiation spectrum in the wavelength spectrum approximately from 4.5 µm to 100 µm . It measures the resistance/voltage changes in a material that is sensitive to the net energy transfer by radiation that occurs between itself and its surroundings ( which can be either in or out ) . By also measuring its own temperature and making some assumptions about the nature of its surroundings it can infer a temperature of the local atmosphere with which it is exchanging radiation . These instruments generally have no spectral ( frequency/wavelength ) measurement capabilities -- they use a single ( non-frequency resolved ) resistance/voltage measurement . They are constructed to be sensitive to the infra-red radiation spectrum that extends approximately from 4.5 µm to 100 µm , thus excluding the main shortwave ( solar ) spectrum . Since the mean free path of IR radiation in the atmosphere is ~ 25 meters , this device typically measures IR flux in the nearest 25 meter layer .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Pyrgeometer\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 101379\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Stefan–Boltzmann law Content: The Stefan -- Boltzmann law describes the power radiated from a black body in terms of its temperature . Specifically , the Stefan -- Boltzmann law states that the total energy radiated per unit surface area of a black body across all wavelengths per unit time ( also known as the black-body radiant emittance or radiant exitance ) , , is directly proportional to the fourth power of the black body 's thermodynamic temperature T : The constant of proportionality σ , called the Stefan -- Boltzmann constant derives from other known constants of nature . The value of the constant is where k is the Boltzmann constant , h is Planck 's constant , and c is the speed of light in a vacuum . Thus at 100 K the energy flux is 5.67 W/m2 , at 1000 K 56,700 W/m2 , etc. . The radiance ( watts per square metre per steradian ) is given by A body that does not absorb all incident radiation ( sometimes known as a grey body ) emits less total energy than a black body and is characterized by an emissivity , : The irradiance has dimensions of energy flux ( energy per time per area ) , and the SI units of measure are joules per second per square metre , or equivalently , watts per square metre . The SI unit for absolute temperature T is the kelvin . is the emissivity of the grey body ; if it is a perfect blackbody , . In the still more general ( and realistic ) case , the emissivity depends on the wavelength , . To find the total power radiated from an object , multiply by its surface area , : Wavelength - and subwavelength-scale particles , metamaterials , and other nanostructures are not subject to ray-optical limits and may be designed to exceed the Stefan -- Boltzmann law .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Stefan–Boltzmann_law\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 100016\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Fin (extended surface) Content: In the study of heat transfer , fins are surfaces that extend from an object to increase the rate of heat transfer to or from the environment by increasing convection . The amount of conduction , convection , or radiation of an object determines the amount of heat it transfers . Increasing the temperature gradient between the object and the environment , increasing the convection heat transfer coefficient , or increasing the surface area of the object increases the heat transfer . Sometimes it is not feasible or economical to change the first two options . Thus , adding a fin to an object , increases the surface area and can sometimes be an economical solution to heat transfer problems .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Fin_(extended_surface)\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 100005\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tropical upper tropospheric trough Content: A tropical upper tropospheric trough ( TUTT ) , also known as the mid-oceanic trough , is a trough situated in upper-level ( at about 200 hPa ) tropics . Its formation is usually caused by the intrusion of energy and wind from the mid-latitudes into the tropics . It can also develop from the inverted trough adjacent to an upper level anticyclone . TUTTs are different from mid-latitude troughs in the sense that they are maintained by subsidence warming near the tropopause which balances radiational cooling . When strong , they can present a significant vertical wind shear to the tropics and subdue tropical cyclogenesis . When upper cold lows break off from their base , they tend to retrograde and force the development , or enhance , surface troughs and tropical waves to their east . Under special circumstances , they can induce thunderstorm activity and lead to the formation of tropical cyclones .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Tropical_upper_tropospheric_trough\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 99943\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Electrically scanning microwave radiometer Content: The electrically scanning microwave radiometer ( ESMR ) was an instrument carried by the Nimbus-5 satellite , precursor to the scanning multichannel microwave radiometer ( SMMR ) and special sensor microwave/imager ( SSM/I ) instruments . The ESMR instrument only senses horizontally polarized radiation at a frequency of 19 GHz , and can be used to calculate sea ice concentration . However , results are difficult to intercompare to SMMR / SSMI . The ESMR scanned along the satellite track , leading to a wide range of incident angles ; SMMR scanned with a constant angle of 50 degrees , allowing both horizontally and vertically polarised data to be received ; SMMR also had 5 instead of one channels , leading to improved sea ice retrievals .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Electrically_scanning_microwave_radiometer\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 99924\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Regional_effects_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 98997\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea level rise Content: A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea_level_rise\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 98858\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Troposphere Content: The troposphere is the lowest portion of Earth 's atmosphere , and is also where nearly all weather takes place . It contains approximately 75 % of the atmosphere 's mass and 99 % of the total mass of water vapor and aerosols . The average depths of the troposphere are 20 km in the tropics , 17 km in the mid latitudes , and 7 km in the polar regions in winter . The lowest part of the troposphere , where friction with the Earth 's surface influences air flow , is the planetary boundary layer . This layer is typically a few hundred meters to 2 km deep depending on the landform and time of day . Atop the troposphere is the tropopause , which is the border between the troposphere and stratosphere . The tropopause is an inversion layer , where the air temperature ceases to decrease with height and remains constant through its thickness . The word troposphere derives from the for `` turn , turn toward , trope '' and '' - sphere '' ( as in , the Earth ) , reflecting the fact that rotational turbulent mixing plays an important role in the troposphere 's structure and behaviour . Most of the phenomena associated with day-to-day weather occur in the troposphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Troposphere\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 98730\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Volcanic impacts on the oceans Content: Explosive volcanic eruptions affect the global climate mainly through injecting sulfur bearing gases into the stratosphere , which oxidize to form sulfate aerosols . Stratospheric sulfur aerosols spread around the globe by the atmospheric circulation , producing surface cooling by scattering solar radiation back to space . This cooling effect on the ocean surface usually lasts for several years as the lifetime of sulfate aerosols is about 2 -- 3 years . However , in the subsurface ocean the cooling signal may persist for a longer time and may have impacts on some decadal variabilities , such as the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation ( AMOC ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Volcanic_impacts_on_the_oceans\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 98581\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Spectral flux density Content: In spectroscopy , spectral flux density is the quantity that describes the rate at which energy is transferred by electromagnetic radiation through a real or virtual surface , per unit surface area and per unit wavelength . It is a radiometric measure , as distinct from measures that characterize light in terms of the electromagnetic field or photons . In SI units it is measured in W m − 3 , although it can be more practical to use W m − 2 nm − 1 ( 1 W m − 2 nm − 1 = 1 GW m − 3 = 1 W mm − 3 ) or W m − 2 μm − 1 ( 1 W m − 2 μm − 1 = 1 MW m − 3 ) , W · m − 2 · Hz − 1 , Jansky or solar flux units . The terms irradiance , radiant exitance , radiant emittance , and radiosity are closely related to spectral flux density . The terms used to describe spectral flux density vary between fields , sometimes including adjectives such as `` electromagnetic '' or `` radiative '' , and sometimes dropping the word `` density '' . Applications include : Characterizing remote telescopically unresolved sources such as stars , observed from a specified observation point such as an observatory on earth . Characterizing a natural electromagnetic radiative field at a point , measured there with an instrument that collects radiation from a whole sphere or hemisphere of remote sources . Characterizing an artificial collimated electromagnetic radiative beam .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Spectral_flux_density\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 98504\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: SS Tropic (1871) Content: SS Tropic was a steamship operated by the White Star Line . Built in 1871 by shipbuilders Thos . Royden & Co , the 2,122 gross-ton vessel operated on the Liverpool to Calcutta run in 1871 , and in 1872 began serving South American ports from Liverpool . In 1873 , the ship was sold to Serra y Font , Bilbao , and renamed Federico .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"SS_Tropic_(1871)\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 98376\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Phytodetritus Content: In oceanography , phytodetritus is the organic particulate matter resulting from phytoplankton and other organic material in surface waters falling to the seabed . This process takes place almost continuously as a `` marine snow '' of descending particles , falling at the rate of about 100 to per day . Under certain conditions , phytoplankton may aggregate and fall rapidly through the water column to arrive little changed on the seabed . These fluxes sometimes occur seasonally or periodically , are sometimes associated with algal blooms and may constitute the greater part of descending organic matter . If the amount is greater than the benthic detritivores can process , the phytodetritus forms a fluffy layer on the surface of the sediment . It accumulates in many shallow and deep water locations throughout the world . Phytodetritus varies in colour and appearance and may be greenish , brown or grey , flocculent or gelatinous . It includes the microscopic remains of diatoms , dinoflagellates , dictyochales , coccolithophores , foraminiferans , phaeodareans , tintinnids , crustacean eggs and moults , protozoan faecal pellets , picoplankton and other planktonic matter embedded in a membranous gelatinous matrix . One of the most important genera of forams is Globigerina ; vast areas of the ocean floor are covered with `` Globigerina ooze '' , so named by Murray and Renard in 1873 , dominated by the shells of planktonic forms . Larger materials may also be present including large animal remains such as carcases , large fragments of plant and faecal matter .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Phytodetritus\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 98359\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tropospheric wave Content: In telecommunication , a tropospheric wave is a radio wave that is propagated by reflection from a place of abrupt change in the dielectric constant , or its gradient , in the troposphere . In some cases , a ground wave may be so altered that new components appear to arise from reflection in regions of rapidly changing dielectric constant . When these components are distinguishable from the other components , they are called `` tropospheric waves . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Tropospheric_wave\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 97917\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Satellite temperature measurements Content: The temperature of the atmosphere at various altitudes as well as sea and land surface temperatures can be inferred from satellite measurements . These measurements can be used to locate weather fronts , monitor the El Niño-Southern Oscillation , determine the strength of tropical cyclones , study urban heat islands and monitor the global climate . Wildfires , volcanos , and industrial hot spots can also be found via thermal imaging from weather satellites . Weather satellites do not measure temperature directly . They measure radiances in various wavelength bands . Since 1978 microwave sounding units ( MSUs ) on National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration polar orbiting satellites have measured the intensity of upwelling microwave radiation from atmospheric oxygen , which is related to the temperature of broad vertical layers of the atmosphere . Measurements of infrared radiation pertaining to sea surface temperature have been collected since 1967 . Satellite datasets show that over the past four decades the troposphere has warmed and the stratosphere has cooled . Both of these trends are consistent with the influence of increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Satellite_temperature_measurements\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 97835\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wave setup Content: In fluid dynamics , wave setup is the increase in mean water level due to the presence of breaking waves . Similarly , wave setdown is a wave-induced decrease of the mean water level before the waves break ( during the shoaling process ) . For short , the whole phenomenon is often denoted as wave setup , including both increase and decrease of mean elevation . This setup is primarily present in and near the coastal surf zone . Besides a spatial variation in the ( mean ) wave setup , also a variation in time may be present -- known as surf beat -- causing infragravity wave radiation . Wave setup can be mathematically modeled by considering the variation in radiation stress . Radiation stress is the tensor of excess horizontal-momentum fluxes due to the presence of the waves .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Wave_setup\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 97831\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ocean surface topography Content: The ocean surface has highs and lows , similar to the hills and valleys of Earth 's land surface depicted on a topographic map . These variations , called ocean surface topography ( or sea surface topography ) , also dynamic topography , are mapped using direct ( usually satellite-based ) or indirect measurements of sea surface height relative to Earth 's geoid . Earth 's geoid is a calculated surface of equal gravitational potential energy and represents the shape the sea surface would be if the ocean were not in motion . The main purpose of measuring ocean surface topography is to understand the large-scale circulation of the ocean . On a daily basis , SSH is most obviously affected by the tidal forces of the Moon and the Sun acting on the Earth . Over longer timescales , SSH is influenced by ocean circulation . Typically , SSH anomalies resulting from these forces differ from the mean by less than ± 1 m at the global scale . Other influences include temperature , salinity , tides , waves , and the loading of atmospheric pressure . The slowest and largest variations are due to changes in the Earth 's gravitational field ( geoid ) due to the rearrangement of continents , formation of sea mounts and other redistribution of rock . Since the Earth 's gravitational field is relatively stable on decadal to centennial timescales , ocean circulation plays a more significant role in the observed variation of SSH . Across the seasonal cycle changes in patterns of warming , cooling and surface wind forcing affect circulation and influence SSH . Variations in SSH can be measured by satellite altimetry ( e.g. TOPEX/Poseidon ) and used to calculate determine sea level rise and properties such as ocean heat storage .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Ocean_surface_topography\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 97802\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Clathrate gun hypothesis Content: The clathrate gun hypothesis is the popular name given to the hypothesis that increases in sea temperatures ( and/or drops in sea levels ) can trigger the sudden release of methane from methane clathrate compounds buried in seabeds and that are contained within seabed permafrost which , because methane itself is a powerful greenhouse gas , leads to further temperature rise and further methane clathrate destabilization -- in effect initiating a runaway process as irreversible , once started , as the firing of a gun . In its original form , the hypothesis proposed that the `` clathrate gun '' could cause abrupt runaway warming on a timescale less than a human lifetime . It was thought to be responsible for warming events in and at the end of the last glacial maximum , however this is now thought to be unlikely . However , there is stronger evidence that runaway methane clathrate breakdown may have caused drastic alteration of the ocean environment ( such as ocean acidification and ocean stratification ) and of the atmosphere of earth on a number of occasions in the past , over timescales of tens of thousands of years . These events include the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum 56 million years ago , and most notably the Permian -- Triassic extinction event , when up to 96 % of all marine species became extinct , 252 million years ago .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Clathrate_gun_hypothesis\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 97094\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Shortwave radiation Content: Shortwave radiation ( SW ) is radiant energy with wavelengths in the visible ( VIS ) , near-ultraviolet ( UV ) , and near-infrared ( NIR ) spectra . There is no standard cut-off for the near-infrared range ; therefore , the shortwave radiation range is also variously defined . It may be broadly defined to include all radiation with a wavelength between 0.1 μm and 5.0 μm or narrowly defined so as to include only radiation between 0.2 μm and 3.0 μm . There is little radiation flux ( in terms of W/m ² ) to the Earth 's surface below 0.2 μm or above 3.0 μm , although photon flux remains significant as far as 6.0 μm , compared to shorter wavelength fluxes . UV-C radiation spans from 0.1 μm to .28 μm , UV-B from 0.28 μm to 0.315 μm , UV-A from 0.315 μm to 0.4 μm , the visible spectrum from 0.4 μm to 0.7 μm , and NIR arguably from 0.7 μm to 5.0 μm , beyond which the infrared is thermal . Shortwave radiation is distinguished from longwave radiation . Downward shortwave radiation is sensitive to solar zenith angle , cloud cover and surface albedo .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Shortwave_radiation\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 96158\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mixed layer Content: The oceanic or limnological mixed layer is a layer in which active turbulence has homogenized some range of depths . The surface mixed layer is a layer where this turbulence is generated by winds , surface heat fluxes , or processes such as evaporation or sea ice formation which result in an increase in salinity . The atmospheric mixed layer is a zone having nearly constant potential temperature and specific humidity with height . The depth of the atmospheric mixed layer is known as the mixing height . Turbulence typically plays a role in the formation of fluid mixed layers .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Mixed_layer\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 96071\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Net radiometer Content: A net radiometer is a type of actinometer used to measure net radiation ( NR ) at the Earth 's surface for meteorological applications . The name net radiometer reflects the fact that it measures the difference between downward/incoming and upward/outgoing radiation from Earth . It is most commonly used in the field of ecophysiology .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Net_radiometer\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 95861\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Future_sea_level\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 95718\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: HadCM3 Content: HadCM3 ( abbreviation for Hadley Centre Coupled Model , version 3 ) is a coupled atmosphere-ocean general circulation model ( AOGCM ) developed at the Hadley Centre in the United Kingdom . It was one of the major models used in the IPCC Third Assessment Report in 2001 . Unlike earlier AOGCMs at the Hadley Centre and elsewhere ( including its predecessor HadCM2 ) , HadCM3 does not need flux adjustment ( additional `` artificial '' heat and freshwater fluxes at the ocean surface ) to produce a good simulation . The higher ocean resolution of HadCM3 is a major factor in this ; other factors include a good match between the atmospheric and oceanic components ; and an improved ocean mixing scheme ( Gent and McWilliams ) . HadCM3 has been run to produce simulations for periods of over a thousand years , showing little drift in its surface climate . HadCM3 is composed of two components : the atmospheric model HadAM3 and the ocean model HadOM3 ( which includes a sea ice model ) . Simulations use a 360-day calendar , where each month is 30 days .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"HadCM3\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 95644\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cool tropics paradox Content: The cool tropics paradox refers to an apparent difference between modeled estimates of tropical temperatures during warm , ice-free periods of the Cretaceous and Eocene , and the colder temperatures which proxies suggested were present . The long-standing paradox was resolved when novel proxy derived temperatures showed significantly warmer tropics during past greenhouse climates . The low-gradient problem , i.e. the very warm polar regions with respect to present day , is still an issue for state-of-the-art climate models .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Cool_tropics_paradox\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 95206\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Helmholtz reciprocity Content: The Helmholtz reciprocity principle describes how a ray of light and its reverse ray encounter matched optical adventures , such as reflections , refractions , and absorptions in a passive medium , or at an interface . It does not apply to moving , non-linear , or magnetic media . For example , incoming and outgoing light can be considered as reversals of each other , without affecting the bidirectional reflectance distribution function ( BRDF ) outcome . If light was measured with a sensor and that light reflected on a material with a BRDF that obeys the Helmholtz reciprocity principle one would be able to swap the sensor and light source and the measurement of flux would remain equal . In the computer graphics scheme of global illumination , the Helmholtz reciprocity principle is important if the global illumination algorithm reverses light paths ( for example Raytracing versus classic light path tracing ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Helmholtz_reciprocity\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 95186\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Upwelling Content: Upwelling is an oceanographic phenomenon that involves wind-driven motion of dense , cooler , and usually nutrient-rich water towards the ocean surface , replacing the warmer , usually nutrient-depleted surface water . The nutrient-rich upwelled water stimulates the growth and reproduction of primary producers such as phytoplankton . Due to the biomass of phytoplankton and presence of cool water in these regions , upwelling zones can be identified by cool sea surface temperatures ( SST ) and high concentrations of chlorophyll-a . The increased availability in upwelling regions results in high levels of primary productivity and thus fishery production . Approximately 25 % of the total global marine fish catches come from five upwellings that occupy only 5 % of the total ocean area . Upwellings that are driven by coastal currents or diverging open ocean have the greatest impact on nutrient-enriched waters and global fishery yields . __ TOC __\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Upwelling\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 95093\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: F2 propagation Content: The E layer of the ionosphere is not the only layer that can reflect VHF television signals . Less frequently , the higher F2 layer can also propagate VHF signals several thousand miles beyond their intended area of reception . Solar activity has a cycle of approximately 11 years . During this period , sunspot activity rises to a peak and gradually falls again to a low level . When sunspot activity increases , the reflecting capabilities of the F1 layer surrounding earth enable high frequency short-wave communications . The highest-reflecting layer , the F2 layer , which is approximately 200 miles ( 320 km ) above earth , receives ultraviolet radiation from the sun , causing ionisation of the gases within this layer . During the daytime when sunspot activity is at a maximum , the F2 layer can become intensely ionized due to radiation from the sun . When solar activity is sufficiently high , the MUF ( Maximum Usable Frequency ) rises , hence the ionisation density is sufficient to reflect signals well into the 30 -- 50 MHz VHF spectrum . Since the MUF progressively increases , F2 reception on lower frequencies can indicate potential low band 45-55 MHz VHF TV as well as VHF amateur radio paths . A rising MUF will initially affect the 27 MHz CB band , and the amateur 28 MHz 10 meters band before reaching 45-55 MHz TV and the 6 Meter amateur band . The F2 MUF generally increases at a slower rate compared to the Es MUF . Since the height of the F2 layer is some 200 miles ( 320 km ) , it follows that single-hop F2 signals will be received at thousands rather than hundreds of miles . A single-hop F2 signal will usually be around 2,000 miles ( 3,200 km ) minimum . A maximum F2 single-hop can reach up to approximately 3,000 miles ( 4,800 km ) . Multi-hop F2 propagation has enabled Band 1 VHF reception to over 11,000 miles ( 17,700 km ) . Since F2 reception is directly related to radiation from the Sun on both a daily basis and in relation to the sunspot cycle , it follows that for optimum reception the centre of the signal path will be roughly at midday . The F2 layer tends to predominantly propagate signals below 40 MHz , which includes the 27 MHz CB band , and 28 MHz 10-metre Amateur radio band . Less frequently , television and amateur signals in the 45 -- 55 MHz VHF band are also propagated over considerable distances . In North America , F2 is most likely to only affect VHF TV channel 2 , in Europe and middle east channel E2 and E3 ( and the now deprecated channel itA ) and in eastern Europe channel R1 . Television pictures propagated via F2 tend to suffer from characteristic ghosting and smearing . Picture degradation and signal strength attenuation increases with each subsequent F2 hop .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"F2_propagation\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 95017\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 95015\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Idealized greenhouse model Content: The surface of the Sun radiates light and heat at approximately 5,500 ° C . The Earth is much cooler and so radiates heat back away from itself at much longer wavelengths , mostly in the infrared range . The idealized greenhouse model is based on the fact that certain gases in the Earth 's atmosphere , including carbon dioxide and water vapour , are transparent to the high-frequency , high-energy solar radiation , but are much more opaque to the lower frequency infrared radiation leaving the surface of the earth . Thus heat is easily let in , but is partially trapped by these gases as it tries to leave . Rather than get hotter and hotter , Kirchhoff 's law of thermal radiation says that the gases of the atmosphere also have to re-emit the infrared energy that they absorb , and they do so , also at long infrared wavelengths , both upwards into space as well as downwards back towards the Earth 's surface . In the long-term , thermal equilibrium is reached when all the heat energy arriving on the planet is leaving again at the same rate . In this idealized model , the greenhouse gases cause the surface of the planet to be warmer than it would be without them , in order for the required amount of heat energy finally to be radiated out into space from the top of the atmosphere . The greenhouse effect can be illustrated with an idealized planet . This is a common `` textbook model '' : the planet will have a constant surface temperature Ts and an atmosphere with constant temperature Ta . For diagrammatic clarity , a gap can be depicted between the atmosphere and the surface . Alternatively , Ts could be interpreted as a temperature representative of the surface and the lower atmosphere , and Ta could be interpreted as the temperature of the upper atmosphere . In order to justify that Ta and Ts remain constant over the planet , strong ocean and atmospheric currents can be imagined to provide plentiful lateral mixing . Furthermore , any daily or seasonal cycles in temperature are assumed to be insignificant .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Idealized_greenhouse_model\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 94987\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Serotonin syndrome Content: Serotonin syndrome ( SS ) is a group of symptoms that may occur following use of certain serotonergic medications or drugs . The degree of symptoms can range from mild to severe . Symptoms include high body temperature , agitation , increased reflexes , tremor , sweating , dilated pupils , and diarrhea . Body temperature can increase to greater than 41.1 C. Complications may include seizures and extensive muscle breakdown . Serotonin syndrome is typically caused by the use of two or more serotonergic medications or drugs . This may include selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor ( SSRI ) , serotonin norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor ( SNRI ) , monoamine oxidase inhibitor ( MAOI ) , tricyclic antidepressants ( TCAs ) , amphetamines , pethidine ( meperidine ) , tramadol , dextromethorphan , buspirone , L-tryptophan , St. John 's wort , triptans , ecstasy , metoclopramide , ondansetron , or cocaine . It occurs in about 15 % of SSRI overdoses . It is a predictable consequence of excess serotonin on the central nervous system ( CNS ) . Onset of symptoms is typically within a day of the extra serotonin . Diagnosis is based on a person 's symptoms and history of medication use . Other conditions that can produce similar symptoms such as neuroleptic malignant syndrome , malignant hyperthermia , anticholinergic toxicity , heat stroke , and meningitis should be ruled out . No laboratory tests can confirm the diagnosis . Initial treatment consists of discontinuing medications which may be contributing . In those who are agitated benzodiazepines may be used . If this is not sufficient , a serotonin antagonist such as cyproheptadine may be used . In those with a high body temperatures active cooling measures may be needed . The number of cases of serotonin syndrome that occur each year is unclear . With appropriate treatment the risk of death is less than one percent . The high-profile case of Libby Zion , who is generally accepted to have died from serotonin syndrome , resulted in changes to graduate medical education in New York State .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Serotonin_syndrome\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 94665\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Evolutionary radiation Content: An evolutionary radiation is an increase in taxonomic diversity or morphological disparity , due to adaptive change or the opening of ecospace . Radiations may affect one clade or many , and be rapid or gradual ; where they are rapid , and driven by a single lineage 's adaptation to their environment , they are termed adaptive radiations . Caribbean anoline lizards are a particularly interesting example of an adaptive radiation .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Evolutionary_radiation\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 94518\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atlantic multidecadal oscillation Content: The Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation ( AMO ) is a climate cycle that affects the sea surface temperature of the North Atlantic Ocean based on different modes on multidecadal timescales . While there is some support for this mode in models and in historical observations , controversy exists with regard to its amplitude , and in particular , the attribution of sea surface temperature change to natural or anthropogenic causes , especially in tropical Atlantic areas important for hurricane development .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Atlantic_multidecadal_oscillation\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 94514\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Arctic geoengineering Content: Temperatures in the Arctic region have tended to increase more rapidly than the global average . Projections of sea ice loss that are adjusted to take account of recent rapid Arctic shrinkage suggest that the Arctic will likely be free of summer sea ice sometime between 2059 and 2078 . Various climate engineering schemes have been suggested to reduce the chance of significant and irreversible effects such as Arctic methane release . Several climate engineering proposals have been made which are specific to the Arctic . They are usually hydrological in nature , and principally centre upon measures to prevent Arctic ice loss . In addition , other solar radiation management climate engineering techniques , such as stratospheric sulfate aerosols have been proposed . These would cool the Arctic by adjusting the albedo of the atmosphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Arctic_geoengineering\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 94296\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kerry Emanuel Content: Kerry Andrew Emanuel ( born April 21 , 1955 ) is an American professor of meteorology currently working at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge . In particular he has specialized in atmospheric convection and the mechanisms acting to intensify hurricanes . He was named one of the Time 100 influential people of 2006 . In 2007 , he was elected as a member of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences . He hypothesized in 1994 about a superpowerful type of hurricane which could be formed if average sea surface temperature increased another 15C more than it 's ever been ( see `` hypercane '' ) . In a March 2008 paper published in the Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society , he put forward the conclusion that global warming is likely to increase the intensity but decrease the frequency of hurricane and cyclone activity . Gabriel Vecchi , of NOAA said of Emanuel 's announcement , `` While his results do n't rule out the possibility that global warming has contributed to the recent increase in activity in the Atlantic , they suggest that other factors -- possibly in addition to global warming -- are likely to have been substantial contributors to the observed increase in activity . '' In 2013 , with other leading experts , he was co-author of an open letter to policy makers , which stated that `` continued opposition to nuclear power threatens humanity 's ability to avoid dangerous climate change . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Kerry_Emanuel\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 94276\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Amundsen-Nobile Climate Change Tower Content: The Amundsen-Nobile Climate Change Tower ( CCT ) is a 34-meter research tower installed in Ny-Ålesund , Svalbard , Norway , for the study of various physical parameters in the boundary layer of the lower troposphere . In particular it continuously measured meteorological parameters ( temperature , relative humidity , intensity and direction of the wind ) at four different levels of height , and the four components of solar radiation and infrared at the top of the tower itself . They also measure the height of the layer of snow and its temperature at two depths . The tower was funded by the Department of Earth and Environment ( DTA ) of the National Research Council of Italy ( CNR ) and installed by Kings Bay in science village of Ny-Ålesund on Svalbard island . The inauguration took place on30 April 2009 . The CCT is an important point of reference for the study of the energy balance at the surface , and the processes of interaction and exchange between the various components of the climate system . The structure is dedicated to the Arctic expeditions of Norwegian Roald Amundsen and Italian Umberto Nobile explorers .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Amundsen-Nobile_Climate_Change_Tower\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 94234\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hypercane Content: A hypercane is a hypothetical class of extreme tropical cyclone that could form if ocean temperatures reached 50 C , which is 15 C-change warmer than the warmest ocean temperature ever recorded . Such an increase could be caused by a large asteroid or comet impact , a large supervolcanic eruption , or extensive global warming . There is some speculation that a series of hypercanes resulting from an impact by a large asteroid or comet contributed to the demise of the non-avian dinosaurs . The hypothesis was created by Kerry Emanuel of MIT who also coined the term .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Hypercane\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 93826\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: SSTD Content: The United Kingdom Surface Ship Torpedo Defence ( SSTD ) system entered into service with the Royal Navy in 2004 . The system is produced by Ultra Electronics and is known as S2170 by the Royal Navy and as Sea Sentor in the export market . The system consists of an acoustic passive towed array a towed acoustic countermeasure ( flexible ) a single-drum winch a processing cabinet 2 display consoles 2 expendable acoustic device launchers ( 1 port , 1 starboard ) 16 expendable acoustic devices ( 8 in each launcher ) The system is a foot-print compatible replacement for the AN/SLQ -25 Nixie system previously installed on RN warships . The passive acoustic towed array is specifically designed to detect torpedoes ( unlike traditional ASW sonars ) and has additional in-built non-acoustic as well as acoustic intercept sensors . Through advanced AI processing it is able to generically identify torpedoes as well as classify specific weapon types and modes and undertake threat evaluation and posturing analysis . The system provides tactical advice dependent upon the specific threat weapon , mode and posture to maximise vessel survivability , which typically involves vessel manoeuvres and also includes the deployment of countermeasures . The countermeasures - both towed and expendable variants - lure the threat away from the vessel in a soft-kill manner . Ultra Electronics also produces a hard-kill variant known as the TRAPR DCL system currently under development for the US Navy .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"SSTD\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 93460\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wave shoaling Content: In fluid dynamics , wave shoaling is the effect by which surface waves entering shallower water change in wave height . It is caused by the fact that the group velocity , which is also the wave-energy transport velocity , changes with water depth . Under stationary conditions , a decrease in transport speed must be compensated by an increase in energy density in order to maintain a constant energy flux . Shoaling waves will also exhibit a reduction in wavelength while the frequency remains constant . In shallow water and parallel depth contours , non-breaking waves will increase in wave height as the wave packet enters shallower water . This is particularly evident for tsunamis as they wax in height when approaching a coastline , with devastating results .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Wave_shoaling\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 93347\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Jansky Content: The jansky ( symbol Jy ) is a non-SI unit of spectral flux density , or spectral irradiance , used especially in radio astronomy . It is equivalent to 10 − 26 watts per square metre per hertz . The flux density or monochromatic flux , , of a source is the integral of the spectral radiance , , over the source solid angle : The unit is named after pioneering US radio astronomer Karl Guthe Jansky and is defined as ( SI ) ( cgs ) . Since the jansky is obtained by integrating over the whole source solid angle , it is most simply used to describe point sources ; for example , the Third Cambridge Catalogue of Radio Sources ( 3C ) reports results in Jy . For extended sources , the surface brightness is often described with units of Jy per solid angle ; for example , far-infrared ( FIR ) maps from the IRAS satellite are in MJy/sr . Although extended sources at all wavelengths can be reported with these units , for radio-frequency maps , extended sources have traditionally been described in terms of a brightness temperature ; for example the Haslam et al. 408 MHz all-sky continuum survey is reported in terms of a brightness temperature in K.\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Jansky\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 93301\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Baseline Surface Radiation Network Content: Baseline Surface Radiation Network ( BSRN ) is a project of the World Climate Research Programme ( WCRP ) and the Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment ( GEWEX ) and as such is aimed detecting important changes in the Earth 's radiation field at the Earth 's surface which may be related to climate changes . The central archive of the BSRN is the World Radiation Monitoring Center ( WRMC ) which was initiated by Atsumu Ohmura in 1992 and operated at ETH until 2007 . Since 2008 the WRMC is operated by the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research ( AWI ) , Germany .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Baseline_Surface_Radiation_Network\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 93279\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Critical heat flux Content: Critical heat flux ( CHF ) describes the thermal limit of a phenomenon where a phase change occurs during heating ( such as bubbles forming on a metal surface used to heat water ) , which suddenly decreases the efficiency of heat transfer , thus causing localised overheating of the heating surface . The critical heat flux for ignition is the lowest thermal load per unit area capable of initiating a combustion reaction on a given material ( either flame or smoulder ignition ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Critical_heat_flux\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 93014\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Radiolysis Content: Radiolysis is the dissociation of molecules by ionizing radiation . It is the cleavage of one or several chemical bonds resulting from exposure to high-energy flux . The radiation in this context is associated with ionizing radiation ; radiolysis is therefore distinguished from , for example , photolysis of the Cl2 molecule into two Cl-radicals , where ( ultraviolet or visible ) light is used . For example , water dissociates under alpha radiation into a hydrogen radical and a hydroxyl radical , unlike ionization of water which produces a hydrogen ion and a hydroxide ion . The chemistry of concentrated solutions under ionizing radiation is extremely complex . Radiolysis can locally modify redox conditions , and therefore the speciation and the solubility of the compounds .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Radiolysis\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 92683\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Thermohaline circulation Content: Thermohaline circulation ( THC ) is a part of the large-scale ocean circulation that is driven by global density gradients created by surface heat and freshwater fluxes . The adjective thermohaline derives from thermo - referring to temperature and referring to salt content , factors which together determine the density of sea water . Wind-driven surface currents ( such as the Gulf Stream ) travel polewards from the equatorial Atlantic Ocean , cooling en route , and eventually sinking at high latitudes ( forming North Atlantic Deep Water ) . This dense water then flows into the ocean basins . While the bulk of it upwells in the Southern Ocean , the oldest waters ( with a transit time of around 1000 years ) upwell in the North Pacific . Extensive mixing therefore takes place between the ocean basins , reducing differences between them and making the Earth 's oceans a global system . On their journey , the water masses transport both energy ( in the form of heat ) and matter ( solids , dissolved substances and gases ) around the globe . As such , the state of the circulation has a large impact on the climate of the Earth . The thermohaline circulation is sometimes called the ocean conveyor belt , the great ocean conveyor , or the global conveyor belt . On occasion , it is used to refer to the meridional overturning circulation ( often abbreviated as MOC ) . The term MOC is more accurate and well defined , as it is difficult to separate the part of the circulation which is driven by temperature and salinity alone as opposed to other factors such as the wind and tidal forces . Moreover , temperature and salinity gradients can also lead to circulation effects that are not included in the MOC itself .\",\n \"qid\": \"2735\",\n \"docid\": \"Thermohaline_circulation\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 92602\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":1348,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"The observed behavior of radiation fluxes implies negative feedback processes associated with relatively low climate sensitivity."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Climate change feedback Content: Climate change feedback is important in the understanding of global warming because feedback processes may amplify or diminish the effect of each climate forcing , and so play an important part in determining the climate sensitivity and future climate state . Feedback in general is the process in which changing one quantity changes a second quantity , and the change in the second quantity in turn changes the first . Positive feedback amplifies the change in the first quantity while negative feedback reduces it . The term `` forcing '' means a change which may `` push '' the climate system in the direction of warming or cooling . An example of a climate forcing is increased atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases . By definition , forcings are external to the climate system while feedbacks are internal ; in essence , feedbacks represent the internal processes of the system . Some feedbacks may act in relative isolation to the rest of the climate system ; others may be tightly coupled ; hence it may be difficult to tell just how much a particular process contributes . Forcings , feedbacks and the dynamics of the climate system determine how much and how fast the climate changes . The main positive feedback in global warming is the tendency of warming to increase the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere , which in turn leads to further warming . The main negative feedback comes from the Stefan -- Boltzmann law , the amount of heat radiated from the Earth into space changes with the fourth power of the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere . Some observed and potential effects of global warming are positive feedbacks , which contribute directly to further global warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that `` Anthropogenic warming could lead to some effects that are abrupt or irreversible , depending upon the rate and magnitude of the climate change . ''","qid":"2736","docid":"Climate_change_feedback","rank":1,"score":152345},{"content":"Title: Cloud feedback Content: Cloud feedback is the coupling between cloudiness and surface air temperature where a surface air temperature change leads to a change in clouds , which could then amplify or diminish the initial temperature perturbation . Cloud feedbacks can affect the magnitude of internally generated climate variability or they can affect the magnitude of climate change resulting from external radiative forcings . Global warming is expected to change the distribution and type of clouds . Seen from below , clouds emit infrared radiation back to the surface , and so exert a warming effect ; seen from above , clouds reflect sunlight and emit infrared radiation to space , and so exert a cooling effect . Cloud representations vary among global climate models , and small changes in cloud cover have a large impact on the climate . Differences in planetary boundary layer cloud modeling schemes can lead to large differences in derived values of climate sensitivity . A model that decreases boundary layer clouds in response to global warming has a climate sensitivity twice that of a model that does not include this feedback . However , satellite data show that cloud optical thickness actually increases with increasing temperature . Whether the net effect is warming or cooling depends on details such as the type and altitude of the cloud ; details that are difficult to represent in climate models .","qid":"2736","docid":"Cloud_feedback","rank":2,"score":147809},{"content":"Title: Ice-albedo feedback Content: Ice-albedo feedback ( or snow-albedo feedback ) is a positive feedback climate process where a change in the area of snow-covered land , ice caps , glaciers or sea ice alters the albedo . This change in albedo acts to reinforce the initial alteration in ice area . Cooling tends to increase ice cover and hence the albedo , reducing the amount of solar energy absorbed and leading to more cooling . Conversely , warming tends to decrease ice cover and hence the albedo , increasing the amount of solar energy absorbed , leading to more warming . The effect also applies on the small scale to snow-covered surfaces . A small amount of snow melt exposes darker ground which absorbs more radiation , leading to more snowmelt . The effect has mostly been discussed in terms of the recent trend of declining Arctic sea ice . Internal feedback processes may also potentially occur , as land ice melts and causes eustatic sea level rise , and also potentially induces earthquakes as a result of isostatic rebound , which further acts to disrupt glaciers , ice shelves , etc. .","qid":"2736","docid":"Ice-albedo_feedback","rank":3,"score":136822},{"content":"Title: Climate sensitivity Content: Climate sensitivity is the equilibrium temperature change in response to changes of the radiative forcing . Therefore , climate sensitivity depends on the initial climate state , but potentially can be accurately inferred from precise palaeoclimate data . Slow climate feedbacks , especially changes of ice sheet size and atmospheric CO2 , amplify the total Earth system sensitivity by an amount that depends on the time scale considered . Although climate sensitivity is usually used in the context of radiative forcing by carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , it is thought of as a general property of the climate system : the change in surface air temperature ( ΔTs ) following a unit change in radiative forcing ( RF ) , and thus is expressed in units of ° C / ( W/m2 ) . For this to be useful , the measure must be independent of the nature of the forcing ( e.g. from greenhouse gases or solar variation ) ; to first order this is indeed found to be so . The climate sensitivity specifically due to is often expressed as the temperature change in ° C associated with a doubling of the concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere . For coupled atmosphere-ocean global climate models ( e.g. CMIP5 ) the climate sensitivity is an emergent property : it is not a model parameter , but rather a result of a combination of model physics and parameters . By contrast , simpler energy-balance models may have climate sensitivity as an explicit parameter . The terms represented in the equation relate radiative forcing ( RF ) to linear changes in global surface temperature change ( ΔTs ) via the climate sensitivity λ . It is also possible to estimate climate sensitivity from observations ; however , this is difficult due to uncertainties in the forcing and temperature histories .","qid":"2736","docid":"Climate_sensitivity","rank":4,"score":136112},{"content":"Title: Iris hypothesis Content: The iris hypothesis is a hypothesis proposed by Richard Lindzen et al. in 2001 that suggested increased sea surface temperature in the tropics would result in reduced cirrus clouds and thus more infrared radiation leakage from Earth 's atmosphere . His study of observed changes in cloud coverage and modeled effects on infrared radiation released to space as a result supported the hypothesis . This suggested infrared radiation leakage was hypothesized to be a negative feedback in which an initial warming would result in an overall cooling of the surface . The consensus view is that increased sea surface temperature would result in increased cirrus clouds and reduced infrared radiation leakage and therefore a positive feedback . Other scientists subsequently tested the hypothesis . Some concluded that there was no evidence supporting the hypothesis . Others found evidence suggesting that increased sea surface temperature in the tropics did indeed reduce cirrus clouds but found that the effect was nonetheless a positive feedback rather than the negative feedback that Lindzen had hypothesized . A later 2007 study conducted by Roy Spencer et al. using updated satellite data potentially supported the iris hypothesis . In 2011 , Lindzen published a rebuttal to the main criticisms . In 2015 a paper was published which again suggested the possibility of an `` Iris Effect '' . It also proposed what it called a `` plausible physical mechanism for an iris effect . ''","qid":"2736","docid":"Iris_hypothesis","rank":5,"score":128833},{"content":"Title: Negative feedback Content: Negative feedback occurs when some function of the output of a system , process , or mechanism is fed back in a manner that tends to reduce the fluctuations in the output , whether caused by changes in the input or by other disturbances . Whereas positive feedback tends to lead to instability via exponential growth , oscillation or chaotic behavior , negative feedback generally promotes stability . Negative feedback tends to promote a settling to equilibrium , and reduces the effects of perturbations . Negative feedback loops in which just the right amount of correction is applied with optimum timing can be very stable , accurate , and responsive . Negative feedback is widely used in mechanical and electronic engineering , but it also occurs naturally within living organisms , and can be seen in many other fields from chemistry and economics to physical systems such as the climate . General negative feedback systems are studied in control systems engineering .","qid":"2736","docid":"Negative_feedback","rank":6,"score":126198},{"content":"Title: Radiation flux Content: Radiation flux is a measure of the amount of radiation received by an object from a given source . This can be any type of radiation , including electromagnetic , sound , and particles from a radioactive source . Φ = is the radiation flux , L is the luminosity , or total power output of the source , and r is the distance from the radiation source . The units of radiation flux are W · m − 2 , or kg · s − 3 . Radiation flux density is a related measure that takes into account the area the radiation flux passes through , and is defined as the flux divided by the area it passes through . The Radiation flux density is also known as Intensity where I =","qid":"2736","docid":"Radiation_flux","rank":7,"score":122110},{"content":"Title: Radiation sensitivity Content: Radiation sensitivity is the susceptibility of a material to physical or chemical changes induced by radiation ( see also : radiation effect ) . Examples of radiation sensitive materials are silver chloride , photoresists and biomaterials . Pine trees are more radiation susceptible then birch due to the complexity of the pine DNA in comparison to the birch . Examples of radiation insensitive materials are metals and ionic crystals such as quartz and sapphire . The radiation effect depends on the type of the irradiating particles , their energy and the number of incident particles per unit volume . Radiation effects can be transient or permanent . The persistence of the radiation effect depends on the stability of the induced physical and chemical change . Physical radiation effects depending on diffusion properties can be thermally annealed whereby the original structure of the material is recovered . Chemical radiation effects usually can not be recovered .","qid":"2736","docid":"Radiation_sensitivity","rank":8,"score":119592},{"content":"Title: Radiation hormesis Content: Radiation hormesis ( also called radiation homeostasis ) is the hypothesis that low doses of ionizing radiation ( within the region of and just above natural background levels ) are beneficial , stimulating the activation of repair mechanisms that protect against disease , that are not activated in absence of ionizing radiation . The reserve repair mechanisms are hypothesized to be sufficiently effective when stimulated as to not only cancel the detrimental effects of ionizing radiation but also inhibit disease not related to radiation exposure ( see hormesis ) . This counter-intuitive hypothesis has captured the attention of scientists and public alike in recent years . While the effects of high and acute doses of ionising radiation are easily observed and understood in humans ( e.g. Japanese Atomic Bomb survivors ) , the effects of low-level radiation are very difficult to observe and highly controversial . This is because the baseline cancer rate is already very high and the risk of developing cancer fluctuates 40 % because of individual life style and environmental effects , obscuring the subtle effects of low-level radiation . An acute effective dose of 100 millisieverts may increase cancer risk by ~ 0.8 % . However , children are particularly sensitive to radioactivity , with childhood leukemias and other cancers increasing even within natural and man-made background radiation levels ( under 4 mSv cumulative with 1 mSv being an average annual dose from terrestrial and cosmic radiation excluding radon which primarily doses the lung ) . There is also indication that exposures around this dose level will cause negative subclinical health impacts to neural development . Students born in regions of Sweden with higher Chernobyl fallout performed worse in secondary school , particularly in math . `` Damage is accentuated within families ( i.e. , siblings comparison ) and among children born to parents with low education ... '' who often do n't have the resources to overcome this additional health challenge . Hormesis remains largely unknown to the public . Any policy change ought to consider hormesis first as a public health issue ( versus an industrial regulatory issue ) . This would include the assessment of the public concern regarding exposure to small toxic doses . In addition , impact of hormesis policy change upon the management of industrial risks should be studied . Government and regulatory bodies disagree on the existence of radiation hormesis and research points to the `` severe problems and limitations '' with the use of hormesis in general as the `` principal dose-response default assumption in a risk assessment process charged with ensuring public health protection . '' Quoting results from a literature database research , the Académie des Sciences -- Académie nationale de Médecine ( French Academy of Sciences -- National Academy of Medicine ) stated in their 2005 report concerning the effects of low-level radiation that many laboratory studies have observed radiation hormesis . However , they cautioned that it is not yet known if radiation hormesis occurs outside the laboratory , or in humans . Reports by the United States National Research Council and the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements and the United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation ( UNSCEAR ) argue that there is no evidence for hormesis in humans and in the case of the National Research Council hormesis is outright rejected as a possibility . Therefore , estimating Linear no-threshold model ( LNT ) continues to be the model generally used by regulatory agencies for human radiation exposure .","qid":"2736","docid":"Radiation_hormesis","rank":9,"score":117447},{"content":"Title: Radiative flux Content: Radiative flux , also known as radiative flux density or radiation flux , is the amount of power radiated through a given area , in the form of photons or other elementary particles , typically measured in W/m2 . It is used in astronomy to determine the magnitude and spectral class of a star . Radiative flux also acts as a generalization of heat flux , which is equal to the radiative flux when restricted to the infrared spectrum . When radiative flux is incident on a surface , it is often called irradiance . Flux emitted from a surface may be called radiant exitance or radiant emittance .","qid":"2736","docid":"Radiative_flux","rank":10,"score":116282},{"content":"Title: Wind-induced surface heat exchange Content: The wind-induced surface heat exchange ( WISHE ) is a positive feedback mechanism between the ocean and atmosphere in which a stronger ocean-to-atmosphere heat flux results in a stronger atmospheric circulation , which results in a strong heat flux . It has been hypothesized that this is the mechanism by which low pressure areas in the tropics develop into tropical cyclones .","qid":"2736","docid":"Wind-induced_surface_heat_exchange","rank":11,"score":115854},{"content":"Title: Electrothermal feedback Content: In electronics , electrothermal feedback is the interaction of the electric current and the temperature in a device with a temperature-dependent electrical resistance . This interaction arises from Joule heating . The temperature-dependence of the electrical resistance is described by the derivative of the resistance with respect to temperature dR/dT . Semiconductors typically exhibit a negative dR/dT . Superconductors exhibit a large positive dR/dT on the superconducting phase transition . Normal ( non-superconducting ) metals typically exhibit a positive dR/dT that decreases to zero at very low temperatures . If a device has a positive dR/dT , an increase in temperature ( for example , due to thermal fluctuations or the absorption of a photon ) will increase the electrical resistance R . If the device is biased with a constant voltage V , this increase in resistance will decrease the Joule power P = V2/R . The decrease in Joule heating will cause the device to return to its equilibrium temperature . This is known as negative electrothermal feedback , as the change in Joule heating opposes the change in temperature . If the device is instead biased with a constant current I , the Joule power P = I2R will increase if the temperature increases . Thus the Joule heating amplifies a change in temperature , an effect known as positive electrothermal feedback . The situation is reversed for the case of a negative dR/dT . Electrothermal feedback is important for describing the performance of several types of photodetectors such as the bolometer , the transition edge sensor , and the superconducting nanowire single-photon detector .","qid":"2736","docid":"Electrothermal_feedback","rank":12,"score":113768},{"content":"Title: Radiolysis Content: Radiolysis is the dissociation of molecules by ionizing radiation . It is the cleavage of one or several chemical bonds resulting from exposure to high-energy flux . The radiation in this context is associated with ionizing radiation ; radiolysis is therefore distinguished from , for example , photolysis of the Cl2 molecule into two Cl-radicals , where ( ultraviolet or visible ) light is used . For example , water dissociates under alpha radiation into a hydrogen radical and a hydroxyl radical , unlike ionization of water which produces a hydrogen ion and a hydroxide ion . The chemistry of concentrated solutions under ionizing radiation is extremely complex . Radiolysis can locally modify redox conditions , and therefore the speciation and the solubility of the compounds .","qid":"2736","docid":"Radiolysis","rank":13,"score":111389},{"content":"Title: Negative-feedback amplifier Content: A negative-feedback amplifier ( or feedback amplifier ) is an electronic amplifier that subtracts a fraction of its output from its input , so that negative feedback opposes the original signal . The applied negative feedback improves performance ( gain stability , linearity , frequency response , step response ) and reduces sensitivity to parameter variations due to manufacturing or environment . Because of these advantages , many amplifiers and control systems use negative feedback . An idealized negative-feedback amplifier as shown in the diagram is a system of three elements ( see Figure 1 ) : an amplifier with gain AOL , a feedback network β , which senses the output signal and possibly transforms it in some way ( for example by attenuating or filtering it ) , a summing circuit that acts as a subtractor ( the circle in the figure ) , which combines the input and the transformed output .","qid":"2736","docid":"Negative-feedback_amplifier","rank":14,"score":111023},{"content":"Title: Outgoing longwave radiation Content: Outgoing Longwave Radiation ( OLR ) is the energy radiating from the Earth as infrared radiation at low energy to Space . OLR is electromagnetic radiation emitted from Earth and its atmosphere out to space in the form of thermal radiation . The flux of energy transported by outgoing longwave radiation is measured in W/m ² . Over 99 % of outgoing longwave radiation has wavelengths between 4 µm and 100 µm , in the thermal infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum . Contributions with wavelengths larger than 40 µm are small , therefore often only wavelengths up to 50 µm are considered . In the wavelength range between 4 µm and 10 µm the spectrum of outgoing longwave radiation overlaps that of solar radiation , and for various applications different cut-off wavelengths between the two may be chosen . Radiative cooling by outgoing longwave radiation is the primary way the Earth System loses energy . The balance between this loss and the energy gained by radiative heating from incoming solar shortwave radiation determines global heating or cooling of the Earth system ( Energy budget of Earth 's climate ) . Local differences between radiative heating and cooling provide the energy that drives atmospheric dynamics .","qid":"2736","docid":"Outgoing_longwave_radiation","rank":15,"score":110725},{"content":"Title: Anti-greenhouse effect Content: The anti-greenhouse effect is a mechanism similar to the greenhouse effect , but with the opposite consequence of cooling the surface temperature of a planet . If gases in the atmosphere of a planet have a lesser transmittance for inbound radiation ( for instance , solar rays in the Solar System ) than for outbound radiation ( typically thermal radiation of the planet 's surface in the infrared domain ) , the surface temperature at which inbound and outbound heat fluxes are at equilibrium is lower .","qid":"2736","docid":"Anti-greenhouse_effect","rank":16,"score":110411},{"content":"Title: Pyrgeometer Content: A pyrgeometer is a device that measures near-surface infra-red radiation spectrum in the wavelength spectrum approximately from 4.5 µm to 100 µm . It measures the resistance/voltage changes in a material that is sensitive to the net energy transfer by radiation that occurs between itself and its surroundings ( which can be either in or out ) . By also measuring its own temperature and making some assumptions about the nature of its surroundings it can infer a temperature of the local atmosphere with which it is exchanging radiation . These instruments generally have no spectral ( frequency/wavelength ) measurement capabilities -- they use a single ( non-frequency resolved ) resistance/voltage measurement . They are constructed to be sensitive to the infra-red radiation spectrum that extends approximately from 4.5 µm to 100 µm , thus excluding the main shortwave ( solar ) spectrum . Since the mean free path of IR radiation in the atmosphere is ~ 25 meters , this device typically measures IR flux in the nearest 25 meter layer .","qid":"2736","docid":"Pyrgeometer","rank":17,"score":110392},{"content":"Title: Negative luminescence Content: Negative luminescence is a physical phenomenon by which an electronic device emits less thermal radiation when an electric current is passed through it than it does in thermal equilibrium ( current off ) . When viewed by a thermal camera , an operating negative luminescent device looks colder than its environment .","qid":"2736","docid":"Negative_luminescence","rank":18,"score":110183},{"content":"Title: Robert D. Cess Content: Robert D. Cess is professor emeritus of atmospheric sciences at Stony Brook University . He earned his bachelor of science degree in mechanical engineering from Oregon State University and his master 's degree from Purdue University in Indiana in 1956 . Cess received a Ph.D. from the University of Pittsburgh in 1959 . He is a recognized leader in the fields of climate change and atmospheric radiation transfer . His research interest involve modeling of climate feedbacks that can either amplify or diminish global climate change , and interpreting surface and satellite remote sensing data . He has been a part of studies which have found problems with the ability of model the transmission of shortwave radiation through a cloud-free atmosphere , and designed an experiment to test the accuracy of the models . They reported that they found agreement between the models and the observations of clear-sky shortwave radiation at the surface for the period studied , 1985 to 1988 . Cess was a lead author of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and worked with the National Science Foundation on understanding greenhouse warming and its associated policy implications .","qid":"2736","docid":"Robert_D._Cess","rank":19,"score":110182},{"content":"Title: Mukul Kundu Content: Mukul R. Kundu ( 10 February 1930 - 16 June 2010 ) , was an Indian solar physicist , known best as a pioneer of radio observations of the Sun . Early in his career , he showed that the Sun 's 10.7 centimetre radio flux is correlated with the level of ionisation in the Earth 's ionosphere . The 10.7 cm flux is now used as a standard proxy for the level of magnetic activity on the Sun . He served on the editorial board of the journal Solar Physics and was awarded the George Ellery Hale Prize in 2007 .","qid":"2736","docid":"Mukul_Kundu","rank":20,"score":109390},{"content":"Title: Radiometry Content: Radiometry is a set of techniques for measuring electromagnetic radiation , including visible light . Radiometric techniques in optics characterize the distribution of the radiation 's power in space , as opposed to photometric techniques , which characterize the light 's interaction with the human eye . Radiometry is distinct from quantum techniques such as photon counting . The use of radiometers to determine the temperature of objects and gasses by measuring radiation flux is called pyrometry . Handheld pyrometer devices are often marketed as infrared thermometers . Radiometry is important in astronomy , especially radio astronomy , and plays a significant role in Earth remote sensing . The measurement techniques categorized as radiometry in optics are called photometry in some astronomical applications , contrary to the optics usage of the term . Spectroradiometry is the measurement of absolute radiometric quantities in narrow bands of wavelength .","qid":"2736","docid":"Radiometry","rank":21,"score":109023},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse effect Content: The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet 's atmosphere warms the planet 's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere . If a planet 's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases ( i.e. , greenhouse gases ) the atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions . Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface , warming it . The downward component of this radiation -- that is , the strength of the greenhouse effect -- will depend on the atmosphere 's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains . On Earth , the atmosphere is warmed by absorption of infrared thermal radiation from the underlying surface ( heated by the sun ) , absorption of shorter wavelength radiant energy from the sun , and convective heat fluxes from the surface . Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere radiate energy , some of which is directed to the surface and lower atmosphere . The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect . Earth 's natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life . Human activities , primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests , have intensified the natural greenhouse effect , causing global warming . The mechanism is named after a faulty analogy with the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a greenhouse . The way a greenhouse retains heat is fundamentally different , as a greenhouse works by reducing airflow and retaining warm air inside the structure .","qid":"2736","docid":"Greenhouse_effect","rank":22,"score":107663},{"content":"Title: Radiation zone Content: A radiation zone , radiative zone or radiative region is a layer of a star 's interior where energy is primarily transported toward the exterior by means of radiative diffusion and thermal conduction , rather than by convection . Energy travels through the radiation zone in the form of electromagnetic radiation as photons . Matter in a radiation zone is so dense that photons can travel only a short distance before they are absorbed or scattered by another particle , gradually shifting to longer wavelength as they do so . For this reason , it takes an average of 171,000 years for gamma rays from the core of the Sun to leave the radiation zone . Over this range , the temperature of the plasma drops from 15 million K near the core down to 1.5 million K at the base of the convection zone . In a radiative zone , the temperature gradient -- the change in temperature ( T ) as a function of radius ( r ) -- is given by : where κ ( r ) is the opacity , ρ ( r ) is the matter density , L ( r ) is the luminosity , and σ is the Stefan -- Boltzmann constant . Hence the opacity and radiation flux ( L ) within a given layer of a star are important factors in determining how effective radiative diffusion is at transporting energy . A high opacity or high luminosity can cause a high temperature gradient , which results from a slow flow of energy . Those layers where convection is more effective than radiative diffusion at transporting energy , thereby creating a lower temperature gradient , will become convection zones .","qid":"2736","docid":"Radiation_zone","rank":23,"score":107214},{"content":"Title: CLAW hypothesis Content: The CLAW hypothesis proposes a negative feedback loop that operates between ocean ecosystems and the Earth 's climate . The hypothesis specifically proposes that particular phytoplankton that produce dimethyl sulfide are responsive to variations in climate forcing , and that these responses act to stabilise the temperature of the Earth 's atmosphere . The CLAW hypothesis was originally proposed by Robert Jay Charlson , James Lovelock , Meinrat Andreae and Stephen G. Warren , and takes its acronym from the first letter of their surnames .","qid":"2736","docid":"CLAW_hypothesis","rank":24,"score":106041},{"content":"Title: Radiation stress Content: In fluid dynamics , the radiation stress is the depth-integrated -- and thereafter phase-averaged -- excess momentum flux caused by the presence of the surface gravity waves , which is exerted on the mean flow . The radiation stresses behave as a second-order tensor . The radiation stress tensor describes the additional forcing due to the presence of the waves , which changes the mean depth-integrated horizontal momentum in the fluid layer . As a result , varying radiation stresses induce changes in the mean surface elevation ( wave setup ) and the mean flow ( wave-induced currents ) . For the mean energy density in the oscillatory part of the fluid motion , the radiation stress tensor is important for its dynamics , in case of an inhomogeneous mean-flow field . The radiation stress tensor , as well as several of its implications on the physics of surface gravity waves and mean flows , were formulated in a series of papers by Longuet-Higgins and Stewart in 1960 -- 1964 . Radiation stress derives its name from the analogous effect of radiation pressure for electromagnetic radiation .","qid":"2736","docid":"Radiation_stress","rank":25,"score":105939},{"content":"Title: Positive feedback Content: Positive feedback is a process that occurs in a feedback loop in which the effects of a small disturbance on a system include an increase in the magnitude of the perturbation . That is , A produces more of B which in turn produces more of A . In contrast , a system in which the results of a change act to reduce or counteract it has negative feedback . Both concepts play an important role in science and engineering , including biology , chemistry , and cybernetics . Mathematically , positive feedback is defined as a positive loop gain around a closed loop of cause and effect . That is , positive feedback is in phase with the input , in the sense that it adds to make the input larger . Positive feedback tends to cause system instability . When the loop gain is positive and above 1 , there will typically be exponential growth , increasing oscillations , chaotic behavior or other divergences from equilibrium . System parameters will typically accelerate towards extreme values , which may damage or destroy the system , or may end with the system latched into a new stable state . Positive feedback may be controlled by signals in the system being filtered , damped , or limited , or it can be cancelled or reduced by adding negative feedback . Positive feedback is used in digital electronics to force voltages away from intermediate voltages into ' 0 ' and ' 1 ' states . On the other hand , thermal runaway is a positive feedback that can destroy semiconductor junctions . Positive feedback in chemical reactions can increase the rate of reactions , and in some cases can lead to explosions . Positive feedback in mechanical design causes tipping-point , or ` over-centre ' , mechanisms to snap into position , for example in switches and locking pliers . Out of control , it can cause bridges to collapse . Positive feedback in economic systems can cause boom-then-bust cycles . A familiar example of positive feedback is the loud squealing or howling sound produced by audio feedback in public address systems : the microphone picks up sound from its own loudspeakers , amplifies it , and sends it through the speakers again .","qid":"2736","docid":"Positive_feedback","rank":26,"score":105914},{"content":"Title: Glacier mass balance Content: Crucial to the survival of a glacier is its mass balance or surface mass balance ( SMB ) , the difference between accumulation and ablation ( sublimation and melting ) . Climate change may cause variations in both temperature and snowfall , causing changes in the surface mass balance . Changes in mass balance control a glacier 's long-term behavior and are the most sensitive climate indicators on a glacier . From 1980 -- 2012 the mean cumulative mass loss of glaciers reporting mass balance to the World Glacier Monitoring Service is − 16 m . This includes 23 consecutive years of negative mass balances . A glacier with a sustained negative balance is out of equilibrium and will retreat , while one with a sustained positive balance is out of equilibrium and will advance . Glacier retreat results in the loss of the low elevation region of the glacier . Since higher elevations are cooler than lower ones , the disappearance of the lowest portion of the glacier reduces overall ablation , thereby increasing mass balance and potentially reestablishing equilibrium . However , if the mass balance of a significant portion of the accumulation zone of the glacier is negative , it is in disequilibrium with the local climate . Such a glacier will melt away with a continuation of this local climate . The key symptom of a glacier in disequilibrium is thinning along the entire length of the glacier . For example , Easton Glacier ( pictured below ) will likely shrink to half its size , but at a slowing rate of reduction , and stabilize at that size , despite the warmer temperature , over a few decades . However , the Grinnell Glacier ( pictured below ) will shrink at an increasing rate until it disappears . The difference is that the upper section of Easton Glacier remains healthy and snow-covered , while even the upper section of the Grinnell Glacier is bare , melting and has thinned . Small glaciers with shallow slopes such as Grinnell Glacier are most likely to fall into disequilibrium if there is a change in the local climate . In the case of positive mass balance , the glacier will continue to advance expanding its low elevation area , resulting in more melting . If this still does not create an equilibrium balance the glacier will continue to advance . If a glacier is near a large body of water , especially an ocean , the glacier may advance until iceberg calving losses bring about equilibrium .","qid":"2736","docid":"Glacier_mass_balance","rank":27,"score":105877},{"content":"Title: Luminous flux Content: In photometry , luminous flux or luminous power is the measure of the perceived power of light . It differs from radiant flux , the measure of the total power of electromagnetic radiation ( including infrared , ultraviolet , and visible light ) , in that luminous flux is adjusted to reflect the varying sensitivity of the human eye to different wavelengths of light .","qid":"2736","docid":"Luminous_flux","rank":28,"score":105383},{"content":"Title: POlarization Emission of Millimeter Activity at the Sun Content: The POlarization Emission of Millimeter Activity at the Sun ( POEMAS ) is a solar patrol system composed of two radio telescopes with superheterodyne circular polarization receivers at 45 and 90 GHz . Since their half power beam width is around 1.4 ° , they observe the full sun . The acquisition system allows to gather 100 values per second at both frequencies and polarizations , with a sensitivity of around 20 solar flux units ( SFU ) ( 1 SFU ≡ 104 Jy ) . The telescope saw first light in November 2011 , and showed excellent performance during two years , when it observed many flares . Since November 2013 is stopped for repairing . The main interest of POEMAS is the observation of solar flares in a frequency range where there are very few detectors and fill the gap between microwaves observed with the Radio Solar Telescope Network ( 1 to 15.4 GHz ) and submillimeter observations of the Solar Submillimeter Telescope ( 212 and 405 GHz ) . Moreover , POEMAS is the only current telescope capable of carrying on circular polarization solar flare observations at 90 GHz . ( Although , in principle , ALMA band 3 may also observe at 90 GHz with circular polarization ) .","qid":"2736","docid":"POlarization_Emission_of_Millimeter_Activity_at_the_Sun","rank":29,"score":105306},{"content":"Title: Earth's energy budget Content: Earth 's energy budget accounts for the energy Earth receives from the Sun . Much of this energy is lost when the earth re-radiates it back into outer space , and the rest of the energy is distributed throughout the five components of Earth 's climate system . This system is made up of earth 's water , ice , atmosphere , rocky crust , and all living things . Quantifying changes in these amounts is required to accurately model the Earth 's climate . Received radiation is unevenly distributed over the planet , because the Sun heats equatorial regions more than polar regions . Energy is absorbed by the atmosphere , hydrosphere , and lithosphere , and , in a process informally described as Earth 's heat engine , the solar heating is redistributed through evaporation of surface water , convection , rainfall , winds , and ocean circulation . When the incoming solar energy is balanced by an equal flow of heat to space , the Earth is said to be in radiative equilibrium and under that condition , global temperatures will be stable . Disturbances of Earth 's radiative equilibrium , such as an increase of greenhouse gases , will change global temperatures in response . However , Earth 's energy balance and heat fluxes depend on many factors , such as atmospheric composition ( mainly aerosols and greenhouse gases ) , the albedo ( reflectivity ) of surface properties , cloud cover and vegetation and land use patterns . Changes in surface temperature due to Earth 's energy budget do not occur instantaneously , due to the inertia of the oceans and the cryosphere . The net heat flux is buffered primarily by becoming part of the ocean 's heat content , until a new equilibrium state is established between radiative forcings and the climate response .","qid":"2736","docid":"Earth's_energy_budget","rank":30,"score":105075},{"content":"Title: Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Climate Research Facility Content: The Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Climate Research Facility ( ARM Climate Research Facility ) is a United States Department of Energy scientific user facility for the study of global climate change by the national and international research community . The ARM Climate Research Facility consists of global observation sites and research aircraft that measure radiative properties of the atmosphere , particularly cloud and aerosol formation processes . Continuous data from these sites , as well as supplemental data obtained through intensive field research campaigns , are available to scientists online through the ARM Data Archive . ARM is collaboratively managed by nine DOE national laboratories .","qid":"2736","docid":"Atmospheric_Radiation_Measurement_Climate_Research_Facility","rank":31,"score":105044},{"content":"Title: Coronal radiative losses Content: In astronomy and in astrophysics , for radiative losses of the solar corona , it is meant the energy flux irradiated from the external atmosphere of the Sun ( traditionally divided into chromosphere , transition region and corona ) , and , in particular , the processes of production of the radiation coming from the solar corona and transition region , where the plasma is optically-thin . On the contrary , in the chromosphere , where the temperature decreases from the photospheric value of 6000 K to the minimum of 4400 K , the optical depth is about 1 , and the radiation is thermal . The corona extends much further than a solar radius from the photosphere and looks very complex and inhomogeneous in the X-rays images taken by satellites ( see the figure on the right taken by the XRT on board Hinode ) . The structure and dynamics of the corona are dominated by the solar magnetic field . There are strong evidences that even the heating mechanism , responsible for its high temperature of million degrees , is linked to the magnetic field of the Sun . The energy flux irradiated from the corona changes in active regions , in the quiet Sun and in coronal holes ; actually , part of the energy is irradiated outwards , but approximately the same amount of the energy flux is conducted back towards the chromosphere , through the steep transition region . In active regions the energy flux is about 107 erg cm − 2sec − 1 , in the quiet Sun it is roughly 8 105 -- 106 erg cm − 2sec − 1 , and in coronal holes 5 105 - 8 105 erg cm − 2sec − 1 , including the losses due to the solar wind . The required power is a small fraction of the total flux irradiated from the Sun , but this energy is enough to maintain the plasma at the temperature of million degrees , since the density is very low and the processes of radiation are different from those occurring in the photosphere , as it is shown in detail in the next section .","qid":"2736","docid":"Coronal_radiative_losses","rank":32,"score":104762},{"content":"Title: Effect of radiation on perceived temperature Content: The `` radiation effect '' results from radiation heat exchange between human bodies and surrounding surfaces , such as walls and ceilings . It may lead to phenomena such as houses feeling cooler in the winter and warmer in the summer at the same temperature . For example , in a room in which air temperature is maintained at 22 ° Celsius at all times , but in which the inner surfaces of the house is estimated to be an average temperature of 10 ° Celsius in the winter or 25 ° Celsius in the summer , heat transfer from the surfaces to the individual will occur , resulting in a difference in the perceived temperature . We can observe and compare the rate of radiation heat transfer between a person and the surrounding surfaces if we first make a few simplifying assumptions : The heat exchange in the environment is in a `` steady state '' , meaning that there is a constant flow of heat either into or out of the house . The person is completely surrounded by the interior surfaces of the room . Heat transfer by convection is not considered . The walls , ceiling , and floor are all at the same temperature . For an average person , the outer surface area is 1.4 m ² , the surface temperature is 30 ° Celsius , and the emissivity is 0.95 . Emissivity is the ability of a surface to emit radiant energy compared to that of a black body at the same temperature . We will be using the following equation to find out how much heat is lost by a person standing in the same room in summertime as compared to the winter , at exactly the same thermostat reading temperature : Q ̇ = εσA_s ( T_s ^ 4-T_surr ^ 4 ) Where Q ̇ is the rate of heat loss ( W ) , ε is the emissivity ( or the ability of an objects surface to emit energy by radiation ) of a person , σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant ( 5.670 x 10 ^ ( -8 ) W/m2 ∙ K4 ) , As is the surface area of a person , Ts is the surface temperature of a person ( K ) , and Tsurr is the surface temperature of the walls , ceiling , and floor ( K ) . Please note that this equation is only valid for an object standing in a completely enclosed room , box , etc. . In the winter , the amount of heat loss from a person , when the inner surfaces of the room were 10 degrees Celsius , was found to be 152 Watts . ( Q ̇ = ( 0.95 ) ( 5.67 x 10 ^ ( -8 ) ) ( 1.4 ) -LSB- ( 30 +273 ) ^ 4 - ( 10 +273 ) ^ 4 -RSB- = 152 ) ̇ In the summer , the amount of heat loss from a person , when the inner surfaces of the room were 25 degrees Celsius , was found to be 40.9 Watts . ( Q ̇ = ( 0.95 ) ( 5.67 x 10 ^ ( -8 ) ) ( 1.4 ) -LSB- ( 30 +273 ) ^ 4 - ( 25 +273 ) ^ 4 -RSB- = 40.9 ) ̇ Thermal radiation is the form of radiation emitted by bodies because of their temperature . It differs from other forms of electromagnetic radiation such as x-rays , gamma rays , microwaves , radio waves , and television rays that are not related to temperature . Scientists have found that all bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal radiation . People are constantly radiating their body heat , but at different rates . From these values , the rate of heat loss from a person is almost four times as large in the winter than in the summer , which explains the `` chill '' we feel in the winter even if the thermostat setting is kept the same .","qid":"2736","docid":"Effect_of_radiation_on_perceived_temperature","rank":33,"score":104237},{"content":"Title: Nv (neutron flux) Content: The symbol nv is commonly used to designate a flux of thermal neutrons equal to one thermal neutron per square centimeter per second . The symbol is used primarily to quantify the sensitivity of neutron detectors which are commonly described as having a sensitivity of so many counts per second per nv .","qid":"2736","docid":"Nv_(neutron_flux)","rank":34,"score":103882},{"content":"Title: Explorer 7 Content: Explorer 7 was launched October 13 , 1959 at 10:36 a.m. Eastern Time by a Juno II rocket from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station to an orbit of 573 km by 1073 km and inclination of 50.27 ° . It was designed to measure solar x-ray and Lyman-alpha flux , trapped energetic particles , and heavy primary cosmic rays . Also Secondary objectives included collecting data on micrometeoroid penetration and molecular sputtering and studying the Earth-atmosphere heat balance . Launch was originally scheduled for late September 1959 , but the mission was delayed for a week after a Jupiter IRBM test on an adjacent pad failed shortly after liftoff , causing flying debris to hit Explorer 7 's launch vehicle . However , the damage to the booster was minor and could be easily repaired . Significantly , it also carried Verner Suomi 's flat-plate radiometer , improved with the help of Robert Parent , that took the first Earth radiation budget measurements from space and initiated the era of satellite studies of the climate . Using both satellite observations of the Earth 's heat balance and atmospheric cooling rates measured by net flux radiosondes , Suomi established the important role played by clouds in absorbing radiated solar energy . These observations established that Earth 's energy budget varies markedly due to the effect of clouds , the surface albedo , and other absorbing constituents . Using these instruments , Suomi and his team discovered that the Earth absorbed more of the Sun 's energy than originally thought and demonstrated that it was possible to measure and quantify seasonal changes in the global heat budget . The satellite weighed 41.5 kg , was 75 cm high and 75 cm wide . Powered by solar cells it also carried 15 nickel-cadmium batteries around its equator . It transmitted data continuously through to February 1961 and went dead on August 24 , 1961 . It is still in orbit .","qid":"2736","docid":"Explorer_7","rank":35,"score":102712},{"content":"Title: Photographic hypersensitization Content: Photographic hypersensitization refers to a set of processes that can be applied to photographic film or plates before exposing . One or more of these processes is often needed to make photographic materials work better in long exposures . Most photographic materials are designed for snapshot exposure of much less than one second . In longer exposures , such as those used in astrophotography , many such materials lose sensitivity . This phenomenon is known as low-intensity reciprocity failure ( LIRF ) or the Schwarzschild effect . The reciprocal relationship between flux and exposure time for photographic film implies that at a given light flux , doubling the exposure time would double the photographic effect . This holds with exposures up to a second or so , but in general does not hold over exposure times of minutes or hours . Several hypersensitization or `` hypering '' techniques have been developed to overcome this failure of the reciprocity law , and what follows refers mainly to work in astronomy .","qid":"2736","docid":"Photographic_hypersensitization","rank":36,"score":102114},{"content":"Title: Runaway greenhouse effect Content: A runaway greenhouse effect is a process in which a net positive feedback between surface temperature and atmospheric opacity increases the strength of the greenhouse effect on a planet until its oceans boil away . An example of this is believed to have happened in the early history of Venus . On the Earth , the IPCC states that `` a ` runaway greenhouse effect ' -- analogous to -LSB- that of -RSB- Venus -- appears to have virtually no chance of being induced by anthropogenic activities . '' Other large-scale climate changes are sometimes loosely called a `` runaway greenhouse effect '' although it is not an appropriate description . For example , it has been hypothesized that large releases of greenhouse gases may have occurred concurrently with the Permian -- Triassic extinction event or Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum . Other terms , such as `` abrupt climate change '' , or tipping points could be used when describing such scenarios .","qid":"2736","docid":"Runaway_greenhouse_effect","rank":37,"score":101819},{"content":"Title: Spectral flux density Content: In spectroscopy , spectral flux density is the quantity that describes the rate at which energy is transferred by electromagnetic radiation through a real or virtual surface , per unit surface area and per unit wavelength . It is a radiometric measure , as distinct from measures that characterize light in terms of the electromagnetic field or photons . In SI units it is measured in W m − 3 , although it can be more practical to use W m − 2 nm − 1 ( 1 W m − 2 nm − 1 = 1 GW m − 3 = 1 W mm − 3 ) or W m − 2 μm − 1 ( 1 W m − 2 μm − 1 = 1 MW m − 3 ) , W · m − 2 · Hz − 1 , Jansky or solar flux units . The terms irradiance , radiant exitance , radiant emittance , and radiosity are closely related to spectral flux density . The terms used to describe spectral flux density vary between fields , sometimes including adjectives such as `` electromagnetic '' or `` radiative '' , and sometimes dropping the word `` density '' . Applications include : Characterizing remote telescopically unresolved sources such as stars , observed from a specified observation point such as an observatory on earth . Characterizing a natural electromagnetic radiative field at a point , measured there with an instrument that collects radiation from a whole sphere or hemisphere of remote sources . Characterizing an artificial collimated electromagnetic radiative beam .","qid":"2736","docid":"Spectral_flux_density","rank":38,"score":101051},{"content":"Title: Radiometer Content: A radiometer or roentgenometer is a device for measuring the radiant flux ( power ) of electromagnetic radiation . Generally , a radiometer is an infrared radiation detector or ultraviolet detector . A microwave radiometer operates in the microwave wavelengths . While the term Radiometer can refer to any device that measures electromagnetic radiation ( e.g. light ) , the term is often used to refer specifically to a Crookes radiometer ( `` light-mill '' ) , a device invented in 1873 in which a rotor ( having vanes which are dark on one side , and light on the other ) in a partial vacuum spins when exposed to light . A common belief ( one originally held even by Crookes ) is that the momentum of the absorbed light on the black faces makes the radiometer operate . If this were true however , the radiometer would spin away from the non-black faces , since the photons bouncing off those faces impart more momentum than the photons absorbed on the black faces . Photons do exert radiation pressure on the faces , but those forces are dwarfed by other effects . The currently accepted explanation depends on having just the right degree of vacuum , and relates to the transfer of heat rather than the direct effect of photons . A Nichols radiometer does demonstrate photon pressure . It is much more sensitive than the Crookes radiometer and it operates in a complete vacuum , whereas operation of the Crookes radiometer requires an imperfect vacuum . The MEMS radiometer , invented by Patrick Jankowiak , can operate on the principles of Nichols or Crookes and can operate over a wide spectrum of wavelength and particle energy levels .","qid":"2736","docid":"Radiometer","rank":39,"score":100969},{"content":"Title: Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment Content: The Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment ( SORCE ) is a NASA-sponsored satellite mission that measures incoming X-ray , ultraviolet , visible , near-infrared , and total solar radiation . These measurements specifically address long-term climate change , natural variability and enhanced climate prediction , and atmospheric ozone and UV-B radiation . These measurements are critical to studies of the Sun , its effect on our Earth system and its influence on humankind . The SORCE spacecraft launched on January 25 , 2003 on a Pegasus XL launch vehicle to provide NASA 's Earth Science Enterprise ( ESE ) with precise measurements of solar radiation . SORCE measures the Sun 's output using radiometers , spectrometers , photodiodes , detectors , and bolometers mounted on a satellite observatory . The SORCE satellite orbits the Earth accumulating solar data . Spectral measurements identify the irradiance of the Sun by characterizing the Sun 's energy and emissions in the form of color that can then be translated into quantities and elements of matter . Data obtained by the SORCE experiment can be used to model the Sun 's output and to explain and predict the effect of the Sun 's radiation on the Earth 's atmosphere and climate . Flying in a 645 km , 40 degree orbit , SORCE is operated by the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics ( LASP ) at the University of Colorado at Boulder , Colorado . It will continue the precise measurements of total solar irradiance that began with the ERB instrument in 1979 and has continued to the present with the ACRIM series of measurements . SORCE will also provide the measurements of the solar spectral irradiance from 1 nm to 2000 nm , accounting for 95 % of the spectral contribution to the total solar irradiance . SORCE carries four instruments including the Total Irradiance Monitor ( TIM ) , Solar Stellar Irradiance Comparison Experiment ( SOLSTICE ) , Spectral Irradiance Monitor ( SIM ) , and the XUV Photometer System ( XPS ) .","qid":"2736","docid":"Solar_Radiation_and_Climate_Experiment","rank":40,"score":100889},{"content":"Title: Climate system Content: Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.","qid":"2736","docid":"Climate_system","rank":41,"score":99507},{"content":"Title: Kramers' law Content: Kramers ' law is a formula for the spectral distribution of X-rays produced by an electron hitting a solid target . The formula concerns only bremsstrahlung radiation , not the element specific characteristic radiation . It is named after its discoverer , the Dutch physicist Hendrik Anthony Kramers . The formula for Kramers ' law is usually given as the distribution of intensity ( photon count ) against the wavelength of the emitted radiation : The constant K is proportional to the atomic number of the target element , and is the minimum wavelength given by the Duane -- Hunt law . The intensity described above is a particle flux and not an energy flux as can be seen by the fact that the integral over values from to is infinite . However , the integral of the energy flux is finite . To obtain a simple expression for the energy flux , first change variables from ( the wavelength ) to ( the angular frequency ) using and also using . Now is that quantity which is integrated over from 0 to to get the total number ( still infinite ) of photons , where : The energy flux , which we will call ( but which may also be referred to as the `` intensity '' in conflict with the above name of ) is obtained by multiplying the above by the energy : for for . It is a linear function that is zero at the maximum energy .","qid":"2736","docid":"Kramers'_law","rank":42,"score":99337},{"content":"Title: Electromagnetic hypersensitivity Content: Electromagnetic hypersensitivity ( EHS ) is a claimed sensitivity to electromagnetic fields , resulting in negative symptoms . EHS has no scientific basis and is not a recognised medical diagnosis . Claims are characterized by a `` variety of non-specific symptoms , which afflicted individuals attribute to exposure to electromagnetic fields '' . Those who are self-described with EHS report adverse reactions to electromagnetic fields at intensities well below the maximum levels permitted by international radiation safety standards . The majority of provocation trials to date have found that such claimants are unable to distinguish between exposure and non-exposure to electromagnetic fields . A systematic review in 2005 showed no convincing scientific evidence for symptoms being caused by electromagnetic fields . Since then several double-blind experiments have shown that people who report electromagnetic hypersensitivity are unable to detect the presence of electromagnetic fields and are as likely to report ill health following a sham exposure as they are following exposure to genuine electromagnetic fields , suggesting the cause in these cases to be the nocebo effect . A 2005 review by the UK Health Protection Agency and a 2006 systematic review each evaluated the evidence for various medical , psychological , behavioral , and alternative treatments for EHS and each found that the evidence-base was limited and not generalizable , but that the best evidence favored cognitive behavioural therapy . As of 2005 , WHO recommended that people presenting with claims of EHS be evaluated to determine if they have a medical condition that may be causing the symptoms the person is attributing to EHS , that they have a psychological evaluation , and that the person 's environment be evaluated for issues like air or noise pollution that may be causing problems . Some people who feel they are sensitive to electromagnetic fields may seek to reduce their exposure or use alternative medicine . Government agencies have enforced false advertising claims against companies selling devices to shield against EM radiation .","qid":"2736","docid":"Electromagnetic_hypersensitivity","rank":43,"score":99327},{"content":"Title: Kombayashi–Ingersoll limit Content: In planetary science , the Kombayashi -- Ingersoll limit represents the maximum solar flux a planet can handle without a runaway greenhouse effect setting in . For planets with temperature-dependent sources of greenhouse gases such as liquid water and optically thin atmospheres the outgoing longwave radiation curve ( which indicates how fast energy can be radiated away by the planet ) flattens at high temperatures , reaching a horizontal asymptote -- the Kombayashi -- Ingersoll limit itself . Since the equilibrium temperature is the intersection of this curve and a horizontal line representing solar flux , for fluxes above this point the planet heats up indefinitely . Kasting estimated the limit for Earth to be 320 watts per square meter . The limit is relevant for estimating the inner edge of the circumstellar habitable zone . However , the limit also depends on the surface gravity of the planet , making heavy worlds somewhat more resistant to the runaway effect .","qid":"2736","docid":"Kombayashi–Ingersoll_limit","rank":44,"score":98228},{"content":"Title: Unruh effect Content: The Unruh effect ( or sometimes Fulling -- Davies -- Unruh effect ) is the prediction that an accelerating observer will observe blackbody radiation where an inertial observer would observe none . In other words , the background appears to be warm from an accelerating reference frame ; in layman 's terms , a thermometer waved around in empty space , subtracting any other contribution to its temperature , will record a non-zero temperature . The ground state for an inertial observer is seen as in thermodynamic equilibrium with a non-zero temperature by the uniformly accelerating observer . The Unruh effect was first described by Stephen Fulling in 1973 , Paul Davies in 1975 and W. G. Unruh in 1976 . It is currently not clear whether the Unruh effect has actually been observed , since the claimed observations are disputed . There is also some doubt about whether the Unruh effect implies the existence of Unruh radiation .","qid":"2736","docid":"Unruh_effect","rank":45,"score":97641},{"content":"Title: Black-body radiation Content: Black-body radiation is the thermal electromagnetic radiation within or surrounding a body in thermodynamic equilibrium with its environment , or emitted by a black body ( an opaque and non-reflective body ) . It has a specific spectrum and intensity that depends only on the body 's temperature , which is assumed for the sake of calculations and theory to be uniform and constant . The thermal radiation spontaneously emitted by many ordinary objects can be approximated as black-body radiation . A perfectly insulated enclosure that is in thermal equilibrium internally contains black-body radiation and will emit it through a hole made in its wall , provided the hole is small enough to have negligible effect upon the equilibrium . A black-body at room temperature appears black , as most of the energy it radiates is infra-red and can not be perceived by the human eye . Because the human eye can not perceive color at very low light intensities , a black body , viewed in the dark at the lowest just faintly visible temperature , subjectively appears grey ( but only because the human eye is sensitive only to black and white at very low intensities - in reality , the frequency of the light in the visible range would still be red , although the intensity would be too low to discern as red ) , even though its objective physical spectrum peaks in the infrared range . When it becomes a little hotter , it appears dull red . As its temperature increases further it eventually becomes blue-white . Although planets and stars are neither in thermal equilibrium with their surroundings nor perfect black bodies , black-body radiation is used as a first approximation for the energy they emit . Black holes are near-perfect black bodies , in the sense that they absorb all the radiation that falls on them . It has been proposed that they emit black-body radiation ( called Hawking radiation ) , with a temperature that depends on the mass of the black hole . The term black body was introduced by Gustav Kirchhoff in 1860 . Black-body radiation is also called thermal radiation , cavity radiation , complete radiation or temperature radiation .","qid":"2736","docid":"Black-body_radiation","rank":46,"score":97307},{"content":"Title: Sensitivity (control systems) Content: The controller parameters are typically matched to the process characteristics and since the process may change , it is important that the controller parameters are chosen in such a way that the closed loop system is not sensitive to variations in process dynamics . One way to characterize sensitivity is through the nominal sensitivity peak : where and denote the plant and controller 's transfer function in a basic closed loop control System , using unity negative feedback . The sensitivity function , which appears in the above formula also describes the transfer function from external disturbance to process output . Hence , lower values of suggest further attenuation of the external disturbance . The sensitivity function tells us how the disturbances are influenced by feedback . Disturbances with frequencies such that is less than one are reduced by an amount equal to the distance to the critical point and disturbances with frequencies such that is larger than one are amplified by the feedback . It is important that the largest value of the sensitivity function be limited for a control system and it is common to require that the maximum value of the sensitivity function , , be in a range of 1.3 to 2 .","qid":"2736","docid":"Sensitivity_(control_systems)","rank":47,"score":96989},{"content":"Title: Radiant flux Content: In radiometry , radiant flux or radiant power is the radiant energy emitted , reflected , transmitted or received , per unit time , and spectral flux or spectral power is the radiant flux per unit frequency or wavelength , depending on whether the spectrum is taken as a function of frequency or of wavelength . The SI unit of radiant flux is the watt ( W ) , that is the joule per second in SI base units , while that of spectral flux in frequency is the watt per hertz and that of spectral flux in wavelength is the watt per metre -- commonly the watt per nanometre .","qid":"2736","docid":"Radiant_flux","rank":48,"score":96792},{"content":"Title: Surface Ocean Lower Atmosphere Study Content: The Surface Ocean Lower Atmosphere Study or Surface Ocean - Lower Atmosphere Study ( SOLAS ) is an international scientific research initiative that is one of the core projects of the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme . SOLAS has a goal to achieve quantitative understanding of the key biogeochemical-physical interactions and feedbacks between the ocean and atmosphere , and of how this coupled system affects and is affected by climate and environmental change . Thus , this international project is a critical component to understanding the Earth system and the effects of climate change on this system . The project includes meteorologists , oceanographers , marine biologists , and policy-makers . SOLAS has three major focus areas : Biogeochemical interactions and feedbacks between ocean and atmosphere , Exchange processes at the air-sea interface and the role of transport and transformation in the atmospheric and oceanic boundary layers , and Air-sea flux of carbon dioxide and other long-lived radiatively active gases ( this last focus is developed jointly with the Integrated Marine and Biogeochemistry and Ecosystem Research project ; IMBER ) . These three focuses are detailed in the project 's Science Plan and Implementation Strategy and in three separate Implementation Plans , and each focus has its own Implementation Working Group . The project is administered by a panel of scientific experts in the Scientific Steering Committee , and project coordination is handled by the SOLAS International Project Office at the University of East Anglia in Norwich UK . Scientific research is conducted by nations across the globe , and SOLAS has 23 established National Networks . SOLAS runs a successful biennial International Summer School , held at the Institut d'Etudes Scientifiques de Cargèse in Corsica France , and the next Summer School is scheduled for 2007 . Communications from SOLAS include a monthly e-bulletin , a biannual newsletter , and a website . An Open Science Meeting was held in Xiamen China in March 2007 .","qid":"2736","docid":"Surface_Ocean_Lower_Atmosphere_Study","rank":49,"score":96559},{"content":"Title: Radio Ice Cherenkov Experiment Content: Radio Ice Cerenkov Experiment ( RICE ) is an experiment designed to detect the Cherenkov emission in the radio regime of the electromagnetic spectrum from the interaction of high energy neutrinos ( greater than 1 PeV ) with the Antarctic ice cap . The goals of this experiment are to determine the potential of the radio-detection technique for measuring the high energy cosmic neutrino flux , determining the sources of this flux , and measuring neutrino-nucleon cross sections at energies above those accessible with existing accelerators . Such an experiment also has sensitivity to neutrinos from gamma ray bursts , as well as highly ionizing charged particles ( monopoles , e.g. ) traversing the Antarctic icecap .","qid":"2736","docid":"Radio_Ice_Cherenkov_Experiment","rank":50,"score":95899},{"content":"Title: Solar neutrino problem Content: The solar neutrino problem concerned a large discrepancy between the flux of solar neutrinos as predicted from the Sun 's luminosity and measured directly . The discrepancy was first observed in the mid-1960s and finally resolved around 2002 . The flux of neutrinos at Earth is several ten billion per square centimetre per second , mostly from the Sun 's core . They are nevertheless hard to detect , because they interact very weakly with matter , traversing the whole Earth as light does thin air . Of the three types ( flavors ) of neutrinos known in the Standard Model of particle physics , the Sun produces only electron neutrinos . When neutrino detectors became sensitive enough to measure the flow of electron neutrinos from the Sun , the number detected was much lower than predicted . In various experiments , the number deficit was between one half and two thirds . Particle physicists knew that a mechanism , discussed back in 1957 by Bruno Pontecorvo , could explain the deficit in electron neutrinos . However , they hesitated to accept it for various reasons , including the fact that it required a modification of the accepted Standard Model . They first pointed at the solar model for adjustment , which was ruled out . Today it is accepted that the neutrinos produced in the Sun are not massless particles as predicted by the Standard Model but rather mixed quantum states made up of defined-mass eigenstates in different ( complex ) proportions . That allows a neutrino produced as a pure electron neutrino to change during propagation into a mixture of electron , muon and tau neutrinos , with a reduced probability of being detected by a detector sensitive to only electron neutrinos . Several neutrino detectors aiming at different flavors , energies , and traveled distance contributed to our present knowledge of neutrinos . In 2002 and 2015 , a total of four researchers related to some of these detectors were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics .","qid":"2736","docid":"Solar_neutrino_problem","rank":51,"score":95892},{"content":"Title: Baseline Surface Radiation Network Content: Baseline Surface Radiation Network ( BSRN ) is a project of the World Climate Research Programme ( WCRP ) and the Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment ( GEWEX ) and as such is aimed detecting important changes in the Earth 's radiation field at the Earth 's surface which may be related to climate changes . The central archive of the BSRN is the World Radiation Monitoring Center ( WRMC ) which was initiated by Atsumu Ohmura in 1992 and operated at ETH until 2007 . Since 2008 the WRMC is operated by the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research ( AWI ) , Germany .","qid":"2736","docid":"Baseline_Surface_Radiation_Network","rank":52,"score":95790},{"content":"Title: Thermal radiation Content: Thermal radiation is electromagnetic radiation generated by the thermal motion of charged particles in matter . All matter with a temperature greater than absolute zero emits thermal radiation . When the temperature of a body is greater than absolute zero , inter-atomic collisions cause the kinetic energy of the atoms or molecules to change . This results in charge-acceleration and/or dipole oscillation which produces electromagnetic radiation , and the wide spectrum of radiation reflects the wide spectrum of energies and accelerations that occur even at a single temperature . Examples of thermal radiation include the visible light and infrared light emitted by an incandescent light bulb , the infrared radiation emitted by animals is detectable with an infrared camera , and the cosmic microwave background radiation . Thermal radiation is different from thermal convection and thermal conduction -- a person near a raging bonfire feels radiant heating from the fire , even if the surrounding air is very cold . Sunlight is part of thermal radiation generated by the hot plasma of the Sun . The Earth also emits thermal radiation , but at a much lower intensity and different spectral distribution ( infrared rather than visible ) because it is cooler . The Earth 's absorption of solar radiation , followed by its outgoing thermal radiation are the two most important processes that determine the temperature and climate of the Earth . If a radiation-emitting object meets the physical characteristics of a black body in thermodynamic equilibrium , the radiation is called blackbody radiation . Planck 's law describes the spectrum of blackbody radiation , which depends only on the object 's temperature . Wien 's displacement law determines the most likely frequency of the emitted radiation , and the Stefan -- Boltzmann law gives the radiant intensity . Thermal radiation is one of the fundamental mechanisms of heat transfer .","qid":"2736","docid":"Thermal_radiation","rank":53,"score":94972},{"content":"Title: Gardon gauge Content: A Gardon gauge or Circular-foil gauge is a heat flux sensor primarily intended for the measurement of high intensity radiation . It is a sensor that is designed to measure the radiation flux density ( in watts per metre squared ) from a field of view of 180 degrees . The most common application of Gardon gauges is in exposure testing of sample materials for their resistance to fire and flames .","qid":"2736","docid":"Gardon_gauge","rank":54,"score":94939},{"content":"Title: Eddy covariance Content: The eddy covariance ( also known as eddy correlation and eddy flux ) technique is a key atmospheric measurement technique to measure and calculate vertical turbulent fluxes within atmospheric boundary layers . The method analyzes high-frequency wind and scalar atmospheric data series , and yields values of fluxes of these properties . It is a statistical method used in meteorology and other applications ( micrometeorology , oceanography , hydrology , agricultural sciences , industrial and regulatory applications , etc. ) to determine exchange rates of trace gases over natural ecosystems and agricultural fields , and to quantify gas emissions rates from other land and water areas . It is frequently used to estimate momentum , heat , water vapour , carbon dioxide and methane fluxes The technique is also used extensively for verification and tuning of global climate models , mesoscale and weather models , complex biogeochemical and ecological models , and remote sensing estimates from satellites and aircraft . The technique is mathematically complex , and requires significant care in setting up and processing data . To date , there is no uniform terminology or a single methodology for the Eddy Covariance technique , but much effort is being made by flux measurement networks ( e.g. , FluxNet , Ameriflux , ICOS , CarboEurope , Fluxnet Canada , OzFlux , NEON , and iLEAPS ) to unify the various approaches . The technique has additionally proven applicable under water to the benthic zone for measuring oxygen fluxes between seafloor and overlying water . In these environments , the technique is generally known as the eddy correlation technique , or just eddy correlation . Oxygen fluxes are extracted from raw measurements largely following the same principles as used in the atmosphere , and they are typically used as a proxy for carbon exchange , which is important for local and global carbon budgets . For most benthic ecosystems , eddy correlation is the most accurate technique for measuring in-situ fluxes . The technique 's development and its applications under water remains a fruitful area of research .","qid":"2736","docid":"Eddy_covariance","rank":55,"score":94767},{"content":"Title: Cloud forcing Content: Cloud forcing ( sometimes described as cloud radiative forcing or cloud radiative effect ) is , in meteorology , the difference between the radiation budget components for average cloud conditions and cloud-free conditions . Much of the interest in cloud forcing relates to its role as a feedback process in the present period of global warming .","qid":"2736","docid":"Cloud_forcing","rank":56,"score":94627},{"content":"Title: Radiative forcing Content: Radiative forcing or climate forcing is the difference between insolation ( sunlight ) absorbed by the Earth and energy radiated back to space . Typically , radiative forcing is quantified at the tropopause in units of watts per square meter of the Earth 's surface . Positive forcing ( incoming energy exceeding outgoing energy ) warms the system , while negative forcing ( outgoing energy exceeding incoming energy ) cools it . Causes of radiative forcing include changes in insolation and the concentrations of radiatively active gases , commonly known as greenhouse gases and aerosols .","qid":"2736","docid":"Radiative_forcing","rank":57,"score":93419},{"content":"Title: Low emissivity Content: Low emissivity ( low e or low thermal emissivity ) refers to a surface condition that emits low levels of radiant thermal ( heat ) energy . All materials absorb , reflect and emit radiant energy according to Planck 's Law but here , the primary concern is a special wavelength interval of radiant energy , namely thermal radiation of materials . In common use , especially building application , the temperature range of approximately -40 to +80 degrees Celsius is the focus , but in aerospace and industrial process engineering , much broader ranges are of practical concern .","qid":"2736","docid":"Low_emissivity","rank":58,"score":92888},{"content":"Title: Shortwave radiation Content: Shortwave radiation ( SW ) is radiant energy with wavelengths in the visible ( VIS ) , near-ultraviolet ( UV ) , and near-infrared ( NIR ) spectra . There is no standard cut-off for the near-infrared range ; therefore , the shortwave radiation range is also variously defined . It may be broadly defined to include all radiation with a wavelength between 0.1 μm and 5.0 μm or narrowly defined so as to include only radiation between 0.2 μm and 3.0 μm . There is little radiation flux ( in terms of W/m ² ) to the Earth 's surface below 0.2 μm or above 3.0 μm , although photon flux remains significant as far as 6.0 μm , compared to shorter wavelength fluxes . UV-C radiation spans from 0.1 μm to .28 μm , UV-B from 0.28 μm to 0.315 μm , UV-A from 0.315 μm to 0.4 μm , the visible spectrum from 0.4 μm to 0.7 μm , and NIR arguably from 0.7 μm to 5.0 μm , beyond which the infrared is thermal . Shortwave radiation is distinguished from longwave radiation . Downward shortwave radiation is sensitive to solar zenith angle , cloud cover and surface albedo .","qid":"2736","docid":"Shortwave_radiation","rank":59,"score":92786},{"content":"Title: Solar radiation management Content: Solar radiation management ( SRM ) projects are a type of climate engineering which seek to reflect sunlight and thus reduce global warming . Proposed examples include the creation of stratospheric sulfate aerosols . Their principal advantages as an approach to climate engineering is the speed with which they can be deployed and become fully active , their potential low financial cost , and the reversibility of their direct climatic effects . Solar radiation management projects could , for example , be used as a temporary response while levels of greenhouse gases can be brought under control by mitigation and greenhouse gas removal techniques . They would not reduce greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere , and thus do not address problems such as ocean acidification caused by excess carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) .","qid":"2736","docid":"Solar_radiation_management","rank":60,"score":92616},{"content":"Title: NOAA-6 Content: NOAA-6 , designated NOAA-A before launch , was a weather satellite operated by NOAA as part of its National Operational Environmental Satellite System . It was launched into a Sun-synchronous orbit by NASA aboard an Atlas F launch vehicle on 27 June 1979 from Vandenberg Air Force Base SLC-3W . Based on the experimental TIROS-N satellite , it performed monitoring of ice and snow cover , agriculture , oceanography , volcanism , ozone and the space environment , in addition to its regular meteorological observations . Its instruments included the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer ( AVHRR/1 ) for global cloud cover observations , the TIROS Operational Vertical Sounder ( TOVS ) suite for atmospheric temperature and water vapor profiling , the Space Environment Monitor ( SEM ) for measuring proton and electron fluxes , and the Data Collection and Platform Location System ( DCPLS ) for relaying data from balloons and ocean buoys . The TOVS suite consists of three subsystems : the High Resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder 2 ( HIRS/2 ) , the Stratospheric Sounding Unit ( SSU ) , and the Microwave Sounding Unit ( MSU ) . The HIRS/2 instrument failed on 19 September 1983 , and the spacecraft was placed in reserve in early 1984 as NOAA prioritized operations of NOAA-7 and NOAA-8 . It was returned to operational status after NOAA-8 failed in June 1984 , and continued to return data until its decommissioning on 31 March 1987 .","qid":"2736","docid":"NOAA-6","rank":61,"score":92298},{"content":"Title: Plant-soil feedback Content: Plant-soil feedback is a process where plants alter the biotic and abiotic qualities of soil they grow in , which then alters the ability of plants to grow in that soil in the future . Negative plant-soil feedback occurs when plants are less able to grow in soil that was previously occupied by a member of the same species , and positive plant-soil feedback occurs when plants are more able to grow in soil that was previously occupied by a member of the same species . Although it was originally assumed that negative plant-soil feedback was caused by plants depleting the soil of nutrients , recent work has suggested that a major cause of plant-soil feedback is a buildup of soil-borne pathogens . Mutualism and allelopathy are also thought to cause plant-soil feedback . Studies have shown that , on average , plant-soil feedback tends to be negative ; however , there have been many notable exceptions , such as many invasive species . Negative plant-soil feedback is thought to be an important factor in helping plants to coexist . If a plant is overly abundant , then soil pathogens and other negative factors will become common , hurting its growth . Similarly , if a plant becomes overly rare , then so too will its soil pathogens and other negative factors , helping its growth . This negative feedback will help populations to stay in the community . Negative plant-soil feedback has been called a particular case of the Janzen-Connell hypothesis .","qid":"2736","docid":"Plant-soil_feedback","rank":62,"score":92101},{"content":"Title: Sakuma–Hattori equation Content: The Sakuma -- Hattori equation is a mathematical model for predicting the amount of thermal radiation , radiometric flux or radiometric power emitted from a perfect blackbody or received by a thermal radiation detector .","qid":"2736","docid":"Sakuma–Hattori_equation","rank":63,"score":91498},{"content":"Title: Cochlear amplifier Content: The cochlear amplifier is a positive feedback mechanism within the cochlea that provides acute sensitivity in the mammalian auditory system . The main component of the cochlear amplifier is the outer hair cell ( OHC ) which increases the amplitude and frequency selectivity of sound vibrations using electromechanical feedback .","qid":"2736","docid":"Cochlear_amplifier","rank":64,"score":91442},{"content":"Title: Thermal runaway Content: Thermal runaway occurs in situations where an increase in temperature changes the conditions in a way that causes a further increase in temperature , often leading to a destructive result . It is a kind of uncontrolled positive feedback . In other words , `` thermal runaway '' describes a process which is accelerated by increased temperature , in turn releasing energy that further increases temperature . In chemistry ( and chemical engineering ) , it is associated with strongly exothermic reactions that are accelerated by temperature rise . In electrical engineering , thermal runaway is typically associated with increased current flow and power dissipation , although exothermic chemical reactions can be of concern here too . Thermal runaway can occur in civil engineering , notably when the heat released by large amounts of curing concrete is not controlled -LCB- Citation needed -RCB- . In astrophysics , runaway nuclear fusion reactions in stars can lead to nova and several types of supernova explosions , and also occur as a less dramatic event in the normal evolution of solar mass stars , the `` helium flash '' . There are also concerns regarding global warming that a global average increase of 3 -- 4 degrees Celsius above the preindustrial baseline could lead to a further unchecked increase in surface temperatures . For example , releases of methane , a greenhouse gas more potent than CO2 , from wetlands , melting permafrost and continental margin seabed clathrate deposits could be subject to positive feedback .","qid":"2736","docid":"Thermal_runaway","rank":65,"score":90978},{"content":"Title: Runaway climate change Content: Runaway climate change or runaway global warming is hypothesized to follow a tipping point in the climate system , after accumulated climate change initiates a reinforcing positive feedback . This is thought to cause the climate to rapidly change until it reaches a new stable condition . These phrases may be used with reference to concerns about rapid global warming . Some astronomers use the expression runaway greenhouse effect to describe a situation where the climate deviates catastrophically and permanently from the original state -- as happened on Venus . Although these terms are rarely used in the peer-reviewed climatological literature , that literature does use the similar phrase `` runaway greenhouse effect '' , which refers specifically to climate changes that cause a planetary body 's water to boil off .","qid":"2736","docid":"Runaway_climate_change","rank":66,"score":90915},{"content":"Title: Perceptual control theory Content: Perceptual control theory ( PCT ) is a model of behavior based on the principles of negative feedback , but differing in important respects from engineering control theory . Results of PCT experiments have demonstrated that an organism controls neither its own behavior , nor external environmental variables , but rather its own perceptions of those variables . Actions are not controlled , they are varied so as to cancel the effects that unpredictable environmental disturbances would otherwise have on controlled perceptions . According to the standard catch-phrase of the field , `` behavior is the control of perception . '' PCT demonstrates circular causation in a negative feedback loop closed through the environment . This fundamentally contradicts the classical notion of linear causation of behavior by stimuli , in which environmental stimuli are thought to cause behavioral responses , mediated ( according to cognitive psychology ) by intervening cognitive processes . Numerous computer simulations of specific behavioral situations demonstrate its efficacy , with extremely high correlations to observational data ( 0.95 or better ) , which are vanishingly rare in the so-called ` soft ' sciences . While the adoption of PCT in the scientific community has not been widespread , it has been applied not only in experimental psychology and neuroscience , but also in sociology , linguistics , and a number of other fields , and has led to a method of psychotherapy called the method of levels .","qid":"2736","docid":"Perceptual_control_theory","rank":67,"score":90590},{"content":"Title: Microwave radiometer Content: A microwave radiometer ( MWR ) is a radiometer that measures energy emitted at sub-millimetre-to-centimetre wavelengths ( at frequencies of 1 -- 1000 GHz ) known as microwaves . Microwave radiometers are very sensitive receivers designed to measure thermal electromagnetic radiation emitted by atmospheric gases . They are usually equipped with multiple receiving channels in order to derive the characteristic emission spectrum of the atmosphere or extraterrestrial objects . Microwave radiometers are utilized in a variety of environmental and engineering applications , including weather forecasting , climate monitoring , radio astronomy and radio propagation studies . Using the microwave spectral range between 1 and 300 GHz provides complementary information to the visible and infrared spectral range . Most importantly , the atmosphere and also vegetation is semi-transparent in the microwave spectral range . This means its components like dry gases , water vapor , or hydrometeors interact with microwave radiation but overall even the cloudy atmosphere is not completely opaque in this frequency range . For weather and climate monitoring , microwave radiometers are operated from space as well as from the ground . As remote sensing instruments , they are designed to operate continuously and autonomously often in combination with other atmospheric remote sensors like for example cloud radars and lidars . They allow to derive important meteorological quantities such as vertical temperature and humidity profile , columnar water vapor amount , or columnar liquid water path with a high temporal resolution in the order of seconds to minutes under nearly all weather conditions .","qid":"2736","docid":"Microwave_radiometer","rank":68,"score":90562},{"content":"Title: Luminous efficacy Content: Luminous efficacy is a measure of how well a light source produces visible light . It is the ratio of luminous flux to power , measured in lumens per watt in SI . Depending on context , the power can be either the radiant flux of the source 's output , or it can be the total power ( electric power , chemical energy , or others ) consumed by the source . Which sense of the term is intended must usually be inferred from the context , and is sometimes unclear . The former sense is sometimes called luminous efficacy of radiation , and the latter luminous efficacy of a source or overall luminous efficacy . Not all wavelengths of light are equally visible , or equally effective at stimulating human vision , due to the spectral sensitivity of the human eye ; radiation in the infrared and ultraviolet parts of the spectrum is useless for illumination . The luminous efficacy of a source is the product of how well it converts energy to electromagnetic radiation , and how well the emitted radiation is detected by the human eye .","qid":"2736","docid":"Luminous_efficacy","rank":69,"score":90038},{"content":"Title: Noise-equivalent temperature Content: Noise-equivalent temperature ( NET ) is a measure of the sensitivity of a detector of thermal radiation in the infrared , terahertz or microwave portions of the electromagnetic spectrum . It is the amount of incident signal temperature that would be needed to match the internal noise of the detector such that the signal-to-noise ratio is equal to one . Often the spectrum of the NET is reported as a temperature per root bandwidth . A detector that measures power is often interested in the analogous noise-equivalent power ( NEP ) . If a relation between intensity and temperature is well defined over the pass band , as in the case of a blackbody , then the NET simply scales with the NEP . If a detector is limited by either shot noise or Johnson noise then the NET can be decreased by using an increased integration time . The NET of flicker noise limited detectors can not be reduced by increased integration time . Typically uncooled bolometric detectors have NET figures of 30-200 mK . Cooled photon detecting infrared detectors using materials such as HgCdTe ( LWIR or MWIR ) or InSb ( MWIR ) can approach a NET figure of 10 mK . In the microwave radiation region NET values are typically several hundred millikelvins to several kelvins . For a particular mean signal temperature there is a fundamental limit to NET given by the natural thermodynamic fluctuations of the photon flux from the source under investigation .","qid":"2736","docid":"Noise-equivalent_temperature","rank":70,"score":89827},{"content":"Title: Electromagnetic flux Content: Electromagnetic flux may refer to one of the following : Flux or flux density of electromagnetic radiation Electric flux and magnetic flux Radiative flux .","qid":"2736","docid":"Electromagnetic_flux","rank":71,"score":89620},{"content":"Title: Acoustic emission Content: Acoustic emission ( AE ) is the phenomenon of radiation of acoustic ( elastic ) waves in solids that occurs when a material undergoes irreversible changes in its internal structure , for example as a result of crack formation or plastic deformation due to aging , temperature gradients or external mechanical forces . In particular , AE is occurring during the processes of mechanical loading of materials and structures accompanied by structural changes that generate local sources of elastic waves . This results in small surface displacements of a material produced by elastic or stress waves generated when the accumulated elastic energy in a material or on its surface is released rapidly . The waves generated by sources of AE are of practical interest in structural health monitoring ( SHM ) , quality control , system feedback , process monitoring and other fields . In SHM applications , AE is typically used to detect , locate and characterise damage .","qid":"2736","docid":"Acoustic_emission","rank":72,"score":89596},{"content":"Title: Radiation (disambiguation) Content: Radiation is a process in which a body emits energy that propagates through a medium , or through empty space , to be absorbed by other bodies . Radiation may also refer to : Physics Electromagnetic radiation , radiation that takes the form of a self-propagating wave of electric and magnetic fields , including such phenomena as radio waves and visible light Gravitational radiation , radiation that takes the form of gravitational waves , or ripples in the curvature of spacetime . Ionizing radiation , radiation that is of high enough energy to cause atoms to lose or gain electrons , rendering molecules , such as proteins , incapable of functioning Nuclear radiation , radiation , especially ionizing radiation , that emanates from nuclear processes such as radioactive decay Thermal radiation , electromagnetic radiation that emanates from every object above absolute zero , in proportion to the fourth power of the temperature of the object Synchrotron radiation , also called a synchrotron light source , electromagnetic radiation generated by the acceleration of fast moving charged particles through magnetic fields Medicine Radiation therapy , also called radiotherapy , a medical treatment that involves exposing part or all of the body to a controlled amount of ionizing radiation Radiation poisoning , a form of damage to organ tissue due to excessive exposure to ionizing radiation Radiation , characteristics of an affliction , such as pain , to spread to other parts of the body than the origin Evolutionary biology Evolutionary radiation , a diversification into several lineages from a common ancestor Adaptive radiation , an evolutionary radiation to fill many ecological niches Regulatory law Intentional radiator , radio waves that are produced by an electronic device as a necessary part of its function , such as those produced by a radio transmitter Unintentional radiator , undesirable radio waves that are produced by an electronic device , such as a computer or video game console , as a consequence of its design Music and arts Radiation ( album ) , released in 1998 , the tenth studio album by the British progressive rock band Marillion Roddy Radiation , stage name of Roddy Byers ( born 1955 ) , English musician A pseudonym of Toby Fox , composer for the webcomic Homestuck and creator of the video game Undertale `` Radiation '' , a 1997 song by Feeder , from the album Polythene","qid":"2736","docid":"Radiation_(disambiguation)","rank":73,"score":89070},{"content":"Title: The Revenge of Gaia Content: The Revenge of Gaia : Why the Earth is Fighting Back -- and How we Can Still Save Humanity ( 2006 ) is a book by James Lovelock . Some editions of the book have a different , less optimistic subtitle : `` Earth 's Climate Crisis and the Fate of Humanity . '' The book introduces the concept of the anti-CLAW hypothesis . Lovelock proposed that instead of providing negative feedback in the climate system , the components of the CLAW hypothesis may act to create a positive feedback loop . Under future global warming , increasing temperature may stratify the world ocean , decreasing the supply of nutrients from the deep ocean to its productive euphotic zone . Consequently , phytoplankton activity will decline with a concomitant fall in the production of DMS . In a reverse of the CLAW hypothesis , this decline in DMS production will lead to a decrease in cloud condensation nuclei and a fall in cloud albedo . The consequence of this will be further climate warming which may lead to even less DMS production ( and further climate warming ) . The figure to the right shows a summarising schematic diagram . Evidence for the anti-CLAW hypothesis is constrained by similar uncertainties as those of the sulfur cycle feedback loop of the CLAW hypothesis . However , researchers simulating future oceanic primary production have found evidence of declining production with increasing ocean stratification , leaving open the possibility that such a mechanism may exist .","qid":"2736","docid":"The_Revenge_of_Gaia","rank":74,"score":89070},{"content":"Title: Michael Schlesinger Content: Dr. Michael Earl Schlesinger ( born February 23 , 1943 ) is a Professor of Atmospheric Sciences and director of the Climate Research Group at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign . He received his Ph.D. ( meteorology ) in 1976 from the University of California , Los Angeles . Michael Schlesinger is an expert in the modeling , simulation and analysis of climate and climate change , with interests in simulating and understanding the climates of the geologic past and possible future climates resulting from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases and human-made aerosols . He has been instrumental in developing a range of simple and complex climate models , which have been used by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and the Energy Modeling Forum . His research currently focuses on : ( 1 ) simulating and understanding the effects on climate of a human-induced melting of the Greenland ice sheet ; ( 2 ) simulating and understanding the coupled climate-chemistry system , including the influences of the Sun - both irradiance and energetic electron precipitation - and volcanoes ; ( 3 ) understanding and reducing the uncertainty in the estimation of climate sensitivity and climate feedbacks ; and ( 4 ) performing integrative assessment of climate change , including further development of the robust adaptive decision strategy for mitigating and adapting to human-induced climate change . He is known for his work on oscillations in the global climate system , on estimating the climate sensitivity , and on seasonal climate change . He has edited four books , most recently Human-induced climate change : An interdisciplinary assessment . He regularly appears in the media .","qid":"2736","docid":"Michael_Schlesinger","rank":75,"score":88832},{"content":"Title: Journal of Hydrometeorology Content: The Journal of Hydrometeorology is a scientific journal published by the American Meteorological Society . It covers the modeling , observing , and forecasting of processes related to water and energy fluxes and storage terms , including interactions with the boundary layer and lower atmosphere , and including processes related to precipitation , radiation , and other meteorological inputs .","qid":"2736","docid":"Journal_of_Hydrometeorology","rank":76,"score":88745},{"content":"Title: Baldwin effect (astronomy) Content: The Baldwin effect in astronomy describes a relationship between continuum and emission-line fluxes observed in the electromagnetic spectra of quasars and active galactic nuclei , namely an anticorrelation between the equivalent width , Wλ , of a spectral line and the continuum luminosity , L , in broad UV optical emission lines . This means that the ratio of brightness of the emission line to the brightness of the nearby continuum decreases with increasing luminosity of the continuum .","qid":"2736","docid":"Baldwin_effect_(astronomy)","rank":77,"score":88476},{"content":"Title: ELFIN Content: Electron Losses and Fields Investigation ( ELFIN ) is a nanosatellite in development at University of California , Los Angeles ( UCLA ) . ELFIN is a 3U CubeSat designed to study space weather , specifically , the loss of relativistic electrons in the radiation belts . ELFIN is currently a participant in the Air Force Research Lab 's University Nanosatellite Program and is funded by NASA 's Low Cost Access to Space program and the National Science Foundation . ELFIN carries a fluxgate magnetometer as well as two energetic particle detectors : one for ions and one for electrons . The principal investigator of the project is Vassilis Angelopoulos .","qid":"2736","docid":"ELFIN","rank":78,"score":88407},{"content":"Title: Acinetobacter radioresistens Content: Acinetobacter radioresistens is a species of radiation-resistant bacteria . It is Gram-negative , oxidase-negative , not spore-forming , nonmotile , nonfermentative , aerobic , pleomorphic , and coccobacilli-shaped . The type strain of this species is strain FO-1 ( = IAM 13186 ) .","qid":"2736","docid":"Acinetobacter_radioresistens","rank":79,"score":88188},{"content":"Title: Second Cambridge Catalogue of Radio Sources Content: The Second Cambridge Catalogue of Radio Sources ( 2C ) was published in 1955 by John R Shakeshaft and colleagues . It comprised a list of 1936 sources between declinations -38 and +83 , giving their right ascension , declination , both in 1950.0 coordinates , and flux density . The observations were made with the Cambridge Interferometer , at 81.5 MHz . The data appeared to show a flux/number ( ` source counts ' ) trend which precluded some cosmological models ( such as the Steady-State ) : - For a uniform distribution of radio sources the slope of the cumulative distribution of log ( number , N ) versus log ( power , S ) would have been -1.5 , but the Cambridge data apparently implied a ( log ( N ) , log ( S ) ) slope of nearly -3.0 . Unfortunately , this interpretation was premature as a significant number of the sources listed were later found to be the product of ` confusion ' , the blending of several weaker sources in the lobes of the interferometer to produce the apparent effect of a single stronger source . Key data demonstrating this came from the then-recently commissioned Mills Cross Telescope in Australia . However , subsequent statistical analysis by Hewish of the interferometer records later showed some aspects of the initial interpretation to have been broadly correct , with the correct measure of the ( log ( N ) , log ( S ) ) slope of nearly -1.8 derived once confusion was taken into account . The survey was superseded by the much more reliable 3C and 3CR surveys . The 3C survey also used the Cambridge Interferometer , but at 159 MHz , which helped significantly reduce the ` confusion ' ( see above ) in the later survey .","qid":"2736","docid":"Second_Cambridge_Catalogue_of_Radio_Sources","rank":80,"score":88030},{"content":"Title: Intensity (heat transfer) Content: In the field of heat transfer , intensity of radiation is a measure of the distribution of radiant heat flux per unit area and solid angle , in a particular direction , defined according to where is the infinitesimal source area is the outgoing heat transfer from the area is the solid angle subtended by the infinitesimal ` target ' ( or ` aperture ' ) area is the angle between the source area normal vector and the line-of-sight between the source and the target areas . Typical units of intensity are W · m − 2 · sr − 1 . Intensity can sometimes be called radiance , especially in other fields of study . The emissive power of a surface can be determined by integrating the intensity of emitted radiation over a hemisphere surrounding the surface : For diffuse emitters , the emitted radiation intensity is the same in all directions , with the result that The factor ( which really should have the units of steradians ) is a result of the fact that intensity is defined to exclude the effect of reduced view factor at large values ; note that the solid angle corresponding to a hemisphere is equal to steradians . Spectral intensity is the corresponding spectral measurement of intensity ; in other words , the intensity as a function of wavelength .","qid":"2736","docid":"Intensity_(heat_transfer)","rank":81,"score":87639},{"content":"Title: International Centre for Low Dose Radiation Research Content: The International Centre for Low Dose Radiation Research ( ICLDRR ) was established at the University of Ottawa , in 1997 , with national and international support . The ICLDRR assembles all published data and conducts analyses concerning the effects of low doses of radiation on man and in the environment . ICLDRR 's main focus is to contribute to clarifying whether low and very low doses of ionizing radiation increase the risk of cancer . To that end , the ICLDRR has assembled and analysed virtually all published data on cancer induction in laboratory animals by low doses of ionizing radiation , and published initial findings at specialized international conferences , since 1998 . The foremost contribution of the ICLDRR is the setup of a radiation low-dose mammal-experiment database . Their results have been used in support of the radiation hormesis hypothesis , wherein low-dose radiation may actually be beneficial for health . They were quoted in a famous report by the French Academies as evidence that this effect takes place in 40 % of low-dose animal experiments . The work at ICLDRR is funded by several actors of the nuclear industry such as the United States Department of Energy , Électricité de France , Cogema Resources , Inc. ( Canada ) or the Central Research Institute of the Electric Power Industry ( Japan ) .","qid":"2736","docid":"International_Centre_for_Low_Dose_Radiation_Research","rank":82,"score":87226},{"content":"Title: Climate engineering Content: Climate engineering , commonly referred to as geoengineering , also known as climate intervention , is the deliberate and large-scale intervention in the Earth 's climatic system with the aim of limiting adverse global warming . Climate engineering is an umbrella term for measures that mainly fall into two types : carbon dioxide removal and solar radiation management . Carbon dioxide removal addresses the cause of global warming by removing one of the greenhouse gases ( carbon dioxide ) from the atmosphere . Solar radiation management attempts to offset effects of greenhouse gases by causing the Earth to absorb less solar radiation . Climate engineering approaches are sometimes viewed as additional potential options for limiting global warming , alongside mitigation and adaptation . There is substantial agreement among scientists that climate engineering can not substitute for climate change mitigation . Some approaches might be used as accompanying measures to sharp cuts in greenhouse gas emissions . Given that all types of measures for addressing climate change have economic , political , or physical limitations , some climate engineering approaches might eventually be used as part of an ensemble of measures . Research on costs , benefits , and various types of risks of most climate engineering approaches is at an early stage and their understanding needs to improve to judge their adequacy and feasibility . Almost all research into solar radiation management has consisted of computer modelling or laboratory tests , and an attempt to move to outdoor experimentation was controversial . Some carbon dioxide removal practices , such as planting of trees and bio-energy with carbon capture and storage projects , are underway . Their scalability to effectively affect global climate is , however , debated . Ocean iron fertilization has been given small-scale research trials , sparking substantial controversy . Most experts and major reports advise against relying on climate engineering techniques as a simple solution to global warming , in part due to the large uncertainties over effectiveness and side effects . However , most experts also argue that the risks of such interventions must be seen in the context of risks of dangerous global warming . Interventions at large scale may run a greater risk of disrupting natural systems resulting in a dilemma that those approaches that could prove highly ( cost - ) effective in addressing extreme climate risk , might themselves cause substantial risk . Some have suggested that the concept of engineering the climate presents a so-called `` moral hazard '' because it could reduce political and public pressure for emissions reduction , which could exacerbate overall climate risks ; others assert that the threat of climate engineering could spur emissions cuts . Some are in favour of a moratorium on out-of-doors testing and deployment of solar radiation management ( SRM ) .","qid":"2736","docid":"Climate_engineering","rank":83,"score":87160},{"content":"Title: Emissivity Content: The emissivity of the surface of a material is its effectiveness in emitting energy as thermal radiation . Thermal radiation is electromagnetic radiation and it may include both visible radiation ( light ) and infrared radiation , which is not visible to human eyes . The thermal radiation from very hot objects ( see photograph ) is easily visible to the eye . Quantitatively , emissivity is the ratio of the thermal radiation from a surface to the radiation from an ideal black surface at the same temperature as given by the Stefan -- Boltzmann law . The ratio varies from 0 to 1 . The surface of a black object emits thermal radiation at the rate of approximately 448 watts per square meter at room temperature ( 25 ° C , 298.15 K ) ; real objects with emissivities less than 1.0 emit radiation at correspondingly lower rates . Emissivities are important in several contexts : insulated windows . -- Warm surfaces are usually cooled directly by air , but they also cool themselves by emitting thermal radiation . This second cooling mechanism is important for simple glass windows , which have emissivities close to the maximum possible value of 1.0 . `` Low-E windows '' with transparent low emissivity coatings emit less thermal radiation than ordinary windows . In winter , these coatings can halve the rate at which a window loses heat compared to an uncoated glass window . solar heat collectors . -- Similarly , solar heat collectors lose heat by emitting thermal radiation . Advanced solar collectors incorporate selective surfaces that have very low emissivities . These collectors waste very little of the solar energy through emission of thermal radiation . planetary temperatures . -- The planets are solar thermal collectors on a large scale . The temperature of a planet 's surface is determined by the balance between the heat absorbed by the planet from sunlight , heat emitted from its core , and thermal radiation emitted back into space . Emissivity of a planet is determined by the nature of its surface and atmosphere . temperature measurements . -- Pyrometers and infrared cameras are instruments used to measure the temperature of an object by using its thermal radiation ; no actual contact with the object is needed . The calibration of these instruments involves the emissivity of the surface that 's being measured .","qid":"2736","docid":"Emissivity","rank":84,"score":87036},{"content":"Title: Stefan–Boltzmann law Content: The Stefan -- Boltzmann law describes the power radiated from a black body in terms of its temperature . Specifically , the Stefan -- Boltzmann law states that the total energy radiated per unit surface area of a black body across all wavelengths per unit time ( also known as the black-body radiant emittance or radiant exitance ) , , is directly proportional to the fourth power of the black body 's thermodynamic temperature T : The constant of proportionality σ , called the Stefan -- Boltzmann constant derives from other known constants of nature . The value of the constant is where k is the Boltzmann constant , h is Planck 's constant , and c is the speed of light in a vacuum . Thus at 100 K the energy flux is 5.67 W/m2 , at 1000 K 56,700 W/m2 , etc. . The radiance ( watts per square metre per steradian ) is given by A body that does not absorb all incident radiation ( sometimes known as a grey body ) emits less total energy than a black body and is characterized by an emissivity , : The irradiance has dimensions of energy flux ( energy per time per area ) , and the SI units of measure are joules per second per square metre , or equivalently , watts per square metre . The SI unit for absolute temperature T is the kelvin . is the emissivity of the grey body ; if it is a perfect blackbody , . In the still more general ( and realistic ) case , the emissivity depends on the wavelength , . To find the total power radiated from an object , multiply by its surface area , : Wavelength - and subwavelength-scale particles , metamaterials , and other nanostructures are not subject to ray-optical limits and may be designed to exceed the Stefan -- Boltzmann law .","qid":"2736","docid":"Stefan–Boltzmann_law","rank":85,"score":86840},{"content":"Title: Solar flux unit Content: The Solar Flux Unit ( SFU ) is a convenient measure of spectral flux density often used in solar radio observations : 1 SFU = 104 Jy = 10 − 22 Wm − 2Hz − 1 = 10 − 19erg s − 1cm − 2Hz − 1 . See jansky for further information about related units .","qid":"2736","docid":"Solar_flux_unit","rank":86,"score":86625},{"content":"Title: Photomultiplier Content: Photomultiplier tubes ( photomultipliers or PMTs for short ) , members of the class of vacuum tubes , and more specifically vacuum phototubes , are extremely sensitive detectors of light in the ultraviolet , visible , and near-infrared ranges of the electromagnetic spectrum . These detectors multiply the current produced by incident light by as much as 100 million times ( i.e. , 160 dB ) , in multiple dynode stages , enabling ( for example ) individual photons to be detected when the incident flux of light is low . The combination of high gain , low noise , high frequency response or , equivalently , ultra-fast response , and large area of collection has maintained photomultipliers an essential place in nuclear and particle physics , astronomy , medical diagnostics including blood tests , medical imaging , motion picture film scanning ( telecine ) , radar jamming , and high-end image scanners known as drum scanners . Elements of photomultiplier technology , when integrated differently , are the basis of night vision devices . Research that analyzes light scattering , such as the study of polymers in solution often use a laser and a PMT to collect the scattered light data . Semiconductor devices , particularly avalanche photodiodes , are alternatives to photomultipliers ; however , photomultipliers are uniquely well-suited for applications requiring low-noise , high-sensitivity detection of light that is imperfectly collimated .","qid":"2736","docid":"Photomultiplier","rank":87,"score":86583},{"content":"Title: Pyrometer Content: A pyrometer is a type of remote-sensing thermometer used to measure the temperature of a surface . Various forms of pyrometers have historically existed . In the modern usage , it is a device that from a distance determines the temperature of a surface from the spectrum of the thermal radiation it emits , a process known as pyrometry and sometimes radiometry . The word pyrometer comes from the Greek word for fire , '' πυρ '' ( pyro ) , and meter , meaning to measure . The word pyrometer was originally coined to denote a device capable of measuring the temperature of an object by its incandescence , visible light emitted by a body which is at least red-hot . Modern pyrometers or infrared thermometers also measure the temperature of cooler objects , down to room temperature , by detecting their infrared radiation flux .","qid":"2736","docid":"Pyrometer","rank":88,"score":86562},{"content":"Title: Lyman-alpha emitter Content: A Lyman-alpha emitter ( LAE ) is a type of distant galaxy that emits Lyman-alpha radiation . LAEs are extremely distant , and because of the finite travel time of light they provide glimpses into the history of the universe . They are thought to be the progenitors of most modern Milky Way type galaxies . These galaxies can be found nowadays rather easily in narrow-band searches by an excess of their narrow-band flux at a wavelength which may be interpreted as their redshift : where z is the redshift , is the observed wavelength , and 1215.67 Å is the wavelength of Lyman-alpha emission . The Lyman-alpha line is thought to be caused by an ongoing outburst of star-formation . Experimental observations of the redshift of LAEs are important in cosmology because they trace dark matter halos and subsequently the evolution of matter distribution in the universe .","qid":"2736","docid":"Lyman-alpha_emitter","rank":89,"score":86364},{"content":"Title: Albrecht effect Content: The Albrecht effect describes how cloud condensation nuclei ( CCN ) , possibly from anthropogenic pollution , may increase cloud lifetime and hence increase the amount of solar radiation reflected from clouds . Because it does not directly interact with incoming or outgoing radiation , it has an indirect effect on climate . Aerosol particles act as CCNs creating more droplets of a smaller size . These take more time to coalesce to raindrop size ( > 100μm ) , reducing precipitation efficiency and hence increasing the lifetime of the cloud . The increased scattering of incoming radiation leads to a cooling of -0.3 to -1.4 Wm − 2 . This effect is not as well understood as the Twomey effect . There are many other effects , indirect and semi-direct aerosol effects resulting in a large uncertainty in the radiative forcing due to aerosols .","qid":"2736","docid":"Albrecht_effect","rank":90,"score":86361},{"content":"Title: PERDaix Content: PERDaix ( Proton Electron Radiation Detector Aix-la-Chapelle ) is a novel , small and light weight magnet spectrometer to measure the charge and mass dependent solar modulation periodically for deeper understanding of cosmic rays . For a better understanding of sources and acceleration of cosmic particles direct measurements of cosmic rays are necessary . Also for a better understanding of the solar modulation which is expected to follow the 22-year solar cycle , time dependent measurements are needed . PERDaix is a newly designed detector which is constructed by the Department of Physics 1b , RWTH Aachen University . Being proposed to the German Space Agency in November 2009 for a participation in the BEXUS Program ( Rocket and Balloon Experiments for University Students ) after a first canceled flight attempt in October 2010 the actual flight took place as a post-BEXUS-campaign flight opportunity in November 2010 . The detector is able to measure charged particles in the energy range of 0.5 GeV to 5 GeV . PERDaix uses a time of flight system , a scintillating fiber tracker with SiPM readout , and a transition radiation detector in combination with a permanent magnet to measure particle fluxes . The BEXUS balloons are launched at Esrange Space Center near Kiruna , Sweden . In November 2010 PERDaix reached a top altitude of 33.3 km at which it kept floating for 1.5 hours .","qid":"2736","docid":"PERDaix","rank":91,"score":86226},{"content":"Title: Tipping points in the climate system Content: A tipping point in the climate system is a threshold that, when exceeded, can lead to large changes in the state of the system. Potential tipping points have been identified in the physical climate system, in impacted ecosystems, and sometimes in both. For instance, feedback from the global carbon cycle is a driver for the transition between glacial and interglacial periods, with orbital forcing providing the initial trigger. Earth's geologic temperature record includes many more examples of geologically rapid transitions between different climate states.Climate tipping points are of particular interest in reference to concerns about global warming in the modern era. Possible tipping point behaviour has been identified for the global mean surface temperature by studying self-reinforcing feedbacks and the past behavior of Earth's climate system. Self-reinforcing feedbacks in the carbon cycle and planetary reflectivity could trigger a cascading set of tipping points that lead the world into a hothouse climate state.Large-scale components of the Earth system that may pass a tipping point have been referred to as tipping elements. Tipping elements are found in the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets, possibly causing tens of meters of sea level rise. These tipping points are not always abrupt. For example, at some level of temperature rise the melt of a large part of the Greenland ice sheet and/or West Antarctic Ice Sheet will become inevitable; but the ice sheet itself may persist for many centuries. Some tipping elements, like the collapse of ecosystems, are irreversible.","qid":"2736","docid":"Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system","rank":92,"score":85863},{"content":"Title: Irradiance Content: In radiometry , irradiance is the radiant flux ( power ) received by a surface per unit area . The SI unit of irradiance is the watt per square metre . The CGS unit erg per square centimetre per second is often used in astronomy . Irradiance is often called `` intensity '' in branches of physics other than radiometry , but in radiometry this usage leads to confusion with radiant intensity . Spectral irradiance is the irradiance of a surface per unit frequency or wavelength , depending on whether the spectrum is taken as a function of frequency or of wavelength . The two forms have different dimensions : spectral irradiance of a frequency spectrum is measured in watts per square metre per hertz ( W · m − 2 · Hz − 1 ) , while spectral irradiance of a wavelength spectrum is measured in watts per square metre per metre ( W · m − 3 ) , or more commonly watts per square metre per nanometre .","qid":"2736","docid":"Irradiance","rank":93,"score":85811},{"content":"Title: Jansky Content: The jansky ( symbol Jy ) is a non-SI unit of spectral flux density , or spectral irradiance , used especially in radio astronomy . It is equivalent to 10 − 26 watts per square metre per hertz . The flux density or monochromatic flux , , of a source is the integral of the spectral radiance , , over the source solid angle : The unit is named after pioneering US radio astronomer Karl Guthe Jansky and is defined as ( SI ) ( cgs ) . Since the jansky is obtained by integrating over the whole source solid angle , it is most simply used to describe point sources ; for example , the Third Cambridge Catalogue of Radio Sources ( 3C ) reports results in Jy . For extended sources , the surface brightness is often described with units of Jy per solid angle ; for example , far-infrared ( FIR ) maps from the IRAS satellite are in MJy/sr . Although extended sources at all wavelengths can be reported with these units , for radio-frequency maps , extended sources have traditionally been described in terms of a brightness temperature ; for example the Haslam et al. 408 MHz all-sky continuum survey is reported in terms of a brightness temperature in K.","qid":"2736","docid":"Jansky","rank":94,"score":85727},{"content":"Title: Spectral energy distribution Content: A spectral energy distribution ( SED ) is a plot of brightness or flux density versus frequency or wavelength of light . It is used in many branches of astronomy to characterize astronomical sources . For example , in radio astronomy , an SED with a negative spectral index around − 0.7 would indicate a synchrotron radiation source . In infrared astronomy , SEDs can be used to classify young stellar objects .","qid":"2736","docid":"Spectral_energy_distribution","rank":95,"score":85593},{"content":"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .","qid":"2736","docid":"Global_warming","rank":96,"score":85571},{"content":"Title: Cold fission Content: Cold fission or cold nuclear fission is defined as involving fission events for which fission fragments have such low excitation energy that no neutrons or gammas are emitted . Cold fission events have so low a probability of occurrence that it is necessary to use a high flux nuclear reactor to study them . The first observation of cold fission events was in experiments on fission induced by thermal neutrons of uranium 233 , uranium 235 and plutonium 239 using the High Flux Reactor at the Institut Laue-Langevin in Grenoble , France . Other experiments on cold fission were also done involving 248Cm and 252Cf . A unified approach of Cluster decay , alpha decay and cold fission was developed by Dorin N Poenaru et al. . A phenomenological interpretation was proposed by Gönnenwein and Duarte et al. . The importance of cold fission phenomena lies in the fact that fragments reaching detectors have the same mass that they obtained at the `` scission '' configuration , just before the attractive but short-range nuclear force becomes null , and only Coulomb interaction acts between fragments . After this Coulomb potential energy is converted in fragments kinetic energies , which - -- added to pre-scission kinetic energies -- is measured by detectors . The fact that cold fission preserves nuclear mass until the fission fragments reach the detectors permits the experimenter to better determine the fission dynamics , especially the aspects related to Coulomb and shell effects in low energy fission and nucleon pair breaking . Adopting several theoretical assumptions about scission configuration one can calculate the maximal value of kinetic energy as a function of charge and mass of fragments and compare them to experimental results .","qid":"2736","docid":"Cold_fission","rank":97,"score":85554},{"content":"Title: Knudsen paradox Content: The Knudsen Paradox has been observed in experiments of channel flow with varying channel width or equivalently different pressures . If the normalized mass flux through the channel is plotted over the Knudsen number based on the channel width a distinct minimum is observed around . This is a paradoxical behaviour because , based on the Navier -- Stokes equations , one would expect the mass flux to decrease with increasing the Knudsen number . The minimum can be understood intuitively by considering the two extreme cases of very small and very large Knudsen number . For very small Kn the viscosity vanishes and a fully developed steady state channel flow shows infinite flux . On the other hand , the particles stop interacting for large Knudsen numbers . Because of the constant acceleration due to the external force , the steady state again will show infinite flux .","qid":"2736","docid":"Knudsen_paradox","rank":98,"score":85525},{"content":"Title: Beethoven Burst (GRB 991216) Content: GRB 991216 , nicknamed the Beethoven Burst by Dr. Brad Schaefer of Yale University , was a gamma-ray burst observed on December 16 , 1999 , coinciding with the 229th anniversary of Ludwig van Beethoven 's birth . A gamma-ray burst is a highly luminous flash associated with an explosion in a distant galaxy and producing gamma rays , the most energetic form of electromagnetic radiation , and often followed by a longer-lived `` afterglow '' emitted at longer wavelengths ( X-ray , ultraviolet , optical , infrared , and radio ) . The optical afterglow of the burst reached an apparent magnitude of 18.7 , making the Beethoven Burst one of the brightest bursts ever detected , even though it occurred about 10 billion light years from Earth . Frank Marshall , a NASA astrophysicist at the Goddard Space Flight Center , commented that `` this was by far the brightest burst we have detected in a long time . '' The burst 's peak flux ranked it as the second most powerful burst that the Burst and Transient Source Experiment ( BATSE ) had ever detected . The analysis of the observations strengthened the theory that gamma-ray bursts are a result of a hypernova , though other possible progenitors exist , such as the merger of two black holes . Within four hours of the burst 's detection , observations made by BATSE and the Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer were able to determine the burst 's position of α = 77.38 ± 0.04 , δ = 11.30 ± 0.05 . This rapid determination allowed astronomers to conduct follow-up studies using optical and X-ray telescopes . Other instruments which detected GRB 991216 included the Chandra X-ray Observatory , the MDM Observatory , and the Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph on board the Hubble Space Telescope . This was the first use of the Chandra X-ray Observatory for the purpose of gamma-ray burst detection .","qid":"2736","docid":"Beethoven_Burst_(GRB_991216)","rank":99,"score":85204},{"content":"Title: Climate model Content: Climate models use quantitative methods to simulate the interactions of the important drivers of climate , including atmosphere , oceans , land surface and ice . They are used for a variety of purposes from study of the dynamics of the climate system to projections of future climate . All climate models take account of incoming energy from the sun as short wave electromagnetic radiation , chiefly visible and short-wave ( near ) infrared , as well as outgoing long wave ( far ) infrared electromagnetic . Any imbalance results in a change in temperature . Models vary in complexity : A simple radiant heat transfer model treats the earth as a single point and averages outgoing energy This can be expanded vertically ( radiative-convective models ) and/or horizontally Finally , ( coupled ) atmosphere -- ocean -- sea ice global climate models solve the full equations for mass and energy transfer and radiant exchange . Box models can treat flows across and within ocean basins . Other types of modelling can be interlinked , such as land use , allowing researchers to predict the interaction between climate and ecosystems .","qid":"2736","docid":"Climate_model","rank":100,"score":85180}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change feedback Content: Climate change feedback is important in the understanding of global warming because feedback processes may amplify or diminish the effect of each climate forcing , and so play an important part in determining the climate sensitivity and future climate state . Feedback in general is the process in which changing one quantity changes a second quantity , and the change in the second quantity in turn changes the first . Positive feedback amplifies the change in the first quantity while negative feedback reduces it . The term `` forcing '' means a change which may `` push '' the climate system in the direction of warming or cooling . An example of a climate forcing is increased atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases . By definition , forcings are external to the climate system while feedbacks are internal ; in essence , feedbacks represent the internal processes of the system . Some feedbacks may act in relative isolation to the rest of the climate system ; others may be tightly coupled ; hence it may be difficult to tell just how much a particular process contributes . Forcings , feedbacks and the dynamics of the climate system determine how much and how fast the climate changes . The main positive feedback in global warming is the tendency of warming to increase the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere , which in turn leads to further warming . The main negative feedback comes from the Stefan -- Boltzmann law , the amount of heat radiated from the Earth into space changes with the fourth power of the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere . Some observed and potential effects of global warming are positive feedbacks , which contribute directly to further global warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that `` Anthropogenic warming could lead to some effects that are abrupt or irreversible , depending upon the rate and magnitude of the climate change . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_feedback\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 152345\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cloud feedback Content: Cloud feedback is the coupling between cloudiness and surface air temperature where a surface air temperature change leads to a change in clouds , which could then amplify or diminish the initial temperature perturbation . Cloud feedbacks can affect the magnitude of internally generated climate variability or they can affect the magnitude of climate change resulting from external radiative forcings . Global warming is expected to change the distribution and type of clouds . Seen from below , clouds emit infrared radiation back to the surface , and so exert a warming effect ; seen from above , clouds reflect sunlight and emit infrared radiation to space , and so exert a cooling effect . Cloud representations vary among global climate models , and small changes in cloud cover have a large impact on the climate . Differences in planetary boundary layer cloud modeling schemes can lead to large differences in derived values of climate sensitivity . A model that decreases boundary layer clouds in response to global warming has a climate sensitivity twice that of a model that does not include this feedback . However , satellite data show that cloud optical thickness actually increases with increasing temperature . Whether the net effect is warming or cooling depends on details such as the type and altitude of the cloud ; details that are difficult to represent in climate models .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Cloud_feedback\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 147809\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ice-albedo feedback Content: Ice-albedo feedback ( or snow-albedo feedback ) is a positive feedback climate process where a change in the area of snow-covered land , ice caps , glaciers or sea ice alters the albedo . This change in albedo acts to reinforce the initial alteration in ice area . Cooling tends to increase ice cover and hence the albedo , reducing the amount of solar energy absorbed and leading to more cooling . Conversely , warming tends to decrease ice cover and hence the albedo , increasing the amount of solar energy absorbed , leading to more warming . The effect also applies on the small scale to snow-covered surfaces . A small amount of snow melt exposes darker ground which absorbs more radiation , leading to more snowmelt . The effect has mostly been discussed in terms of the recent trend of declining Arctic sea ice . Internal feedback processes may also potentially occur , as land ice melts and causes eustatic sea level rise , and also potentially induces earthquakes as a result of isostatic rebound , which further acts to disrupt glaciers , ice shelves , etc. .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Ice-albedo_feedback\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 136822\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate sensitivity Content: Climate sensitivity is the equilibrium temperature change in response to changes of the radiative forcing . Therefore , climate sensitivity depends on the initial climate state , but potentially can be accurately inferred from precise palaeoclimate data . Slow climate feedbacks , especially changes of ice sheet size and atmospheric CO2 , amplify the total Earth system sensitivity by an amount that depends on the time scale considered . Although climate sensitivity is usually used in the context of radiative forcing by carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , it is thought of as a general property of the climate system : the change in surface air temperature ( ΔTs ) following a unit change in radiative forcing ( RF ) , and thus is expressed in units of ° C / ( W/m2 ) . For this to be useful , the measure must be independent of the nature of the forcing ( e.g. from greenhouse gases or solar variation ) ; to first order this is indeed found to be so . The climate sensitivity specifically due to is often expressed as the temperature change in ° C associated with a doubling of the concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere . For coupled atmosphere-ocean global climate models ( e.g. CMIP5 ) the climate sensitivity is an emergent property : it is not a model parameter , but rather a result of a combination of model physics and parameters . By contrast , simpler energy-balance models may have climate sensitivity as an explicit parameter . The terms represented in the equation relate radiative forcing ( RF ) to linear changes in global surface temperature change ( ΔTs ) via the climate sensitivity λ . It is also possible to estimate climate sensitivity from observations ; however , this is difficult due to uncertainties in the forcing and temperature histories .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_sensitivity\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 136112\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Iris hypothesis Content: The iris hypothesis is a hypothesis proposed by Richard Lindzen et al. in 2001 that suggested increased sea surface temperature in the tropics would result in reduced cirrus clouds and thus more infrared radiation leakage from Earth 's atmosphere . His study of observed changes in cloud coverage and modeled effects on infrared radiation released to space as a result supported the hypothesis . This suggested infrared radiation leakage was hypothesized to be a negative feedback in which an initial warming would result in an overall cooling of the surface . The consensus view is that increased sea surface temperature would result in increased cirrus clouds and reduced infrared radiation leakage and therefore a positive feedback . Other scientists subsequently tested the hypothesis . Some concluded that there was no evidence supporting the hypothesis . Others found evidence suggesting that increased sea surface temperature in the tropics did indeed reduce cirrus clouds but found that the effect was nonetheless a positive feedback rather than the negative feedback that Lindzen had hypothesized . A later 2007 study conducted by Roy Spencer et al. using updated satellite data potentially supported the iris hypothesis . In 2011 , Lindzen published a rebuttal to the main criticisms . In 2015 a paper was published which again suggested the possibility of an `` Iris Effect '' . It also proposed what it called a `` plausible physical mechanism for an iris effect . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Iris_hypothesis\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 128833\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Negative feedback Content: Negative feedback occurs when some function of the output of a system , process , or mechanism is fed back in a manner that tends to reduce the fluctuations in the output , whether caused by changes in the input or by other disturbances . Whereas positive feedback tends to lead to instability via exponential growth , oscillation or chaotic behavior , negative feedback generally promotes stability . Negative feedback tends to promote a settling to equilibrium , and reduces the effects of perturbations . Negative feedback loops in which just the right amount of correction is applied with optimum timing can be very stable , accurate , and responsive . Negative feedback is widely used in mechanical and electronic engineering , but it also occurs naturally within living organisms , and can be seen in many other fields from chemistry and economics to physical systems such as the climate . General negative feedback systems are studied in control systems engineering .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Negative_feedback\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 126198\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Radiation flux Content: Radiation flux is a measure of the amount of radiation received by an object from a given source . This can be any type of radiation , including electromagnetic , sound , and particles from a radioactive source . Φ = is the radiation flux , L is the luminosity , or total power output of the source , and r is the distance from the radiation source . The units of radiation flux are W · m − 2 , or kg · s − 3 . Radiation flux density is a related measure that takes into account the area the radiation flux passes through , and is defined as the flux divided by the area it passes through . The Radiation flux density is also known as Intensity where I =\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Radiation_flux\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 122110\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Radiation sensitivity Content: Radiation sensitivity is the susceptibility of a material to physical or chemical changes induced by radiation ( see also : radiation effect ) . Examples of radiation sensitive materials are silver chloride , photoresists and biomaterials . Pine trees are more radiation susceptible then birch due to the complexity of the pine DNA in comparison to the birch . Examples of radiation insensitive materials are metals and ionic crystals such as quartz and sapphire . The radiation effect depends on the type of the irradiating particles , their energy and the number of incident particles per unit volume . Radiation effects can be transient or permanent . The persistence of the radiation effect depends on the stability of the induced physical and chemical change . Physical radiation effects depending on diffusion properties can be thermally annealed whereby the original structure of the material is recovered . Chemical radiation effects usually can not be recovered .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Radiation_sensitivity\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 119592\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Radiation hormesis Content: Radiation hormesis ( also called radiation homeostasis ) is the hypothesis that low doses of ionizing radiation ( within the region of and just above natural background levels ) are beneficial , stimulating the activation of repair mechanisms that protect against disease , that are not activated in absence of ionizing radiation . The reserve repair mechanisms are hypothesized to be sufficiently effective when stimulated as to not only cancel the detrimental effects of ionizing radiation but also inhibit disease not related to radiation exposure ( see hormesis ) . This counter-intuitive hypothesis has captured the attention of scientists and public alike in recent years . While the effects of high and acute doses of ionising radiation are easily observed and understood in humans ( e.g. Japanese Atomic Bomb survivors ) , the effects of low-level radiation are very difficult to observe and highly controversial . This is because the baseline cancer rate is already very high and the risk of developing cancer fluctuates 40 % because of individual life style and environmental effects , obscuring the subtle effects of low-level radiation . An acute effective dose of 100 millisieverts may increase cancer risk by ~ 0.8 % . However , children are particularly sensitive to radioactivity , with childhood leukemias and other cancers increasing even within natural and man-made background radiation levels ( under 4 mSv cumulative with 1 mSv being an average annual dose from terrestrial and cosmic radiation excluding radon which primarily doses the lung ) . There is also indication that exposures around this dose level will cause negative subclinical health impacts to neural development . Students born in regions of Sweden with higher Chernobyl fallout performed worse in secondary school , particularly in math . `` Damage is accentuated within families ( i.e. , siblings comparison ) and among children born to parents with low education ... '' who often do n't have the resources to overcome this additional health challenge . Hormesis remains largely unknown to the public . Any policy change ought to consider hormesis first as a public health issue ( versus an industrial regulatory issue ) . This would include the assessment of the public concern regarding exposure to small toxic doses . In addition , impact of hormesis policy change upon the management of industrial risks should be studied . Government and regulatory bodies disagree on the existence of radiation hormesis and research points to the `` severe problems and limitations '' with the use of hormesis in general as the `` principal dose-response default assumption in a risk assessment process charged with ensuring public health protection . '' Quoting results from a literature database research , the Académie des Sciences -- Académie nationale de Médecine ( French Academy of Sciences -- National Academy of Medicine ) stated in their 2005 report concerning the effects of low-level radiation that many laboratory studies have observed radiation hormesis . However , they cautioned that it is not yet known if radiation hormesis occurs outside the laboratory , or in humans . Reports by the United States National Research Council and the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements and the United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation ( UNSCEAR ) argue that there is no evidence for hormesis in humans and in the case of the National Research Council hormesis is outright rejected as a possibility . Therefore , estimating Linear no-threshold model ( LNT ) continues to be the model generally used by regulatory agencies for human radiation exposure .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Radiation_hormesis\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 117447\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Radiative flux Content: Radiative flux , also known as radiative flux density or radiation flux , is the amount of power radiated through a given area , in the form of photons or other elementary particles , typically measured in W/m2 . It is used in astronomy to determine the magnitude and spectral class of a star . Radiative flux also acts as a generalization of heat flux , which is equal to the radiative flux when restricted to the infrared spectrum . When radiative flux is incident on a surface , it is often called irradiance . Flux emitted from a surface may be called radiant exitance or radiant emittance .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Radiative_flux\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 116282\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wind-induced surface heat exchange Content: The wind-induced surface heat exchange ( WISHE ) is a positive feedback mechanism between the ocean and atmosphere in which a stronger ocean-to-atmosphere heat flux results in a stronger atmospheric circulation , which results in a strong heat flux . It has been hypothesized that this is the mechanism by which low pressure areas in the tropics develop into tropical cyclones .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Wind-induced_surface_heat_exchange\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 115854\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Electrothermal feedback Content: In electronics , electrothermal feedback is the interaction of the electric current and the temperature in a device with a temperature-dependent electrical resistance . This interaction arises from Joule heating . The temperature-dependence of the electrical resistance is described by the derivative of the resistance with respect to temperature dR/dT . Semiconductors typically exhibit a negative dR/dT . Superconductors exhibit a large positive dR/dT on the superconducting phase transition . Normal ( non-superconducting ) metals typically exhibit a positive dR/dT that decreases to zero at very low temperatures . If a device has a positive dR/dT , an increase in temperature ( for example , due to thermal fluctuations or the absorption of a photon ) will increase the electrical resistance R . If the device is biased with a constant voltage V , this increase in resistance will decrease the Joule power P = V2/R . The decrease in Joule heating will cause the device to return to its equilibrium temperature . This is known as negative electrothermal feedback , as the change in Joule heating opposes the change in temperature . If the device is instead biased with a constant current I , the Joule power P = I2R will increase if the temperature increases . Thus the Joule heating amplifies a change in temperature , an effect known as positive electrothermal feedback . The situation is reversed for the case of a negative dR/dT . Electrothermal feedback is important for describing the performance of several types of photodetectors such as the bolometer , the transition edge sensor , and the superconducting nanowire single-photon detector .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Electrothermal_feedback\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 113768\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Radiolysis Content: Radiolysis is the dissociation of molecules by ionizing radiation . It is the cleavage of one or several chemical bonds resulting from exposure to high-energy flux . The radiation in this context is associated with ionizing radiation ; radiolysis is therefore distinguished from , for example , photolysis of the Cl2 molecule into two Cl-radicals , where ( ultraviolet or visible ) light is used . For example , water dissociates under alpha radiation into a hydrogen radical and a hydroxyl radical , unlike ionization of water which produces a hydrogen ion and a hydroxide ion . The chemistry of concentrated solutions under ionizing radiation is extremely complex . Radiolysis can locally modify redox conditions , and therefore the speciation and the solubility of the compounds .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Radiolysis\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 111389\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Negative-feedback amplifier Content: A negative-feedback amplifier ( or feedback amplifier ) is an electronic amplifier that subtracts a fraction of its output from its input , so that negative feedback opposes the original signal . The applied negative feedback improves performance ( gain stability , linearity , frequency response , step response ) and reduces sensitivity to parameter variations due to manufacturing or environment . Because of these advantages , many amplifiers and control systems use negative feedback . An idealized negative-feedback amplifier as shown in the diagram is a system of three elements ( see Figure 1 ) : an amplifier with gain AOL , a feedback network β , which senses the output signal and possibly transforms it in some way ( for example by attenuating or filtering it ) , a summing circuit that acts as a subtractor ( the circle in the figure ) , which combines the input and the transformed output .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Negative-feedback_amplifier\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 111023\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Outgoing longwave radiation Content: Outgoing Longwave Radiation ( OLR ) is the energy radiating from the Earth as infrared radiation at low energy to Space . OLR is electromagnetic radiation emitted from Earth and its atmosphere out to space in the form of thermal radiation . The flux of energy transported by outgoing longwave radiation is measured in W/m ² . Over 99 % of outgoing longwave radiation has wavelengths between 4 µm and 100 µm , in the thermal infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum . Contributions with wavelengths larger than 40 µm are small , therefore often only wavelengths up to 50 µm are considered . In the wavelength range between 4 µm and 10 µm the spectrum of outgoing longwave radiation overlaps that of solar radiation , and for various applications different cut-off wavelengths between the two may be chosen . Radiative cooling by outgoing longwave radiation is the primary way the Earth System loses energy . The balance between this loss and the energy gained by radiative heating from incoming solar shortwave radiation determines global heating or cooling of the Earth system ( Energy budget of Earth 's climate ) . Local differences between radiative heating and cooling provide the energy that drives atmospheric dynamics .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Outgoing_longwave_radiation\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 110725\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Anti-greenhouse effect Content: The anti-greenhouse effect is a mechanism similar to the greenhouse effect , but with the opposite consequence of cooling the surface temperature of a planet . If gases in the atmosphere of a planet have a lesser transmittance for inbound radiation ( for instance , solar rays in the Solar System ) than for outbound radiation ( typically thermal radiation of the planet 's surface in the infrared domain ) , the surface temperature at which inbound and outbound heat fluxes are at equilibrium is lower .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Anti-greenhouse_effect\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 110411\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pyrgeometer Content: A pyrgeometer is a device that measures near-surface infra-red radiation spectrum in the wavelength spectrum approximately from 4.5 µm to 100 µm . It measures the resistance/voltage changes in a material that is sensitive to the net energy transfer by radiation that occurs between itself and its surroundings ( which can be either in or out ) . By also measuring its own temperature and making some assumptions about the nature of its surroundings it can infer a temperature of the local atmosphere with which it is exchanging radiation . These instruments generally have no spectral ( frequency/wavelength ) measurement capabilities -- they use a single ( non-frequency resolved ) resistance/voltage measurement . They are constructed to be sensitive to the infra-red radiation spectrum that extends approximately from 4.5 µm to 100 µm , thus excluding the main shortwave ( solar ) spectrum . Since the mean free path of IR radiation in the atmosphere is ~ 25 meters , this device typically measures IR flux in the nearest 25 meter layer .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Pyrgeometer\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 110392\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Negative luminescence Content: Negative luminescence is a physical phenomenon by which an electronic device emits less thermal radiation when an electric current is passed through it than it does in thermal equilibrium ( current off ) . When viewed by a thermal camera , an operating negative luminescent device looks colder than its environment .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Negative_luminescence\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 110183\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Robert D. Cess Content: Robert D. Cess is professor emeritus of atmospheric sciences at Stony Brook University . He earned his bachelor of science degree in mechanical engineering from Oregon State University and his master 's degree from Purdue University in Indiana in 1956 . Cess received a Ph.D. from the University of Pittsburgh in 1959 . He is a recognized leader in the fields of climate change and atmospheric radiation transfer . His research interest involve modeling of climate feedbacks that can either amplify or diminish global climate change , and interpreting surface and satellite remote sensing data . He has been a part of studies which have found problems with the ability of model the transmission of shortwave radiation through a cloud-free atmosphere , and designed an experiment to test the accuracy of the models . They reported that they found agreement between the models and the observations of clear-sky shortwave radiation at the surface for the period studied , 1985 to 1988 . Cess was a lead author of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and worked with the National Science Foundation on understanding greenhouse warming and its associated policy implications .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Robert_D._Cess\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 110182\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mukul Kundu Content: Mukul R. Kundu ( 10 February 1930 - 16 June 2010 ) , was an Indian solar physicist , known best as a pioneer of radio observations of the Sun . Early in his career , he showed that the Sun 's 10.7 centimetre radio flux is correlated with the level of ionisation in the Earth 's ionosphere . The 10.7 cm flux is now used as a standard proxy for the level of magnetic activity on the Sun . He served on the editorial board of the journal Solar Physics and was awarded the George Ellery Hale Prize in 2007 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Mukul_Kundu\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 109390\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Radiometry Content: Radiometry is a set of techniques for measuring electromagnetic radiation , including visible light . Radiometric techniques in optics characterize the distribution of the radiation 's power in space , as opposed to photometric techniques , which characterize the light 's interaction with the human eye . Radiometry is distinct from quantum techniques such as photon counting . The use of radiometers to determine the temperature of objects and gasses by measuring radiation flux is called pyrometry . Handheld pyrometer devices are often marketed as infrared thermometers . Radiometry is important in astronomy , especially radio astronomy , and plays a significant role in Earth remote sensing . The measurement techniques categorized as radiometry in optics are called photometry in some astronomical applications , contrary to the optics usage of the term . Spectroradiometry is the measurement of absolute radiometric quantities in narrow bands of wavelength .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Radiometry\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 109023\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse effect Content: The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet 's atmosphere warms the planet 's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere . If a planet 's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases ( i.e. , greenhouse gases ) the atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions . Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface , warming it . The downward component of this radiation -- that is , the strength of the greenhouse effect -- will depend on the atmosphere 's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains . On Earth , the atmosphere is warmed by absorption of infrared thermal radiation from the underlying surface ( heated by the sun ) , absorption of shorter wavelength radiant energy from the sun , and convective heat fluxes from the surface . Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere radiate energy , some of which is directed to the surface and lower atmosphere . The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect . Earth 's natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life . Human activities , primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests , have intensified the natural greenhouse effect , causing global warming . The mechanism is named after a faulty analogy with the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a greenhouse . The way a greenhouse retains heat is fundamentally different , as a greenhouse works by reducing airflow and retaining warm air inside the structure .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_effect\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 107663\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Radiation zone Content: A radiation zone , radiative zone or radiative region is a layer of a star 's interior where energy is primarily transported toward the exterior by means of radiative diffusion and thermal conduction , rather than by convection . Energy travels through the radiation zone in the form of electromagnetic radiation as photons . Matter in a radiation zone is so dense that photons can travel only a short distance before they are absorbed or scattered by another particle , gradually shifting to longer wavelength as they do so . For this reason , it takes an average of 171,000 years for gamma rays from the core of the Sun to leave the radiation zone . Over this range , the temperature of the plasma drops from 15 million K near the core down to 1.5 million K at the base of the convection zone . In a radiative zone , the temperature gradient -- the change in temperature ( T ) as a function of radius ( r ) -- is given by : where κ ( r ) is the opacity , ρ ( r ) is the matter density , L ( r ) is the luminosity , and σ is the Stefan -- Boltzmann constant . Hence the opacity and radiation flux ( L ) within a given layer of a star are important factors in determining how effective radiative diffusion is at transporting energy . A high opacity or high luminosity can cause a high temperature gradient , which results from a slow flow of energy . Those layers where convection is more effective than radiative diffusion at transporting energy , thereby creating a lower temperature gradient , will become convection zones .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Radiation_zone\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 107214\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: CLAW hypothesis Content: The CLAW hypothesis proposes a negative feedback loop that operates between ocean ecosystems and the Earth 's climate . The hypothesis specifically proposes that particular phytoplankton that produce dimethyl sulfide are responsive to variations in climate forcing , and that these responses act to stabilise the temperature of the Earth 's atmosphere . The CLAW hypothesis was originally proposed by Robert Jay Charlson , James Lovelock , Meinrat Andreae and Stephen G. Warren , and takes its acronym from the first letter of their surnames .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"CLAW_hypothesis\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 106041\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Radiation stress Content: In fluid dynamics , the radiation stress is the depth-integrated -- and thereafter phase-averaged -- excess momentum flux caused by the presence of the surface gravity waves , which is exerted on the mean flow . The radiation stresses behave as a second-order tensor . The radiation stress tensor describes the additional forcing due to the presence of the waves , which changes the mean depth-integrated horizontal momentum in the fluid layer . As a result , varying radiation stresses induce changes in the mean surface elevation ( wave setup ) and the mean flow ( wave-induced currents ) . For the mean energy density in the oscillatory part of the fluid motion , the radiation stress tensor is important for its dynamics , in case of an inhomogeneous mean-flow field . The radiation stress tensor , as well as several of its implications on the physics of surface gravity waves and mean flows , were formulated in a series of papers by Longuet-Higgins and Stewart in 1960 -- 1964 . Radiation stress derives its name from the analogous effect of radiation pressure for electromagnetic radiation .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Radiation_stress\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 105939\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Positive feedback Content: Positive feedback is a process that occurs in a feedback loop in which the effects of a small disturbance on a system include an increase in the magnitude of the perturbation . That is , A produces more of B which in turn produces more of A . In contrast , a system in which the results of a change act to reduce or counteract it has negative feedback . Both concepts play an important role in science and engineering , including biology , chemistry , and cybernetics . Mathematically , positive feedback is defined as a positive loop gain around a closed loop of cause and effect . That is , positive feedback is in phase with the input , in the sense that it adds to make the input larger . Positive feedback tends to cause system instability . When the loop gain is positive and above 1 , there will typically be exponential growth , increasing oscillations , chaotic behavior or other divergences from equilibrium . System parameters will typically accelerate towards extreme values , which may damage or destroy the system , or may end with the system latched into a new stable state . Positive feedback may be controlled by signals in the system being filtered , damped , or limited , or it can be cancelled or reduced by adding negative feedback . Positive feedback is used in digital electronics to force voltages away from intermediate voltages into ' 0 ' and ' 1 ' states . On the other hand , thermal runaway is a positive feedback that can destroy semiconductor junctions . Positive feedback in chemical reactions can increase the rate of reactions , and in some cases can lead to explosions . Positive feedback in mechanical design causes tipping-point , or ` over-centre ' , mechanisms to snap into position , for example in switches and locking pliers . Out of control , it can cause bridges to collapse . Positive feedback in economic systems can cause boom-then-bust cycles . A familiar example of positive feedback is the loud squealing or howling sound produced by audio feedback in public address systems : the microphone picks up sound from its own loudspeakers , amplifies it , and sends it through the speakers again .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Positive_feedback\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 105914\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Glacier mass balance Content: Crucial to the survival of a glacier is its mass balance or surface mass balance ( SMB ) , the difference between accumulation and ablation ( sublimation and melting ) . Climate change may cause variations in both temperature and snowfall , causing changes in the surface mass balance . Changes in mass balance control a glacier 's long-term behavior and are the most sensitive climate indicators on a glacier . From 1980 -- 2012 the mean cumulative mass loss of glaciers reporting mass balance to the World Glacier Monitoring Service is − 16 m . This includes 23 consecutive years of negative mass balances . A glacier with a sustained negative balance is out of equilibrium and will retreat , while one with a sustained positive balance is out of equilibrium and will advance . Glacier retreat results in the loss of the low elevation region of the glacier . Since higher elevations are cooler than lower ones , the disappearance of the lowest portion of the glacier reduces overall ablation , thereby increasing mass balance and potentially reestablishing equilibrium . However , if the mass balance of a significant portion of the accumulation zone of the glacier is negative , it is in disequilibrium with the local climate . Such a glacier will melt away with a continuation of this local climate . The key symptom of a glacier in disequilibrium is thinning along the entire length of the glacier . For example , Easton Glacier ( pictured below ) will likely shrink to half its size , but at a slowing rate of reduction , and stabilize at that size , despite the warmer temperature , over a few decades . However , the Grinnell Glacier ( pictured below ) will shrink at an increasing rate until it disappears . The difference is that the upper section of Easton Glacier remains healthy and snow-covered , while even the upper section of the Grinnell Glacier is bare , melting and has thinned . Small glaciers with shallow slopes such as Grinnell Glacier are most likely to fall into disequilibrium if there is a change in the local climate . In the case of positive mass balance , the glacier will continue to advance expanding its low elevation area , resulting in more melting . If this still does not create an equilibrium balance the glacier will continue to advance . If a glacier is near a large body of water , especially an ocean , the glacier may advance until iceberg calving losses bring about equilibrium .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Glacier_mass_balance\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 105877\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Luminous flux Content: In photometry , luminous flux or luminous power is the measure of the perceived power of light . It differs from radiant flux , the measure of the total power of electromagnetic radiation ( including infrared , ultraviolet , and visible light ) , in that luminous flux is adjusted to reflect the varying sensitivity of the human eye to different wavelengths of light .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Luminous_flux\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 105383\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: POlarization Emission of Millimeter Activity at the Sun Content: The POlarization Emission of Millimeter Activity at the Sun ( POEMAS ) is a solar patrol system composed of two radio telescopes with superheterodyne circular polarization receivers at 45 and 90 GHz . Since their half power beam width is around 1.4 ° , they observe the full sun . The acquisition system allows to gather 100 values per second at both frequencies and polarizations , with a sensitivity of around 20 solar flux units ( SFU ) ( 1 SFU ≡ 104 Jy ) . The telescope saw first light in November 2011 , and showed excellent performance during two years , when it observed many flares . Since November 2013 is stopped for repairing . The main interest of POEMAS is the observation of solar flares in a frequency range where there are very few detectors and fill the gap between microwaves observed with the Radio Solar Telescope Network ( 1 to 15.4 GHz ) and submillimeter observations of the Solar Submillimeter Telescope ( 212 and 405 GHz ) . Moreover , POEMAS is the only current telescope capable of carrying on circular polarization solar flare observations at 90 GHz . ( Although , in principle , ALMA band 3 may also observe at 90 GHz with circular polarization ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"POlarization_Emission_of_Millimeter_Activity_at_the_Sun\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 105306\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Earth's energy budget Content: Earth 's energy budget accounts for the energy Earth receives from the Sun . Much of this energy is lost when the earth re-radiates it back into outer space , and the rest of the energy is distributed throughout the five components of Earth 's climate system . This system is made up of earth 's water , ice , atmosphere , rocky crust , and all living things . Quantifying changes in these amounts is required to accurately model the Earth 's climate . Received radiation is unevenly distributed over the planet , because the Sun heats equatorial regions more than polar regions . Energy is absorbed by the atmosphere , hydrosphere , and lithosphere , and , in a process informally described as Earth 's heat engine , the solar heating is redistributed through evaporation of surface water , convection , rainfall , winds , and ocean circulation . When the incoming solar energy is balanced by an equal flow of heat to space , the Earth is said to be in radiative equilibrium and under that condition , global temperatures will be stable . Disturbances of Earth 's radiative equilibrium , such as an increase of greenhouse gases , will change global temperatures in response . However , Earth 's energy balance and heat fluxes depend on many factors , such as atmospheric composition ( mainly aerosols and greenhouse gases ) , the albedo ( reflectivity ) of surface properties , cloud cover and vegetation and land use patterns . Changes in surface temperature due to Earth 's energy budget do not occur instantaneously , due to the inertia of the oceans and the cryosphere . The net heat flux is buffered primarily by becoming part of the ocean 's heat content , until a new equilibrium state is established between radiative forcings and the climate response .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Earth's_energy_budget\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 105075\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Climate Research Facility Content: The Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Climate Research Facility ( ARM Climate Research Facility ) is a United States Department of Energy scientific user facility for the study of global climate change by the national and international research community . The ARM Climate Research Facility consists of global observation sites and research aircraft that measure radiative properties of the atmosphere , particularly cloud and aerosol formation processes . Continuous data from these sites , as well as supplemental data obtained through intensive field research campaigns , are available to scientists online through the ARM Data Archive . ARM is collaboratively managed by nine DOE national laboratories .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmospheric_Radiation_Measurement_Climate_Research_Facility\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 105044\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coronal radiative losses Content: In astronomy and in astrophysics , for radiative losses of the solar corona , it is meant the energy flux irradiated from the external atmosphere of the Sun ( traditionally divided into chromosphere , transition region and corona ) , and , in particular , the processes of production of the radiation coming from the solar corona and transition region , where the plasma is optically-thin . On the contrary , in the chromosphere , where the temperature decreases from the photospheric value of 6000 K to the minimum of 4400 K , the optical depth is about 1 , and the radiation is thermal . The corona extends much further than a solar radius from the photosphere and looks very complex and inhomogeneous in the X-rays images taken by satellites ( see the figure on the right taken by the XRT on board Hinode ) . The structure and dynamics of the corona are dominated by the solar magnetic field . There are strong evidences that even the heating mechanism , responsible for its high temperature of million degrees , is linked to the magnetic field of the Sun . The energy flux irradiated from the corona changes in active regions , in the quiet Sun and in coronal holes ; actually , part of the energy is irradiated outwards , but approximately the same amount of the energy flux is conducted back towards the chromosphere , through the steep transition region . In active regions the energy flux is about 107 erg cm − 2sec − 1 , in the quiet Sun it is roughly 8 105 -- 106 erg cm − 2sec − 1 , and in coronal holes 5 105 - 8 105 erg cm − 2sec − 1 , including the losses due to the solar wind . The required power is a small fraction of the total flux irradiated from the Sun , but this energy is enough to maintain the plasma at the temperature of million degrees , since the density is very low and the processes of radiation are different from those occurring in the photosphere , as it is shown in detail in the next section .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Coronal_radiative_losses\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 104762\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effect of radiation on perceived temperature Content: The `` radiation effect '' results from radiation heat exchange between human bodies and surrounding surfaces , such as walls and ceilings . It may lead to phenomena such as houses feeling cooler in the winter and warmer in the summer at the same temperature . For example , in a room in which air temperature is maintained at 22 ° Celsius at all times , but in which the inner surfaces of the house is estimated to be an average temperature of 10 ° Celsius in the winter or 25 ° Celsius in the summer , heat transfer from the surfaces to the individual will occur , resulting in a difference in the perceived temperature . We can observe and compare the rate of radiation heat transfer between a person and the surrounding surfaces if we first make a few simplifying assumptions : The heat exchange in the environment is in a `` steady state '' , meaning that there is a constant flow of heat either into or out of the house . The person is completely surrounded by the interior surfaces of the room . Heat transfer by convection is not considered . The walls , ceiling , and floor are all at the same temperature . For an average person , the outer surface area is 1.4 m ² , the surface temperature is 30 ° Celsius , and the emissivity is 0.95 . Emissivity is the ability of a surface to emit radiant energy compared to that of a black body at the same temperature . We will be using the following equation to find out how much heat is lost by a person standing in the same room in summertime as compared to the winter , at exactly the same thermostat reading temperature : Q ̇ = εσA_s ( T_s ^ 4-T_surr ^ 4 ) Where Q ̇ is the rate of heat loss ( W ) , ε is the emissivity ( or the ability of an objects surface to emit energy by radiation ) of a person , σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant ( 5.670 x 10 ^ ( -8 ) W/m2 ∙ K4 ) , As is the surface area of a person , Ts is the surface temperature of a person ( K ) , and Tsurr is the surface temperature of the walls , ceiling , and floor ( K ) . Please note that this equation is only valid for an object standing in a completely enclosed room , box , etc. . In the winter , the amount of heat loss from a person , when the inner surfaces of the room were 10 degrees Celsius , was found to be 152 Watts . ( Q ̇ = ( 0.95 ) ( 5.67 x 10 ^ ( -8 ) ) ( 1.4 ) -LSB- ( 30 +273 ) ^ 4 - ( 10 +273 ) ^ 4 -RSB- = 152 ) ̇ In the summer , the amount of heat loss from a person , when the inner surfaces of the room were 25 degrees Celsius , was found to be 40.9 Watts . ( Q ̇ = ( 0.95 ) ( 5.67 x 10 ^ ( -8 ) ) ( 1.4 ) -LSB- ( 30 +273 ) ^ 4 - ( 25 +273 ) ^ 4 -RSB- = 40.9 ) ̇ Thermal radiation is the form of radiation emitted by bodies because of their temperature . It differs from other forms of electromagnetic radiation such as x-rays , gamma rays , microwaves , radio waves , and television rays that are not related to temperature . Scientists have found that all bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal radiation . People are constantly radiating their body heat , but at different rates . From these values , the rate of heat loss from a person is almost four times as large in the winter than in the summer , which explains the `` chill '' we feel in the winter even if the thermostat setting is kept the same .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Effect_of_radiation_on_perceived_temperature\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 104237\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Nv (neutron flux) Content: The symbol nv is commonly used to designate a flux of thermal neutrons equal to one thermal neutron per square centimeter per second . The symbol is used primarily to quantify the sensitivity of neutron detectors which are commonly described as having a sensitivity of so many counts per second per nv .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Nv_(neutron_flux)\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 103882\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Explorer 7 Content: Explorer 7 was launched October 13 , 1959 at 10:36 a.m. Eastern Time by a Juno II rocket from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station to an orbit of 573 km by 1073 km and inclination of 50.27 ° . It was designed to measure solar x-ray and Lyman-alpha flux , trapped energetic particles , and heavy primary cosmic rays . Also Secondary objectives included collecting data on micrometeoroid penetration and molecular sputtering and studying the Earth-atmosphere heat balance . Launch was originally scheduled for late September 1959 , but the mission was delayed for a week after a Jupiter IRBM test on an adjacent pad failed shortly after liftoff , causing flying debris to hit Explorer 7 's launch vehicle . However , the damage to the booster was minor and could be easily repaired . Significantly , it also carried Verner Suomi 's flat-plate radiometer , improved with the help of Robert Parent , that took the first Earth radiation budget measurements from space and initiated the era of satellite studies of the climate . Using both satellite observations of the Earth 's heat balance and atmospheric cooling rates measured by net flux radiosondes , Suomi established the important role played by clouds in absorbing radiated solar energy . These observations established that Earth 's energy budget varies markedly due to the effect of clouds , the surface albedo , and other absorbing constituents . Using these instruments , Suomi and his team discovered that the Earth absorbed more of the Sun 's energy than originally thought and demonstrated that it was possible to measure and quantify seasonal changes in the global heat budget . The satellite weighed 41.5 kg , was 75 cm high and 75 cm wide . Powered by solar cells it also carried 15 nickel-cadmium batteries around its equator . It transmitted data continuously through to February 1961 and went dead on August 24 , 1961 . It is still in orbit .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Explorer_7\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 102712\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Photographic hypersensitization Content: Photographic hypersensitization refers to a set of processes that can be applied to photographic film or plates before exposing . One or more of these processes is often needed to make photographic materials work better in long exposures . Most photographic materials are designed for snapshot exposure of much less than one second . In longer exposures , such as those used in astrophotography , many such materials lose sensitivity . This phenomenon is known as low-intensity reciprocity failure ( LIRF ) or the Schwarzschild effect . The reciprocal relationship between flux and exposure time for photographic film implies that at a given light flux , doubling the exposure time would double the photographic effect . This holds with exposures up to a second or so , but in general does not hold over exposure times of minutes or hours . Several hypersensitization or `` hypering '' techniques have been developed to overcome this failure of the reciprocity law , and what follows refers mainly to work in astronomy .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Photographic_hypersensitization\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 102114\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Runaway greenhouse effect Content: A runaway greenhouse effect is a process in which a net positive feedback between surface temperature and atmospheric opacity increases the strength of the greenhouse effect on a planet until its oceans boil away . An example of this is believed to have happened in the early history of Venus . On the Earth , the IPCC states that `` a ` runaway greenhouse effect ' -- analogous to -LSB- that of -RSB- Venus -- appears to have virtually no chance of being induced by anthropogenic activities . '' Other large-scale climate changes are sometimes loosely called a `` runaway greenhouse effect '' although it is not an appropriate description . For example , it has been hypothesized that large releases of greenhouse gases may have occurred concurrently with the Permian -- Triassic extinction event or Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum . Other terms , such as `` abrupt climate change '' , or tipping points could be used when describing such scenarios .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Runaway_greenhouse_effect\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 101819\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Spectral flux density Content: In spectroscopy , spectral flux density is the quantity that describes the rate at which energy is transferred by electromagnetic radiation through a real or virtual surface , per unit surface area and per unit wavelength . It is a radiometric measure , as distinct from measures that characterize light in terms of the electromagnetic field or photons . In SI units it is measured in W m − 3 , although it can be more practical to use W m − 2 nm − 1 ( 1 W m − 2 nm − 1 = 1 GW m − 3 = 1 W mm − 3 ) or W m − 2 μm − 1 ( 1 W m − 2 μm − 1 = 1 MW m − 3 ) , W · m − 2 · Hz − 1 , Jansky or solar flux units . The terms irradiance , radiant exitance , radiant emittance , and radiosity are closely related to spectral flux density . The terms used to describe spectral flux density vary between fields , sometimes including adjectives such as `` electromagnetic '' or `` radiative '' , and sometimes dropping the word `` density '' . Applications include : Characterizing remote telescopically unresolved sources such as stars , observed from a specified observation point such as an observatory on earth . Characterizing a natural electromagnetic radiative field at a point , measured there with an instrument that collects radiation from a whole sphere or hemisphere of remote sources . Characterizing an artificial collimated electromagnetic radiative beam .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Spectral_flux_density\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 101051\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Radiometer Content: A radiometer or roentgenometer is a device for measuring the radiant flux ( power ) of electromagnetic radiation . Generally , a radiometer is an infrared radiation detector or ultraviolet detector . A microwave radiometer operates in the microwave wavelengths . While the term Radiometer can refer to any device that measures electromagnetic radiation ( e.g. light ) , the term is often used to refer specifically to a Crookes radiometer ( `` light-mill '' ) , a device invented in 1873 in which a rotor ( having vanes which are dark on one side , and light on the other ) in a partial vacuum spins when exposed to light . A common belief ( one originally held even by Crookes ) is that the momentum of the absorbed light on the black faces makes the radiometer operate . If this were true however , the radiometer would spin away from the non-black faces , since the photons bouncing off those faces impart more momentum than the photons absorbed on the black faces . Photons do exert radiation pressure on the faces , but those forces are dwarfed by other effects . The currently accepted explanation depends on having just the right degree of vacuum , and relates to the transfer of heat rather than the direct effect of photons . A Nichols radiometer does demonstrate photon pressure . It is much more sensitive than the Crookes radiometer and it operates in a complete vacuum , whereas operation of the Crookes radiometer requires an imperfect vacuum . The MEMS radiometer , invented by Patrick Jankowiak , can operate on the principles of Nichols or Crookes and can operate over a wide spectrum of wavelength and particle energy levels .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Radiometer\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 100969\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment Content: The Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment ( SORCE ) is a NASA-sponsored satellite mission that measures incoming X-ray , ultraviolet , visible , near-infrared , and total solar radiation . These measurements specifically address long-term climate change , natural variability and enhanced climate prediction , and atmospheric ozone and UV-B radiation . These measurements are critical to studies of the Sun , its effect on our Earth system and its influence on humankind . The SORCE spacecraft launched on January 25 , 2003 on a Pegasus XL launch vehicle to provide NASA 's Earth Science Enterprise ( ESE ) with precise measurements of solar radiation . SORCE measures the Sun 's output using radiometers , spectrometers , photodiodes , detectors , and bolometers mounted on a satellite observatory . The SORCE satellite orbits the Earth accumulating solar data . Spectral measurements identify the irradiance of the Sun by characterizing the Sun 's energy and emissions in the form of color that can then be translated into quantities and elements of matter . Data obtained by the SORCE experiment can be used to model the Sun 's output and to explain and predict the effect of the Sun 's radiation on the Earth 's atmosphere and climate . Flying in a 645 km , 40 degree orbit , SORCE is operated by the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics ( LASP ) at the University of Colorado at Boulder , Colorado . It will continue the precise measurements of total solar irradiance that began with the ERB instrument in 1979 and has continued to the present with the ACRIM series of measurements . SORCE will also provide the measurements of the solar spectral irradiance from 1 nm to 2000 nm , accounting for 95 % of the spectral contribution to the total solar irradiance . SORCE carries four instruments including the Total Irradiance Monitor ( TIM ) , Solar Stellar Irradiance Comparison Experiment ( SOLSTICE ) , Spectral Irradiance Monitor ( SIM ) , and the XUV Photometer System ( XPS ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Solar_Radiation_and_Climate_Experiment\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 100889\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate system Content: Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_system\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 99507\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kramers' law Content: Kramers ' law is a formula for the spectral distribution of X-rays produced by an electron hitting a solid target . The formula concerns only bremsstrahlung radiation , not the element specific characteristic radiation . It is named after its discoverer , the Dutch physicist Hendrik Anthony Kramers . The formula for Kramers ' law is usually given as the distribution of intensity ( photon count ) against the wavelength of the emitted radiation : The constant K is proportional to the atomic number of the target element , and is the minimum wavelength given by the Duane -- Hunt law . The intensity described above is a particle flux and not an energy flux as can be seen by the fact that the integral over values from to is infinite . However , the integral of the energy flux is finite . To obtain a simple expression for the energy flux , first change variables from ( the wavelength ) to ( the angular frequency ) using and also using . Now is that quantity which is integrated over from 0 to to get the total number ( still infinite ) of photons , where : The energy flux , which we will call ( but which may also be referred to as the `` intensity '' in conflict with the above name of ) is obtained by multiplying the above by the energy : for for . It is a linear function that is zero at the maximum energy .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Kramers'_law\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 99337\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Electromagnetic hypersensitivity Content: Electromagnetic hypersensitivity ( EHS ) is a claimed sensitivity to electromagnetic fields , resulting in negative symptoms . EHS has no scientific basis and is not a recognised medical diagnosis . Claims are characterized by a `` variety of non-specific symptoms , which afflicted individuals attribute to exposure to electromagnetic fields '' . Those who are self-described with EHS report adverse reactions to electromagnetic fields at intensities well below the maximum levels permitted by international radiation safety standards . The majority of provocation trials to date have found that such claimants are unable to distinguish between exposure and non-exposure to electromagnetic fields . A systematic review in 2005 showed no convincing scientific evidence for symptoms being caused by electromagnetic fields . Since then several double-blind experiments have shown that people who report electromagnetic hypersensitivity are unable to detect the presence of electromagnetic fields and are as likely to report ill health following a sham exposure as they are following exposure to genuine electromagnetic fields , suggesting the cause in these cases to be the nocebo effect . A 2005 review by the UK Health Protection Agency and a 2006 systematic review each evaluated the evidence for various medical , psychological , behavioral , and alternative treatments for EHS and each found that the evidence-base was limited and not generalizable , but that the best evidence favored cognitive behavioural therapy . As of 2005 , WHO recommended that people presenting with claims of EHS be evaluated to determine if they have a medical condition that may be causing the symptoms the person is attributing to EHS , that they have a psychological evaluation , and that the person 's environment be evaluated for issues like air or noise pollution that may be causing problems . Some people who feel they are sensitive to electromagnetic fields may seek to reduce their exposure or use alternative medicine . Government agencies have enforced false advertising claims against companies selling devices to shield against EM radiation .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Electromagnetic_hypersensitivity\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 99327\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kombayashi–Ingersoll limit Content: In planetary science , the Kombayashi -- Ingersoll limit represents the maximum solar flux a planet can handle without a runaway greenhouse effect setting in . For planets with temperature-dependent sources of greenhouse gases such as liquid water and optically thin atmospheres the outgoing longwave radiation curve ( which indicates how fast energy can be radiated away by the planet ) flattens at high temperatures , reaching a horizontal asymptote -- the Kombayashi -- Ingersoll limit itself . Since the equilibrium temperature is the intersection of this curve and a horizontal line representing solar flux , for fluxes above this point the planet heats up indefinitely . Kasting estimated the limit for Earth to be 320 watts per square meter . The limit is relevant for estimating the inner edge of the circumstellar habitable zone . However , the limit also depends on the surface gravity of the planet , making heavy worlds somewhat more resistant to the runaway effect .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Kombayashi–Ingersoll_limit\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 98228\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Unruh effect Content: The Unruh effect ( or sometimes Fulling -- Davies -- Unruh effect ) is the prediction that an accelerating observer will observe blackbody radiation where an inertial observer would observe none . In other words , the background appears to be warm from an accelerating reference frame ; in layman 's terms , a thermometer waved around in empty space , subtracting any other contribution to its temperature , will record a non-zero temperature . The ground state for an inertial observer is seen as in thermodynamic equilibrium with a non-zero temperature by the uniformly accelerating observer . The Unruh effect was first described by Stephen Fulling in 1973 , Paul Davies in 1975 and W. G. Unruh in 1976 . It is currently not clear whether the Unruh effect has actually been observed , since the claimed observations are disputed . There is also some doubt about whether the Unruh effect implies the existence of Unruh radiation .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Unruh_effect\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 97641\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Black-body radiation Content: Black-body radiation is the thermal electromagnetic radiation within or surrounding a body in thermodynamic equilibrium with its environment , or emitted by a black body ( an opaque and non-reflective body ) . It has a specific spectrum and intensity that depends only on the body 's temperature , which is assumed for the sake of calculations and theory to be uniform and constant . The thermal radiation spontaneously emitted by many ordinary objects can be approximated as black-body radiation . A perfectly insulated enclosure that is in thermal equilibrium internally contains black-body radiation and will emit it through a hole made in its wall , provided the hole is small enough to have negligible effect upon the equilibrium . A black-body at room temperature appears black , as most of the energy it radiates is infra-red and can not be perceived by the human eye . Because the human eye can not perceive color at very low light intensities , a black body , viewed in the dark at the lowest just faintly visible temperature , subjectively appears grey ( but only because the human eye is sensitive only to black and white at very low intensities - in reality , the frequency of the light in the visible range would still be red , although the intensity would be too low to discern as red ) , even though its objective physical spectrum peaks in the infrared range . When it becomes a little hotter , it appears dull red . As its temperature increases further it eventually becomes blue-white . Although planets and stars are neither in thermal equilibrium with their surroundings nor perfect black bodies , black-body radiation is used as a first approximation for the energy they emit . Black holes are near-perfect black bodies , in the sense that they absorb all the radiation that falls on them . It has been proposed that they emit black-body radiation ( called Hawking radiation ) , with a temperature that depends on the mass of the black hole . The term black body was introduced by Gustav Kirchhoff in 1860 . Black-body radiation is also called thermal radiation , cavity radiation , complete radiation or temperature radiation .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Black-body_radiation\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 97307\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sensitivity (control systems) Content: The controller parameters are typically matched to the process characteristics and since the process may change , it is important that the controller parameters are chosen in such a way that the closed loop system is not sensitive to variations in process dynamics . One way to characterize sensitivity is through the nominal sensitivity peak : where and denote the plant and controller 's transfer function in a basic closed loop control System , using unity negative feedback . The sensitivity function , which appears in the above formula also describes the transfer function from external disturbance to process output . Hence , lower values of suggest further attenuation of the external disturbance . The sensitivity function tells us how the disturbances are influenced by feedback . Disturbances with frequencies such that is less than one are reduced by an amount equal to the distance to the critical point and disturbances with frequencies such that is larger than one are amplified by the feedback . It is important that the largest value of the sensitivity function be limited for a control system and it is common to require that the maximum value of the sensitivity function , , be in a range of 1.3 to 2 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Sensitivity_(control_systems)\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 96989\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Radiant flux Content: In radiometry , radiant flux or radiant power is the radiant energy emitted , reflected , transmitted or received , per unit time , and spectral flux or spectral power is the radiant flux per unit frequency or wavelength , depending on whether the spectrum is taken as a function of frequency or of wavelength . The SI unit of radiant flux is the watt ( W ) , that is the joule per second in SI base units , while that of spectral flux in frequency is the watt per hertz and that of spectral flux in wavelength is the watt per metre -- commonly the watt per nanometre .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Radiant_flux\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 96792\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Surface Ocean Lower Atmosphere Study Content: The Surface Ocean Lower Atmosphere Study or Surface Ocean - Lower Atmosphere Study ( SOLAS ) is an international scientific research initiative that is one of the core projects of the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme . SOLAS has a goal to achieve quantitative understanding of the key biogeochemical-physical interactions and feedbacks between the ocean and atmosphere , and of how this coupled system affects and is affected by climate and environmental change . Thus , this international project is a critical component to understanding the Earth system and the effects of climate change on this system . The project includes meteorologists , oceanographers , marine biologists , and policy-makers . SOLAS has three major focus areas : Biogeochemical interactions and feedbacks between ocean and atmosphere , Exchange processes at the air-sea interface and the role of transport and transformation in the atmospheric and oceanic boundary layers , and Air-sea flux of carbon dioxide and other long-lived radiatively active gases ( this last focus is developed jointly with the Integrated Marine and Biogeochemistry and Ecosystem Research project ; IMBER ) . These three focuses are detailed in the project 's Science Plan and Implementation Strategy and in three separate Implementation Plans , and each focus has its own Implementation Working Group . The project is administered by a panel of scientific experts in the Scientific Steering Committee , and project coordination is handled by the SOLAS International Project Office at the University of East Anglia in Norwich UK . Scientific research is conducted by nations across the globe , and SOLAS has 23 established National Networks . SOLAS runs a successful biennial International Summer School , held at the Institut d'Etudes Scientifiques de Cargèse in Corsica France , and the next Summer School is scheduled for 2007 . Communications from SOLAS include a monthly e-bulletin , a biannual newsletter , and a website . An Open Science Meeting was held in Xiamen China in March 2007 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Surface_Ocean_Lower_Atmosphere_Study\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 96559\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Radio Ice Cherenkov Experiment Content: Radio Ice Cerenkov Experiment ( RICE ) is an experiment designed to detect the Cherenkov emission in the radio regime of the electromagnetic spectrum from the interaction of high energy neutrinos ( greater than 1 PeV ) with the Antarctic ice cap . The goals of this experiment are to determine the potential of the radio-detection technique for measuring the high energy cosmic neutrino flux , determining the sources of this flux , and measuring neutrino-nucleon cross sections at energies above those accessible with existing accelerators . Such an experiment also has sensitivity to neutrinos from gamma ray bursts , as well as highly ionizing charged particles ( monopoles , e.g. ) traversing the Antarctic icecap .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Radio_Ice_Cherenkov_Experiment\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 95899\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Solar neutrino problem Content: The solar neutrino problem concerned a large discrepancy between the flux of solar neutrinos as predicted from the Sun 's luminosity and measured directly . The discrepancy was first observed in the mid-1960s and finally resolved around 2002 . The flux of neutrinos at Earth is several ten billion per square centimetre per second , mostly from the Sun 's core . They are nevertheless hard to detect , because they interact very weakly with matter , traversing the whole Earth as light does thin air . Of the three types ( flavors ) of neutrinos known in the Standard Model of particle physics , the Sun produces only electron neutrinos . When neutrino detectors became sensitive enough to measure the flow of electron neutrinos from the Sun , the number detected was much lower than predicted . In various experiments , the number deficit was between one half and two thirds . Particle physicists knew that a mechanism , discussed back in 1957 by Bruno Pontecorvo , could explain the deficit in electron neutrinos . However , they hesitated to accept it for various reasons , including the fact that it required a modification of the accepted Standard Model . They first pointed at the solar model for adjustment , which was ruled out . Today it is accepted that the neutrinos produced in the Sun are not massless particles as predicted by the Standard Model but rather mixed quantum states made up of defined-mass eigenstates in different ( complex ) proportions . That allows a neutrino produced as a pure electron neutrino to change during propagation into a mixture of electron , muon and tau neutrinos , with a reduced probability of being detected by a detector sensitive to only electron neutrinos . Several neutrino detectors aiming at different flavors , energies , and traveled distance contributed to our present knowledge of neutrinos . In 2002 and 2015 , a total of four researchers related to some of these detectors were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Solar_neutrino_problem\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 95892\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Baseline Surface Radiation Network Content: Baseline Surface Radiation Network ( BSRN ) is a project of the World Climate Research Programme ( WCRP ) and the Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment ( GEWEX ) and as such is aimed detecting important changes in the Earth 's radiation field at the Earth 's surface which may be related to climate changes . The central archive of the BSRN is the World Radiation Monitoring Center ( WRMC ) which was initiated by Atsumu Ohmura in 1992 and operated at ETH until 2007 . Since 2008 the WRMC is operated by the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research ( AWI ) , Germany .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Baseline_Surface_Radiation_Network\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 95790\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Thermal radiation Content: Thermal radiation is electromagnetic radiation generated by the thermal motion of charged particles in matter . All matter with a temperature greater than absolute zero emits thermal radiation . When the temperature of a body is greater than absolute zero , inter-atomic collisions cause the kinetic energy of the atoms or molecules to change . This results in charge-acceleration and/or dipole oscillation which produces electromagnetic radiation , and the wide spectrum of radiation reflects the wide spectrum of energies and accelerations that occur even at a single temperature . Examples of thermal radiation include the visible light and infrared light emitted by an incandescent light bulb , the infrared radiation emitted by animals is detectable with an infrared camera , and the cosmic microwave background radiation . Thermal radiation is different from thermal convection and thermal conduction -- a person near a raging bonfire feels radiant heating from the fire , even if the surrounding air is very cold . Sunlight is part of thermal radiation generated by the hot plasma of the Sun . The Earth also emits thermal radiation , but at a much lower intensity and different spectral distribution ( infrared rather than visible ) because it is cooler . The Earth 's absorption of solar radiation , followed by its outgoing thermal radiation are the two most important processes that determine the temperature and climate of the Earth . If a radiation-emitting object meets the physical characteristics of a black body in thermodynamic equilibrium , the radiation is called blackbody radiation . Planck 's law describes the spectrum of blackbody radiation , which depends only on the object 's temperature . Wien 's displacement law determines the most likely frequency of the emitted radiation , and the Stefan -- Boltzmann law gives the radiant intensity . Thermal radiation is one of the fundamental mechanisms of heat transfer .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Thermal_radiation\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 94972\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Gardon gauge Content: A Gardon gauge or Circular-foil gauge is a heat flux sensor primarily intended for the measurement of high intensity radiation . It is a sensor that is designed to measure the radiation flux density ( in watts per metre squared ) from a field of view of 180 degrees . The most common application of Gardon gauges is in exposure testing of sample materials for their resistance to fire and flames .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Gardon_gauge\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 94939\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Eddy covariance Content: The eddy covariance ( also known as eddy correlation and eddy flux ) technique is a key atmospheric measurement technique to measure and calculate vertical turbulent fluxes within atmospheric boundary layers . The method analyzes high-frequency wind and scalar atmospheric data series , and yields values of fluxes of these properties . It is a statistical method used in meteorology and other applications ( micrometeorology , oceanography , hydrology , agricultural sciences , industrial and regulatory applications , etc. ) to determine exchange rates of trace gases over natural ecosystems and agricultural fields , and to quantify gas emissions rates from other land and water areas . It is frequently used to estimate momentum , heat , water vapour , carbon dioxide and methane fluxes The technique is also used extensively for verification and tuning of global climate models , mesoscale and weather models , complex biogeochemical and ecological models , and remote sensing estimates from satellites and aircraft . The technique is mathematically complex , and requires significant care in setting up and processing data . To date , there is no uniform terminology or a single methodology for the Eddy Covariance technique , but much effort is being made by flux measurement networks ( e.g. , FluxNet , Ameriflux , ICOS , CarboEurope , Fluxnet Canada , OzFlux , NEON , and iLEAPS ) to unify the various approaches . The technique has additionally proven applicable under water to the benthic zone for measuring oxygen fluxes between seafloor and overlying water . In these environments , the technique is generally known as the eddy correlation technique , or just eddy correlation . Oxygen fluxes are extracted from raw measurements largely following the same principles as used in the atmosphere , and they are typically used as a proxy for carbon exchange , which is important for local and global carbon budgets . For most benthic ecosystems , eddy correlation is the most accurate technique for measuring in-situ fluxes . The technique 's development and its applications under water remains a fruitful area of research .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Eddy_covariance\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 94767\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cloud forcing Content: Cloud forcing ( sometimes described as cloud radiative forcing or cloud radiative effect ) is , in meteorology , the difference between the radiation budget components for average cloud conditions and cloud-free conditions . Much of the interest in cloud forcing relates to its role as a feedback process in the present period of global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Cloud_forcing\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 94627\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Radiative forcing Content: Radiative forcing or climate forcing is the difference between insolation ( sunlight ) absorbed by the Earth and energy radiated back to space . Typically , radiative forcing is quantified at the tropopause in units of watts per square meter of the Earth 's surface . Positive forcing ( incoming energy exceeding outgoing energy ) warms the system , while negative forcing ( outgoing energy exceeding incoming energy ) cools it . Causes of radiative forcing include changes in insolation and the concentrations of radiatively active gases , commonly known as greenhouse gases and aerosols .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Radiative_forcing\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 93419\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Low emissivity Content: Low emissivity ( low e or low thermal emissivity ) refers to a surface condition that emits low levels of radiant thermal ( heat ) energy . All materials absorb , reflect and emit radiant energy according to Planck 's Law but here , the primary concern is a special wavelength interval of radiant energy , namely thermal radiation of materials . In common use , especially building application , the temperature range of approximately -40 to +80 degrees Celsius is the focus , but in aerospace and industrial process engineering , much broader ranges are of practical concern .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Low_emissivity\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 92888\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Shortwave radiation Content: Shortwave radiation ( SW ) is radiant energy with wavelengths in the visible ( VIS ) , near-ultraviolet ( UV ) , and near-infrared ( NIR ) spectra . There is no standard cut-off for the near-infrared range ; therefore , the shortwave radiation range is also variously defined . It may be broadly defined to include all radiation with a wavelength between 0.1 μm and 5.0 μm or narrowly defined so as to include only radiation between 0.2 μm and 3.0 μm . There is little radiation flux ( in terms of W/m ² ) to the Earth 's surface below 0.2 μm or above 3.0 μm , although photon flux remains significant as far as 6.0 μm , compared to shorter wavelength fluxes . UV-C radiation spans from 0.1 μm to .28 μm , UV-B from 0.28 μm to 0.315 μm , UV-A from 0.315 μm to 0.4 μm , the visible spectrum from 0.4 μm to 0.7 μm , and NIR arguably from 0.7 μm to 5.0 μm , beyond which the infrared is thermal . Shortwave radiation is distinguished from longwave radiation . Downward shortwave radiation is sensitive to solar zenith angle , cloud cover and surface albedo .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Shortwave_radiation\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 92786\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Solar radiation management Content: Solar radiation management ( SRM ) projects are a type of climate engineering which seek to reflect sunlight and thus reduce global warming . Proposed examples include the creation of stratospheric sulfate aerosols . Their principal advantages as an approach to climate engineering is the speed with which they can be deployed and become fully active , their potential low financial cost , and the reversibility of their direct climatic effects . Solar radiation management projects could , for example , be used as a temporary response while levels of greenhouse gases can be brought under control by mitigation and greenhouse gas removal techniques . They would not reduce greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere , and thus do not address problems such as ocean acidification caused by excess carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Solar_radiation_management\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 92616\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: NOAA-6 Content: NOAA-6 , designated NOAA-A before launch , was a weather satellite operated by NOAA as part of its National Operational Environmental Satellite System . It was launched into a Sun-synchronous orbit by NASA aboard an Atlas F launch vehicle on 27 June 1979 from Vandenberg Air Force Base SLC-3W . Based on the experimental TIROS-N satellite , it performed monitoring of ice and snow cover , agriculture , oceanography , volcanism , ozone and the space environment , in addition to its regular meteorological observations . Its instruments included the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer ( AVHRR/1 ) for global cloud cover observations , the TIROS Operational Vertical Sounder ( TOVS ) suite for atmospheric temperature and water vapor profiling , the Space Environment Monitor ( SEM ) for measuring proton and electron fluxes , and the Data Collection and Platform Location System ( DCPLS ) for relaying data from balloons and ocean buoys . The TOVS suite consists of three subsystems : the High Resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder 2 ( HIRS/2 ) , the Stratospheric Sounding Unit ( SSU ) , and the Microwave Sounding Unit ( MSU ) . The HIRS/2 instrument failed on 19 September 1983 , and the spacecraft was placed in reserve in early 1984 as NOAA prioritized operations of NOAA-7 and NOAA-8 . It was returned to operational status after NOAA-8 failed in June 1984 , and continued to return data until its decommissioning on 31 March 1987 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"NOAA-6\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 92298\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Plant-soil feedback Content: Plant-soil feedback is a process where plants alter the biotic and abiotic qualities of soil they grow in , which then alters the ability of plants to grow in that soil in the future . Negative plant-soil feedback occurs when plants are less able to grow in soil that was previously occupied by a member of the same species , and positive plant-soil feedback occurs when plants are more able to grow in soil that was previously occupied by a member of the same species . Although it was originally assumed that negative plant-soil feedback was caused by plants depleting the soil of nutrients , recent work has suggested that a major cause of plant-soil feedback is a buildup of soil-borne pathogens . Mutualism and allelopathy are also thought to cause plant-soil feedback . Studies have shown that , on average , plant-soil feedback tends to be negative ; however , there have been many notable exceptions , such as many invasive species . Negative plant-soil feedback is thought to be an important factor in helping plants to coexist . If a plant is overly abundant , then soil pathogens and other negative factors will become common , hurting its growth . Similarly , if a plant becomes overly rare , then so too will its soil pathogens and other negative factors , helping its growth . This negative feedback will help populations to stay in the community . Negative plant-soil feedback has been called a particular case of the Janzen-Connell hypothesis .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Plant-soil_feedback\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 92101\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sakuma–Hattori equation Content: The Sakuma -- Hattori equation is a mathematical model for predicting the amount of thermal radiation , radiometric flux or radiometric power emitted from a perfect blackbody or received by a thermal radiation detector .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Sakuma–Hattori_equation\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 91498\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cochlear amplifier Content: The cochlear amplifier is a positive feedback mechanism within the cochlea that provides acute sensitivity in the mammalian auditory system . The main component of the cochlear amplifier is the outer hair cell ( OHC ) which increases the amplitude and frequency selectivity of sound vibrations using electromechanical feedback .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Cochlear_amplifier\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 91442\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Thermal runaway Content: Thermal runaway occurs in situations where an increase in temperature changes the conditions in a way that causes a further increase in temperature , often leading to a destructive result . It is a kind of uncontrolled positive feedback . In other words , `` thermal runaway '' describes a process which is accelerated by increased temperature , in turn releasing energy that further increases temperature . In chemistry ( and chemical engineering ) , it is associated with strongly exothermic reactions that are accelerated by temperature rise . In electrical engineering , thermal runaway is typically associated with increased current flow and power dissipation , although exothermic chemical reactions can be of concern here too . Thermal runaway can occur in civil engineering , notably when the heat released by large amounts of curing concrete is not controlled -LCB- Citation needed -RCB- . In astrophysics , runaway nuclear fusion reactions in stars can lead to nova and several types of supernova explosions , and also occur as a less dramatic event in the normal evolution of solar mass stars , the `` helium flash '' . There are also concerns regarding global warming that a global average increase of 3 -- 4 degrees Celsius above the preindustrial baseline could lead to a further unchecked increase in surface temperatures . For example , releases of methane , a greenhouse gas more potent than CO2 , from wetlands , melting permafrost and continental margin seabed clathrate deposits could be subject to positive feedback .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Thermal_runaway\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 90978\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Runaway climate change Content: Runaway climate change or runaway global warming is hypothesized to follow a tipping point in the climate system , after accumulated climate change initiates a reinforcing positive feedback . This is thought to cause the climate to rapidly change until it reaches a new stable condition . These phrases may be used with reference to concerns about rapid global warming . Some astronomers use the expression runaway greenhouse effect to describe a situation where the climate deviates catastrophically and permanently from the original state -- as happened on Venus . Although these terms are rarely used in the peer-reviewed climatological literature , that literature does use the similar phrase `` runaway greenhouse effect '' , which refers specifically to climate changes that cause a planetary body 's water to boil off .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Runaway_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 90915\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Perceptual control theory Content: Perceptual control theory ( PCT ) is a model of behavior based on the principles of negative feedback , but differing in important respects from engineering control theory . Results of PCT experiments have demonstrated that an organism controls neither its own behavior , nor external environmental variables , but rather its own perceptions of those variables . Actions are not controlled , they are varied so as to cancel the effects that unpredictable environmental disturbances would otherwise have on controlled perceptions . According to the standard catch-phrase of the field , `` behavior is the control of perception . '' PCT demonstrates circular causation in a negative feedback loop closed through the environment . This fundamentally contradicts the classical notion of linear causation of behavior by stimuli , in which environmental stimuli are thought to cause behavioral responses , mediated ( according to cognitive psychology ) by intervening cognitive processes . Numerous computer simulations of specific behavioral situations demonstrate its efficacy , with extremely high correlations to observational data ( 0.95 or better ) , which are vanishingly rare in the so-called ` soft ' sciences . While the adoption of PCT in the scientific community has not been widespread , it has been applied not only in experimental psychology and neuroscience , but also in sociology , linguistics , and a number of other fields , and has led to a method of psychotherapy called the method of levels .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Perceptual_control_theory\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 90590\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Microwave radiometer Content: A microwave radiometer ( MWR ) is a radiometer that measures energy emitted at sub-millimetre-to-centimetre wavelengths ( at frequencies of 1 -- 1000 GHz ) known as microwaves . Microwave radiometers are very sensitive receivers designed to measure thermal electromagnetic radiation emitted by atmospheric gases . They are usually equipped with multiple receiving channels in order to derive the characteristic emission spectrum of the atmosphere or extraterrestrial objects . Microwave radiometers are utilized in a variety of environmental and engineering applications , including weather forecasting , climate monitoring , radio astronomy and radio propagation studies . Using the microwave spectral range between 1 and 300 GHz provides complementary information to the visible and infrared spectral range . Most importantly , the atmosphere and also vegetation is semi-transparent in the microwave spectral range . This means its components like dry gases , water vapor , or hydrometeors interact with microwave radiation but overall even the cloudy atmosphere is not completely opaque in this frequency range . For weather and climate monitoring , microwave radiometers are operated from space as well as from the ground . As remote sensing instruments , they are designed to operate continuously and autonomously often in combination with other atmospheric remote sensors like for example cloud radars and lidars . They allow to derive important meteorological quantities such as vertical temperature and humidity profile , columnar water vapor amount , or columnar liquid water path with a high temporal resolution in the order of seconds to minutes under nearly all weather conditions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Microwave_radiometer\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 90562\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Luminous efficacy Content: Luminous efficacy is a measure of how well a light source produces visible light . It is the ratio of luminous flux to power , measured in lumens per watt in SI . Depending on context , the power can be either the radiant flux of the source 's output , or it can be the total power ( electric power , chemical energy , or others ) consumed by the source . Which sense of the term is intended must usually be inferred from the context , and is sometimes unclear . The former sense is sometimes called luminous efficacy of radiation , and the latter luminous efficacy of a source or overall luminous efficacy . Not all wavelengths of light are equally visible , or equally effective at stimulating human vision , due to the spectral sensitivity of the human eye ; radiation in the infrared and ultraviolet parts of the spectrum is useless for illumination . The luminous efficacy of a source is the product of how well it converts energy to electromagnetic radiation , and how well the emitted radiation is detected by the human eye .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Luminous_efficacy\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 90038\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Noise-equivalent temperature Content: Noise-equivalent temperature ( NET ) is a measure of the sensitivity of a detector of thermal radiation in the infrared , terahertz or microwave portions of the electromagnetic spectrum . It is the amount of incident signal temperature that would be needed to match the internal noise of the detector such that the signal-to-noise ratio is equal to one . Often the spectrum of the NET is reported as a temperature per root bandwidth . A detector that measures power is often interested in the analogous noise-equivalent power ( NEP ) . If a relation between intensity and temperature is well defined over the pass band , as in the case of a blackbody , then the NET simply scales with the NEP . If a detector is limited by either shot noise or Johnson noise then the NET can be decreased by using an increased integration time . The NET of flicker noise limited detectors can not be reduced by increased integration time . Typically uncooled bolometric detectors have NET figures of 30-200 mK . Cooled photon detecting infrared detectors using materials such as HgCdTe ( LWIR or MWIR ) or InSb ( MWIR ) can approach a NET figure of 10 mK . In the microwave radiation region NET values are typically several hundred millikelvins to several kelvins . For a particular mean signal temperature there is a fundamental limit to NET given by the natural thermodynamic fluctuations of the photon flux from the source under investigation .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Noise-equivalent_temperature\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 89827\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Electromagnetic flux Content: Electromagnetic flux may refer to one of the following : Flux or flux density of electromagnetic radiation Electric flux and magnetic flux Radiative flux .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Electromagnetic_flux\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 89620\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Acoustic emission Content: Acoustic emission ( AE ) is the phenomenon of radiation of acoustic ( elastic ) waves in solids that occurs when a material undergoes irreversible changes in its internal structure , for example as a result of crack formation or plastic deformation due to aging , temperature gradients or external mechanical forces . In particular , AE is occurring during the processes of mechanical loading of materials and structures accompanied by structural changes that generate local sources of elastic waves . This results in small surface displacements of a material produced by elastic or stress waves generated when the accumulated elastic energy in a material or on its surface is released rapidly . The waves generated by sources of AE are of practical interest in structural health monitoring ( SHM ) , quality control , system feedback , process monitoring and other fields . In SHM applications , AE is typically used to detect , locate and characterise damage .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Acoustic_emission\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 89596\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Radiation (disambiguation) Content: Radiation is a process in which a body emits energy that propagates through a medium , or through empty space , to be absorbed by other bodies . Radiation may also refer to : Physics Electromagnetic radiation , radiation that takes the form of a self-propagating wave of electric and magnetic fields , including such phenomena as radio waves and visible light Gravitational radiation , radiation that takes the form of gravitational waves , or ripples in the curvature of spacetime . Ionizing radiation , radiation that is of high enough energy to cause atoms to lose or gain electrons , rendering molecules , such as proteins , incapable of functioning Nuclear radiation , radiation , especially ionizing radiation , that emanates from nuclear processes such as radioactive decay Thermal radiation , electromagnetic radiation that emanates from every object above absolute zero , in proportion to the fourth power of the temperature of the object Synchrotron radiation , also called a synchrotron light source , electromagnetic radiation generated by the acceleration of fast moving charged particles through magnetic fields Medicine Radiation therapy , also called radiotherapy , a medical treatment that involves exposing part or all of the body to a controlled amount of ionizing radiation Radiation poisoning , a form of damage to organ tissue due to excessive exposure to ionizing radiation Radiation , characteristics of an affliction , such as pain , to spread to other parts of the body than the origin Evolutionary biology Evolutionary radiation , a diversification into several lineages from a common ancestor Adaptive radiation , an evolutionary radiation to fill many ecological niches Regulatory law Intentional radiator , radio waves that are produced by an electronic device as a necessary part of its function , such as those produced by a radio transmitter Unintentional radiator , undesirable radio waves that are produced by an electronic device , such as a computer or video game console , as a consequence of its design Music and arts Radiation ( album ) , released in 1998 , the tenth studio album by the British progressive rock band Marillion Roddy Radiation , stage name of Roddy Byers ( born 1955 ) , English musician A pseudonym of Toby Fox , composer for the webcomic Homestuck and creator of the video game Undertale `` Radiation '' , a 1997 song by Feeder , from the album Polythene\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Radiation_(disambiguation)\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 89070\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Revenge of Gaia Content: The Revenge of Gaia : Why the Earth is Fighting Back -- and How we Can Still Save Humanity ( 2006 ) is a book by James Lovelock . Some editions of the book have a different , less optimistic subtitle : `` Earth 's Climate Crisis and the Fate of Humanity . '' The book introduces the concept of the anti-CLAW hypothesis . Lovelock proposed that instead of providing negative feedback in the climate system , the components of the CLAW hypothesis may act to create a positive feedback loop . Under future global warming , increasing temperature may stratify the world ocean , decreasing the supply of nutrients from the deep ocean to its productive euphotic zone . Consequently , phytoplankton activity will decline with a concomitant fall in the production of DMS . In a reverse of the CLAW hypothesis , this decline in DMS production will lead to a decrease in cloud condensation nuclei and a fall in cloud albedo . The consequence of this will be further climate warming which may lead to even less DMS production ( and further climate warming ) . The figure to the right shows a summarising schematic diagram . Evidence for the anti-CLAW hypothesis is constrained by similar uncertainties as those of the sulfur cycle feedback loop of the CLAW hypothesis . However , researchers simulating future oceanic primary production have found evidence of declining production with increasing ocean stratification , leaving open the possibility that such a mechanism may exist .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Revenge_of_Gaia\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 89070\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Michael Schlesinger Content: Dr. Michael Earl Schlesinger ( born February 23 , 1943 ) is a Professor of Atmospheric Sciences and director of the Climate Research Group at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign . He received his Ph.D. ( meteorology ) in 1976 from the University of California , Los Angeles . Michael Schlesinger is an expert in the modeling , simulation and analysis of climate and climate change , with interests in simulating and understanding the climates of the geologic past and possible future climates resulting from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases and human-made aerosols . He has been instrumental in developing a range of simple and complex climate models , which have been used by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and the Energy Modeling Forum . His research currently focuses on : ( 1 ) simulating and understanding the effects on climate of a human-induced melting of the Greenland ice sheet ; ( 2 ) simulating and understanding the coupled climate-chemistry system , including the influences of the Sun - both irradiance and energetic electron precipitation - and volcanoes ; ( 3 ) understanding and reducing the uncertainty in the estimation of climate sensitivity and climate feedbacks ; and ( 4 ) performing integrative assessment of climate change , including further development of the robust adaptive decision strategy for mitigating and adapting to human-induced climate change . He is known for his work on oscillations in the global climate system , on estimating the climate sensitivity , and on seasonal climate change . He has edited four books , most recently Human-induced climate change : An interdisciplinary assessment . He regularly appears in the media .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Michael_Schlesinger\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 88832\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Journal of Hydrometeorology Content: The Journal of Hydrometeorology is a scientific journal published by the American Meteorological Society . It covers the modeling , observing , and forecasting of processes related to water and energy fluxes and storage terms , including interactions with the boundary layer and lower atmosphere , and including processes related to precipitation , radiation , and other meteorological inputs .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Journal_of_Hydrometeorology\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 88745\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Baldwin effect (astronomy) Content: The Baldwin effect in astronomy describes a relationship between continuum and emission-line fluxes observed in the electromagnetic spectra of quasars and active galactic nuclei , namely an anticorrelation between the equivalent width , Wλ , of a spectral line and the continuum luminosity , L , in broad UV optical emission lines . This means that the ratio of brightness of the emission line to the brightness of the nearby continuum decreases with increasing luminosity of the continuum .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Baldwin_effect_(astronomy)\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 88476\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: ELFIN Content: Electron Losses and Fields Investigation ( ELFIN ) is a nanosatellite in development at University of California , Los Angeles ( UCLA ) . ELFIN is a 3U CubeSat designed to study space weather , specifically , the loss of relativistic electrons in the radiation belts . ELFIN is currently a participant in the Air Force Research Lab 's University Nanosatellite Program and is funded by NASA 's Low Cost Access to Space program and the National Science Foundation . ELFIN carries a fluxgate magnetometer as well as two energetic particle detectors : one for ions and one for electrons . The principal investigator of the project is Vassilis Angelopoulos .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"ELFIN\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 88407\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Acinetobacter radioresistens Content: Acinetobacter radioresistens is a species of radiation-resistant bacteria . It is Gram-negative , oxidase-negative , not spore-forming , nonmotile , nonfermentative , aerobic , pleomorphic , and coccobacilli-shaped . The type strain of this species is strain FO-1 ( = IAM 13186 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Acinetobacter_radioresistens\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 88188\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Second Cambridge Catalogue of Radio Sources Content: The Second Cambridge Catalogue of Radio Sources ( 2C ) was published in 1955 by John R Shakeshaft and colleagues . It comprised a list of 1936 sources between declinations -38 and +83 , giving their right ascension , declination , both in 1950.0 coordinates , and flux density . The observations were made with the Cambridge Interferometer , at 81.5 MHz . The data appeared to show a flux/number ( ` source counts ' ) trend which precluded some cosmological models ( such as the Steady-State ) : - For a uniform distribution of radio sources the slope of the cumulative distribution of log ( number , N ) versus log ( power , S ) would have been -1.5 , but the Cambridge data apparently implied a ( log ( N ) , log ( S ) ) slope of nearly -3.0 . Unfortunately , this interpretation was premature as a significant number of the sources listed were later found to be the product of ` confusion ' , the blending of several weaker sources in the lobes of the interferometer to produce the apparent effect of a single stronger source . Key data demonstrating this came from the then-recently commissioned Mills Cross Telescope in Australia . However , subsequent statistical analysis by Hewish of the interferometer records later showed some aspects of the initial interpretation to have been broadly correct , with the correct measure of the ( log ( N ) , log ( S ) ) slope of nearly -1.8 derived once confusion was taken into account . The survey was superseded by the much more reliable 3C and 3CR surveys . The 3C survey also used the Cambridge Interferometer , but at 159 MHz , which helped significantly reduce the ` confusion ' ( see above ) in the later survey .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Second_Cambridge_Catalogue_of_Radio_Sources\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 88030\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Intensity (heat transfer) Content: In the field of heat transfer , intensity of radiation is a measure of the distribution of radiant heat flux per unit area and solid angle , in a particular direction , defined according to where is the infinitesimal source area is the outgoing heat transfer from the area is the solid angle subtended by the infinitesimal ` target ' ( or ` aperture ' ) area is the angle between the source area normal vector and the line-of-sight between the source and the target areas . Typical units of intensity are W · m − 2 · sr − 1 . Intensity can sometimes be called radiance , especially in other fields of study . The emissive power of a surface can be determined by integrating the intensity of emitted radiation over a hemisphere surrounding the surface : For diffuse emitters , the emitted radiation intensity is the same in all directions , with the result that The factor ( which really should have the units of steradians ) is a result of the fact that intensity is defined to exclude the effect of reduced view factor at large values ; note that the solid angle corresponding to a hemisphere is equal to steradians . Spectral intensity is the corresponding spectral measurement of intensity ; in other words , the intensity as a function of wavelength .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Intensity_(heat_transfer)\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 87639\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: International Centre for Low Dose Radiation Research Content: The International Centre for Low Dose Radiation Research ( ICLDRR ) was established at the University of Ottawa , in 1997 , with national and international support . The ICLDRR assembles all published data and conducts analyses concerning the effects of low doses of radiation on man and in the environment . ICLDRR 's main focus is to contribute to clarifying whether low and very low doses of ionizing radiation increase the risk of cancer . To that end , the ICLDRR has assembled and analysed virtually all published data on cancer induction in laboratory animals by low doses of ionizing radiation , and published initial findings at specialized international conferences , since 1998 . The foremost contribution of the ICLDRR is the setup of a radiation low-dose mammal-experiment database . Their results have been used in support of the radiation hormesis hypothesis , wherein low-dose radiation may actually be beneficial for health . They were quoted in a famous report by the French Academies as evidence that this effect takes place in 40 % of low-dose animal experiments . The work at ICLDRR is funded by several actors of the nuclear industry such as the United States Department of Energy , Électricité de France , Cogema Resources , Inc. ( Canada ) or the Central Research Institute of the Electric Power Industry ( Japan ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"International_Centre_for_Low_Dose_Radiation_Research\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 87226\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate engineering Content: Climate engineering , commonly referred to as geoengineering , also known as climate intervention , is the deliberate and large-scale intervention in the Earth 's climatic system with the aim of limiting adverse global warming . Climate engineering is an umbrella term for measures that mainly fall into two types : carbon dioxide removal and solar radiation management . Carbon dioxide removal addresses the cause of global warming by removing one of the greenhouse gases ( carbon dioxide ) from the atmosphere . Solar radiation management attempts to offset effects of greenhouse gases by causing the Earth to absorb less solar radiation . Climate engineering approaches are sometimes viewed as additional potential options for limiting global warming , alongside mitigation and adaptation . There is substantial agreement among scientists that climate engineering can not substitute for climate change mitigation . Some approaches might be used as accompanying measures to sharp cuts in greenhouse gas emissions . Given that all types of measures for addressing climate change have economic , political , or physical limitations , some climate engineering approaches might eventually be used as part of an ensemble of measures . Research on costs , benefits , and various types of risks of most climate engineering approaches is at an early stage and their understanding needs to improve to judge their adequacy and feasibility . Almost all research into solar radiation management has consisted of computer modelling or laboratory tests , and an attempt to move to outdoor experimentation was controversial . Some carbon dioxide removal practices , such as planting of trees and bio-energy with carbon capture and storage projects , are underway . Their scalability to effectively affect global climate is , however , debated . Ocean iron fertilization has been given small-scale research trials , sparking substantial controversy . Most experts and major reports advise against relying on climate engineering techniques as a simple solution to global warming , in part due to the large uncertainties over effectiveness and side effects . However , most experts also argue that the risks of such interventions must be seen in the context of risks of dangerous global warming . Interventions at large scale may run a greater risk of disrupting natural systems resulting in a dilemma that those approaches that could prove highly ( cost - ) effective in addressing extreme climate risk , might themselves cause substantial risk . Some have suggested that the concept of engineering the climate presents a so-called `` moral hazard '' because it could reduce political and public pressure for emissions reduction , which could exacerbate overall climate risks ; others assert that the threat of climate engineering could spur emissions cuts . Some are in favour of a moratorium on out-of-doors testing and deployment of solar radiation management ( SRM ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_engineering\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 87160\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Emissivity Content: The emissivity of the surface of a material is its effectiveness in emitting energy as thermal radiation . Thermal radiation is electromagnetic radiation and it may include both visible radiation ( light ) and infrared radiation , which is not visible to human eyes . The thermal radiation from very hot objects ( see photograph ) is easily visible to the eye . Quantitatively , emissivity is the ratio of the thermal radiation from a surface to the radiation from an ideal black surface at the same temperature as given by the Stefan -- Boltzmann law . The ratio varies from 0 to 1 . The surface of a black object emits thermal radiation at the rate of approximately 448 watts per square meter at room temperature ( 25 ° C , 298.15 K ) ; real objects with emissivities less than 1.0 emit radiation at correspondingly lower rates . Emissivities are important in several contexts : insulated windows . -- Warm surfaces are usually cooled directly by air , but they also cool themselves by emitting thermal radiation . This second cooling mechanism is important for simple glass windows , which have emissivities close to the maximum possible value of 1.0 . `` Low-E windows '' with transparent low emissivity coatings emit less thermal radiation than ordinary windows . In winter , these coatings can halve the rate at which a window loses heat compared to an uncoated glass window . solar heat collectors . -- Similarly , solar heat collectors lose heat by emitting thermal radiation . Advanced solar collectors incorporate selective surfaces that have very low emissivities . These collectors waste very little of the solar energy through emission of thermal radiation . planetary temperatures . -- The planets are solar thermal collectors on a large scale . The temperature of a planet 's surface is determined by the balance between the heat absorbed by the planet from sunlight , heat emitted from its core , and thermal radiation emitted back into space . Emissivity of a planet is determined by the nature of its surface and atmosphere . temperature measurements . -- Pyrometers and infrared cameras are instruments used to measure the temperature of an object by using its thermal radiation ; no actual contact with the object is needed . The calibration of these instruments involves the emissivity of the surface that 's being measured .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Emissivity\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 87036\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Stefan–Boltzmann law Content: The Stefan -- Boltzmann law describes the power radiated from a black body in terms of its temperature . Specifically , the Stefan -- Boltzmann law states that the total energy radiated per unit surface area of a black body across all wavelengths per unit time ( also known as the black-body radiant emittance or radiant exitance ) , , is directly proportional to the fourth power of the black body 's thermodynamic temperature T : The constant of proportionality σ , called the Stefan -- Boltzmann constant derives from other known constants of nature . The value of the constant is where k is the Boltzmann constant , h is Planck 's constant , and c is the speed of light in a vacuum . Thus at 100 K the energy flux is 5.67 W/m2 , at 1000 K 56,700 W/m2 , etc. . The radiance ( watts per square metre per steradian ) is given by A body that does not absorb all incident radiation ( sometimes known as a grey body ) emits less total energy than a black body and is characterized by an emissivity , : The irradiance has dimensions of energy flux ( energy per time per area ) , and the SI units of measure are joules per second per square metre , or equivalently , watts per square metre . The SI unit for absolute temperature T is the kelvin . is the emissivity of the grey body ; if it is a perfect blackbody , . In the still more general ( and realistic ) case , the emissivity depends on the wavelength , . To find the total power radiated from an object , multiply by its surface area , : Wavelength - and subwavelength-scale particles , metamaterials , and other nanostructures are not subject to ray-optical limits and may be designed to exceed the Stefan -- Boltzmann law .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Stefan–Boltzmann_law\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 86840\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Solar flux unit Content: The Solar Flux Unit ( SFU ) is a convenient measure of spectral flux density often used in solar radio observations : 1 SFU = 104 Jy = 10 − 22 Wm − 2Hz − 1 = 10 − 19erg s − 1cm − 2Hz − 1 . See jansky for further information about related units .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Solar_flux_unit\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 86625\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Photomultiplier Content: Photomultiplier tubes ( photomultipliers or PMTs for short ) , members of the class of vacuum tubes , and more specifically vacuum phototubes , are extremely sensitive detectors of light in the ultraviolet , visible , and near-infrared ranges of the electromagnetic spectrum . These detectors multiply the current produced by incident light by as much as 100 million times ( i.e. , 160 dB ) , in multiple dynode stages , enabling ( for example ) individual photons to be detected when the incident flux of light is low . The combination of high gain , low noise , high frequency response or , equivalently , ultra-fast response , and large area of collection has maintained photomultipliers an essential place in nuclear and particle physics , astronomy , medical diagnostics including blood tests , medical imaging , motion picture film scanning ( telecine ) , radar jamming , and high-end image scanners known as drum scanners . Elements of photomultiplier technology , when integrated differently , are the basis of night vision devices . Research that analyzes light scattering , such as the study of polymers in solution often use a laser and a PMT to collect the scattered light data . Semiconductor devices , particularly avalanche photodiodes , are alternatives to photomultipliers ; however , photomultipliers are uniquely well-suited for applications requiring low-noise , high-sensitivity detection of light that is imperfectly collimated .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Photomultiplier\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 86583\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pyrometer Content: A pyrometer is a type of remote-sensing thermometer used to measure the temperature of a surface . Various forms of pyrometers have historically existed . In the modern usage , it is a device that from a distance determines the temperature of a surface from the spectrum of the thermal radiation it emits , a process known as pyrometry and sometimes radiometry . The word pyrometer comes from the Greek word for fire , '' πυρ '' ( pyro ) , and meter , meaning to measure . The word pyrometer was originally coined to denote a device capable of measuring the temperature of an object by its incandescence , visible light emitted by a body which is at least red-hot . Modern pyrometers or infrared thermometers also measure the temperature of cooler objects , down to room temperature , by detecting their infrared radiation flux .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Pyrometer\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 86562\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Lyman-alpha emitter Content: A Lyman-alpha emitter ( LAE ) is a type of distant galaxy that emits Lyman-alpha radiation . LAEs are extremely distant , and because of the finite travel time of light they provide glimpses into the history of the universe . They are thought to be the progenitors of most modern Milky Way type galaxies . These galaxies can be found nowadays rather easily in narrow-band searches by an excess of their narrow-band flux at a wavelength which may be interpreted as their redshift : where z is the redshift , is the observed wavelength , and 1215.67 Å is the wavelength of Lyman-alpha emission . The Lyman-alpha line is thought to be caused by an ongoing outburst of star-formation . Experimental observations of the redshift of LAEs are important in cosmology because they trace dark matter halos and subsequently the evolution of matter distribution in the universe .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Lyman-alpha_emitter\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 86364\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Albrecht effect Content: The Albrecht effect describes how cloud condensation nuclei ( CCN ) , possibly from anthropogenic pollution , may increase cloud lifetime and hence increase the amount of solar radiation reflected from clouds . Because it does not directly interact with incoming or outgoing radiation , it has an indirect effect on climate . Aerosol particles act as CCNs creating more droplets of a smaller size . These take more time to coalesce to raindrop size ( > 100μm ) , reducing precipitation efficiency and hence increasing the lifetime of the cloud . The increased scattering of incoming radiation leads to a cooling of -0.3 to -1.4 Wm − 2 . This effect is not as well understood as the Twomey effect . There are many other effects , indirect and semi-direct aerosol effects resulting in a large uncertainty in the radiative forcing due to aerosols .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Albrecht_effect\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 86361\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: PERDaix Content: PERDaix ( Proton Electron Radiation Detector Aix-la-Chapelle ) is a novel , small and light weight magnet spectrometer to measure the charge and mass dependent solar modulation periodically for deeper understanding of cosmic rays . For a better understanding of sources and acceleration of cosmic particles direct measurements of cosmic rays are necessary . Also for a better understanding of the solar modulation which is expected to follow the 22-year solar cycle , time dependent measurements are needed . PERDaix is a newly designed detector which is constructed by the Department of Physics 1b , RWTH Aachen University . Being proposed to the German Space Agency in November 2009 for a participation in the BEXUS Program ( Rocket and Balloon Experiments for University Students ) after a first canceled flight attempt in October 2010 the actual flight took place as a post-BEXUS-campaign flight opportunity in November 2010 . The detector is able to measure charged particles in the energy range of 0.5 GeV to 5 GeV . PERDaix uses a time of flight system , a scintillating fiber tracker with SiPM readout , and a transition radiation detector in combination with a permanent magnet to measure particle fluxes . The BEXUS balloons are launched at Esrange Space Center near Kiruna , Sweden . In November 2010 PERDaix reached a top altitude of 33.3 km at which it kept floating for 1.5 hours .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"PERDaix\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 86226\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tipping points in the climate system Content: A tipping point in the climate system is a threshold that, when exceeded, can lead to large changes in the state of the system. Potential tipping points have been identified in the physical climate system, in impacted ecosystems, and sometimes in both. For instance, feedback from the global carbon cycle is a driver for the transition between glacial and interglacial periods, with orbital forcing providing the initial trigger. Earth's geologic temperature record includes many more examples of geologically rapid transitions between different climate states.Climate tipping points are of particular interest in reference to concerns about global warming in the modern era. Possible tipping point behaviour has been identified for the global mean surface temperature by studying self-reinforcing feedbacks and the past behavior of Earth's climate system. Self-reinforcing feedbacks in the carbon cycle and planetary reflectivity could trigger a cascading set of tipping points that lead the world into a hothouse climate state.Large-scale components of the Earth system that may pass a tipping point have been referred to as tipping elements. Tipping elements are found in the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets, possibly causing tens of meters of sea level rise. These tipping points are not always abrupt. For example, at some level of temperature rise the melt of a large part of the Greenland ice sheet and/or West Antarctic Ice Sheet will become inevitable; but the ice sheet itself may persist for many centuries. Some tipping elements, like the collapse of ecosystems, are irreversible.\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 85863\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Irradiance Content: In radiometry , irradiance is the radiant flux ( power ) received by a surface per unit area . The SI unit of irradiance is the watt per square metre . The CGS unit erg per square centimetre per second is often used in astronomy . Irradiance is often called `` intensity '' in branches of physics other than radiometry , but in radiometry this usage leads to confusion with radiant intensity . Spectral irradiance is the irradiance of a surface per unit frequency or wavelength , depending on whether the spectrum is taken as a function of frequency or of wavelength . The two forms have different dimensions : spectral irradiance of a frequency spectrum is measured in watts per square metre per hertz ( W · m − 2 · Hz − 1 ) , while spectral irradiance of a wavelength spectrum is measured in watts per square metre per metre ( W · m − 3 ) , or more commonly watts per square metre per nanometre .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Irradiance\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 85811\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Jansky Content: The jansky ( symbol Jy ) is a non-SI unit of spectral flux density , or spectral irradiance , used especially in radio astronomy . It is equivalent to 10 − 26 watts per square metre per hertz . The flux density or monochromatic flux , , of a source is the integral of the spectral radiance , , over the source solid angle : The unit is named after pioneering US radio astronomer Karl Guthe Jansky and is defined as ( SI ) ( cgs ) . Since the jansky is obtained by integrating over the whole source solid angle , it is most simply used to describe point sources ; for example , the Third Cambridge Catalogue of Radio Sources ( 3C ) reports results in Jy . For extended sources , the surface brightness is often described with units of Jy per solid angle ; for example , far-infrared ( FIR ) maps from the IRAS satellite are in MJy/sr . Although extended sources at all wavelengths can be reported with these units , for radio-frequency maps , extended sources have traditionally been described in terms of a brightness temperature ; for example the Haslam et al. 408 MHz all-sky continuum survey is reported in terms of a brightness temperature in K.\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Jansky\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 85727\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Spectral energy distribution Content: A spectral energy distribution ( SED ) is a plot of brightness or flux density versus frequency or wavelength of light . It is used in many branches of astronomy to characterize astronomical sources . For example , in radio astronomy , an SED with a negative spectral index around − 0.7 would indicate a synchrotron radiation source . In infrared astronomy , SEDs can be used to classify young stellar objects .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Spectral_energy_distribution\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 85593\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 85571\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cold fission Content: Cold fission or cold nuclear fission is defined as involving fission events for which fission fragments have such low excitation energy that no neutrons or gammas are emitted . Cold fission events have so low a probability of occurrence that it is necessary to use a high flux nuclear reactor to study them . The first observation of cold fission events was in experiments on fission induced by thermal neutrons of uranium 233 , uranium 235 and plutonium 239 using the High Flux Reactor at the Institut Laue-Langevin in Grenoble , France . Other experiments on cold fission were also done involving 248Cm and 252Cf . A unified approach of Cluster decay , alpha decay and cold fission was developed by Dorin N Poenaru et al. . A phenomenological interpretation was proposed by Gönnenwein and Duarte et al. . The importance of cold fission phenomena lies in the fact that fragments reaching detectors have the same mass that they obtained at the `` scission '' configuration , just before the attractive but short-range nuclear force becomes null , and only Coulomb interaction acts between fragments . After this Coulomb potential energy is converted in fragments kinetic energies , which - -- added to pre-scission kinetic energies -- is measured by detectors . The fact that cold fission preserves nuclear mass until the fission fragments reach the detectors permits the experimenter to better determine the fission dynamics , especially the aspects related to Coulomb and shell effects in low energy fission and nucleon pair breaking . Adopting several theoretical assumptions about scission configuration one can calculate the maximal value of kinetic energy as a function of charge and mass of fragments and compare them to experimental results .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Cold_fission\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 85554\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Knudsen paradox Content: The Knudsen Paradox has been observed in experiments of channel flow with varying channel width or equivalently different pressures . If the normalized mass flux through the channel is plotted over the Knudsen number based on the channel width a distinct minimum is observed around . This is a paradoxical behaviour because , based on the Navier -- Stokes equations , one would expect the mass flux to decrease with increasing the Knudsen number . The minimum can be understood intuitively by considering the two extreme cases of very small and very large Knudsen number . For very small Kn the viscosity vanishes and a fully developed steady state channel flow shows infinite flux . On the other hand , the particles stop interacting for large Knudsen numbers . Because of the constant acceleration due to the external force , the steady state again will show infinite flux .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Knudsen_paradox\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 85525\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Beethoven Burst (GRB 991216) Content: GRB 991216 , nicknamed the Beethoven Burst by Dr. Brad Schaefer of Yale University , was a gamma-ray burst observed on December 16 , 1999 , coinciding with the 229th anniversary of Ludwig van Beethoven 's birth . A gamma-ray burst is a highly luminous flash associated with an explosion in a distant galaxy and producing gamma rays , the most energetic form of electromagnetic radiation , and often followed by a longer-lived `` afterglow '' emitted at longer wavelengths ( X-ray , ultraviolet , optical , infrared , and radio ) . The optical afterglow of the burst reached an apparent magnitude of 18.7 , making the Beethoven Burst one of the brightest bursts ever detected , even though it occurred about 10 billion light years from Earth . Frank Marshall , a NASA astrophysicist at the Goddard Space Flight Center , commented that `` this was by far the brightest burst we have detected in a long time . '' The burst 's peak flux ranked it as the second most powerful burst that the Burst and Transient Source Experiment ( BATSE ) had ever detected . The analysis of the observations strengthened the theory that gamma-ray bursts are a result of a hypernova , though other possible progenitors exist , such as the merger of two black holes . Within four hours of the burst 's detection , observations made by BATSE and the Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer were able to determine the burst 's position of α = 77.38 ± 0.04 , δ = 11.30 ± 0.05 . This rapid determination allowed astronomers to conduct follow-up studies using optical and X-ray telescopes . Other instruments which detected GRB 991216 included the Chandra X-ray Observatory , the MDM Observatory , and the Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph on board the Hubble Space Telescope . This was the first use of the Chandra X-ray Observatory for the purpose of gamma-ray burst detection .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Beethoven_Burst_(GRB_991216)\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 85204\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate model Content: Climate models use quantitative methods to simulate the interactions of the important drivers of climate , including atmosphere , oceans , land surface and ice . They are used for a variety of purposes from study of the dynamics of the climate system to projections of future climate . All climate models take account of incoming energy from the sun as short wave electromagnetic radiation , chiefly visible and short-wave ( near ) infrared , as well as outgoing long wave ( far ) infrared electromagnetic . Any imbalance results in a change in temperature . Models vary in complexity : A simple radiant heat transfer model treats the earth as a single point and averages outgoing energy This can be expanded vertically ( radiative-convective models ) and/or horizontally Finally , ( coupled ) atmosphere -- ocean -- sea ice global climate models solve the full equations for mass and energy transfer and radiant exchange . Box models can treat flows across and within ocean basins . Other types of modelling can be interlinked , such as land use , allowing researchers to predict the interaction between climate and ecosystems .\",\n \"qid\": \"2736\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_model\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 85180\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":1349,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"When you read Phil Jones' actual words, you see he's saying there is a warming trend"},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Phil Jones (climatologist) Content: Philip Douglas Jones ( born April 22 , 1952 ) retired from his positions as the Director of the Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) and as a Professor in the School of Environmental Sciences at the University of East Anglia ( UEA ) at the end of 2016 . Jones was replaced as CRU director by Tim Osborn and has taken up a position as a Professorial Fellow at the UEA from January 2017 . His research interests include instrumental climate change , palaeoclimatology , detection of climate change and the extension of riverflow records in the UK . He has also published papers on the temperature record of the past 1000 years . He is known for maintaining a time series of the instrumental temperature record . This work was featured prominently in both the 2001 and 2007 IPCC reports , where he was a contributing author to Chapter 12 , Detection of Climate Change and Attribution of Causes , of the Third Assessment Report and a Coordinating Lead Author of Chapter 3 , Observations : Surface and Atmospheric Climate Change , of the AR4 .","qid":"2738","docid":"Phil_Jones_(climatologist)","rank":1,"score":101408},{"content":"Title: Tom Jones (Philidor) Content: Tom Jones is a comédie mêlée d'ariettes , a kind of opéra comique , by the French composer François-André Danican Philidor which first appeared at the Comédie-Italienne , Paris , on 27 February 1765 . Its French libretto , by Antoine-Alexandre-Henri Poisenet and Bertin Davesne , is loosely based on the novel by Henry Fielding . The piece was initially a failure but Philidor had the libretto revised by Michel-Jean Sedaine and this new version , first performed on 30 January 1766 , proved one of the most popular opéras comiques of the late 18th century . It was produced in a number of other countries , and translated into German , Swedish and Russian .","qid":"2738","docid":"Tom_Jones_(Philidor)","rank":2,"score":89383},{"content":"Title: Phill Jones Content: Phillip Charles George `` Phill '' Jones ( born 25 January 1974 ) is a New Zealand professional basketball player for the Nelson Giants of the New Zealand National Basketball League ( NZNBL ) . The two-time Olympian has scored more points in the New Zealand NBL than any other Kiwi player and is second overall in league scoring history . In 2004 , he ranked second among all points scorers at the Athens Olympics . In 2016 , he became the first player in New Zealand NBL history to reach 400 games .","qid":"2738","docid":"Phill_Jones","rank":3,"score":85015},{"content":"Title: Phil Jones (rugby) Content: Phil Jones ( born 30 September 1977 ) is an English former rugby league and rugby union footballer who played as a centre or stand-off / fly-half . He played for Lancashire Lynx , Wigan Warriors and Leigh Centurions in rugby league , and Orrell , Rotherham Titans and Sedgley Park in rugby union .","qid":"2738","docid":"Phil_Jones_(rugby)","rank":4,"score":84318},{"content":"Title: Phil Jones (footballer, born 1992) Content: Philip Anthony Jones ( born 21 February 1992 ) is an English professional footballer who plays for Premier League club Manchester United and the England national team . Before joining Manchester United , Jones played for Blackburn Rovers at both youth and senior levels . Although primarily a centre back , he has also been used as a right back or defensive midfielder . Jones has represented England at various levels and is currently a member of the England senior squad . He played for the under-19 team in 2009 before making his debut for the under-21 team in 2010 . He made his debut for the England senior squad on 7 October 2011 .","qid":"2738","docid":"Phil_Jones_(footballer,_born_1992)","rank":5,"score":84225},{"content":"Title: Phil Jones (umpire) Content: Phil Jones ( born 1 January 1960 ) is a New Zealand cricket umpire . He stood in his first One Day International ( ODI ) match on 8 November 2014 between Hong Kong and Papua New Guinea in Australia . He stood in his first Twenty20 International ( T20I ) match on 7 January 2016 between New Zealand and Sri Lanka . He was a member of the International Panel of Umpires and Referees until June 2016 , when he was demoted to New Zealand 's national panel .","qid":"2738","docid":"Phil_Jones_(umpire)","rank":6,"score":83865},{"content":"Title: Phil Jones (footballer, born 1961) Content: Philip Howard `` Phil '' Jones ( born 12 September 1961 ) is an English former footballer who played either in midfield or defence . Born in Mansfield , Jones was a product of Sheffield United 's youth system and was playing in the reserves as a fifteen-year-old in 1977 . Signing as an apprentice in July 1978 , Jones turned professional a year later and finally made his debut for United in February 1979 in a league fixture against Wrexham . Jones struggled to make the transition to the first team , his only real run in the side came during 1980 -- 81 season as United were relegated to Division Four . After failing to make a first team appearance during the subsequent season , Jones was released from his contract in May 1982 , joining Boston United . After leaving Boston , Jones joined Matlock Town for a spell before finishing his career with Gainsborough Trinity in 1990 .","qid":"2738","docid":"Phil_Jones_(footballer,_born_1961)","rank":7,"score":83688},{"content":"Title: Phil Jones (American football) Content: Phil Jones ( born ca. 1946 ) is a former American football coach . He previously served as a head coach at Shorter University from 2005 to 2015 and at several high schools across Georgia from 1973 through 1997 before he moved to the college ranks . After he served in assistant positions at Georgia , SMU and Gardner -- Webb before he was hired in July 2004 to serve as the first head coach in the history of the Shorter football program .","qid":"2738","docid":"Phil_Jones_(American_football)","rank":8,"score":83228},{"content":"Title: Mouse Warming Content: Mouse Warming ( stylised as Mouse-warming ) is a 1952 Looney Tunes short directed by Chuck Jones , and starring Claude Cat ( in his final solo cartoon ) , with a cameo appearance of Hector the Bulldog at the end .","qid":"2738","docid":"Mouse_Warming","rank":9,"score":83177},{"content":"Title: Phil Jones (basketball) Content: Phillip Michael `` Phil '' Jones ( born September 2 , 1985 ) is a Virgin Islands professional basketball player . He played college basketball at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte and has played internationally for the U.S. Virgin Islands national basketball team . Born in Nashville , Tennessee , Jones spent part of his childhood growing up in the Virgin Islands . Jones committed to the 49ers out of Laurinburg Prep School in North Carolina after he spent a year at the school after graduating from high school in Philadelphia . Ranked as a top 100 recruit by several publications , he averaged 19 points , 10.2 rebounds , and 5.3 blocks per game while leading the school to the Prep National Championship . As a first-year sophomore for the 49ers , he averaged 3.3 points and 2.9 rebounds a game while playing 13.4 minutes per game off the bench to the 49ers . He improved in his junior season , 2008 -- 09 , averaging 7.3 points , 4 rebounds , and 1.4 blocks per game for the team . Jones competed on the U.S. Virgin Islands national basketball team for the first time at the FIBA Americas Championship 2009 . He averaged 8.5 points and 4.8 rebounds per game in four games for the team , including a team-high 18 points and seven rebounds in a preliminary round loss to Puerto Rico .","qid":"2738","docid":"Phil_Jones_(basketball)","rank":10,"score":82963},{"content":"Title: Jones-Read-Touvelle House Content: The Jones-Read-Touvelle House is a historic building in Wauseon , Ohio , United States . Located along Park Street south of downtown , this ornate brick house sits on a corner lot adjacent to a city park . Architectural historians have seen the Jones-Read-Touvelle House as a fine example of the combination of multiple architectural styles : most of the house itself appears to be Italianate , but the porch and some of the other details are plainly those of the Queen Anne style . Built on a limestone foundation , the house is a brick structure covered with an asphalt roof . Among its most prominent architectural features are its narrow but tall windows topped with arches of brick , the pairs of brackets that support the eaves of the house 's hip roof , the double doors of the front entrance , and the ornate Queen Anne detailing of the porch . Although the house was built by a Dr. Philo Jones , it was purchased by a John A. Read in May 1876 , just a year after its completion . Read was a leading member of the Wauseon business society ; after founding a combined general and drug store in the city in 1863 , he was successful enough to split the drug store away as its own business in 1870 , and he further expanded it by 1880 to the point that it was a sizeable pharmaceutical company . In 1987 , the Jones-Read-Touvelle House was listed on the National Register of Historic Places . Key to this designation was its well-preserved historic architecture , which was seen as significant locally . It is one of four Wauseon buildings and six properties throughout Fulton County to be included on the Register .","qid":"2738","docid":"Jones-Read-Touvelle_House","rank":11,"score":82494},{"content":"Title: Phil Jones (journalist) Content: Phil Jones is an English sports journalist and television reporter .","qid":"2738","docid":"Phil_Jones_(journalist)","rank":12,"score":82389},{"content":"Title: Philibert Jones Content: Philibert Jones ( born 12 November 1964 ) is a former international footballer from Trinidad and Tobago who played as a striker . He is currently the Assistant Coach at United Petrotrin in the TT Pro League .","qid":"2738","docid":"Philibert_Jones","rank":13,"score":81548},{"content":"Title: Philly Joe Jones Content: Joseph Rudolph `` Philly Joe '' Jones ( July 15 , 1923 -- August 30 , 1985 ) was a Philadelphia-born American jazz drummer , known as the drummer for the first `` Great '' Miles Davis Quintet . He is sometimes confused with another influential jazz drummer , Papa Jo Jones . The two died only a few days apart .","qid":"2738","docid":"Philly_Joe_Jones","rank":14,"score":81090},{"content":"Title: Phil H. Jones Content: Phil H. Jones was a member of the Wisconsin State Assembly .","qid":"2738","docid":"Phil_H._Jones","rank":15,"score":80834},{"content":"Title: Clarence Benjamin Jones Content: Clarence B. Jones ( born January 8 , 1931 ) is the former personal counsel , advisor , draft speech writer and close friend of Martin Luther King Jr. . He is a Scholar in Residence at the Martin Luther King , Jr. . Institute at Stanford University . He is the author of What Would Martin Say ? ( HarperCollins , 2008 ) and `` Behind the Dream : The Making of the Speech that Transformed a Nation '' ( Palgrave-Macmillan , 2011 ) In 1962 , Martin Luther King Jr. wrote a letter recommending his lawyer and advisor , Clarence B. Jones , to the New York State Bar , stating : `` Ever since I have known Mr. Jones , I have always seen him as a man of sound judgment , deep insights , and great dedication . I am also convinced that he is a man of great integrity '' .","qid":"2738","docid":"Clarence_Benjamin_Jones","rank":16,"score":80090},{"content":"Title: I Meant Every Word He Said Content: `` I Meant Every Word He Said '' is a song co-written by Joe Chambers , Bucky Jones and Curly Putman , and recorded by American country music artist Ricky Van Shelton . It was released in June 1990 as the third single from the album RVS III . It peaked at number 2 on the Billboard Hot Country Songs chart and reached number 1 on the Canadian RPM country singles chart .","qid":"2738","docid":"I_Meant_Every_Word_He_Said","rank":17,"score":77785},{"content":"Title: P. J. Jones (American football) Content: Philemon Depaul Jones is an American football defensive tackle who is a free agent . Jones played college football for Mississippi State from 2011 to 2014 , where he was a starter as a junior and senior . He was named MSU 's Defensive Player of the Week in 2014 after the 34 -- 29 win over LSU .","qid":"2738","docid":"P._J._Jones_(American_football)","rank":18,"score":77766},{"content":"Title: I Can't Get There from Here Content: `` I Ca n't Get There from Here '' is a song by American country singer George Jones . It was released as a single on the Musicor label in 1967 . It was composed by Dallas Frazier . Although he did n't write it , `` I Ca n't Get There from Here '' is one in a long list of songs that Jones would record as if it was torn from the pages of his diary ; as Randy Travis stated in the 1990 Jones video biography Same Ole Me , `` It 's almost like he 's lived every minute of every word he sings , and there 's very few people who can do that . '' Jones , who would be admitted into a neurological hospital to seek treatment for his binge drinking in 1967 , had already gained a reputation as a notorious hell raiser , imbuing Frazier 's words with a weary authenticity : Surely there 's a place to rest a tortured mind Oh , what I 'd give if I could find A place where there 's no mem ` ry of all those wasted years But they all say I ca n't get there from here The song reached No. 5 on the Billboard country singles chart .","qid":"2738","docid":"I_Can't_Get_There_from_Here","rank":19,"score":76960},{"content":"Title: Philly Joe's Beat Content: Philly Joes Beat is an album by American jazz drummer Philly Joe Jones which was released on the Atlantic label in 1960 .","qid":"2738","docid":"Philly_Joe's_Beat","rank":20,"score":76299},{"content":"Title: Phil Jones (curler) Content: Phil Jones represented Wales at the 2008 World Mixed Doubles Curling Championship . He curls for the Alyn Valley club at Deeside Leisure Centre .","qid":"2738","docid":"Phil_Jones_(curler)","rank":21,"score":76196},{"content":"Title: William Jones (philologist) Content: Sir William Jones FRS FRSE ( 28 September 1746 -- 27 April 1794 ) was an Anglo-Welsh philologist , a puisne judge on the Supreme Court of Judicature at Fort William in Bengal , and a scholar of ancient India , particularly known for his proposition of the existence of a relationship among European and Indian languages , which would later be known as Indo-European languages . He , along with Henry Thomas Colebrooke and Nathaniel Halhed , founded the Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1784 , and started a journal called Asiatick Researches .","qid":"2738","docid":"William_Jones_(philologist)","rank":22,"score":76076},{"content":"Title: So Warm Content: So Warm is an album by jazz vocalist Etta Jones which was recorded in 1961 and released on the Prestige label .","qid":"2738","docid":"So_Warm","rank":23,"score":75902},{"content":"Title: Say It's Not You Content: `` Say It 's Not You '' is a song by American country singer George Jones . It was written by Dallas Frazier .","qid":"2738","docid":"Say_It's_Not_You","rank":24,"score":75610},{"content":"Title: Teen Love Content: Teen Love is the debut extended play by noise rock band No Trend , released as a 7 '' vinyl in 1983 through their very own No Trend Records . It was reissued in 1984 on 12 '' vinyl , this time including the two extra tracks `` Die '' and `` Let 's Go Crazy '' . It has been described as `` a perfect example of No Trend 's ruthless proclivity towards lizard-cold satire '' . The album cover was drawn by guitarist Frank Price , but it was credited under the pseudonym Jim Jones .","qid":"2738","docid":"Teen_Love","rank":25,"score":74304},{"content":"Title: Archie Shepp & Philly Joe Jones Content: Archie Shepp & Philly Joe Jones is an album by jazz saxophonist Archie Shepp and drummer Philly Joe Jones recorded in Europe in 1969 for the America label . The album was also issued by the Fantasy label . The Allmusic review by Scott Yanow states `` This intriguing LP does not live up to its potential ... Unfortunately , both of the sidelong pieces have recitations , the performances are overly long , and there is quite a bit of rambling '' .","qid":"2738","docid":"Archie_Shepp_&_Philly_Joe_Jones","rank":26,"score":74289},{"content":"Title: George Hilton Jones III Content: George Hilton Jones , III , D. Phil ( Oxon ) ( 1924 -- 2008 ) was an American Rhodes Scholar , historian , college professor , and author of numerous works on English history .","qid":"2738","docid":"George_Hilton_Jones_III","rank":27,"score":72897},{"content":"Title: Geraldine Jones (character) Content: Geraldine Jones was a fictional African American character , the most famous recurring persona of comedian Flip Wilson . Geraldine was played as a sassy liberated Southern woman who was coarsely flirty yet faithful to her ( unseen ) boyfriend `` Killer '' . Poorly educated , she was nevertheless confident ; she did not change her behavior to suit anyone . Several of Geraldine 's sayings entered U.S. popular culture as catchphrases , especially `` When you 're hot , you 're hot ; when you 're not , you 're not , '' `` The Devil made me do it , '' and `` What you see is what you get ! '' Wilson portrayed Geraldine many times in the early 1970s on his variety series The Flip Wilson Show , though not on every episode . He made comedy albums featuring Geraldine , notably The Devil Made Me Buy This Dress , and he appeared as Geraldine on other programs such as Saturday Night Live . He sang and danced as Geraldine at the Kennedy Center in 1983 for Bob Hope 's 80th birthday celebration . Wilson tired of the Geraldine character late in his career ; he responded to most requests by saying : `` She 's retired . ''","qid":"2738","docid":"Geraldine_Jones_(character)","rank":28,"score":72756},{"content":"Title: Drums Around the World Content: Drums Around the World ( subtitled Philly Joe Jones Big Band Sounds ) is the second album led by American jazz drummer Philly Joe Jones which was recorded in 1959 for the Riverside label .","qid":"2738","docid":"Drums_Around_the_World","rank":29,"score":72665},{"content":"Title: Brian Jones (poet) Content: Brian Jones ( 10 December 1938 -- 25 June 2009 ) was a British poet . He was educated at Ealing County Grammar School for Boys and Selwyn College , Cambridge . Jones ' first major collection , Poems ( consisting of his first book , The Madman in the Reading Room and thirty-seven other poems ) , was published in 1966 , and proved to be successful . Those poems dealt with both the joy and the unease that may be present beneath the surface of what seems to be placid middle-class domesticity . This was very much in a style popular in the 1950s and 1960s , and Jones was described by Edward Lucie-Smith in a 1970 anthology of post-war British poetry as `` certainly one of the very best practitioners of this overworked vein '' . Subsequent critical assessments of his work have included the following : `` Jones believes that poetry need not surrender to fiction all the stories that need telling , but his poems retain the tightness of verse and the authority of good cadences . There is as much truth to surface detail in his work as in any recent novel , with a good deal of eloquence added . '' -- Peter Porter `` It is his concern with truth-telling that unifies Brian Jones 's work and gives The Island Normal its strength , a poetry austere without coldness and colloquial without slackness . Why is he so little known , so rarely discussed ? '' -- Grevel Lindop '' -LSB- Jones 's -RSB- leveller-like anger at England 's waste of human potential arises from a deep love of his inheritance and a real fear for its future . -LSB- He has -RSB- provided us with fine poems and a continuous thirty-year commentary from the backroom of the dispossessed . '' -- Peter Bland Two of Brian Jones 's best-known children 's poems are About Friends and How to catch Tiddlers . Jones was awarded the 1967 Cholmondeley Award along with Seamus Heaney and Norman Nicholson , and an Eric Gregory Trust Fund Award in 1968 .","qid":"2738","docid":"Brian_Jones_(poet)","rank":30,"score":72639},{"content":"Title: No One Is to Blame Content: `` No One Is to Blame '' is a song by British musician Howard Jones . The song , in its original version , can be found on his second studio album , Dream into Action , which was released in 1985 . Following the success of the previous singles taken from the album , the original track for `` No One Is to Blame '' was re-recorded to give the song a more radio-friendly sound . Phil Collins and Hugh Padgham produced the re-recording , with Collins adding his own backing vocals and drum work . This new version of the song was included on the 1986 US EP Action Replay as well as the CD version of Jones 's 1986 studio album , One to One . `` No One Is to Blame '' was released as a single in March 1986 and became Jones 's biggest hit in the United States , peaking at # 4 on the Billboard Hot 100 . The song also became the first of his two # 1 songs on the U.S. adult contemporary chart ( `` Everlasting Love '' would top this chart in 1989 ) . The song was also a top 10 hit in Australia and a # 16 hit in the U.K. . The song is about unfulfilled attractions , saying that they 're normal and commonplace ( `` We want everyone - no one ever is to blame '' ) . It uses a number of metaphors , such as `` You can look at the menu , but you just ca n't eat '' and `` It 's the last piece of the puzzle , but you just ca n't make it fit , '' to describe the frustration of experiencing attraction but being unable to act on it , for whatever reason . On a deeper level it describes the frustration and pain of unfulfilled desires and dreams inherent in the human condition .","qid":"2738","docid":"No_One_Is_to_Blame","rank":31,"score":72520},{"content":"Title: Ellis Jones (sociologist) Content: Ellis McNatt Jones ( born February 25 , 1970 ) is an American sociologist and author . Jones was a Peace Corps Volunteer in the Republic of Panama from 1993 to 1995 where he worked in Environmental Education . Jones has researched consumer products , rating corporations on an `` A '' through `` F '' scale based on their scores in five areas : human rights ( sweatshops , child labor , etc. ) , the environment ( global warming , rainforest destruction , etc. ) , animal protection ( animal testing , humane treatment , etc. ) , community involvement ( local business support , nonprofit alliances , etc. ) , and social justice ( fair wages , discrimination , etc. ) . In his book `` The Better World Shopping Guide : Every Dollar Makes A Difference , '' he encourages consumers to push their dollars to the `` A '' and `` B '' companies and away from the `` D '' and `` F '' companies to create a better world . He holds a Ph.D. from the University of Colorado and is currently a professor of sociology at College of the Holy Cross .","qid":"2738","docid":"Ellis_Jones_(sociologist)","rank":32,"score":72279},{"content":"Title: Jones Arboretum and Botanical Gardens Content: Jones Arboretum and Botanical Gardens , also known as Jones Arboretum and Natural Gardens , and now called Read 's Creek Nursery , is an arboretum and for-profit plant nursery located on Route 14 in Readstown , Wisconsin , in Vernon County , Wisconsin , United States . The community arboretum was established in 1973 by Royce Jones , a nuclear engineer , in conjunction with a tree nursery and his own gardens . After his retirement , it now features more than 100 kinds of trees , as well as some 700 non-woody plants , including 400 perennials . The plants are available for sale , or purely for learning and enjoyment .","qid":"2738","docid":"Jones_Arboretum_and_Botanical_Gardens","rank":33,"score":72272},{"content":"Title: William Jones (novel) Content: William Jones is a novel by T. Rowland Hughes , written in 1944 . It tells of the story of a quarryman in Gwynedd who decides to leave his community to look for work in the coal mines of South Wales . It describes the tough lives of the quarrymen at the beginning of the twentieth century . A quote from the book , '' Cadw dy blydi chips ! '' ( Welsh for `` Keep your bloody chips ! '' ) , is probably the first time that a swear word appeared anywhere in modern Welsh literature . Category :1944 British novels Category : Welsh-language novels Category : Novels set in Wales","qid":"2738","docid":"William_Jones_(novel)","rank":34,"score":72223},{"content":"Title: Showcase (Philly Joe Jones album) Content: Showcase is the third album led by American jazz drummer Philly Joe Jones which was recorded in 1959 for the Riverside label .","qid":"2738","docid":"Showcase_(Philly_Joe_Jones_album)","rank":35,"score":72142},{"content":"Title: Say You'll Stay Until Tomorrow Content: `` Say You 'll Stay Until Tomorrow '' is a 1977 single by Tom Jones . The song was Jones 's first and highest-charting country music hit . Spending ten weeks within the Top 40 of the Billboard Hot Country Singles ( now Hot Country Songs ) chart , `` Say You 'll Stay Until Tomorrow '' went to number one for one week on 26 February 1977 . The song also peaked at number fifteen on the Billboard Hot 100 , and was Jones 's last single to reach the top 40 until 1988 . It was also a Number One hit in Canada , reaching the top of the RPM country and easy-listening charts . The song was recorded the same year by Slim Whitman , and was included on his album Home on the Range .","qid":"2738","docid":"Say_You'll_Stay_Until_Tomorrow","rank":36,"score":71877},{"content":"Title: Lance Corporal Jones Content: Lance Corporal Jack Jones is a fictional Home Guard platoon lance corporal , veteran of the British Empire and butcher , portrayed by Clive Dunn in the BBC television sitcom Dad 's Army . His catchphrases are `` Do n't panic ! '' , `` Permission to speak , sir ? '' and `` They do n't like it up 'em ! '' . Jones also often recounts his past military experiences particularly those in Sudan and India and gives a glimpse to the military traditions and events in the concluding years of the 19th century .","qid":"2738","docid":"Lance_Corporal_Jones","rank":37,"score":71666},{"content":"Title: Shae Jones Content: Shae Jones ( born July 27 , 1978 in Kansas City , Missouri ) is an American R&B singer . She was discovered in the late 1990s by R&B star Montell Jordan , who liked the fact that her voice did not sound like other voices . After signing with Uptown Records , Jones ' recorded her debut album Talk Show in 1998 , and it had its official release on January 26 , 1999 . The album 's lead single `` Talk Show Shhh ! '' peaked on the Billboard Hot 100 at 88 . Jones was released from her contract with Uptown and has yet to release any new material . In addition to her solo career , Jones also appeared on Sisqó 's Unleash the Dragon , Gina Thompson 's If You Only Knew , Tamia 's A Nu Day , Whitney Houston 's The Greatest Hits and the Phil Collins tribute Urban Renewal .","qid":"2738","docid":"Shae_Jones","rank":38,"score":71430},{"content":"Title: Together! (Elvin Jones and Philly Joe Jones album) Content: Together ! is a jazz album by drummers Philly Joe Jones and Elvin Jones recorded in 1961 and released on the Atlantic label .","qid":"2738","docid":"Together!_(Elvin_Jones_and_Philly_Joe_Jones_album)","rank":39,"score":71293},{"content":"Title: Jo Jones Content: Jonathan David Samuel `` Jo '' Jones ( October 7 , 1911 -- September 3 , 1985 ) was an American jazz drummer . A band leader and pioneer in jazz percussion , Jones anchored the Count Basie Orchestra rhythm section from 1934 to 1948 . He was sometimes known as Papa Jo Jones to distinguish him from younger drummer Philly Joe Jones","qid":"2738","docid":"Jo_Jones","rank":40,"score":71270},{"content":"Title: Blues for Dracula Content: Blues for Dracula is the debut album by American jazz drummer Philly Joe Jones which was recorded in 1958 for the Riverside label .","qid":"2738","docid":"Blues_for_Dracula","rank":41,"score":71269},{"content":"Title: One to One (Howard Jones album) Content: One to One is the third album by British pop musician Howard Jones , released in October 1986 . The CD release also contains the single version of `` No One Is to Blame '' ( a song featured on his previous album ) with Phil Collins on backing vocals and drums . The album contained the hits `` You Know I Love You ... Do n't You ? '' ( US top twenty ) and `` All I Want '' ( top 40 in many European countries ) . The album reached number 10 in the UK and was certified Gold for shipments in excess of 100,000 copies .","qid":"2738","docid":"One_to_One_(Howard_Jones_album)","rank":42,"score":71200},{"content":"Title: Abe Jones Jr. Content: Abraham Jones ( April 1899 -- after 1923 ) was an English professional footballer who played in the Football League for Birmingham , Reading , Brighton & Hove Albion and Merthyr Town . Jones was born in West Bromwich , Staffordshire , the son of West Bromwich Albion and Middlesbrough player Abraham Jones . A forward , he played local football for West Bromwich Sandwell before joining Birmingham in 1919 . He made his debut in the Second Division deputising for Harry Hampton in a home game against Fulham on 6 April 1920 , scoring both goals in a 2 -- 0 win . Though Jones retained his place for the next two games , Hampton kept him out of the side thereafter , and in August 1921 he moved on to Reading . A season later he joined Brighton & Hove Albion , after another year went to Merthyr Town , and then to Stoke .","qid":"2738","docid":"Abe_Jones_Jr.","rank":43,"score":71196},{"content":"Title: Philip Jones (musician) Content: Philip Jones CBE ( 12 March 1928 -- 17 January 2000 ) was a British trumpeter and leader of an internationally famous brass chamber music ensemble . Philip Jones was born in Bath , England . In 1944 he won a scholarship to the Royal College of Music . He became principal trumpet for most major London orchestras : The Royal Philharmonic ( 1956 -- 60 ) , the Philharmonia ( 1960 -- 64 ) , the Philharmonic ( 1964 -- 65 ) , the New Philharmonia ( 1965 -- 67 ) and the BBC Symphony ( 1967 -- 71 ) . His playing continues a line of English trumpeters that stretches back to Ernest Hall . In 1951 he had formed the Philip Jones Brass Ensemble , one of the first brass ensembles working regularly as a stable group . They grew from four members to ten and larger for special projects . The most usual formations were the quintet ( two trumpets , horn , trombone and tuba ) and the ten-piece ( four trumpeters one sometimes doubling piccolo trumpet and one sometimes doubling flugel horn , horn , four trombones and tuba ) . The success of these formations owes much to Philip Jones 's work . After 1971 he devoted himself to it full-time and the group commanded long commitment from many fine players including : the trumpeters Elgar Howarth , John Wilbraham , Michael Laird and James Watson ; horn players Ifor James and Frank Lloyd ; trombonists John Iveson and Raymond Premru ; and the renowned tubist John Fletcher . They made 50 recordings and toured over 30 countries finding particular popularity in Japan . Repertoire spanned from transcriptions of early music by the likes of Monteverdi , Giovanni Gabrieli , and Johann Pezel , to new works for the medium commissioned by Jones . These included pieces by Witold Lutosławski , Hans Werner Henze and Einojuhani Rautavaara ; altogether they performed 87 world premieres . The ensemble 's leader was noted for his meticulous preparations at every concert , lining up the music stands himself , his personal commitment being one of the reasons for the ensemble 's success . In 1986 he accidentally drove his car over his own trumpet case . He took this as the hand of fate and decided to retire from concert performances . He held posts at the Royal Northern College of Music and Trinity College of Music , where he was Principal until his retirement in 1994 . He was chairman of the Musicians Benevolent Fund in 1995 . He was awarded the OBE in 1977 and the CBE in 1986 . When not at work he divided his time between Switzerland and London .","qid":"2738","docid":"Philip_Jones_(musician)","rank":44,"score":70989},{"content":"Title: Heart Warming Content: Heart Warming was a gospel record label started by John T. Benson Jr. . Heart Warming and their chief rival Canaan Records ( owned by Word Records ) were arguably the two biggest and best gospel labels in their time . The Oak Ridge Boys , Stamps Quartet , Jake Hess & The Imperials , Dottie Rambo , Bill Gaither Trio and Speer Family all signed to it and had many recordings on it . The Cathedral Quartet produced two of their most popular albums on it With Brass and With Strings . Producers for the label included Bob Benson ( John Benson 's son ) , Bob MacKenzie ( died Oct. 20 , 2000 ) , and Don Light . Bob MacKenzie in particular produced some of the best gospel albums of that era and some of the best albums of the groups above . Eventually the Benson company dropped the Heart Warming label instead having RiverSong be the southern gospel division and Impact Records and later Benson labels be their contemporary labels . Finally in 2006 it was announced that Heart Warming , along with RiverSong was sold to Homeland Entertainment Group , former President of Zondervan Music Group , Bob Jones Jr is part owner of the company .","qid":"2738","docid":"Heart_Warming","rank":45,"score":70885},{"content":"Title: Philemon (musical) Content: Philemon is a 1975 Off-Broadway musical by Tom Jones and Harvey Schmidt . The show was produced on Hollywood Television Theatre in 1976 with the original cast and directed by Norman Lloyd . It had a brief Off-Broadway revival in 1991 .","qid":"2738","docid":"Philemon_(musical)","rank":46,"score":70224},{"content":"Title: Greg Jones (skier) Content: Gregory Jones ( born December 3 , 1953 ) is a former World Cup alpine ski racer from the United States . Born in Tahoe City , California , he specialized in giant slalom . Jones competed in all three events at the 1976 Winter Olympics and finished 9th in the giant slalom , 11th in the downhill , and 19th in the slalom . His all-around performance earned a World Championship bronze medal in the combined event . Jones won a World Cup race a few weeks later in the United States at Copper Mountain , Colorado . Teammate Phil Mahre was the runner-up for the first-ever one-two finish by U.S. men in a World Cup race .","qid":"2738","docid":"Greg_Jones_(skier)","rank":47,"score":69968},{"content":"Title: Graham Jones (English author) Content: Graham Jones ( born 1956 ) is an English lecturer and business owner . Graham Jones is an author , speaker and writer . He is the former President and current Chief Executive of the UK Professional Speaking Association . Jones is also an Associate Lecturer in psychology at the Open University , and visiting lecturer in ECommerce at Buckingham University . He specialises in writing about the psychology of the Internet and has an active interest in Cyberpsychology . Jones is a regular commentator on the Internet for several media outlets , including the BBC . Married with one son , Jones resides near Reading , Berkshire .","qid":"2738","docid":"Graham_Jones_(English_author)","rank":48,"score":69884},{"content":"Title: Ronald W. Jones Content: Ronald Winthrop Jones ( born 1931 ) is an influential international trade economist and Xerox Professor of Economics at the University of Rochester . His recent highly acclaimed book Globalization and the Theory of Input Trade ( 2000 ) summarizes much of his past work and also discusses the recent market trend toward fragmentation and outsourcing of the production process . Professor Jones also is an author of World Trade and Payments ( with Richard E. Caves and Jeffrey Frankel ) , an upper-level college textbook that focuses on international economics . He earned an A.B. from Swarthmore College in 1952 and a Ph.D. from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1956 .","qid":"2738","docid":"Ronald_W._Jones","rank":49,"score":69257},{"content":"Title: Mean What You Say (Thad Jones/Pepper Adams Quintet album) Content: Mean What You Say is an album by the Thad Jones/Pepper Adams Quintet recorded in 1966 and released on the Milestone label .","qid":"2738","docid":"Mean_What_You_Say_(Thad_Jones/Pepper_Adams_Quintet_album)","rank":50,"score":69188},{"content":"Title: Eifion Jones (cricketer) Content: Eifion Wyn Jones ( born 25 June 1942 in Velindre , Glamorgan ) was a Welsh cricketer who played for Glamorgan County Cricket Club . When he first came to Glamorgan Jones was a specialist right-handed batsman but after being tutored by Phil Clift he became a wicketkeeper . He made his first-class debut in 1961 , and served as deputy keeper to David Evans until the late 1960s , when he became the county 's first-choice keeper , a position he held until 1982 . He took a record 933 dismissals for his county . In 1970 he took 7 dismissals in an innings against Cambridge University , and he finished the season with 94 dismissals . However , the continued good form of Alan Knott and Bob Taylor kept him out of consideration for the Test team . In 1968 he made the highest ever score by a Glamorgan keeper with 146 not out against Sussex . His most successful season with the bat was Glamorgan 's championship season of 1969 , when he scored 753 runs at an average of 31.37 . Thereafter his batting gradually declined , and after 1975 he never averaged as high as 20 in a season . He retired after the 1983 season , at the age of 41 .","qid":"2738","docid":"Eifion_Jones_(cricketer)","rank":51,"score":69102},{"content":"Title: JW-Jones Content: JW-Jones ( born July 15 , 1980 ) is a Canadian blues guitarist , singer , songwriter and band leader . He is a Juno Award nominee ( 2015 ) , Billboard magazine Top 10 Selling artist , and winner of the Blues Foundation 's International Blues Challenge for `` Best Self-Produced CD Award '' for his release ` High Temperature ' in 2017 . Jones ' first recording contract was signed with CrossCut Records ( Germany ) in 2000 , who released his first seven CDs in Europe . He was the first artist signed to the NorthernBlues Music label in Toronto and released his first six recordings with the label . Jones has also worked with Ruf Records in the USA , and is now signed to Blind Pig Records . In the last decade , he has released seven albums . He has played in 23 countries in four continents and continues to tour extensively . Jones , who lives in Ottawa , Ontario , has performed at blues festivals , theatres and clubs in Canada , the USA , Europe , United Kingdom , Russia , Australia and Brazil . On June 19 , 2014 , Jones was presented with a Forty Under 40 Award by Ottawa Business Journal/Ottawa Chamber of Commerce . It is a celebration of entrepreneurship in Ottawa - a `` salute to the region 's young business stars who balance business achievement , professional expertise and community involvement . ''","qid":"2738","docid":"JW-Jones","rank":52,"score":68984},{"content":"Title: Phil Friendly Content: Phil Friendly ( born Philip Izvarin , May 30 , 1977 ) is a Rockabilly Hall of Fame inductee ( Second Generation Artist ) . He is an American rockabilly and country rock singer , guitarist and songwriter of Russian descent . He has been active in the music industry since the early 1990s . Friendly is known for his successful US tours with the rockabilly pioneer Glen Glenn and various European and US CD releases , most notably his recordings with the Grammy-winning guitar legend Albert Lee ( released by the UK label Evangeline Records , Ltd ) . Phil and his trio have occasionally done live TV and radio performances as well . In 2009 Friendly 's original composition ` Every Single Day ' was included in the soundtrack of a new American motion picture `` Saving Grace B. Jones '' , produced and directed by Connie Stevens and starring Oscar-winning actress Tatum O'Neal . In 2012 ` She Wan na Do It ' , another Phil Friendly 's song , was used in a film `` Mighty Fine '' , starring Chazz Palminteri and Andie MacDowell . In 2015 two of Friendly 's tunes , ` Sugar Daddy ' and ` She Wan na Do It ' , were included in the British hit-comedy `` Man Up '' , starring an English actor and comedian Simon Pegg . Phil Friendly resides and regularly performs with his band in Los Angeles , California and frequently tours in different parts of the United States and Europe .","qid":"2738","docid":"Phil_Friendly","rank":53,"score":68936},{"content":"Title: Loving You Could Never Be Better Content: `` Loving You Could Never Be Better '' is a song written by Earl Montgomery , and recorded by American country music artist George Jones . It was released in April 1972 as the second single from his album George Jones ( We Can Make It ) . The song peaked at number 2 on the Billboard Hot Country Singles chart . It also reached number 1 on the RPM Country Tracks chart in Canada . The song was a good example of how producer Billy Sherrill had updated the sound of Jones ' records , incorporating a laid back , R&B bass line . By drawing from such unlikely and disparate musical influences as Johann Strauss and `` wall of sound '' rock producer Phil Spector , he gradually began embroidering his own subtle permutations on the rather predictable fabric of country record production . `` I just decided I 'd do it my way , and screw 'em if they did n't like it , '' Jones biographer Bob Allen quotes Sherrill . `` Back then , the musicians had their own repertoire of stock Nashville licks and chord progressions that would work on any song . But I often wanted something different , and I 'd make 'em play it . ''","qid":"2738","docid":"Loving_You_Could_Never_Be_Better","rank":54,"score":68794},{"content":"Title: Have You Met Miss Jones? Content: `` Have You Met Miss Jones ? '' is a popular song that was written for the musical comedy , I 'd Rather Be Right . The music was written by Richard Rodgers and the lyrics by Lorenz Hart . The song was published in 1937 . In the musical the song is performed by characters Peggy Jones and Phil Barker . In the 1937 version these characters were performed by Joy Hodges and Austin Marshall . A version of `` Have You Met Miss Jones '' was recorded by Frank Sinatra on his Sinatra Swings album . Bing Crosby recorded the song in 1956 on his Bing Sings Whilst Bregman Swings album . It was also covered by Scatman John . Ella Fitzgerald included this song in her Verve Records album Ella Fitzgerald Sings the Rodgers and Hart Songbook ( 1957 ) . Joe Pass recorded his version of the song on his 1973 album Virtuoso . Pass 's recording alternates between F major and G flat major . The song 's bridge , featuring key motion by major thirds , may have served as an inspiration to John Coltrane in the development of `` Coltrane changes '' . McCoy Tyner recorded a version of the song on his second album , Reaching Fourth ( 1963 ) . John Barrowman sang the song on television . The Hi-Lo 's included it on their 1954 album Listen ! . John Ritter sang it ( as a philandering author in a piano bar ) in the Blake Edwards romantic comedy , `` Skin Deep . '' Robbie Williams performed it for the soundtrack of the film Bridget Jones 's Diary ( 2001 ) , and it was also included in Williams 's album , Swing When You 're Winning ( 2001 ) .","qid":"2738","docid":"Have_You_Met_Miss_Jones?","rank":55,"score":68719},{"content":"Title: John Robert Jones Content: For the John Robert Jones who writes as John Dalmas , see John Dalmas John Robert Jones ( 4 September 1911 -- 3 June 1970 ) , was a Welsh philosopher . He was born in Pwllheli , and went to school there before going on to study philosophy at University of Wales , Aberystwyth . He went on to take his D.Phil . at Balliol College , Oxford . He returned to Aberystwyth to lecture in philosophy , and in 1952 was appointed Professor of Philosophy at University of Wales , Swansea . In 1961 he was visiting professor at Chapel Hill University , North Carolina . On his return to Wales , he became more politically active , speaking out against the investiture of Charles , Prince of Wales , in 1969 , resigning from the Gorsedd of Bards in protest . As a philosopher , he was influenced by Wittgenstein and Simone Weil . His writings dealt mainly with three problems : the nature of the self , the nature of perception , and the nature of universals .","qid":"2738","docid":"John_Robert_Jones","rank":56,"score":68524},{"content":"Title: Jones Mountains Content: The Jones Mountains are an isolated group of mountains , trending generally east-west for 43 km ( 27 mi ) , situated on the Eights Coast , Ellsworth Land , about 80 km ( 50 mi ) south of Dustin Island in Antarctica . The charts of the USAS , 1939-41 , show mountains in this approximate location and relationship to Dustin and Thurston Islands , indicating they were sighted in the flight from the ship Bear , February 27 , 1940 . The mountains appear in distant air photos taken by US Navy Operation Highjump , December 30 , 1946 , and were observed from USN aircraft by Edward Thiel and J. Campbell Craddock , January 22 , 1960 . The naming was proposed by Thiel and Craddock after Dr. Thomas O. Jones ( 1908-93 ) , American chemist ; senior NSF official in charge of the U.S. Antarctic Research Program , 1958-78 ; Director , Division of Environmental Science , NSF , 1965-69 ; Deputy Assistant Director for National and International Programs , NSF , 1969-78 .","qid":"2738","docid":"Jones_Mountains","rank":57,"score":68467},{"content":"Title: Floyd Jones Content: Floyd Jones ( July 21 , 1917 -- December 19 , 1989 ) was an American blues singer , guitarist and songwriter , who was one of the first of the new generation of electric blues artists to record in Chicago after World War II . A number of his recordings are regarded as classics of the Chicago blues idiom . His song `` On the Road Again '' was a top 10 hit for Canned Heat in 1968 . Notably for a blues artist of his era , several of his songs have economic or social themes , such as `` Stockyard Blues '' ( which refers to a strike at the Union Stock Yards ) , `` Hard Times '' and `` Schooldays '' .","qid":"2738","docid":"Floyd_Jones","rank":58,"score":68379},{"content":"Title: Philip Jones Content: Philip , Phil or Phill Jones may refer to :","qid":"2738","docid":"Philip_Jones","rank":59,"score":68274},{"content":"Title: Black Cross (Hezekiah Jones) Content: `` Black Cross '' ( AKA `` Hezekiah Jones '' , after the main character ) is a poem by Joseph Simon Newman , published in his 1948 collection It Could Be Verse ! . Hezekiah was a poor black farmer , who worked his two acres of land ; but , he also saved up for and read books . The white folks thereabouts thought him harmless enough , but that `` reading ai n't no good for an ignorant nigger '' . Reverend Green , of the white man 's church , visited him and asked if he believed in the Lord , the church , and Heaven . Hezekiah replied , that he 'd never seen the Lord ; that the church was divided ; and that he tried to be as good as he could without expecting anything from Heaven or the Lord . The poem was a signature piece of the American stage performer Lord Buckley . A live performance , in which he speaks the words over a solo female voice singing and humming the spiritual `` Kumbaya '' and a sparse instrumental accompaniment , is included on his 1959 album Way Out Humor , re-released in 1964 as Lord Buckley in Concert . Early in his career , Bob Dylan performed the poem , in slightly shortened form , as a spoken piece with guitar accompaninent in a style based on that of Lord Buckley . Two amateur recordings exist : on one of the Minnesota Hotel Tapes , December 1961 , and on the Second Gaslight Tape , October 1962 . The Minnesota performance was released on the 1969 bootleg album Great White Wonder , and has since been included in other unofficial compilations . The Gaslight performance was released on the unofficial 1985 album Gaslight Tapes .","qid":"2738","docid":"Black_Cross_(Hezekiah_Jones)","rank":60,"score":68270},{"content":"Title: Bradley Jones Jr. Content: Bradley H. Jones Jr. ( born January 9 , 1965 in North Reading , Massachusetts ) is a Republican member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives since January 1994 . He has also been the minority leader of the House since 2003 . Jones represents the 20th Middlesex district , he represents parts of Lynnfield , Middleton , North Reading and Reading .","qid":"2738","docid":"Bradley_Jones_Jr.","rank":61,"score":68202},{"content":"Title: Phill Content: Phill ( usually a diminutive of Phillip ) may refer to : Phill Calvert ( born 1958 ) , Australian rock drummer and producer , played in the influential post-punk band `` The Birthday Party '' Phill Drobnick ( born 1980 ) , curler Phill Feltham , Canadian journalist , Senior Editor for Maximum Fitness magazine Phill G. McDonald ( 1941 -- 1968 ) , United States Army soldier and a recipient of the Medal of Honor for his actions in the Vietnam War Phill Hartsfield , Southern California sword and knifemaker Phill Jones ( born 1974 ) , New Zealand professional basketball player Phill Jupitus ( born 1962 ) , English comedian , cartoonist , DJ , guitarist , performance poet and presenter of radio and TV Phill Kline ( born 1959 ) , the former district attorney of Johnson County , Kansas , USA Phill Lewis ( born 1968 ) , American film and television actor Phill Niblock ( born 1933 ) , composer , filmmaker , videographer , and director of Experimental Intermedia Phill Nixon ( born 1956 ) , English darts player from Ferryhill , County Durham , UK Phill Shatter ( born 1982 ) , champion heavyweight wrestler Phill Wilson ( born 1956 ) , founder of the Black AIDS Institute , prominent African-American HIV/AIDS activist https://putthatcheeseburgerdown.files.wordpress.com/2014/12/1360443372_9816755-crazy-nailbiter-a-man-biting-of-his-nails-his-fingers-are-covered-in-blood.jpg?w=350&h=200&crop=1","qid":"2738","docid":"Phill","rank":62,"score":68110},{"content":"Title: Stephen M. Jones Content: Stephen M. Jones ( born 1960 ) is an American professor of music composition at Brigham Young University ( BYU ) and currently Dean of the BYU College of Fine Arts and Communications . Among his works is the music for the hymn `` When Faith Endures '' , which is included in the current English-language edition of the LDS hymnal . Jones is a Latter-day Saint . He resides in American Fork , Utah , with his wife , Wendy , and their four children . Jones also did the music for the film Eliza and I , jointly produced by KBYU-TV and Richard Dutcher 's Zion Films in 1997 .","qid":"2738","docid":"Stephen_M._Jones","rank":63,"score":68061},{"content":"Title: Gerald Celente Content: Gerald Celente ( born November 29 , 1946 ) is an American trend forecaster , publisher of the Trends Journal , business consultant and author who makes predictions about the global financial markets and other events of historical importance . Celente has described himself as a `` political atheist '' and `` citizen of the world '' . He has appeared as a guest on media outlets such as CNN , The Oprah Winfrey Show , The Today Show , Good Morning America , CBS Morning News , The Glenn Beck Show , NBC Nightly News , The Alex Jones Show , Coast to Coast AM and Russia Today .","qid":"2738","docid":"Gerald_Celente","rank":64,"score":68044},{"content":"Title: David A. Jones Content: David Arfon Jones is a senior climatologist at the Australian Bureau of Meteorology . He initially studied mathematics and chemistry at university but changed to atmospheric studies . Jones obtained his PhD in Earth Science from the University of Melbourne , Australia in 1995 . He subsequently completed the postgraduate diploma in weather forecasting in 1995 at the Bureau of Meteorology . In 1995 Jones commenced work in the Climate Analysis Section of the Australian National Climate Centre , focusing on the automation of climate monitoring using objective analysis techniques . Subsequently he moved to the Bureau of Meteorology Research Centre in 1997 undertaking research on the variability and change of Australia 's climate . Jones became the supervisor of Climate Analysis at the Bureau of Meteorology in 2002 . In this role he has promoted the automation of analysis , monitoring and forecasting products and the introduction of a range of innovative climate monitoring activities , with a focus on encouraging the interpretation of climate variability in the context of a rapidly changing climate . Owing to the continued misrepresentation of climate change in the Australian media Jones has written a number of public pieces correcting or explaining climate change including in The Age , and in articles for the Australian Science Media Centre . In 2006 Jones was awarded the National Australia Day Council Achievement Medallion .","qid":"2738","docid":"David_A._Jones","rank":65,"score":68021},{"content":"Title: Morgan Jones (British politician) Content: Morgan Jones ( 3 May 1885 -- 23 April 1939 ) was a Welsh Labour Party politician . Jones was born in Gelligaer to a collier and a domestic servant , and attended primary schools in Gelligaer and Hengoed before studying at Lewis School , Pengam on a scholarship . He then attended Reading University , and became a teacher by profession , serving as president of the Glamorgan Federation of Teachers from 1913 to 1915 . He also became a Baptist lay preacher . Jones joined the Independent Labour Party in 1908 and was elected to Gelligaer Urban District Council in 1911 , serving as chairman of the council in 1921-22 . In the First World War he was imprisoned as a conscientious objector . He was also a member of the No Conscription Fellowship 's national committee and chairman of the South Wales Anti-Conscription Council . After the War he was elected to Glamorgan County Council . Morgan Jones was elected Member of Parliament ( MP ) for Caerphilly at a by-election in 1921 , following the death of Labour MP Alfred Onions . He clinched the Labour nomination despite not being the preferred candidate of the South Wales Miners ' Federation . He was the first conscientious objector to be elected to Parliament after World War I. Jones held the seat until his own death , aged 53 , in 1939 , when his successor was fellow conscientious objector Ness Edwards . He served as Parliamentary Secretary to the Board of Education in both the first two Labour Governments , 1924 and 1929-1931 . Jones married Gladys Thomas , also a teacher and ILP member , in 1923 . The couple had two daughters . Morgan Jones Park in Caerphilly is named after him .","qid":"2738","docid":"Morgan_Jones_(British_politician)","rank":66,"score":67846},{"content":"Title: Antarctica cooling controversy Content: An apparent contradiction in the observed cooling behavior of Antarctica between 1966 and 2000 became part of the public debate in the global warming controversy , particularly between advocacy groups of both sides in the public arena including politicians , as well as the popular media . In his novel State of Fear , Michael Crichton asserted that the Antarctic data contradict global warming . The few scientists who have commented on the supposed controversy state that there is no contradiction , while the author of the paper whose work inspired Crichton 's remarks has said that Crichton `` misused '' his results . There is no similar controversy within the scientific community , as the small observed changes in Antarctica are consistent with the small changes predicted by climate models , and because the overall trend since comprehensive observations began is now known to be one of warming . At the South Pole , where some of the strongest cooling trends were observed between the 1950s and 1990s , the mean trend is flat from 1957 through 2013 .","qid":"2738","docid":"Antarctica_cooling_controversy","rank":67,"score":67738},{"content":"Title: Phil Monroe Content: Phil Monroe ( October 31 , 1916 -- July 13 , 1988 ) was an American animator and director best known for working for Warner Bros. . Cartoons under the supervision of Chuck Jones . Monroe has also worked for UPA , DePatie-Freleng , and MGM Animation/Visual Arts .","qid":"2738","docid":"Phil_Monroe","rank":68,"score":67617},{"content":"Title: Wibjörn Karlén Content: Wibjörn Karlén ( born 26 August 1937 in Kristine , Kopparberg County , Sweden ) , Ph.D. , is a professor emeritus of physical geography and quaternary geology at Stockholm University , Sweden . In an article which describes Karlén as a paleoclimatologist , he is quoted as saying : `` One of the big problems with trying to determine long-term temperature changes , is that weather records only go back to about 1860 . By relying on statistical reconstruction of the last 1000 years , using only the temperature patterns of the last 140 years instead of actual temperature readings , the IPCC report and Summary missed both a major cooling period as well as a significant warming trend during that millennium . '' Karlén has also criticized the mainstream media for `` spreading the exaggerated views of a human impact on climate . '' He was also named in a 2007 minority report of the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee as one of 400 `` prominent scientists '' who were said to dispute global warming . In 2010 , he predicted that natural climate changes , caused to a large degree by the sun 's activity , would more likely make the climate colder than warmer in the next decades . He is a contributing author to the Fraser Institute 2007 Independent Summary for Policymakers . Karlén is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences .","qid":"2738","docid":"Wibjörn_Karlén","rank":69,"score":67360},{"content":"Title: I Saw Me Content: `` I Saw Me '' is a ballad by American country singer George Jones . It was released as the B-side to `` Not What I Had in Mind '' and made the Top 30 , peaking at # 29 . In the song , which Jones wrote with Gene Davis , the narrator experiences an awakening of his conscience as he recognizes his own misdeeds that brought an end to his relationship with a woman , lamenting , `` Yes I looked into my eyes and saw the reason why she cries . '' Jones vocal delivery is more restrained than some of his other releases from the period , foreshadowing his more mature , stylistic singing in the years ahead . It was produced by Pappy Daily .","qid":"2738","docid":"I_Saw_Me","rank":70,"score":67341},{"content":"Title: I'd Rather Be Right Content: I 'd Rather Be Right is a musical with a book by Moss Hart and George S. Kaufman , lyrics by Lorenz Hart , and music by Richard Rodgers . The story is a Depression-era political satire set in New York City , about Washington politics and political figures , such as President Franklin Roosevelt . The plot centers on Peggy Jones ( Joy Hodges ) and her boyfriend Phil ( Austin Marshall ) , who needs a raise in order for them to get married . The President steps in and solves their dilemma . It premiered on Broadway at the Alvin Theatre on November 2 , 1937 , produced by Sam H. Harris , and transferred to the Music Box Theatre , and ran for 290 performances . It starred George M. Cohan as Franklin Roosevelt . Cohan , playing FDR , danced in such pieces as `` Off the Record '' , not possible in real life for the disabled President . H. G. Wells wrote enthusiastically about the musical , and Cohan 's performance as Roosevelt , in an article `` The Fall in America 1937 '' , published in Collier 's on 28 January 1938 and reprinted in his World Brain ( 1938 ) . The musical is prominently featured in the 1942 Cohan biopic Yankee Doodle Dandy , where it serves as a narrative bookend . James Cagney , playing Cohan , after meeting FDR in the Oval Office , performs a joyous tap dance as he walks back down the stairs of the White House . In the film , we also see Cagney as Cohan performing `` Off the Record '' during the show 's run . ( Because the film was made during World War II , the film also anachronistically added some morale-boosting lyrics at the end of the song as part of Warner Bros. ' wartime propaganda ) .","qid":"2738","docid":"I'd_Rather_Be_Right","rank":71,"score":67269},{"content":"Title: Phil Morris (actor) Content: Phillip Morris ( born April 4 , 1959 ) is an American television , voice , and film actor . He played Jackie Chiles in the NBC sitcom Seinfeld and John Jones in The CW superhero drama Smallville . He last starred as Delroy Jones in Love That Girl ! .","qid":"2738","docid":"Phil_Morris_(actor)","rank":72,"score":67244},{"content":"Title: The Great Southern Trendkill Content: The Great Southern Trendkill is the eighth studio album by American heavy metal band Pantera , released on May 7 , 1996 by EastWest Records . It reached number 4 on the Billboard 200 chart , and managed to stay on the chart for over 16 weeks . Due to tension and conflicts within the band , Phil Anselmo recorded the vocals alone at Trent Reznor 's Nothing Studios in New Orleans while Dimebag Darrell , Rex Brown and Vinnie Paul recorded the music at Chasin Jason Studios in Dallas .","qid":"2738","docid":"The_Great_Southern_Trendkill","rank":73,"score":67238},{"content":"Title: Phil Spector International Content: Phil Spector International was a record label operated between 1970 and 1980 by Malcolm Jones . It served as a reissue label for the catalogue of Phil Spector 's Philles Records . Among its reissues was a six volume set called `` Phil Spector Wall Of Sound '' . The volumes were : Vol . 1 The Ronettes - ... Presenting the Fabulous Ronettes featuring Veronica ( Super 2307 003 ) . Vol . 2 Bob B. Soxx & the Blue Jeans - Zip-A-Dee Doo Dah ( Super 2307 004 ) . Vol . 3 The Crystals - The Crystals Sing Their Greatest Hits ( Super 2307 006 ) . Vol . 4 Various Artists - Yesterday 's Hits Today ( Super 2307 007 ) . Vol . 5 Various Artists - Rare Masters Vol . 1 ( Super 2307 008 ) . Vol . 6 Various Artists - Rare Masters Vol . 2 ( Super 2307 009 ) .","qid":"2738","docid":"Phil_Spector_International","rank":74,"score":66878},{"content":"Title: Brett Jones (songwriter) Content: Brett Jones is an American singer , ASCAP songwriter , and music publisher from Warm Springs , Georgia , United States . He is a notable figure in country music that has had over one hundred songs recorded , fourteen top ten hits , and five number one hits . Jones signed a publishing deal with a company owned by country music singer Ronnie Milsap . His first top twenty hit came in 1995 with Confederate Railroad 's `` When and Where . '' He owns Crazytown Productions/Big Borassa Music , in which he looks over many of his own catalogs such as Big Borassa Music , Jonesbone Music , and Brett Jones Music . As of 2012 , his catalogs and himself as an artist were signed to ole , a rights management company . Jones , as an artist , also released his own CD called Life 's Road in 2009 and followed with Cowboy Sailor in July 2014 .","qid":"2738","docid":"Brett_Jones_(songwriter)","rank":75,"score":66871},{"content":"Title: Jim Jones and The Righteous Mind Content: Jim Jones and the Righteous Mind are a British rock band formed in November 2014 by Jim Jones following the break-up of The Jim Jones Revue , the band name taken from a book on social psychology . The band also includes former Revue bass player Gavin Jay , drummer Phil Martini , guitarist Mal Troon , and keyboard player Matt Millership , the latter two replacing original members Joe Glossop and David Page .","qid":"2738","docid":"Jim_Jones_and_The_Righteous_Mind","rank":76,"score":66769},{"content":"Title: The Starters Content: The Starters ( previously known as The Basketball Jones ) is a podcast , blog and television program that analyzes , and often satirizes , the National Basketball Association . The show is written and hosted by Canadians Tas Melas and Phil Elder ( J.E. Skeets ) , Australian Leigh Ellis and American Trey Kerby , and it is shot , edited , and produced by Canadians Jason Doyle and Matt Osten . Kerby is also the blog editor . The show is currently broadcast on NBA TV and also available as an audio-only podcast .","qid":"2738","docid":"The_Starters","rank":77,"score":66756},{"content":"Title: Accidentally On Purpose Content: `` Accidentally on Purpose '' is a ballad by George Jones . It was composed by Jones and Darrell Edwards and released it as the B-side to `` Sparkling Brown Eyes '' on Mercury Records in 1960 . In the song , the narrator accuses a former lover of marrying another man just to spite him . The song made the top 20 , peaking at No. 16 on the Billboard country singles chart . Johnny Cash recorded the song in 1960 for his LP Now There Was a Song !","qid":"2738","docid":"Accidentally_On_Purpose","rank":78,"score":66674},{"content":"Title: This Is How I Feel About Jazz Content: This Is How I Feel About Jazz is the 1957 debut album by jazz musician Quincy Jones . It presents Jones as arranger and conductor of three different recording sessions during September 1956 , each with a different line-up , from a nonet to a 15-part big band , that featured musicians like Art Farmer , Phil Woods , Lucky Thompson , Hank Jones , Paul Chambers , Milt Jackson , and also -- although recorded in New York -- West Coast musicians like Art Pepper , Zoot Sims and Herbie Mann . The bonus tracks on the CD release confirm the influence of West Coast jazz with compositions by Jimmy Giuffre , Lennie Niehaus and Charlie Mariano . The album was originally produced by Creed Taylor and released on ABC-Paramount . The digital reissue on CD in 1992 was repackaged as an Impulse ! Records release , ABCs sub-label for contemporary jazz established by Taylor four years after these sessions took place ( The Impulse version has a similar cover to the original , shown here , but with the addition of the famous impulse ! logo . )","qid":"2738","docid":"This_Is_How_I_Feel_About_Jazz","rank":79,"score":66368},{"content":"Title: Who Said I Would Content: `` Who Said I Would '' is a song performed by Phil Collins that was originally recorded for his 1985 album No Jacket Required . A new live version was released in 1991 as a single from his live album Serious Hits ... Live ! in the United States . It was the sole single to be released from the album in America .","qid":"2738","docid":"Who_Said_I_Would","rank":80,"score":66347},{"content":"Title: The Very Best of Howard Jones Content: The Very Best of Howard Jones is a collection of Howard Jones 's biggest hits from 1983 through 2003 . It also contains one new track , `` Revolution Of The Heart '' , in its original form . It would later be altered and featured on his 2005 album , Revolution Of The Heart . The Very Best Of Howard Jones also came with a bonus disc of b-sides . The two-disc set featuring 36 synth-pop hits includes `` New Song , '' `` Everlasting Love , '' and the Phil Collins-produced version of `` No One Is To Blame . ''","qid":"2738","docid":"The_Very_Best_of_Howard_Jones","rank":81,"score":66149},{"content":"Title: Granville E. Jones Content: Granville E. Jones ( October 14 , 1900 -- March 7 , 1959 ) was a funeral director and Democratic politician from Philadelphia . Jones was born in 1900 in Baltimore , Maryland . He moved to Philadelphia and graduated from the H. E. Dolan 's College of Mortuary Science , after which he worked as a funeral director . Jones was also president of the Quaker City Funeral Directors Association . In 1948 , he was elected to the first of six terms in the Pennsylvania House of Representatives . In 1953 , he ran for City Treasurer of Philadelphia , but was unsuccessful . He died in office in 1959 and was buried at Mount Lawn Cemetery in Delaware County .","qid":"2738","docid":"Granville_E._Jones","rank":82,"score":66079},{"content":"Title: D. G. Jones Content: Douglas Gordon `` D. G. '' Jones ( January 1 , 1929 -- March 6 , 2016 ) was a Canadian poet , translator and educator . Born in Bancroft , Ontario , Jones was educated at the private school of Lakefield College School in Ontario , at McGill University and at Queen 's University . He received his M.A. from Queen 's University in 1954 . Jones then taught English literature at the University of Guelph , then Bishop 's University and finally the Université de Sherbrooke . In 1969 , Jones co-founded the bilingual literary journal Ellipse , which continues to be the only literary periodical in Canada which provides reciprocal translations , in equal measure , of both English and French Canadian poetry . Jones has been a member of the Arts and Advisory Panel of the Canada Council . His 1978 collection , Under the Thunder the Flowers Light up the Earth , received the 1978 Governor General 's Award for Poetry . His rendition of Normand de Bellefeuille 's Categorics One , Two and Three received the 1993 Governor General 's Award for Translation . Considered a seminal figure of the mythopoeic strain of Canadian poetry , Jones is also a highly respected essayist and translator . His key work of critical writing is Butterfly on Rock : A Study of Themes and Images in Canadian Literature ( 1970 ) .","qid":"2738","docid":"D._G._Jones","rank":83,"score":65985},{"content":"Title: R. W. T. Lees-Jones Content: Richard William Thomas Lees-Jones ( 1891 -- 1978 ) was a British philatelist who signed the Roll of Distinguished Philatelists in 1950 . Lees-Jones was an expert on the stamps of Canada and plated the early issues , particularly the 12 1/2 c of 1859 . In 1936 he gave to the Royal Philatelic Society London a collection of Canada 1897-1936 in mint blocks of four with plate numbers . In 1951 he won that society 's Tilleard Medal for his display of Papermakers ' Watermarks . That collection was auctioned by HR Harmer Ltd in 1952 . His Canadian stamps were shown , hors concours , at the London International Stamp Exhibition 1960 . He was President of the Canadian Philatelic Society .","qid":"2738","docid":"R._W._T._Lees-Jones","rank":84,"score":65849},{"content":"Title: Calvin \"Fuzz\" Jones Content: Calvin `` Fuzz '' Jones ( June 9 , 1926 August 9 , 2010 ) was an American electric blues bassist and singer . He worked with many blues musicians , including Muddy Waters , Howlin ' Wolf , the Legendary Blues Band , Mississippi Heat , James Cotton , Luther `` Guitar Junior '' Johnson , Little Walter , Elmore James , and Cassandra Wilson . He contributed to the collaborative 1996 album Eye to Eye , which also featured Pinetop Perkins , Willie `` Big Eyes '' Smith , Ronnie Earl and Bruce Katz .","qid":"2738","docid":"Calvin_\"Fuzz\"_Jones","rank":85,"score":65808},{"content":"Title: Robert Jones (composer) Content: Robert Jones ( c. 1577 -- 1617 ) was an English lutenist and composer , the most prolific of the English lute song composers ( along with Thomas Campion ) . He received the degree of B.Mus from Oxford in 1597 ( St. Edmund Hall ) . He ran a school in London . Records show that he had a patent ( monopoly ) to train children for the Queen 's Revels between 1610 -- 15 . In 1610 , he collaborated with Philip Rosseter to present plays at the Whitefriars theatre . He was recorded as a Gentleman of the Chapel Royal 1612 . He published five volumes of simple and melodious lute songs , and one of madrigals ; he also contributed to The Triumphs of Oriana and Leighton 's Teares . His 27 madrigals are mostly to texts about birds -- birds merry , sweet , shrill , crowing or melancholic . William Shakespeare quoted his song , ` Farewell , dear love ' , in Twelfth Night . The date and place of Jones 's death are not recorded .","qid":"2738","docid":"Robert_Jones_(composer)","rank":86,"score":65795},{"content":"Title: Jones Very Content: Jones Very ( August 28 , 1813 -- May 8 , 1880 ) was an American poet , essayist , clergyman , and mystic associated with the American Transcendentalism movement . He was known as a scholar of William Shakespeare and many of his poems were Shakespearean sonnets . He was well-known and respected amongst the Transcendentalists , though he had a mental breakdown early in his career . Born in Salem , Massachusetts to two unwed first cousins , Jones Very became associated with Harvard University , first as an undergraduate , then as a student in the Harvard Divinity School and as a tutor of Greek . He heavily studied epic poetry and was invited to lecture on the topic in his home town , which drew the attention of Ralph Waldo Emerson . Soon after , Very asserted that he was the Second Coming of Christ , which resulted in his dismissal from Harvard and his eventual institutionalization in an insane asylum . When he was released , Emerson helped him issue a collection called Essays and Poems in 1839 . Very lived the majority of his life as a recluse from then on , issuing poetry only sparingly . He died in 1880 .","qid":"2738","docid":"Jones_Very","rank":87,"score":65774},{"content":"Title: Phil Lempert Content: Phil Lempert ( born April 1953 ) has been the Food Trends Editor for NBC 's Today show since 1991 . Known as the `` SupermarketGuru '' , Lempert appears weekly with `` New Product Hit 's & Misses '' on ABC Now and hosts a weekly radio show called Good Day with SupermarketGuru . Lempert is a contributing editor of Supermarket News , and a content provider for SN . He has written for Newsday , Family Circle , and Meat & Seafood Merchandising , among other publications .","qid":"2738","docid":"Phil_Lempert","rank":88,"score":65723},{"content":"Title: Joe Jones Content: Joe Jones may refer to : Joe Jones ( artist ) ( 1909 -- 1963 ) , American painter , muralist , and lithographer Joe Jones ( Fluxus musician ) ( 1934 -- 1993 ) , American avant-garde musician associated with Fluxus Joe Jones ( American football ) ( born 1948 ) , former American football player for the NFL 's Cleveland Browns Joe Jones ( singer ) ( 1926 -- 2005 ) , American rhythm and blues singer and composer Philly Joe Jones ( 1923 -- 1985 ) , American modern jazz drummer Boogaloo Joe Jones ( born 1940 ) , American jazz guitarist who first recorded as Joe Jones Joe Jones ( basketball ) ( born 1965 ) , current head men 's basketball coach at Boston University Joe Jones ( baseball ) ( born 1941 ) , American professional baseball coach and Manager # Joe Jones ( cyclist ) ( born 1944 ) , Canadian Olympic cyclist Joe Jones ( rugby ) , Welsh rugby union and rugby league footballer of the 1930s and 1940s Joe Jones ( footballer ) ( 1887 -- 1941 ) , Welsh international footballer who also played for Stoke , Crystal Palace and Coventry Joe Jones ( NASCAR driver ) , retired former NASCAR Cup Series driver","qid":"2738","docid":"Joe_Jones","rank":89,"score":65641},{"content":"Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .","qid":"2738","docid":"Global_warming_controversy","rank":90,"score":65598},{"content":"Title: Kenneth Jones (songwriter) Content: Kenneth Jones ( 1952 -- 1969 ) , was the son of Helen Myrl Carter ( of country music 's Carter Family ) and of Glenn Jones . He is best remembered for a song he wrote called `` Sing A Traveling Song '' which appeared on Johnny Cash 's albums Hello , I 'm Johnny Cash and Johnny Cash at Madison Square Garden . Kenneth was Cash 's nephew-in-law . Cash 's second wife , June Carter Cash , was Helen 's sister . Kenneth , or Kenny as he was also known , wrote many songs and was a talented musician . At the time of his death he was under contract with Monument Records and appeared destined for a highly successful career . Following his death the Carter Family recorded one of his songs , 2001 Ballad to the Future . A few have noted the lyrics as being eerily prophetic of the September 11 , 2001 terrorist attacks on the United States which took place more than thirty years after the song was written . During the introduction to `` Sing A Traveling Song '' on the Johnny Cash at Madison Square Garden album , Cash says , `` One of the songs in the new album Hello , I 'm Johnny Cash was written by a young man , 15 years old , Kenny Jones , who was the son of Helen Carter . We do this song tonight as a tribute to Kenny Jones who was killed in an automobile accident at the age of 16 . And to give you an idea of the talents of this young man while he was with us , here was a song that he wrote when he was 14 . ''","qid":"2738","docid":"Kenneth_Jones_(songwriter)","rank":91,"score":65598},{"content":"Title: There Is No Greater Love Content: `` There Is No Greater Love '' is a 1936 jazz standard composed by Isham Jones , with lyrics by Marty Symes . It was the last hit song for Jones 's orchestra before the bandleader turned the orchestra over to Woody Herman , beginning the latter 's 50-year career as a bandleader . The song is often played as a ballad -- an example of this approach is Dinah Washington 's 1954 recording on Dinah Jams . Medium-tempo swing renditions have also been recorded by several artists , including Miles Davis on two occasions .","qid":"2738","docid":"There_Is_No_Greater_Love","rank":92,"score":65581},{"content":"Title: Anthony M. Jones Content: Anthony M. Jones ( born March 31 , 1982 ) , is a music producer / songwriter with SteelRepublic / Sony/ATVMusic Publishing . He has produced for artists and groups such as R. Kelly , Mary J. Blige , Keri Hilson , and Neverest . The single `` About Us '' which he produced for Neverest recently won a SOCAN No. 1 Song Award . The music video reached # 1 on the MuchMore video countdown . Other notable singles include `` Last Time '' by George Nozuka , and the most current `` All Said And Done '' by Chevy Woods feat . Dej Loaf .","qid":"2738","docid":"Anthony_M._Jones","rank":93,"score":65453},{"content":"Title: Richard Tyrone Jones Content: Richard Tyrone Jones ( born 1980 ) is a performance poet , writer and comedian . He is director of Utter ! Spoken Word and director of spoken word at the Edinburgh Festival Free Fringe .","qid":"2738","docid":"Richard_Tyrone_Jones","rank":94,"score":65428},{"content":"Title: An Inconsistent Truth Content: An Inconsistent Truth is a 2012 documentary film written , produced , and featuring , nationally syndicated conservative talk radio host Phil Valentine and directed by Shayne Edwards . Valentine , a skeptic of global warming theory , interviewed scientists about the validity of Al Gore 's film An Inconvenient Truth and the facts presented within . What he is told by the scientists he interviews is that there is no consensus on the issue of global warming or climate change . The film argues that global warming proponents keep changing its label , basing their argument on what Valentine says is shaky scientific ground .","qid":"2738","docid":"An_Inconsistent_Truth","rank":95,"score":65401},{"content":"Title: Phalon Jones Content: Phalon R. Jones , Jr. ( 1948 -- December 10 , 1967 ) was an American soul and R&B musician . Jones was a saxophonist for The Bar-Kays musical group , which recorded with and also played backup for Otis Redding . James Alexander has described Jones as `` the ladies ' man '' of the group . Jones and three other members of The Bar-Kays died along with Redding in a plane crash in Lake Monona while on their way to a performance in Madison , Wisconsin . Ben Cauley , Jones ' bandmate in The Bar-Kays , was the sole survivor of the accident . Cauley reported that he had been asleep until just seconds before impact , and recalled that upon waking he observed Jones look out a window and say , `` Oh , no ! '' Cauley said that he then unbuckled his seat belt , and that was his final recollection before finding himself in the frigid waters of the lake , grasping a seat cushion to keep himself afloat . The specific cause of the crash was never determined . Jones was buried in the New Park Cemetery in Memphis , Tennessee . Noted hip-hop and R&B producer Phalon `` Jazze Pha '' Alexander , who is James Alexander 's son , is named after Jones .","qid":"2738","docid":"Phalon_Jones","rank":96,"score":65372},{"content":"Title: George Jones Content: George Glenn Jones ( September 12 , 1931 -- April 26 , 2013 ) was an American musician , singer and songwriter . He achieved international fame for his long list of hit records , including his best known song `` He Stopped Loving Her Today '' , as well as his distinctive voice and phrasing . For the last twenty years of his life , Jones was frequently referred to as the greatest living country singer . Country music scholar Bill C. Malone writes , `` For the two or three minutes consumed by a song , Jones immerses himself so completely in its lyrics , and in the mood it conveys , that the listener can scarcely avoid becoming similarly involved . '' Waylon Jennings expressed a similar opinion in his song `` It 's Alright '' : `` If we all could sound like we wanted to , we 'd all sound like George Jones . '' The shape of his nose and facial features earned Jones the nickname `` The Possum . '' Born in Texas , Jones first heard country music when he was seven and was given a guitar at the age of nine . He married his first wife , Dorothy Bonvillion , in 1950 , and was divorced in 1951 . He served in the United States Marine Corps and was discharged in 1953 . He married Shirley Ann Corley in 1954 . In 1959 , Jones recorded `` White Lightning , '' written by J. P. Richardson , which launched his career as a singer . His second marriage ended in divorce in 1968 ; he married fellow country music singer Tammy Wynette a year later . Many years of alcoholism caused his health to deteriorate severely and led to his missing many performances , earning him the nickname `` No Show Jones . '' After his divorce from Wynette in 1975 , Jones married his fourth wife , Nancy Sepulvado , in 1983 and became mostly sober . Jones died in 2013 , aged 81 , from hypoxic respiratory failure . During his career , Jones had more than 150 hits , both as a solo artist and in duets with other artists .","qid":"2738","docid":"George_Jones","rank":97,"score":65361},{"content":"Title: Mason Jones Content: Mason Jones ( 1919 , Hamilton , New York -- 18 February 2009 , Wynnewood , Pennsylvania ) was an American horn player and music educator who had a lengthy association with the Philadelphia Orchestra as principal hornist under conductor Eugene Ormandy . He also served as principal hornist of the United States Marine Band during World War II and was the head of the horn faculty at the Curtis Institute of Music from 1946-1995 . He was a founding member of the Philadelphia Woodwind Quintet and the Philadelphia Brass Ensemble .","qid":"2738","docid":"Mason_Jones","rank":98,"score":65263},{"content":"Title: Patrick Jones (activist) Content: Patrick Jones ( born 1970 ) is a public speaker , environmental commentator , and author of Words & Things ( 2004 ) , A Free-dragging Manifesto ( 2008 ) and The Art of Free Travel ( 2015 ) , which he co-authored with Meg Ulman .","qid":"2738","docid":"Patrick_Jones_(activist)","rank":99,"score":65129},{"content":"Title: Curtis J. Jones Jr. Content: Curtis J. Jones Jr. is a Democratic Councilman representing the Fourth District on the City Council of Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , USA . He has served since 2008 .","qid":"2738","docid":"Curtis_J._Jones_Jr.","rank":100,"score":64904}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Phil Jones (climatologist) Content: Philip Douglas Jones ( born April 22 , 1952 ) retired from his positions as the Director of the Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) and as a Professor in the School of Environmental Sciences at the University of East Anglia ( UEA ) at the end of 2016 . Jones was replaced as CRU director by Tim Osborn and has taken up a position as a Professorial Fellow at the UEA from January 2017 . His research interests include instrumental climate change , palaeoclimatology , detection of climate change and the extension of riverflow records in the UK . He has also published papers on the temperature record of the past 1000 years . He is known for maintaining a time series of the instrumental temperature record . This work was featured prominently in both the 2001 and 2007 IPCC reports , where he was a contributing author to Chapter 12 , Detection of Climate Change and Attribution of Causes , of the Third Assessment Report and a Coordinating Lead Author of Chapter 3 , Observations : Surface and Atmospheric Climate Change , of the AR4 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Phil_Jones_(climatologist)\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 101408\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tom Jones (Philidor) Content: Tom Jones is a comédie mêlée d'ariettes , a kind of opéra comique , by the French composer François-André Danican Philidor which first appeared at the Comédie-Italienne , Paris , on 27 February 1765 . Its French libretto , by Antoine-Alexandre-Henri Poisenet and Bertin Davesne , is loosely based on the novel by Henry Fielding . The piece was initially a failure but Philidor had the libretto revised by Michel-Jean Sedaine and this new version , first performed on 30 January 1766 , proved one of the most popular opéras comiques of the late 18th century . It was produced in a number of other countries , and translated into German , Swedish and Russian .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Tom_Jones_(Philidor)\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 89383\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Phill Jones Content: Phillip Charles George `` Phill '' Jones ( born 25 January 1974 ) is a New Zealand professional basketball player for the Nelson Giants of the New Zealand National Basketball League ( NZNBL ) . The two-time Olympian has scored more points in the New Zealand NBL than any other Kiwi player and is second overall in league scoring history . In 2004 , he ranked second among all points scorers at the Athens Olympics . In 2016 , he became the first player in New Zealand NBL history to reach 400 games .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Phill_Jones\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 85015\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Phil Jones (rugby) Content: Phil Jones ( born 30 September 1977 ) is an English former rugby league and rugby union footballer who played as a centre or stand-off / fly-half . He played for Lancashire Lynx , Wigan Warriors and Leigh Centurions in rugby league , and Orrell , Rotherham Titans and Sedgley Park in rugby union .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Phil_Jones_(rugby)\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 84318\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Phil Jones (footballer, born 1992) Content: Philip Anthony Jones ( born 21 February 1992 ) is an English professional footballer who plays for Premier League club Manchester United and the England national team . Before joining Manchester United , Jones played for Blackburn Rovers at both youth and senior levels . Although primarily a centre back , he has also been used as a right back or defensive midfielder . Jones has represented England at various levels and is currently a member of the England senior squad . He played for the under-19 team in 2009 before making his debut for the under-21 team in 2010 . He made his debut for the England senior squad on 7 October 2011 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Phil_Jones_(footballer,_born_1992)\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 84225\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Phil Jones (umpire) Content: Phil Jones ( born 1 January 1960 ) is a New Zealand cricket umpire . He stood in his first One Day International ( ODI ) match on 8 November 2014 between Hong Kong and Papua New Guinea in Australia . He stood in his first Twenty20 International ( T20I ) match on 7 January 2016 between New Zealand and Sri Lanka . He was a member of the International Panel of Umpires and Referees until June 2016 , when he was demoted to New Zealand 's national panel .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Phil_Jones_(umpire)\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 83865\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Phil Jones (footballer, born 1961) Content: Philip Howard `` Phil '' Jones ( born 12 September 1961 ) is an English former footballer who played either in midfield or defence . Born in Mansfield , Jones was a product of Sheffield United 's youth system and was playing in the reserves as a fifteen-year-old in 1977 . Signing as an apprentice in July 1978 , Jones turned professional a year later and finally made his debut for United in February 1979 in a league fixture against Wrexham . Jones struggled to make the transition to the first team , his only real run in the side came during 1980 -- 81 season as United were relegated to Division Four . After failing to make a first team appearance during the subsequent season , Jones was released from his contract in May 1982 , joining Boston United . After leaving Boston , Jones joined Matlock Town for a spell before finishing his career with Gainsborough Trinity in 1990 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Phil_Jones_(footballer,_born_1961)\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 83688\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Phil Jones (American football) Content: Phil Jones ( born ca. 1946 ) is a former American football coach . He previously served as a head coach at Shorter University from 2005 to 2015 and at several high schools across Georgia from 1973 through 1997 before he moved to the college ranks . After he served in assistant positions at Georgia , SMU and Gardner -- Webb before he was hired in July 2004 to serve as the first head coach in the history of the Shorter football program .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Phil_Jones_(American_football)\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 83228\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mouse Warming Content: Mouse Warming ( stylised as Mouse-warming ) is a 1952 Looney Tunes short directed by Chuck Jones , and starring Claude Cat ( in his final solo cartoon ) , with a cameo appearance of Hector the Bulldog at the end .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Mouse_Warming\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 83177\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Phil Jones (basketball) Content: Phillip Michael `` Phil '' Jones ( born September 2 , 1985 ) is a Virgin Islands professional basketball player . He played college basketball at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte and has played internationally for the U.S. Virgin Islands national basketball team . Born in Nashville , Tennessee , Jones spent part of his childhood growing up in the Virgin Islands . Jones committed to the 49ers out of Laurinburg Prep School in North Carolina after he spent a year at the school after graduating from high school in Philadelphia . Ranked as a top 100 recruit by several publications , he averaged 19 points , 10.2 rebounds , and 5.3 blocks per game while leading the school to the Prep National Championship . As a first-year sophomore for the 49ers , he averaged 3.3 points and 2.9 rebounds a game while playing 13.4 minutes per game off the bench to the 49ers . He improved in his junior season , 2008 -- 09 , averaging 7.3 points , 4 rebounds , and 1.4 blocks per game for the team . Jones competed on the U.S. Virgin Islands national basketball team for the first time at the FIBA Americas Championship 2009 . He averaged 8.5 points and 4.8 rebounds per game in four games for the team , including a team-high 18 points and seven rebounds in a preliminary round loss to Puerto Rico .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Phil_Jones_(basketball)\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 82963\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Jones-Read-Touvelle House Content: The Jones-Read-Touvelle House is a historic building in Wauseon , Ohio , United States . Located along Park Street south of downtown , this ornate brick house sits on a corner lot adjacent to a city park . Architectural historians have seen the Jones-Read-Touvelle House as a fine example of the combination of multiple architectural styles : most of the house itself appears to be Italianate , but the porch and some of the other details are plainly those of the Queen Anne style . Built on a limestone foundation , the house is a brick structure covered with an asphalt roof . Among its most prominent architectural features are its narrow but tall windows topped with arches of brick , the pairs of brackets that support the eaves of the house 's hip roof , the double doors of the front entrance , and the ornate Queen Anne detailing of the porch . Although the house was built by a Dr. Philo Jones , it was purchased by a John A. Read in May 1876 , just a year after its completion . Read was a leading member of the Wauseon business society ; after founding a combined general and drug store in the city in 1863 , he was successful enough to split the drug store away as its own business in 1870 , and he further expanded it by 1880 to the point that it was a sizeable pharmaceutical company . In 1987 , the Jones-Read-Touvelle House was listed on the National Register of Historic Places . Key to this designation was its well-preserved historic architecture , which was seen as significant locally . It is one of four Wauseon buildings and six properties throughout Fulton County to be included on the Register .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Jones-Read-Touvelle_House\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 82494\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Phil Jones (journalist) Content: Phil Jones is an English sports journalist and television reporter .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Phil_Jones_(journalist)\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 82389\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Philibert Jones Content: Philibert Jones ( born 12 November 1964 ) is a former international footballer from Trinidad and Tobago who played as a striker . He is currently the Assistant Coach at United Petrotrin in the TT Pro League .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Philibert_Jones\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 81548\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Philly Joe Jones Content: Joseph Rudolph `` Philly Joe '' Jones ( July 15 , 1923 -- August 30 , 1985 ) was a Philadelphia-born American jazz drummer , known as the drummer for the first `` Great '' Miles Davis Quintet . He is sometimes confused with another influential jazz drummer , Papa Jo Jones . The two died only a few days apart .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Philly_Joe_Jones\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 81090\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Phil H. Jones Content: Phil H. Jones was a member of the Wisconsin State Assembly .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Phil_H._Jones\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 80834\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Clarence Benjamin Jones Content: Clarence B. Jones ( born January 8 , 1931 ) is the former personal counsel , advisor , draft speech writer and close friend of Martin Luther King Jr. . He is a Scholar in Residence at the Martin Luther King , Jr. . Institute at Stanford University . He is the author of What Would Martin Say ? ( HarperCollins , 2008 ) and `` Behind the Dream : The Making of the Speech that Transformed a Nation '' ( Palgrave-Macmillan , 2011 ) In 1962 , Martin Luther King Jr. wrote a letter recommending his lawyer and advisor , Clarence B. Jones , to the New York State Bar , stating : `` Ever since I have known Mr. Jones , I have always seen him as a man of sound judgment , deep insights , and great dedication . I am also convinced that he is a man of great integrity '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Clarence_Benjamin_Jones\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 80090\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: I Meant Every Word He Said Content: `` I Meant Every Word He Said '' is a song co-written by Joe Chambers , Bucky Jones and Curly Putman , and recorded by American country music artist Ricky Van Shelton . It was released in June 1990 as the third single from the album RVS III . It peaked at number 2 on the Billboard Hot Country Songs chart and reached number 1 on the Canadian RPM country singles chart .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"I_Meant_Every_Word_He_Said\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 77785\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: P. J. Jones (American football) Content: Philemon Depaul Jones is an American football defensive tackle who is a free agent . Jones played college football for Mississippi State from 2011 to 2014 , where he was a starter as a junior and senior . He was named MSU 's Defensive Player of the Week in 2014 after the 34 -- 29 win over LSU .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"P._J._Jones_(American_football)\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 77766\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: I Can't Get There from Here Content: `` I Ca n't Get There from Here '' is a song by American country singer George Jones . It was released as a single on the Musicor label in 1967 . It was composed by Dallas Frazier . Although he did n't write it , `` I Ca n't Get There from Here '' is one in a long list of songs that Jones would record as if it was torn from the pages of his diary ; as Randy Travis stated in the 1990 Jones video biography Same Ole Me , `` It 's almost like he 's lived every minute of every word he sings , and there 's very few people who can do that . '' Jones , who would be admitted into a neurological hospital to seek treatment for his binge drinking in 1967 , had already gained a reputation as a notorious hell raiser , imbuing Frazier 's words with a weary authenticity : Surely there 's a place to rest a tortured mind Oh , what I 'd give if I could find A place where there 's no mem ` ry of all those wasted years But they all say I ca n't get there from here The song reached No. 5 on the Billboard country singles chart .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"I_Can't_Get_There_from_Here\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 76960\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Philly Joe's Beat Content: Philly Joes Beat is an album by American jazz drummer Philly Joe Jones which was released on the Atlantic label in 1960 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Philly_Joe's_Beat\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 76299\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Phil Jones (curler) Content: Phil Jones represented Wales at the 2008 World Mixed Doubles Curling Championship . He curls for the Alyn Valley club at Deeside Leisure Centre .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Phil_Jones_(curler)\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 76196\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: William Jones (philologist) Content: Sir William Jones FRS FRSE ( 28 September 1746 -- 27 April 1794 ) was an Anglo-Welsh philologist , a puisne judge on the Supreme Court of Judicature at Fort William in Bengal , and a scholar of ancient India , particularly known for his proposition of the existence of a relationship among European and Indian languages , which would later be known as Indo-European languages . He , along with Henry Thomas Colebrooke and Nathaniel Halhed , founded the Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1784 , and started a journal called Asiatick Researches .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"William_Jones_(philologist)\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 76076\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: So Warm Content: So Warm is an album by jazz vocalist Etta Jones which was recorded in 1961 and released on the Prestige label .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"So_Warm\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 75902\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Say It's Not You Content: `` Say It 's Not You '' is a song by American country singer George Jones . It was written by Dallas Frazier .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Say_It's_Not_You\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 75610\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Teen Love Content: Teen Love is the debut extended play by noise rock band No Trend , released as a 7 '' vinyl in 1983 through their very own No Trend Records . It was reissued in 1984 on 12 '' vinyl , this time including the two extra tracks `` Die '' and `` Let 's Go Crazy '' . It has been described as `` a perfect example of No Trend 's ruthless proclivity towards lizard-cold satire '' . The album cover was drawn by guitarist Frank Price , but it was credited under the pseudonym Jim Jones .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Teen_Love\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 74304\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Archie Shepp & Philly Joe Jones Content: Archie Shepp & Philly Joe Jones is an album by jazz saxophonist Archie Shepp and drummer Philly Joe Jones recorded in Europe in 1969 for the America label . The album was also issued by the Fantasy label . The Allmusic review by Scott Yanow states `` This intriguing LP does not live up to its potential ... Unfortunately , both of the sidelong pieces have recitations , the performances are overly long , and there is quite a bit of rambling '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Archie_Shepp_&_Philly_Joe_Jones\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 74289\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: George Hilton Jones III Content: George Hilton Jones , III , D. Phil ( Oxon ) ( 1924 -- 2008 ) was an American Rhodes Scholar , historian , college professor , and author of numerous works on English history .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"George_Hilton_Jones_III\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 72897\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Geraldine Jones (character) Content: Geraldine Jones was a fictional African American character , the most famous recurring persona of comedian Flip Wilson . Geraldine was played as a sassy liberated Southern woman who was coarsely flirty yet faithful to her ( unseen ) boyfriend `` Killer '' . Poorly educated , she was nevertheless confident ; she did not change her behavior to suit anyone . Several of Geraldine 's sayings entered U.S. popular culture as catchphrases , especially `` When you 're hot , you 're hot ; when you 're not , you 're not , '' `` The Devil made me do it , '' and `` What you see is what you get ! '' Wilson portrayed Geraldine many times in the early 1970s on his variety series The Flip Wilson Show , though not on every episode . He made comedy albums featuring Geraldine , notably The Devil Made Me Buy This Dress , and he appeared as Geraldine on other programs such as Saturday Night Live . He sang and danced as Geraldine at the Kennedy Center in 1983 for Bob Hope 's 80th birthday celebration . Wilson tired of the Geraldine character late in his career ; he responded to most requests by saying : `` She 's retired . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Geraldine_Jones_(character)\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 72756\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Drums Around the World Content: Drums Around the World ( subtitled Philly Joe Jones Big Band Sounds ) is the second album led by American jazz drummer Philly Joe Jones which was recorded in 1959 for the Riverside label .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Drums_Around_the_World\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 72665\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Brian Jones (poet) Content: Brian Jones ( 10 December 1938 -- 25 June 2009 ) was a British poet . He was educated at Ealing County Grammar School for Boys and Selwyn College , Cambridge . Jones ' first major collection , Poems ( consisting of his first book , The Madman in the Reading Room and thirty-seven other poems ) , was published in 1966 , and proved to be successful . Those poems dealt with both the joy and the unease that may be present beneath the surface of what seems to be placid middle-class domesticity . This was very much in a style popular in the 1950s and 1960s , and Jones was described by Edward Lucie-Smith in a 1970 anthology of post-war British poetry as `` certainly one of the very best practitioners of this overworked vein '' . Subsequent critical assessments of his work have included the following : `` Jones believes that poetry need not surrender to fiction all the stories that need telling , but his poems retain the tightness of verse and the authority of good cadences . There is as much truth to surface detail in his work as in any recent novel , with a good deal of eloquence added . '' -- Peter Porter `` It is his concern with truth-telling that unifies Brian Jones 's work and gives The Island Normal its strength , a poetry austere without coldness and colloquial without slackness . Why is he so little known , so rarely discussed ? '' -- Grevel Lindop '' -LSB- Jones 's -RSB- leveller-like anger at England 's waste of human potential arises from a deep love of his inheritance and a real fear for its future . -LSB- He has -RSB- provided us with fine poems and a continuous thirty-year commentary from the backroom of the dispossessed . '' -- Peter Bland Two of Brian Jones 's best-known children 's poems are About Friends and How to catch Tiddlers . Jones was awarded the 1967 Cholmondeley Award along with Seamus Heaney and Norman Nicholson , and an Eric Gregory Trust Fund Award in 1968 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Brian_Jones_(poet)\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 72639\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: No One Is to Blame Content: `` No One Is to Blame '' is a song by British musician Howard Jones . The song , in its original version , can be found on his second studio album , Dream into Action , which was released in 1985 . Following the success of the previous singles taken from the album , the original track for `` No One Is to Blame '' was re-recorded to give the song a more radio-friendly sound . Phil Collins and Hugh Padgham produced the re-recording , with Collins adding his own backing vocals and drum work . This new version of the song was included on the 1986 US EP Action Replay as well as the CD version of Jones 's 1986 studio album , One to One . `` No One Is to Blame '' was released as a single in March 1986 and became Jones 's biggest hit in the United States , peaking at # 4 on the Billboard Hot 100 . The song also became the first of his two # 1 songs on the U.S. adult contemporary chart ( `` Everlasting Love '' would top this chart in 1989 ) . The song was also a top 10 hit in Australia and a # 16 hit in the U.K. . The song is about unfulfilled attractions , saying that they 're normal and commonplace ( `` We want everyone - no one ever is to blame '' ) . It uses a number of metaphors , such as `` You can look at the menu , but you just ca n't eat '' and `` It 's the last piece of the puzzle , but you just ca n't make it fit , '' to describe the frustration of experiencing attraction but being unable to act on it , for whatever reason . On a deeper level it describes the frustration and pain of unfulfilled desires and dreams inherent in the human condition .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"No_One_Is_to_Blame\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 72520\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ellis Jones (sociologist) Content: Ellis McNatt Jones ( born February 25 , 1970 ) is an American sociologist and author . Jones was a Peace Corps Volunteer in the Republic of Panama from 1993 to 1995 where he worked in Environmental Education . Jones has researched consumer products , rating corporations on an `` A '' through `` F '' scale based on their scores in five areas : human rights ( sweatshops , child labor , etc. ) , the environment ( global warming , rainforest destruction , etc. ) , animal protection ( animal testing , humane treatment , etc. ) , community involvement ( local business support , nonprofit alliances , etc. ) , and social justice ( fair wages , discrimination , etc. ) . In his book `` The Better World Shopping Guide : Every Dollar Makes A Difference , '' he encourages consumers to push their dollars to the `` A '' and `` B '' companies and away from the `` D '' and `` F '' companies to create a better world . He holds a Ph.D. from the University of Colorado and is currently a professor of sociology at College of the Holy Cross .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Ellis_Jones_(sociologist)\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 72279\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Jones Arboretum and Botanical Gardens Content: Jones Arboretum and Botanical Gardens , also known as Jones Arboretum and Natural Gardens , and now called Read 's Creek Nursery , is an arboretum and for-profit plant nursery located on Route 14 in Readstown , Wisconsin , in Vernon County , Wisconsin , United States . The community arboretum was established in 1973 by Royce Jones , a nuclear engineer , in conjunction with a tree nursery and his own gardens . After his retirement , it now features more than 100 kinds of trees , as well as some 700 non-woody plants , including 400 perennials . The plants are available for sale , or purely for learning and enjoyment .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Jones_Arboretum_and_Botanical_Gardens\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 72272\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: William Jones (novel) Content: William Jones is a novel by T. Rowland Hughes , written in 1944 . It tells of the story of a quarryman in Gwynedd who decides to leave his community to look for work in the coal mines of South Wales . It describes the tough lives of the quarrymen at the beginning of the twentieth century . A quote from the book , '' Cadw dy blydi chips ! '' ( Welsh for `` Keep your bloody chips ! '' ) , is probably the first time that a swear word appeared anywhere in modern Welsh literature . Category :1944 British novels Category : Welsh-language novels Category : Novels set in Wales\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"William_Jones_(novel)\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 72223\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Showcase (Philly Joe Jones album) Content: Showcase is the third album led by American jazz drummer Philly Joe Jones which was recorded in 1959 for the Riverside label .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Showcase_(Philly_Joe_Jones_album)\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 72142\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Say You'll Stay Until Tomorrow Content: `` Say You 'll Stay Until Tomorrow '' is a 1977 single by Tom Jones . The song was Jones 's first and highest-charting country music hit . Spending ten weeks within the Top 40 of the Billboard Hot Country Singles ( now Hot Country Songs ) chart , `` Say You 'll Stay Until Tomorrow '' went to number one for one week on 26 February 1977 . The song also peaked at number fifteen on the Billboard Hot 100 , and was Jones 's last single to reach the top 40 until 1988 . It was also a Number One hit in Canada , reaching the top of the RPM country and easy-listening charts . The song was recorded the same year by Slim Whitman , and was included on his album Home on the Range .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Say_You'll_Stay_Until_Tomorrow\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 71877\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Lance Corporal Jones Content: Lance Corporal Jack Jones is a fictional Home Guard platoon lance corporal , veteran of the British Empire and butcher , portrayed by Clive Dunn in the BBC television sitcom Dad 's Army . His catchphrases are `` Do n't panic ! '' , `` Permission to speak , sir ? '' and `` They do n't like it up 'em ! '' . Jones also often recounts his past military experiences particularly those in Sudan and India and gives a glimpse to the military traditions and events in the concluding years of the 19th century .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Lance_Corporal_Jones\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 71666\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Shae Jones Content: Shae Jones ( born July 27 , 1978 in Kansas City , Missouri ) is an American R&B singer . She was discovered in the late 1990s by R&B star Montell Jordan , who liked the fact that her voice did not sound like other voices . After signing with Uptown Records , Jones ' recorded her debut album Talk Show in 1998 , and it had its official release on January 26 , 1999 . The album 's lead single `` Talk Show Shhh ! '' peaked on the Billboard Hot 100 at 88 . Jones was released from her contract with Uptown and has yet to release any new material . In addition to her solo career , Jones also appeared on Sisqó 's Unleash the Dragon , Gina Thompson 's If You Only Knew , Tamia 's A Nu Day , Whitney Houston 's The Greatest Hits and the Phil Collins tribute Urban Renewal .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Shae_Jones\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 71430\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Together! (Elvin Jones and Philly Joe Jones album) Content: Together ! is a jazz album by drummers Philly Joe Jones and Elvin Jones recorded in 1961 and released on the Atlantic label .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Together!_(Elvin_Jones_and_Philly_Joe_Jones_album)\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 71293\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Jo Jones Content: Jonathan David Samuel `` Jo '' Jones ( October 7 , 1911 -- September 3 , 1985 ) was an American jazz drummer . A band leader and pioneer in jazz percussion , Jones anchored the Count Basie Orchestra rhythm section from 1934 to 1948 . He was sometimes known as Papa Jo Jones to distinguish him from younger drummer Philly Joe Jones\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Jo_Jones\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 71270\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Blues for Dracula Content: Blues for Dracula is the debut album by American jazz drummer Philly Joe Jones which was recorded in 1958 for the Riverside label .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Blues_for_Dracula\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 71269\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: One to One (Howard Jones album) Content: One to One is the third album by British pop musician Howard Jones , released in October 1986 . The CD release also contains the single version of `` No One Is to Blame '' ( a song featured on his previous album ) with Phil Collins on backing vocals and drums . The album contained the hits `` You Know I Love You ... Do n't You ? '' ( US top twenty ) and `` All I Want '' ( top 40 in many European countries ) . The album reached number 10 in the UK and was certified Gold for shipments in excess of 100,000 copies .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"One_to_One_(Howard_Jones_album)\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 71200\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Abe Jones Jr. Content: Abraham Jones ( April 1899 -- after 1923 ) was an English professional footballer who played in the Football League for Birmingham , Reading , Brighton & Hove Albion and Merthyr Town . Jones was born in West Bromwich , Staffordshire , the son of West Bromwich Albion and Middlesbrough player Abraham Jones . A forward , he played local football for West Bromwich Sandwell before joining Birmingham in 1919 . He made his debut in the Second Division deputising for Harry Hampton in a home game against Fulham on 6 April 1920 , scoring both goals in a 2 -- 0 win . Though Jones retained his place for the next two games , Hampton kept him out of the side thereafter , and in August 1921 he moved on to Reading . A season later he joined Brighton & Hove Albion , after another year went to Merthyr Town , and then to Stoke .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Abe_Jones_Jr.\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 71196\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Philip Jones (musician) Content: Philip Jones CBE ( 12 March 1928 -- 17 January 2000 ) was a British trumpeter and leader of an internationally famous brass chamber music ensemble . Philip Jones was born in Bath , England . In 1944 he won a scholarship to the Royal College of Music . He became principal trumpet for most major London orchestras : The Royal Philharmonic ( 1956 -- 60 ) , the Philharmonia ( 1960 -- 64 ) , the Philharmonic ( 1964 -- 65 ) , the New Philharmonia ( 1965 -- 67 ) and the BBC Symphony ( 1967 -- 71 ) . His playing continues a line of English trumpeters that stretches back to Ernest Hall . In 1951 he had formed the Philip Jones Brass Ensemble , one of the first brass ensembles working regularly as a stable group . They grew from four members to ten and larger for special projects . The most usual formations were the quintet ( two trumpets , horn , trombone and tuba ) and the ten-piece ( four trumpeters one sometimes doubling piccolo trumpet and one sometimes doubling flugel horn , horn , four trombones and tuba ) . The success of these formations owes much to Philip Jones 's work . After 1971 he devoted himself to it full-time and the group commanded long commitment from many fine players including : the trumpeters Elgar Howarth , John Wilbraham , Michael Laird and James Watson ; horn players Ifor James and Frank Lloyd ; trombonists John Iveson and Raymond Premru ; and the renowned tubist John Fletcher . They made 50 recordings and toured over 30 countries finding particular popularity in Japan . Repertoire spanned from transcriptions of early music by the likes of Monteverdi , Giovanni Gabrieli , and Johann Pezel , to new works for the medium commissioned by Jones . These included pieces by Witold Lutosławski , Hans Werner Henze and Einojuhani Rautavaara ; altogether they performed 87 world premieres . The ensemble 's leader was noted for his meticulous preparations at every concert , lining up the music stands himself , his personal commitment being one of the reasons for the ensemble 's success . In 1986 he accidentally drove his car over his own trumpet case . He took this as the hand of fate and decided to retire from concert performances . He held posts at the Royal Northern College of Music and Trinity College of Music , where he was Principal until his retirement in 1994 . He was chairman of the Musicians Benevolent Fund in 1995 . He was awarded the OBE in 1977 and the CBE in 1986 . When not at work he divided his time between Switzerland and London .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Philip_Jones_(musician)\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 70989\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Heart Warming Content: Heart Warming was a gospel record label started by John T. Benson Jr. . Heart Warming and their chief rival Canaan Records ( owned by Word Records ) were arguably the two biggest and best gospel labels in their time . The Oak Ridge Boys , Stamps Quartet , Jake Hess & The Imperials , Dottie Rambo , Bill Gaither Trio and Speer Family all signed to it and had many recordings on it . The Cathedral Quartet produced two of their most popular albums on it With Brass and With Strings . Producers for the label included Bob Benson ( John Benson 's son ) , Bob MacKenzie ( died Oct. 20 , 2000 ) , and Don Light . Bob MacKenzie in particular produced some of the best gospel albums of that era and some of the best albums of the groups above . Eventually the Benson company dropped the Heart Warming label instead having RiverSong be the southern gospel division and Impact Records and later Benson labels be their contemporary labels . Finally in 2006 it was announced that Heart Warming , along with RiverSong was sold to Homeland Entertainment Group , former President of Zondervan Music Group , Bob Jones Jr is part owner of the company .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Heart_Warming\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 70885\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Philemon (musical) Content: Philemon is a 1975 Off-Broadway musical by Tom Jones and Harvey Schmidt . The show was produced on Hollywood Television Theatre in 1976 with the original cast and directed by Norman Lloyd . It had a brief Off-Broadway revival in 1991 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Philemon_(musical)\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 70224\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greg Jones (skier) Content: Gregory Jones ( born December 3 , 1953 ) is a former World Cup alpine ski racer from the United States . Born in Tahoe City , California , he specialized in giant slalom . Jones competed in all three events at the 1976 Winter Olympics and finished 9th in the giant slalom , 11th in the downhill , and 19th in the slalom . His all-around performance earned a World Championship bronze medal in the combined event . Jones won a World Cup race a few weeks later in the United States at Copper Mountain , Colorado . Teammate Phil Mahre was the runner-up for the first-ever one-two finish by U.S. men in a World Cup race .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Greg_Jones_(skier)\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 69968\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Graham Jones (English author) Content: Graham Jones ( born 1956 ) is an English lecturer and business owner . Graham Jones is an author , speaker and writer . He is the former President and current Chief Executive of the UK Professional Speaking Association . Jones is also an Associate Lecturer in psychology at the Open University , and visiting lecturer in ECommerce at Buckingham University . He specialises in writing about the psychology of the Internet and has an active interest in Cyberpsychology . Jones is a regular commentator on the Internet for several media outlets , including the BBC . Married with one son , Jones resides near Reading , Berkshire .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Graham_Jones_(English_author)\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 69884\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ronald W. Jones Content: Ronald Winthrop Jones ( born 1931 ) is an influential international trade economist and Xerox Professor of Economics at the University of Rochester . His recent highly acclaimed book Globalization and the Theory of Input Trade ( 2000 ) summarizes much of his past work and also discusses the recent market trend toward fragmentation and outsourcing of the production process . Professor Jones also is an author of World Trade and Payments ( with Richard E. Caves and Jeffrey Frankel ) , an upper-level college textbook that focuses on international economics . He earned an A.B. from Swarthmore College in 1952 and a Ph.D. from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1956 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Ronald_W._Jones\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 69257\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mean What You Say (Thad Jones/Pepper Adams Quintet album) Content: Mean What You Say is an album by the Thad Jones/Pepper Adams Quintet recorded in 1966 and released on the Milestone label .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Mean_What_You_Say_(Thad_Jones/Pepper_Adams_Quintet_album)\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 69188\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Eifion Jones (cricketer) Content: Eifion Wyn Jones ( born 25 June 1942 in Velindre , Glamorgan ) was a Welsh cricketer who played for Glamorgan County Cricket Club . When he first came to Glamorgan Jones was a specialist right-handed batsman but after being tutored by Phil Clift he became a wicketkeeper . He made his first-class debut in 1961 , and served as deputy keeper to David Evans until the late 1960s , when he became the county 's first-choice keeper , a position he held until 1982 . He took a record 933 dismissals for his county . In 1970 he took 7 dismissals in an innings against Cambridge University , and he finished the season with 94 dismissals . However , the continued good form of Alan Knott and Bob Taylor kept him out of consideration for the Test team . In 1968 he made the highest ever score by a Glamorgan keeper with 146 not out against Sussex . His most successful season with the bat was Glamorgan 's championship season of 1969 , when he scored 753 runs at an average of 31.37 . Thereafter his batting gradually declined , and after 1975 he never averaged as high as 20 in a season . He retired after the 1983 season , at the age of 41 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Eifion_Jones_(cricketer)\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 69102\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: JW-Jones Content: JW-Jones ( born July 15 , 1980 ) is a Canadian blues guitarist , singer , songwriter and band leader . He is a Juno Award nominee ( 2015 ) , Billboard magazine Top 10 Selling artist , and winner of the Blues Foundation 's International Blues Challenge for `` Best Self-Produced CD Award '' for his release ` High Temperature ' in 2017 . Jones ' first recording contract was signed with CrossCut Records ( Germany ) in 2000 , who released his first seven CDs in Europe . He was the first artist signed to the NorthernBlues Music label in Toronto and released his first six recordings with the label . Jones has also worked with Ruf Records in the USA , and is now signed to Blind Pig Records . In the last decade , he has released seven albums . He has played in 23 countries in four continents and continues to tour extensively . Jones , who lives in Ottawa , Ontario , has performed at blues festivals , theatres and clubs in Canada , the USA , Europe , United Kingdom , Russia , Australia and Brazil . On June 19 , 2014 , Jones was presented with a Forty Under 40 Award by Ottawa Business Journal/Ottawa Chamber of Commerce . It is a celebration of entrepreneurship in Ottawa - a `` salute to the region 's young business stars who balance business achievement , professional expertise and community involvement . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"JW-Jones\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 68984\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Phil Friendly Content: Phil Friendly ( born Philip Izvarin , May 30 , 1977 ) is a Rockabilly Hall of Fame inductee ( Second Generation Artist ) . He is an American rockabilly and country rock singer , guitarist and songwriter of Russian descent . He has been active in the music industry since the early 1990s . Friendly is known for his successful US tours with the rockabilly pioneer Glen Glenn and various European and US CD releases , most notably his recordings with the Grammy-winning guitar legend Albert Lee ( released by the UK label Evangeline Records , Ltd ) . Phil and his trio have occasionally done live TV and radio performances as well . In 2009 Friendly 's original composition ` Every Single Day ' was included in the soundtrack of a new American motion picture `` Saving Grace B. Jones '' , produced and directed by Connie Stevens and starring Oscar-winning actress Tatum O'Neal . In 2012 ` She Wan na Do It ' , another Phil Friendly 's song , was used in a film `` Mighty Fine '' , starring Chazz Palminteri and Andie MacDowell . In 2015 two of Friendly 's tunes , ` Sugar Daddy ' and ` She Wan na Do It ' , were included in the British hit-comedy `` Man Up '' , starring an English actor and comedian Simon Pegg . Phil Friendly resides and regularly performs with his band in Los Angeles , California and frequently tours in different parts of the United States and Europe .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Phil_Friendly\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 68936\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Loving You Could Never Be Better Content: `` Loving You Could Never Be Better '' is a song written by Earl Montgomery , and recorded by American country music artist George Jones . It was released in April 1972 as the second single from his album George Jones ( We Can Make It ) . The song peaked at number 2 on the Billboard Hot Country Singles chart . It also reached number 1 on the RPM Country Tracks chart in Canada . The song was a good example of how producer Billy Sherrill had updated the sound of Jones ' records , incorporating a laid back , R&B bass line . By drawing from such unlikely and disparate musical influences as Johann Strauss and `` wall of sound '' rock producer Phil Spector , he gradually began embroidering his own subtle permutations on the rather predictable fabric of country record production . `` I just decided I 'd do it my way , and screw 'em if they did n't like it , '' Jones biographer Bob Allen quotes Sherrill . `` Back then , the musicians had their own repertoire of stock Nashville licks and chord progressions that would work on any song . But I often wanted something different , and I 'd make 'em play it . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Loving_You_Could_Never_Be_Better\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 68794\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Have You Met Miss Jones? Content: `` Have You Met Miss Jones ? '' is a popular song that was written for the musical comedy , I 'd Rather Be Right . The music was written by Richard Rodgers and the lyrics by Lorenz Hart . The song was published in 1937 . In the musical the song is performed by characters Peggy Jones and Phil Barker . In the 1937 version these characters were performed by Joy Hodges and Austin Marshall . A version of `` Have You Met Miss Jones '' was recorded by Frank Sinatra on his Sinatra Swings album . Bing Crosby recorded the song in 1956 on his Bing Sings Whilst Bregman Swings album . It was also covered by Scatman John . Ella Fitzgerald included this song in her Verve Records album Ella Fitzgerald Sings the Rodgers and Hart Songbook ( 1957 ) . Joe Pass recorded his version of the song on his 1973 album Virtuoso . Pass 's recording alternates between F major and G flat major . The song 's bridge , featuring key motion by major thirds , may have served as an inspiration to John Coltrane in the development of `` Coltrane changes '' . McCoy Tyner recorded a version of the song on his second album , Reaching Fourth ( 1963 ) . John Barrowman sang the song on television . The Hi-Lo 's included it on their 1954 album Listen ! . John Ritter sang it ( as a philandering author in a piano bar ) in the Blake Edwards romantic comedy , `` Skin Deep . '' Robbie Williams performed it for the soundtrack of the film Bridget Jones 's Diary ( 2001 ) , and it was also included in Williams 's album , Swing When You 're Winning ( 2001 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Have_You_Met_Miss_Jones?\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 68719\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: John Robert Jones Content: For the John Robert Jones who writes as John Dalmas , see John Dalmas John Robert Jones ( 4 September 1911 -- 3 June 1970 ) , was a Welsh philosopher . He was born in Pwllheli , and went to school there before going on to study philosophy at University of Wales , Aberystwyth . He went on to take his D.Phil . at Balliol College , Oxford . He returned to Aberystwyth to lecture in philosophy , and in 1952 was appointed Professor of Philosophy at University of Wales , Swansea . In 1961 he was visiting professor at Chapel Hill University , North Carolina . On his return to Wales , he became more politically active , speaking out against the investiture of Charles , Prince of Wales , in 1969 , resigning from the Gorsedd of Bards in protest . As a philosopher , he was influenced by Wittgenstein and Simone Weil . His writings dealt mainly with three problems : the nature of the self , the nature of perception , and the nature of universals .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"John_Robert_Jones\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 68524\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Jones Mountains Content: The Jones Mountains are an isolated group of mountains , trending generally east-west for 43 km ( 27 mi ) , situated on the Eights Coast , Ellsworth Land , about 80 km ( 50 mi ) south of Dustin Island in Antarctica . The charts of the USAS , 1939-41 , show mountains in this approximate location and relationship to Dustin and Thurston Islands , indicating they were sighted in the flight from the ship Bear , February 27 , 1940 . The mountains appear in distant air photos taken by US Navy Operation Highjump , December 30 , 1946 , and were observed from USN aircraft by Edward Thiel and J. Campbell Craddock , January 22 , 1960 . The naming was proposed by Thiel and Craddock after Dr. Thomas O. Jones ( 1908-93 ) , American chemist ; senior NSF official in charge of the U.S. Antarctic Research Program , 1958-78 ; Director , Division of Environmental Science , NSF , 1965-69 ; Deputy Assistant Director for National and International Programs , NSF , 1969-78 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Jones_Mountains\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 68467\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Floyd Jones Content: Floyd Jones ( July 21 , 1917 -- December 19 , 1989 ) was an American blues singer , guitarist and songwriter , who was one of the first of the new generation of electric blues artists to record in Chicago after World War II . A number of his recordings are regarded as classics of the Chicago blues idiom . His song `` On the Road Again '' was a top 10 hit for Canned Heat in 1968 . Notably for a blues artist of his era , several of his songs have economic or social themes , such as `` Stockyard Blues '' ( which refers to a strike at the Union Stock Yards ) , `` Hard Times '' and `` Schooldays '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Floyd_Jones\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 68379\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Philip Jones Content: Philip , Phil or Phill Jones may refer to :\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Philip_Jones\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 68274\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Black Cross (Hezekiah Jones) Content: `` Black Cross '' ( AKA `` Hezekiah Jones '' , after the main character ) is a poem by Joseph Simon Newman , published in his 1948 collection It Could Be Verse ! . Hezekiah was a poor black farmer , who worked his two acres of land ; but , he also saved up for and read books . The white folks thereabouts thought him harmless enough , but that `` reading ai n't no good for an ignorant nigger '' . Reverend Green , of the white man 's church , visited him and asked if he believed in the Lord , the church , and Heaven . Hezekiah replied , that he 'd never seen the Lord ; that the church was divided ; and that he tried to be as good as he could without expecting anything from Heaven or the Lord . The poem was a signature piece of the American stage performer Lord Buckley . A live performance , in which he speaks the words over a solo female voice singing and humming the spiritual `` Kumbaya '' and a sparse instrumental accompaniment , is included on his 1959 album Way Out Humor , re-released in 1964 as Lord Buckley in Concert . Early in his career , Bob Dylan performed the poem , in slightly shortened form , as a spoken piece with guitar accompaninent in a style based on that of Lord Buckley . Two amateur recordings exist : on one of the Minnesota Hotel Tapes , December 1961 , and on the Second Gaslight Tape , October 1962 . The Minnesota performance was released on the 1969 bootleg album Great White Wonder , and has since been included in other unofficial compilations . The Gaslight performance was released on the unofficial 1985 album Gaslight Tapes .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Black_Cross_(Hezekiah_Jones)\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 68270\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bradley Jones Jr. Content: Bradley H. Jones Jr. ( born January 9 , 1965 in North Reading , Massachusetts ) is a Republican member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives since January 1994 . He has also been the minority leader of the House since 2003 . Jones represents the 20th Middlesex district , he represents parts of Lynnfield , Middleton , North Reading and Reading .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Bradley_Jones_Jr.\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 68202\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Phill Content: Phill ( usually a diminutive of Phillip ) may refer to : Phill Calvert ( born 1958 ) , Australian rock drummer and producer , played in the influential post-punk band `` The Birthday Party '' Phill Drobnick ( born 1980 ) , curler Phill Feltham , Canadian journalist , Senior Editor for Maximum Fitness magazine Phill G. McDonald ( 1941 -- 1968 ) , United States Army soldier and a recipient of the Medal of Honor for his actions in the Vietnam War Phill Hartsfield , Southern California sword and knifemaker Phill Jones ( born 1974 ) , New Zealand professional basketball player Phill Jupitus ( born 1962 ) , English comedian , cartoonist , DJ , guitarist , performance poet and presenter of radio and TV Phill Kline ( born 1959 ) , the former district attorney of Johnson County , Kansas , USA Phill Lewis ( born 1968 ) , American film and television actor Phill Niblock ( born 1933 ) , composer , filmmaker , videographer , and director of Experimental Intermedia Phill Nixon ( born 1956 ) , English darts player from Ferryhill , County Durham , UK Phill Shatter ( born 1982 ) , champion heavyweight wrestler Phill Wilson ( born 1956 ) , founder of the Black AIDS Institute , prominent African-American HIV/AIDS activist https://putthatcheeseburgerdown.files.wordpress.com/2014/12/1360443372_9816755-crazy-nailbiter-a-man-biting-of-his-nails-his-fingers-are-covered-in-blood.jpg?w=350&h=200&crop=1\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Phill\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 68110\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Stephen M. Jones Content: Stephen M. Jones ( born 1960 ) is an American professor of music composition at Brigham Young University ( BYU ) and currently Dean of the BYU College of Fine Arts and Communications . Among his works is the music for the hymn `` When Faith Endures '' , which is included in the current English-language edition of the LDS hymnal . Jones is a Latter-day Saint . He resides in American Fork , Utah , with his wife , Wendy , and their four children . Jones also did the music for the film Eliza and I , jointly produced by KBYU-TV and Richard Dutcher 's Zion Films in 1997 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Stephen_M._Jones\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 68061\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Gerald Celente Content: Gerald Celente ( born November 29 , 1946 ) is an American trend forecaster , publisher of the Trends Journal , business consultant and author who makes predictions about the global financial markets and other events of historical importance . Celente has described himself as a `` political atheist '' and `` citizen of the world '' . He has appeared as a guest on media outlets such as CNN , The Oprah Winfrey Show , The Today Show , Good Morning America , CBS Morning News , The Glenn Beck Show , NBC Nightly News , The Alex Jones Show , Coast to Coast AM and Russia Today .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Gerald_Celente\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 68044\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: David A. Jones Content: David Arfon Jones is a senior climatologist at the Australian Bureau of Meteorology . He initially studied mathematics and chemistry at university but changed to atmospheric studies . Jones obtained his PhD in Earth Science from the University of Melbourne , Australia in 1995 . He subsequently completed the postgraduate diploma in weather forecasting in 1995 at the Bureau of Meteorology . In 1995 Jones commenced work in the Climate Analysis Section of the Australian National Climate Centre , focusing on the automation of climate monitoring using objective analysis techniques . Subsequently he moved to the Bureau of Meteorology Research Centre in 1997 undertaking research on the variability and change of Australia 's climate . Jones became the supervisor of Climate Analysis at the Bureau of Meteorology in 2002 . In this role he has promoted the automation of analysis , monitoring and forecasting products and the introduction of a range of innovative climate monitoring activities , with a focus on encouraging the interpretation of climate variability in the context of a rapidly changing climate . Owing to the continued misrepresentation of climate change in the Australian media Jones has written a number of public pieces correcting or explaining climate change including in The Age , and in articles for the Australian Science Media Centre . In 2006 Jones was awarded the National Australia Day Council Achievement Medallion .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"David_A._Jones\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 68021\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Morgan Jones (British politician) Content: Morgan Jones ( 3 May 1885 -- 23 April 1939 ) was a Welsh Labour Party politician . Jones was born in Gelligaer to a collier and a domestic servant , and attended primary schools in Gelligaer and Hengoed before studying at Lewis School , Pengam on a scholarship . He then attended Reading University , and became a teacher by profession , serving as president of the Glamorgan Federation of Teachers from 1913 to 1915 . He also became a Baptist lay preacher . Jones joined the Independent Labour Party in 1908 and was elected to Gelligaer Urban District Council in 1911 , serving as chairman of the council in 1921-22 . In the First World War he was imprisoned as a conscientious objector . He was also a member of the No Conscription Fellowship 's national committee and chairman of the South Wales Anti-Conscription Council . After the War he was elected to Glamorgan County Council . Morgan Jones was elected Member of Parliament ( MP ) for Caerphilly at a by-election in 1921 , following the death of Labour MP Alfred Onions . He clinched the Labour nomination despite not being the preferred candidate of the South Wales Miners ' Federation . He was the first conscientious objector to be elected to Parliament after World War I. Jones held the seat until his own death , aged 53 , in 1939 , when his successor was fellow conscientious objector Ness Edwards . He served as Parliamentary Secretary to the Board of Education in both the first two Labour Governments , 1924 and 1929-1931 . Jones married Gladys Thomas , also a teacher and ILP member , in 1923 . The couple had two daughters . Morgan Jones Park in Caerphilly is named after him .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Morgan_Jones_(British_politician)\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 67846\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Antarctica cooling controversy Content: An apparent contradiction in the observed cooling behavior of Antarctica between 1966 and 2000 became part of the public debate in the global warming controversy , particularly between advocacy groups of both sides in the public arena including politicians , as well as the popular media . In his novel State of Fear , Michael Crichton asserted that the Antarctic data contradict global warming . The few scientists who have commented on the supposed controversy state that there is no contradiction , while the author of the paper whose work inspired Crichton 's remarks has said that Crichton `` misused '' his results . There is no similar controversy within the scientific community , as the small observed changes in Antarctica are consistent with the small changes predicted by climate models , and because the overall trend since comprehensive observations began is now known to be one of warming . At the South Pole , where some of the strongest cooling trends were observed between the 1950s and 1990s , the mean trend is flat from 1957 through 2013 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Antarctica_cooling_controversy\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 67738\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Phil Monroe Content: Phil Monroe ( October 31 , 1916 -- July 13 , 1988 ) was an American animator and director best known for working for Warner Bros. . Cartoons under the supervision of Chuck Jones . Monroe has also worked for UPA , DePatie-Freleng , and MGM Animation/Visual Arts .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Phil_Monroe\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 67617\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wibjörn Karlén Content: Wibjörn Karlén ( born 26 August 1937 in Kristine , Kopparberg County , Sweden ) , Ph.D. , is a professor emeritus of physical geography and quaternary geology at Stockholm University , Sweden . In an article which describes Karlén as a paleoclimatologist , he is quoted as saying : `` One of the big problems with trying to determine long-term temperature changes , is that weather records only go back to about 1860 . By relying on statistical reconstruction of the last 1000 years , using only the temperature patterns of the last 140 years instead of actual temperature readings , the IPCC report and Summary missed both a major cooling period as well as a significant warming trend during that millennium . '' Karlén has also criticized the mainstream media for `` spreading the exaggerated views of a human impact on climate . '' He was also named in a 2007 minority report of the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee as one of 400 `` prominent scientists '' who were said to dispute global warming . In 2010 , he predicted that natural climate changes , caused to a large degree by the sun 's activity , would more likely make the climate colder than warmer in the next decades . He is a contributing author to the Fraser Institute 2007 Independent Summary for Policymakers . Karlén is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Wibjörn_Karlén\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 67360\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: I Saw Me Content: `` I Saw Me '' is a ballad by American country singer George Jones . It was released as the B-side to `` Not What I Had in Mind '' and made the Top 30 , peaking at # 29 . In the song , which Jones wrote with Gene Davis , the narrator experiences an awakening of his conscience as he recognizes his own misdeeds that brought an end to his relationship with a woman , lamenting , `` Yes I looked into my eyes and saw the reason why she cries . '' Jones vocal delivery is more restrained than some of his other releases from the period , foreshadowing his more mature , stylistic singing in the years ahead . It was produced by Pappy Daily .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"I_Saw_Me\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 67341\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: I'd Rather Be Right Content: I 'd Rather Be Right is a musical with a book by Moss Hart and George S. Kaufman , lyrics by Lorenz Hart , and music by Richard Rodgers . The story is a Depression-era political satire set in New York City , about Washington politics and political figures , such as President Franklin Roosevelt . The plot centers on Peggy Jones ( Joy Hodges ) and her boyfriend Phil ( Austin Marshall ) , who needs a raise in order for them to get married . The President steps in and solves their dilemma . It premiered on Broadway at the Alvin Theatre on November 2 , 1937 , produced by Sam H. Harris , and transferred to the Music Box Theatre , and ran for 290 performances . It starred George M. Cohan as Franklin Roosevelt . Cohan , playing FDR , danced in such pieces as `` Off the Record '' , not possible in real life for the disabled President . H. G. Wells wrote enthusiastically about the musical , and Cohan 's performance as Roosevelt , in an article `` The Fall in America 1937 '' , published in Collier 's on 28 January 1938 and reprinted in his World Brain ( 1938 ) . The musical is prominently featured in the 1942 Cohan biopic Yankee Doodle Dandy , where it serves as a narrative bookend . James Cagney , playing Cohan , after meeting FDR in the Oval Office , performs a joyous tap dance as he walks back down the stairs of the White House . In the film , we also see Cagney as Cohan performing `` Off the Record '' during the show 's run . ( Because the film was made during World War II , the film also anachronistically added some morale-boosting lyrics at the end of the song as part of Warner Bros. ' wartime propaganda ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"I'd_Rather_Be_Right\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 67269\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Phil Morris (actor) Content: Phillip Morris ( born April 4 , 1959 ) is an American television , voice , and film actor . He played Jackie Chiles in the NBC sitcom Seinfeld and John Jones in The CW superhero drama Smallville . He last starred as Delroy Jones in Love That Girl ! .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Phil_Morris_(actor)\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 67244\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Great Southern Trendkill Content: The Great Southern Trendkill is the eighth studio album by American heavy metal band Pantera , released on May 7 , 1996 by EastWest Records . It reached number 4 on the Billboard 200 chart , and managed to stay on the chart for over 16 weeks . Due to tension and conflicts within the band , Phil Anselmo recorded the vocals alone at Trent Reznor 's Nothing Studios in New Orleans while Dimebag Darrell , Rex Brown and Vinnie Paul recorded the music at Chasin Jason Studios in Dallas .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Great_Southern_Trendkill\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 67238\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Phil Spector International Content: Phil Spector International was a record label operated between 1970 and 1980 by Malcolm Jones . It served as a reissue label for the catalogue of Phil Spector 's Philles Records . Among its reissues was a six volume set called `` Phil Spector Wall Of Sound '' . The volumes were : Vol . 1 The Ronettes - ... Presenting the Fabulous Ronettes featuring Veronica ( Super 2307 003 ) . Vol . 2 Bob B. Soxx & the Blue Jeans - Zip-A-Dee Doo Dah ( Super 2307 004 ) . Vol . 3 The Crystals - The Crystals Sing Their Greatest Hits ( Super 2307 006 ) . Vol . 4 Various Artists - Yesterday 's Hits Today ( Super 2307 007 ) . Vol . 5 Various Artists - Rare Masters Vol . 1 ( Super 2307 008 ) . Vol . 6 Various Artists - Rare Masters Vol . 2 ( Super 2307 009 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Phil_Spector_International\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 66878\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Brett Jones (songwriter) Content: Brett Jones is an American singer , ASCAP songwriter , and music publisher from Warm Springs , Georgia , United States . He is a notable figure in country music that has had over one hundred songs recorded , fourteen top ten hits , and five number one hits . Jones signed a publishing deal with a company owned by country music singer Ronnie Milsap . His first top twenty hit came in 1995 with Confederate Railroad 's `` When and Where . '' He owns Crazytown Productions/Big Borassa Music , in which he looks over many of his own catalogs such as Big Borassa Music , Jonesbone Music , and Brett Jones Music . As of 2012 , his catalogs and himself as an artist were signed to ole , a rights management company . Jones , as an artist , also released his own CD called Life 's Road in 2009 and followed with Cowboy Sailor in July 2014 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Brett_Jones_(songwriter)\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 66871\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Jim Jones and The Righteous Mind Content: Jim Jones and the Righteous Mind are a British rock band formed in November 2014 by Jim Jones following the break-up of The Jim Jones Revue , the band name taken from a book on social psychology . The band also includes former Revue bass player Gavin Jay , drummer Phil Martini , guitarist Mal Troon , and keyboard player Matt Millership , the latter two replacing original members Joe Glossop and David Page .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Jim_Jones_and_The_Righteous_Mind\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 66769\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Starters Content: The Starters ( previously known as The Basketball Jones ) is a podcast , blog and television program that analyzes , and often satirizes , the National Basketball Association . The show is written and hosted by Canadians Tas Melas and Phil Elder ( J.E. Skeets ) , Australian Leigh Ellis and American Trey Kerby , and it is shot , edited , and produced by Canadians Jason Doyle and Matt Osten . Kerby is also the blog editor . The show is currently broadcast on NBA TV and also available as an audio-only podcast .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Starters\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 66756\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Accidentally On Purpose Content: `` Accidentally on Purpose '' is a ballad by George Jones . It was composed by Jones and Darrell Edwards and released it as the B-side to `` Sparkling Brown Eyes '' on Mercury Records in 1960 . In the song , the narrator accuses a former lover of marrying another man just to spite him . The song made the top 20 , peaking at No. 16 on the Billboard country singles chart . Johnny Cash recorded the song in 1960 for his LP Now There Was a Song !\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Accidentally_On_Purpose\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 66674\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: This Is How I Feel About Jazz Content: This Is How I Feel About Jazz is the 1957 debut album by jazz musician Quincy Jones . It presents Jones as arranger and conductor of three different recording sessions during September 1956 , each with a different line-up , from a nonet to a 15-part big band , that featured musicians like Art Farmer , Phil Woods , Lucky Thompson , Hank Jones , Paul Chambers , Milt Jackson , and also -- although recorded in New York -- West Coast musicians like Art Pepper , Zoot Sims and Herbie Mann . The bonus tracks on the CD release confirm the influence of West Coast jazz with compositions by Jimmy Giuffre , Lennie Niehaus and Charlie Mariano . The album was originally produced by Creed Taylor and released on ABC-Paramount . The digital reissue on CD in 1992 was repackaged as an Impulse ! Records release , ABCs sub-label for contemporary jazz established by Taylor four years after these sessions took place ( The Impulse version has a similar cover to the original , shown here , but with the addition of the famous impulse ! logo . )\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"This_Is_How_I_Feel_About_Jazz\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 66368\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Who Said I Would Content: `` Who Said I Would '' is a song performed by Phil Collins that was originally recorded for his 1985 album No Jacket Required . A new live version was released in 1991 as a single from his live album Serious Hits ... Live ! in the United States . It was the sole single to be released from the album in America .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Who_Said_I_Would\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 66347\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Very Best of Howard Jones Content: The Very Best of Howard Jones is a collection of Howard Jones 's biggest hits from 1983 through 2003 . It also contains one new track , `` Revolution Of The Heart '' , in its original form . It would later be altered and featured on his 2005 album , Revolution Of The Heart . The Very Best Of Howard Jones also came with a bonus disc of b-sides . The two-disc set featuring 36 synth-pop hits includes `` New Song , '' `` Everlasting Love , '' and the Phil Collins-produced version of `` No One Is To Blame . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Very_Best_of_Howard_Jones\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 66149\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Granville E. Jones Content: Granville E. Jones ( October 14 , 1900 -- March 7 , 1959 ) was a funeral director and Democratic politician from Philadelphia . Jones was born in 1900 in Baltimore , Maryland . He moved to Philadelphia and graduated from the H. E. Dolan 's College of Mortuary Science , after which he worked as a funeral director . Jones was also president of the Quaker City Funeral Directors Association . In 1948 , he was elected to the first of six terms in the Pennsylvania House of Representatives . In 1953 , he ran for City Treasurer of Philadelphia , but was unsuccessful . He died in office in 1959 and was buried at Mount Lawn Cemetery in Delaware County .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Granville_E._Jones\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 66079\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: D. G. Jones Content: Douglas Gordon `` D. G. '' Jones ( January 1 , 1929 -- March 6 , 2016 ) was a Canadian poet , translator and educator . Born in Bancroft , Ontario , Jones was educated at the private school of Lakefield College School in Ontario , at McGill University and at Queen 's University . He received his M.A. from Queen 's University in 1954 . Jones then taught English literature at the University of Guelph , then Bishop 's University and finally the Université de Sherbrooke . In 1969 , Jones co-founded the bilingual literary journal Ellipse , which continues to be the only literary periodical in Canada which provides reciprocal translations , in equal measure , of both English and French Canadian poetry . Jones has been a member of the Arts and Advisory Panel of the Canada Council . His 1978 collection , Under the Thunder the Flowers Light up the Earth , received the 1978 Governor General 's Award for Poetry . His rendition of Normand de Bellefeuille 's Categorics One , Two and Three received the 1993 Governor General 's Award for Translation . Considered a seminal figure of the mythopoeic strain of Canadian poetry , Jones is also a highly respected essayist and translator . His key work of critical writing is Butterfly on Rock : A Study of Themes and Images in Canadian Literature ( 1970 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"D._G._Jones\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 65985\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: R. W. T. Lees-Jones Content: Richard William Thomas Lees-Jones ( 1891 -- 1978 ) was a British philatelist who signed the Roll of Distinguished Philatelists in 1950 . Lees-Jones was an expert on the stamps of Canada and plated the early issues , particularly the 12 1/2 c of 1859 . In 1936 he gave to the Royal Philatelic Society London a collection of Canada 1897-1936 in mint blocks of four with plate numbers . In 1951 he won that society 's Tilleard Medal for his display of Papermakers ' Watermarks . That collection was auctioned by HR Harmer Ltd in 1952 . His Canadian stamps were shown , hors concours , at the London International Stamp Exhibition 1960 . He was President of the Canadian Philatelic Society .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"R._W._T._Lees-Jones\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 65849\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Calvin \\\"Fuzz\\\" Jones Content: Calvin `` Fuzz '' Jones ( June 9 , 1926 August 9 , 2010 ) was an American electric blues bassist and singer . He worked with many blues musicians , including Muddy Waters , Howlin ' Wolf , the Legendary Blues Band , Mississippi Heat , James Cotton , Luther `` Guitar Junior '' Johnson , Little Walter , Elmore James , and Cassandra Wilson . He contributed to the collaborative 1996 album Eye to Eye , which also featured Pinetop Perkins , Willie `` Big Eyes '' Smith , Ronnie Earl and Bruce Katz .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Calvin_\\\"Fuzz\\\"_Jones\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 65808\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Robert Jones (composer) Content: Robert Jones ( c. 1577 -- 1617 ) was an English lutenist and composer , the most prolific of the English lute song composers ( along with Thomas Campion ) . He received the degree of B.Mus from Oxford in 1597 ( St. Edmund Hall ) . He ran a school in London . Records show that he had a patent ( monopoly ) to train children for the Queen 's Revels between 1610 -- 15 . In 1610 , he collaborated with Philip Rosseter to present plays at the Whitefriars theatre . He was recorded as a Gentleman of the Chapel Royal 1612 . He published five volumes of simple and melodious lute songs , and one of madrigals ; he also contributed to The Triumphs of Oriana and Leighton 's Teares . His 27 madrigals are mostly to texts about birds -- birds merry , sweet , shrill , crowing or melancholic . William Shakespeare quoted his song , ` Farewell , dear love ' , in Twelfth Night . The date and place of Jones 's death are not recorded .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Robert_Jones_(composer)\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 65795\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Jones Very Content: Jones Very ( August 28 , 1813 -- May 8 , 1880 ) was an American poet , essayist , clergyman , and mystic associated with the American Transcendentalism movement . He was known as a scholar of William Shakespeare and many of his poems were Shakespearean sonnets . He was well-known and respected amongst the Transcendentalists , though he had a mental breakdown early in his career . Born in Salem , Massachusetts to two unwed first cousins , Jones Very became associated with Harvard University , first as an undergraduate , then as a student in the Harvard Divinity School and as a tutor of Greek . He heavily studied epic poetry and was invited to lecture on the topic in his home town , which drew the attention of Ralph Waldo Emerson . Soon after , Very asserted that he was the Second Coming of Christ , which resulted in his dismissal from Harvard and his eventual institutionalization in an insane asylum . When he was released , Emerson helped him issue a collection called Essays and Poems in 1839 . Very lived the majority of his life as a recluse from then on , issuing poetry only sparingly . He died in 1880 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Jones_Very\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 65774\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Phil Lempert Content: Phil Lempert ( born April 1953 ) has been the Food Trends Editor for NBC 's Today show since 1991 . Known as the `` SupermarketGuru '' , Lempert appears weekly with `` New Product Hit 's & Misses '' on ABC Now and hosts a weekly radio show called Good Day with SupermarketGuru . Lempert is a contributing editor of Supermarket News , and a content provider for SN . He has written for Newsday , Family Circle , and Meat & Seafood Merchandising , among other publications .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Phil_Lempert\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 65723\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Joe Jones Content: Joe Jones may refer to : Joe Jones ( artist ) ( 1909 -- 1963 ) , American painter , muralist , and lithographer Joe Jones ( Fluxus musician ) ( 1934 -- 1993 ) , American avant-garde musician associated with Fluxus Joe Jones ( American football ) ( born 1948 ) , former American football player for the NFL 's Cleveland Browns Joe Jones ( singer ) ( 1926 -- 2005 ) , American rhythm and blues singer and composer Philly Joe Jones ( 1923 -- 1985 ) , American modern jazz drummer Boogaloo Joe Jones ( born 1940 ) , American jazz guitarist who first recorded as Joe Jones Joe Jones ( basketball ) ( born 1965 ) , current head men 's basketball coach at Boston University Joe Jones ( baseball ) ( born 1941 ) , American professional baseball coach and Manager # Joe Jones ( cyclist ) ( born 1944 ) , Canadian Olympic cyclist Joe Jones ( rugby ) , Welsh rugby union and rugby league footballer of the 1930s and 1940s Joe Jones ( footballer ) ( 1887 -- 1941 ) , Welsh international footballer who also played for Stoke , Crystal Palace and Coventry Joe Jones ( NASCAR driver ) , retired former NASCAR Cup Series driver\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Joe_Jones\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 65641\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_controversy\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 65598\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kenneth Jones (songwriter) Content: Kenneth Jones ( 1952 -- 1969 ) , was the son of Helen Myrl Carter ( of country music 's Carter Family ) and of Glenn Jones . He is best remembered for a song he wrote called `` Sing A Traveling Song '' which appeared on Johnny Cash 's albums Hello , I 'm Johnny Cash and Johnny Cash at Madison Square Garden . Kenneth was Cash 's nephew-in-law . Cash 's second wife , June Carter Cash , was Helen 's sister . Kenneth , or Kenny as he was also known , wrote many songs and was a talented musician . At the time of his death he was under contract with Monument Records and appeared destined for a highly successful career . Following his death the Carter Family recorded one of his songs , 2001 Ballad to the Future . A few have noted the lyrics as being eerily prophetic of the September 11 , 2001 terrorist attacks on the United States which took place more than thirty years after the song was written . During the introduction to `` Sing A Traveling Song '' on the Johnny Cash at Madison Square Garden album , Cash says , `` One of the songs in the new album Hello , I 'm Johnny Cash was written by a young man , 15 years old , Kenny Jones , who was the son of Helen Carter . We do this song tonight as a tribute to Kenny Jones who was killed in an automobile accident at the age of 16 . And to give you an idea of the talents of this young man while he was with us , here was a song that he wrote when he was 14 . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Kenneth_Jones_(songwriter)\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 65598\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: There Is No Greater Love Content: `` There Is No Greater Love '' is a 1936 jazz standard composed by Isham Jones , with lyrics by Marty Symes . It was the last hit song for Jones 's orchestra before the bandleader turned the orchestra over to Woody Herman , beginning the latter 's 50-year career as a bandleader . The song is often played as a ballad -- an example of this approach is Dinah Washington 's 1954 recording on Dinah Jams . Medium-tempo swing renditions have also been recorded by several artists , including Miles Davis on two occasions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"There_Is_No_Greater_Love\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 65581\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Anthony M. Jones Content: Anthony M. Jones ( born March 31 , 1982 ) , is a music producer / songwriter with SteelRepublic / Sony/ATVMusic Publishing . He has produced for artists and groups such as R. Kelly , Mary J. Blige , Keri Hilson , and Neverest . The single `` About Us '' which he produced for Neverest recently won a SOCAN No. 1 Song Award . The music video reached # 1 on the MuchMore video countdown . Other notable singles include `` Last Time '' by George Nozuka , and the most current `` All Said And Done '' by Chevy Woods feat . Dej Loaf .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Anthony_M._Jones\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 65453\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Richard Tyrone Jones Content: Richard Tyrone Jones ( born 1980 ) is a performance poet , writer and comedian . He is director of Utter ! Spoken Word and director of spoken word at the Edinburgh Festival Free Fringe .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Richard_Tyrone_Jones\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 65428\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: An Inconsistent Truth Content: An Inconsistent Truth is a 2012 documentary film written , produced , and featuring , nationally syndicated conservative talk radio host Phil Valentine and directed by Shayne Edwards . Valentine , a skeptic of global warming theory , interviewed scientists about the validity of Al Gore 's film An Inconvenient Truth and the facts presented within . What he is told by the scientists he interviews is that there is no consensus on the issue of global warming or climate change . The film argues that global warming proponents keep changing its label , basing their argument on what Valentine says is shaky scientific ground .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"An_Inconsistent_Truth\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 65401\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Phalon Jones Content: Phalon R. Jones , Jr. ( 1948 -- December 10 , 1967 ) was an American soul and R&B musician . Jones was a saxophonist for The Bar-Kays musical group , which recorded with and also played backup for Otis Redding . James Alexander has described Jones as `` the ladies ' man '' of the group . Jones and three other members of The Bar-Kays died along with Redding in a plane crash in Lake Monona while on their way to a performance in Madison , Wisconsin . Ben Cauley , Jones ' bandmate in The Bar-Kays , was the sole survivor of the accident . Cauley reported that he had been asleep until just seconds before impact , and recalled that upon waking he observed Jones look out a window and say , `` Oh , no ! '' Cauley said that he then unbuckled his seat belt , and that was his final recollection before finding himself in the frigid waters of the lake , grasping a seat cushion to keep himself afloat . The specific cause of the crash was never determined . Jones was buried in the New Park Cemetery in Memphis , Tennessee . Noted hip-hop and R&B producer Phalon `` Jazze Pha '' Alexander , who is James Alexander 's son , is named after Jones .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Phalon_Jones\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 65372\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: George Jones Content: George Glenn Jones ( September 12 , 1931 -- April 26 , 2013 ) was an American musician , singer and songwriter . He achieved international fame for his long list of hit records , including his best known song `` He Stopped Loving Her Today '' , as well as his distinctive voice and phrasing . For the last twenty years of his life , Jones was frequently referred to as the greatest living country singer . Country music scholar Bill C. Malone writes , `` For the two or three minutes consumed by a song , Jones immerses himself so completely in its lyrics , and in the mood it conveys , that the listener can scarcely avoid becoming similarly involved . '' Waylon Jennings expressed a similar opinion in his song `` It 's Alright '' : `` If we all could sound like we wanted to , we 'd all sound like George Jones . '' The shape of his nose and facial features earned Jones the nickname `` The Possum . '' Born in Texas , Jones first heard country music when he was seven and was given a guitar at the age of nine . He married his first wife , Dorothy Bonvillion , in 1950 , and was divorced in 1951 . He served in the United States Marine Corps and was discharged in 1953 . He married Shirley Ann Corley in 1954 . In 1959 , Jones recorded `` White Lightning , '' written by J. P. Richardson , which launched his career as a singer . His second marriage ended in divorce in 1968 ; he married fellow country music singer Tammy Wynette a year later . Many years of alcoholism caused his health to deteriorate severely and led to his missing many performances , earning him the nickname `` No Show Jones . '' After his divorce from Wynette in 1975 , Jones married his fourth wife , Nancy Sepulvado , in 1983 and became mostly sober . Jones died in 2013 , aged 81 , from hypoxic respiratory failure . During his career , Jones had more than 150 hits , both as a solo artist and in duets with other artists .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"George_Jones\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 65361\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mason Jones Content: Mason Jones ( 1919 , Hamilton , New York -- 18 February 2009 , Wynnewood , Pennsylvania ) was an American horn player and music educator who had a lengthy association with the Philadelphia Orchestra as principal hornist under conductor Eugene Ormandy . He also served as principal hornist of the United States Marine Band during World War II and was the head of the horn faculty at the Curtis Institute of Music from 1946-1995 . He was a founding member of the Philadelphia Woodwind Quintet and the Philadelphia Brass Ensemble .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Mason_Jones\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 65263\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Patrick Jones (activist) Content: Patrick Jones ( born 1970 ) is a public speaker , environmental commentator , and author of Words & Things ( 2004 ) , A Free-dragging Manifesto ( 2008 ) and The Art of Free Travel ( 2015 ) , which he co-authored with Meg Ulman .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Patrick_Jones_(activist)\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 65129\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Curtis J. Jones Jr. Content: Curtis J. Jones Jr. is a Democratic Councilman representing the Fourth District on the City Council of Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , USA . He has served since 2008 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2738\",\n \"docid\": \"Curtis_J._Jones_Jr.\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 64904\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":1350,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"'Phil Jones said that for the past 15 years there has been no \"statistically significant\" warming."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Phil Jones (climatologist) Content: Philip Douglas Jones ( born April 22 , 1952 ) retired from his positions as the Director of the Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) and as a Professor in the School of Environmental Sciences at the University of East Anglia ( UEA ) at the end of 2016 . Jones was replaced as CRU director by Tim Osborn and has taken up a position as a Professorial Fellow at the UEA from January 2017 . His research interests include instrumental climate change , palaeoclimatology , detection of climate change and the extension of riverflow records in the UK . He has also published papers on the temperature record of the past 1000 years . He is known for maintaining a time series of the instrumental temperature record . This work was featured prominently in both the 2001 and 2007 IPCC reports , where he was a contributing author to Chapter 12 , Detection of Climate Change and Attribution of Causes , of the Third Assessment Report and a Coordinating Lead Author of Chapter 3 , Observations : Surface and Atmospheric Climate Change , of the AR4 .","qid":"2741","docid":"Phil_Jones_(climatologist)","rank":1,"score":145567},{"content":"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.","qid":"2741","docid":"Climate_change_in_the_United_States","rank":2,"score":114552},{"content":"Title: Temperature record of the past 1000 years Content: For information on the description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in various IPCC reports see MWP and LIA in IPCC reportsThe temperature record of the past 1,000 years is reconstructed using data from climate proxy records in conjunction with the modern instrumental temperature record which only covers the last 150 years at a global scale . Large-scale reconstructions covering part or all of the 1st millennium and 2nd millennium have shown that recent temperatures are exceptional : the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report of 2007 concluded that `` Average Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the second half of the 20th century were very likely higher than during any other 50-year period in the last 500 years and likely '' the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . '' The curve shown in graphs of these reconstructions is widely known as the hockey stick graph because of the sharp increase in temperatures during the last century . As of 2010 this broad pattern was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th-century `` shaft '' appears . Sparseness of proxy records results in considerable uncertainty for earlier periods . Individual proxy records , such as tree ring widths and densities used in dendroclimatology , are calibrated against the instrumental record for the period of overlap . Networks of such records are used to reconstruct past temperatures for regions : tree ring proxies have been used to reconstruct Northern Hemisphere extratropical temperatures ( within the tropics trees do not form rings ) but are confined to land areas and are scarce in the Southern Hemisphere which is largely ocean . Wider coverage is provided by multiproxy reconstructions , incorporating proxies such as lake sediments , ice cores and corals which are found in different regions , and using statistical methods to relate these sparser proxies to the greater numbers of tree ring records . The `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method is widely used for large-scale multiproxy reconstructions of hemispheric or global average temperatures ; this is complemented by Climate Field Reconstruction ( CFR ) methods which show how climate patterns have developed over large spatial areas , making the reconstruction useful for investigating natural variability and long-term oscillations as well as for comparisons with patterns produced by climate models . During the 1,900 years before the 20th century , it is likely that the next warmest period was from 950 to 1100 , with peaks at different times in different regions . This has been called the Medieval Warm Period , and some evidence suggests widespread cooler conditions during a period around the 17th century known as the Little Ice Age . In the hockey stick controversy , contrarians have asserted that the Medieval Warm Period was warmer than at present , and have disputed the data and methods of climate reconstructions .","qid":"2741","docid":"Temperature_record_of_the_past_1000_years","rank":3,"score":106608},{"content":"Title: Phil H. Jones Content: Phil H. Jones was a member of the Wisconsin State Assembly .","qid":"2741","docid":"Phil_H._Jones","rank":4,"score":106470},{"content":"Title: List of large-scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years Content: This list of large scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years includes climate reconstructions which have contributed significantly to the modern consensus on the temperature record of the past 2000 years . The instrumental temperature record only covers the last 150 years at a hemispheric or global scale , and reconstructions of earlier periods are based on climate proxies . In an early attempt to show that climate had changed , Hubert Lamb 's 1965 paper generalised from temperature records of central England together with historical , botanical and archeological evidence to produce a qualitative estimate of temperatures in the north Atlantic region . Subsequent quantitative reconstructions used statistical techniques with various climate proxies to produce larger scale reconstructions . Tree ring proxies can give an annual resolution of extratropical regions of the northern hemisphere , and can be statistically combined with other sparser proxies to produce multiproxy hemispherical or global reconstructions . Quantitative reconstructions have consistently shown earlier temperatures below the temperature levels reached in the late 20th century . This pattern as seen in was dubbed the hockey stick graph , and as of 2010 this broad conclusion was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears .","qid":"2741","docid":"List_of_large-scale_temperature_reconstructions_of_the_last_2,000_years","rank":5,"score":105594},{"content":"Title: Phil Jones (footballer, born 1961) Content: Philip Howard `` Phil '' Jones ( born 12 September 1961 ) is an English former footballer who played either in midfield or defence . Born in Mansfield , Jones was a product of Sheffield United 's youth system and was playing in the reserves as a fifteen-year-old in 1977 . Signing as an apprentice in July 1978 , Jones turned professional a year later and finally made his debut for United in February 1979 in a league fixture against Wrexham . Jones struggled to make the transition to the first team , his only real run in the side came during 1980 -- 81 season as United were relegated to Division Four . After failing to make a first team appearance during the subsequent season , Jones was released from his contract in May 1982 , joining Boston United . After leaving Boston , Jones joined Matlock Town for a spell before finishing his career with Gainsborough Trinity in 1990 .","qid":"2741","docid":"Phil_Jones_(footballer,_born_1961)","rank":6,"score":103380},{"content":"Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .","qid":"2741","docid":"Climate_change","rank":7,"score":102820},{"content":"Title: Phil Jones (journalist) Content: Phil Jones is an English sports journalist and television reporter .","qid":"2741","docid":"Phil_Jones_(journalist)","rank":8,"score":102458},{"content":"Title: Phil Jones (footballer, born 1992) Content: Philip Anthony Jones ( born 21 February 1992 ) is an English professional footballer who plays for Premier League club Manchester United and the England national team . Before joining Manchester United , Jones played for Blackburn Rovers at both youth and senior levels . Although primarily a centre back , he has also been used as a right back or defensive midfielder . Jones has represented England at various levels and is currently a member of the England senior squad . He played for the under-19 team in 2009 before making his debut for the under-21 team in 2010 . He made his debut for the England senior squad on 7 October 2011 .","qid":"2741","docid":"Phil_Jones_(footballer,_born_1992)","rank":9,"score":100549},{"content":"Title: Phill Jones Content: Phillip Charles George `` Phill '' Jones ( born 25 January 1974 ) is a New Zealand professional basketball player for the Nelson Giants of the New Zealand National Basketball League ( NZNBL ) . The two-time Olympian has scored more points in the New Zealand NBL than any other Kiwi player and is second overall in league scoring history . In 2004 , he ranked second among all points scorers at the Athens Olympics . In 2016 , he became the first player in New Zealand NBL history to reach 400 games .","qid":"2741","docid":"Phill_Jones","rank":10,"score":100380},{"content":"Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .","qid":"2741","docid":"List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming","rank":11,"score":99022},{"content":"Title: Phil Jones (umpire) Content: Phil Jones ( born 1 January 1960 ) is a New Zealand cricket umpire . He stood in his first One Day International ( ODI ) match on 8 November 2014 between Hong Kong and Papua New Guinea in Australia . He stood in his first Twenty20 International ( T20I ) match on 7 January 2016 between New Zealand and Sri Lanka . He was a member of the International Panel of Umpires and Referees until June 2016 , when he was demoted to New Zealand 's national panel .","qid":"2741","docid":"Phil_Jones_(umpire)","rank":12,"score":97867},{"content":"Title: Phil Jones (rugby) Content: Phil Jones ( born 30 September 1977 ) is an English former rugby league and rugby union footballer who played as a centre or stand-off / fly-half . He played for Lancashire Lynx , Wigan Warriors and Leigh Centurions in rugby league , and Orrell , Rotherham Titans and Sedgley Park in rugby union .","qid":"2741","docid":"Phil_Jones_(rugby)","rank":13,"score":96998},{"content":"Title: Phil Jones (American football) Content: Phil Jones ( born ca. 1946 ) is a former American football coach . He previously served as a head coach at Shorter University from 2005 to 2015 and at several high schools across Georgia from 1973 through 1997 before he moved to the college ranks . After he served in assistant positions at Georgia , SMU and Gardner -- Webb before he was hired in July 2004 to serve as the first head coach in the history of the Shorter football program .","qid":"2741","docid":"Phil_Jones_(American_football)","rank":14,"score":96906},{"content":"Title: Phil Jones (basketball) Content: Phillip Michael `` Phil '' Jones ( born September 2 , 1985 ) is a Virgin Islands professional basketball player . He played college basketball at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte and has played internationally for the U.S. Virgin Islands national basketball team . Born in Nashville , Tennessee , Jones spent part of his childhood growing up in the Virgin Islands . Jones committed to the 49ers out of Laurinburg Prep School in North Carolina after he spent a year at the school after graduating from high school in Philadelphia . Ranked as a top 100 recruit by several publications , he averaged 19 points , 10.2 rebounds , and 5.3 blocks per game while leading the school to the Prep National Championship . As a first-year sophomore for the 49ers , he averaged 3.3 points and 2.9 rebounds a game while playing 13.4 minutes per game off the bench to the 49ers . He improved in his junior season , 2008 -- 09 , averaging 7.3 points , 4 rebounds , and 1.4 blocks per game for the team . Jones competed on the U.S. Virgin Islands national basketball team for the first time at the FIBA Americas Championship 2009 . He averaged 8.5 points and 4.8 rebounds per game in four games for the team , including a team-high 18 points and seven rebounds in a preliminary round loss to Puerto Rico .","qid":"2741","docid":"Phil_Jones_(basketball)","rank":15,"score":96830},{"content":"Title: Tom Jones (Philidor) Content: Tom Jones is a comédie mêlée d'ariettes , a kind of opéra comique , by the French composer François-André Danican Philidor which first appeared at the Comédie-Italienne , Paris , on 27 February 1765 . Its French libretto , by Antoine-Alexandre-Henri Poisenet and Bertin Davesne , is loosely based on the novel by Henry Fielding . The piece was initially a failure but Philidor had the libretto revised by Michel-Jean Sedaine and this new version , first performed on 30 January 1766 , proved one of the most popular opéras comiques of the late 18th century . It was produced in a number of other countries , and translated into German , Swedish and Russian .","qid":"2741","docid":"Tom_Jones_(Philidor)","rank":16,"score":96241},{"content":"Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .","qid":"2741","docid":"Global_warming_controversy","rank":17,"score":95902},{"content":"Title: Wibjörn Karlén Content: Wibjörn Karlén ( born 26 August 1937 in Kristine , Kopparberg County , Sweden ) , Ph.D. , is a professor emeritus of physical geography and quaternary geology at Stockholm University , Sweden . In an article which describes Karlén as a paleoclimatologist , he is quoted as saying : `` One of the big problems with trying to determine long-term temperature changes , is that weather records only go back to about 1860 . By relying on statistical reconstruction of the last 1000 years , using only the temperature patterns of the last 140 years instead of actual temperature readings , the IPCC report and Summary missed both a major cooling period as well as a significant warming trend during that millennium . '' Karlén has also criticized the mainstream media for `` spreading the exaggerated views of a human impact on climate . '' He was also named in a 2007 minority report of the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee as one of 400 `` prominent scientists '' who were said to dispute global warming . In 2010 , he predicted that natural climate changes , caused to a large degree by the sun 's activity , would more likely make the climate colder than warmer in the next decades . He is a contributing author to the Fraser Institute 2007 Independent Summary for Policymakers . Karlén is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences .","qid":"2741","docid":"Wibjörn_Karlén","rank":18,"score":95708},{"content":"Title: Philibert Jones Content: Philibert Jones ( born 12 November 1964 ) is a former international footballer from Trinidad and Tobago who played as a striker . He is currently the Assistant Coach at United Petrotrin in the TT Pro League .","qid":"2741","docid":"Philibert_Jones","rank":19,"score":95101},{"content":"Title: An Inconsistent Truth Content: An Inconsistent Truth is a 2012 documentary film written , produced , and featuring , nationally syndicated conservative talk radio host Phil Valentine and directed by Shayne Edwards . Valentine , a skeptic of global warming theory , interviewed scientists about the validity of Al Gore 's film An Inconvenient Truth and the facts presented within . What he is told by the scientists he interviews is that there is no consensus on the issue of global warming or climate change . The film argues that global warming proponents keep changing its label , basing their argument on what Valentine says is shaky scientific ground .","qid":"2741","docid":"An_Inconsistent_Truth","rank":20,"score":94134},{"content":"Title: Hockey stick controversy Content: In the hockey stick controversy , the data and methods used in reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years have been disputed . Reconstructions have consistently shown that the rise in the instrumental temperature record of the past 150 years is not matched in earlier centuries , and the name `` hockey stick graph '' was coined for figures showing a long-term decline followed by an abrupt rise in temperatures . These graphs were publicised to explain the scientific findings of climatology , and in addition to scientific debate over the reconstructions , they have been the topic of political dispute . The issue is part of the global warming controversy and has been one focus of political responses to reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . The use of proxy indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed from the 1990s onwards , and found indications that recent warming was exceptional . The reconstruction introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large-scale reconstructions , and its findings were disputed by Patrick Michaels at the United States House Committee on Science . In 1998 , Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 . In ( MBH99 ) the methodology was extended back to 1000 . The term hockey stick was coined by the climatologist Jerry D. Mahlman , to describe the pattern this showed , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' , followed by a sharp increase corresponding to the `` blade '' . A version of this graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , along with four other reconstructions supporting the same conclusion . The graph was publicised , and became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th-century warmth was exceptional . Those disputing the graph included Pat Michaels , the George C. Marshall Institute and Fred Singer . A paper by Willie Soon and Sallie Baliunas claiming greater medieval warmth was used by the Bush administration chief of staff Philip Cooney to justify altering the first Environmental Protection Agency Report on the Environment . The paper was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy , but on July 28 , Republican Jim Inhofe spoke in the Senate citing it to claim `` that man-made global warming is the greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American people '' . Later in 2003 , a paper by Steve McIntyre and Ross McKitrick disputing the data used in MBH98 paper was publicised by the George C. Marshall Institute and the Competitive Enterprise Institute . In 2004 , Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 , McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal component analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . The analysis therein was subsequently disputed by published papers , including and , which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . In June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton launched what Sherwood Boehlert , chairman of the House Science Committee , called a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into the data , methods and personal information of Mann , Bradley and Hughes . At Boehlert 's request , a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council was set up , which reported in 2006 , supporting Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . Barton and U.S. Rep. Ed Whitfield requested Edward Wegman to set up a team of statisticians to investigate , and they supported McIntyre and McKitrick 's view that there were statistical failings , although they did not quantify whether there was any significant effect . They also produced an extensive network analysis which has been discredited by expert opinion and found to have issues of plagiarism . Arguments against the MBH studies were reintroduced as part of the Climatic Research Unit email controversy , but dismissed by eight independent investigations . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , have supported the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Over a dozen subsequent reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .","qid":"2741","docid":"Hockey_stick_controversy","rank":21,"score":93945},{"content":"Title: Timothy Osborn Content: Timothy J. Osborn is a climatologist and Professor of Climate Science at the University of East Anglia . In January 2017 he replaced Phil Jones as the Research Director of the Climatic Research Unit . Osborn graduated with a first class degree in Geophysical Sciences from the University of East Anglia in 1990 , and a PhD from the School of Environmental Sciences in 1995 . He was awarded the Hugh Robert Mill Prize by the Royal Meteorological Society in 2002 , and is a Lead Author of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report .","qid":"2741","docid":"Timothy_Osborn","rank":22,"score":93860},{"content":"Title: Phil Jones (curler) Content: Phil Jones represented Wales at the 2008 World Mixed Doubles Curling Championship . He curls for the Alyn Valley club at Deeside Leisure Centre .","qid":"2741","docid":"Phil_Jones_(curler)","rank":23,"score":93356},{"content":"Title: Forward on Climate Content: The Forward on Climate rally was held at the National Mall in Washington , D.C. on February 17 , 2013 . The goal of the demonstration was to spur President Barack Obama and Congress to take more action to address global warming . Opposition to the proposed expansion of the Keystone XL Pipeline , that was still pending at the time , was a particular focus of the rally . Among the speakers were Sierra Club Director Michael Brune , U.S. Senator Sheldon Whitehouse , actress and activist Rosario Dawson , 350 . org founder Bill McKibben , and Obama 's former Special Advisor for Green Jobs Van Jones . Participants marched from the National Mall to the White House . Attendance was estimated at 35,000 ( estimates ranged from 10,000 by a police officer to 50,000 by 350 . org ) , and was thought to have been the largest climate rally in American history . The rally was arranged by the Sierra Club , the Hip Hop Caucus , 350 . org , and other organizations .","qid":"2741","docid":"Forward_on_Climate","rank":24,"score":92002},{"content":"Title: David A. Jones Content: David Arfon Jones is a senior climatologist at the Australian Bureau of Meteorology . He initially studied mathematics and chemistry at university but changed to atmospheric studies . Jones obtained his PhD in Earth Science from the University of Melbourne , Australia in 1995 . He subsequently completed the postgraduate diploma in weather forecasting in 1995 at the Bureau of Meteorology . In 1995 Jones commenced work in the Climate Analysis Section of the Australian National Climate Centre , focusing on the automation of climate monitoring using objective analysis techniques . Subsequently he moved to the Bureau of Meteorology Research Centre in 1997 undertaking research on the variability and change of Australia 's climate . Jones became the supervisor of Climate Analysis at the Bureau of Meteorology in 2002 . In this role he has promoted the automation of analysis , monitoring and forecasting products and the introduction of a range of innovative climate monitoring activities , with a focus on encouraging the interpretation of climate variability in the context of a rapidly changing climate . Owing to the continued misrepresentation of climate change in the Australian media Jones has written a number of public pieces correcting or explaining climate change including in The Age , and in articles for the Australian Science Media Centre . In 2006 Jones was awarded the National Australia Day Council Achievement Medallion .","qid":"2741","docid":"David_A._Jones","rank":25,"score":91521},{"content":"Title: Philly Joe Jones Content: Joseph Rudolph `` Philly Joe '' Jones ( July 15 , 1923 -- August 30 , 1985 ) was a Philadelphia-born American jazz drummer , known as the drummer for the first `` Great '' Miles Davis Quintet . He is sometimes confused with another influential jazz drummer , Papa Jo Jones . The two died only a few days apart .","qid":"2741","docid":"Philly_Joe_Jones","rank":26,"score":91433},{"content":"Title: Hockey stick graph Content: Hockey stick graphs present the global or hemispherical mean temperature record of the past 500 to 2000 years as shown by quantitative climate reconstructions based on climate proxy records . These reconstructions have consistently shown a slow long term cooling trend changing into relatively rapid warming in the 20th century , with the instrumental temperature record by 2000 exceeding earlier temperatures . The term `` hockey stick graph '' was coined by the climatologist Jerry Mahlman , to describe the pattern shown by the ( MBH99 ) reconstruction , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat with a downward trend to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' followed by a sharp , steady increase corresponding to the `` blade '' portion . The reconstructions have featured in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports as evidence of global warming . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . Paleoclimatology dates back to the 19th century , and the concept of examining varves in lake beds and tree rings to track local climatic changes was suggested in the 1930s . In the 1960s , Hubert Lamb generalised from historical documents and temperature records of central England to propose a Medieval Warm Period from around 900 to 1300 , followed by Little Ice Age . This was the basis of a `` schematic diagram '' featured in the IPCC First Assessment Report of 1990 beside cautions that the medieval warming might not have been global . The use of indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed , and by the late 1990s a number of competing teams of climatologists found indications that recent warming was exceptional . introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large scale reconstructions . Their study was featured in the IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . In 1998 Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 with shading emphasising that uncertainties ( to two standard error limits ) were much greater in earlier centuries . independently produced a CPS reconstruction extending back for a thousand years , and ( MBH99 ) used the MBH98 methodology to extend their study back to 1000 . A version of the MBH99 graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , which also drew on Jones et al. 1998 and three other reconstructions to support the conclusion that , in the Northern Hemisphere , the 1990s was likely to have been the warmest decade and 1998 the warmest year during the past 1,000 years . The graph became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th century warmth was exceptional . In 2003 , as lobbying over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol intensified , a paper claiming greater medieval warmth was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy . Later in 2003 , Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick published disputing the data used in MBH98 paper . In 2004 Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal components analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . Their analysis was subsequently disputed by published papers including and which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . Political disputes led to the formation of a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council , their North Report in 2006 supported Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , support the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Further reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .","qid":"2741","docid":"Hockey_stick_graph","rank":27,"score":90854},{"content":"Title: S v Maki Content: In S v Maki , an important case in South African criminal law , the accused had consciously broken into the home of the deceased , an 84-year-old woman , and thereafter , in a drunken state , strangled her . He had previous convictions for possession of dagga , assault with intent to do grievous bodily harm , attempted rape and theft . He was sentenced to fifteen years ' imprisonment . Jones J said , The accused is not a youngster who , for the first time , had too much to drink and dabbled with dagga . On the contrary , he has a criminal record for violent acts and for involvement with dagga . Through his counsel he admits to longstanding serious substance abuse . His character is malformed . He lacks discipline . This sort of thing could happen G to him again . In a case such as this the interests of society must prevail over the interests of the individual offender . As to the question of capacity , Jones J said the following : It is perhaps worthwhile therefore to speculate on the possible sentences which would have been imposed or considered if the accused had killed the deceased with full criminal capacity . If he had had less liquor to drink and if he had been sufficiently in command of his faculties to be convicted of murder , his intake of alcohol might have been a mitigating factor . He might also have been able to point to other mitigating factors in explaining what happened inside the flat . But the many aggravating factors , which are self-evident , would have made the death penalty one of the options to be given serious consideration . If the Court had come to the conclusion that the death sentence was not the only proper sentence , the other options of imprisonment for life or imprisonment for a lengthy term of 20 or 25 years would have been considered . It is my view that it is extremely unlikely that a sentence of less than 20 years would have been imposed for this kind of murder .","qid":"2741","docid":"S_v_Maki","rank":28,"score":90799},{"content":"Title: Mouse Warming Content: Mouse Warming ( stylised as Mouse-warming ) is a 1952 Looney Tunes short directed by Chuck Jones , and starring Claude Cat ( in his final solo cartoon ) , with a cameo appearance of Hector the Bulldog at the end .","qid":"2741","docid":"Mouse_Warming","rank":29,"score":90274},{"content":"Title: Unstoppable Global Warming: Every 1,500 Years Content: Unstoppable Global Warming : Every 1,500 Years is a book about climate change , written by Siegfried Fred Singer and Dennis T. Avery , which asserts that natural changes , and not CO2 emissions , are the cause of Global Warming . Published by Rowman & Littlefield in 2006 , the book sold well and was reprinted in an updated edition in 2007 . The title refers to the hypothesis of 1,500-year climate cycles in the Holocene first postulated by Gerard C. Bond , mainly based on petrologic tracers of drift ice in the North Atlantic .","qid":"2741","docid":"Unstoppable_Global_Warming:_Every_1,500_Years","rank":30,"score":90210},{"content":"Title: William Jones (philologist) Content: Sir William Jones FRS FRSE ( 28 September 1746 -- 27 April 1794 ) was an Anglo-Welsh philologist , a puisne judge on the Supreme Court of Judicature at Fort William in Bengal , and a scholar of ancient India , particularly known for his proposition of the existence of a relationship among European and Indian languages , which would later be known as Indo-European languages . He , along with Henry Thomas Colebrooke and Nathaniel Halhed , founded the Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1784 , and started a journal called Asiatick Researches .","qid":"2741","docid":"William_Jones_(philologist)","rank":31,"score":89799},{"content":"Title: I'm not a scientist Content: `` I 'm not a scientist '' is a phrase that has been often used by American politicians , primarily Republicans , when asked about a scientific subject , such as global warming , or the age of the earth . Politicians who have used the phrase include John Boehner , Rick Scott , Marco Rubio , Bobby Jindal , and Mitch McConnell . It has been criticized by Coral Davenport writing for The New York Times , and by Steven Benen of the Rachel Maddow Show , and was satirized by Stephen Colbert of The Colbert Report . President Barack Obama singled the phrase out in his 2015 State of the Union speech , saying : I 've heard some folks try to dodge the evidence -LSB- of global climate change -RSB- by saying they 're not scientists ; that we do n't have enough information to act . Well , I 'm not a scientist , either . But you know what , I know a lot of really good scientists at NASA , and at NOAA , and at our major universities . And the best scientists in the world are all telling us that our activities are changing the climate , and if we do n't act forcefully , we 'll continue to see rising oceans , longer , hotter heat waves , dangerous droughts and floods , and massive disruptions that can trigger greater migration and conflict and hunger around the globe . Ford O'Connell , a Republican strategist and conservative activist , has argued that the phrase `` wo n't be a winner in the presidential field '' for Republican candidates . Commenting on the phenomenon , Journalist Dan Rather deplored the antiscience attitude it evinces , but stated that the anti-science attitude was evident not just among Republicans , but throughout American society . He blamed the media for their poor coverage of science , and for presenting a false equivalency between scientific consensus and climate change denial .","qid":"2741","docid":"I'm_not_a_scientist","rank":32,"score":89312},{"content":"Title: George Hilton Jones III Content: George Hilton Jones , III , D. Phil ( Oxon ) ( 1924 -- 2008 ) was an American Rhodes Scholar , historian , college professor , and author of numerous works on English history .","qid":"2741","docid":"George_Hilton_Jones_III","rank":33,"score":87899},{"content":"Title: P. J. Jones (American football) Content: Philemon Depaul Jones is an American football defensive tackle who is a free agent . Jones played college football for Mississippi State from 2011 to 2014 , where he was a starter as a junior and senior . He was named MSU 's Defensive Player of the Week in 2014 after the 34 -- 29 win over LSU .","qid":"2741","docid":"P._J._Jones_(American_football)","rank":34,"score":87160},{"content":"Title: Peter Doran Content: Peter Doran , Ph.D. is Professor of Geology and Geophysics at Louisiana State University . Doran specializes in polar regions , especially Antarctic climate and ecosystems . Doran was the lead author of a research paper about Antarctic temperatures that was published in the journal Nature in January 2002 . Because he and his colleagues found that some parts of Antarctica had cooled between 1964 and 2000 , his paper has been frequently cited by opponents of the global warming theory , such as Ann Coulter and Michael Crichton . In an opinion piece in the July 27 , 2006 New York Times , Doran characterized this as a `` misinterpretation '' and stated , `` I have never thought such a thing ... I would like to remove my name from the list of scientists who dispute global warming . '' ( The temporary phenomenon is related to the `` hole '' in the ozone . As the `` hole heals '' the Antarctic will dramatically warm quickly . ) Doran and his grad student Maggie Kendall Zimmerman also published a paper in the Jan 27 , 2009 issue of EOS showing that active climate researchers almost unanimously agree that humans have had a significant impact on the Earth 's climate . Both an Antarctic stream and glacier were named for Doran by the U.S. Geological Survey to commemorate his many significant research contributions conducted on the continent .","qid":"2741","docid":"Peter_Doran","rank":35,"score":87096},{"content":"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .","qid":"2741","docid":"Global_warming","rank":36,"score":86665},{"content":"Title: No One Is to Blame Content: `` No One Is to Blame '' is a song by British musician Howard Jones . The song , in its original version , can be found on his second studio album , Dream into Action , which was released in 1985 . Following the success of the previous singles taken from the album , the original track for `` No One Is to Blame '' was re-recorded to give the song a more radio-friendly sound . Phil Collins and Hugh Padgham produced the re-recording , with Collins adding his own backing vocals and drum work . This new version of the song was included on the 1986 US EP Action Replay as well as the CD version of Jones 's 1986 studio album , One to One . `` No One Is to Blame '' was released as a single in March 1986 and became Jones 's biggest hit in the United States , peaking at # 4 on the Billboard Hot 100 . The song also became the first of his two # 1 songs on the U.S. adult contemporary chart ( `` Everlasting Love '' would top this chart in 1989 ) . The song was also a top 10 hit in Australia and a # 16 hit in the U.K. . The song is about unfulfilled attractions , saying that they 're normal and commonplace ( `` We want everyone - no one ever is to blame '' ) . It uses a number of metaphors , such as `` You can look at the menu , but you just ca n't eat '' and `` It 's the last piece of the puzzle , but you just ca n't make it fit , '' to describe the frustration of experiencing attraction but being unable to act on it , for whatever reason . On a deeper level it describes the frustration and pain of unfulfilled desires and dreams inherent in the human condition .","qid":"2741","docid":"No_One_Is_to_Blame","rank":37,"score":86473},{"content":"Title: Philip Jones Content: Philip , Phil or Phill Jones may refer to :","qid":"2741","docid":"Philip_Jones","rank":38,"score":85676},{"content":"Title: Ellis Jones (sociologist) Content: Ellis McNatt Jones ( born February 25 , 1970 ) is an American sociologist and author . Jones was a Peace Corps Volunteer in the Republic of Panama from 1993 to 1995 where he worked in Environmental Education . Jones has researched consumer products , rating corporations on an `` A '' through `` F '' scale based on their scores in five areas : human rights ( sweatshops , child labor , etc. ) , the environment ( global warming , rainforest destruction , etc. ) , animal protection ( animal testing , humane treatment , etc. ) , community involvement ( local business support , nonprofit alliances , etc. ) , and social justice ( fair wages , discrimination , etc. ) . In his book `` The Better World Shopping Guide : Every Dollar Makes A Difference , '' he encourages consumers to push their dollars to the `` A '' and `` B '' companies and away from the `` D '' and `` F '' companies to create a better world . He holds a Ph.D. from the University of Colorado and is currently a professor of sociology at College of the Holy Cross .","qid":"2741","docid":"Ellis_Jones_(sociologist)","rank":39,"score":85312},{"content":"Title: Global warming hiatus Content: A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .","qid":"2741","docid":"Global_warming_hiatus","rank":40,"score":85159},{"content":"Title: Drums Around the World Content: Drums Around the World ( subtitled Philly Joe Jones Big Band Sounds ) is the second album led by American jazz drummer Philly Joe Jones which was recorded in 1959 for the Riverside label .","qid":"2741","docid":"Drums_Around_the_World","rank":41,"score":85030},{"content":"Title: Climate change policy of the United States Content: Global climate change was first addressed in United States policy beginning in the early 1960s . The Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) defines climate change as `` any significant change in the measures of climate lasting for an extended period of time . '' Essentially , climate change includes major changes in temperature , precipitation , or wind patterns , as well as other effects , that occur over several decades or longer . Climate change policy in the US has transformed rapidly over the past twenty years and is being developed at both the state and federal level . The politics of global warming and climate change have polarized certain political parties and other organizations . This article focuses on climate change policy within the United States , as well as exploring the positions of various parties and the influences on policy making and environmental justice repercussions .","qid":"2741","docid":"Climate_change_policy_of_the_United_States","rank":42,"score":84925},{"content":"Title: Don A. Jones Content: Rear Admiral Don A. Jones ( 16 September 1912 -- 6 August 2000 ) was an officer in the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey Corps , its successor , the Environmental Science Services Administration Corps ( ESSA Corps ) , and the ESSA Corps 's successor , the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Commissioned Officer Corps ( NOAA Corps ) . He served simultaneously as the second and last Director of the ESSA Corps , one of only two people to hold the position , and as the seventh and last Director of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey . During World War II , Jones was transferred to the United States Army and later the Office of Strategic Services before returning to the Coast and Geodetic Survey Corps .","qid":"2741","docid":"Don_A._Jones","rank":43,"score":84887},{"content":"Title: Greg Jones (skier) Content: Gregory Jones ( born December 3 , 1953 ) is a former World Cup alpine ski racer from the United States . Born in Tahoe City , California , he specialized in giant slalom . Jones competed in all three events at the 1976 Winter Olympics and finished 9th in the giant slalom , 11th in the downhill , and 19th in the slalom . His all-around performance earned a World Championship bronze medal in the combined event . Jones won a World Cup race a few weeks later in the United States at Copper Mountain , Colorado . Teammate Phil Mahre was the runner-up for the first-ever one-two finish by U.S. men in a World Cup race .","qid":"2741","docid":"Greg_Jones_(skier)","rank":44,"score":84672},{"content":"Title: North Report Content: The North Report was a 2006 report evaluating reconstructions of the temperature record of the past two millennia , providing an overview of the state of the science and the implications for understanding of global warming . It was produced by a National Research Council committee , chaired by Gerald North , at the request of Representative Sherwood Boehlert as chairman of the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Science . These reconstructions had been dubbed `` hockey stick graphs '' after the 1999 reconstruction by Mann , Bradley and Hughes ( MBH99 ) , which used the methodology of their 1998 reconstruction covering 600 years ( MBH98 ) . A graph based on MBH99 was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , and became a focus of the global warming controversy over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol . It was disputed by various contrarians , and in the politicisation of this hockey stick controversy the New York Times of 14 February 2005 hailed a paper by businessman Stephen McIntyre and economist Ross McKitrick ( MM05 ) as undermining the scientific consensus behind the Kyoto agreement . On 23 June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton , chairman of the House Committee on Energy and Commerce , with Ed Whitfield , Chairman of the Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations , wrote joint letters referring to issues raised by the Wall Street Journal article , and demanding that Mann , Bradley and Hughes provide full records on their data and methods , finances and careers , information about grants provided to the institutions they had worked for , and the exact computer codes used to generate their results . Boehlert said this was a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into something that should properly be under the jurisdiction of the Science Committee , and in November 2005 after Barton dismissed the offer of an independent investigation organised by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences , Boehlert requested the review , which became the North Report . The North Report went through a rigorous review process , and was published on 22 June 2006 . It concluded `` with a high level of confidence that global mean surface temperature was higher during the last few decades of the 20th century than during any comparable period during the preceding four centuries '' , justified by consistent evidence from a wide variety of geographically diverse proxies , but `` Less confidence can be placed in large-scale surface temperature reconstructions for the period from 900 to 1600 '' . It broadly agreed with the basic findings of the original MBH studies , which subsequently been supported by other reconstructions and proxy records , while emphasising uncertainties over earlier periods . The principal component analysis methodology that McIntyre and McKitrick had contested had a small tendency to bias results so was not recommended -- but it had little influence on the final reconstructions , and other methods produced similar results .","qid":"2741","docid":"North_Report","rank":45,"score":84280},{"content":"Title: Gregory V. Jones Content: Gregory V. Jones is a research climatologist specializing in the climatology of viticulture , with a focus on how climate variation influences vine growth , wine production and the quality of wine produced . Jones serves as the Director of the Division of Business , Communication and the Environment at Southern Oregon University in Ashland , Oregon and is Professor in the University 's Environmental Science and Policy Program .","qid":"2741","docid":"Gregory_V._Jones","rank":46,"score":84221},{"content":"Title: One to One (Howard Jones album) Content: One to One is the third album by British pop musician Howard Jones , released in October 1986 . The CD release also contains the single version of `` No One Is to Blame '' ( a song featured on his previous album ) with Phil Collins on backing vocals and drums . The album contained the hits `` You Know I Love You ... Do n't You ? '' ( US top twenty ) and `` All I Want '' ( top 40 in many European countries ) . The album reached number 10 in the UK and was certified Gold for shipments in excess of 100,000 copies .","qid":"2741","docid":"One_to_One_(Howard_Jones_album)","rank":47,"score":84174},{"content":"Title: Year Without a Summer Content: The year 1816 is known as the Year Without a Summer ( also the Poverty Year , the Summer that Never Was , Year There Was No Summer , and Eighteen Hundred and Froze to Death ) because of severe climate abnormalities that caused average global temperatures to decrease by 0.4 -- 0.7 ° C ( 0.7 -- 1.3 ° F ) . This resulted in major food shortages across the Northern Hemisphere . Evidence suggests that the anomaly was predominantly a volcanic winter event caused by the massive 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora in the Dutch East Indies ( the largest eruption in at least 1,300 years after the extreme weather events of 535 -- 536 ) , perhaps plus the 1814 eruption of Mayon in the Philippines . The Earth had already been in a centuries-long period of global cooling that started in the 14th century . Known today as the Little Ice Age , it had already caused considerable agricultural distress in Europe . The Little Ice Age 's existing cooling was aggravated by the eruption of Tambora , which occurred during its concluding decades .","qid":"2741","docid":"Year_Without_a_Summer","rank":48,"score":83674},{"content":"Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.","qid":"2741","docid":"Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change","rank":49,"score":83453},{"content":"Title: Philly Joe's Beat Content: Philly Joes Beat is an album by American jazz drummer Philly Joe Jones which was released on the Atlantic label in 1960 .","qid":"2741","docid":"Philly_Joe's_Beat","rank":50,"score":83411},{"content":"Title: Philip Jones (MP) Content: Philip Jones ( died 1603 ) , of London and Llanarth , Monmouthshire , was a Welsh politician . He was a Member ( MP ) of the Parliament of England for Monmouth Boroughs in 1589 .","qid":"2741","docid":"Philip_Jones_(MP)","rank":51,"score":83247},{"content":"Title: Antarctica cooling controversy Content: An apparent contradiction in the observed cooling behavior of Antarctica between 1966 and 2000 became part of the public debate in the global warming controversy , particularly between advocacy groups of both sides in the public arena including politicians , as well as the popular media . In his novel State of Fear , Michael Crichton asserted that the Antarctic data contradict global warming . The few scientists who have commented on the supposed controversy state that there is no contradiction , while the author of the paper whose work inspired Crichton 's remarks has said that Crichton `` misused '' his results . There is no similar controversy within the scientific community , as the small observed changes in Antarctica are consistent with the small changes predicted by climate models , and because the overall trend since comprehensive observations began is now known to be one of warming . At the South Pole , where some of the strongest cooling trends were observed between the 1950s and 1990s , the mean trend is flat from 1957 through 2013 .","qid":"2741","docid":"Antarctica_cooling_controversy","rank":52,"score":82746},{"content":"Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.","qid":"2741","docid":"Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C","rank":53,"score":82652},{"content":"Title: Granville E. Jones Content: Granville E. Jones ( October 14 , 1900 -- March 7 , 1959 ) was a funeral director and Democratic politician from Philadelphia . Jones was born in 1900 in Baltimore , Maryland . He moved to Philadelphia and graduated from the H. E. Dolan 's College of Mortuary Science , after which he worked as a funeral director . Jones was also president of the Quaker City Funeral Directors Association . In 1948 , he was elected to the first of six terms in the Pennsylvania House of Representatives . In 1953 , he ran for City Treasurer of Philadelphia , but was unsuccessful . He died in office in 1959 and was buried at Mount Lawn Cemetery in Delaware County .","qid":"2741","docid":"Granville_E._Jones","rank":54,"score":82373},{"content":"Title: Philip Jones (musician) Content: Philip Jones CBE ( 12 March 1928 -- 17 January 2000 ) was a British trumpeter and leader of an internationally famous brass chamber music ensemble . Philip Jones was born in Bath , England . In 1944 he won a scholarship to the Royal College of Music . He became principal trumpet for most major London orchestras : The Royal Philharmonic ( 1956 -- 60 ) , the Philharmonia ( 1960 -- 64 ) , the Philharmonic ( 1964 -- 65 ) , the New Philharmonia ( 1965 -- 67 ) and the BBC Symphony ( 1967 -- 71 ) . His playing continues a line of English trumpeters that stretches back to Ernest Hall . In 1951 he had formed the Philip Jones Brass Ensemble , one of the first brass ensembles working regularly as a stable group . They grew from four members to ten and larger for special projects . The most usual formations were the quintet ( two trumpets , horn , trombone and tuba ) and the ten-piece ( four trumpeters one sometimes doubling piccolo trumpet and one sometimes doubling flugel horn , horn , four trombones and tuba ) . The success of these formations owes much to Philip Jones 's work . After 1971 he devoted himself to it full-time and the group commanded long commitment from many fine players including : the trumpeters Elgar Howarth , John Wilbraham , Michael Laird and James Watson ; horn players Ifor James and Frank Lloyd ; trombonists John Iveson and Raymond Premru ; and the renowned tubist John Fletcher . They made 50 recordings and toured over 30 countries finding particular popularity in Japan . Repertoire spanned from transcriptions of early music by the likes of Monteverdi , Giovanni Gabrieli , and Johann Pezel , to new works for the medium commissioned by Jones . These included pieces by Witold Lutosławski , Hans Werner Henze and Einojuhani Rautavaara ; altogether they performed 87 world premieres . The ensemble 's leader was noted for his meticulous preparations at every concert , lining up the music stands himself , his personal commitment being one of the reasons for the ensemble 's success . In 1986 he accidentally drove his car over his own trumpet case . He took this as the hand of fate and decided to retire from concert performances . He held posts at the Royal Northern College of Music and Trinity College of Music , where he was Principal until his retirement in 1994 . He was chairman of the Musicians Benevolent Fund in 1995 . He was awarded the OBE in 1977 and the CBE in 1986 . When not at work he divided his time between Switzerland and London .","qid":"2741","docid":"Philip_Jones_(musician)","rank":55,"score":82369},{"content":"Title: Phil Monroe Content: Phil Monroe ( October 31 , 1916 -- July 13 , 1988 ) was an American animator and director best known for working for Warner Bros. . Cartoons under the supervision of Chuck Jones . Monroe has also worked for UPA , DePatie-Freleng , and MGM Animation/Visual Arts .","qid":"2741","docid":"Phil_Monroe","rank":56,"score":82289},{"content":"Title: Philip Jones of Fonmon Content: Colonel Philip Jones ( 1618 -- 5 September 1674 ) was a Welsh military leader and politician who sat in the House of Commons between 1650 and 1656 . He rose to the rank of Colonel in the service of the Parliamentary Army under Fairfax during the English Civil War . As Governor of Swansea he successfully held the town against the Royalist forces .","qid":"2741","docid":"Philip_Jones_of_Fonmon","rank":57,"score":82199},{"content":"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .","qid":"2741","docid":"Regional_effects_of_global_warming","rank":58,"score":82034},{"content":"Title: Archie Shepp & Philly Joe Jones Content: Archie Shepp & Philly Joe Jones is an album by jazz saxophonist Archie Shepp and drummer Philly Joe Jones recorded in Europe in 1969 for the America label . The album was also issued by the Fantasy label . The Allmusic review by Scott Yanow states `` This intriguing LP does not live up to its potential ... Unfortunately , both of the sidelong pieces have recitations , the performances are overly long , and there is quite a bit of rambling '' .","qid":"2741","docid":"Archie_Shepp_&_Philly_Joe_Jones","rank":59,"score":82005},{"content":"Title: Kate Jones Content: Kate Jennifer Jones ( born 10 April 1979 ) is an Australian politician and Queensland Government minister . She is a member of the Australian Labor Party and was elected in the seat of state electorate of Ashgrove in the Legislative Assembly of Queensland in 2006 which was previously held by former Speaker Jim Fouras ( ALP ) . She was the Minister for Environment , Resource Management and Climate Change until 19 June 2011 . She lost the seat to Campbell Newman in 2012 , who went on to become premier , before retaking it in 2015 . In the Palaszczuk Government , she is the Minister for Education , Minister for Tourism , Major Events and Small Business , and the Minister for Commonwealth Games . Jones was the youngest woman in the Queensland Parliament and the youngest Minister in the Queensland Government .","qid":"2741","docid":"Kate_Jones","rank":60,"score":81914},{"content":"Title: Copenhagen Climate Challenge Content: During the United Nations Climate Change Conference 2009 ( COP15 ) , there was a rival conference in Copenhagen , Denmark , for sceptics , called the Copenhagen Climate Challenge . which was organised by the Committee for a Constructive Tomorrow . While COP15 attracted 33,200 delegates , the rival sceptic conference was attended by 60 people ( 15 journalists , 18 speakers , 27 audience ) . According to Lenore Taylor of The Australian , the attendees had an average age `` well over 60 '' . In closing his speech , Plimer stated that `` They 've got us outnumbered , but we 've got them outgunned , and that 's with the truth . '' Plimer also stated that `` It 's been freezing in Perth and bucketing down '' . Perth had below average rainfall in 2009 , and temperatures of 38 ° C were forecast for December 13 .","qid":"2741","docid":"Copenhagen_Climate_Challenge","rank":61,"score":81848},{"content":"Title: Ross Gelbspan Content: Ross Gelbspan is a writer and environmentalist . He has written two books relating to global warming : The Heat Is On ( 1997 ) and Boiling Point ( 2004 ) . The Heat Is On received national attention when President Bill Clinton told the press he was reading it . Boiling Point was the subject of the lead review in the Sunday New York Times Book Review . That review was written by former Vice President Al Gore . Gelbspan maintains the website heatisonline.org , which he updates on a daily basis . Prior to his involvement in the climate issue , Gelbspan worked as an editor and reporter at a number of newspapers , including The Philadelphia Bulletin , The Washington Post and the Boston Globe . At the Globe , he conceived , directed and edited a series of articles that won a Pulitzer Prize in 1984 . Since becoming involved in the climate issue , Gelbspan has delivered a number of lectures , radio and television interviews and has published multiple articles on the subject . He is a regular contributor on DeSmogBlog . He has published op-ed articles in a number of major newspapers -- as well as articles in a number of other outlets including Harper 's , The Atlantic Monthly , The American Prospect , Sierra Magazine , The Nation , and many others . He has spoken in venues that include the World Economic Forum and the Boston Social Forum . His media interviews include , among others , appearances on Nightline , All Things Considered , Talk of the Nation , World News Tonight and other outlets .","qid":"2741","docid":"Ross_Gelbspan","rank":62,"score":81840},{"content":"Title: Bruce D. Jones Content: Bruce D. Jones , Ph.D. ( born 1969 ) is an academic , an author and policy analyst . He is Director of the Foreign Policy program and Director of the Project on International Order and Strategy at the Brookings Institution . He is also a consulting professor at the Freeman Spogli Institute at Stanford University and chair of the advisory council of the Center on International Cooperation at New York University . Jones ' research focuses primarily on U.S. policy on global order ; the global order policies of the emerging powers ; global governance and multilateral reform , including such issues as G8/G20 and UN Security Council reform ; and international conflict management , peacekeeping , and post-conflict operations . His most recent book , Still Ours to Lead : America , Rising Powers , and the Tension between Rivalry and Restraint , examines the tension between the impulse to rival the U.S.A and the incentives for restraint and cooperation among the rising powers . Under Jones , the Center on International Cooperation has developed into one of the most influential think-tanks working on conflict and security , climate change , fragile states , peacebuilding , mediation , and global threats and challenges . Through CIC , Jones has authored several major policy reports and publications . The Annual Review of Global Peace Operations has rapidly become the reference text for data and analysis on peacekeeping . From Fragility to Resilience has provided new international definitions for resilience and statebuilding , which were adopted by OECD member states , and taken forward by the United Kingdom Department for International Development and others . He also co-authored Recovering from War , which formed the basis for a Thematic Debate at the United Nations Security Council . The follow-up to the ideas in this report were most notably visible in the United Nations Review of International Civilian Capacities initiative , for which Dr. Jones served as a member of the Senior Advisory Group , and in the OECD workstream on financing . Jones 's book , Power and Responsibility ( 2009 ) , co-authored by Ambassador Carlos Pascual and Professor Stephen Stedman , received the BookNote Awards Gold Prize in 2009 for Best Book of the Year in the domain of Political Science . Jones is also affiliated with several universities , serving at Stanford University as a Consulting Professor , at the Robert F. Wagner Graduate School of Public Service as an Adjunct Professor , and at New York University as a Professor by courtesy . He advises several international organizations , including the World Bank , serving as Co-Lead and Senior External Advisor for the World Bank 's 2011 World Development Report : Conflict , Security and Development ; and the United Nations , where he is Lead consultant with the UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations project , New Horizons for Peacekeeping . He is also a Senior Fellow with the Foreign Policy Program of the Brookings Institution . Jones is a Board member of the Center on Global Counterterrorism Cooperation ; the Norwegian Peacebuilding Training Advisory Group ; Conciliation Resources ; and to Asia Foundation 's Aid to Subnational Conflict Areas program .","qid":"2741","docid":"Bruce_D._Jones","rank":63,"score":81526},{"content":"Title: Phill Content: Phill ( usually a diminutive of Phillip ) may refer to : Phill Calvert ( born 1958 ) , Australian rock drummer and producer , played in the influential post-punk band `` The Birthday Party '' Phill Drobnick ( born 1980 ) , curler Phill Feltham , Canadian journalist , Senior Editor for Maximum Fitness magazine Phill G. McDonald ( 1941 -- 1968 ) , United States Army soldier and a recipient of the Medal of Honor for his actions in the Vietnam War Phill Hartsfield , Southern California sword and knifemaker Phill Jones ( born 1974 ) , New Zealand professional basketball player Phill Jupitus ( born 1962 ) , English comedian , cartoonist , DJ , guitarist , performance poet and presenter of radio and TV Phill Kline ( born 1959 ) , the former district attorney of Johnson County , Kansas , USA Phill Lewis ( born 1968 ) , American film and television actor Phill Niblock ( born 1933 ) , composer , filmmaker , videographer , and director of Experimental Intermedia Phill Nixon ( born 1956 ) , English darts player from Ferryhill , County Durham , UK Phill Shatter ( born 1982 ) , champion heavyweight wrestler Phill Wilson ( born 1956 ) , founder of the Black AIDS Institute , prominent African-American HIV/AIDS activist https://putthatcheeseburgerdown.files.wordpress.com/2014/12/1360443372_9816755-crazy-nailbiter-a-man-biting-of-his-nails-his-fingers-are-covered-in-blood.jpg?w=350&h=200&crop=1","qid":"2741","docid":"Phill","rank":64,"score":81394},{"content":"Title: I Can't Get There from Here Content: `` I Ca n't Get There from Here '' is a song by American country singer George Jones . It was released as a single on the Musicor label in 1967 . It was composed by Dallas Frazier . Although he did n't write it , `` I Ca n't Get There from Here '' is one in a long list of songs that Jones would record as if it was torn from the pages of his diary ; as Randy Travis stated in the 1990 Jones video biography Same Ole Me , `` It 's almost like he 's lived every minute of every word he sings , and there 's very few people who can do that . '' Jones , who would be admitted into a neurological hospital to seek treatment for his binge drinking in 1967 , had already gained a reputation as a notorious hell raiser , imbuing Frazier 's words with a weary authenticity : Surely there 's a place to rest a tortured mind Oh , what I 'd give if I could find A place where there 's no mem ` ry of all those wasted years But they all say I ca n't get there from here The song reached No. 5 on the Billboard country singles chart .","qid":"2741","docid":"I_Can't_Get_There_from_Here","rank":65,"score":81316},{"content":"Title: Edward Wegman Content: Edward Wegman is an American statistician and a professor of statistics at George Mason University . He holds a Ph.D. in mathematical statistics and is a Fellow of the American Statistical Association , a Senior Member of the IEEE , and past chair of the National Research Council Committee on Applied and Theoretical Statistics . In addition to his work in the field of statistical computing , Wegman contributed a report to a Congressional hearing on climate change at the request of Republican Rep. Joe Barton . Wegman 's report supported criticisms of the methodology of two specific paleoclimate studies into the temperature record of the past 1000 years , and argued that climate scientists were excessively isolated from the statistical mainstream . Subsequently , significant portions of Wegman 's report were found to have been copied without attribution from a variety of sources , including Wikipedia , and a publication based on the report was retracted .","qid":"2741","docid":"Edward_Wegman","rank":66,"score":81278},{"content":"Title: Bumpus Jones Content: Charles Leander `` Bumpus '' Jones ( January 1 , 1870 -- June 25 , 1938 ) was a right-handed starting pitcher in Major League Baseball who played for the Cincinnati Reds and New York Giants . He was born in Cedarville , Ohio . Though Jones made only eight appearances in his brief major league career , he saved himself from baseball anonymity when he threw a no-hitter in his first major league appearance with the Cincinnati Reds on October 15 , 1892 , the last day of the season . The victims that day were the Pittsburgh Pirates , who lost 7 -- 1 . Jones was not perfect , as he gave up four walks , and he did not pitch a shutout , as an error led to an unearned run . But it was quite a start , and was his only outing of the season . This is still the latest date in the season that a no-hitter has ever been pitched in major league history . After that , Jones split 1893 between Cincinnati and the New York Giants , appearing in seven games overall , while going 1-4 with a 10.19 ERA . Jones would never pitch in the majors again . He remains the only player in Major League history to pitch a no-hitter in his first game . Only Bobo Holloman of the St. Louis Browns and Ted Breitenstein of the St. Louis Browns have managed to join Jones as pitchers to throw no-hitters in their first major league start , but they had previously appeared in a relief role . According to sabermetrician Bill James , Jones edges out Holloman for the distinction of mathematically least likely pitcher ever to have thrown a no-hitter in the major leagues . In a two-season major league career , Jones posted a 2-4 career record with 10 strikeouts and a 7.99 ERA in 41 2/3 innings of labor . After leaving the major leagues , Jones continued to pitch professionally . Jones pitched for the Grand Rapids Rippers and Sioux City Cornhuskers in 1894 . He pitched for the Columbus Clippers from 1896 to 1899 , and until recently was credited with the team record for career games pitched , with 212 . Modern research , however , indicates that the actual total may be closer to 150 . Jones finished his minor league career with the St. Paul Saints in 1901 . Jones died in Xenia , Ohio , at age 68 , and was laid to rest at North Cemetery in Cedarville , Ohio .","qid":"2741","docid":"Bumpus_Jones","rank":67,"score":81231},{"content":"Title: David Parker (climatologist) Content: David Parker is head of climate monitoring at the Hadley Centre , Exeter , England . He has published extensively on the land and marine temperature record and its consistency . In 2002 , he was an organiser of a `` Workshop on Advances in the Use of Historical Marine Climate Data '' . In 2004 , he has published a paper in Nature , showing that the urban heat island effect has not affected the historical temperature record . In this article , Parker shares his observations of the minimum temperature over 24 hours worldwide since 1950 that were expressed as anomalies . Also it includes his reasoning to why urbanization has not systematically exaggerated the observed global warming trends in minimum temperature . He further goes on to mention how the criterion for `` calm '' was changed while the global trend for minimum temperature remained unchanged . From his analysis he finds that windy and calm nights warmed at the same rate . Both the windy and calm increased at a rate of ( 0.16 + 0.03 C ) . He compares his small sample of 26 stations in North America and Siberia with global trends from 1950 to 1953 , covering over 5,000 stations . Estimates of recent global warming , supported by Parker 's analysis shows that urban warming has not introduced significant biases . `` The reality and magnitude of global-scale warming is supported by the near-equality of temperature trends on windy nights with trends based on all data . '' ( Parker ) This paper has been commented on by Roger Pielke , Sr. , et al. .","qid":"2741","docid":"David_Parker_(climatologist)","rank":68,"score":81076},{"content":"Title: Robin Russell-Jones Content: Robin Russell-Jones ( born 5 March 1948 ) is a medical doctor with an abiding interest in environmental pollution and the way it impinges on public health . His activities have influenced several key area of environmental policy in the UK , including the decision to ban lead in petrol , introduce catalytic converters in petrol driven vehicles , and change official guidelines on exposure to ionising radiation . His letters and articles have raised awareness of ozone depletion and global warming .","qid":"2741","docid":"Robin_Russell-Jones","rank":69,"score":81073},{"content":"Title: Leipzig Declaration Content: The Leipzig Declaration on Global Climate Change is a statement made in 1995 , seeking to refute the claim there is a scientific consensus on the global warming issue . It was issued in an updated form in 1997 and revised again in 2005 , claiming to have been signed by 80 scientists and 25 television news meteorologists while the posting of 33 additional signatories was pending verification that those 33 additional scientists still agreed with the statement . All versions of the declaration , which opposes the global warming hypothesis and the Kyoto Protocol , were penned by Fred Singer 's Science and Environmental Policy Project ( SEPP ) . The first declaration was based on a November 9 -- 10 , 1995 conference , organized by Helmut Metzner in Leipzig , Germany . The second declaration was additionally based on a successor conference in Bonn , Germany on November 10 -- 11 , 1997 . The conferences were cosponsored by SEPP and the European Academy for Environmental Affairs and titled International Symposium on the Greenhouse Controversy .","qid":"2741","docid":"Leipzig_Declaration","rank":70,"score":81060},{"content":"Title: No Land Tax Campaign Content: The No Land Tax Campaign was a minor Australian political party formed prior to the 2015 New South Wales state election . It was formed in opposition to the levying of land tax , which in New South Wales applies to investment properties and holiday homes . In 2015 , it is alleged that Peter Jones , Secretary of the No Land Tax Campaign Pty 'em ployed ' 3600 workers with an offering of $ 30/hour to hand out flyers and approach voters . Mr Jones then informed workers there would be delays on their pay as he had to wait to see if he obtained enough votes for seats , and if they were to get bonuses . After several weeks , Mr Jones emailed workers stating there was issues with the pay slips , and pays would be processed . Eventually Mr Jones went on radio with Ray Hadley in regard to the pay disputes . Currently in 2017 , no workers have received pay from Mr Jones or the No Land Tax Campaign , their website is now offline and no longer comes up , and Fair work is taking Mr Jones to court on behalf of the workers .","qid":"2741","docid":"No_Land_Tax_Campaign","rank":71,"score":80747},{"content":"Title: Bølling-Allerød warming Content: The Bølling-Allerød interstadial was an abrupt warm and moist interstadial period that occurred during the final stages of the last glacial period . This warm period ran from c. 14,700 to c. 12,700 years before the present ( BP ) . It began with the end of the cold period known as the Oldest Dryas , and ended abruptly with the onset of the Younger Dryas , a cold period that reduced temperatures back to near-glacial levels within a decade . In some regions , a cold period known as the Older Dryas can be detected in the middle of the Bølling-Allerød interstadial . In these regions the period is divided into the Bølling oscillation , which peaked around 14,500 BP , and the Allerød oscillation , which peaked closer to 13,000 BP . Estimates of CO2 rise are 20 -- 35 ppmv within 200 years , a rate less than 29 -- 50 % compared to the anthropogenic global warming signal from the past 50 years , and with a radiative forcing of 0.59 -- 0.75 W m − 2 .","qid":"2741","docid":"Bølling-Allerød_warming","rank":72,"score":80502},{"content":"Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .","qid":"2741","docid":"Global_warming_potential","rank":73,"score":80377},{"content":"Title: Protect Our Winters Content: Protect Our Winters ( POW ) is an non-profit environmental organization involving individuals in the global winter sport community and supported by companies in the business . The organization 's goal is to bring awareness to and fight against climate change by means of community based projects , advocacy , and educational initiatives mainly across the United States . Founded in 2007 by professional snowboarder Jeremy Jones ( freerider ) , the organization 's headquarters is located in the neighborhood of Pacific Palisades , Los Angeles in California , United States . POW currently remains active in the mobilization of the snow sports community for issues regarding the effects of climate change .","qid":"2741","docid":"Protect_Our_Winters","rank":74,"score":80352},{"content":"Title: Phil Morris (actor) Content: Phillip Morris ( born April 4 , 1959 ) is an American television , voice , and film actor . He played Jackie Chiles in the NBC sitcom Seinfeld and John Jones in The CW superhero drama Smallville . He last starred as Delroy Jones in Love That Girl ! .","qid":"2741","docid":"Phil_Morris_(actor)","rank":75,"score":80132},{"content":"Title: Showcase (Philly Joe Jones album) Content: Showcase is the third album led by American jazz drummer Philly Joe Jones which was recorded in 1959 for the Riverside label .","qid":"2741","docid":"Showcase_(Philly_Joe_Jones_album)","rank":76,"score":80111},{"content":"Title: Joseph Marion Jones Content: Joseph Marion Jones ( October 29 , 1908 -- August 9 , 1990 ) served in the United States Department of State in the late 1940s . As Special Assistant to the Assistant Secretary for Public Affairs he was responsible for drafting Undersecretary of State Dean Acheson 's speech before the Delta Council on May 8 , 1947 . Jones published his memoirs in 1955 , entitling them `` The Fifteen Weeks : February 21 - June 5 1947 '' . These chronicled his part in the development of the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan .","qid":"2741","docid":"Joseph_Marion_Jones","rank":77,"score":79931},{"content":"Title: Joel Jones (mayor) Content: Joel Jones ( October 26 , 1795 -- February 3 , 1860 ) was an American lawyer , jurist , and mayor of Philadelphia .","qid":"2741","docid":"Joel_Jones_(mayor)","rank":78,"score":79732},{"content":"Title: John P. Jones Content: John Percival Jones ( January 27 , 1829November 27 , 1912 ) was an American politician who served for 30 years as a Republican United States Senator from Nevada . He made a fortune in silver mining and was a co-founder of the town of Santa Monica , California .","qid":"2741","docid":"John_P._Jones","rank":79,"score":79502},{"content":"Title: Clarence Benjamin Jones Content: Clarence B. Jones ( born January 8 , 1931 ) is the former personal counsel , advisor , draft speech writer and close friend of Martin Luther King Jr. . He is a Scholar in Residence at the Martin Luther King , Jr. . Institute at Stanford University . He is the author of What Would Martin Say ? ( HarperCollins , 2008 ) and `` Behind the Dream : The Making of the Speech that Transformed a Nation '' ( Palgrave-Macmillan , 2011 ) In 1962 , Martin Luther King Jr. wrote a letter recommending his lawyer and advisor , Clarence B. Jones , to the New York State Bar , stating : `` Ever since I have known Mr. Jones , I have always seen him as a man of sound judgment , deep insights , and great dedication . I am also convinced that he is a man of great integrity '' .","qid":"2741","docid":"Clarence_Benjamin_Jones","rank":80,"score":79423},{"content":"Title: Heaven and Earth (book) Content: Heaven and Earth : Global Warming -- The Missing Science is a popular science book published in 2009 and written by Australian geologist , professor of mining geology at Adelaide University , and mining company director Ian Plimer . It disputes the scientific consensus on climate change , including the view that global warming is `` very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic ( man-made ) greenhouse gas concentrations '' and asserts that the debate is being driven by what the author regards as irrational and unscientific elements . The book received what The Age newspaper called `` glowing endorsements '' from the conservative press . The Australian said it gave `` all the scientific ammunition climate change skeptics could want . '' Other reviewers criticised the book as unscientific , inaccurate , based on obsolete research , and internally inconsistent . Ideas in it have been described as `` so wrong as to be laughable '' . Heaven and Earth was a bestseller in Australia when published in May 2009 , and is in its seventh printing , according to the publisher . The book has also been published in the United States and the United Kingdom .","qid":"2741","docid":"Heaven_and_Earth_(book)","rank":81,"score":79254},{"content":"Title: Sixty Days and Counting Content: Sixty Days and Counting ( 2007 ) is the third book in the hard science fiction Science in the Capital trilogy by Kim Stanley Robinson . It directly follows the events of Fifty Degrees Below , beginning just after the election of character Phil Chase to the White House . It follows the previous novel 's deep freeze of the area surrounding Washington D.C. . Category :2007 American novels Category : Novels by Kim Stanley Robinson Category : Novels set in Washington , D.C. Category : Hard science fiction Category : Climate change novels","qid":"2741","docid":"Sixty_Days_and_Counting","rank":82,"score":79149},{"content":"Title: Five Ways to Save the World Content: Five Ways to Save the World is a British documentary film on environmental issues related to climate change , released in 2006 . The film was made by Karen O'Connor , for the big screen and was shot in the English language to reach an international audience . It includes interviews with five environmental scientists and experts including Paul Crutzen , James Roger Angel , John Latham , Ian Jones , and Klaus Lackner . The `` five ways '' proposed are geoengineering techniques : space lenses in orbit , to diffract sunlight away from the earth cloud seeding with seawater to increase albedo sulfur launched into the stratosphere to increase albedo ocean fertilization with iron or urea ( nitrogen fertilizer ) artificial trees ( see carbon capture and sequestration ) Since the first three methods do not remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , they would only reduce global warming but not ocean acidification . Since the last two methods would remove carbon dioxide , they could in theory reduce both global warming and ocean acidification .","qid":"2741","docid":"Five_Ways_to_Save_the_World","rank":83,"score":78918},{"content":"Title: Murder of Danielle Jones Content: The murder of Danielle Jones was an English murder case where no body was found and the conviction relied upon forensic authorship analysis of text messages sent on the victim 's mobile phone . Danielle Sarah Jones , ( 16 October 1985 -- c. 18 June 2001 ) , was last seen alive on 18 June 2001 ; her body has never been found . Jones 's uncle , Stuart Campbell , a builder , was convicted of abduction and murder on 19 December 2002 . Campbell was sentenced to life imprisonment for murder as well as 10 years for abduction . After the trial , controversy arose when it was revealed Campbell had prior convictions for indecent assault on other girls of similar ages . The use of forensic authorship analysis of text messages in the case provoked research into its use in other cases .","qid":"2741","docid":"Murder_of_Danielle_Jones","rank":84,"score":78851},{"content":"Title: Curtis J. Jones Jr. Content: Curtis J. Jones Jr. is a Democratic Councilman representing the Fourth District on the City Council of Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , USA . He has served since 2008 .","qid":"2741","docid":"Curtis_J._Jones_Jr.","rank":85,"score":78774},{"content":"Title: Rick Jones (politician) Content: Rick Jones is a Republican politician from Michigan currently serving in the Michigan Senate after having served three terms in the Michigan House of Representatives . Prior to his election to the Legislature , Jones served one term as the Eaton County Sheriff and had spent 31 years with the sheriff 's department . In 2016 , Jones introduced a bill updating Michigan 's existing ban on sodomy , which states `` a person who commits the abominable and detestable crime against nature either with mankind or with any animal is guilty of a felony '' that is punishable by up to 15 years in prison . In Lawrence v. Texas , the United States Supreme Court struck down the sodomy law in Texas and , by extension , invalidated sodomy laws in 13 other states , making same-sex sexual activity legal in every U.S. state and territory . While most U.S. states removed anti-sodomy laws , Michigan is one of 12 that kept the laws 13 years after the decision .","qid":"2741","docid":"Rick_Jones_(politician)","rank":86,"score":78731},{"content":"Title: John Paul Jones Memorial Content: The John Paul Jones Memorial is a monument in West Potomac Park in Washington , D.C. . The memorial honors John Paul Jones , the United States ' first naval war hero , father of the United States Navy , the only naval officer to receive a Congressional Gold Medal during the American Revolutionary War , and whose famous quote `` I have not yet begun to fight ! '' was uttered during the Battle of Flamborough Head .","qid":"2741","docid":"John_Paul_Jones_Memorial","rank":87,"score":78680},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Australia Content: Climate change has been a major issue in Australia since the beginning of the 21st century . In 2013 , the CSIRO released a report stating that Australia is becoming hotter , and that it will experience more extreme heat and longer fire seasons because of climate change . In 2014 , the Bureau of Meteorology released a report on the state of Australia 's climate that highlighted several key points , including the significant increase in Australia 's temperatures ( particularly night-time temperatures ) and the increasing frequency of bush fires , droughts and floods , which have all been linked to climate change . Since the beginning of the 20th century Australia has experienced an increase of nearly 1 ° C in average annual temperatures , with warming occurring at twice the rate over the past 50 years than in the previous 50 years . Recent climate events such as extremely high temperatures and widespread drought have focused government and public attention on the impacts of climate change in Australia . Rainfall in southwestern Australia has decreased by 10 -- 20 % since the 1970s , while southeastern Australia has also experienced a moderate decline since the 1990s . Rainfall patterns are expected to be problematic , as rain has become heavier and infrequent , as well as more common in summer rather than in winter , with little or no uptrend in rainfall in the Western Plateau and the Central Lowlands of Australia . Water sources in the southeastern areas of Australia have depleted due to increasing population in urban areas ( rising demand ) coupled with climate change factors such as persistent prolonged drought ( diminishing supply ) . At the same time , Australia continues to have the highest per capita greenhouse gas emissions . Temperatures in Australia have also risen dramatically since 1910 and nights have become warmer . A carbon tax was introduced in 2011 by the Gillard government in an effort to reduce the impact of climate change and despite some criticism , it successfully reduced Australia 's carbon dioxide emissions , with coal generation down 11 % since 2008 -- 09 . The subsequent Australian Government , elected in 2013 under then Prime Minister Tony Abbott was criticised for being `` in complete denial about climate change '' . Furthermore , the Abbott government repealed the carbon tax on 17 July 2014 in a heavily criticised move . The renewable energy target ( RET ) , launched in 2001 , was heavily modified under Abbott 's government . However , under the government of Malcolm Turnbull , Australia attended the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference and adopted the Paris Agreement . This agreement includes a review of emission reduction targets every 5 years from 2020 . The federal government and all state governments ( New South Wales , Victoria , Queensland , South Australia , Western Australia , Tasmania , Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory ) have explicitly recognised that climate change is being caused by greenhouse gas emissions , in conformity with the scientific opinion on climate change . Sectors of the population have campaigned against new coal mines and coal-fired power stations , reflecting concerns about the effects of global warming on Australia . The Garnaut Climate Change Review predicted that a net benefit to Australia may be derived by stabilising greenhouse gases in the atmosphere at 450ppm CO2 eq . The per-capita carbon footprint in Australia was rated 12th in the world by PNAS in 2011 , considerably large given the small population of the country .","qid":"2741","docid":"Climate_change_in_Australia","rank":88,"score":78649},{"content":"Title: Philip Jones (Royal Navy officer) Content: Admiral Sir Philip Andrew Jones ( born 14 February 1960 ) is a senior Royal Navy officer . After service in the South Atlantic in 1982 during the Falklands War , he commanded the frigates and . He went on to be Flag Officer , Scotland , Northern England and Northern Ireland , Commander United Kingdom Maritime Forces and Assistant Chief of the Naval Staff before being appointed Fleet Commander and Deputy Chief of the Naval Staff . Jones took over as First Sea Lord on 8 April 2016 .","qid":"2741","docid":"Philip_Jones_(Royal_Navy_officer)","rank":89,"score":78621},{"content":"Title: Blues for Dracula Content: Blues for Dracula is the debut album by American jazz drummer Philly Joe Jones which was recorded in 1958 for the Riverside label .","qid":"2741","docid":"Blues_for_Dracula","rank":90,"score":78611},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Idaho Content: Like other parts of the world , climate in Idaho has changed dramatically over the geologic history of the Earth . Paleo-climatic records give some indication of these changes . The longest instrumented records of climate in Idaho extend back to the late 1800s . Concern over human induced climate change through the emission of carbon dioxide from fossil fuels and methane from agriculture and industry , are driving research efforts across the state at university , state , and federals levels to understand what the implications of climate change could be in Idaho . In the big picture of greenhouse gas emissions , Idaho emits the least carbon dioxide per person of the United States , less than 23,000 pounds a year . It relies mostly on nonpolluting hydroelectric power from its rivers . Like other parts of the world , Idaho has seen significant temperature increases , especially in the last several decades . From 1971-2005 the average annual observed temperature in the Snake River Plain , located in southern Idaho , has increased by 1.4 degrees Celsius based on data from 10 climate stations ( Dubois , Ashton , Oakely , Pocatello , Aberdeen , Hazelton , Jerome , Boise , Nampa , and Payette ) . Statistically the increasing temperature trends are most significant in the months of January , March , and April . While precipitation has generally increased , since the early 1900s . The high variability in precipitation makes the identification of precipitation trends statistically difficult . Over the next century , climate in Idaho will experience additional changes due both to ` natural ' climate variability and due to feedbacks related to the interaction between climate variability and increasing greenhouse gases . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Idaho could increase by 5 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 9 F-change ) in winter and summer and 4 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 7 F-change ) in spring and fall . Precipitation is estimated to change little in summer , to increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and to increase by 20 % in winter ( with a range of 10-40 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .","qid":"2741","docid":"Climate_change_in_Idaho","rank":91,"score":78606},{"content":"Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.","qid":"2741","docid":"Media_coverage_of_global_warming","rank":92,"score":78255},{"content":"Title: Eifion Jones (cricketer) Content: Eifion Wyn Jones ( born 25 June 1942 in Velindre , Glamorgan ) was a Welsh cricketer who played for Glamorgan County Cricket Club . When he first came to Glamorgan Jones was a specialist right-handed batsman but after being tutored by Phil Clift he became a wicketkeeper . He made his first-class debut in 1961 , and served as deputy keeper to David Evans until the late 1960s , when he became the county 's first-choice keeper , a position he held until 1982 . He took a record 933 dismissals for his county . In 1970 he took 7 dismissals in an innings against Cambridge University , and he finished the season with 94 dismissals . However , the continued good form of Alan Knott and Bob Taylor kept him out of consideration for the Test team . In 1968 he made the highest ever score by a Glamorgan keeper with 146 not out against Sussex . His most successful season with the bat was Glamorgan 's championship season of 1969 , when he scored 753 runs at an average of 31.37 . Thereafter his batting gradually declined , and after 1975 he never averaged as high as 20 in a season . He retired after the 1983 season , at the age of 41 .","qid":"2741","docid":"Eifion_Jones_(cricketer)","rank":93,"score":78222},{"content":"Title: Noli Francisco Content: Manuel `` Noli '' Francisco ( November 13 , 1941 -- February 23 , 2017 ) was a Filipino American poker player . He had worked as an importer , architect , and real estate entrepreneur . He had been a successful recreational poker player for over 25 years . At the 1992 World Series of Poker , Francisco finished 2nd in the $ 2,500 pot limit hold 'em event . At the 1993 World Series of Poker , Francisco finished 2nd in the $ 2,500 no limit hold 'em event when he lost to Phil Hellmuth . Francisco had 14 recorded cashes at the World Series of Poker for over $ 380,000 . His last recorded WSOP in-the-money finish was in 1997 . In September 2003 , Noli won the World Poker Tour ( WPT ) second season Borgata Poker Open , winning $ 470,000 . The final table included top professional players Carlos Mortensen and David Oppenheim . In August 2005 , Noli finished 2nd at the WPT fourth season Battle of Champions , his last recorded tournament result . His total lifetime live tournament winnings exceeded $ 1,300,000 . Noli Francisco was the father of Bambi Francisco Roizen , columnist and correspondent at Dow Jones MarketWatch and Nomel Francisco Phillips , an American economist . He died from kidney failure on February 23 , 2017 at age 75 .","qid":"2741","docid":"Noli_Francisco","rank":94,"score":78181},{"content":"Title: Emil Jones Content: Emil Jones , Jr. ( born October 18 , 1935 ) was the President of the Illinois Senate from 2003 to 2009 . A Democrat , Jones served in the Illinois Senate from 1983 to 2009 , where he served as President of the Illinois Senate from 2003 to the end of his term . Previously , he was a member of the Illinois House of Representatives from 1973 until 1983 .","qid":"2741","docid":"Emil_Jones","rank":95,"score":78107},{"content":"Title: Andrew Jones (Australian politician) Content: Andrew Thomas Jones ( 26 May 1944 -- 2 December 2015 ) was an Australian politician . He became one of the youngest ever Australian federal Members of Parliament when he was elected to the Division of Adelaide on 26 November 1966 , aged just 22 years and 184 days . At that time , only Edwin Corboy had been elected at a younger age , but that record has since been broken by Wyatt Roy . Born in Adelaide , Jones studied at the University of Adelaide and was working as a travel officer when he gained Liberal and Country League ( LCL ) preselection for the apparently safe Labor seat of Adelaide for the 1966 federal election . Although the election came at a bad time for Labor at both the federal and state level , few gave Jones any chance of winning . However , much to the surprise of everyone except Jones , he defeated Labor incumbent Joe Sexton . He took a narrow lead on the first count , but received an overwhelming flow of Democratic Labor Party preferences on the second count , enough for a 10 percent two-party preferred swing and 52.8 percent of the vote . Jones ruffled feathers with his views , which were extremely conservative even by general LCL standards of the time . For instance , he called alcohol `` the devil 's urine '' , and claimed that `` half the MPs in Parliament are drunk half the time '' . He was forced to publicly apologise on the floor of the House for the latter remarks . Jones caused further controversy by releasing a book , entitled Andrew Jones M.H.R by Himself , in which he made further comments on the `` wickedness '' of parliament , as well as a spoken word record . The record , Shadow Valley and Iron Triangles , described by Jones as `` anti-Communist '' , by his supporters as `` a reaction against the spate of sick immoral and depraved pseudo-folk music which pours from the radio '' and by detractors as `` awful '' or `` pure jingoism '' , was a local Adelaide hit for Jones , who donated the proceeds to charity . It included such lines as `` When you hear the anthem lift up your head , remember our past , see our glorious future and let your voice sing out , and friend , thank God you 're free . '' At least one Adelaide radio announcer refused to play the song . Jones ' conservatism did n't play well in what was an ancestrally Labor seat . He was resoundingly defeated by Labor challenger Chris Hurford at the 1969 election , suffering a 14.3 percent two-party swing to finish with 38.7 percent of the two-party vote . Hurford actually won enough votes on the first count to defeat Jones without the need for preferences . Following the loss , Jones 's reasoning to Prime Minister John Gorton for his defeat , `` not even Jesus Christ could have held Adelaide '' , quickly entered Australian political folklore . Jones later unsuccessfully ran as an independent candidate for the Senate at the 1977 federal election before moving to Western Australia and assuming a low profile .","qid":"2741","docid":"Andrew_Jones_(Australian_politician)","rank":96,"score":78106},{"content":"Title: William Jones (statesman) Content: William Jones ( 1760September 6 , 1831 ) was an American politician . Jones was born in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania . Apprenticed in a shipyard , during the American Revolutionary War , he saw combat in the battles of Trenton and Princeton and later served at sea . In the decades that followed the war , he was a successful merchant in Charleston , South Carolina , and in Philadelphia . He was elected as a Republican to the United States House of Representatives in 1800 and was offered the office of Secretary of the Navy in 1801 , but declined and remained in Congress to the end of his term in 1803 . With the War of 1812 raging , Jones became Secretary of the Navy in January 1813 . His policies contributed greatly to American success on the Great Lakes and to a strategy of coastal defense and commerce raiding on the high seas . In late 1814 , near the end of his term , he made recommendations on the reorganization of the Navy Department . These led to the establishment of the Board of Commissioners system which operated from 1815 until 1842 . During much of 1813 and into 1814 , Jones also served as acting Secretary of the Treasury and in 1816 was appointed President of the Second Bank of the United States . He returned to commercial pursuits in 1819 . Jones died in Bethlehem , Pennsylvania . The destroyer USS William Jones ( DD-308 ) was named in his honor .","qid":"2741","docid":"William_Jones_(statesman)","rank":97,"score":78090},{"content":"Title: R. W. T. Lees-Jones Content: Richard William Thomas Lees-Jones ( 1891 -- 1978 ) was a British philatelist who signed the Roll of Distinguished Philatelists in 1950 . Lees-Jones was an expert on the stamps of Canada and plated the early issues , particularly the 12 1/2 c of 1859 . In 1936 he gave to the Royal Philatelic Society London a collection of Canada 1897-1936 in mint blocks of four with plate numbers . In 1951 he won that society 's Tilleard Medal for his display of Papermakers ' Watermarks . That collection was auctioned by HR Harmer Ltd in 1952 . His Canadian stamps were shown , hors concours , at the London International Stamp Exhibition 1960 . He was President of the Canadian Philatelic Society .","qid":"2741","docid":"R._W._T._Lees-Jones","rank":98,"score":77991},{"content":"Title: Phil Koperberg Content: Philip Christian Koperberg ( born 28 April 1943 ) , is the Chairman of the New South Wales Emergency Management Committee , responsible for advising the New South Wales government on emergency response strategies , since 2011 . Koperberg is a former Australian politician , was the New South Wales Minister for Climate Change , Environment and Water between 2007 and 2008 ; and was a member of the New South Wales Legislative Assembly , representing the electorate of the Blue Mountains for the Australian Labor Party between 2007 -- 2011 . Prior to his political career , Koperberg was the Commissioner of the New South Wales Rural Fire Service ( RFS ) in Australia between 1997 -- 2007 . In September 1997 , Koperberg was appointed the RFS Commissioner when the Service was formed under the Rural Fires Act . Before this he had been Director-General of the New South Wales Bush Fire Service from May 1990 . In March 2007 he was elected to State parliament and appointed to the Ministry . However , in December he was forced to stand aside due to a police investigation regarding domestic violence allegations from 1987 . The NSW Director of Public Prosecutions declined to press charges and Koperberg was reinstated to the Ministry . He resigned from the Ministry on 22 February 2008 . Koperberg did not recontest the 2011 state election .","qid":"2741","docid":"Phil_Koperberg","rank":99,"score":77977},{"content":"Title: Phil Woolpert Content: Phil Woolpert ( December 15 , 1915 -- May 7 , 1987 ) was an American college basketball coach . He is best known for coaching the University of San Francisco Dons to two straight national championships in 1955 and 1956 . Born in Danville , Kentucky , Woolpert attended high school in Los Angeles . He subsequently attended Los Angeles Junior College and Loyola University , Los Angeles , where he played basketball for three years and was initiated into the Alpha Delta Gamma National Fraternity . In 1946 , Woolpert was hired as basketball coach for St. Ignatius High School in San Francisco , California where he posted a 63-29 record in his four years as coach . Upon Pete Newell 's departure for Michigan State University , the University of San Francisco hired Woolpert to succeed Newell . He assumed both the posts of men 's basketball coach and athletic director . During his tenure at USF , Woolpert posted a 153-78 record , including a 60-game win streak that at the time was the longest in college basketball ( surpassed later by John Wooden 's 88 straight wins at UCLA . ) . His teams , anchored by Bill Russell , K.C. Jones , Eugene Brown and Mike Farmer , were known for their defense and held opponents below 60 points on 47 different occasions . USF won the national championship in 1955 and 1956 , and finished third in 1957 . At the time the youngest college basketball coach to win a national championship , Woolpert also won Coach of the Year honors in 1955 and 1956 . After briefly coaching the San Francisco Saints of the American Basketball League , Woolpert returned to the college ranks in 1962 , this time with the University of San Diego . While in San Diego , Woolpert posted a 90-90 record and served as both men 's basketball coach and athletic director . Phil Woolpert retired from coaching in 1969 . He later settled down in Sequim , Washington and became a school bus driver . Woolpert died of cancer in 1987 . His son Paul is the assistant coach of the D-League Los Angeles D-fenders .","qid":"2741","docid":"Phil_Woolpert","rank":100,"score":77798}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Phil Jones (climatologist) Content: Philip Douglas Jones ( born April 22 , 1952 ) retired from his positions as the Director of the Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) and as a Professor in the School of Environmental Sciences at the University of East Anglia ( UEA ) at the end of 2016 . Jones was replaced as CRU director by Tim Osborn and has taken up a position as a Professorial Fellow at the UEA from January 2017 . His research interests include instrumental climate change , palaeoclimatology , detection of climate change and the extension of riverflow records in the UK . He has also published papers on the temperature record of the past 1000 years . He is known for maintaining a time series of the instrumental temperature record . This work was featured prominently in both the 2001 and 2007 IPCC reports , where he was a contributing author to Chapter 12 , Detection of Climate Change and Attribution of Causes , of the Third Assessment Report and a Coordinating Lead Author of Chapter 3 , Observations : Surface and Atmospheric Climate Change , of the AR4 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Phil_Jones_(climatologist)\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 145567\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 114552\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Temperature record of the past 1000 years Content: For information on the description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in various IPCC reports see MWP and LIA in IPCC reportsThe temperature record of the past 1,000 years is reconstructed using data from climate proxy records in conjunction with the modern instrumental temperature record which only covers the last 150 years at a global scale . Large-scale reconstructions covering part or all of the 1st millennium and 2nd millennium have shown that recent temperatures are exceptional : the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report of 2007 concluded that `` Average Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the second half of the 20th century were very likely higher than during any other 50-year period in the last 500 years and likely '' the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . '' The curve shown in graphs of these reconstructions is widely known as the hockey stick graph because of the sharp increase in temperatures during the last century . As of 2010 this broad pattern was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th-century `` shaft '' appears . Sparseness of proxy records results in considerable uncertainty for earlier periods . Individual proxy records , such as tree ring widths and densities used in dendroclimatology , are calibrated against the instrumental record for the period of overlap . Networks of such records are used to reconstruct past temperatures for regions : tree ring proxies have been used to reconstruct Northern Hemisphere extratropical temperatures ( within the tropics trees do not form rings ) but are confined to land areas and are scarce in the Southern Hemisphere which is largely ocean . Wider coverage is provided by multiproxy reconstructions , incorporating proxies such as lake sediments , ice cores and corals which are found in different regions , and using statistical methods to relate these sparser proxies to the greater numbers of tree ring records . The `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method is widely used for large-scale multiproxy reconstructions of hemispheric or global average temperatures ; this is complemented by Climate Field Reconstruction ( CFR ) methods which show how climate patterns have developed over large spatial areas , making the reconstruction useful for investigating natural variability and long-term oscillations as well as for comparisons with patterns produced by climate models . During the 1,900 years before the 20th century , it is likely that the next warmest period was from 950 to 1100 , with peaks at different times in different regions . This has been called the Medieval Warm Period , and some evidence suggests widespread cooler conditions during a period around the 17th century known as the Little Ice Age . In the hockey stick controversy , contrarians have asserted that the Medieval Warm Period was warmer than at present , and have disputed the data and methods of climate reconstructions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Temperature_record_of_the_past_1000_years\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 106608\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Phil H. Jones Content: Phil H. Jones was a member of the Wisconsin State Assembly .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Phil_H._Jones\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 106470\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of large-scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years Content: This list of large scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years includes climate reconstructions which have contributed significantly to the modern consensus on the temperature record of the past 2000 years . The instrumental temperature record only covers the last 150 years at a hemispheric or global scale , and reconstructions of earlier periods are based on climate proxies . In an early attempt to show that climate had changed , Hubert Lamb 's 1965 paper generalised from temperature records of central England together with historical , botanical and archeological evidence to produce a qualitative estimate of temperatures in the north Atlantic region . Subsequent quantitative reconstructions used statistical techniques with various climate proxies to produce larger scale reconstructions . Tree ring proxies can give an annual resolution of extratropical regions of the northern hemisphere , and can be statistically combined with other sparser proxies to produce multiproxy hemispherical or global reconstructions . Quantitative reconstructions have consistently shown earlier temperatures below the temperature levels reached in the late 20th century . This pattern as seen in was dubbed the hockey stick graph , and as of 2010 this broad conclusion was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_large-scale_temperature_reconstructions_of_the_last_2,000_years\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 105594\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Phil Jones (footballer, born 1961) Content: Philip Howard `` Phil '' Jones ( born 12 September 1961 ) is an English former footballer who played either in midfield or defence . Born in Mansfield , Jones was a product of Sheffield United 's youth system and was playing in the reserves as a fifteen-year-old in 1977 . Signing as an apprentice in July 1978 , Jones turned professional a year later and finally made his debut for United in February 1979 in a league fixture against Wrexham . Jones struggled to make the transition to the first team , his only real run in the side came during 1980 -- 81 season as United were relegated to Division Four . After failing to make a first team appearance during the subsequent season , Jones was released from his contract in May 1982 , joining Boston United . After leaving Boston , Jones joined Matlock Town for a spell before finishing his career with Gainsborough Trinity in 1990 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Phil_Jones_(footballer,_born_1961)\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 103380\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 102820\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Phil Jones (journalist) Content: Phil Jones is an English sports journalist and television reporter .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Phil_Jones_(journalist)\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 102458\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Phil Jones (footballer, born 1992) Content: Philip Anthony Jones ( born 21 February 1992 ) is an English professional footballer who plays for Premier League club Manchester United and the England national team . Before joining Manchester United , Jones played for Blackburn Rovers at both youth and senior levels . Although primarily a centre back , he has also been used as a right back or defensive midfielder . Jones has represented England at various levels and is currently a member of the England senior squad . He played for the under-19 team in 2009 before making his debut for the under-21 team in 2010 . He made his debut for the England senior squad on 7 October 2011 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Phil_Jones_(footballer,_born_1992)\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 100549\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Phill Jones Content: Phillip Charles George `` Phill '' Jones ( born 25 January 1974 ) is a New Zealand professional basketball player for the Nelson Giants of the New Zealand National Basketball League ( NZNBL ) . The two-time Olympian has scored more points in the New Zealand NBL than any other Kiwi player and is second overall in league scoring history . In 2004 , he ranked second among all points scorers at the Athens Olympics . In 2016 , he became the first player in New Zealand NBL history to reach 400 games .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Phill_Jones\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 100380\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 99022\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Phil Jones (umpire) Content: Phil Jones ( born 1 January 1960 ) is a New Zealand cricket umpire . He stood in his first One Day International ( ODI ) match on 8 November 2014 between Hong Kong and Papua New Guinea in Australia . He stood in his first Twenty20 International ( T20I ) match on 7 January 2016 between New Zealand and Sri Lanka . He was a member of the International Panel of Umpires and Referees until June 2016 , when he was demoted to New Zealand 's national panel .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Phil_Jones_(umpire)\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 97867\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Phil Jones (rugby) Content: Phil Jones ( born 30 September 1977 ) is an English former rugby league and rugby union footballer who played as a centre or stand-off / fly-half . He played for Lancashire Lynx , Wigan Warriors and Leigh Centurions in rugby league , and Orrell , Rotherham Titans and Sedgley Park in rugby union .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Phil_Jones_(rugby)\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 96998\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Phil Jones (American football) Content: Phil Jones ( born ca. 1946 ) is a former American football coach . He previously served as a head coach at Shorter University from 2005 to 2015 and at several high schools across Georgia from 1973 through 1997 before he moved to the college ranks . After he served in assistant positions at Georgia , SMU and Gardner -- Webb before he was hired in July 2004 to serve as the first head coach in the history of the Shorter football program .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Phil_Jones_(American_football)\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 96906\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Phil Jones (basketball) Content: Phillip Michael `` Phil '' Jones ( born September 2 , 1985 ) is a Virgin Islands professional basketball player . He played college basketball at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte and has played internationally for the U.S. Virgin Islands national basketball team . Born in Nashville , Tennessee , Jones spent part of his childhood growing up in the Virgin Islands . Jones committed to the 49ers out of Laurinburg Prep School in North Carolina after he spent a year at the school after graduating from high school in Philadelphia . Ranked as a top 100 recruit by several publications , he averaged 19 points , 10.2 rebounds , and 5.3 blocks per game while leading the school to the Prep National Championship . As a first-year sophomore for the 49ers , he averaged 3.3 points and 2.9 rebounds a game while playing 13.4 minutes per game off the bench to the 49ers . He improved in his junior season , 2008 -- 09 , averaging 7.3 points , 4 rebounds , and 1.4 blocks per game for the team . Jones competed on the U.S. Virgin Islands national basketball team for the first time at the FIBA Americas Championship 2009 . He averaged 8.5 points and 4.8 rebounds per game in four games for the team , including a team-high 18 points and seven rebounds in a preliminary round loss to Puerto Rico .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Phil_Jones_(basketball)\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 96830\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tom Jones (Philidor) Content: Tom Jones is a comédie mêlée d'ariettes , a kind of opéra comique , by the French composer François-André Danican Philidor which first appeared at the Comédie-Italienne , Paris , on 27 February 1765 . Its French libretto , by Antoine-Alexandre-Henri Poisenet and Bertin Davesne , is loosely based on the novel by Henry Fielding . The piece was initially a failure but Philidor had the libretto revised by Michel-Jean Sedaine and this new version , first performed on 30 January 1766 , proved one of the most popular opéras comiques of the late 18th century . It was produced in a number of other countries , and translated into German , Swedish and Russian .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Tom_Jones_(Philidor)\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 96241\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_controversy\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 95902\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wibjörn Karlén Content: Wibjörn Karlén ( born 26 August 1937 in Kristine , Kopparberg County , Sweden ) , Ph.D. , is a professor emeritus of physical geography and quaternary geology at Stockholm University , Sweden . In an article which describes Karlén as a paleoclimatologist , he is quoted as saying : `` One of the big problems with trying to determine long-term temperature changes , is that weather records only go back to about 1860 . By relying on statistical reconstruction of the last 1000 years , using only the temperature patterns of the last 140 years instead of actual temperature readings , the IPCC report and Summary missed both a major cooling period as well as a significant warming trend during that millennium . '' Karlén has also criticized the mainstream media for `` spreading the exaggerated views of a human impact on climate . '' He was also named in a 2007 minority report of the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee as one of 400 `` prominent scientists '' who were said to dispute global warming . In 2010 , he predicted that natural climate changes , caused to a large degree by the sun 's activity , would more likely make the climate colder than warmer in the next decades . He is a contributing author to the Fraser Institute 2007 Independent Summary for Policymakers . Karlén is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Wibjörn_Karlén\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 95708\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Philibert Jones Content: Philibert Jones ( born 12 November 1964 ) is a former international footballer from Trinidad and Tobago who played as a striker . He is currently the Assistant Coach at United Petrotrin in the TT Pro League .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Philibert_Jones\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 95101\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: An Inconsistent Truth Content: An Inconsistent Truth is a 2012 documentary film written , produced , and featuring , nationally syndicated conservative talk radio host Phil Valentine and directed by Shayne Edwards . Valentine , a skeptic of global warming theory , interviewed scientists about the validity of Al Gore 's film An Inconvenient Truth and the facts presented within . What he is told by the scientists he interviews is that there is no consensus on the issue of global warming or climate change . The film argues that global warming proponents keep changing its label , basing their argument on what Valentine says is shaky scientific ground .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"An_Inconsistent_Truth\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 94134\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hockey stick controversy Content: In the hockey stick controversy , the data and methods used in reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years have been disputed . Reconstructions have consistently shown that the rise in the instrumental temperature record of the past 150 years is not matched in earlier centuries , and the name `` hockey stick graph '' was coined for figures showing a long-term decline followed by an abrupt rise in temperatures . These graphs were publicised to explain the scientific findings of climatology , and in addition to scientific debate over the reconstructions , they have been the topic of political dispute . The issue is part of the global warming controversy and has been one focus of political responses to reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . The use of proxy indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed from the 1990s onwards , and found indications that recent warming was exceptional . The reconstruction introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large-scale reconstructions , and its findings were disputed by Patrick Michaels at the United States House Committee on Science . In 1998 , Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 . In ( MBH99 ) the methodology was extended back to 1000 . The term hockey stick was coined by the climatologist Jerry D. Mahlman , to describe the pattern this showed , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' , followed by a sharp increase corresponding to the `` blade '' . A version of this graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , along with four other reconstructions supporting the same conclusion . The graph was publicised , and became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th-century warmth was exceptional . Those disputing the graph included Pat Michaels , the George C. Marshall Institute and Fred Singer . A paper by Willie Soon and Sallie Baliunas claiming greater medieval warmth was used by the Bush administration chief of staff Philip Cooney to justify altering the first Environmental Protection Agency Report on the Environment . The paper was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy , but on July 28 , Republican Jim Inhofe spoke in the Senate citing it to claim `` that man-made global warming is the greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American people '' . Later in 2003 , a paper by Steve McIntyre and Ross McKitrick disputing the data used in MBH98 paper was publicised by the George C. Marshall Institute and the Competitive Enterprise Institute . In 2004 , Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 , McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal component analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . The analysis therein was subsequently disputed by published papers , including and , which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . In June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton launched what Sherwood Boehlert , chairman of the House Science Committee , called a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into the data , methods and personal information of Mann , Bradley and Hughes . At Boehlert 's request , a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council was set up , which reported in 2006 , supporting Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . Barton and U.S. Rep. Ed Whitfield requested Edward Wegman to set up a team of statisticians to investigate , and they supported McIntyre and McKitrick 's view that there were statistical failings , although they did not quantify whether there was any significant effect . They also produced an extensive network analysis which has been discredited by expert opinion and found to have issues of plagiarism . Arguments against the MBH studies were reintroduced as part of the Climatic Research Unit email controversy , but dismissed by eight independent investigations . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , have supported the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Over a dozen subsequent reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Hockey_stick_controversy\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 93945\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Timothy Osborn Content: Timothy J. Osborn is a climatologist and Professor of Climate Science at the University of East Anglia . In January 2017 he replaced Phil Jones as the Research Director of the Climatic Research Unit . Osborn graduated with a first class degree in Geophysical Sciences from the University of East Anglia in 1990 , and a PhD from the School of Environmental Sciences in 1995 . He was awarded the Hugh Robert Mill Prize by the Royal Meteorological Society in 2002 , and is a Lead Author of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Timothy_Osborn\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 93860\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Phil Jones (curler) Content: Phil Jones represented Wales at the 2008 World Mixed Doubles Curling Championship . He curls for the Alyn Valley club at Deeside Leisure Centre .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Phil_Jones_(curler)\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 93356\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Forward on Climate Content: The Forward on Climate rally was held at the National Mall in Washington , D.C. on February 17 , 2013 . The goal of the demonstration was to spur President Barack Obama and Congress to take more action to address global warming . Opposition to the proposed expansion of the Keystone XL Pipeline , that was still pending at the time , was a particular focus of the rally . Among the speakers were Sierra Club Director Michael Brune , U.S. Senator Sheldon Whitehouse , actress and activist Rosario Dawson , 350 . org founder Bill McKibben , and Obama 's former Special Advisor for Green Jobs Van Jones . Participants marched from the National Mall to the White House . Attendance was estimated at 35,000 ( estimates ranged from 10,000 by a police officer to 50,000 by 350 . org ) , and was thought to have been the largest climate rally in American history . The rally was arranged by the Sierra Club , the Hip Hop Caucus , 350 . org , and other organizations .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Forward_on_Climate\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 92002\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: David A. Jones Content: David Arfon Jones is a senior climatologist at the Australian Bureau of Meteorology . He initially studied mathematics and chemistry at university but changed to atmospheric studies . Jones obtained his PhD in Earth Science from the University of Melbourne , Australia in 1995 . He subsequently completed the postgraduate diploma in weather forecasting in 1995 at the Bureau of Meteorology . In 1995 Jones commenced work in the Climate Analysis Section of the Australian National Climate Centre , focusing on the automation of climate monitoring using objective analysis techniques . Subsequently he moved to the Bureau of Meteorology Research Centre in 1997 undertaking research on the variability and change of Australia 's climate . Jones became the supervisor of Climate Analysis at the Bureau of Meteorology in 2002 . In this role he has promoted the automation of analysis , monitoring and forecasting products and the introduction of a range of innovative climate monitoring activities , with a focus on encouraging the interpretation of climate variability in the context of a rapidly changing climate . Owing to the continued misrepresentation of climate change in the Australian media Jones has written a number of public pieces correcting or explaining climate change including in The Age , and in articles for the Australian Science Media Centre . In 2006 Jones was awarded the National Australia Day Council Achievement Medallion .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"David_A._Jones\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 91521\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Philly Joe Jones Content: Joseph Rudolph `` Philly Joe '' Jones ( July 15 , 1923 -- August 30 , 1985 ) was a Philadelphia-born American jazz drummer , known as the drummer for the first `` Great '' Miles Davis Quintet . He is sometimes confused with another influential jazz drummer , Papa Jo Jones . The two died only a few days apart .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Philly_Joe_Jones\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 91433\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hockey stick graph Content: Hockey stick graphs present the global or hemispherical mean temperature record of the past 500 to 2000 years as shown by quantitative climate reconstructions based on climate proxy records . These reconstructions have consistently shown a slow long term cooling trend changing into relatively rapid warming in the 20th century , with the instrumental temperature record by 2000 exceeding earlier temperatures . The term `` hockey stick graph '' was coined by the climatologist Jerry Mahlman , to describe the pattern shown by the ( MBH99 ) reconstruction , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat with a downward trend to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' followed by a sharp , steady increase corresponding to the `` blade '' portion . The reconstructions have featured in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports as evidence of global warming . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . Paleoclimatology dates back to the 19th century , and the concept of examining varves in lake beds and tree rings to track local climatic changes was suggested in the 1930s . In the 1960s , Hubert Lamb generalised from historical documents and temperature records of central England to propose a Medieval Warm Period from around 900 to 1300 , followed by Little Ice Age . This was the basis of a `` schematic diagram '' featured in the IPCC First Assessment Report of 1990 beside cautions that the medieval warming might not have been global . The use of indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed , and by the late 1990s a number of competing teams of climatologists found indications that recent warming was exceptional . introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large scale reconstructions . Their study was featured in the IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . In 1998 Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 with shading emphasising that uncertainties ( to two standard error limits ) were much greater in earlier centuries . independently produced a CPS reconstruction extending back for a thousand years , and ( MBH99 ) used the MBH98 methodology to extend their study back to 1000 . A version of the MBH99 graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , which also drew on Jones et al. 1998 and three other reconstructions to support the conclusion that , in the Northern Hemisphere , the 1990s was likely to have been the warmest decade and 1998 the warmest year during the past 1,000 years . The graph became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th century warmth was exceptional . In 2003 , as lobbying over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol intensified , a paper claiming greater medieval warmth was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy . Later in 2003 , Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick published disputing the data used in MBH98 paper . In 2004 Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal components analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . Their analysis was subsequently disputed by published papers including and which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . Political disputes led to the formation of a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council , their North Report in 2006 supported Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , support the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Further reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Hockey_stick_graph\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 90854\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: S v Maki Content: In S v Maki , an important case in South African criminal law , the accused had consciously broken into the home of the deceased , an 84-year-old woman , and thereafter , in a drunken state , strangled her . He had previous convictions for possession of dagga , assault with intent to do grievous bodily harm , attempted rape and theft . He was sentenced to fifteen years ' imprisonment . Jones J said , The accused is not a youngster who , for the first time , had too much to drink and dabbled with dagga . On the contrary , he has a criminal record for violent acts and for involvement with dagga . Through his counsel he admits to longstanding serious substance abuse . His character is malformed . He lacks discipline . This sort of thing could happen G to him again . In a case such as this the interests of society must prevail over the interests of the individual offender . As to the question of capacity , Jones J said the following : It is perhaps worthwhile therefore to speculate on the possible sentences which would have been imposed or considered if the accused had killed the deceased with full criminal capacity . If he had had less liquor to drink and if he had been sufficiently in command of his faculties to be convicted of murder , his intake of alcohol might have been a mitigating factor . He might also have been able to point to other mitigating factors in explaining what happened inside the flat . But the many aggravating factors , which are self-evident , would have made the death penalty one of the options to be given serious consideration . If the Court had come to the conclusion that the death sentence was not the only proper sentence , the other options of imprisonment for life or imprisonment for a lengthy term of 20 or 25 years would have been considered . It is my view that it is extremely unlikely that a sentence of less than 20 years would have been imposed for this kind of murder .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"S_v_Maki\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 90799\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mouse Warming Content: Mouse Warming ( stylised as Mouse-warming ) is a 1952 Looney Tunes short directed by Chuck Jones , and starring Claude Cat ( in his final solo cartoon ) , with a cameo appearance of Hector the Bulldog at the end .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Mouse_Warming\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 90274\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Unstoppable Global Warming: Every 1,500 Years Content: Unstoppable Global Warming : Every 1,500 Years is a book about climate change , written by Siegfried Fred Singer and Dennis T. Avery , which asserts that natural changes , and not CO2 emissions , are the cause of Global Warming . Published by Rowman & Littlefield in 2006 , the book sold well and was reprinted in an updated edition in 2007 . The title refers to the hypothesis of 1,500-year climate cycles in the Holocene first postulated by Gerard C. Bond , mainly based on petrologic tracers of drift ice in the North Atlantic .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Unstoppable_Global_Warming:_Every_1,500_Years\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 90210\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: William Jones (philologist) Content: Sir William Jones FRS FRSE ( 28 September 1746 -- 27 April 1794 ) was an Anglo-Welsh philologist , a puisne judge on the Supreme Court of Judicature at Fort William in Bengal , and a scholar of ancient India , particularly known for his proposition of the existence of a relationship among European and Indian languages , which would later be known as Indo-European languages . He , along with Henry Thomas Colebrooke and Nathaniel Halhed , founded the Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1784 , and started a journal called Asiatick Researches .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"William_Jones_(philologist)\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 89799\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: I'm not a scientist Content: `` I 'm not a scientist '' is a phrase that has been often used by American politicians , primarily Republicans , when asked about a scientific subject , such as global warming , or the age of the earth . Politicians who have used the phrase include John Boehner , Rick Scott , Marco Rubio , Bobby Jindal , and Mitch McConnell . It has been criticized by Coral Davenport writing for The New York Times , and by Steven Benen of the Rachel Maddow Show , and was satirized by Stephen Colbert of The Colbert Report . President Barack Obama singled the phrase out in his 2015 State of the Union speech , saying : I 've heard some folks try to dodge the evidence -LSB- of global climate change -RSB- by saying they 're not scientists ; that we do n't have enough information to act . Well , I 'm not a scientist , either . But you know what , I know a lot of really good scientists at NASA , and at NOAA , and at our major universities . And the best scientists in the world are all telling us that our activities are changing the climate , and if we do n't act forcefully , we 'll continue to see rising oceans , longer , hotter heat waves , dangerous droughts and floods , and massive disruptions that can trigger greater migration and conflict and hunger around the globe . Ford O'Connell , a Republican strategist and conservative activist , has argued that the phrase `` wo n't be a winner in the presidential field '' for Republican candidates . Commenting on the phenomenon , Journalist Dan Rather deplored the antiscience attitude it evinces , but stated that the anti-science attitude was evident not just among Republicans , but throughout American society . He blamed the media for their poor coverage of science , and for presenting a false equivalency between scientific consensus and climate change denial .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"I'm_not_a_scientist\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 89312\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: George Hilton Jones III Content: George Hilton Jones , III , D. Phil ( Oxon ) ( 1924 -- 2008 ) was an American Rhodes Scholar , historian , college professor , and author of numerous works on English history .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"George_Hilton_Jones_III\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 87899\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: P. J. Jones (American football) Content: Philemon Depaul Jones is an American football defensive tackle who is a free agent . Jones played college football for Mississippi State from 2011 to 2014 , where he was a starter as a junior and senior . He was named MSU 's Defensive Player of the Week in 2014 after the 34 -- 29 win over LSU .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"P._J._Jones_(American_football)\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 87160\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Peter Doran Content: Peter Doran , Ph.D. is Professor of Geology and Geophysics at Louisiana State University . Doran specializes in polar regions , especially Antarctic climate and ecosystems . Doran was the lead author of a research paper about Antarctic temperatures that was published in the journal Nature in January 2002 . Because he and his colleagues found that some parts of Antarctica had cooled between 1964 and 2000 , his paper has been frequently cited by opponents of the global warming theory , such as Ann Coulter and Michael Crichton . In an opinion piece in the July 27 , 2006 New York Times , Doran characterized this as a `` misinterpretation '' and stated , `` I have never thought such a thing ... I would like to remove my name from the list of scientists who dispute global warming . '' ( The temporary phenomenon is related to the `` hole '' in the ozone . As the `` hole heals '' the Antarctic will dramatically warm quickly . ) Doran and his grad student Maggie Kendall Zimmerman also published a paper in the Jan 27 , 2009 issue of EOS showing that active climate researchers almost unanimously agree that humans have had a significant impact on the Earth 's climate . Both an Antarctic stream and glacier were named for Doran by the U.S. Geological Survey to commemorate his many significant research contributions conducted on the continent .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Peter_Doran\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 87096\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 86665\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: No One Is to Blame Content: `` No One Is to Blame '' is a song by British musician Howard Jones . The song , in its original version , can be found on his second studio album , Dream into Action , which was released in 1985 . Following the success of the previous singles taken from the album , the original track for `` No One Is to Blame '' was re-recorded to give the song a more radio-friendly sound . Phil Collins and Hugh Padgham produced the re-recording , with Collins adding his own backing vocals and drum work . This new version of the song was included on the 1986 US EP Action Replay as well as the CD version of Jones 's 1986 studio album , One to One . `` No One Is to Blame '' was released as a single in March 1986 and became Jones 's biggest hit in the United States , peaking at # 4 on the Billboard Hot 100 . The song also became the first of his two # 1 songs on the U.S. adult contemporary chart ( `` Everlasting Love '' would top this chart in 1989 ) . The song was also a top 10 hit in Australia and a # 16 hit in the U.K. . The song is about unfulfilled attractions , saying that they 're normal and commonplace ( `` We want everyone - no one ever is to blame '' ) . It uses a number of metaphors , such as `` You can look at the menu , but you just ca n't eat '' and `` It 's the last piece of the puzzle , but you just ca n't make it fit , '' to describe the frustration of experiencing attraction but being unable to act on it , for whatever reason . On a deeper level it describes the frustration and pain of unfulfilled desires and dreams inherent in the human condition .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"No_One_Is_to_Blame\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 86473\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Philip Jones Content: Philip , Phil or Phill Jones may refer to :\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Philip_Jones\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 85676\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ellis Jones (sociologist) Content: Ellis McNatt Jones ( born February 25 , 1970 ) is an American sociologist and author . Jones was a Peace Corps Volunteer in the Republic of Panama from 1993 to 1995 where he worked in Environmental Education . Jones has researched consumer products , rating corporations on an `` A '' through `` F '' scale based on their scores in five areas : human rights ( sweatshops , child labor , etc. ) , the environment ( global warming , rainforest destruction , etc. ) , animal protection ( animal testing , humane treatment , etc. ) , community involvement ( local business support , nonprofit alliances , etc. ) , and social justice ( fair wages , discrimination , etc. ) . In his book `` The Better World Shopping Guide : Every Dollar Makes A Difference , '' he encourages consumers to push their dollars to the `` A '' and `` B '' companies and away from the `` D '' and `` F '' companies to create a better world . He holds a Ph.D. from the University of Colorado and is currently a professor of sociology at College of the Holy Cross .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Ellis_Jones_(sociologist)\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 85312\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming hiatus Content: A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_hiatus\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 85159\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Drums Around the World Content: Drums Around the World ( subtitled Philly Joe Jones Big Band Sounds ) is the second album led by American jazz drummer Philly Joe Jones which was recorded in 1959 for the Riverside label .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Drums_Around_the_World\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 85030\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change policy of the United States Content: Global climate change was first addressed in United States policy beginning in the early 1960s . The Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) defines climate change as `` any significant change in the measures of climate lasting for an extended period of time . '' Essentially , climate change includes major changes in temperature , precipitation , or wind patterns , as well as other effects , that occur over several decades or longer . Climate change policy in the US has transformed rapidly over the past twenty years and is being developed at both the state and federal level . The politics of global warming and climate change have polarized certain political parties and other organizations . This article focuses on climate change policy within the United States , as well as exploring the positions of various parties and the influences on policy making and environmental justice repercussions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_policy_of_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 84925\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Don A. Jones Content: Rear Admiral Don A. Jones ( 16 September 1912 -- 6 August 2000 ) was an officer in the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey Corps , its successor , the Environmental Science Services Administration Corps ( ESSA Corps ) , and the ESSA Corps 's successor , the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Commissioned Officer Corps ( NOAA Corps ) . He served simultaneously as the second and last Director of the ESSA Corps , one of only two people to hold the position , and as the seventh and last Director of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey . During World War II , Jones was transferred to the United States Army and later the Office of Strategic Services before returning to the Coast and Geodetic Survey Corps .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Don_A._Jones\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 84887\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greg Jones (skier) Content: Gregory Jones ( born December 3 , 1953 ) is a former World Cup alpine ski racer from the United States . Born in Tahoe City , California , he specialized in giant slalom . Jones competed in all three events at the 1976 Winter Olympics and finished 9th in the giant slalom , 11th in the downhill , and 19th in the slalom . His all-around performance earned a World Championship bronze medal in the combined event . Jones won a World Cup race a few weeks later in the United States at Copper Mountain , Colorado . Teammate Phil Mahre was the runner-up for the first-ever one-two finish by U.S. men in a World Cup race .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Greg_Jones_(skier)\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 84672\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: North Report Content: The North Report was a 2006 report evaluating reconstructions of the temperature record of the past two millennia , providing an overview of the state of the science and the implications for understanding of global warming . It was produced by a National Research Council committee , chaired by Gerald North , at the request of Representative Sherwood Boehlert as chairman of the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Science . These reconstructions had been dubbed `` hockey stick graphs '' after the 1999 reconstruction by Mann , Bradley and Hughes ( MBH99 ) , which used the methodology of their 1998 reconstruction covering 600 years ( MBH98 ) . A graph based on MBH99 was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , and became a focus of the global warming controversy over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol . It was disputed by various contrarians , and in the politicisation of this hockey stick controversy the New York Times of 14 February 2005 hailed a paper by businessman Stephen McIntyre and economist Ross McKitrick ( MM05 ) as undermining the scientific consensus behind the Kyoto agreement . On 23 June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton , chairman of the House Committee on Energy and Commerce , with Ed Whitfield , Chairman of the Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations , wrote joint letters referring to issues raised by the Wall Street Journal article , and demanding that Mann , Bradley and Hughes provide full records on their data and methods , finances and careers , information about grants provided to the institutions they had worked for , and the exact computer codes used to generate their results . Boehlert said this was a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into something that should properly be under the jurisdiction of the Science Committee , and in November 2005 after Barton dismissed the offer of an independent investigation organised by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences , Boehlert requested the review , which became the North Report . The North Report went through a rigorous review process , and was published on 22 June 2006 . It concluded `` with a high level of confidence that global mean surface temperature was higher during the last few decades of the 20th century than during any comparable period during the preceding four centuries '' , justified by consistent evidence from a wide variety of geographically diverse proxies , but `` Less confidence can be placed in large-scale surface temperature reconstructions for the period from 900 to 1600 '' . It broadly agreed with the basic findings of the original MBH studies , which subsequently been supported by other reconstructions and proxy records , while emphasising uncertainties over earlier periods . The principal component analysis methodology that McIntyre and McKitrick had contested had a small tendency to bias results so was not recommended -- but it had little influence on the final reconstructions , and other methods produced similar results .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"North_Report\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 84280\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Gregory V. Jones Content: Gregory V. Jones is a research climatologist specializing in the climatology of viticulture , with a focus on how climate variation influences vine growth , wine production and the quality of wine produced . Jones serves as the Director of the Division of Business , Communication and the Environment at Southern Oregon University in Ashland , Oregon and is Professor in the University 's Environmental Science and Policy Program .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Gregory_V._Jones\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 84221\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: One to One (Howard Jones album) Content: One to One is the third album by British pop musician Howard Jones , released in October 1986 . The CD release also contains the single version of `` No One Is to Blame '' ( a song featured on his previous album ) with Phil Collins on backing vocals and drums . The album contained the hits `` You Know I Love You ... Do n't You ? '' ( US top twenty ) and `` All I Want '' ( top 40 in many European countries ) . The album reached number 10 in the UK and was certified Gold for shipments in excess of 100,000 copies .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"One_to_One_(Howard_Jones_album)\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 84174\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Year Without a Summer Content: The year 1816 is known as the Year Without a Summer ( also the Poverty Year , the Summer that Never Was , Year There Was No Summer , and Eighteen Hundred and Froze to Death ) because of severe climate abnormalities that caused average global temperatures to decrease by 0.4 -- 0.7 ° C ( 0.7 -- 1.3 ° F ) . This resulted in major food shortages across the Northern Hemisphere . Evidence suggests that the anomaly was predominantly a volcanic winter event caused by the massive 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora in the Dutch East Indies ( the largest eruption in at least 1,300 years after the extreme weather events of 535 -- 536 ) , perhaps plus the 1814 eruption of Mayon in the Philippines . The Earth had already been in a centuries-long period of global cooling that started in the 14th century . Known today as the Little Ice Age , it had already caused considerable agricultural distress in Europe . The Little Ice Age 's existing cooling was aggravated by the eruption of Tambora , which occurred during its concluding decades .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Year_Without_a_Summer\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 83674\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 83453\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Philly Joe's Beat Content: Philly Joes Beat is an album by American jazz drummer Philly Joe Jones which was released on the Atlantic label in 1960 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Philly_Joe's_Beat\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 83411\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Philip Jones (MP) Content: Philip Jones ( died 1603 ) , of London and Llanarth , Monmouthshire , was a Welsh politician . He was a Member ( MP ) of the Parliament of England for Monmouth Boroughs in 1589 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Philip_Jones_(MP)\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 83247\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Antarctica cooling controversy Content: An apparent contradiction in the observed cooling behavior of Antarctica between 1966 and 2000 became part of the public debate in the global warming controversy , particularly between advocacy groups of both sides in the public arena including politicians , as well as the popular media . In his novel State of Fear , Michael Crichton asserted that the Antarctic data contradict global warming . The few scientists who have commented on the supposed controversy state that there is no contradiction , while the author of the paper whose work inspired Crichton 's remarks has said that Crichton `` misused '' his results . There is no similar controversy within the scientific community , as the small observed changes in Antarctica are consistent with the small changes predicted by climate models , and because the overall trend since comprehensive observations began is now known to be one of warming . At the South Pole , where some of the strongest cooling trends were observed between the 1950s and 1990s , the mean trend is flat from 1957 through 2013 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Antarctica_cooling_controversy\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 82746\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \\\"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\\\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \\\"deep emissions reductions\\\" and \\\"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\\\" Furthermore, the report finds that \\\"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\\\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \\\"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\\\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 82652\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Granville E. Jones Content: Granville E. Jones ( October 14 , 1900 -- March 7 , 1959 ) was a funeral director and Democratic politician from Philadelphia . Jones was born in 1900 in Baltimore , Maryland . He moved to Philadelphia and graduated from the H. E. Dolan 's College of Mortuary Science , after which he worked as a funeral director . Jones was also president of the Quaker City Funeral Directors Association . In 1948 , he was elected to the first of six terms in the Pennsylvania House of Representatives . In 1953 , he ran for City Treasurer of Philadelphia , but was unsuccessful . He died in office in 1959 and was buried at Mount Lawn Cemetery in Delaware County .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Granville_E._Jones\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 82373\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Philip Jones (musician) Content: Philip Jones CBE ( 12 March 1928 -- 17 January 2000 ) was a British trumpeter and leader of an internationally famous brass chamber music ensemble . Philip Jones was born in Bath , England . In 1944 he won a scholarship to the Royal College of Music . He became principal trumpet for most major London orchestras : The Royal Philharmonic ( 1956 -- 60 ) , the Philharmonia ( 1960 -- 64 ) , the Philharmonic ( 1964 -- 65 ) , the New Philharmonia ( 1965 -- 67 ) and the BBC Symphony ( 1967 -- 71 ) . His playing continues a line of English trumpeters that stretches back to Ernest Hall . In 1951 he had formed the Philip Jones Brass Ensemble , one of the first brass ensembles working regularly as a stable group . They grew from four members to ten and larger for special projects . The most usual formations were the quintet ( two trumpets , horn , trombone and tuba ) and the ten-piece ( four trumpeters one sometimes doubling piccolo trumpet and one sometimes doubling flugel horn , horn , four trombones and tuba ) . The success of these formations owes much to Philip Jones 's work . After 1971 he devoted himself to it full-time and the group commanded long commitment from many fine players including : the trumpeters Elgar Howarth , John Wilbraham , Michael Laird and James Watson ; horn players Ifor James and Frank Lloyd ; trombonists John Iveson and Raymond Premru ; and the renowned tubist John Fletcher . They made 50 recordings and toured over 30 countries finding particular popularity in Japan . Repertoire spanned from transcriptions of early music by the likes of Monteverdi , Giovanni Gabrieli , and Johann Pezel , to new works for the medium commissioned by Jones . These included pieces by Witold Lutosławski , Hans Werner Henze and Einojuhani Rautavaara ; altogether they performed 87 world premieres . The ensemble 's leader was noted for his meticulous preparations at every concert , lining up the music stands himself , his personal commitment being one of the reasons for the ensemble 's success . In 1986 he accidentally drove his car over his own trumpet case . He took this as the hand of fate and decided to retire from concert performances . He held posts at the Royal Northern College of Music and Trinity College of Music , where he was Principal until his retirement in 1994 . He was chairman of the Musicians Benevolent Fund in 1995 . He was awarded the OBE in 1977 and the CBE in 1986 . When not at work he divided his time between Switzerland and London .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Philip_Jones_(musician)\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 82369\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Phil Monroe Content: Phil Monroe ( October 31 , 1916 -- July 13 , 1988 ) was an American animator and director best known for working for Warner Bros. . Cartoons under the supervision of Chuck Jones . Monroe has also worked for UPA , DePatie-Freleng , and MGM Animation/Visual Arts .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Phil_Monroe\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 82289\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Philip Jones of Fonmon Content: Colonel Philip Jones ( 1618 -- 5 September 1674 ) was a Welsh military leader and politician who sat in the House of Commons between 1650 and 1656 . He rose to the rank of Colonel in the service of the Parliamentary Army under Fairfax during the English Civil War . As Governor of Swansea he successfully held the town against the Royalist forces .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Philip_Jones_of_Fonmon\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 82199\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Regional_effects_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 82034\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Archie Shepp & Philly Joe Jones Content: Archie Shepp & Philly Joe Jones is an album by jazz saxophonist Archie Shepp and drummer Philly Joe Jones recorded in Europe in 1969 for the America label . The album was also issued by the Fantasy label . The Allmusic review by Scott Yanow states `` This intriguing LP does not live up to its potential ... Unfortunately , both of the sidelong pieces have recitations , the performances are overly long , and there is quite a bit of rambling '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Archie_Shepp_&_Philly_Joe_Jones\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 82005\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kate Jones Content: Kate Jennifer Jones ( born 10 April 1979 ) is an Australian politician and Queensland Government minister . She is a member of the Australian Labor Party and was elected in the seat of state electorate of Ashgrove in the Legislative Assembly of Queensland in 2006 which was previously held by former Speaker Jim Fouras ( ALP ) . She was the Minister for Environment , Resource Management and Climate Change until 19 June 2011 . She lost the seat to Campbell Newman in 2012 , who went on to become premier , before retaking it in 2015 . In the Palaszczuk Government , she is the Minister for Education , Minister for Tourism , Major Events and Small Business , and the Minister for Commonwealth Games . Jones was the youngest woman in the Queensland Parliament and the youngest Minister in the Queensland Government .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Kate_Jones\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 81914\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Copenhagen Climate Challenge Content: During the United Nations Climate Change Conference 2009 ( COP15 ) , there was a rival conference in Copenhagen , Denmark , for sceptics , called the Copenhagen Climate Challenge . which was organised by the Committee for a Constructive Tomorrow . While COP15 attracted 33,200 delegates , the rival sceptic conference was attended by 60 people ( 15 journalists , 18 speakers , 27 audience ) . According to Lenore Taylor of The Australian , the attendees had an average age `` well over 60 '' . In closing his speech , Plimer stated that `` They 've got us outnumbered , but we 've got them outgunned , and that 's with the truth . '' Plimer also stated that `` It 's been freezing in Perth and bucketing down '' . Perth had below average rainfall in 2009 , and temperatures of 38 ° C were forecast for December 13 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Copenhagen_Climate_Challenge\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 81848\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ross Gelbspan Content: Ross Gelbspan is a writer and environmentalist . He has written two books relating to global warming : The Heat Is On ( 1997 ) and Boiling Point ( 2004 ) . The Heat Is On received national attention when President Bill Clinton told the press he was reading it . Boiling Point was the subject of the lead review in the Sunday New York Times Book Review . That review was written by former Vice President Al Gore . Gelbspan maintains the website heatisonline.org , which he updates on a daily basis . Prior to his involvement in the climate issue , Gelbspan worked as an editor and reporter at a number of newspapers , including The Philadelphia Bulletin , The Washington Post and the Boston Globe . At the Globe , he conceived , directed and edited a series of articles that won a Pulitzer Prize in 1984 . Since becoming involved in the climate issue , Gelbspan has delivered a number of lectures , radio and television interviews and has published multiple articles on the subject . He is a regular contributor on DeSmogBlog . He has published op-ed articles in a number of major newspapers -- as well as articles in a number of other outlets including Harper 's , The Atlantic Monthly , The American Prospect , Sierra Magazine , The Nation , and many others . He has spoken in venues that include the World Economic Forum and the Boston Social Forum . His media interviews include , among others , appearances on Nightline , All Things Considered , Talk of the Nation , World News Tonight and other outlets .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Ross_Gelbspan\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 81840\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bruce D. Jones Content: Bruce D. Jones , Ph.D. ( born 1969 ) is an academic , an author and policy analyst . He is Director of the Foreign Policy program and Director of the Project on International Order and Strategy at the Brookings Institution . He is also a consulting professor at the Freeman Spogli Institute at Stanford University and chair of the advisory council of the Center on International Cooperation at New York University . Jones ' research focuses primarily on U.S. policy on global order ; the global order policies of the emerging powers ; global governance and multilateral reform , including such issues as G8/G20 and UN Security Council reform ; and international conflict management , peacekeeping , and post-conflict operations . His most recent book , Still Ours to Lead : America , Rising Powers , and the Tension between Rivalry and Restraint , examines the tension between the impulse to rival the U.S.A and the incentives for restraint and cooperation among the rising powers . Under Jones , the Center on International Cooperation has developed into one of the most influential think-tanks working on conflict and security , climate change , fragile states , peacebuilding , mediation , and global threats and challenges . Through CIC , Jones has authored several major policy reports and publications . The Annual Review of Global Peace Operations has rapidly become the reference text for data and analysis on peacekeeping . From Fragility to Resilience has provided new international definitions for resilience and statebuilding , which were adopted by OECD member states , and taken forward by the United Kingdom Department for International Development and others . He also co-authored Recovering from War , which formed the basis for a Thematic Debate at the United Nations Security Council . The follow-up to the ideas in this report were most notably visible in the United Nations Review of International Civilian Capacities initiative , for which Dr. Jones served as a member of the Senior Advisory Group , and in the OECD workstream on financing . Jones 's book , Power and Responsibility ( 2009 ) , co-authored by Ambassador Carlos Pascual and Professor Stephen Stedman , received the BookNote Awards Gold Prize in 2009 for Best Book of the Year in the domain of Political Science . Jones is also affiliated with several universities , serving at Stanford University as a Consulting Professor , at the Robert F. Wagner Graduate School of Public Service as an Adjunct Professor , and at New York University as a Professor by courtesy . He advises several international organizations , including the World Bank , serving as Co-Lead and Senior External Advisor for the World Bank 's 2011 World Development Report : Conflict , Security and Development ; and the United Nations , where he is Lead consultant with the UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations project , New Horizons for Peacekeeping . He is also a Senior Fellow with the Foreign Policy Program of the Brookings Institution . Jones is a Board member of the Center on Global Counterterrorism Cooperation ; the Norwegian Peacebuilding Training Advisory Group ; Conciliation Resources ; and to Asia Foundation 's Aid to Subnational Conflict Areas program .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Bruce_D._Jones\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 81526\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Phill Content: Phill ( usually a diminutive of Phillip ) may refer to : Phill Calvert ( born 1958 ) , Australian rock drummer and producer , played in the influential post-punk band `` The Birthday Party '' Phill Drobnick ( born 1980 ) , curler Phill Feltham , Canadian journalist , Senior Editor for Maximum Fitness magazine Phill G. McDonald ( 1941 -- 1968 ) , United States Army soldier and a recipient of the Medal of Honor for his actions in the Vietnam War Phill Hartsfield , Southern California sword and knifemaker Phill Jones ( born 1974 ) , New Zealand professional basketball player Phill Jupitus ( born 1962 ) , English comedian , cartoonist , DJ , guitarist , performance poet and presenter of radio and TV Phill Kline ( born 1959 ) , the former district attorney of Johnson County , Kansas , USA Phill Lewis ( born 1968 ) , American film and television actor Phill Niblock ( born 1933 ) , composer , filmmaker , videographer , and director of Experimental Intermedia Phill Nixon ( born 1956 ) , English darts player from Ferryhill , County Durham , UK Phill Shatter ( born 1982 ) , champion heavyweight wrestler Phill Wilson ( born 1956 ) , founder of the Black AIDS Institute , prominent African-American HIV/AIDS activist https://putthatcheeseburgerdown.files.wordpress.com/2014/12/1360443372_9816755-crazy-nailbiter-a-man-biting-of-his-nails-his-fingers-are-covered-in-blood.jpg?w=350&h=200&crop=1\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Phill\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 81394\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: I Can't Get There from Here Content: `` I Ca n't Get There from Here '' is a song by American country singer George Jones . It was released as a single on the Musicor label in 1967 . It was composed by Dallas Frazier . Although he did n't write it , `` I Ca n't Get There from Here '' is one in a long list of songs that Jones would record as if it was torn from the pages of his diary ; as Randy Travis stated in the 1990 Jones video biography Same Ole Me , `` It 's almost like he 's lived every minute of every word he sings , and there 's very few people who can do that . '' Jones , who would be admitted into a neurological hospital to seek treatment for his binge drinking in 1967 , had already gained a reputation as a notorious hell raiser , imbuing Frazier 's words with a weary authenticity : Surely there 's a place to rest a tortured mind Oh , what I 'd give if I could find A place where there 's no mem ` ry of all those wasted years But they all say I ca n't get there from here The song reached No. 5 on the Billboard country singles chart .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"I_Can't_Get_There_from_Here\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 81316\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Edward Wegman Content: Edward Wegman is an American statistician and a professor of statistics at George Mason University . He holds a Ph.D. in mathematical statistics and is a Fellow of the American Statistical Association , a Senior Member of the IEEE , and past chair of the National Research Council Committee on Applied and Theoretical Statistics . In addition to his work in the field of statistical computing , Wegman contributed a report to a Congressional hearing on climate change at the request of Republican Rep. Joe Barton . Wegman 's report supported criticisms of the methodology of two specific paleoclimate studies into the temperature record of the past 1000 years , and argued that climate scientists were excessively isolated from the statistical mainstream . Subsequently , significant portions of Wegman 's report were found to have been copied without attribution from a variety of sources , including Wikipedia , and a publication based on the report was retracted .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Edward_Wegman\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 81278\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bumpus Jones Content: Charles Leander `` Bumpus '' Jones ( January 1 , 1870 -- June 25 , 1938 ) was a right-handed starting pitcher in Major League Baseball who played for the Cincinnati Reds and New York Giants . He was born in Cedarville , Ohio . Though Jones made only eight appearances in his brief major league career , he saved himself from baseball anonymity when he threw a no-hitter in his first major league appearance with the Cincinnati Reds on October 15 , 1892 , the last day of the season . The victims that day were the Pittsburgh Pirates , who lost 7 -- 1 . Jones was not perfect , as he gave up four walks , and he did not pitch a shutout , as an error led to an unearned run . But it was quite a start , and was his only outing of the season . This is still the latest date in the season that a no-hitter has ever been pitched in major league history . After that , Jones split 1893 between Cincinnati and the New York Giants , appearing in seven games overall , while going 1-4 with a 10.19 ERA . Jones would never pitch in the majors again . He remains the only player in Major League history to pitch a no-hitter in his first game . Only Bobo Holloman of the St. Louis Browns and Ted Breitenstein of the St. Louis Browns have managed to join Jones as pitchers to throw no-hitters in their first major league start , but they had previously appeared in a relief role . According to sabermetrician Bill James , Jones edges out Holloman for the distinction of mathematically least likely pitcher ever to have thrown a no-hitter in the major leagues . In a two-season major league career , Jones posted a 2-4 career record with 10 strikeouts and a 7.99 ERA in 41 2/3 innings of labor . After leaving the major leagues , Jones continued to pitch professionally . Jones pitched for the Grand Rapids Rippers and Sioux City Cornhuskers in 1894 . He pitched for the Columbus Clippers from 1896 to 1899 , and until recently was credited with the team record for career games pitched , with 212 . Modern research , however , indicates that the actual total may be closer to 150 . Jones finished his minor league career with the St. Paul Saints in 1901 . Jones died in Xenia , Ohio , at age 68 , and was laid to rest at North Cemetery in Cedarville , Ohio .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Bumpus_Jones\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 81231\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: David Parker (climatologist) Content: David Parker is head of climate monitoring at the Hadley Centre , Exeter , England . He has published extensively on the land and marine temperature record and its consistency . In 2002 , he was an organiser of a `` Workshop on Advances in the Use of Historical Marine Climate Data '' . In 2004 , he has published a paper in Nature , showing that the urban heat island effect has not affected the historical temperature record . In this article , Parker shares his observations of the minimum temperature over 24 hours worldwide since 1950 that were expressed as anomalies . Also it includes his reasoning to why urbanization has not systematically exaggerated the observed global warming trends in minimum temperature . He further goes on to mention how the criterion for `` calm '' was changed while the global trend for minimum temperature remained unchanged . From his analysis he finds that windy and calm nights warmed at the same rate . Both the windy and calm increased at a rate of ( 0.16 + 0.03 C ) . He compares his small sample of 26 stations in North America and Siberia with global trends from 1950 to 1953 , covering over 5,000 stations . Estimates of recent global warming , supported by Parker 's analysis shows that urban warming has not introduced significant biases . `` The reality and magnitude of global-scale warming is supported by the near-equality of temperature trends on windy nights with trends based on all data . '' ( Parker ) This paper has been commented on by Roger Pielke , Sr. , et al. .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"David_Parker_(climatologist)\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 81076\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Robin Russell-Jones Content: Robin Russell-Jones ( born 5 March 1948 ) is a medical doctor with an abiding interest in environmental pollution and the way it impinges on public health . His activities have influenced several key area of environmental policy in the UK , including the decision to ban lead in petrol , introduce catalytic converters in petrol driven vehicles , and change official guidelines on exposure to ionising radiation . His letters and articles have raised awareness of ozone depletion and global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Robin_Russell-Jones\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 81073\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Leipzig Declaration Content: The Leipzig Declaration on Global Climate Change is a statement made in 1995 , seeking to refute the claim there is a scientific consensus on the global warming issue . It was issued in an updated form in 1997 and revised again in 2005 , claiming to have been signed by 80 scientists and 25 television news meteorologists while the posting of 33 additional signatories was pending verification that those 33 additional scientists still agreed with the statement . All versions of the declaration , which opposes the global warming hypothesis and the Kyoto Protocol , were penned by Fred Singer 's Science and Environmental Policy Project ( SEPP ) . The first declaration was based on a November 9 -- 10 , 1995 conference , organized by Helmut Metzner in Leipzig , Germany . The second declaration was additionally based on a successor conference in Bonn , Germany on November 10 -- 11 , 1997 . The conferences were cosponsored by SEPP and the European Academy for Environmental Affairs and titled International Symposium on the Greenhouse Controversy .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Leipzig_Declaration\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 81060\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: No Land Tax Campaign Content: The No Land Tax Campaign was a minor Australian political party formed prior to the 2015 New South Wales state election . It was formed in opposition to the levying of land tax , which in New South Wales applies to investment properties and holiday homes . In 2015 , it is alleged that Peter Jones , Secretary of the No Land Tax Campaign Pty 'em ployed ' 3600 workers with an offering of $ 30/hour to hand out flyers and approach voters . Mr Jones then informed workers there would be delays on their pay as he had to wait to see if he obtained enough votes for seats , and if they were to get bonuses . After several weeks , Mr Jones emailed workers stating there was issues with the pay slips , and pays would be processed . Eventually Mr Jones went on radio with Ray Hadley in regard to the pay disputes . Currently in 2017 , no workers have received pay from Mr Jones or the No Land Tax Campaign , their website is now offline and no longer comes up , and Fair work is taking Mr Jones to court on behalf of the workers .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"No_Land_Tax_Campaign\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 80747\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bølling-Allerød warming Content: The Bølling-Allerød interstadial was an abrupt warm and moist interstadial period that occurred during the final stages of the last glacial period . This warm period ran from c. 14,700 to c. 12,700 years before the present ( BP ) . It began with the end of the cold period known as the Oldest Dryas , and ended abruptly with the onset of the Younger Dryas , a cold period that reduced temperatures back to near-glacial levels within a decade . In some regions , a cold period known as the Older Dryas can be detected in the middle of the Bølling-Allerød interstadial . In these regions the period is divided into the Bølling oscillation , which peaked around 14,500 BP , and the Allerød oscillation , which peaked closer to 13,000 BP . Estimates of CO2 rise are 20 -- 35 ppmv within 200 years , a rate less than 29 -- 50 % compared to the anthropogenic global warming signal from the past 50 years , and with a radiative forcing of 0.59 -- 0.75 W m − 2 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Bølling-Allerød_warming\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 80502\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_potential\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 80377\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Protect Our Winters Content: Protect Our Winters ( POW ) is an non-profit environmental organization involving individuals in the global winter sport community and supported by companies in the business . The organization 's goal is to bring awareness to and fight against climate change by means of community based projects , advocacy , and educational initiatives mainly across the United States . Founded in 2007 by professional snowboarder Jeremy Jones ( freerider ) , the organization 's headquarters is located in the neighborhood of Pacific Palisades , Los Angeles in California , United States . POW currently remains active in the mobilization of the snow sports community for issues regarding the effects of climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Protect_Our_Winters\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 80352\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Phil Morris (actor) Content: Phillip Morris ( born April 4 , 1959 ) is an American television , voice , and film actor . He played Jackie Chiles in the NBC sitcom Seinfeld and John Jones in The CW superhero drama Smallville . He last starred as Delroy Jones in Love That Girl ! .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Phil_Morris_(actor)\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 80132\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Showcase (Philly Joe Jones album) Content: Showcase is the third album led by American jazz drummer Philly Joe Jones which was recorded in 1959 for the Riverside label .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Showcase_(Philly_Joe_Jones_album)\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 80111\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Joseph Marion Jones Content: Joseph Marion Jones ( October 29 , 1908 -- August 9 , 1990 ) served in the United States Department of State in the late 1940s . As Special Assistant to the Assistant Secretary for Public Affairs he was responsible for drafting Undersecretary of State Dean Acheson 's speech before the Delta Council on May 8 , 1947 . Jones published his memoirs in 1955 , entitling them `` The Fifteen Weeks : February 21 - June 5 1947 '' . These chronicled his part in the development of the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Joseph_Marion_Jones\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 79931\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Joel Jones (mayor) Content: Joel Jones ( October 26 , 1795 -- February 3 , 1860 ) was an American lawyer , jurist , and mayor of Philadelphia .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Joel_Jones_(mayor)\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 79732\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: John P. Jones Content: John Percival Jones ( January 27 , 1829November 27 , 1912 ) was an American politician who served for 30 years as a Republican United States Senator from Nevada . He made a fortune in silver mining and was a co-founder of the town of Santa Monica , California .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"John_P._Jones\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 79502\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Clarence Benjamin Jones Content: Clarence B. Jones ( born January 8 , 1931 ) is the former personal counsel , advisor , draft speech writer and close friend of Martin Luther King Jr. . He is a Scholar in Residence at the Martin Luther King , Jr. . Institute at Stanford University . He is the author of What Would Martin Say ? ( HarperCollins , 2008 ) and `` Behind the Dream : The Making of the Speech that Transformed a Nation '' ( Palgrave-Macmillan , 2011 ) In 1962 , Martin Luther King Jr. wrote a letter recommending his lawyer and advisor , Clarence B. Jones , to the New York State Bar , stating : `` Ever since I have known Mr. Jones , I have always seen him as a man of sound judgment , deep insights , and great dedication . I am also convinced that he is a man of great integrity '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Clarence_Benjamin_Jones\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 79423\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Heaven and Earth (book) Content: Heaven and Earth : Global Warming -- The Missing Science is a popular science book published in 2009 and written by Australian geologist , professor of mining geology at Adelaide University , and mining company director Ian Plimer . It disputes the scientific consensus on climate change , including the view that global warming is `` very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic ( man-made ) greenhouse gas concentrations '' and asserts that the debate is being driven by what the author regards as irrational and unscientific elements . The book received what The Age newspaper called `` glowing endorsements '' from the conservative press . The Australian said it gave `` all the scientific ammunition climate change skeptics could want . '' Other reviewers criticised the book as unscientific , inaccurate , based on obsolete research , and internally inconsistent . Ideas in it have been described as `` so wrong as to be laughable '' . Heaven and Earth was a bestseller in Australia when published in May 2009 , and is in its seventh printing , according to the publisher . The book has also been published in the United States and the United Kingdom .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Heaven_and_Earth_(book)\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 79254\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sixty Days and Counting Content: Sixty Days and Counting ( 2007 ) is the third book in the hard science fiction Science in the Capital trilogy by Kim Stanley Robinson . It directly follows the events of Fifty Degrees Below , beginning just after the election of character Phil Chase to the White House . It follows the previous novel 's deep freeze of the area surrounding Washington D.C. . Category :2007 American novels Category : Novels by Kim Stanley Robinson Category : Novels set in Washington , D.C. Category : Hard science fiction Category : Climate change novels\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Sixty_Days_and_Counting\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 79149\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Five Ways to Save the World Content: Five Ways to Save the World is a British documentary film on environmental issues related to climate change , released in 2006 . The film was made by Karen O'Connor , for the big screen and was shot in the English language to reach an international audience . It includes interviews with five environmental scientists and experts including Paul Crutzen , James Roger Angel , John Latham , Ian Jones , and Klaus Lackner . The `` five ways '' proposed are geoengineering techniques : space lenses in orbit , to diffract sunlight away from the earth cloud seeding with seawater to increase albedo sulfur launched into the stratosphere to increase albedo ocean fertilization with iron or urea ( nitrogen fertilizer ) artificial trees ( see carbon capture and sequestration ) Since the first three methods do not remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , they would only reduce global warming but not ocean acidification . Since the last two methods would remove carbon dioxide , they could in theory reduce both global warming and ocean acidification .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Five_Ways_to_Save_the_World\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 78918\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Murder of Danielle Jones Content: The murder of Danielle Jones was an English murder case where no body was found and the conviction relied upon forensic authorship analysis of text messages sent on the victim 's mobile phone . Danielle Sarah Jones , ( 16 October 1985 -- c. 18 June 2001 ) , was last seen alive on 18 June 2001 ; her body has never been found . Jones 's uncle , Stuart Campbell , a builder , was convicted of abduction and murder on 19 December 2002 . Campbell was sentenced to life imprisonment for murder as well as 10 years for abduction . After the trial , controversy arose when it was revealed Campbell had prior convictions for indecent assault on other girls of similar ages . The use of forensic authorship analysis of text messages in the case provoked research into its use in other cases .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Murder_of_Danielle_Jones\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 78851\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Curtis J. Jones Jr. Content: Curtis J. Jones Jr. is a Democratic Councilman representing the Fourth District on the City Council of Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , USA . He has served since 2008 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Curtis_J._Jones_Jr.\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 78774\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Rick Jones (politician) Content: Rick Jones is a Republican politician from Michigan currently serving in the Michigan Senate after having served three terms in the Michigan House of Representatives . Prior to his election to the Legislature , Jones served one term as the Eaton County Sheriff and had spent 31 years with the sheriff 's department . In 2016 , Jones introduced a bill updating Michigan 's existing ban on sodomy , which states `` a person who commits the abominable and detestable crime against nature either with mankind or with any animal is guilty of a felony '' that is punishable by up to 15 years in prison . In Lawrence v. Texas , the United States Supreme Court struck down the sodomy law in Texas and , by extension , invalidated sodomy laws in 13 other states , making same-sex sexual activity legal in every U.S. state and territory . While most U.S. states removed anti-sodomy laws , Michigan is one of 12 that kept the laws 13 years after the decision .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Rick_Jones_(politician)\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 78731\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: John Paul Jones Memorial Content: The John Paul Jones Memorial is a monument in West Potomac Park in Washington , D.C. . The memorial honors John Paul Jones , the United States ' first naval war hero , father of the United States Navy , the only naval officer to receive a Congressional Gold Medal during the American Revolutionary War , and whose famous quote `` I have not yet begun to fight ! '' was uttered during the Battle of Flamborough Head .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"John_Paul_Jones_Memorial\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 78680\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Australia Content: Climate change has been a major issue in Australia since the beginning of the 21st century . In 2013 , the CSIRO released a report stating that Australia is becoming hotter , and that it will experience more extreme heat and longer fire seasons because of climate change . In 2014 , the Bureau of Meteorology released a report on the state of Australia 's climate that highlighted several key points , including the significant increase in Australia 's temperatures ( particularly night-time temperatures ) and the increasing frequency of bush fires , droughts and floods , which have all been linked to climate change . Since the beginning of the 20th century Australia has experienced an increase of nearly 1 ° C in average annual temperatures , with warming occurring at twice the rate over the past 50 years than in the previous 50 years . Recent climate events such as extremely high temperatures and widespread drought have focused government and public attention on the impacts of climate change in Australia . Rainfall in southwestern Australia has decreased by 10 -- 20 % since the 1970s , while southeastern Australia has also experienced a moderate decline since the 1990s . Rainfall patterns are expected to be problematic , as rain has become heavier and infrequent , as well as more common in summer rather than in winter , with little or no uptrend in rainfall in the Western Plateau and the Central Lowlands of Australia . Water sources in the southeastern areas of Australia have depleted due to increasing population in urban areas ( rising demand ) coupled with climate change factors such as persistent prolonged drought ( diminishing supply ) . At the same time , Australia continues to have the highest per capita greenhouse gas emissions . Temperatures in Australia have also risen dramatically since 1910 and nights have become warmer . A carbon tax was introduced in 2011 by the Gillard government in an effort to reduce the impact of climate change and despite some criticism , it successfully reduced Australia 's carbon dioxide emissions , with coal generation down 11 % since 2008 -- 09 . The subsequent Australian Government , elected in 2013 under then Prime Minister Tony Abbott was criticised for being `` in complete denial about climate change '' . Furthermore , the Abbott government repealed the carbon tax on 17 July 2014 in a heavily criticised move . The renewable energy target ( RET ) , launched in 2001 , was heavily modified under Abbott 's government . However , under the government of Malcolm Turnbull , Australia attended the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference and adopted the Paris Agreement . This agreement includes a review of emission reduction targets every 5 years from 2020 . The federal government and all state governments ( New South Wales , Victoria , Queensland , South Australia , Western Australia , Tasmania , Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory ) have explicitly recognised that climate change is being caused by greenhouse gas emissions , in conformity with the scientific opinion on climate change . Sectors of the population have campaigned against new coal mines and coal-fired power stations , reflecting concerns about the effects of global warming on Australia . The Garnaut Climate Change Review predicted that a net benefit to Australia may be derived by stabilising greenhouse gases in the atmosphere at 450ppm CO2 eq . The per-capita carbon footprint in Australia was rated 12th in the world by PNAS in 2011 , considerably large given the small population of the country .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Australia\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 78649\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Philip Jones (Royal Navy officer) Content: Admiral Sir Philip Andrew Jones ( born 14 February 1960 ) is a senior Royal Navy officer . After service in the South Atlantic in 1982 during the Falklands War , he commanded the frigates and . He went on to be Flag Officer , Scotland , Northern England and Northern Ireland , Commander United Kingdom Maritime Forces and Assistant Chief of the Naval Staff before being appointed Fleet Commander and Deputy Chief of the Naval Staff . Jones took over as First Sea Lord on 8 April 2016 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Philip_Jones_(Royal_Navy_officer)\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 78621\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Blues for Dracula Content: Blues for Dracula is the debut album by American jazz drummer Philly Joe Jones which was recorded in 1958 for the Riverside label .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Blues_for_Dracula\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 78611\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Idaho Content: Like other parts of the world , climate in Idaho has changed dramatically over the geologic history of the Earth . Paleo-climatic records give some indication of these changes . The longest instrumented records of climate in Idaho extend back to the late 1800s . Concern over human induced climate change through the emission of carbon dioxide from fossil fuels and methane from agriculture and industry , are driving research efforts across the state at university , state , and federals levels to understand what the implications of climate change could be in Idaho . In the big picture of greenhouse gas emissions , Idaho emits the least carbon dioxide per person of the United States , less than 23,000 pounds a year . It relies mostly on nonpolluting hydroelectric power from its rivers . Like other parts of the world , Idaho has seen significant temperature increases , especially in the last several decades . From 1971-2005 the average annual observed temperature in the Snake River Plain , located in southern Idaho , has increased by 1.4 degrees Celsius based on data from 10 climate stations ( Dubois , Ashton , Oakely , Pocatello , Aberdeen , Hazelton , Jerome , Boise , Nampa , and Payette ) . Statistically the increasing temperature trends are most significant in the months of January , March , and April . While precipitation has generally increased , since the early 1900s . The high variability in precipitation makes the identification of precipitation trends statistically difficult . Over the next century , climate in Idaho will experience additional changes due both to ` natural ' climate variability and due to feedbacks related to the interaction between climate variability and increasing greenhouse gases . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Idaho could increase by 5 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 9 F-change ) in winter and summer and 4 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 7 F-change ) in spring and fall . Precipitation is estimated to change little in summer , to increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and to increase by 20 % in winter ( with a range of 10-40 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Idaho\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 78606\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Media_coverage_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 78255\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Eifion Jones (cricketer) Content: Eifion Wyn Jones ( born 25 June 1942 in Velindre , Glamorgan ) was a Welsh cricketer who played for Glamorgan County Cricket Club . When he first came to Glamorgan Jones was a specialist right-handed batsman but after being tutored by Phil Clift he became a wicketkeeper . He made his first-class debut in 1961 , and served as deputy keeper to David Evans until the late 1960s , when he became the county 's first-choice keeper , a position he held until 1982 . He took a record 933 dismissals for his county . In 1970 he took 7 dismissals in an innings against Cambridge University , and he finished the season with 94 dismissals . However , the continued good form of Alan Knott and Bob Taylor kept him out of consideration for the Test team . In 1968 he made the highest ever score by a Glamorgan keeper with 146 not out against Sussex . His most successful season with the bat was Glamorgan 's championship season of 1969 , when he scored 753 runs at an average of 31.37 . Thereafter his batting gradually declined , and after 1975 he never averaged as high as 20 in a season . He retired after the 1983 season , at the age of 41 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Eifion_Jones_(cricketer)\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 78222\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Noli Francisco Content: Manuel `` Noli '' Francisco ( November 13 , 1941 -- February 23 , 2017 ) was a Filipino American poker player . He had worked as an importer , architect , and real estate entrepreneur . He had been a successful recreational poker player for over 25 years . At the 1992 World Series of Poker , Francisco finished 2nd in the $ 2,500 pot limit hold 'em event . At the 1993 World Series of Poker , Francisco finished 2nd in the $ 2,500 no limit hold 'em event when he lost to Phil Hellmuth . Francisco had 14 recorded cashes at the World Series of Poker for over $ 380,000 . His last recorded WSOP in-the-money finish was in 1997 . In September 2003 , Noli won the World Poker Tour ( WPT ) second season Borgata Poker Open , winning $ 470,000 . The final table included top professional players Carlos Mortensen and David Oppenheim . In August 2005 , Noli finished 2nd at the WPT fourth season Battle of Champions , his last recorded tournament result . His total lifetime live tournament winnings exceeded $ 1,300,000 . Noli Francisco was the father of Bambi Francisco Roizen , columnist and correspondent at Dow Jones MarketWatch and Nomel Francisco Phillips , an American economist . He died from kidney failure on February 23 , 2017 at age 75 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Noli_Francisco\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 78181\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Emil Jones Content: Emil Jones , Jr. ( born October 18 , 1935 ) was the President of the Illinois Senate from 2003 to 2009 . A Democrat , Jones served in the Illinois Senate from 1983 to 2009 , where he served as President of the Illinois Senate from 2003 to the end of his term . Previously , he was a member of the Illinois House of Representatives from 1973 until 1983 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Emil_Jones\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 78107\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Andrew Jones (Australian politician) Content: Andrew Thomas Jones ( 26 May 1944 -- 2 December 2015 ) was an Australian politician . He became one of the youngest ever Australian federal Members of Parliament when he was elected to the Division of Adelaide on 26 November 1966 , aged just 22 years and 184 days . At that time , only Edwin Corboy had been elected at a younger age , but that record has since been broken by Wyatt Roy . Born in Adelaide , Jones studied at the University of Adelaide and was working as a travel officer when he gained Liberal and Country League ( LCL ) preselection for the apparently safe Labor seat of Adelaide for the 1966 federal election . Although the election came at a bad time for Labor at both the federal and state level , few gave Jones any chance of winning . However , much to the surprise of everyone except Jones , he defeated Labor incumbent Joe Sexton . He took a narrow lead on the first count , but received an overwhelming flow of Democratic Labor Party preferences on the second count , enough for a 10 percent two-party preferred swing and 52.8 percent of the vote . Jones ruffled feathers with his views , which were extremely conservative even by general LCL standards of the time . For instance , he called alcohol `` the devil 's urine '' , and claimed that `` half the MPs in Parliament are drunk half the time '' . He was forced to publicly apologise on the floor of the House for the latter remarks . Jones caused further controversy by releasing a book , entitled Andrew Jones M.H.R by Himself , in which he made further comments on the `` wickedness '' of parliament , as well as a spoken word record . The record , Shadow Valley and Iron Triangles , described by Jones as `` anti-Communist '' , by his supporters as `` a reaction against the spate of sick immoral and depraved pseudo-folk music which pours from the radio '' and by detractors as `` awful '' or `` pure jingoism '' , was a local Adelaide hit for Jones , who donated the proceeds to charity . It included such lines as `` When you hear the anthem lift up your head , remember our past , see our glorious future and let your voice sing out , and friend , thank God you 're free . '' At least one Adelaide radio announcer refused to play the song . Jones ' conservatism did n't play well in what was an ancestrally Labor seat . He was resoundingly defeated by Labor challenger Chris Hurford at the 1969 election , suffering a 14.3 percent two-party swing to finish with 38.7 percent of the two-party vote . Hurford actually won enough votes on the first count to defeat Jones without the need for preferences . Following the loss , Jones 's reasoning to Prime Minister John Gorton for his defeat , `` not even Jesus Christ could have held Adelaide '' , quickly entered Australian political folklore . Jones later unsuccessfully ran as an independent candidate for the Senate at the 1977 federal election before moving to Western Australia and assuming a low profile .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Andrew_Jones_(Australian_politician)\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 78106\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: William Jones (statesman) Content: William Jones ( 1760September 6 , 1831 ) was an American politician . Jones was born in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania . Apprenticed in a shipyard , during the American Revolutionary War , he saw combat in the battles of Trenton and Princeton and later served at sea . In the decades that followed the war , he was a successful merchant in Charleston , South Carolina , and in Philadelphia . He was elected as a Republican to the United States House of Representatives in 1800 and was offered the office of Secretary of the Navy in 1801 , but declined and remained in Congress to the end of his term in 1803 . With the War of 1812 raging , Jones became Secretary of the Navy in January 1813 . His policies contributed greatly to American success on the Great Lakes and to a strategy of coastal defense and commerce raiding on the high seas . In late 1814 , near the end of his term , he made recommendations on the reorganization of the Navy Department . These led to the establishment of the Board of Commissioners system which operated from 1815 until 1842 . During much of 1813 and into 1814 , Jones also served as acting Secretary of the Treasury and in 1816 was appointed President of the Second Bank of the United States . He returned to commercial pursuits in 1819 . Jones died in Bethlehem , Pennsylvania . The destroyer USS William Jones ( DD-308 ) was named in his honor .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"William_Jones_(statesman)\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 78090\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: R. W. T. Lees-Jones Content: Richard William Thomas Lees-Jones ( 1891 -- 1978 ) was a British philatelist who signed the Roll of Distinguished Philatelists in 1950 . Lees-Jones was an expert on the stamps of Canada and plated the early issues , particularly the 12 1/2 c of 1859 . In 1936 he gave to the Royal Philatelic Society London a collection of Canada 1897-1936 in mint blocks of four with plate numbers . In 1951 he won that society 's Tilleard Medal for his display of Papermakers ' Watermarks . That collection was auctioned by HR Harmer Ltd in 1952 . His Canadian stamps were shown , hors concours , at the London International Stamp Exhibition 1960 . He was President of the Canadian Philatelic Society .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"R._W._T._Lees-Jones\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 77991\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Phil Koperberg Content: Philip Christian Koperberg ( born 28 April 1943 ) , is the Chairman of the New South Wales Emergency Management Committee , responsible for advising the New South Wales government on emergency response strategies , since 2011 . Koperberg is a former Australian politician , was the New South Wales Minister for Climate Change , Environment and Water between 2007 and 2008 ; and was a member of the New South Wales Legislative Assembly , representing the electorate of the Blue Mountains for the Australian Labor Party between 2007 -- 2011 . Prior to his political career , Koperberg was the Commissioner of the New South Wales Rural Fire Service ( RFS ) in Australia between 1997 -- 2007 . In September 1997 , Koperberg was appointed the RFS Commissioner when the Service was formed under the Rural Fires Act . Before this he had been Director-General of the New South Wales Bush Fire Service from May 1990 . In March 2007 he was elected to State parliament and appointed to the Ministry . However , in December he was forced to stand aside due to a police investigation regarding domestic violence allegations from 1987 . The NSW Director of Public Prosecutions declined to press charges and Koperberg was reinstated to the Ministry . He resigned from the Ministry on 22 February 2008 . Koperberg did not recontest the 2011 state election .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Phil_Koperberg\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 77977\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Phil Woolpert Content: Phil Woolpert ( December 15 , 1915 -- May 7 , 1987 ) was an American college basketball coach . He is best known for coaching the University of San Francisco Dons to two straight national championships in 1955 and 1956 . Born in Danville , Kentucky , Woolpert attended high school in Los Angeles . He subsequently attended Los Angeles Junior College and Loyola University , Los Angeles , where he played basketball for three years and was initiated into the Alpha Delta Gamma National Fraternity . In 1946 , Woolpert was hired as basketball coach for St. Ignatius High School in San Francisco , California where he posted a 63-29 record in his four years as coach . Upon Pete Newell 's departure for Michigan State University , the University of San Francisco hired Woolpert to succeed Newell . He assumed both the posts of men 's basketball coach and athletic director . During his tenure at USF , Woolpert posted a 153-78 record , including a 60-game win streak that at the time was the longest in college basketball ( surpassed later by John Wooden 's 88 straight wins at UCLA . ) . His teams , anchored by Bill Russell , K.C. Jones , Eugene Brown and Mike Farmer , were known for their defense and held opponents below 60 points on 47 different occasions . USF won the national championship in 1955 and 1956 , and finished third in 1957 . At the time the youngest college basketball coach to win a national championship , Woolpert also won Coach of the Year honors in 1955 and 1956 . After briefly coaching the San Francisco Saints of the American Basketball League , Woolpert returned to the college ranks in 1962 , this time with the University of San Diego . While in San Diego , Woolpert posted a 90-90 record and served as both men 's basketball coach and athletic director . Phil Woolpert retired from coaching in 1969 . He later settled down in Sequim , Washington and became a school bus driver . Woolpert died of cancer in 1987 . His son Paul is the assistant coach of the D-League Los Angeles D-fenders .\",\n \"qid\": \"2741\",\n \"docid\": \"Phil_Woolpert\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 77798\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":1351,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"\"a [cloudcover] change in the Tropics could lead to a negative feedback in the global climate, with a feedback factor of about –1.1, which if correct, would more than cancel all the positive feedbacks in the more sensitive current climate models\" (Lindzen et al."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Iris hypothesis Content: The iris hypothesis is a hypothesis proposed by Richard Lindzen et al. in 2001 that suggested increased sea surface temperature in the tropics would result in reduced cirrus clouds and thus more infrared radiation leakage from Earth 's atmosphere . His study of observed changes in cloud coverage and modeled effects on infrared radiation released to space as a result supported the hypothesis . This suggested infrared radiation leakage was hypothesized to be a negative feedback in which an initial warming would result in an overall cooling of the surface . The consensus view is that increased sea surface temperature would result in increased cirrus clouds and reduced infrared radiation leakage and therefore a positive feedback . Other scientists subsequently tested the hypothesis . Some concluded that there was no evidence supporting the hypothesis . Others found evidence suggesting that increased sea surface temperature in the tropics did indeed reduce cirrus clouds but found that the effect was nonetheless a positive feedback rather than the negative feedback that Lindzen had hypothesized . A later 2007 study conducted by Roy Spencer et al. using updated satellite data potentially supported the iris hypothesis . In 2011 , Lindzen published a rebuttal to the main criticisms . In 2015 a paper was published which again suggested the possibility of an `` Iris Effect '' . It also proposed what it called a `` plausible physical mechanism for an iris effect . ''","qid":"2743","docid":"Iris_hypothesis","rank":1,"score":243629},{"content":"Title: Cloud feedback Content: Cloud feedback is the coupling between cloudiness and surface air temperature where a surface air temperature change leads to a change in clouds , which could then amplify or diminish the initial temperature perturbation . Cloud feedbacks can affect the magnitude of internally generated climate variability or they can affect the magnitude of climate change resulting from external radiative forcings . Global warming is expected to change the distribution and type of clouds . Seen from below , clouds emit infrared radiation back to the surface , and so exert a warming effect ; seen from above , clouds reflect sunlight and emit infrared radiation to space , and so exert a cooling effect . Cloud representations vary among global climate models , and small changes in cloud cover have a large impact on the climate . Differences in planetary boundary layer cloud modeling schemes can lead to large differences in derived values of climate sensitivity . A model that decreases boundary layer clouds in response to global warming has a climate sensitivity twice that of a model that does not include this feedback . However , satellite data show that cloud optical thickness actually increases with increasing temperature . Whether the net effect is warming or cooling depends on details such as the type and altitude of the cloud ; details that are difficult to represent in climate models .","qid":"2743","docid":"Cloud_feedback","rank":2,"score":226192},{"content":"Title: Climate change feedback Content: Climate change feedback is important in the understanding of global warming because feedback processes may amplify or diminish the effect of each climate forcing , and so play an important part in determining the climate sensitivity and future climate state . Feedback in general is the process in which changing one quantity changes a second quantity , and the change in the second quantity in turn changes the first . Positive feedback amplifies the change in the first quantity while negative feedback reduces it . The term `` forcing '' means a change which may `` push '' the climate system in the direction of warming or cooling . An example of a climate forcing is increased atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases . By definition , forcings are external to the climate system while feedbacks are internal ; in essence , feedbacks represent the internal processes of the system . Some feedbacks may act in relative isolation to the rest of the climate system ; others may be tightly coupled ; hence it may be difficult to tell just how much a particular process contributes . Forcings , feedbacks and the dynamics of the climate system determine how much and how fast the climate changes . The main positive feedback in global warming is the tendency of warming to increase the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere , which in turn leads to further warming . The main negative feedback comes from the Stefan -- Boltzmann law , the amount of heat radiated from the Earth into space changes with the fourth power of the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere . Some observed and potential effects of global warming are positive feedbacks , which contribute directly to further global warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that `` Anthropogenic warming could lead to some effects that are abrupt or irreversible , depending upon the rate and magnitude of the climate change . ''","qid":"2743","docid":"Climate_change_feedback","rank":3,"score":206614},{"content":"Title: Ice-albedo feedback Content: Ice-albedo feedback ( or snow-albedo feedback ) is a positive feedback climate process where a change in the area of snow-covered land , ice caps , glaciers or sea ice alters the albedo . This change in albedo acts to reinforce the initial alteration in ice area . Cooling tends to increase ice cover and hence the albedo , reducing the amount of solar energy absorbed and leading to more cooling . Conversely , warming tends to decrease ice cover and hence the albedo , increasing the amount of solar energy absorbed , leading to more warming . The effect also applies on the small scale to snow-covered surfaces . A small amount of snow melt exposes darker ground which absorbs more radiation , leading to more snowmelt . The effect has mostly been discussed in terms of the recent trend of declining Arctic sea ice . Internal feedback processes may also potentially occur , as land ice melts and causes eustatic sea level rise , and also potentially induces earthquakes as a result of isostatic rebound , which further acts to disrupt glaciers , ice shelves , etc. .","qid":"2743","docid":"Ice-albedo_feedback","rank":4,"score":164264},{"content":"Title: Climate sensitivity Content: Climate sensitivity is the equilibrium temperature change in response to changes of the radiative forcing . Therefore , climate sensitivity depends on the initial climate state , but potentially can be accurately inferred from precise palaeoclimate data . Slow climate feedbacks , especially changes of ice sheet size and atmospheric CO2 , amplify the total Earth system sensitivity by an amount that depends on the time scale considered . Although climate sensitivity is usually used in the context of radiative forcing by carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , it is thought of as a general property of the climate system : the change in surface air temperature ( ΔTs ) following a unit change in radiative forcing ( RF ) , and thus is expressed in units of ° C / ( W/m2 ) . For this to be useful , the measure must be independent of the nature of the forcing ( e.g. from greenhouse gases or solar variation ) ; to first order this is indeed found to be so . The climate sensitivity specifically due to is often expressed as the temperature change in ° C associated with a doubling of the concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere . For coupled atmosphere-ocean global climate models ( e.g. CMIP5 ) the climate sensitivity is an emergent property : it is not a model parameter , but rather a result of a combination of model physics and parameters . By contrast , simpler energy-balance models may have climate sensitivity as an explicit parameter . The terms represented in the equation relate radiative forcing ( RF ) to linear changes in global surface temperature change ( ΔTs ) via the climate sensitivity λ . It is also possible to estimate climate sensitivity from observations ; however , this is difficult due to uncertainties in the forcing and temperature histories .","qid":"2743","docid":"Climate_sensitivity","rank":5,"score":156335},{"content":"Title: Runaway greenhouse effect Content: A runaway greenhouse effect is a process in which a net positive feedback between surface temperature and atmospheric opacity increases the strength of the greenhouse effect on a planet until its oceans boil away . An example of this is believed to have happened in the early history of Venus . On the Earth , the IPCC states that `` a ` runaway greenhouse effect ' -- analogous to -LSB- that of -RSB- Venus -- appears to have virtually no chance of being induced by anthropogenic activities . '' Other large-scale climate changes are sometimes loosely called a `` runaway greenhouse effect '' although it is not an appropriate description . For example , it has been hypothesized that large releases of greenhouse gases may have occurred concurrently with the Permian -- Triassic extinction event or Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum . Other terms , such as `` abrupt climate change '' , or tipping points could be used when describing such scenarios .","qid":"2743","docid":"Runaway_greenhouse_effect","rank":6,"score":153743},{"content":"Title: Negative feedback Content: Negative feedback occurs when some function of the output of a system , process , or mechanism is fed back in a manner that tends to reduce the fluctuations in the output , whether caused by changes in the input or by other disturbances . Whereas positive feedback tends to lead to instability via exponential growth , oscillation or chaotic behavior , negative feedback generally promotes stability . Negative feedback tends to promote a settling to equilibrium , and reduces the effects of perturbations . Negative feedback loops in which just the right amount of correction is applied with optimum timing can be very stable , accurate , and responsive . Negative feedback is widely used in mechanical and electronic engineering , but it also occurs naturally within living organisms , and can be seen in many other fields from chemistry and economics to physical systems such as the climate . General negative feedback systems are studied in control systems engineering .","qid":"2743","docid":"Negative_feedback","rank":7,"score":153612},{"content":"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .","qid":"2743","docid":"Regional_effects_of_global_warming","rank":8,"score":151864},{"content":"Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .","qid":"2743","docid":"Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans","rank":9,"score":150372},{"content":"Title: The Revenge of Gaia Content: The Revenge of Gaia : Why the Earth is Fighting Back -- and How we Can Still Save Humanity ( 2006 ) is a book by James Lovelock . Some editions of the book have a different , less optimistic subtitle : `` Earth 's Climate Crisis and the Fate of Humanity . '' The book introduces the concept of the anti-CLAW hypothesis . Lovelock proposed that instead of providing negative feedback in the climate system , the components of the CLAW hypothesis may act to create a positive feedback loop . Under future global warming , increasing temperature may stratify the world ocean , decreasing the supply of nutrients from the deep ocean to its productive euphotic zone . Consequently , phytoplankton activity will decline with a concomitant fall in the production of DMS . In a reverse of the CLAW hypothesis , this decline in DMS production will lead to a decrease in cloud condensation nuclei and a fall in cloud albedo . The consequence of this will be further climate warming which may lead to even less DMS production ( and further climate warming ) . The figure to the right shows a summarising schematic diagram . Evidence for the anti-CLAW hypothesis is constrained by similar uncertainties as those of the sulfur cycle feedback loop of the CLAW hypothesis . However , researchers simulating future oceanic primary production have found evidence of declining production with increasing ocean stratification , leaving open the possibility that such a mechanism may exist .","qid":"2743","docid":"The_Revenge_of_Gaia","rank":10,"score":148982},{"content":"Title: Runaway climate change Content: Runaway climate change or runaway global warming is hypothesized to follow a tipping point in the climate system , after accumulated climate change initiates a reinforcing positive feedback . This is thought to cause the climate to rapidly change until it reaches a new stable condition . These phrases may be used with reference to concerns about rapid global warming . Some astronomers use the expression runaway greenhouse effect to describe a situation where the climate deviates catastrophically and permanently from the original state -- as happened on Venus . Although these terms are rarely used in the peer-reviewed climatological literature , that literature does use the similar phrase `` runaway greenhouse effect '' , which refers specifically to climate changes that cause a planetary body 's water to boil off .","qid":"2743","docid":"Runaway_climate_change","rank":11,"score":147278},{"content":"Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .","qid":"2743","docid":"Effects_of_global_warming","rank":12,"score":146308},{"content":"Title: CLAW hypothesis Content: The CLAW hypothesis proposes a negative feedback loop that operates between ocean ecosystems and the Earth 's climate . The hypothesis specifically proposes that particular phytoplankton that produce dimethyl sulfide are responsive to variations in climate forcing , and that these responses act to stabilise the temperature of the Earth 's atmosphere . The CLAW hypothesis was originally proposed by Robert Jay Charlson , James Lovelock , Meinrat Andreae and Stephen G. Warren , and takes its acronym from the first letter of their surnames .","qid":"2743","docid":"CLAW_hypothesis","rank":13,"score":145288},{"content":"Title: Richard Lindzen Content: Richard Siegmund Lindzen ( born February 8 , 1940 ) is an American atmospheric physicist known for his work in the dynamics of the middle atmosphere , atmospheric tides , and ozone photochemistry . He has published more than 200 scientific papers and books . From 1983 until his retirement in 2013 , he was Alfred P. Sloan Professor of Meteorology at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology . He was a lead author of Chapter 7 , `` Physical Climate Processes and Feedbacks , '' of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Third Assessment Report on climate change . He has criticized the scientific consensus about climate change and what he has called `` climate alarmism . ''","qid":"2743","docid":"Richard_Lindzen","rank":14,"score":143066},{"content":"Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .","qid":"2743","docid":"Attribution_of_recent_climate_change","rank":15,"score":140570},{"content":"Title: Climate system Content: Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.","qid":"2743","docid":"Climate_system","rank":16,"score":138923},{"content":"Title: Hurricane dynamics and cloud microphysics Content: Tropical convective clouds play an important part in the Earth 's climate system . Convection and release of latent heat transports energy from the surface into the upper atmosphere . Clouds have a higher albedo than the underlying ocean , which causes more incoming solar radiation to be reflected back to space . Since the tops of tropical systems are much cooler than the surface of the Earth , the presence of high convective clouds cools the climate system . The most recognizable cloud system in the tropics is the hurricane . In addition to the important climatic effects of tropical weather systems , hurricanes possess enough energy to cause massive death and destruction . Therefore , their accurate prediction is of utmost importance . Cloud microphysics describe the structure and properties of clouds on the microscopic scale .","qid":"2743","docid":"Hurricane_dynamics_and_cloud_microphysics","rank":17,"score":138062},{"content":"Title: The Cloud Mystery Content: The Cloud Mystery is a documentary by Danish director Lars Oxfeldt Mortensen . It explores the published theory by Danish scientist Henrik Svensmark on how galactic cosmic rays and solar activity affects cloud cover , and how this influences the earth 's climate . Also known as Klimamysteriet in Danish . This documentary presents the work done to develop the theory that cloud cover change is caused by variations in cosmic rays as the major originator of global climate variation . It also mentions that these scientist to not subscribe to the view that human influence and the effect of greenhouse gases as significant drivers of climate . However , the focus is on the work they have done and not on other climate theories like anthropogenic global warming for instance .","qid":"2743","docid":"The_Cloud_Mystery","rank":18,"score":137756},{"content":"Title: Glacier mass balance Content: Crucial to the survival of a glacier is its mass balance or surface mass balance ( SMB ) , the difference between accumulation and ablation ( sublimation and melting ) . Climate change may cause variations in both temperature and snowfall , causing changes in the surface mass balance . Changes in mass balance control a glacier 's long-term behavior and are the most sensitive climate indicators on a glacier . From 1980 -- 2012 the mean cumulative mass loss of glaciers reporting mass balance to the World Glacier Monitoring Service is − 16 m . This includes 23 consecutive years of negative mass balances . A glacier with a sustained negative balance is out of equilibrium and will retreat , while one with a sustained positive balance is out of equilibrium and will advance . Glacier retreat results in the loss of the low elevation region of the glacier . Since higher elevations are cooler than lower ones , the disappearance of the lowest portion of the glacier reduces overall ablation , thereby increasing mass balance and potentially reestablishing equilibrium . However , if the mass balance of a significant portion of the accumulation zone of the glacier is negative , it is in disequilibrium with the local climate . Such a glacier will melt away with a continuation of this local climate . The key symptom of a glacier in disequilibrium is thinning along the entire length of the glacier . For example , Easton Glacier ( pictured below ) will likely shrink to half its size , but at a slowing rate of reduction , and stabilize at that size , despite the warmer temperature , over a few decades . However , the Grinnell Glacier ( pictured below ) will shrink at an increasing rate until it disappears . The difference is that the upper section of Easton Glacier remains healthy and snow-covered , while even the upper section of the Grinnell Glacier is bare , melting and has thinned . Small glaciers with shallow slopes such as Grinnell Glacier are most likely to fall into disequilibrium if there is a change in the local climate . In the case of positive mass balance , the glacier will continue to advance expanding its low elevation area , resulting in more melting . If this still does not create an equilibrium balance the glacier will continue to advance . If a glacier is near a large body of water , especially an ocean , the glacier may advance until iceberg calving losses bring about equilibrium .","qid":"2743","docid":"Glacier_mass_balance","rank":19,"score":135079},{"content":"Title: Climate change and agriculture Content: -RSB- Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes , both of which take place on a global scale . Climate change affects agriculture in a number of ways , including through changes in average temperatures , rainfall , and climate extremes ( e.g. , heat waves ) ; changes in pests and diseases ; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations ; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods ; and changes in sea level . Climate change is already affecting agriculture , with effects unevenly distributed across the world . Future climate change will likely negatively affect crop production in low latitude countries , while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative . Climate change will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups , such as the poor . Agriculture contributes to climate change by ( 1 ) anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , and ( 2 ) by the conversion of non-agricultural land ( e.g. , forests ) into agricultural land . Agriculture , forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25 % to global annual emissions in 2010 . There are a range of policies that can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture , and to reduce GHG emissions from the agriculture sector .","qid":"2743","docid":"Climate_change_and_agriculture","rank":20,"score":134403},{"content":"Title: Positive feedback Content: Positive feedback is a process that occurs in a feedback loop in which the effects of a small disturbance on a system include an increase in the magnitude of the perturbation . That is , A produces more of B which in turn produces more of A . In contrast , a system in which the results of a change act to reduce or counteract it has negative feedback . Both concepts play an important role in science and engineering , including biology , chemistry , and cybernetics . Mathematically , positive feedback is defined as a positive loop gain around a closed loop of cause and effect . That is , positive feedback is in phase with the input , in the sense that it adds to make the input larger . Positive feedback tends to cause system instability . When the loop gain is positive and above 1 , there will typically be exponential growth , increasing oscillations , chaotic behavior or other divergences from equilibrium . System parameters will typically accelerate towards extreme values , which may damage or destroy the system , or may end with the system latched into a new stable state . Positive feedback may be controlled by signals in the system being filtered , damped , or limited , or it can be cancelled or reduced by adding negative feedback . Positive feedback is used in digital electronics to force voltages away from intermediate voltages into ' 0 ' and ' 1 ' states . On the other hand , thermal runaway is a positive feedback that can destroy semiconductor junctions . Positive feedback in chemical reactions can increase the rate of reactions , and in some cases can lead to explosions . Positive feedback in mechanical design causes tipping-point , or ` over-centre ' , mechanisms to snap into position , for example in switches and locking pliers . Out of control , it can cause bridges to collapse . Positive feedback in economic systems can cause boom-then-bust cycles . A familiar example of positive feedback is the loud squealing or howling sound produced by audio feedback in public address systems : the microphone picks up sound from its own loudspeakers , amplifies it , and sends it through the speakers again .","qid":"2743","docid":"Positive_feedback","rank":21,"score":133017},{"content":"Title: Robert D. Cess Content: Robert D. Cess is professor emeritus of atmospheric sciences at Stony Brook University . He earned his bachelor of science degree in mechanical engineering from Oregon State University and his master 's degree from Purdue University in Indiana in 1956 . Cess received a Ph.D. from the University of Pittsburgh in 1959 . He is a recognized leader in the fields of climate change and atmospheric radiation transfer . His research interest involve modeling of climate feedbacks that can either amplify or diminish global climate change , and interpreting surface and satellite remote sensing data . He has been a part of studies which have found problems with the ability of model the transmission of shortwave radiation through a cloud-free atmosphere , and designed an experiment to test the accuracy of the models . They reported that they found agreement between the models and the observations of clear-sky shortwave radiation at the surface for the period studied , 1985 to 1988 . Cess was a lead author of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and worked with the National Science Foundation on understanding greenhouse warming and its associated policy implications .","qid":"2743","docid":"Robert_D._Cess","rank":22,"score":132027},{"content":"Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .","qid":"2743","docid":"Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean","rank":23,"score":131680},{"content":"Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .","qid":"2743","docid":"Climate_change","rank":24,"score":131656},{"content":"Title: Cool tropics paradox Content: The cool tropics paradox refers to an apparent difference between modeled estimates of tropical temperatures during warm , ice-free periods of the Cretaceous and Eocene , and the colder temperatures which proxies suggested were present . The long-standing paradox was resolved when novel proxy derived temperatures showed significantly warmer tropics during past greenhouse climates . The low-gradient problem , i.e. the very warm polar regions with respect to present day , is still an issue for state-of-the-art climate models .","qid":"2743","docid":"Cool_tropics_paradox","rank":25,"score":130897},{"content":"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .","qid":"2743","docid":"Global_warming","rank":26,"score":129579},{"content":"Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .","qid":"2743","docid":"Global_warming_potential","rank":27,"score":128759},{"content":"Title: Radiative forcing Content: Radiative forcing or climate forcing is the difference between insolation ( sunlight ) absorbed by the Earth and energy radiated back to space . Typically , radiative forcing is quantified at the tropopause in units of watts per square meter of the Earth 's surface . Positive forcing ( incoming energy exceeding outgoing energy ) warms the system , while negative forcing ( outgoing energy exceeding incoming energy ) cools it . Causes of radiative forcing include changes in insolation and the concentrations of radiatively active gases , commonly known as greenhouse gases and aerosols .","qid":"2743","docid":"Radiative_forcing","rank":28,"score":127586},{"content":"Title: Cloud forcing Content: Cloud forcing ( sometimes described as cloud radiative forcing or cloud radiative effect ) is , in meteorology , the difference between the radiation budget components for average cloud conditions and cloud-free conditions . Much of the interest in cloud forcing relates to its role as a feedback process in the present period of global warming .","qid":"2743","docid":"Cloud_forcing","rank":29,"score":126554},{"content":"Title: Climate inertia Content: Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .","qid":"2743","docid":"Climate_inertia","rank":30,"score":125981},{"content":"Title: Electrothermal feedback Content: In electronics , electrothermal feedback is the interaction of the electric current and the temperature in a device with a temperature-dependent electrical resistance . This interaction arises from Joule heating . The temperature-dependence of the electrical resistance is described by the derivative of the resistance with respect to temperature dR/dT . Semiconductors typically exhibit a negative dR/dT . Superconductors exhibit a large positive dR/dT on the superconducting phase transition . Normal ( non-superconducting ) metals typically exhibit a positive dR/dT that decreases to zero at very low temperatures . If a device has a positive dR/dT , an increase in temperature ( for example , due to thermal fluctuations or the absorption of a photon ) will increase the electrical resistance R . If the device is biased with a constant voltage V , this increase in resistance will decrease the Joule power P = V2/R . The decrease in Joule heating will cause the device to return to its equilibrium temperature . This is known as negative electrothermal feedback , as the change in Joule heating opposes the change in temperature . If the device is instead biased with a constant current I , the Joule power P = I2R will increase if the temperature increases . Thus the Joule heating amplifies a change in temperature , an effect known as positive electrothermal feedback . The situation is reversed for the case of a negative dR/dT . Electrothermal feedback is important for describing the performance of several types of photodetectors such as the bolometer , the transition edge sensor , and the superconducting nanowire single-photon detector .","qid":"2743","docid":"Electrothermal_feedback","rank":31,"score":125940},{"content":"Title: Effects of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation in the United States Content: The El Niño -- Southern Oscillation affects the location of the jet stream , which alters rainfall patterns across the West , Midwest , the Southeast , and throughout the tropics . The shift in the jet stream also leads to shifts in the occurrence of severe weather , and the number of tropical cyclones expected within the tropics in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans affected by changes in the ocean temperature and the subtropical jet stream . The winter will have a negative phase according to the Arctic oscillation ( AO ) .","qid":"2743","docid":"Effects_of_the_El_Niño–Southern_Oscillation_in_the_United_States","rank":32,"score":125437},{"content":"Title: Plant-soil feedback Content: Plant-soil feedback is a process where plants alter the biotic and abiotic qualities of soil they grow in , which then alters the ability of plants to grow in that soil in the future . Negative plant-soil feedback occurs when plants are less able to grow in soil that was previously occupied by a member of the same species , and positive plant-soil feedback occurs when plants are more able to grow in soil that was previously occupied by a member of the same species . Although it was originally assumed that negative plant-soil feedback was caused by plants depleting the soil of nutrients , recent work has suggested that a major cause of plant-soil feedback is a buildup of soil-borne pathogens . Mutualism and allelopathy are also thought to cause plant-soil feedback . Studies have shown that , on average , plant-soil feedback tends to be negative ; however , there have been many notable exceptions , such as many invasive species . Negative plant-soil feedback is thought to be an important factor in helping plants to coexist . If a plant is overly abundant , then soil pathogens and other negative factors will become common , hurting its growth . Similarly , if a plant becomes overly rare , then so too will its soil pathogens and other negative factors , helping its growth . This negative feedback will help populations to stay in the community . Negative plant-soil feedback has been called a particular case of the Janzen-Connell hypothesis .","qid":"2743","docid":"Plant-soil_feedback","rank":33,"score":124604},{"content":"Title: Negative-feedback amplifier Content: A negative-feedback amplifier ( or feedback amplifier ) is an electronic amplifier that subtracts a fraction of its output from its input , so that negative feedback opposes the original signal . The applied negative feedback improves performance ( gain stability , linearity , frequency response , step response ) and reduces sensitivity to parameter variations due to manufacturing or environment . Because of these advantages , many amplifiers and control systems use negative feedback . An idealized negative-feedback amplifier as shown in the diagram is a system of three elements ( see Figure 1 ) : an amplifier with gain AOL , a feedback network β , which senses the output signal and possibly transforms it in some way ( for example by attenuating or filtering it ) , a summing circuit that acts as a subtractor ( the circle in the figure ) , which combines the input and the transformed output .","qid":"2743","docid":"Negative-feedback_amplifier","rank":34,"score":124083},{"content":"Title: Climate change (general concept) Content: Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth\\'s energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth\\'s energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling.\\nThe energy moving through Earth\\'s climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region\\'s climate. Such changes can be the result of \"internal variability\", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system\\'s components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism.\\nClimate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.","qid":"2743","docid":"Climate_change_(general_concept)","rank":35,"score":123308},{"content":"Title: Cryosphere Content: The cryosphere ( from the Greek κρύος kryos , `` cold '' , `` frost '' or `` ice '' and σφαῖρα sphaira , `` globe , ball '' ) is those portions of Earth 's surface where water is in solid form , including sea ice , lake ice , river ice , snow cover , glaciers , ice caps , ice sheets , and frozen ground ( which includes permafrost ) . Thus , there is a wide overlap with the hydrosphere . The cryosphere is an integral part of the global climate system with important linkages and feedbacks generated through its influence on surface energy and moisture fluxes , clouds , precipitation , hydrology , atmospheric and oceanic circulation . Through these feedback processes , the cryosphere plays a significant role in the global climate and in climate model response to global changes . The term deglaciation describes the retreat of cryospheric features . Cryology is the study of cryospheres .","qid":"2743","docid":"Cryosphere","rank":36,"score":122501},{"content":"Title: Tipping points in the climate system Content: A tipping point in the climate system is a threshold that, when exceeded, can lead to large changes in the state of the system. Potential tipping points have been identified in the physical climate system, in impacted ecosystems, and sometimes in both. For instance, feedback from the global carbon cycle is a driver for the transition between glacial and interglacial periods, with orbital forcing providing the initial trigger. Earth's geologic temperature record includes many more examples of geologically rapid transitions between different climate states.Climate tipping points are of particular interest in reference to concerns about global warming in the modern era. Possible tipping point behaviour has been identified for the global mean surface temperature by studying self-reinforcing feedbacks and the past behavior of Earth's climate system. Self-reinforcing feedbacks in the carbon cycle and planetary reflectivity could trigger a cascading set of tipping points that lead the world into a hothouse climate state.Large-scale components of the Earth system that may pass a tipping point have been referred to as tipping elements. Tipping elements are found in the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets, possibly causing tens of meters of sea level rise. These tipping points are not always abrupt. For example, at some level of temperature rise the melt of a large part of the Greenland ice sheet and/or West Antarctic Ice Sheet will become inevitable; but the ice sheet itself may persist for many centuries. Some tipping elements, like the collapse of ecosystems, are irreversible.","qid":"2743","docid":"Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system","rank":37,"score":121803},{"content":"Title: Wind-induced surface heat exchange Content: The wind-induced surface heat exchange ( WISHE ) is a positive feedback mechanism between the ocean and atmosphere in which a stronger ocean-to-atmosphere heat flux results in a stronger atmospheric circulation , which results in a strong heat flux . It has been hypothesized that this is the mechanism by which low pressure areas in the tropics develop into tropical cyclones .","qid":"2743","docid":"Wind-induced_surface_heat_exchange","rank":38,"score":121172},{"content":"Title: Climate variability Content: Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth's energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth's energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling. The energy moving through Earth's climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region's climate. Such changes can be the result of \"internal variability\", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system's components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism. Climate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.","qid":"2743","docid":"Climate_variability","rank":39,"score":120870},{"content":"Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference) Content: In 2005, an international conference titled Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and global warming and its effects. The conference name was derived from Article 2 of the charter for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The conference explored the possible impacts at different levels of greenhouse gas emissions and how the climate might be stabilized at a desired level. The conference took place under the United Kingdom's presidency of the G8, with the participation of around 200 \"internationally renowned\" scientists from 30 countries. It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter, from 1 February to 3 February. The conference was one of many meetings leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, at which the international community agreed to limit global warming to no more than 2C in order to have a 50-50 chance of avoiding dangerous climate change. However, a 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting it is below the 2 degree temperature target.","qid":"2743","docid":"Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change_(2005_conference)","rank":40,"score":120704},{"content":"Title: The Chilling Stars Content: The Chilling Stars is a non-fiction book about the possible causes and effects of global climate change by Henrik Svensmark and Nigel Calder . The paperback version was published by Totem Books on March 19 , 2003 . An updated version titled The Chilling Stars : A New Theory of Climate Change was published in 2007 . Svensmark is otherwise known as a Danish physicist and professor while Calder has worked as a science journalist . The authors argue that cloud cover changes caused by variations in cosmic rays are a major contributor to global temperature increases , and they state that human influences have been exaggerated .","qid":"2743","docid":"The_Chilling_Stars","rank":41,"score":120577},{"content":"Title: Cirrus cloud thinning Content: Cirrus cloud thinning is a proposed form of climate engineering . Cirrus clouds are high cold ice that , like other clouds , both reflect sunlight and absorb warming infrared radiation . However , they differ from other types of clouds in that , on average , infrared absorption outweighs sunlight reflection , resulting in a net warming effect on the climate . Therefore , thinning or removing these clouds would reduce their heat trapping capacity , resulting in a cooling effect on Earth 's climate . This could be a potential tool to reduce anthropogenic global warming . Cirrus cloud thinning is an alternative category of climate engineering , in addition to solar radiation management and greenhouse gas removal .","qid":"2743","docid":"Cirrus_cloud_thinning","rank":42,"score":120210},{"content":"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.","qid":"2743","docid":"Climate_change_in_the_United_States","rank":43,"score":119187},{"content":"Title: Albrecht effect Content: The Albrecht effect describes how cloud condensation nuclei ( CCN ) , possibly from anthropogenic pollution , may increase cloud lifetime and hence increase the amount of solar radiation reflected from clouds . Because it does not directly interact with incoming or outgoing radiation , it has an indirect effect on climate . Aerosol particles act as CCNs creating more droplets of a smaller size . These take more time to coalesce to raindrop size ( > 100μm ) , reducing precipitation efficiency and hence increasing the lifetime of the cloud . The increased scattering of incoming radiation leads to a cooling of -0.3 to -1.4 Wm − 2 . This effect is not as well understood as the Twomey effect . There are many other effects , indirect and semi-direct aerosol effects resulting in a large uncertainty in the radiative forcing due to aerosols .","qid":"2743","docid":"Albrecht_effect","rank":44,"score":119107},{"content":"Title: Cloud formation and climate change Content: Nephology ( -LSB- nɪˈfɒlədʒi -RSB- from the Greek word nephos for ` cloud ' ) is the study of clouds and cloud formation . British meteorologist Luke Howard was a major researcher within this field , establishing a cloud classification system . While this branch of meteorology still exists today , the term nephology , or nephologist is rarely used . The term came into use at the end of the nineteenth century , and fell out of common use by the middle of the twentieth . Recently , interest in nephology ( if not the name ) has surged as many meteorologists have begun to focus on the relationship between clouds and global warming . Since the late 1990s , some have suggested that when high solar activity lowers levels of cosmic rays , that in turn reduces cloud cover and warms the planet . Others say that there is no statistical evidence for such an effect . Some nephologists believe that an increase in global temperature could decrease the thickness and brightness ( ability to reflect light energy ) , which would further increase global temperature . Recently research has been going on at CERN 's CLOUD facility to study the effects of the solar cycle and cosmic rays on cloud formation .","qid":"2743","docid":"Cloud_formation_and_climate_change","rank":45,"score":118424},{"content":"Title: Climate change and gender Content: Climate change and gender is concerned with gender differences in the context of climate change and the complex and intersecting power relations arising from it . By altering the ecosystems of the planet , climate change , and more specifically global warming , directly impacts the human race . These effects vary for different segments of the population , specifically for people of different genders . In many cases , women are more vulnerable to the negative effects of climate change because of their lower social status in most countries . Many impoverished women , especially those in the developing world , are farmers and depend on the natural environment for subsistence and income . By further limiting their already constrained access to physical , social , political , and fiscal resources , climate change often burdens women more than men . Locally and globally , both governments and non-governmental organizations respond to climate change . Some of these efforts focus on mitigating the effects of climate change while others aid societies in adapting their lifestyles to changes in their environment . Most policy responses in the late 20th and early 21st century either did not focus on the social effects of climate change or did not consider gender in these efforts . Analysis of gender in climate change , however , not only means applying a binary male/female system of analysis on sets of quantitative data but also scrutinizing discursive constructions that shapes power relations connected to climate change .","qid":"2743","docid":"Climate_change_and_gender","rank":46,"score":118320},{"content":"Title: Climate change and poverty Content: In an ever-progressing world with an increasing demand for energy and animal agriculture , it is difficult to avoid climate change and its impacts on societies both locally and globally . Climate change affects social development factors , such as , poverty , infrastructure , technology , security , and economics across the globe . Although climate change affects everything we see around us , the interrelation between climate change and social vulnerability and inequality is particularly evident in impoverished communities . In particular , impoverished communities experience reductions in safe drinking water as well as food security as a result of climate change ( OECD 2013 ) . These typically rural , isolated communities do not exhibit sufficient financial and technical capacities to manage the risks associated with climate change ( climate risk ) ( Skoufias 2012 ) . Energy development and policy alteration could adjust the severity of climate change impacts ; this is being tested now , as renewable energy sources develop .","qid":"2743","docid":"Climate_change_and_poverty","rank":47,"score":118070},{"content":"Title: Carnian Pluvial Event Content: The Carnian Pluvial Event ( CPE ) is a major global climate change and biotic turnover that occurred during the Carnian , early Late Triassic , ~ 230 million years ago . The base of the CPE is marked by a ~ 0.4 % negative shift in carbon stable isotopes of fossil molecules ( n-alkanes ) from higher plants and total organic carbon . A ~ 0.15 % negative shift in oxygen stable isotopes of conodont apatite suggests a global warming . Major changes in organisms responsible for calcium carbonate production occurred during the CPE . A halt of carbonate sedimentation is observed in deep water settings of Southern Italy that was probably caused by the rise of the Carbonate Compensation Depth ( CCD ) . High extinction rates occurred among ammonoids , conodonts , bryozoa , and crinoids . Major evolutionary innovations followed the CPE , as the first occurrence of dinosaurs , calcareous nannofossils and scleractinian corals .","qid":"2743","docid":"Carnian_Pluvial_Event","rank":48,"score":117850},{"content":"Title: Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals Content: Climate change has had a significant direct effect on terrestrial animals , by being a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction . The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago . This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles . Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history . However , with the recent increased emission of CO2 in the Earth 's atmosphere , abrupt climate change has occurred . It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present ( Van Hoof 2006 ) . Animals have had specific responses to climate change . Species respond to climate changes by migration , adaptation , or if neither of those occur , death . These migrations can sometimes follow an animal 's preferred temperature , elevation , soil , etc. , as said terrain moves due to climate change . Adaptation can be either genetic or phenological , and death can occur in a local population only ( extirpation ) or as an entire species , otherwise known as extinction . Climate changes is projected to affect individual organisms , populations , species distributions and ecosystem composition and function both directly ( ex . Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation ) and indirectly ( through climate changing the intensity and frequency of disturbances such as wildfires and severe storms ) ( IPCC 2002 ) . Every organism has a unique set of preferences or requirements , a niche and biodiversity has been tied to the diversity of animals ' niches . These can include or be affected by temperature , aridity , resource availability , habitat requirements , enemies , soil characteristics , competitors , and pollinators . Since the factors that compose a niche can be so complex and interconnected , the niches of many animals are bound to be affected by climate change ( Parmesan Yohe 2003 ) . One study done by Camille Parmesan and Gary Yohe from University of Texas , Austin shows the global fingerprint of climate change on natural systems . The results of their global analysis of 334 species were recorded to demonstrate the correlation of patterns consistent with global climate change of the 20th century . Using the IPCC 's ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) ` levels of confidence ' , this study proved significant nonrandom behavioral changes due to global climate change with very high confidence ( > 95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change .","qid":"2743","docid":"Effects_of_climate_change_on_terrestrial_animals","rank":49,"score":117664},{"content":"Title: Abrupt climate change Content: An abrupt climate change occurs when the climate system is forced to transition to a new climate state at a rate that is determined by the climate system energy-balance , and which is more rapid than the rate of change of the external forcing . Past events include the end of the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse , Younger Dryas , Dansgaard-Oeschger events , Heinrich events and possibly also the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum . The term is also used within the context of global warming to describe sudden climate change that is detectable over the time-scale of a human lifetime . One proposed reason for the observed abrupt climate change is that feedback loops within the climate system both enhance small perturbations and cause a variety of stable states . Timescales of events described as ` abrupt ' may vary dramatically . Changes recorded in the climate of Greenland at the end of the Younger Dryas , as measured by ice-cores , imply a sudden warming of + 10 C-change within a timescale of a few years . Other abrupt changes are the + 4 C-change on Greenland 11,270 years ago or the abrupt + 6 C-change warming 22,000 years ago on Antarctica . By contrast , the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum may have initiated anywhere between a few decades and several thousand years . Finally , Earth Systems models project that under ongoing greenhouse gas emissions as early as 2047 , the Earth 's near surface temperature could depart from the range of variability in the last 150 years , affecting over 3 billion people and most places of great species diversity on Earth .","qid":"2743","docid":"Abrupt_climate_change","rank":50,"score":117519},{"content":"Title: Marine cloud brightening Content: Marine cloud brightening is a proposed solar radiation management climate engineering technique that would make clouds brighter , reflecting a small fraction of incoming sunlight back into space in order to offset anthropogenic global warming . Along with stratospheric aerosol injection , it is one of the two solar radiation management methods that may most feasibly have a substantial climate impact . The intention is that increasing the Earth 's albedo , in combination with greenhouse gas emissions reduction , carbon dioxide removal , and adaptation , would reduce climate change and its risks to people and the environment . If implemented , the cooling effect is expected to be felt rapidly and to be reversible on fairly short time scales . However , technical barriers remain to large-scale marine cloud brightening . There are also risks with such modification of complex climate systems .","qid":"2743","docid":"Marine_cloud_brightening","rank":51,"score":116425},{"content":"Title: Janzen–Connell hypothesis Content: The Janzen -- Connell hypothesis is a widely accepted explanation for the maintenance of tree species biodiversity in tropical rainforests . It was published independently in the early 1970s by Daniel Janzen and Joseph Connell . According to their hypothesis , host-specific herbivores , pathogens , or other natural enemies ( often referred to as predators ) make the areas near a parent tree ( the seed producing tree ) inhospitable for the survival of seedlings . These natural enemies are referred to as ` distance-responsive predators ' if they kill seeds or seedlings near the parent tree , or ` density-dependent predators ' if they kill seeds or seedlings where they are most abundant ( which is typically near the parent tree ) . Such predators can prevent any one species from dominating the landscape , because if that species is too common , there will be few safe places for its seedlings to survive . However , because the predators are host-specific ( also called specialists ) , they will not harm other tree species . As a result , if a species becomes very rare , then more predator-free areas will become available , giving that species ' seedlings a competitive advantage . This negative feedback allows the tree species to coexist , and can be classified as a stabilizing mechanism . The Janzen-Connell hypothesis has been called a special case of keystone predation , predator partitioning or the pest pressure hypothesis . The pest pressure hypothesis states that plant diversity is maintained by specialist natural enemies . The Janzen-Connell hypothesis expands on this , by claiming that the natural enemies are not only specialists , but also are distance-responsive or density-responsive . This mechanism has been proposed as promoting diversity of forests as it promotes survival of a number of different plant species within one localized region . While previously thought to explain the high diversity of tropical forests in particular , subsequent research has demonstrated the applicability of the Janzen -- Connell hypothesis in temperate settings as well . The Black Cherry is one such example of a temperate forest species whose growth patterns can still be explained by the Janzen -- Connell hypothesis .","qid":"2743","docid":"Janzen–Connell_hypothesis","rank":52,"score":115011},{"content":"Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .","qid":"2743","docid":"Climate_change_in_the_Arctic","rank":53,"score":114983},{"content":"Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .","qid":"2743","docid":"Future_sea_level","rank":54,"score":114693},{"content":"Title: The Coming Global Superstorm Content: The Coming Global Superstorm ( ISBN 0-671-04190-8 ) is a 1999 book by Art Bell and Whitley Strieber , which warns that global warming might produce sudden and catastrophic climatic effects . First , the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic drift would generate a cordon of warm water around the North Pole , which in turn , holds in a frozen mass of Arctic air . Second , if the North Atlantic drift were to shut down , that barrier would fail , releasing a flood of frozen air into the Northern Hemisphere , causing a sudden and drastic temperature shift . The book discusses a possible cause of the failure of the Gulf Stream : the melting of the polar ice caps could drastically affect the salinity of the North Atlantic drift by dumping a large quantity of freshwater into the world 's oceans . Bell and Strieber explain the possibility that such current destabilizations have occurred before , as well as seemingly impossible engineering feats by the ancients . Among their examples is the island city of Nan Madol . The book claims that its construction , with exacting tolerances and extremely heavy basalt materials , necessitates a high degree of technical competency . Since no such society exists in the modern record or even , in legend , the society must have been destroyed by dramatic means . While other explanations beside a global meteorological event are possible , a correlating evidence set is presented in the woolly mammoth . Strieber and Bell assert that since mammoths have been found preserved with food still in their mouths and undigested in their stomachs , these animals must have been killed quickly , in otherwise normal conditions . They were preserved so well by quick freezing , which is taken as evidence of a rapid onset of a global blizzard or similar event . Interspersed with the analytical parts of the book are a series of interlinked short fictional scenarios , written in italics , describing what might transpire today if a destabilization of the North Atlantic Current were to occur . The fictional accounts of `` current events '' as the meteorological situation deteriorates provided background and inspiration for the 2004 science fiction film The Day After Tomorrow . Indeed , some events from the book are portrayed in the film with little modification .","qid":"2743","docid":"The_Coming_Global_Superstorm","rank":55,"score":113705},{"content":"Title: Rare biosphere Content: Changes in the biodiversity of an ecosystem , whether marine or terrestrial , may affect its efficiency and function . Disruption due to climate change , or other anthropogenic perturbations can result in decreased productivity and in some cases lead to disruptions in global biogeochemical cycles . The possible ramifications of changes in ecosystem biodiversity are not well characterized or understood , and it may be possible that disruption , up to a point , will have little to no effect given the redundancy within an ecosystem . This is particularly troubling in the context of microbial ecosystems . The dynamics of microbial ecosystems are tightly coupled to biogeochemical processes , and any perturbation within this system in particular could result in dramatic changes ( Kirchman , 2008 ) . For example , the microbial loop within the marine context is responsible for the decomposition of organics and recycling of nutrients back into the ecosystem . This allows for other organisms , such as phytoplankton , to reuse essential nutrients , like nitrogen , and continue production ( Kirchman 2008 ) . Without this recycled nitrogen , phytoplankton would be highly limited in their production rates , in turn limiting the growth of grazers . The effects of such an occurrence would reverberate throughout the food web , and nitrogen cycle . It is important to establish a base line of microbial diversity within ecosystems in order to gauge possible change due to climate change and the possible outcomes . Recent use of high-throughput sequencing techniques has broadened the scope of biodiversity , with the discovery of what has been titled the `` Rare Biosphere '' ( Sogin et al. , 2006 ) . Previous attempts to characterize in situ abundance have been made through pure culture and molecular techniques ( Fuhrman , 2009 ) . Pure culture providing a very narrow picture of some of the rarer species present , < 1-5 % of bacteria present ( Fuhrman , 2009 ) . Molecular techniques , such as Sanger sequencing , resulting in a much broader scope but highlighting the more abundant species present ( Heidelberg et al. , 2010 ) ( Pedros-Alio , 2007 ) . Neither technique captures all of the diversity present . Alternatively high throughput sequencing , `` tag sequencing '' , divides unique rRNA tag sequences into operational taxonomic units ( OTUs ) based upon similarities in mitochondrial-encoded cytochrome oxidases ( Sogin et al. , 2006 ) . Both Sanger , shot gun sequencing , and tag sequencing organize sequences into OTUs ( Heidelberg et al. , 2010 ) . However , it is the resolution that tag sequencing provides that sets it apart , resulting from the increased efficiency in serial analysis ( Heidelberg et al. , 2010 ) . This efficiency increase is made possible through the use of internal primer sequences resulting in restriction-digest overhanging sequences ( Heidelberg et al. , 2010 ) . Though OTUs provide a means of distinguishing the possible number of phylogenetic groups , it is not possible to deduce phylogenetic relationships based upon OTU 's . Tags associated with OTUs must be cross-referenced with gene banks , in order for tags to be phylotyped and relationships established ( Sogin et al. , 2006 ) . The result of tag sequencing has been to produce orders of magnitude larger estimates of OTUs present in ecosystems , producing a long tail on species abundance curves ( Patterson , 2009 ) ( Pedrós-Alío , 2007 ) . This long tail accounts for less than .1 % of the abundant species in a particular ecosystem . At the same time it represents thousands of populations accounting for most of the phylogenetic diversity in an ecosystem . This low-abundance high-diversity group is what is now called the `` Rare Biosphere '' . Using this method , Sogin et al. 's study of microbial diversity in North Atlantic deep water produced an estimate of 5266 different taxa ( Sogin et al. , 2006 ) . This is particularly dramatic considering that previous studies employing more traditional PCR cloning techniques have resulted in estimates of up to 500 ( Pedrós-Alío , 2007 ) .","qid":"2743","docid":"Rare_biosphere","rank":56,"score":113634},{"content":"Title: Intermediate General Circulation Model Content: The Reading Intermediate General Circulation Model ( IGCM ) , is a simplified or `` intermediate '' Global climate model , which is developed by members of the Department of Meteorology at the University of Reading , and by members of the Stratospheric Dynamics and Chemistry Group of the Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences at McGill University . The IGCM is based on the primitive-equations baroclinic model of Hoskins and Simmons , which has been converted to run on workstations . Several variations have been developed by adjusting representations of the physics . IGCM1 : Portable version of the original spectral , dry baroclinic model formulated in sigma-levels , with an option for Newtonian relaxation and Rayleigh friction , with no surface . IGCM2 : Includes simplified moist parameterisations , a cheap `` radiation scheme '' ( i.e. constant tropospheric cooling ) , a bulk formulation scheme for the boundary layer , fixed surface temperatures and humidity , uniform vertical diffusion , and can advect tracers . IGCM3x : Intermediate climate model that includes more sophisticated moisture/clouds parameterisations , a radiation scheme with various gas absorbers and a more realistic surface with an orography and land and sea surface schemes . The adiabatic version , IGCM1 , is freely available . Access to IGCM2 and IGCM3 is restricted to members of the Department of Meteorology at the University of Reading and collaborating researchers .","qid":"2743","docid":"Intermediate_General_Circulation_Model","rank":57,"score":113543},{"content":"Title: Michael Schlesinger Content: Dr. Michael Earl Schlesinger ( born February 23 , 1943 ) is a Professor of Atmospheric Sciences and director of the Climate Research Group at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign . He received his Ph.D. ( meteorology ) in 1976 from the University of California , Los Angeles . Michael Schlesinger is an expert in the modeling , simulation and analysis of climate and climate change , with interests in simulating and understanding the climates of the geologic past and possible future climates resulting from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases and human-made aerosols . He has been instrumental in developing a range of simple and complex climate models , which have been used by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and the Energy Modeling Forum . His research currently focuses on : ( 1 ) simulating and understanding the effects on climate of a human-induced melting of the Greenland ice sheet ; ( 2 ) simulating and understanding the coupled climate-chemistry system , including the influences of the Sun - both irradiance and energetic electron precipitation - and volcanoes ; ( 3 ) understanding and reducing the uncertainty in the estimation of climate sensitivity and climate feedbacks ; and ( 4 ) performing integrative assessment of climate change , including further development of the robust adaptive decision strategy for mitigating and adapting to human-induced climate change . He is known for his work on oscillations in the global climate system , on estimating the climate sensitivity , and on seasonal climate change . He has edited four books , most recently Human-induced climate change : An interdisciplinary assessment . He regularly appears in the media .","qid":"2743","docid":"Michael_Schlesinger","rank":58,"score":113509},{"content":"Title: Climate Positive Development Program Content: The C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group 's Climate Positive Development Program ( Climate Positive ) was launched in May 2009 in partnership with the Clinton Climate Initiative and the U.S. Green Building Council . The program brings together leading district-scale new-build and regeneration projects working to achieve `` Climate Positive '' -- or net carbon negative -- outcomes in cities around the world . As part of the C40 's Sustainable Communities Initiative , it aims to create a model for large-scale urban communities and to support projects that serve as urban laboratories for cities seeking to grow in ways that are environmentally sustainable , climate resilient , and economically viable . Climate Positive is an exclusive program , with a competitive application process , and currently comprises 17 global projects that will collectively reduce the emissions impact of more than one million people . The cities in which the Climate Positive projects are located support the implementation process locally and share best practices globally through participation in the C40 Climate Positive Network. , The projects are in different stages of development , but share key characteristics like high densities , highly efficient buildings , mixed-use zoning and transit accessibility .","qid":"2743","docid":"Climate_Positive_Development_Program","rank":59,"score":113037},{"content":"Title: Stratospheric aerosol injection (climate engineering) Content: The ability of stratospheric sulfate aerosols to create a global dimming effect has made them a possible candidate for use in solar radiation management climate engineering projects to limit the effect and impact of climate change due to rising levels of greenhouse gases . Delivery of precursor sulfide gases such as sulfuric acid , hydrogen sulfide or sulfur dioxide by artillery , aircraft and balloons has been proposed . It presently appears that this proposed method could counter most climatic changes , take effect rapidly , have very low direct implementation costs , and be reversible in its direct climatic effects . One study calculated the impact of injecting sulfate particles , or aerosols , every one to four years into the stratosphere in amounts equal to those lofted by the volcanic eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 , but did not address the many technical and political challenges involved in potential solar radiation management efforts . If found to be economically , environmentally and technologically viable , such injections could provide a `` grace period '' of up to 20 years before major cutbacks in greenhouse gas emissions would be required , the study concludes . It has been suggested that the direct delivery of precursors could be achieved using sulfide gases such as dimethyl sulfide , sulfur dioxide , carbonyl sulfide , or hydrogen sulfide . These compounds would be delivered using artillery , aircraft ( such as the high-flying F-15C ) or balloons , and result in the formation of compounds with the sulfate anion SO42 − . According to estimates , `` one kilogram of well placed sulfur in the stratosphere would roughly offset the warming effect of several hundred thousand kilograms of carbon dioxide . ''","qid":"2743","docid":"Stratospheric_aerosol_injection_(climate_engineering)","rank":60,"score":111698},{"content":"Title: Dennis Tirpak Content: Dennis Tirpak is an expert on Climate Change . He is a Senior Fellow at the World Resources Institute . He was the director of Global Climate Change Policy at the United States Environmental Protection Agency for ten years . He was the Coordinator of Science and Technology at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change for nine years . He was the head of the climate change unit at the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development ( OECD ) for three years . He has also worked on the Montreal Protocol and held positions in industry with Texaco and Alcoa . He is one of the coordinating lead authors of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , which shared the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize with former US Vice President Al Gore . He advises national governments and industry as an associate with the International Institute for Sustainable Development in Canada and a senior fellow at the World Resources Institute in Washington , D.C. He was the Chairman of The International Scientific Steering Committee for Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gas Concentrations which took place at the invitation of the British Prime Minister Tony Blair in 2005 . In 1989 he co-authored the first report to Congress , The Potential Effects Of Global Climate Change on the United States , and has written a scientific and policy history on climate change and contributed to many publications including the New York Times in an op-ed titled `` How Green is My Taxi '' .","qid":"2743","docid":"Dennis_Tirpak","rank":61,"score":111654},{"content":"Title: Condensation cloud Content: A transient condensation cloud , also called Wilson cloud , is observable at large explosions in humid air . When a nuclear weapon or a large amount of a conventional explosive is detonated in sufficiently humid air , the `` negative phase '' of the shock wave causes a rarefaction ( reduction in density ) of the air surrounding the explosion , but not contained within it . This rarefaction results in a temporary cooling of that air , which causes a condensation of some of the water vapor contained in it . When the pressure and the temperature return to normal , the Wilson cloud dissipates . Since heat does not leave the affected air mass , this change of pressure is adiabatic , with an associated change of temperature . In humid air , the drop in temperature in the most rarefied portion of the shock wave can bring the air temperature below its dew point , at which moisture condenses to form a visible cloud of microscopic water droplets . Since the pressure effect of the wave is reduced by its expansion ( the same pressure effect is spread over a larger radius ) , the vapor effect also has a limited radius . Such vapor can also be seen in low pressure regions during high -- g subsonic maneuvers of aircraft in humid conditions . Scientists observing the Operation Crossroads nuclear tests in 1946 at Bikini Atoll named that transitory cloud a `` Wilson cloud '' because of its similarity to the appearance of the inside of a Wilson cloud chamber , an instrument they would have been familiar with . ( The cloud chamber effect is caused by a temporary reduction in pressure in a closed system and marks the tracks of electrically-charged sub-atomic particles . ) Analysts of later nuclear bomb tests used the more general term condensation cloud . The shape of the shock wave , influenced by different speed in different altitudes , and the temperature and humidity of different atmospheric layers determines the appearance of the Wilson clouds . During nuclear tests , condensation rings around or above the fireball are commonly observed . Rings around the fireball may become stable and form rings around the rising stem of the mushroom cloud . The lifetime of the Wilson cloud during nuclear air bursts can be shortened by the thermal radiation from the fireball , which heats the cloud above the dew point and evaporates the droplets . The same kind of condensation cloud is sometimes seen above the wings of aircraft in a moist atmosphere . The top of a wing has a reduction of air pressure as part of the process of generating lift . This reduction in air pressure causes a cooling , just as above , and the condensation of water vapor . Hence , the small , transient clouds that appear . The vapor cone of a transonic aircraft is another example of a condensation cloud .","qid":"2743","docid":"Condensation_cloud","rank":62,"score":111545},{"content":"Title: Thermal runaway Content: Thermal runaway occurs in situations where an increase in temperature changes the conditions in a way that causes a further increase in temperature , often leading to a destructive result . It is a kind of uncontrolled positive feedback . In other words , `` thermal runaway '' describes a process which is accelerated by increased temperature , in turn releasing energy that further increases temperature . In chemistry ( and chemical engineering ) , it is associated with strongly exothermic reactions that are accelerated by temperature rise . In electrical engineering , thermal runaway is typically associated with increased current flow and power dissipation , although exothermic chemical reactions can be of concern here too . Thermal runaway can occur in civil engineering , notably when the heat released by large amounts of curing concrete is not controlled -LCB- Citation needed -RCB- . In astrophysics , runaway nuclear fusion reactions in stars can lead to nova and several types of supernova explosions , and also occur as a less dramatic event in the normal evolution of solar mass stars , the `` helium flash '' . There are also concerns regarding global warming that a global average increase of 3 -- 4 degrees Celsius above the preindustrial baseline could lead to a further unchecked increase in surface temperatures . For example , releases of methane , a greenhouse gas more potent than CO2 , from wetlands , melting permafrost and continental margin seabed clathrate deposits could be subject to positive feedback .","qid":"2743","docid":"Thermal_runaway","rank":63,"score":111527},{"content":"Title: Cloud Content: In meteorology , a cloud is an aerosol comprising a visible mass of minute liquid droplets , frozen crystals , or particles suspended in the atmosphere above the surface of a planetary body . The droplets and crystals may be made of water or various chemicals . On Earth , clouds are formed as a result of saturation of the air when it is cooled to its dew point , or when it gains sufficient moisture ( usually in the form of water vapor ) from an adjacent source to raise the dew point to the ambient temperature . They are seen in the Earth 's homosphere ( which includes the troposphere , stratosphere , and mesosphere ) . Nephology is the science of clouds which is undertaken in the cloud physics branch of meteorology . There are two systems of naming clouds in their respective layers of the atmosphere ; Latin in the troposphere and mostly alpha-numeric above the troposphere . Cloud types in the troposphere , the atmospheric layer closest to Earth 's surface , have Latin names due to the universal adaptation of Luke Howard 's nomenclature . Formally proposed in 1802 , it became the basis of a modern international system that classifies clouds into five physical forms and three altitude levels ( formerly known as étages ) . These physical types , in approximate ascending order of convective activity , include stratiform sheets , cirriform wisps and patches , stratocumuliform layers ( mainly structured as rolls , ripples , and patches ) , cumuliform heaps , and very large cumulonimbiform heaps that often show complex structure . The physical forms are cross-classified by the altitude levels to produce ten basic genus-types , most of which can be divided into species , and subdivided into varieties . Two cirriform clouds that form higher up in the stratosphere and mesosphere have common names for their main types , but are sub-classified alpha-numerically . They are relatively uncommon and are mostly seen in the polar regions of Earth . Clouds have been observed in the atmospheres of other planets and moons in the Solar System and beyond . However , due to their different temperature characteristics , they are often composed of other substances such as methane , ammonia , and sulfuric acid as well as water . Homospheric types determined by cross-classification of forms and levels . '' Homospheric types include the ten tropospheric genera and two additional major types above the troposphere . The cumulus genus includes three variants as defined by vertical size .","qid":"2743","docid":"Cloud","rank":64,"score":111164},{"content":"Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .","qid":"2743","docid":"Global_cooling","rank":65,"score":111094},{"content":"Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .","qid":"2743","docid":"History_of_climate_change_science","rank":66,"score":110906},{"content":"Title: Effects of global warming on Australia Content: Predictions measuring the effects of global warming on Australia assert that global warming will negatively impact the continent 's environment , economy , and communities . Australia has been designated as one of the countries most vulnerable to climate change , according to the Stern Review and others , due partially to the importance of its agricultural sector and the prominence of its coast . Australia is vulnerable to the effects of global warming projected for the next 50 to 100 years because of its extensive arid and semi-arid areas , an already warm climate , high annual rainfall variability , and existing pressures on water supply . The continent 's high fire risk increases this susceptibility to change in temperature and climate . Additionally , Australia 's population is highly concentrated in coastal areas , and its important tourism industry depends on the health of the Great Barrier Reef and other fragile ecosystems . The impacts of climate change in Australia will be complex and to some degree uncertain , but increased foresight may enable the country to safeguard its future through planned mitigation and adaptation . Mitigation may reduce the ultimate extent of climate change and its impacts , but requires global solutions and cooperation , while adaptation can be performed at national and local levels .","qid":"2743","docid":"Effects_of_global_warming_on_Australia","rank":67,"score":110809},{"content":"Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.","qid":"2743","docid":"Media_coverage_of_global_warming","rank":68,"score":110435},{"content":"Title: Climate change and potatoes Content: Global warming is predicted to have significant effects on global potato production . Like many crops , potatoes are likely to be affected by changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide , temperature and precipitation , as well as interactions between these factors . As well as affecting potatoes directly , climate change will also affect the distributions and populations of many potato diseases and pests . Potato is one of the world 's most important food crops . Potato production must be adapted to climate change to avoid reductions in crop yields .","qid":"2743","docid":"Climate_change_and_potatoes","rank":69,"score":110314},{"content":"Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .","qid":"2743","docid":"Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change","rank":70,"score":110054},{"content":"Title: Ecological forecasting Content: Ecological forecasting uses knowledge of physics , ecology and physiology to predict how ecosystems will change in the future in response to environmental factors such as climate change . The ultimate goal of the approach is to provide people such as resource managers and designers of marine reserves with information that they can then use to respond , in advance , to future changes , a form of adaptation to global warming . One of the most important environmental factors for organisms today is global warming . Most physiological processes are affected by temperature , and so even small changes in weather and climate can lead to large changes in the growth , reproduction and survival of animals and plants . The scientific consensus is that the increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases due to human activity caused most of the warming observed since the start of the industrial era . These changes are in turn affecting human and natural ecosystems . One major challenge is to predict where , when and with what magnitude changes are likely to occur so that we can mitigate or at least prepare for them . Ecological forecasting applies existing knowledge of how animals and plants interact with their physical environment to ask how changes in environmental factors might result in changes to the ecosystems as a whole .","qid":"2743","docid":"Ecological_forecasting","rank":71,"score":109590},{"content":"Title: Climate change in South Korea Content: In recent decades most countries have been experiencing huge industrial progress . Urban and industrial areas in South Korea also had fast development from 1960s to 1980s . Industrialization and the increase in population have produced various pollutants and greenhouse gases , which are anthropogenic factors for climate change . South Korea is experiencing changes in climate parameters , including annual temperature , rainfall amounts , and precipitation . The most distinct climate change predicted for South Korea is an increase in the range of temperature fluctuation throughout the four seasons . The number of record minimum temperature days has decreased rapidly , and maximum precipitation during the summer has increased . Ongoing global climate change has produced local climate changes and extreme weather that affects : social , economy , industry , culture , and many other sectors . The increased possibility for new types of strong weather damage evokes the seriousness and the urgency of climate change . To quickly adapt to climate change , the South Korean government began an effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , and is one step closer to having a low-carbon based socio-economic nation .","qid":"2743","docid":"Climate_change_in_South_Korea","rank":72,"score":109050},{"content":"Title: Climate Vulnerable Forum Content: The Climate Vulnerable Forum ( CVF ) is a global partnership of countries that are disproportionately affected by the consequences of global warming . The forum addresses the negative effects of global warming as a result of heightened socioeconomic and environmental vulnerabilities . These countries actively seek a firm and urgent resolution to the current intensification of climate change , domestically and internationally . The CVF was formed to increase the accountability of industrialized nations for the consequences of global climate change . It also aims to exert additional pressure for action to tackle the challenge , which includes local action by countries considered susceptible . Political leaders involved in this partnership are `` using their status as those most vulnerable to climate change to punch far above their weight at the negotiating table '' . The governments which founded the CVF agree to national commitments to pursue low-carbon development and carbon neutrality . Ethiopia became the first African Chair of the Climate Vulnerable Forum during the CVF High-Level Climate Policy Forum held in the Senate of the Philippines on 15 August 2016 . The Philippines was the Chair of the Climate Vulnerable Forum during the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Paris ( COP21 ) and oversaw the adoption of the body 's Manila-Paris Declaration at the Third High-Level Meeting of the Forum on 30 November 2015 . The Manila-Paris Declaration articulated the common concerns and commitments of vulnerable countries and urged the strengthening of the UNFCCC goal of limiting warming to below 1.5 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels . During this meeting the membership of the Climate Vulnerable Forum expanded to include 23 new members . In 2015 , the twenty member countries in a forum chaired by the Philippines launched the official bloc of the forum , the ` V20 ' or ` Vulnerable Twenty ' , consisting of the top 20 nations from all over the world that are most affected by the catastrophes rooted from climate change . The members of the bloc are Afghanistan , Bangladesh , Barbados , Bhutan , Costa Rica , Ethiopia , Ghana , Kenya , Kiribati , Madagascar , Maldives , Nepal , Philippines , Rwanda , Saint Lucia , Tanzania , Timor-Leste , Tuvalu , Vanuatu and Vietnam . During the 2nd V20 Ministerial Dialogue in April 2016 in Washington DC , the V20 recognized the 23 new members that joined the CVF in 2015 as incoming members in the V20 initiative . These countries are currently and diversely affected by various climate change problems such as super storms , storm surges , tsunamis , droughts , famine due to climate factors , food shortage as by-product of climate change , power cutting , flash floods , mud slides , desertification , heatwaves , reduction of fresh water sources , and other effects of climate change . Climate change is globally believed and scientifically proven to have incurred from the economic activities of developed and developing nations and regions such as China , the United States , and Europe .","qid":"2743","docid":"Climate_Vulnerable_Forum","rank":73,"score":109046},{"content":"Title: Global atmospheric electrical circuit Content: The global atmospheric electrical circuit is the continuous movement of electric current between the ionosphere and the earth 's surface . This flow is powered by thunderstorms , which cause a build-up of positive charge in the ionosphere . In fair weather this positive charge slowly flows back to the surface .","qid":"2743","docid":"Global_atmospheric_electrical_circuit","rank":74,"score":108717},{"content":"Title: Clear-air turbulence Content: Clear-air turbulence ( CAT ) is the turbulent movement of air masses in the absence of any visual clues such as clouds , and is caused when bodies of air moving at widely different speeds meet . The atmospheric region most susceptible to CAT is the high troposphere at altitudes of around 7000 - as it meets the tropopause . Here CAT is most frequently encountered in the regions of jet streams . At lower altitudes it may also occur near mountain ranges . Thin cirrus clouds can also indicate high probability of CAT . CAT can be hazardous to the comfort , but rarely the safety , of air travelers . CAT in the jet stream is expected to become stronger and more frequent because of climate change , with transatlantic wintertime CAT increasing by 59 % ( light ) , 94 % ( moderate ) , and 149 % ( severe ) by the time of CO2 doubling .","qid":"2743","docid":"Clear-air_turbulence","rank":75,"score":108436},{"content":"Title: Future of Earth Content: The biological and geological future of Earth can be extrapolated based upon the estimated effects of several long-term influences . These include the chemistry at Earth 's surface , the rate of cooling of the planet 's interior , the gravitational interactions with other objects in the Solar System , and a steady increase in the Sun 's luminosity . An uncertain factor in this extrapolation is the ongoing influence of technology introduced by humans , such as climate engineering , which could cause significant changes to the planet . The current Holocene extinction is being caused by technology and the effects may last for up to five million years . In turn , technology may result in the extinction of humanity , leaving the planet to gradually return to a slower evolutionary pace resulting solely from long-term natural processes . Over time intervals of hundreds of millions of years , random celestial events pose a global risk to the biosphere , which can result in mass extinctions . These include impacts by comets or asteroids with diameters of 5 -- or more , and the possibility of a massive stellar explosion , called a supernova , within a 100-light-year radius of the Sun , called a Near-Earth supernova . Other large-scale geological events are more predictable . If the long-term effects of global warming are disregarded , Milankovitch theory predicts that the planet will continue to undergo glacial periods at least until the Quaternary glaciation comes to an end . These periods are caused by variations in eccentricity , axial tilt , and precession of the Earth 's orbit . As part of the ongoing supercontinent cycle , plate tectonics will probably result in a supercontinent in 250 -- 350 million years . Some time in the next 1.5 -- 4.5 billion years , the axial tilt of the Earth may begin to undergo chaotic variations , with changes in the axial tilt of up to 90 ° . During the next four billion years , the luminosity of the Sun will steadily increase , resulting in a rise in the solar radiation reaching the Earth . This will result in a higher rate of weathering of silicate minerals , which will cause a decrease in the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . In about 600 million years from now , the level of CO2 will fall below the level needed to sustain C3 carbon fixation photosynthesis used by trees . Some plants use the C4 carbon fixation method , allowing them to persist at concentrations as low as 10 parts per million . However , the long-term trend is for plant life to die off altogether . The extinction of plants will be the demise of almost all animal life , since plants are the base of the food chain on Earth . In about one billion years , the solar luminosity will be 10 % higher than at present . This will cause the atmosphere to become a `` moist greenhouse '' , resulting in a runaway evaporation of the oceans . As a likely consequence , plate tectonics will come to an end , and with them the entire carbon cycle . Following this event , in about 2 − 3 billion years , the planet 's magnetic dynamo may cease , causing the magnetosphere to decay and leading to an accelerated loss of volatiles from the outer atmosphere . Four billion years from now , the increase in the Earth 's surface temperature will cause a runaway greenhouse effect , heating the surface enough to melt it . By that point , all life on the Earth will be extinct . The most probable fate of the planet is absorption by the Sun in about 7.5 billion years , after the star has entered the red giant phase and expanded to cross the planet 's current orbit .","qid":"2743","docid":"Future_of_Earth","rank":76,"score":108199},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .","qid":"2743","docid":"Climate_change_in_Pakistan","rank":77,"score":108138},{"content":"Title: Downscaling Content: Global Climate Models ( GCMs ) used for climate studies and climate projections are run at coarse spatial resolution ( in 2012 , typically of the order 50 km ) and are unable to resolve important sub-grid scale features such as clouds and topography . As a result , GCM output can not be used for local impact studies . To overcome this problem downscaling methods are developed to obtain local-scale weather and climate , particularly at the surface level , from regional-scale atmospheric variables that are provided by GCMs . Two main forms of downscaling technique exist . One form is dynamical downscaling , where output from the GCM is used to drive a regional , numerical model in higher spatial resolution , which therefore is able to simulate local conditions in greater detail . The other form is statistical downscaling , where a statistical relationship is established from observations between large scale variables , like atmospheric surface pressure , and a local variable , like the wind speed at a particular site . The relationship is then subsequently used on the GCM data to obtain the local variables from the GCM output . In 1997 , Wilby and Wigley divided downscaling into four categories : regression methods , weather pattern-based approaches , stochastic weather generators , which are all statistical downscaling methods , and limited-area modeling . Among these approaches regression methods are preferred because of its ease of implementation and low computation requirements .","qid":"2743","docid":"Downscaling","rank":78,"score":107373},{"content":"Title: World Climate Report Content: World Climate Report , a newsletter edited by Patrick Michaels , was produced by the Greening Earth Society , a non-profit organization created by the Western Fuels Association . Early editions were paper based ; it was then transferred to a web-only format , having ceased publication as a physically based report with Volume 8 in 2002 . It continues to exist in blog form at www.worldclimatereport.com , although the website itself has not been updated since late 2012 . World Climate Report presents a scientific skeptical view of populist anthropogenic-driven mass global climate change , or as it describes , ` Global Warming Alarmism ' . However , it does not reject the concepts of global climate change or greenhouse theory ( or other well-established and widely accepted scientific theories or empirical studies ) , in general attempting to engender itself as giving a well balanced and scientific view of the sources ( though often at a contrary expense of its perceived adversaries : the aforementioned alleged ` Global Warming Alarmists ' ) . WCR says of itself : World Climate Report , a concise , hard-hitting and scientifically correct response to the global change reports which gain attention in the literature and popular press . As the nation 's leading publication in this realm , World Climate Report is exhaustively researched , impeccably referenced , and always timely . This popular biweekly newsletter points out the weaknesses and outright fallacies in the science that is being touted as `` proof '' of disastrous warming . It 's the perfect antidote against those who argue for proposed changes to the Rio Climate Treaty , such as the Kyoto Protocol , which are aimed at limiting carbon emissions from the United States ... World Climate Report has become the definitive and unimpeachable source for what nature now calls the `` mainstream skeptic '' point of view . . In addition to Patrick Michaels ( chief editor ) , the staff is listed as Robert C. Balling , Jr ( contributing editor ) , Robert Davis ( contributing editor ) , and Paul Knappenberger ( Administrator ) . New Hope Environmental Services , an advocacy science consulting firm , claims WCR as its biweekly newsletter .","qid":"2743","docid":"World_Climate_Report","rank":79,"score":106867},{"content":"Title: James Hansen Content: James Edward Hansen ( born 29 March 1941 ) is an American adjunct professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University . He is best known for his research in climatology , his 1988 Congressional testimony on climate change that helped raise broad awareness of global warming , and his advocacy of action to avoid dangerous climate change . In recent years he has become a climate activist to mitigate the effects of climate change , on a few occasions leading to his arrest . In 2000 , Hansen advanced an alternative view of global warming over the last 100 years , arguing that during that time frame the negative forcing via aerosols and the positive forcing via largely balanced each other out , and that the 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide , such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons . However , even then he wrote `` the future balance of forcings is likely to shift toward dominance of CO2 over aerosols ''","qid":"2743","docid":"James_Hansen","rank":80,"score":106585},{"content":"Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .","qid":"2743","docid":"Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios","rank":81,"score":106505},{"content":"Title: Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera Content: Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera is a theoretical physicist and researcher at the Institute of Geophysics of the National Autonomous University of Mexico ( UNAM ) . He disagrees with predictions about future climate change , arguing that they ignore the most important factor , which is sun activity . In the summer of 2008 , he also predicted the world to soon enter a little ice age . `` The models and forecasts of the U.N. IPCC `` are incorrect because they only are based on mathematical models and presented results at scenarios that do not include , for example , solar activity . '' -- Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera .","qid":"2743","docid":"Victor_Manuel_Velasco_Herrera","rank":82,"score":106303},{"content":"Title: Nature Climate Change Content: Nature Climate Change is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Nature Publishing Group covering all aspects of research on global warming , especially its effects . It was established in 2011 . Its first editor-in-chief was Olive Heffernan and the journal 's current editor-in-chief is Bronwyn Wake . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal had a 2015 impact factor of 17.184 .","qid":"2743","docid":"Nature_Climate_Change","rank":83,"score":106149},{"content":"Title: Megha-Tropiques Content: Megha-Tropiques is a satellite mission to study the water cycle in the tropical atmosphere in the context of climate change A collaborative effort between Indian Space Research Organisation ( ISRO ) and French Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales ( CNES ) , Megha-Tropiques was successfully deployed into orbit by a PSLV rocket in October 2011 . Megha-Tropiques was initially scrapped in 2003 , but later revived in 2004 after India increased its contribution and overall costs were lowered . With the progress made by GEWEX ( Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment ) , Megha-Tropiques is designed to understand tropical meteorological and climatic processes , by obtaining reliable statistics on the water and energy budget of the tropical atmosphere . Megha-Tropiques complements other data in the current regional monsoon projects such as MAHASRI and the completed GAME project . Megha-Tropiques also seeks to describe the evolution of major tropical weather systems . The focus will be the repetitive measurement of the tropics .","qid":"2743","docid":"Megha-Tropiques","rank":84,"score":105655},{"content":"Title: Global warming (disambiguation) Content: Global warming is one of the common names for the current change in Earth 's climate . Global warming may also refer to : Global Warming ( Pitbull album ) , a 2011 music album by Pitbull Global Warming ( Sonny Rollins album ) , a 1998 music album by Sonny Rollins Global warming game , several games based on the concept Not to be confused with the Global warming controversy , which refers to the public debate over scientific conclusions on climate change .","qid":"2743","docid":"Global_warming_(disambiguation)","rank":85,"score":105110},{"content":"Title: Hypercane Content: A hypercane is a hypothetical class of extreme tropical cyclone that could form if ocean temperatures reached 50 C , which is 15 C-change warmer than the warmest ocean temperature ever recorded . Such an increase could be caused by a large asteroid or comet impact , a large supervolcanic eruption , or extensive global warming . There is some speculation that a series of hypercanes resulting from an impact by a large asteroid or comet contributed to the demise of the non-avian dinosaurs . The hypothesis was created by Kerry Emanuel of MIT who also coined the term .","qid":"2743","docid":"Hypercane","rank":86,"score":105048},{"content":"Title: Cloud physics Content: Cloud physics is the study of the physical processes that lead to the formation , growth and precipitation of atmospheric clouds . These aerosols are found in the troposphere , stratosphere , and mesosphere , which collectively make up the greatest part of the homosphere . Clouds consist of microscopic droplets of liquid water ( warm clouds ) , tiny crystals of ice ( cold clouds ) , or both ( mixed phase clouds ) . Cloud droplets initially form by the condensation of water vapor onto condensation nuclei when the supersaturation of air exceeds a critical value according to Köhler theory . Cloud condensation nuclei are necessary for cloud droplets formation because of the Kelvin effect , which describes the change in saturation vapor pressure due to a curved surface . At small radii , the amount of supersaturation needed for condensation to occur is so large , that it does not happen naturally . Raoult 's Law describes how the vapor pressure is dependent on the amount of solute in a solution . At high concentrations , when the cloud droplets are small , the supersaturation required is smaller than without the presence of a nucleus . In warm clouds , larger cloud droplets fall at a higher terminal velocity ; because at a given velocity , the drag force per unit of droplet weight on smaller droplets is larger than on large droplets . The large droplets can then collide with small droplets and combine to form even larger drops . When the drops become large enough that their downward velocity ( relative to the surrounding air ) is greater than the upward velocity ( relative to the earth ) of the surrounding air , the drops can fall to the earth as precipitation . The collision and coalescence is not as important in mixed phase clouds where the Bergeron process dominates . Other important processes that form precipitation are riming , when a supercooled liquid drop collides with a solid snowflake , and aggregation , when two solid snowflakes collide and combine . The precise mechanics of how a cloud forms and grows is not completely understood , but scientists have developed theories explaining the structure of clouds by studying the microphysics of individual droplets . Advances in weather radar and satellite technology have also allowed the precise study of clouds on a large scale .","qid":"2743","docid":"Cloud_physics","rank":87,"score":104885},{"content":"Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .","qid":"2743","docid":"Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous","rank":88,"score":104669},{"content":"Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .","qid":"2743","docid":"Global_warming_controversy","rank":89,"score":104591},{"content":"Title: Effects of global warming on oceans Content: Global warming can affect sea levels , coastlines , ocean acidification , ocean currents , seawater , sea surface temperatures , tides , the sea floor , weather , and trigger several changes in ocean bio-geochemistry ; all of these affect the functioning of a society .","qid":"2743","docid":"Effects_of_global_warming_on_oceans","rank":90,"score":104580},{"content":"Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .","qid":"2743","docid":"Economics_of_global_warming","rank":91,"score":104490},{"content":"Title: Global Roundtable on Climate Change Content: The Global Roundtable on Climate Change , convened by the Earth Institute at Columbia University brought together representatives from corporations , research institutions , and government organizations to discuss the scientific consensus , economics , technology , and public policy issues associated with climate change . Following preliminary research and discussions , the group first met in 2005 and held a series of public and private meetings over the next five year . The Roundtable had five objectives : Improve global consensus on the science , technology , economics , and policy issues of anthropogenic climate change . Review technology and policy proposals for mitigating climate change while meeting global energy demand . Support research and prototypes of technologies and policies that address climate change . Provide a forum for discussion , analysis , and exchange of ideas from the represented groups . Support proposals and initiatives generated by the Roundtable 's discussions . Participants in the Roundtable meetings : ABB , Air France , Alcan , Alcoa , Alliant Energy , Allianz , American Electric Power , BASF , Bayer , Calvert Group , China Renewable Energy Industry Association , Citigroup , Coalition of Rainforest Nations , Columbia University , Deutsche Telekom , DuPont , Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand , Endesa , Environmental Defense , Eskom , Eni , Exelon , Fairfield University , FPL Group , General Electric , Iberdrola , ING Group , Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , International Gas Union , Munich Re , National Grid , NRG Energy , Rainforest Alliance , Republic of Iceland , Ricoh , Suntech Power , Swiss Re , Vattenfall , Volvo , World Council on Churches , World Petroleum Council , and many others . The Roundtable was funded by a grant from the Lenfest Foundation . Jeffrey Sachs , Director of the Earth Institute served as Chair . David L. Downie served as Director of the Global Roundtable on Climate Change before leaving the Earth Institute to join Fairfield University . On February 20 , 2007 , the Roundtable released `` The Path to Climate Sustainability : A Joint Statement by the Global Roundtable on Climate Change '' . The Joint Statement outlines a post-Kyoto framework and has been endorsed by over 100 of the Roundtable participating corporations and organizations . The Statement outlines ways to effect change at the levels of policy and industry , particularly in regards to creating sustainable energy systems necessary for achieving economic growth . In addition to its internal discussions , which were aimed at information exchange , education and consensus building , and development of the parthbreaking Joint Statement , Roundtable participants also participated in public forums . For example , David L. Downie organized two side-event panels during sessions of the global climate negotiations that featured presentations by Roundtable Participants , including himself , regarding how businesses and scientists were working together to lower greenhouse gas emissions . David L. Downie also discussed the Roundtable and related issues at other events during the climate negotiations and in other forums","qid":"2743","docid":"Global_Roundtable_on_Climate_Change","rank":92,"score":104421},{"content":"Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.","qid":"2743","docid":"Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C","rank":93,"score":103729},{"content":"Title: El Niño–Southern Oscillation Content: El Niño -- Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) is an irregularly periodical variation in winds and sea surface temperatures over the tropical eastern Pacific Ocean , affecting much of the tropics and subtropics . The warming phase is known as El Niño and the cooling phase as La Niña . Southern Oscillation is the accompanying atmospheric component , coupled with the sea temperature change : El Niño is accompanied with high , and La Niña with low air surface pressure in the tropical western Pacific . The two periods last several months each ( typically occur every few years ) and their effects vary in intensity . The two phases relate to the Walker circulation , discovered by Gilbert Walker during the early twentieth century . The Walker circulation is caused by the pressure gradient force that results from a high pressure system over the eastern Pacific Ocean , and a low pressure system over Indonesia . When the Walker circulation weakens or reverses , an El Niño results , causing the ocean surface to be warmer than average , as upwelling of cold water occurs less or not at all . An especially strong Walker circulation causes a La Niña , resulting in cooler ocean temperatures due to increased upwelling . Mechanisms that cause the oscillation remain under study . The extremes of this climate pattern 's oscillations cause extreme weather ( such as floods and droughts ) in many regions of the world . Developing countries dependent upon agriculture and fishing , particularly those bordering the Pacific Ocean , are the most affected .","qid":"2743","docid":"El_Niño–Southern_Oscillation","rank":94,"score":103377},{"content":"Title: Impact winter Content: An impact winter is a hypothesized period of prolonged cold weather due to the impact of a large asteroid or comet on the Earth 's surface . If an asteroid were to strike land or a shallow body of water , it would eject an enormous amount of dust , ash , and other material into the atmosphere , blocking the radiation from the sun . This would cause the global temperature to decrease drastically . If an asteroid or comet with the diameter of about 5 km or more were to hit in a large deep body of water or explode before hitting the surface , there would still be an enormous amount of debris ejected into the atmosphere . It has been proposed that an impact winter could lead to mass extinction , wiping out many of the world 's existing species .","qid":"2743","docid":"Impact_winter","rank":95,"score":103229},{"content":"Title: Climate change adaptation Content: Climate change adaptation is a response to global warming and climate change , that seeks to reduce the vulnerability of social and biological systems to relatively sudden change and thus offset the effects of global warming . Even if emissions are stabilized relatively soon , global warming and its effects will last many years , and adaptation will be necessary to the resulting changes in climate . Adaptation is especially important in developing countries since those countries are predicted to bear the brunt of the effects of global warming . That is , the capacity and potential for humans to adapt ( called adaptive capacity ) is unevenly distributed across different regions and populations , and developing countries generally have less capacity to adapt ( Schneider et al. , 2007 ) . Furthermore , the degree of adaptation correlates to the situational focus on environmental issues . Therefore , adaptation requires the situational assessment of sensitivity and vulnerability to environmental impacts . Adaptive capacity is closely linked to social and economic development ( IPCC , 2007 ) . The economic costs of adaptation to climate change are likely to cost billions of dollars annually for the next several decades , though the amount of money needed is unknown . Donor countries promised an annual $ 100 billion by 2020 through the Green Climate Fund for developing countries to adapt to climate change . However , while the fund was set up during COP16 in Cancún , concrete pledges by developed countries have not been forthcoming . The adaptation challenge grows with the magnitude and the rate of climate change . Another response to climate change , known as climate change mitigation ( Verbruggen , 2007 ) is to reduce greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions and/or enhance the removal of these gases from the atmosphere ( through carbon sinks ) . Even the most effective reductions in emissions , however , would not prevent further climate change impacts , making the need for adaptation unavoidable ( Klein et al. , 2007 ) . In a literature assessment , Klein et al. ( 2007 ) assessed options for adaptation . They concluded , with very high confidence , that in the absence of mitigation efforts , the effects of climate change would reach such a magnitude as to make adaptation impossible for some natural ecosystems . Others are concerned that climate adaptation programs might interfere with the existing development programs and thus lead to unintended consequences for vulnerable groups . For human systems , the economic and social costs of unmitigated climate change would be very high .","qid":"2743","docid":"Climate_change_adaptation","rank":96,"score":103207},{"content":"Title: Climate state Content: Climate state describes a state of climate on Earth and similar terrestrial planets based on a thermal energy budget , such as the greenhouse or icehouse climate state . The main climate state change is between periodical glacial and interglacial cycles in Earth history , studied from climate proxies . The climate system is responding to the current climate forcing and adjusts following climate sensitivity to reach a climate equilibrium , Earth 's energy balance . Model simulations suggest that the current interglacial climate state will continue for at least another 100,000 years , due to emissions - including complete deglaciation of the Northern Hemisphere .","qid":"2743","docid":"Climate_state","rank":97,"score":103180},{"content":"Title: Field Notes from a Catastrophe Content: Field Notes from a Catastrophe : Man , Nature , and Climate Change is a 2006 non-fiction book by Elizabeth Kolbert . The book attempts to bring attention to the causes and effects of global climate change . Kolbert travels around the world where climate change is affecting the environment in significant ways . These locations include Alaska , Greenland , the Netherlands , and Iceland . The environmental effects that are apparent consist of rising sea levels , thawing permafrost , diminishing ice shelves , changes in migratory patterns , and increasingly devastating forest fires due to loss of precipitation . She also speaks with many leading scientists about their individual research and findings . Kolbert brings to attention the attempts of large corporations such as Exxon Mobil and General Motors to influence politicians and discredit scientists . She also writes about America 's reluctance in the global efforts to reduce carbon emissions . Leading this resistance , she explained , was the Bush administration , which was opposed to the Kyoto protocol since it was ratified in 2005 . Kolbert concludes the book by examining the events surrounding the events of Hurricane Katrina in 2005 and arguing that governments have the knowledge and technologies to prepare for such disasters but choose to ignore the signs until it is too late .","qid":"2743","docid":"Field_Notes_from_a_Catastrophe","rank":98,"score":102980},{"content":"Title: Goodwin model (biology) Content: In biology , the Goodwin model describes negative feedback oscillators in cellular systems , for example , circadian rhythms or enzymatic regulation ( such as lactose in bacteria ) . The Goodwin model , though , shows no stable limit cycles . limit cycles can exist , see references","qid":"2743","docid":"Goodwin_model_(biology)","rank":99,"score":102975},{"content":"Title: Tropical rain belt Content: Rainfall and the tropical climate dominate the tropical rain belt , which oscillates from the northern to the southern tropics over the course of the year , roughly following the solar equator . The tropical rain belt is an area of active rain that is positioned mostly around the tropics . According to the website Journey North , the reason the rain belt is situated near the tropics can be attributed to the fact that most of the sun 's radiation is directed toward the equator , which is located in the middle of the tropics . This solar radiation generates large amounts of heat near the equator providing tropical regions with higher temperatures than most other regions on Earth . With all this solar radiation , the air around the tropics begins to warm up . Because hot air is less dense than cold air , the hot air rises into the upper levels of the atmosphere and as a result , cold air filters down into the lower levels of the atmosphere . The dynamics that provide the tropics with the rain belt are founded on the principal that warmer air is able to retain more moisture than colder air . When the colder air replaces the warmer air in the lower atmosphere , the abundant moisture from the tropics loses the ability to be stored in the atmosphere . As a result , the excess moisture that can not be held by the colder air is then turned into thunderstorms and rain showers . These thunderstorms and rain showers are usually located along the equator , but they will extend out to the Tropic of Cancer , which is the 23.5 north latitude , as well as the Tropic of Capricorn , which is the 23.5 south latitude . It is largely a manifestation of the ITCH ( incorrect citation ) . The tropical rain belt lies in the southern hemisphere of the Indian ocean and western Pacific ocean roughly from October to March , and during this time the northern tropics experience a dry season in which precipitation is very rare , and days are typically hot and sunny throughout . From April to September , the rain belt lies in the northern hemisphere , and a wet season occurs there , while the southern tropics experience their dry season . The rain belt reaches roughly as far north as the Tropic of Cancer and as far south as the Tropic of Capricorn in the western Pacific ocean . Its variation in the Western Hemisphere is minimal , roughly between the equator and the 15th parallel north latitude . Near these latitudes , there is one wet season and one dry season annually . On the equator , there are two wet and two dry seasons as the rain belt passes over twice a year , one moving north and one moving south . Between the tropics and the equator , locations may experience both a short wet and a long wet season . Local geography may substantially modify these climate patterns .","qid":"2743","docid":"Tropical_rain_belt","rank":100,"score":102767}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Iris hypothesis Content: The iris hypothesis is a hypothesis proposed by Richard Lindzen et al. in 2001 that suggested increased sea surface temperature in the tropics would result in reduced cirrus clouds and thus more infrared radiation leakage from Earth 's atmosphere . His study of observed changes in cloud coverage and modeled effects on infrared radiation released to space as a result supported the hypothesis . This suggested infrared radiation leakage was hypothesized to be a negative feedback in which an initial warming would result in an overall cooling of the surface . The consensus view is that increased sea surface temperature would result in increased cirrus clouds and reduced infrared radiation leakage and therefore a positive feedback . Other scientists subsequently tested the hypothesis . Some concluded that there was no evidence supporting the hypothesis . Others found evidence suggesting that increased sea surface temperature in the tropics did indeed reduce cirrus clouds but found that the effect was nonetheless a positive feedback rather than the negative feedback that Lindzen had hypothesized . A later 2007 study conducted by Roy Spencer et al. using updated satellite data potentially supported the iris hypothesis . In 2011 , Lindzen published a rebuttal to the main criticisms . In 2015 a paper was published which again suggested the possibility of an `` Iris Effect '' . It also proposed what it called a `` plausible physical mechanism for an iris effect . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Iris_hypothesis\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 243629\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cloud feedback Content: Cloud feedback is the coupling between cloudiness and surface air temperature where a surface air temperature change leads to a change in clouds , which could then amplify or diminish the initial temperature perturbation . Cloud feedbacks can affect the magnitude of internally generated climate variability or they can affect the magnitude of climate change resulting from external radiative forcings . Global warming is expected to change the distribution and type of clouds . Seen from below , clouds emit infrared radiation back to the surface , and so exert a warming effect ; seen from above , clouds reflect sunlight and emit infrared radiation to space , and so exert a cooling effect . Cloud representations vary among global climate models , and small changes in cloud cover have a large impact on the climate . Differences in planetary boundary layer cloud modeling schemes can lead to large differences in derived values of climate sensitivity . A model that decreases boundary layer clouds in response to global warming has a climate sensitivity twice that of a model that does not include this feedback . However , satellite data show that cloud optical thickness actually increases with increasing temperature . Whether the net effect is warming or cooling depends on details such as the type and altitude of the cloud ; details that are difficult to represent in climate models .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Cloud_feedback\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 226192\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change feedback Content: Climate change feedback is important in the understanding of global warming because feedback processes may amplify or diminish the effect of each climate forcing , and so play an important part in determining the climate sensitivity and future climate state . Feedback in general is the process in which changing one quantity changes a second quantity , and the change in the second quantity in turn changes the first . Positive feedback amplifies the change in the first quantity while negative feedback reduces it . The term `` forcing '' means a change which may `` push '' the climate system in the direction of warming or cooling . An example of a climate forcing is increased atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases . By definition , forcings are external to the climate system while feedbacks are internal ; in essence , feedbacks represent the internal processes of the system . Some feedbacks may act in relative isolation to the rest of the climate system ; others may be tightly coupled ; hence it may be difficult to tell just how much a particular process contributes . Forcings , feedbacks and the dynamics of the climate system determine how much and how fast the climate changes . The main positive feedback in global warming is the tendency of warming to increase the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere , which in turn leads to further warming . The main negative feedback comes from the Stefan -- Boltzmann law , the amount of heat radiated from the Earth into space changes with the fourth power of the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere . Some observed and potential effects of global warming are positive feedbacks , which contribute directly to further global warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that `` Anthropogenic warming could lead to some effects that are abrupt or irreversible , depending upon the rate and magnitude of the climate change . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_feedback\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 206614\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ice-albedo feedback Content: Ice-albedo feedback ( or snow-albedo feedback ) is a positive feedback climate process where a change in the area of snow-covered land , ice caps , glaciers or sea ice alters the albedo . This change in albedo acts to reinforce the initial alteration in ice area . Cooling tends to increase ice cover and hence the albedo , reducing the amount of solar energy absorbed and leading to more cooling . Conversely , warming tends to decrease ice cover and hence the albedo , increasing the amount of solar energy absorbed , leading to more warming . The effect also applies on the small scale to snow-covered surfaces . A small amount of snow melt exposes darker ground which absorbs more radiation , leading to more snowmelt . The effect has mostly been discussed in terms of the recent trend of declining Arctic sea ice . Internal feedback processes may also potentially occur , as land ice melts and causes eustatic sea level rise , and also potentially induces earthquakes as a result of isostatic rebound , which further acts to disrupt glaciers , ice shelves , etc. .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Ice-albedo_feedback\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 164264\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate sensitivity Content: Climate sensitivity is the equilibrium temperature change in response to changes of the radiative forcing . Therefore , climate sensitivity depends on the initial climate state , but potentially can be accurately inferred from precise palaeoclimate data . Slow climate feedbacks , especially changes of ice sheet size and atmospheric CO2 , amplify the total Earth system sensitivity by an amount that depends on the time scale considered . Although climate sensitivity is usually used in the context of radiative forcing by carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , it is thought of as a general property of the climate system : the change in surface air temperature ( ΔTs ) following a unit change in radiative forcing ( RF ) , and thus is expressed in units of ° C / ( W/m2 ) . For this to be useful , the measure must be independent of the nature of the forcing ( e.g. from greenhouse gases or solar variation ) ; to first order this is indeed found to be so . The climate sensitivity specifically due to is often expressed as the temperature change in ° C associated with a doubling of the concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere . For coupled atmosphere-ocean global climate models ( e.g. CMIP5 ) the climate sensitivity is an emergent property : it is not a model parameter , but rather a result of a combination of model physics and parameters . By contrast , simpler energy-balance models may have climate sensitivity as an explicit parameter . The terms represented in the equation relate radiative forcing ( RF ) to linear changes in global surface temperature change ( ΔTs ) via the climate sensitivity λ . It is also possible to estimate climate sensitivity from observations ; however , this is difficult due to uncertainties in the forcing and temperature histories .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_sensitivity\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 156335\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Runaway greenhouse effect Content: A runaway greenhouse effect is a process in which a net positive feedback between surface temperature and atmospheric opacity increases the strength of the greenhouse effect on a planet until its oceans boil away . An example of this is believed to have happened in the early history of Venus . On the Earth , the IPCC states that `` a ` runaway greenhouse effect ' -- analogous to -LSB- that of -RSB- Venus -- appears to have virtually no chance of being induced by anthropogenic activities . '' Other large-scale climate changes are sometimes loosely called a `` runaway greenhouse effect '' although it is not an appropriate description . For example , it has been hypothesized that large releases of greenhouse gases may have occurred concurrently with the Permian -- Triassic extinction event or Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum . Other terms , such as `` abrupt climate change '' , or tipping points could be used when describing such scenarios .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Runaway_greenhouse_effect\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 153743\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Negative feedback Content: Negative feedback occurs when some function of the output of a system , process , or mechanism is fed back in a manner that tends to reduce the fluctuations in the output , whether caused by changes in the input or by other disturbances . Whereas positive feedback tends to lead to instability via exponential growth , oscillation or chaotic behavior , negative feedback generally promotes stability . Negative feedback tends to promote a settling to equilibrium , and reduces the effects of perturbations . Negative feedback loops in which just the right amount of correction is applied with optimum timing can be very stable , accurate , and responsive . Negative feedback is widely used in mechanical and electronic engineering , but it also occurs naturally within living organisms , and can be seen in many other fields from chemistry and economics to physical systems such as the climate . General negative feedback systems are studied in control systems engineering .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Negative_feedback\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 153612\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Regional_effects_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 151864\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 150372\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Revenge of Gaia Content: The Revenge of Gaia : Why the Earth is Fighting Back -- and How we Can Still Save Humanity ( 2006 ) is a book by James Lovelock . Some editions of the book have a different , less optimistic subtitle : `` Earth 's Climate Crisis and the Fate of Humanity . '' The book introduces the concept of the anti-CLAW hypothesis . Lovelock proposed that instead of providing negative feedback in the climate system , the components of the CLAW hypothesis may act to create a positive feedback loop . Under future global warming , increasing temperature may stratify the world ocean , decreasing the supply of nutrients from the deep ocean to its productive euphotic zone . Consequently , phytoplankton activity will decline with a concomitant fall in the production of DMS . In a reverse of the CLAW hypothesis , this decline in DMS production will lead to a decrease in cloud condensation nuclei and a fall in cloud albedo . The consequence of this will be further climate warming which may lead to even less DMS production ( and further climate warming ) . The figure to the right shows a summarising schematic diagram . Evidence for the anti-CLAW hypothesis is constrained by similar uncertainties as those of the sulfur cycle feedback loop of the CLAW hypothesis . However , researchers simulating future oceanic primary production have found evidence of declining production with increasing ocean stratification , leaving open the possibility that such a mechanism may exist .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Revenge_of_Gaia\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 148982\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Runaway climate change Content: Runaway climate change or runaway global warming is hypothesized to follow a tipping point in the climate system , after accumulated climate change initiates a reinforcing positive feedback . This is thought to cause the climate to rapidly change until it reaches a new stable condition . These phrases may be used with reference to concerns about rapid global warming . Some astronomers use the expression runaway greenhouse effect to describe a situation where the climate deviates catastrophically and permanently from the original state -- as happened on Venus . Although these terms are rarely used in the peer-reviewed climatological literature , that literature does use the similar phrase `` runaway greenhouse effect '' , which refers specifically to climate changes that cause a planetary body 's water to boil off .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Runaway_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 147278\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 146308\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: CLAW hypothesis Content: The CLAW hypothesis proposes a negative feedback loop that operates between ocean ecosystems and the Earth 's climate . The hypothesis specifically proposes that particular phytoplankton that produce dimethyl sulfide are responsive to variations in climate forcing , and that these responses act to stabilise the temperature of the Earth 's atmosphere . The CLAW hypothesis was originally proposed by Robert Jay Charlson , James Lovelock , Meinrat Andreae and Stephen G. Warren , and takes its acronym from the first letter of their surnames .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"CLAW_hypothesis\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 145288\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Richard Lindzen Content: Richard Siegmund Lindzen ( born February 8 , 1940 ) is an American atmospheric physicist known for his work in the dynamics of the middle atmosphere , atmospheric tides , and ozone photochemistry . He has published more than 200 scientific papers and books . From 1983 until his retirement in 2013 , he was Alfred P. Sloan Professor of Meteorology at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology . He was a lead author of Chapter 7 , `` Physical Climate Processes and Feedbacks , '' of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Third Assessment Report on climate change . He has criticized the scientific consensus about climate change and what he has called `` climate alarmism . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Richard_Lindzen\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 143066\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Attribution_of_recent_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 140570\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate system Content: Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_system\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 138923\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hurricane dynamics and cloud microphysics Content: Tropical convective clouds play an important part in the Earth 's climate system . Convection and release of latent heat transports energy from the surface into the upper atmosphere . Clouds have a higher albedo than the underlying ocean , which causes more incoming solar radiation to be reflected back to space . Since the tops of tropical systems are much cooler than the surface of the Earth , the presence of high convective clouds cools the climate system . The most recognizable cloud system in the tropics is the hurricane . In addition to the important climatic effects of tropical weather systems , hurricanes possess enough energy to cause massive death and destruction . Therefore , their accurate prediction is of utmost importance . Cloud microphysics describe the structure and properties of clouds on the microscopic scale .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Hurricane_dynamics_and_cloud_microphysics\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 138062\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Cloud Mystery Content: The Cloud Mystery is a documentary by Danish director Lars Oxfeldt Mortensen . It explores the published theory by Danish scientist Henrik Svensmark on how galactic cosmic rays and solar activity affects cloud cover , and how this influences the earth 's climate . Also known as Klimamysteriet in Danish . This documentary presents the work done to develop the theory that cloud cover change is caused by variations in cosmic rays as the major originator of global climate variation . It also mentions that these scientist to not subscribe to the view that human influence and the effect of greenhouse gases as significant drivers of climate . However , the focus is on the work they have done and not on other climate theories like anthropogenic global warming for instance .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Cloud_Mystery\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 137756\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Glacier mass balance Content: Crucial to the survival of a glacier is its mass balance or surface mass balance ( SMB ) , the difference between accumulation and ablation ( sublimation and melting ) . Climate change may cause variations in both temperature and snowfall , causing changes in the surface mass balance . Changes in mass balance control a glacier 's long-term behavior and are the most sensitive climate indicators on a glacier . From 1980 -- 2012 the mean cumulative mass loss of glaciers reporting mass balance to the World Glacier Monitoring Service is − 16 m . This includes 23 consecutive years of negative mass balances . A glacier with a sustained negative balance is out of equilibrium and will retreat , while one with a sustained positive balance is out of equilibrium and will advance . Glacier retreat results in the loss of the low elevation region of the glacier . Since higher elevations are cooler than lower ones , the disappearance of the lowest portion of the glacier reduces overall ablation , thereby increasing mass balance and potentially reestablishing equilibrium . However , if the mass balance of a significant portion of the accumulation zone of the glacier is negative , it is in disequilibrium with the local climate . Such a glacier will melt away with a continuation of this local climate . The key symptom of a glacier in disequilibrium is thinning along the entire length of the glacier . For example , Easton Glacier ( pictured below ) will likely shrink to half its size , but at a slowing rate of reduction , and stabilize at that size , despite the warmer temperature , over a few decades . However , the Grinnell Glacier ( pictured below ) will shrink at an increasing rate until it disappears . The difference is that the upper section of Easton Glacier remains healthy and snow-covered , while even the upper section of the Grinnell Glacier is bare , melting and has thinned . Small glaciers with shallow slopes such as Grinnell Glacier are most likely to fall into disequilibrium if there is a change in the local climate . In the case of positive mass balance , the glacier will continue to advance expanding its low elevation area , resulting in more melting . If this still does not create an equilibrium balance the glacier will continue to advance . If a glacier is near a large body of water , especially an ocean , the glacier may advance until iceberg calving losses bring about equilibrium .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Glacier_mass_balance\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 135079\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change and agriculture Content: -RSB- Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes , both of which take place on a global scale . Climate change affects agriculture in a number of ways , including through changes in average temperatures , rainfall , and climate extremes ( e.g. , heat waves ) ; changes in pests and diseases ; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations ; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods ; and changes in sea level . Climate change is already affecting agriculture , with effects unevenly distributed across the world . Future climate change will likely negatively affect crop production in low latitude countries , while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative . Climate change will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups , such as the poor . Agriculture contributes to climate change by ( 1 ) anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , and ( 2 ) by the conversion of non-agricultural land ( e.g. , forests ) into agricultural land . Agriculture , forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25 % to global annual emissions in 2010 . There are a range of policies that can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture , and to reduce GHG emissions from the agriculture sector .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_and_agriculture\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 134403\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Positive feedback Content: Positive feedback is a process that occurs in a feedback loop in which the effects of a small disturbance on a system include an increase in the magnitude of the perturbation . That is , A produces more of B which in turn produces more of A . In contrast , a system in which the results of a change act to reduce or counteract it has negative feedback . Both concepts play an important role in science and engineering , including biology , chemistry , and cybernetics . Mathematically , positive feedback is defined as a positive loop gain around a closed loop of cause and effect . That is , positive feedback is in phase with the input , in the sense that it adds to make the input larger . Positive feedback tends to cause system instability . When the loop gain is positive and above 1 , there will typically be exponential growth , increasing oscillations , chaotic behavior or other divergences from equilibrium . System parameters will typically accelerate towards extreme values , which may damage or destroy the system , or may end with the system latched into a new stable state . Positive feedback may be controlled by signals in the system being filtered , damped , or limited , or it can be cancelled or reduced by adding negative feedback . Positive feedback is used in digital electronics to force voltages away from intermediate voltages into ' 0 ' and ' 1 ' states . On the other hand , thermal runaway is a positive feedback that can destroy semiconductor junctions . Positive feedback in chemical reactions can increase the rate of reactions , and in some cases can lead to explosions . Positive feedback in mechanical design causes tipping-point , or ` over-centre ' , mechanisms to snap into position , for example in switches and locking pliers . Out of control , it can cause bridges to collapse . Positive feedback in economic systems can cause boom-then-bust cycles . A familiar example of positive feedback is the loud squealing or howling sound produced by audio feedback in public address systems : the microphone picks up sound from its own loudspeakers , amplifies it , and sends it through the speakers again .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Positive_feedback\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 133017\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Robert D. Cess Content: Robert D. Cess is professor emeritus of atmospheric sciences at Stony Brook University . He earned his bachelor of science degree in mechanical engineering from Oregon State University and his master 's degree from Purdue University in Indiana in 1956 . Cess received a Ph.D. from the University of Pittsburgh in 1959 . He is a recognized leader in the fields of climate change and atmospheric radiation transfer . His research interest involve modeling of climate feedbacks that can either amplify or diminish global climate change , and interpreting surface and satellite remote sensing data . He has been a part of studies which have found problems with the ability of model the transmission of shortwave radiation through a cloud-free atmosphere , and designed an experiment to test the accuracy of the models . They reported that they found agreement between the models and the observations of clear-sky shortwave radiation at the surface for the period studied , 1985 to 1988 . Cess was a lead author of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and worked with the National Science Foundation on understanding greenhouse warming and its associated policy implications .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Robert_D._Cess\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 132027\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 131680\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 131656\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cool tropics paradox Content: The cool tropics paradox refers to an apparent difference between modeled estimates of tropical temperatures during warm , ice-free periods of the Cretaceous and Eocene , and the colder temperatures which proxies suggested were present . The long-standing paradox was resolved when novel proxy derived temperatures showed significantly warmer tropics during past greenhouse climates . The low-gradient problem , i.e. the very warm polar regions with respect to present day , is still an issue for state-of-the-art climate models .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Cool_tropics_paradox\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 130897\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 129579\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_potential\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 128759\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Radiative forcing Content: Radiative forcing or climate forcing is the difference between insolation ( sunlight ) absorbed by the Earth and energy radiated back to space . Typically , radiative forcing is quantified at the tropopause in units of watts per square meter of the Earth 's surface . Positive forcing ( incoming energy exceeding outgoing energy ) warms the system , while negative forcing ( outgoing energy exceeding incoming energy ) cools it . Causes of radiative forcing include changes in insolation and the concentrations of radiatively active gases , commonly known as greenhouse gases and aerosols .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Radiative_forcing\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 127586\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cloud forcing Content: Cloud forcing ( sometimes described as cloud radiative forcing or cloud radiative effect ) is , in meteorology , the difference between the radiation budget components for average cloud conditions and cloud-free conditions . Much of the interest in cloud forcing relates to its role as a feedback process in the present period of global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Cloud_forcing\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 126554\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate inertia Content: Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_inertia\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 125981\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Electrothermal feedback Content: In electronics , electrothermal feedback is the interaction of the electric current and the temperature in a device with a temperature-dependent electrical resistance . This interaction arises from Joule heating . The temperature-dependence of the electrical resistance is described by the derivative of the resistance with respect to temperature dR/dT . Semiconductors typically exhibit a negative dR/dT . Superconductors exhibit a large positive dR/dT on the superconducting phase transition . Normal ( non-superconducting ) metals typically exhibit a positive dR/dT that decreases to zero at very low temperatures . If a device has a positive dR/dT , an increase in temperature ( for example , due to thermal fluctuations or the absorption of a photon ) will increase the electrical resistance R . If the device is biased with a constant voltage V , this increase in resistance will decrease the Joule power P = V2/R . The decrease in Joule heating will cause the device to return to its equilibrium temperature . This is known as negative electrothermal feedback , as the change in Joule heating opposes the change in temperature . If the device is instead biased with a constant current I , the Joule power P = I2R will increase if the temperature increases . Thus the Joule heating amplifies a change in temperature , an effect known as positive electrothermal feedback . The situation is reversed for the case of a negative dR/dT . Electrothermal feedback is important for describing the performance of several types of photodetectors such as the bolometer , the transition edge sensor , and the superconducting nanowire single-photon detector .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Electrothermal_feedback\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 125940\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation in the United States Content: The El Niño -- Southern Oscillation affects the location of the jet stream , which alters rainfall patterns across the West , Midwest , the Southeast , and throughout the tropics . The shift in the jet stream also leads to shifts in the occurrence of severe weather , and the number of tropical cyclones expected within the tropics in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans affected by changes in the ocean temperature and the subtropical jet stream . The winter will have a negative phase according to the Arctic oscillation ( AO ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_the_El_Niño–Southern_Oscillation_in_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 125437\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Plant-soil feedback Content: Plant-soil feedback is a process where plants alter the biotic and abiotic qualities of soil they grow in , which then alters the ability of plants to grow in that soil in the future . Negative plant-soil feedback occurs when plants are less able to grow in soil that was previously occupied by a member of the same species , and positive plant-soil feedback occurs when plants are more able to grow in soil that was previously occupied by a member of the same species . Although it was originally assumed that negative plant-soil feedback was caused by plants depleting the soil of nutrients , recent work has suggested that a major cause of plant-soil feedback is a buildup of soil-borne pathogens . Mutualism and allelopathy are also thought to cause plant-soil feedback . Studies have shown that , on average , plant-soil feedback tends to be negative ; however , there have been many notable exceptions , such as many invasive species . Negative plant-soil feedback is thought to be an important factor in helping plants to coexist . If a plant is overly abundant , then soil pathogens and other negative factors will become common , hurting its growth . Similarly , if a plant becomes overly rare , then so too will its soil pathogens and other negative factors , helping its growth . This negative feedback will help populations to stay in the community . Negative plant-soil feedback has been called a particular case of the Janzen-Connell hypothesis .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Plant-soil_feedback\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 124604\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Negative-feedback amplifier Content: A negative-feedback amplifier ( or feedback amplifier ) is an electronic amplifier that subtracts a fraction of its output from its input , so that negative feedback opposes the original signal . The applied negative feedback improves performance ( gain stability , linearity , frequency response , step response ) and reduces sensitivity to parameter variations due to manufacturing or environment . Because of these advantages , many amplifiers and control systems use negative feedback . An idealized negative-feedback amplifier as shown in the diagram is a system of three elements ( see Figure 1 ) : an amplifier with gain AOL , a feedback network β , which senses the output signal and possibly transforms it in some way ( for example by attenuating or filtering it ) , a summing circuit that acts as a subtractor ( the circle in the figure ) , which combines the input and the transformed output .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Negative-feedback_amplifier\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 124083\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change (general concept) Content: Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth\\\\'s energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth\\\\'s energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling.\\\\nThe energy moving through Earth\\\\'s climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region\\\\'s climate. Such changes can be the result of \\\"internal variability\\\", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system\\\\'s components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism.\\\\nClimate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_(general_concept)\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 123308\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cryosphere Content: The cryosphere ( from the Greek κρύος kryos , `` cold '' , `` frost '' or `` ice '' and σφαῖρα sphaira , `` globe , ball '' ) is those portions of Earth 's surface where water is in solid form , including sea ice , lake ice , river ice , snow cover , glaciers , ice caps , ice sheets , and frozen ground ( which includes permafrost ) . Thus , there is a wide overlap with the hydrosphere . The cryosphere is an integral part of the global climate system with important linkages and feedbacks generated through its influence on surface energy and moisture fluxes , clouds , precipitation , hydrology , atmospheric and oceanic circulation . Through these feedback processes , the cryosphere plays a significant role in the global climate and in climate model response to global changes . The term deglaciation describes the retreat of cryospheric features . Cryology is the study of cryospheres .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Cryosphere\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 122501\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tipping points in the climate system Content: A tipping point in the climate system is a threshold that, when exceeded, can lead to large changes in the state of the system. Potential tipping points have been identified in the physical climate system, in impacted ecosystems, and sometimes in both. For instance, feedback from the global carbon cycle is a driver for the transition between glacial and interglacial periods, with orbital forcing providing the initial trigger. Earth's geologic temperature record includes many more examples of geologically rapid transitions between different climate states.Climate tipping points are of particular interest in reference to concerns about global warming in the modern era. Possible tipping point behaviour has been identified for the global mean surface temperature by studying self-reinforcing feedbacks and the past behavior of Earth's climate system. Self-reinforcing feedbacks in the carbon cycle and planetary reflectivity could trigger a cascading set of tipping points that lead the world into a hothouse climate state.Large-scale components of the Earth system that may pass a tipping point have been referred to as tipping elements. Tipping elements are found in the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets, possibly causing tens of meters of sea level rise. These tipping points are not always abrupt. For example, at some level of temperature rise the melt of a large part of the Greenland ice sheet and/or West Antarctic Ice Sheet will become inevitable; but the ice sheet itself may persist for many centuries. Some tipping elements, like the collapse of ecosystems, are irreversible.\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 121803\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wind-induced surface heat exchange Content: The wind-induced surface heat exchange ( WISHE ) is a positive feedback mechanism between the ocean and atmosphere in which a stronger ocean-to-atmosphere heat flux results in a stronger atmospheric circulation , which results in a strong heat flux . It has been hypothesized that this is the mechanism by which low pressure areas in the tropics develop into tropical cyclones .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Wind-induced_surface_heat_exchange\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 121172\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate variability Content: Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth's energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth's energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling. The energy moving through Earth's climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region's climate. Such changes can be the result of \\\"internal variability\\\", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system's components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism. Climate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_variability\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 120870\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference) Content: In 2005, an international conference titled Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and global warming and its effects. The conference name was derived from Article 2 of the charter for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The conference explored the possible impacts at different levels of greenhouse gas emissions and how the climate might be stabilized at a desired level. The conference took place under the United Kingdom's presidency of the G8, with the participation of around 200 \\\"internationally renowned\\\" scientists from 30 countries. It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter, from 1 February to 3 February. The conference was one of many meetings leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, at which the international community agreed to limit global warming to no more than 2C in order to have a 50-50 chance of avoiding dangerous climate change. However, a 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting it is below the 2 degree temperature target.\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change_(2005_conference)\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 120704\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Chilling Stars Content: The Chilling Stars is a non-fiction book about the possible causes and effects of global climate change by Henrik Svensmark and Nigel Calder . The paperback version was published by Totem Books on March 19 , 2003 . An updated version titled The Chilling Stars : A New Theory of Climate Change was published in 2007 . Svensmark is otherwise known as a Danish physicist and professor while Calder has worked as a science journalist . The authors argue that cloud cover changes caused by variations in cosmic rays are a major contributor to global temperature increases , and they state that human influences have been exaggerated .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Chilling_Stars\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 120577\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cirrus cloud thinning Content: Cirrus cloud thinning is a proposed form of climate engineering . Cirrus clouds are high cold ice that , like other clouds , both reflect sunlight and absorb warming infrared radiation . However , they differ from other types of clouds in that , on average , infrared absorption outweighs sunlight reflection , resulting in a net warming effect on the climate . Therefore , thinning or removing these clouds would reduce their heat trapping capacity , resulting in a cooling effect on Earth 's climate . This could be a potential tool to reduce anthropogenic global warming . Cirrus cloud thinning is an alternative category of climate engineering , in addition to solar radiation management and greenhouse gas removal .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Cirrus_cloud_thinning\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 120210\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 119187\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Albrecht effect Content: The Albrecht effect describes how cloud condensation nuclei ( CCN ) , possibly from anthropogenic pollution , may increase cloud lifetime and hence increase the amount of solar radiation reflected from clouds . Because it does not directly interact with incoming or outgoing radiation , it has an indirect effect on climate . Aerosol particles act as CCNs creating more droplets of a smaller size . These take more time to coalesce to raindrop size ( > 100μm ) , reducing precipitation efficiency and hence increasing the lifetime of the cloud . The increased scattering of incoming radiation leads to a cooling of -0.3 to -1.4 Wm − 2 . This effect is not as well understood as the Twomey effect . There are many other effects , indirect and semi-direct aerosol effects resulting in a large uncertainty in the radiative forcing due to aerosols .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Albrecht_effect\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 119107\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cloud formation and climate change Content: Nephology ( -LSB- nɪˈfɒlədʒi -RSB- from the Greek word nephos for ` cloud ' ) is the study of clouds and cloud formation . British meteorologist Luke Howard was a major researcher within this field , establishing a cloud classification system . While this branch of meteorology still exists today , the term nephology , or nephologist is rarely used . The term came into use at the end of the nineteenth century , and fell out of common use by the middle of the twentieth . Recently , interest in nephology ( if not the name ) has surged as many meteorologists have begun to focus on the relationship between clouds and global warming . Since the late 1990s , some have suggested that when high solar activity lowers levels of cosmic rays , that in turn reduces cloud cover and warms the planet . Others say that there is no statistical evidence for such an effect . Some nephologists believe that an increase in global temperature could decrease the thickness and brightness ( ability to reflect light energy ) , which would further increase global temperature . Recently research has been going on at CERN 's CLOUD facility to study the effects of the solar cycle and cosmic rays on cloud formation .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Cloud_formation_and_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 118424\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change and gender Content: Climate change and gender is concerned with gender differences in the context of climate change and the complex and intersecting power relations arising from it . By altering the ecosystems of the planet , climate change , and more specifically global warming , directly impacts the human race . These effects vary for different segments of the population , specifically for people of different genders . In many cases , women are more vulnerable to the negative effects of climate change because of their lower social status in most countries . Many impoverished women , especially those in the developing world , are farmers and depend on the natural environment for subsistence and income . By further limiting their already constrained access to physical , social , political , and fiscal resources , climate change often burdens women more than men . Locally and globally , both governments and non-governmental organizations respond to climate change . Some of these efforts focus on mitigating the effects of climate change while others aid societies in adapting their lifestyles to changes in their environment . Most policy responses in the late 20th and early 21st century either did not focus on the social effects of climate change or did not consider gender in these efforts . Analysis of gender in climate change , however , not only means applying a binary male/female system of analysis on sets of quantitative data but also scrutinizing discursive constructions that shapes power relations connected to climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_and_gender\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 118320\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change and poverty Content: In an ever-progressing world with an increasing demand for energy and animal agriculture , it is difficult to avoid climate change and its impacts on societies both locally and globally . Climate change affects social development factors , such as , poverty , infrastructure , technology , security , and economics across the globe . Although climate change affects everything we see around us , the interrelation between climate change and social vulnerability and inequality is particularly evident in impoverished communities . In particular , impoverished communities experience reductions in safe drinking water as well as food security as a result of climate change ( OECD 2013 ) . These typically rural , isolated communities do not exhibit sufficient financial and technical capacities to manage the risks associated with climate change ( climate risk ) ( Skoufias 2012 ) . Energy development and policy alteration could adjust the severity of climate change impacts ; this is being tested now , as renewable energy sources develop .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_and_poverty\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 118070\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carnian Pluvial Event Content: The Carnian Pluvial Event ( CPE ) is a major global climate change and biotic turnover that occurred during the Carnian , early Late Triassic , ~ 230 million years ago . The base of the CPE is marked by a ~ 0.4 % negative shift in carbon stable isotopes of fossil molecules ( n-alkanes ) from higher plants and total organic carbon . A ~ 0.15 % negative shift in oxygen stable isotopes of conodont apatite suggests a global warming . Major changes in organisms responsible for calcium carbonate production occurred during the CPE . A halt of carbonate sedimentation is observed in deep water settings of Southern Italy that was probably caused by the rise of the Carbonate Compensation Depth ( CCD ) . High extinction rates occurred among ammonoids , conodonts , bryozoa , and crinoids . Major evolutionary innovations followed the CPE , as the first occurrence of dinosaurs , calcareous nannofossils and scleractinian corals .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Carnian_Pluvial_Event\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 117850\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals Content: Climate change has had a significant direct effect on terrestrial animals , by being a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction . The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago . This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles . Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history . However , with the recent increased emission of CO2 in the Earth 's atmosphere , abrupt climate change has occurred . It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present ( Van Hoof 2006 ) . Animals have had specific responses to climate change . Species respond to climate changes by migration , adaptation , or if neither of those occur , death . These migrations can sometimes follow an animal 's preferred temperature , elevation , soil , etc. , as said terrain moves due to climate change . Adaptation can be either genetic or phenological , and death can occur in a local population only ( extirpation ) or as an entire species , otherwise known as extinction . Climate changes is projected to affect individual organisms , populations , species distributions and ecosystem composition and function both directly ( ex . Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation ) and indirectly ( through climate changing the intensity and frequency of disturbances such as wildfires and severe storms ) ( IPCC 2002 ) . Every organism has a unique set of preferences or requirements , a niche and biodiversity has been tied to the diversity of animals ' niches . These can include or be affected by temperature , aridity , resource availability , habitat requirements , enemies , soil characteristics , competitors , and pollinators . Since the factors that compose a niche can be so complex and interconnected , the niches of many animals are bound to be affected by climate change ( Parmesan Yohe 2003 ) . One study done by Camille Parmesan and Gary Yohe from University of Texas , Austin shows the global fingerprint of climate change on natural systems . The results of their global analysis of 334 species were recorded to demonstrate the correlation of patterns consistent with global climate change of the 20th century . Using the IPCC 's ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) ` levels of confidence ' , this study proved significant nonrandom behavioral changes due to global climate change with very high confidence ( > 95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_climate_change_on_terrestrial_animals\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 117664\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Abrupt climate change Content: An abrupt climate change occurs when the climate system is forced to transition to a new climate state at a rate that is determined by the climate system energy-balance , and which is more rapid than the rate of change of the external forcing . Past events include the end of the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse , Younger Dryas , Dansgaard-Oeschger events , Heinrich events and possibly also the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum . The term is also used within the context of global warming to describe sudden climate change that is detectable over the time-scale of a human lifetime . One proposed reason for the observed abrupt climate change is that feedback loops within the climate system both enhance small perturbations and cause a variety of stable states . Timescales of events described as ` abrupt ' may vary dramatically . Changes recorded in the climate of Greenland at the end of the Younger Dryas , as measured by ice-cores , imply a sudden warming of + 10 C-change within a timescale of a few years . Other abrupt changes are the + 4 C-change on Greenland 11,270 years ago or the abrupt + 6 C-change warming 22,000 years ago on Antarctica . By contrast , the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum may have initiated anywhere between a few decades and several thousand years . Finally , Earth Systems models project that under ongoing greenhouse gas emissions as early as 2047 , the Earth 's near surface temperature could depart from the range of variability in the last 150 years , affecting over 3 billion people and most places of great species diversity on Earth .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Abrupt_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 117519\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Marine cloud brightening Content: Marine cloud brightening is a proposed solar radiation management climate engineering technique that would make clouds brighter , reflecting a small fraction of incoming sunlight back into space in order to offset anthropogenic global warming . Along with stratospheric aerosol injection , it is one of the two solar radiation management methods that may most feasibly have a substantial climate impact . The intention is that increasing the Earth 's albedo , in combination with greenhouse gas emissions reduction , carbon dioxide removal , and adaptation , would reduce climate change and its risks to people and the environment . If implemented , the cooling effect is expected to be felt rapidly and to be reversible on fairly short time scales . However , technical barriers remain to large-scale marine cloud brightening . There are also risks with such modification of complex climate systems .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Marine_cloud_brightening\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 116425\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Janzen–Connell hypothesis Content: The Janzen -- Connell hypothesis is a widely accepted explanation for the maintenance of tree species biodiversity in tropical rainforests . It was published independently in the early 1970s by Daniel Janzen and Joseph Connell . According to their hypothesis , host-specific herbivores , pathogens , or other natural enemies ( often referred to as predators ) make the areas near a parent tree ( the seed producing tree ) inhospitable for the survival of seedlings . These natural enemies are referred to as ` distance-responsive predators ' if they kill seeds or seedlings near the parent tree , or ` density-dependent predators ' if they kill seeds or seedlings where they are most abundant ( which is typically near the parent tree ) . Such predators can prevent any one species from dominating the landscape , because if that species is too common , there will be few safe places for its seedlings to survive . However , because the predators are host-specific ( also called specialists ) , they will not harm other tree species . As a result , if a species becomes very rare , then more predator-free areas will become available , giving that species ' seedlings a competitive advantage . This negative feedback allows the tree species to coexist , and can be classified as a stabilizing mechanism . The Janzen-Connell hypothesis has been called a special case of keystone predation , predator partitioning or the pest pressure hypothesis . The pest pressure hypothesis states that plant diversity is maintained by specialist natural enemies . The Janzen-Connell hypothesis expands on this , by claiming that the natural enemies are not only specialists , but also are distance-responsive or density-responsive . This mechanism has been proposed as promoting diversity of forests as it promotes survival of a number of different plant species within one localized region . While previously thought to explain the high diversity of tropical forests in particular , subsequent research has demonstrated the applicability of the Janzen -- Connell hypothesis in temperate settings as well . The Black Cherry is one such example of a temperate forest species whose growth patterns can still be explained by the Janzen -- Connell hypothesis .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Janzen–Connell_hypothesis\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 115011\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_the_Arctic\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 114983\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Future_sea_level\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 114693\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Coming Global Superstorm Content: The Coming Global Superstorm ( ISBN 0-671-04190-8 ) is a 1999 book by Art Bell and Whitley Strieber , which warns that global warming might produce sudden and catastrophic climatic effects . First , the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic drift would generate a cordon of warm water around the North Pole , which in turn , holds in a frozen mass of Arctic air . Second , if the North Atlantic drift were to shut down , that barrier would fail , releasing a flood of frozen air into the Northern Hemisphere , causing a sudden and drastic temperature shift . The book discusses a possible cause of the failure of the Gulf Stream : the melting of the polar ice caps could drastically affect the salinity of the North Atlantic drift by dumping a large quantity of freshwater into the world 's oceans . Bell and Strieber explain the possibility that such current destabilizations have occurred before , as well as seemingly impossible engineering feats by the ancients . Among their examples is the island city of Nan Madol . The book claims that its construction , with exacting tolerances and extremely heavy basalt materials , necessitates a high degree of technical competency . Since no such society exists in the modern record or even , in legend , the society must have been destroyed by dramatic means . While other explanations beside a global meteorological event are possible , a correlating evidence set is presented in the woolly mammoth . Strieber and Bell assert that since mammoths have been found preserved with food still in their mouths and undigested in their stomachs , these animals must have been killed quickly , in otherwise normal conditions . They were preserved so well by quick freezing , which is taken as evidence of a rapid onset of a global blizzard or similar event . Interspersed with the analytical parts of the book are a series of interlinked short fictional scenarios , written in italics , describing what might transpire today if a destabilization of the North Atlantic Current were to occur . The fictional accounts of `` current events '' as the meteorological situation deteriorates provided background and inspiration for the 2004 science fiction film The Day After Tomorrow . Indeed , some events from the book are portrayed in the film with little modification .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Coming_Global_Superstorm\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 113705\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Rare biosphere Content: Changes in the biodiversity of an ecosystem , whether marine or terrestrial , may affect its efficiency and function . Disruption due to climate change , or other anthropogenic perturbations can result in decreased productivity and in some cases lead to disruptions in global biogeochemical cycles . The possible ramifications of changes in ecosystem biodiversity are not well characterized or understood , and it may be possible that disruption , up to a point , will have little to no effect given the redundancy within an ecosystem . This is particularly troubling in the context of microbial ecosystems . The dynamics of microbial ecosystems are tightly coupled to biogeochemical processes , and any perturbation within this system in particular could result in dramatic changes ( Kirchman , 2008 ) . For example , the microbial loop within the marine context is responsible for the decomposition of organics and recycling of nutrients back into the ecosystem . This allows for other organisms , such as phytoplankton , to reuse essential nutrients , like nitrogen , and continue production ( Kirchman 2008 ) . Without this recycled nitrogen , phytoplankton would be highly limited in their production rates , in turn limiting the growth of grazers . The effects of such an occurrence would reverberate throughout the food web , and nitrogen cycle . It is important to establish a base line of microbial diversity within ecosystems in order to gauge possible change due to climate change and the possible outcomes . Recent use of high-throughput sequencing techniques has broadened the scope of biodiversity , with the discovery of what has been titled the `` Rare Biosphere '' ( Sogin et al. , 2006 ) . Previous attempts to characterize in situ abundance have been made through pure culture and molecular techniques ( Fuhrman , 2009 ) . Pure culture providing a very narrow picture of some of the rarer species present , < 1-5 % of bacteria present ( Fuhrman , 2009 ) . Molecular techniques , such as Sanger sequencing , resulting in a much broader scope but highlighting the more abundant species present ( Heidelberg et al. , 2010 ) ( Pedros-Alio , 2007 ) . Neither technique captures all of the diversity present . Alternatively high throughput sequencing , `` tag sequencing '' , divides unique rRNA tag sequences into operational taxonomic units ( OTUs ) based upon similarities in mitochondrial-encoded cytochrome oxidases ( Sogin et al. , 2006 ) . Both Sanger , shot gun sequencing , and tag sequencing organize sequences into OTUs ( Heidelberg et al. , 2010 ) . However , it is the resolution that tag sequencing provides that sets it apart , resulting from the increased efficiency in serial analysis ( Heidelberg et al. , 2010 ) . This efficiency increase is made possible through the use of internal primer sequences resulting in restriction-digest overhanging sequences ( Heidelberg et al. , 2010 ) . Though OTUs provide a means of distinguishing the possible number of phylogenetic groups , it is not possible to deduce phylogenetic relationships based upon OTU 's . Tags associated with OTUs must be cross-referenced with gene banks , in order for tags to be phylotyped and relationships established ( Sogin et al. , 2006 ) . The result of tag sequencing has been to produce orders of magnitude larger estimates of OTUs present in ecosystems , producing a long tail on species abundance curves ( Patterson , 2009 ) ( Pedrós-Alío , 2007 ) . This long tail accounts for less than .1 % of the abundant species in a particular ecosystem . At the same time it represents thousands of populations accounting for most of the phylogenetic diversity in an ecosystem . This low-abundance high-diversity group is what is now called the `` Rare Biosphere '' . Using this method , Sogin et al. 's study of microbial diversity in North Atlantic deep water produced an estimate of 5266 different taxa ( Sogin et al. , 2006 ) . This is particularly dramatic considering that previous studies employing more traditional PCR cloning techniques have resulted in estimates of up to 500 ( Pedrós-Alío , 2007 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Rare_biosphere\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 113634\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Intermediate General Circulation Model Content: The Reading Intermediate General Circulation Model ( IGCM ) , is a simplified or `` intermediate '' Global climate model , which is developed by members of the Department of Meteorology at the University of Reading , and by members of the Stratospheric Dynamics and Chemistry Group of the Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences at McGill University . The IGCM is based on the primitive-equations baroclinic model of Hoskins and Simmons , which has been converted to run on workstations . Several variations have been developed by adjusting representations of the physics . IGCM1 : Portable version of the original spectral , dry baroclinic model formulated in sigma-levels , with an option for Newtonian relaxation and Rayleigh friction , with no surface . IGCM2 : Includes simplified moist parameterisations , a cheap `` radiation scheme '' ( i.e. constant tropospheric cooling ) , a bulk formulation scheme for the boundary layer , fixed surface temperatures and humidity , uniform vertical diffusion , and can advect tracers . IGCM3x : Intermediate climate model that includes more sophisticated moisture/clouds parameterisations , a radiation scheme with various gas absorbers and a more realistic surface with an orography and land and sea surface schemes . The adiabatic version , IGCM1 , is freely available . Access to IGCM2 and IGCM3 is restricted to members of the Department of Meteorology at the University of Reading and collaborating researchers .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Intermediate_General_Circulation_Model\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 113543\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Michael Schlesinger Content: Dr. Michael Earl Schlesinger ( born February 23 , 1943 ) is a Professor of Atmospheric Sciences and director of the Climate Research Group at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign . He received his Ph.D. ( meteorology ) in 1976 from the University of California , Los Angeles . Michael Schlesinger is an expert in the modeling , simulation and analysis of climate and climate change , with interests in simulating and understanding the climates of the geologic past and possible future climates resulting from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases and human-made aerosols . He has been instrumental in developing a range of simple and complex climate models , which have been used by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and the Energy Modeling Forum . His research currently focuses on : ( 1 ) simulating and understanding the effects on climate of a human-induced melting of the Greenland ice sheet ; ( 2 ) simulating and understanding the coupled climate-chemistry system , including the influences of the Sun - both irradiance and energetic electron precipitation - and volcanoes ; ( 3 ) understanding and reducing the uncertainty in the estimation of climate sensitivity and climate feedbacks ; and ( 4 ) performing integrative assessment of climate change , including further development of the robust adaptive decision strategy for mitigating and adapting to human-induced climate change . He is known for his work on oscillations in the global climate system , on estimating the climate sensitivity , and on seasonal climate change . He has edited four books , most recently Human-induced climate change : An interdisciplinary assessment . He regularly appears in the media .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Michael_Schlesinger\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 113509\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Positive Development Program Content: The C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group 's Climate Positive Development Program ( Climate Positive ) was launched in May 2009 in partnership with the Clinton Climate Initiative and the U.S. Green Building Council . The program brings together leading district-scale new-build and regeneration projects working to achieve `` Climate Positive '' -- or net carbon negative -- outcomes in cities around the world . As part of the C40 's Sustainable Communities Initiative , it aims to create a model for large-scale urban communities and to support projects that serve as urban laboratories for cities seeking to grow in ways that are environmentally sustainable , climate resilient , and economically viable . Climate Positive is an exclusive program , with a competitive application process , and currently comprises 17 global projects that will collectively reduce the emissions impact of more than one million people . The cities in which the Climate Positive projects are located support the implementation process locally and share best practices globally through participation in the C40 Climate Positive Network. , The projects are in different stages of development , but share key characteristics like high densities , highly efficient buildings , mixed-use zoning and transit accessibility .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Positive_Development_Program\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 113037\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Stratospheric aerosol injection (climate engineering) Content: The ability of stratospheric sulfate aerosols to create a global dimming effect has made them a possible candidate for use in solar radiation management climate engineering projects to limit the effect and impact of climate change due to rising levels of greenhouse gases . Delivery of precursor sulfide gases such as sulfuric acid , hydrogen sulfide or sulfur dioxide by artillery , aircraft and balloons has been proposed . It presently appears that this proposed method could counter most climatic changes , take effect rapidly , have very low direct implementation costs , and be reversible in its direct climatic effects . One study calculated the impact of injecting sulfate particles , or aerosols , every one to four years into the stratosphere in amounts equal to those lofted by the volcanic eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 , but did not address the many technical and political challenges involved in potential solar radiation management efforts . If found to be economically , environmentally and technologically viable , such injections could provide a `` grace period '' of up to 20 years before major cutbacks in greenhouse gas emissions would be required , the study concludes . It has been suggested that the direct delivery of precursors could be achieved using sulfide gases such as dimethyl sulfide , sulfur dioxide , carbonyl sulfide , or hydrogen sulfide . These compounds would be delivered using artillery , aircraft ( such as the high-flying F-15C ) or balloons , and result in the formation of compounds with the sulfate anion SO42 − . According to estimates , `` one kilogram of well placed sulfur in the stratosphere would roughly offset the warming effect of several hundred thousand kilograms of carbon dioxide . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Stratospheric_aerosol_injection_(climate_engineering)\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 111698\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Dennis Tirpak Content: Dennis Tirpak is an expert on Climate Change . He is a Senior Fellow at the World Resources Institute . He was the director of Global Climate Change Policy at the United States Environmental Protection Agency for ten years . He was the Coordinator of Science and Technology at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change for nine years . He was the head of the climate change unit at the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development ( OECD ) for three years . He has also worked on the Montreal Protocol and held positions in industry with Texaco and Alcoa . He is one of the coordinating lead authors of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , which shared the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize with former US Vice President Al Gore . He advises national governments and industry as an associate with the International Institute for Sustainable Development in Canada and a senior fellow at the World Resources Institute in Washington , D.C. He was the Chairman of The International Scientific Steering Committee for Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gas Concentrations which took place at the invitation of the British Prime Minister Tony Blair in 2005 . In 1989 he co-authored the first report to Congress , The Potential Effects Of Global Climate Change on the United States , and has written a scientific and policy history on climate change and contributed to many publications including the New York Times in an op-ed titled `` How Green is My Taxi '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Dennis_Tirpak\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 111654\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Condensation cloud Content: A transient condensation cloud , also called Wilson cloud , is observable at large explosions in humid air . When a nuclear weapon or a large amount of a conventional explosive is detonated in sufficiently humid air , the `` negative phase '' of the shock wave causes a rarefaction ( reduction in density ) of the air surrounding the explosion , but not contained within it . This rarefaction results in a temporary cooling of that air , which causes a condensation of some of the water vapor contained in it . When the pressure and the temperature return to normal , the Wilson cloud dissipates . Since heat does not leave the affected air mass , this change of pressure is adiabatic , with an associated change of temperature . In humid air , the drop in temperature in the most rarefied portion of the shock wave can bring the air temperature below its dew point , at which moisture condenses to form a visible cloud of microscopic water droplets . Since the pressure effect of the wave is reduced by its expansion ( the same pressure effect is spread over a larger radius ) , the vapor effect also has a limited radius . Such vapor can also be seen in low pressure regions during high -- g subsonic maneuvers of aircraft in humid conditions . Scientists observing the Operation Crossroads nuclear tests in 1946 at Bikini Atoll named that transitory cloud a `` Wilson cloud '' because of its similarity to the appearance of the inside of a Wilson cloud chamber , an instrument they would have been familiar with . ( The cloud chamber effect is caused by a temporary reduction in pressure in a closed system and marks the tracks of electrically-charged sub-atomic particles . ) Analysts of later nuclear bomb tests used the more general term condensation cloud . The shape of the shock wave , influenced by different speed in different altitudes , and the temperature and humidity of different atmospheric layers determines the appearance of the Wilson clouds . During nuclear tests , condensation rings around or above the fireball are commonly observed . Rings around the fireball may become stable and form rings around the rising stem of the mushroom cloud . The lifetime of the Wilson cloud during nuclear air bursts can be shortened by the thermal radiation from the fireball , which heats the cloud above the dew point and evaporates the droplets . The same kind of condensation cloud is sometimes seen above the wings of aircraft in a moist atmosphere . The top of a wing has a reduction of air pressure as part of the process of generating lift . This reduction in air pressure causes a cooling , just as above , and the condensation of water vapor . Hence , the small , transient clouds that appear . The vapor cone of a transonic aircraft is another example of a condensation cloud .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Condensation_cloud\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 111545\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Thermal runaway Content: Thermal runaway occurs in situations where an increase in temperature changes the conditions in a way that causes a further increase in temperature , often leading to a destructive result . It is a kind of uncontrolled positive feedback . In other words , `` thermal runaway '' describes a process which is accelerated by increased temperature , in turn releasing energy that further increases temperature . In chemistry ( and chemical engineering ) , it is associated with strongly exothermic reactions that are accelerated by temperature rise . In electrical engineering , thermal runaway is typically associated with increased current flow and power dissipation , although exothermic chemical reactions can be of concern here too . Thermal runaway can occur in civil engineering , notably when the heat released by large amounts of curing concrete is not controlled -LCB- Citation needed -RCB- . In astrophysics , runaway nuclear fusion reactions in stars can lead to nova and several types of supernova explosions , and also occur as a less dramatic event in the normal evolution of solar mass stars , the `` helium flash '' . There are also concerns regarding global warming that a global average increase of 3 -- 4 degrees Celsius above the preindustrial baseline could lead to a further unchecked increase in surface temperatures . For example , releases of methane , a greenhouse gas more potent than CO2 , from wetlands , melting permafrost and continental margin seabed clathrate deposits could be subject to positive feedback .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Thermal_runaway\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 111527\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cloud Content: In meteorology , a cloud is an aerosol comprising a visible mass of minute liquid droplets , frozen crystals , or particles suspended in the atmosphere above the surface of a planetary body . The droplets and crystals may be made of water or various chemicals . On Earth , clouds are formed as a result of saturation of the air when it is cooled to its dew point , or when it gains sufficient moisture ( usually in the form of water vapor ) from an adjacent source to raise the dew point to the ambient temperature . They are seen in the Earth 's homosphere ( which includes the troposphere , stratosphere , and mesosphere ) . Nephology is the science of clouds which is undertaken in the cloud physics branch of meteorology . There are two systems of naming clouds in their respective layers of the atmosphere ; Latin in the troposphere and mostly alpha-numeric above the troposphere . Cloud types in the troposphere , the atmospheric layer closest to Earth 's surface , have Latin names due to the universal adaptation of Luke Howard 's nomenclature . Formally proposed in 1802 , it became the basis of a modern international system that classifies clouds into five physical forms and three altitude levels ( formerly known as étages ) . These physical types , in approximate ascending order of convective activity , include stratiform sheets , cirriform wisps and patches , stratocumuliform layers ( mainly structured as rolls , ripples , and patches ) , cumuliform heaps , and very large cumulonimbiform heaps that often show complex structure . The physical forms are cross-classified by the altitude levels to produce ten basic genus-types , most of which can be divided into species , and subdivided into varieties . Two cirriform clouds that form higher up in the stratosphere and mesosphere have common names for their main types , but are sub-classified alpha-numerically . They are relatively uncommon and are mostly seen in the polar regions of Earth . Clouds have been observed in the atmospheres of other planets and moons in the Solar System and beyond . However , due to their different temperature characteristics , they are often composed of other substances such as methane , ammonia , and sulfuric acid as well as water . Homospheric types determined by cross-classification of forms and levels . '' Homospheric types include the ten tropospheric genera and two additional major types above the troposphere . The cumulus genus includes three variants as defined by vertical size .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Cloud\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 111164\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_cooling\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 111094\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"History_of_climate_change_science\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 110906\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of global warming on Australia Content: Predictions measuring the effects of global warming on Australia assert that global warming will negatively impact the continent 's environment , economy , and communities . Australia has been designated as one of the countries most vulnerable to climate change , according to the Stern Review and others , due partially to the importance of its agricultural sector and the prominence of its coast . Australia is vulnerable to the effects of global warming projected for the next 50 to 100 years because of its extensive arid and semi-arid areas , an already warm climate , high annual rainfall variability , and existing pressures on water supply . The continent 's high fire risk increases this susceptibility to change in temperature and climate . Additionally , Australia 's population is highly concentrated in coastal areas , and its important tourism industry depends on the health of the Great Barrier Reef and other fragile ecosystems . The impacts of climate change in Australia will be complex and to some degree uncertain , but increased foresight may enable the country to safeguard its future through planned mitigation and adaptation . Mitigation may reduce the ultimate extent of climate change and its impacts , but requires global solutions and cooperation , while adaptation can be performed at national and local levels .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_global_warming_on_Australia\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 110809\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Media_coverage_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 110435\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change and potatoes Content: Global warming is predicted to have significant effects on global potato production . Like many crops , potatoes are likely to be affected by changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide , temperature and precipitation , as well as interactions between these factors . As well as affecting potatoes directly , climate change will also affect the distributions and populations of many potato diseases and pests . Potato is one of the world 's most important food crops . Potato production must be adapted to climate change to avoid reductions in crop yields .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_and_potatoes\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 110314\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 110054\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ecological forecasting Content: Ecological forecasting uses knowledge of physics , ecology and physiology to predict how ecosystems will change in the future in response to environmental factors such as climate change . The ultimate goal of the approach is to provide people such as resource managers and designers of marine reserves with information that they can then use to respond , in advance , to future changes , a form of adaptation to global warming . One of the most important environmental factors for organisms today is global warming . Most physiological processes are affected by temperature , and so even small changes in weather and climate can lead to large changes in the growth , reproduction and survival of animals and plants . The scientific consensus is that the increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases due to human activity caused most of the warming observed since the start of the industrial era . These changes are in turn affecting human and natural ecosystems . One major challenge is to predict where , when and with what magnitude changes are likely to occur so that we can mitigate or at least prepare for them . Ecological forecasting applies existing knowledge of how animals and plants interact with their physical environment to ask how changes in environmental factors might result in changes to the ecosystems as a whole .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Ecological_forecasting\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 109590\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in South Korea Content: In recent decades most countries have been experiencing huge industrial progress . Urban and industrial areas in South Korea also had fast development from 1960s to 1980s . Industrialization and the increase in population have produced various pollutants and greenhouse gases , which are anthropogenic factors for climate change . South Korea is experiencing changes in climate parameters , including annual temperature , rainfall amounts , and precipitation . The most distinct climate change predicted for South Korea is an increase in the range of temperature fluctuation throughout the four seasons . The number of record minimum temperature days has decreased rapidly , and maximum precipitation during the summer has increased . Ongoing global climate change has produced local climate changes and extreme weather that affects : social , economy , industry , culture , and many other sectors . The increased possibility for new types of strong weather damage evokes the seriousness and the urgency of climate change . To quickly adapt to climate change , the South Korean government began an effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , and is one step closer to having a low-carbon based socio-economic nation .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_South_Korea\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 109050\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Vulnerable Forum Content: The Climate Vulnerable Forum ( CVF ) is a global partnership of countries that are disproportionately affected by the consequences of global warming . The forum addresses the negative effects of global warming as a result of heightened socioeconomic and environmental vulnerabilities . These countries actively seek a firm and urgent resolution to the current intensification of climate change , domestically and internationally . The CVF was formed to increase the accountability of industrialized nations for the consequences of global climate change . It also aims to exert additional pressure for action to tackle the challenge , which includes local action by countries considered susceptible . Political leaders involved in this partnership are `` using their status as those most vulnerable to climate change to punch far above their weight at the negotiating table '' . The governments which founded the CVF agree to national commitments to pursue low-carbon development and carbon neutrality . Ethiopia became the first African Chair of the Climate Vulnerable Forum during the CVF High-Level Climate Policy Forum held in the Senate of the Philippines on 15 August 2016 . The Philippines was the Chair of the Climate Vulnerable Forum during the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Paris ( COP21 ) and oversaw the adoption of the body 's Manila-Paris Declaration at the Third High-Level Meeting of the Forum on 30 November 2015 . The Manila-Paris Declaration articulated the common concerns and commitments of vulnerable countries and urged the strengthening of the UNFCCC goal of limiting warming to below 1.5 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels . During this meeting the membership of the Climate Vulnerable Forum expanded to include 23 new members . In 2015 , the twenty member countries in a forum chaired by the Philippines launched the official bloc of the forum , the ` V20 ' or ` Vulnerable Twenty ' , consisting of the top 20 nations from all over the world that are most affected by the catastrophes rooted from climate change . The members of the bloc are Afghanistan , Bangladesh , Barbados , Bhutan , Costa Rica , Ethiopia , Ghana , Kenya , Kiribati , Madagascar , Maldives , Nepal , Philippines , Rwanda , Saint Lucia , Tanzania , Timor-Leste , Tuvalu , Vanuatu and Vietnam . During the 2nd V20 Ministerial Dialogue in April 2016 in Washington DC , the V20 recognized the 23 new members that joined the CVF in 2015 as incoming members in the V20 initiative . These countries are currently and diversely affected by various climate change problems such as super storms , storm surges , tsunamis , droughts , famine due to climate factors , food shortage as by-product of climate change , power cutting , flash floods , mud slides , desertification , heatwaves , reduction of fresh water sources , and other effects of climate change . Climate change is globally believed and scientifically proven to have incurred from the economic activities of developed and developing nations and regions such as China , the United States , and Europe .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Vulnerable_Forum\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 109046\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global atmospheric electrical circuit Content: The global atmospheric electrical circuit is the continuous movement of electric current between the ionosphere and the earth 's surface . This flow is powered by thunderstorms , which cause a build-up of positive charge in the ionosphere . In fair weather this positive charge slowly flows back to the surface .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_atmospheric_electrical_circuit\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 108717\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Clear-air turbulence Content: Clear-air turbulence ( CAT ) is the turbulent movement of air masses in the absence of any visual clues such as clouds , and is caused when bodies of air moving at widely different speeds meet . The atmospheric region most susceptible to CAT is the high troposphere at altitudes of around 7000 - as it meets the tropopause . Here CAT is most frequently encountered in the regions of jet streams . At lower altitudes it may also occur near mountain ranges . Thin cirrus clouds can also indicate high probability of CAT . CAT can be hazardous to the comfort , but rarely the safety , of air travelers . CAT in the jet stream is expected to become stronger and more frequent because of climate change , with transatlantic wintertime CAT increasing by 59 % ( light ) , 94 % ( moderate ) , and 149 % ( severe ) by the time of CO2 doubling .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Clear-air_turbulence\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 108436\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Future of Earth Content: The biological and geological future of Earth can be extrapolated based upon the estimated effects of several long-term influences . These include the chemistry at Earth 's surface , the rate of cooling of the planet 's interior , the gravitational interactions with other objects in the Solar System , and a steady increase in the Sun 's luminosity . An uncertain factor in this extrapolation is the ongoing influence of technology introduced by humans , such as climate engineering , which could cause significant changes to the planet . The current Holocene extinction is being caused by technology and the effects may last for up to five million years . In turn , technology may result in the extinction of humanity , leaving the planet to gradually return to a slower evolutionary pace resulting solely from long-term natural processes . Over time intervals of hundreds of millions of years , random celestial events pose a global risk to the biosphere , which can result in mass extinctions . These include impacts by comets or asteroids with diameters of 5 -- or more , and the possibility of a massive stellar explosion , called a supernova , within a 100-light-year radius of the Sun , called a Near-Earth supernova . Other large-scale geological events are more predictable . If the long-term effects of global warming are disregarded , Milankovitch theory predicts that the planet will continue to undergo glacial periods at least until the Quaternary glaciation comes to an end . These periods are caused by variations in eccentricity , axial tilt , and precession of the Earth 's orbit . As part of the ongoing supercontinent cycle , plate tectonics will probably result in a supercontinent in 250 -- 350 million years . Some time in the next 1.5 -- 4.5 billion years , the axial tilt of the Earth may begin to undergo chaotic variations , with changes in the axial tilt of up to 90 ° . During the next four billion years , the luminosity of the Sun will steadily increase , resulting in a rise in the solar radiation reaching the Earth . This will result in a higher rate of weathering of silicate minerals , which will cause a decrease in the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . In about 600 million years from now , the level of CO2 will fall below the level needed to sustain C3 carbon fixation photosynthesis used by trees . Some plants use the C4 carbon fixation method , allowing them to persist at concentrations as low as 10 parts per million . However , the long-term trend is for plant life to die off altogether . The extinction of plants will be the demise of almost all animal life , since plants are the base of the food chain on Earth . In about one billion years , the solar luminosity will be 10 % higher than at present . This will cause the atmosphere to become a `` moist greenhouse '' , resulting in a runaway evaporation of the oceans . As a likely consequence , plate tectonics will come to an end , and with them the entire carbon cycle . Following this event , in about 2 − 3 billion years , the planet 's magnetic dynamo may cease , causing the magnetosphere to decay and leading to an accelerated loss of volatiles from the outer atmosphere . Four billion years from now , the increase in the Earth 's surface temperature will cause a runaway greenhouse effect , heating the surface enough to melt it . By that point , all life on the Earth will be extinct . The most probable fate of the planet is absorption by the Sun in about 7.5 billion years , after the star has entered the red giant phase and expanded to cross the planet 's current orbit .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Future_of_Earth\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 108199\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Pakistan\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 108138\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Downscaling Content: Global Climate Models ( GCMs ) used for climate studies and climate projections are run at coarse spatial resolution ( in 2012 , typically of the order 50 km ) and are unable to resolve important sub-grid scale features such as clouds and topography . As a result , GCM output can not be used for local impact studies . To overcome this problem downscaling methods are developed to obtain local-scale weather and climate , particularly at the surface level , from regional-scale atmospheric variables that are provided by GCMs . Two main forms of downscaling technique exist . One form is dynamical downscaling , where output from the GCM is used to drive a regional , numerical model in higher spatial resolution , which therefore is able to simulate local conditions in greater detail . The other form is statistical downscaling , where a statistical relationship is established from observations between large scale variables , like atmospheric surface pressure , and a local variable , like the wind speed at a particular site . The relationship is then subsequently used on the GCM data to obtain the local variables from the GCM output . In 1997 , Wilby and Wigley divided downscaling into four categories : regression methods , weather pattern-based approaches , stochastic weather generators , which are all statistical downscaling methods , and limited-area modeling . Among these approaches regression methods are preferred because of its ease of implementation and low computation requirements .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Downscaling\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 107373\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: World Climate Report Content: World Climate Report , a newsletter edited by Patrick Michaels , was produced by the Greening Earth Society , a non-profit organization created by the Western Fuels Association . Early editions were paper based ; it was then transferred to a web-only format , having ceased publication as a physically based report with Volume 8 in 2002 . It continues to exist in blog form at www.worldclimatereport.com , although the website itself has not been updated since late 2012 . World Climate Report presents a scientific skeptical view of populist anthropogenic-driven mass global climate change , or as it describes , ` Global Warming Alarmism ' . However , it does not reject the concepts of global climate change or greenhouse theory ( or other well-established and widely accepted scientific theories or empirical studies ) , in general attempting to engender itself as giving a well balanced and scientific view of the sources ( though often at a contrary expense of its perceived adversaries : the aforementioned alleged ` Global Warming Alarmists ' ) . WCR says of itself : World Climate Report , a concise , hard-hitting and scientifically correct response to the global change reports which gain attention in the literature and popular press . As the nation 's leading publication in this realm , World Climate Report is exhaustively researched , impeccably referenced , and always timely . This popular biweekly newsletter points out the weaknesses and outright fallacies in the science that is being touted as `` proof '' of disastrous warming . It 's the perfect antidote against those who argue for proposed changes to the Rio Climate Treaty , such as the Kyoto Protocol , which are aimed at limiting carbon emissions from the United States ... World Climate Report has become the definitive and unimpeachable source for what nature now calls the `` mainstream skeptic '' point of view . . In addition to Patrick Michaels ( chief editor ) , the staff is listed as Robert C. Balling , Jr ( contributing editor ) , Robert Davis ( contributing editor ) , and Paul Knappenberger ( Administrator ) . New Hope Environmental Services , an advocacy science consulting firm , claims WCR as its biweekly newsletter .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"World_Climate_Report\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 106867\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: James Hansen Content: James Edward Hansen ( born 29 March 1941 ) is an American adjunct professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University . He is best known for his research in climatology , his 1988 Congressional testimony on climate change that helped raise broad awareness of global warming , and his advocacy of action to avoid dangerous climate change . In recent years he has become a climate activist to mitigate the effects of climate change , on a few occasions leading to his arrest . In 2000 , Hansen advanced an alternative view of global warming over the last 100 years , arguing that during that time frame the negative forcing via aerosols and the positive forcing via largely balanced each other out , and that the 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide , such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons . However , even then he wrote `` the future balance of forcings is likely to shift toward dominance of CO2 over aerosols ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"James_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 106585\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 106505\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera Content: Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera is a theoretical physicist and researcher at the Institute of Geophysics of the National Autonomous University of Mexico ( UNAM ) . He disagrees with predictions about future climate change , arguing that they ignore the most important factor , which is sun activity . In the summer of 2008 , he also predicted the world to soon enter a little ice age . `` The models and forecasts of the U.N. IPCC `` are incorrect because they only are based on mathematical models and presented results at scenarios that do not include , for example , solar activity . '' -- Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Victor_Manuel_Velasco_Herrera\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 106303\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Nature Climate Change Content: Nature Climate Change is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Nature Publishing Group covering all aspects of research on global warming , especially its effects . It was established in 2011 . Its first editor-in-chief was Olive Heffernan and the journal 's current editor-in-chief is Bronwyn Wake . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal had a 2015 impact factor of 17.184 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Nature_Climate_Change\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 106149\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Megha-Tropiques Content: Megha-Tropiques is a satellite mission to study the water cycle in the tropical atmosphere in the context of climate change A collaborative effort between Indian Space Research Organisation ( ISRO ) and French Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales ( CNES ) , Megha-Tropiques was successfully deployed into orbit by a PSLV rocket in October 2011 . Megha-Tropiques was initially scrapped in 2003 , but later revived in 2004 after India increased its contribution and overall costs were lowered . With the progress made by GEWEX ( Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment ) , Megha-Tropiques is designed to understand tropical meteorological and climatic processes , by obtaining reliable statistics on the water and energy budget of the tropical atmosphere . Megha-Tropiques complements other data in the current regional monsoon projects such as MAHASRI and the completed GAME project . Megha-Tropiques also seeks to describe the evolution of major tropical weather systems . The focus will be the repetitive measurement of the tropics .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Megha-Tropiques\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 105655\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming (disambiguation) Content: Global warming is one of the common names for the current change in Earth 's climate . Global warming may also refer to : Global Warming ( Pitbull album ) , a 2011 music album by Pitbull Global Warming ( Sonny Rollins album ) , a 1998 music album by Sonny Rollins Global warming game , several games based on the concept Not to be confused with the Global warming controversy , which refers to the public debate over scientific conclusions on climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_(disambiguation)\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 105110\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hypercane Content: A hypercane is a hypothetical class of extreme tropical cyclone that could form if ocean temperatures reached 50 C , which is 15 C-change warmer than the warmest ocean temperature ever recorded . Such an increase could be caused by a large asteroid or comet impact , a large supervolcanic eruption , or extensive global warming . There is some speculation that a series of hypercanes resulting from an impact by a large asteroid or comet contributed to the demise of the non-avian dinosaurs . The hypothesis was created by Kerry Emanuel of MIT who also coined the term .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Hypercane\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 105048\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cloud physics Content: Cloud physics is the study of the physical processes that lead to the formation , growth and precipitation of atmospheric clouds . These aerosols are found in the troposphere , stratosphere , and mesosphere , which collectively make up the greatest part of the homosphere . Clouds consist of microscopic droplets of liquid water ( warm clouds ) , tiny crystals of ice ( cold clouds ) , or both ( mixed phase clouds ) . Cloud droplets initially form by the condensation of water vapor onto condensation nuclei when the supersaturation of air exceeds a critical value according to Köhler theory . Cloud condensation nuclei are necessary for cloud droplets formation because of the Kelvin effect , which describes the change in saturation vapor pressure due to a curved surface . At small radii , the amount of supersaturation needed for condensation to occur is so large , that it does not happen naturally . Raoult 's Law describes how the vapor pressure is dependent on the amount of solute in a solution . At high concentrations , when the cloud droplets are small , the supersaturation required is smaller than without the presence of a nucleus . In warm clouds , larger cloud droplets fall at a higher terminal velocity ; because at a given velocity , the drag force per unit of droplet weight on smaller droplets is larger than on large droplets . The large droplets can then collide with small droplets and combine to form even larger drops . When the drops become large enough that their downward velocity ( relative to the surrounding air ) is greater than the upward velocity ( relative to the earth ) of the surrounding air , the drops can fall to the earth as precipitation . The collision and coalescence is not as important in mixed phase clouds where the Bergeron process dominates . Other important processes that form precipitation are riming , when a supercooled liquid drop collides with a solid snowflake , and aggregation , when two solid snowflakes collide and combine . The precise mechanics of how a cloud forms and grows is not completely understood , but scientists have developed theories explaining the structure of clouds by studying the microphysics of individual droplets . Advances in weather radar and satellite technology have also allowed the precise study of clouds on a large scale .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Cloud_physics\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 104885\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 104669\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_controversy\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 104591\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of global warming on oceans Content: Global warming can affect sea levels , coastlines , ocean acidification , ocean currents , seawater , sea surface temperatures , tides , the sea floor , weather , and trigger several changes in ocean bio-geochemistry ; all of these affect the functioning of a society .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_global_warming_on_oceans\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 104580\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Economics_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 104490\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Roundtable on Climate Change Content: The Global Roundtable on Climate Change , convened by the Earth Institute at Columbia University brought together representatives from corporations , research institutions , and government organizations to discuss the scientific consensus , economics , technology , and public policy issues associated with climate change . Following preliminary research and discussions , the group first met in 2005 and held a series of public and private meetings over the next five year . The Roundtable had five objectives : Improve global consensus on the science , technology , economics , and policy issues of anthropogenic climate change . Review technology and policy proposals for mitigating climate change while meeting global energy demand . Support research and prototypes of technologies and policies that address climate change . Provide a forum for discussion , analysis , and exchange of ideas from the represented groups . Support proposals and initiatives generated by the Roundtable 's discussions . Participants in the Roundtable meetings : ABB , Air France , Alcan , Alcoa , Alliant Energy , Allianz , American Electric Power , BASF , Bayer , Calvert Group , China Renewable Energy Industry Association , Citigroup , Coalition of Rainforest Nations , Columbia University , Deutsche Telekom , DuPont , Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand , Endesa , Environmental Defense , Eskom , Eni , Exelon , Fairfield University , FPL Group , General Electric , Iberdrola , ING Group , Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , International Gas Union , Munich Re , National Grid , NRG Energy , Rainforest Alliance , Republic of Iceland , Ricoh , Suntech Power , Swiss Re , Vattenfall , Volvo , World Council on Churches , World Petroleum Council , and many others . The Roundtable was funded by a grant from the Lenfest Foundation . Jeffrey Sachs , Director of the Earth Institute served as Chair . David L. Downie served as Director of the Global Roundtable on Climate Change before leaving the Earth Institute to join Fairfield University . On February 20 , 2007 , the Roundtable released `` The Path to Climate Sustainability : A Joint Statement by the Global Roundtable on Climate Change '' . The Joint Statement outlines a post-Kyoto framework and has been endorsed by over 100 of the Roundtable participating corporations and organizations . The Statement outlines ways to effect change at the levels of policy and industry , particularly in regards to creating sustainable energy systems necessary for achieving economic growth . In addition to its internal discussions , which were aimed at information exchange , education and consensus building , and development of the parthbreaking Joint Statement , Roundtable participants also participated in public forums . For example , David L. Downie organized two side-event panels during sessions of the global climate negotiations that featured presentations by Roundtable Participants , including himself , regarding how businesses and scientists were working together to lower greenhouse gas emissions . David L. Downie also discussed the Roundtable and related issues at other events during the climate negotiations and in other forums\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Roundtable_on_Climate_Change\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 104421\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \\\"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\\\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \\\"deep emissions reductions\\\" and \\\"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\\\" Furthermore, the report finds that \\\"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\\\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \\\"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\\\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 103729\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: El Niño–Southern Oscillation Content: El Niño -- Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) is an irregularly periodical variation in winds and sea surface temperatures over the tropical eastern Pacific Ocean , affecting much of the tropics and subtropics . The warming phase is known as El Niño and the cooling phase as La Niña . Southern Oscillation is the accompanying atmospheric component , coupled with the sea temperature change : El Niño is accompanied with high , and La Niña with low air surface pressure in the tropical western Pacific . The two periods last several months each ( typically occur every few years ) and their effects vary in intensity . The two phases relate to the Walker circulation , discovered by Gilbert Walker during the early twentieth century . The Walker circulation is caused by the pressure gradient force that results from a high pressure system over the eastern Pacific Ocean , and a low pressure system over Indonesia . When the Walker circulation weakens or reverses , an El Niño results , causing the ocean surface to be warmer than average , as upwelling of cold water occurs less or not at all . An especially strong Walker circulation causes a La Niña , resulting in cooler ocean temperatures due to increased upwelling . Mechanisms that cause the oscillation remain under study . The extremes of this climate pattern 's oscillations cause extreme weather ( such as floods and droughts ) in many regions of the world . Developing countries dependent upon agriculture and fishing , particularly those bordering the Pacific Ocean , are the most affected .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"El_Niño–Southern_Oscillation\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 103377\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Impact winter Content: An impact winter is a hypothesized period of prolonged cold weather due to the impact of a large asteroid or comet on the Earth 's surface . If an asteroid were to strike land or a shallow body of water , it would eject an enormous amount of dust , ash , and other material into the atmosphere , blocking the radiation from the sun . This would cause the global temperature to decrease drastically . If an asteroid or comet with the diameter of about 5 km or more were to hit in a large deep body of water or explode before hitting the surface , there would still be an enormous amount of debris ejected into the atmosphere . It has been proposed that an impact winter could lead to mass extinction , wiping out many of the world 's existing species .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Impact_winter\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 103229\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change adaptation Content: Climate change adaptation is a response to global warming and climate change , that seeks to reduce the vulnerability of social and biological systems to relatively sudden change and thus offset the effects of global warming . Even if emissions are stabilized relatively soon , global warming and its effects will last many years , and adaptation will be necessary to the resulting changes in climate . Adaptation is especially important in developing countries since those countries are predicted to bear the brunt of the effects of global warming . That is , the capacity and potential for humans to adapt ( called adaptive capacity ) is unevenly distributed across different regions and populations , and developing countries generally have less capacity to adapt ( Schneider et al. , 2007 ) . Furthermore , the degree of adaptation correlates to the situational focus on environmental issues . Therefore , adaptation requires the situational assessment of sensitivity and vulnerability to environmental impacts . Adaptive capacity is closely linked to social and economic development ( IPCC , 2007 ) . The economic costs of adaptation to climate change are likely to cost billions of dollars annually for the next several decades , though the amount of money needed is unknown . Donor countries promised an annual $ 100 billion by 2020 through the Green Climate Fund for developing countries to adapt to climate change . However , while the fund was set up during COP16 in Cancún , concrete pledges by developed countries have not been forthcoming . The adaptation challenge grows with the magnitude and the rate of climate change . Another response to climate change , known as climate change mitigation ( Verbruggen , 2007 ) is to reduce greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions and/or enhance the removal of these gases from the atmosphere ( through carbon sinks ) . Even the most effective reductions in emissions , however , would not prevent further climate change impacts , making the need for adaptation unavoidable ( Klein et al. , 2007 ) . In a literature assessment , Klein et al. ( 2007 ) assessed options for adaptation . They concluded , with very high confidence , that in the absence of mitigation efforts , the effects of climate change would reach such a magnitude as to make adaptation impossible for some natural ecosystems . Others are concerned that climate adaptation programs might interfere with the existing development programs and thus lead to unintended consequences for vulnerable groups . For human systems , the economic and social costs of unmitigated climate change would be very high .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_adaptation\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 103207\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate state Content: Climate state describes a state of climate on Earth and similar terrestrial planets based on a thermal energy budget , such as the greenhouse or icehouse climate state . The main climate state change is between periodical glacial and interglacial cycles in Earth history , studied from climate proxies . The climate system is responding to the current climate forcing and adjusts following climate sensitivity to reach a climate equilibrium , Earth 's energy balance . Model simulations suggest that the current interglacial climate state will continue for at least another 100,000 years , due to emissions - including complete deglaciation of the Northern Hemisphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_state\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 103180\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Field Notes from a Catastrophe Content: Field Notes from a Catastrophe : Man , Nature , and Climate Change is a 2006 non-fiction book by Elizabeth Kolbert . The book attempts to bring attention to the causes and effects of global climate change . Kolbert travels around the world where climate change is affecting the environment in significant ways . These locations include Alaska , Greenland , the Netherlands , and Iceland . The environmental effects that are apparent consist of rising sea levels , thawing permafrost , diminishing ice shelves , changes in migratory patterns , and increasingly devastating forest fires due to loss of precipitation . She also speaks with many leading scientists about their individual research and findings . Kolbert brings to attention the attempts of large corporations such as Exxon Mobil and General Motors to influence politicians and discredit scientists . She also writes about America 's reluctance in the global efforts to reduce carbon emissions . Leading this resistance , she explained , was the Bush administration , which was opposed to the Kyoto protocol since it was ratified in 2005 . Kolbert concludes the book by examining the events surrounding the events of Hurricane Katrina in 2005 and arguing that governments have the knowledge and technologies to prepare for such disasters but choose to ignore the signs until it is too late .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Field_Notes_from_a_Catastrophe\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 102980\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Goodwin model (biology) Content: In biology , the Goodwin model describes negative feedback oscillators in cellular systems , for example , circadian rhythms or enzymatic regulation ( such as lactose in bacteria ) . The Goodwin model , though , shows no stable limit cycles . limit cycles can exist , see references\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Goodwin_model_(biology)\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 102975\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tropical rain belt Content: Rainfall and the tropical climate dominate the tropical rain belt , which oscillates from the northern to the southern tropics over the course of the year , roughly following the solar equator . The tropical rain belt is an area of active rain that is positioned mostly around the tropics . According to the website Journey North , the reason the rain belt is situated near the tropics can be attributed to the fact that most of the sun 's radiation is directed toward the equator , which is located in the middle of the tropics . This solar radiation generates large amounts of heat near the equator providing tropical regions with higher temperatures than most other regions on Earth . With all this solar radiation , the air around the tropics begins to warm up . Because hot air is less dense than cold air , the hot air rises into the upper levels of the atmosphere and as a result , cold air filters down into the lower levels of the atmosphere . The dynamics that provide the tropics with the rain belt are founded on the principal that warmer air is able to retain more moisture than colder air . When the colder air replaces the warmer air in the lower atmosphere , the abundant moisture from the tropics loses the ability to be stored in the atmosphere . As a result , the excess moisture that can not be held by the colder air is then turned into thunderstorms and rain showers . These thunderstorms and rain showers are usually located along the equator , but they will extend out to the Tropic of Cancer , which is the 23.5 north latitude , as well as the Tropic of Capricorn , which is the 23.5 south latitude . It is largely a manifestation of the ITCH ( incorrect citation ) . The tropical rain belt lies in the southern hemisphere of the Indian ocean and western Pacific ocean roughly from October to March , and during this time the northern tropics experience a dry season in which precipitation is very rare , and days are typically hot and sunny throughout . From April to September , the rain belt lies in the northern hemisphere , and a wet season occurs there , while the southern tropics experience their dry season . The rain belt reaches roughly as far north as the Tropic of Cancer and as far south as the Tropic of Capricorn in the western Pacific ocean . Its variation in the Western Hemisphere is minimal , roughly between the equator and the 15th parallel north latitude . Near these latitudes , there is one wet season and one dry season annually . On the equator , there are two wet and two dry seasons as the rain belt passes over twice a year , one moving north and one moving south . Between the tropics and the equator , locations may experience both a short wet and a long wet season . Local geography may substantially modify these climate patterns .\",\n \"qid\": \"2743\",\n \"docid\": \"Tropical_rain_belt\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 102767\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":1352,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"Dropped stations show more warming than kept stations."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: KEPT-LP Content: KEPT-LP is a low power radio station broadcasting from Hayward , California . It is owned by Calvary Chapel of Hayward , Inc. .","qid":"2744","docid":"KEPT-LP","rank":1,"score":106674},{"content":"Title: The Drop Hydro Content: The Drop Hydro Power Station is a Pacific Hydro hydroelectric power station on the Mulwala Canal , near Berrigan , New South Wales , Australia . It has one turbine , with a generating capacity of 2.5 MW of electricity . The power station was completed in November 2002 , and is Australia 's first hydroelectric power station built on an irrigation canal .","qid":"2744","docid":"The_Drop_Hydro","rank":2,"score":94326},{"content":"Title: Drop the Beat Content: Drop the Beat was a Canadian television series produced by Back Alley Films , which aired on CBC Television in 2000 . A short run dramatic series , the show was one of the first television series ever built around hip hop music and culture . The show , a spinoff of the earlier CBC series Straight Up , starred Mark Taylor as Jeff and Merwin Mondesir as Dennis , the hosts of a hip hop show on CIBJ-FM , a fictional campus radio station in Toronto , Ontario . Michie Mee starred as Divine , a rapper who was part of Jeff and Dennis ' crew , and Ingrid Veninger played the station manager . The supporting cast also included Arlene Duncan , Vanessa Ford , Jennifer Baxter , Jason Harrow , Shamann Williams and Omari Forrester . The use of a campus radio station was a deliberate reflection of Canadian reality -- until Toronto 's Flow 93.5 hit the airwaves in early 2001 , Canada did not have any radio stations dedicated specifically to urban music .","qid":"2744","docid":"Drop_the_Beat","rank":3,"score":93660},{"content":"Title: KEEP Content: KEEP is a commercially supported FM radio station serving the general area of Fredericksburg , Texas , due west from Austin and due north of San Antonio . KEEP is owned by J & J Fritz Media and is broadcast from Johnson City , Texas . It was one of four member stations of the Texas Rebel Radio Network which supplies Texas music programming . This programming is available as streaming audio via the KEEP/Texas Rebel Radio website . On June 24 , 2011 , KEEP , after three months of silence , returned to the air simulcasting country-formatted KNAF-FM 105.7 .","qid":"2744","docid":"KEEP","rank":4,"score":92552},{"content":"Title: Orbital station-keeping Content: In astrodynamics , the orbital maneuvers made by thruster burns that are needed to keep a spacecraft in a particular assigned orbit are called orbital station-keeping . For many Earth satellites the effects of the non-Keplerian forces , i.e. the deviations of the gravitational force of the Earth from that of a homogeneous sphere , gravitational forces from Sun/Moon , solar radiation pressure and air-drag , must be counteracted . The deviation of Earth 's gravity field from that of a homogeneous sphere and gravitational forces from Sun/Moon will in general perturb the orbital plane . For a sun-synchronous orbit the precession of the orbital plane caused by the oblateness of the Earth is a desirable feature that is part of the mission design but the inclination change caused by the gravitational forces of Sun/Moon is undesirable . For geostationary spacecraft the inclination change caused by the gravitational forces of Sun/Moon must be counteracted by a rather large expense of fuel , as the inclination should be kept sufficiently small for the spacecraft to be tracked by a non-steerable antenna . For spacecraft in low orbits the effects of atmospheric drag must often be compensated for . For some missions this is needed simply to avoid re-entry ; for other missions , typically missions for which the orbit should be accurately synchronized with Earth rotation , this is necessary to avoid the orbital period shortening . Solar radiation pressure will in general perturb the eccentricity ( i.e. the eccentricity vector ) , see Orbital perturbation analysis ( spacecraft ) . For some missions this must be actively counter-acted with manoeuvres . For geostationary spacecraft the eccentricity must be kept sufficiently small for a spacecraft to be tracked with a non-steerable antenna . Also for Earth observation spacecraft for which a very repetitive orbit with a fixed ground track is desirable , the eccentricity vector should be kept as fixed as possible . A large part of this compensation can be done by using a frozen orbit design , but for the fine control manoeuvres with thrusters are needed . For spacecraft in a halo orbit around a Lagrangian point stationkeeping is even more fundamental as such an orbit is unstable ; without an active control with thruster burns the smallest deviation in position/velocity would result in the spacecraft leaving the orbit completely .","qid":"2744","docid":"Orbital_station-keeping","rank":5,"score":86792},{"content":"Title: WARM (AM) Content: WARM ( 590 AM ) is a radio station licensed to the city of Scranton , Pennsylvania . The station is currently owned by Cumulus Media . The station is a Class B AM broadcasting station according to the Federal Communications Commission . WARM broadcasts with a power of 5,000 watts with two types of directional antenna signal patterns during daytime and nighttime . The antenna patterns of the signal in both instances are generally aimed towards the southeast with some signal aimed towards the northwest from its transmitting facility located 15 miles northwest of Scranton in Falls , Pennsylvania . WARM uses five , 495 feet high broadcasting towers to transmit its signal from that location . The station used to derive a portion of its programming from Scott Shannon 's The True Oldies Channel from Cumulus Media Networks .","qid":"2744","docid":"WARM_(AM)","rank":6,"score":84259},{"content":"Title: Look Who's Dropped In Content: Look Who 's Dropped In was a 4-part Australian television variety series which aired on Sydney station ABN-2 . The half-hour series presented jazz music , competing in the time-slot against Pick a Box on ATN-7 and U.S. series Racket Squad on TCN-9 . It aired fortnightly from 14 December 1957 to 25 January 1958 , alternating with Tele-Variety . It is worth noting that ABC variety series of the era typically had shorter seasons than those on commercial television . The series featured George Trevare .","qid":"2744","docid":"Look_Who's_Dropped_In","rank":7,"score":83529},{"content":"Title: U-Drop Inn Content: The U-Drop Inn , also known as Tower Station and U-Drop Inn and Tower Café , was built in 1936 in Shamrock , Texas along the historic Route 66 highway . Inspired by the image of a nail stuck in soil , the building was designed by J. C. Berry . An unusual example of art deco architecture applied to a gas station and restaurant , the building features two flared towers with geometric detailing , curvilinear massing , glazed ceramic tile walls , and neon light accents . It has traditionally held two separate business : `` Tower Station '' , a gas station on the western side , and the `` U-Drop Inn '' , a café on the eastern side . Though it has passed hands several times in its history , the building has consistently housed the same types of businesses it was originally constructed for . Once considered a beautiful and impressive example of Route 66 architecture in Texas , the U-Drop Inn fell into disrepair with the decommissioning of Route 66 . It closed for business in the late 1990s . After it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in September 1997 , the building was purchased by the First National Bank of Shamrock , which then gave it to the city . Primarily funded by a US$ 1.7 million federal grant , the city hired a firm specializing in historical renovation to restore the building to its original glory and adapt it into a museum , visitors ' center , gift shop , and the city 's chamber of commerce . In 2006 animated film Cars , the cartoon village of Radiator Springs was based on multiple real U.S. Route 66 landmarks from Peach Springs to Baxter Springs ; the U-Drop Inn 's distinctive architecture appears as Ramone 's automotive body and paint shop . On St. Patrick 's Day 2014 , a Tesla high power electric vehicle charging station , known commonly as a supercharger , was opened on site .","qid":"2744","docid":"U-Drop_Inn","rank":8,"score":81526},{"content":"Title: The Heat (Sirius XM) Content: The Heat is the name of Sirius XM Radio 's urban-leaning rhythmic contemporary channel , on Sirius channel 46 ( previously 50 ) and XM channel 46 ( previously 68 ) and as well as on Dish Network channel 6046 ( previously 6047 ) , Until February 9 , 2010 , it was on DirecTV channel 825 , due to all of the Sirius XM programming being dropped . The service signed on April 17 , 2006 . At the start The Heat was a Rhythmic Top 40 outlet and had played Rhythmic hits , but during the Sirius XM Merger on November 12 , 2008 , it changed to a more hit-driven R&B , urban pop , and melodic Hip-Hop channel .","qid":"2744","docid":"The_Heat_(Sirius_XM)","rank":9,"score":80137},{"content":"Title: Hot Jamz Content: Hot Jamz was a Hip-Hop , Urban Contemporary and R&B music Channel on Sirius Satellite Radio channel 50 and Dish Network channel 6050 . On February 2008 , Sirius Canada dropped the channel , but it was reintroduced in June 2008 . On November 12 , 2008 , Hot Jamz was eliminated from the Sirius lineup and replaced by XM 's Channel devoted to Rhythmic Contemporary music , The Heat as part of the restructuring by Sirius XM Radio . The Heat also flipped from rhythmic top 40 to urban contemporary by that time , but later reverted to rhythmic when Pop2K converted to an online-only channel for the Sirius service on January 15 , 2009 . The station 's playlist was part of the weekly research for the Billboard Hot R&B / Hip-Hop Airplay chart .","qid":"2744","docid":"Hot_Jamz","rank":10,"score":79821},{"content":"Title: Drop-in center Content: A drop-in center is a service agency for homeless people , teenagers , and other communities that offers a place where people can go to obtain food and other services . As opposed to a homeless shelter , a drop-in center usually does not provide a temporary residence ; rather , it aims to provide other services to endangered or disadvantaged groups in the community , including the homeless , people with addictions , or teenagers . Drop-in centers are usually open during the daytime . Some drop-in centers double as warming centers or cooling centers in the winter or summer , and may provide overnight shelter during these months . Many drop-in centers provide free services , and some offer services for a nominal fee .","qid":"2744","docid":"Drop-in_center","rank":11,"score":79801},{"content":"Title: The Animation Station Content: The Sci-Fi Channel 's Animation Station was a block of animation or puppetry-related television shows on the Sci Fi Channel ( now Syfy ) . Some of the shows shown were Ronin Warriors , Star Wars : Droids , Star Wars : Ewoks , Transformers , Bionic Six , and The New Adventures of Gigantor . Broadcast in 1995 after being renamed from Cartoon Quest , the programming was eventually dropped on August 29 , 1997 , due to low ratings . Thomas Vitale , Senior Vice President of the Sci Fi Channel ( Syfy ) , also stated that The Animation Station '' 's cancellation was the result of competition from other networks . As Animation Station was merely the continuation of Cartoon Quest '' , a good portion of the shows were retained , such as Gerry Anderson 's shows .","qid":"2744","docid":"The_Animation_Station","rank":12,"score":79485},{"content":"Title: Al Lohman Content: Al Lohman ( January 15 , 1933 , Sergeant Bluff , Iowa -- October 14 , 2002 , Rancho Mirage , California ) was a personality and comedian with a long career in American radio from the 1950s through the 1980s and into the 1990s . Among his early career stops was a stint as morning man at New York City top-40 station WABC ( AM ) when it first adopted a pop music format in 1960 . But he 's best remembered as a Los Angeles , California radio personality who , along with Roger Barkley , had the top-rated morning drive The Lohman and Barkley Show on KFI Los Angeles through most of the 1970s and early 1980s . Their fame extended beyond the Los Angeles area as the duo were frequent guests on `` The Ed Sullivan Show '' and were hosts of two short-lived television shows . The first was a 1969 game show , `` Lohman & Barkley 's Name Droppers '' while the second was a comedy/variety show from 1979 called `` Bedtime Stories . ''","qid":"2744","docid":"Al_Lohman","rank":13,"score":78954},{"content":"Title: More FM Content: MORE FM is a New Zealand radio network playing adult contemporary music or Pop music . It is operated by MediaWorks New Zealand . MORE FM broadcasts in 25 centres throughout New Zealand on 70 transmitters with a mix of local and network programming . The station targets a 25 to 49 year old audience and has the most local shows of any radio network in New Zealand . Currently there are 12 different breakfast shows and 15 day shows . The MORE FM network has grown from a local Wellington station to a large Network brand developed through expansion , acquisitions and re-branding of local stations already owned by MediaWorks .","qid":"2744","docid":"More_FM","rank":14,"score":78377},{"content":"Title: Drop-In Content: Drop-In was a Canadian television series for youth broadcast on CBC Television from 28 September 1970 to 1974 . Various hosts were featured throughout the course of the series to present a variety of topics . The show was broadcast three times per week in the 1970-1971 season . This was increased to four times per week in the following year .","qid":"2744","docid":"Drop-In","rank":15,"score":78337},{"content":"Title: Drop (telecommunication) Content: In a communications network , a drop is the portion of a device directly connected to the internal station facilities , such as toward a telephone switchboard , toward a switching center , or toward a telephone exchange . A drop can also be a wire or cable from a pole or cable terminus to a building , in which case it may be referred to as a downlead . These cables may be reinforced to withstand the tension ( due to gravity and weather ) of an aerial drop ( i.e. , hanging in air ) , as in `` messenger '' type RG-6 coaxial cable , which is reinforced with a steel messenger wire along its length .","qid":"2744","docid":"Drop_(telecommunication)","rank":16,"score":78061},{"content":"Title: Rewarming shock Content: Rewarming Shock ( also known as rewarming collapse ) has been described as a drop in blood pressure following the warming of a person who is very cold . The real cause of this rewarming shock is unknown . There was a theoretical concern that external rewarming rather than internal rewarming may increase the risk . These concerns were partly believed to be due to afterdrop , a situation detected during laboratory experiments where there is a continued decrease in core temperature after rewarming has been started . Recent studies have not supported these concerns , and problems are not found with active external rewarming .","qid":"2744","docid":"Rewarming_shock","rank":17,"score":78035},{"content":"Title: Station keeping Content: Station keeping may refer to : Orbital station-keeping , manoeuvres used to keep a spacecraft in an assigned orbit Nautical stationkeeping , maintaining a seagoing vessel in a position relative to other vessels or a fixed point","qid":"2744","docid":"Station_keeping","rank":18,"score":77910},{"content":"Title: The Pip Content: The Pip is the nickname given by radio listeners to a shortwave radio station that broadcasts on the frequency 5448 kHz by day , and 3756 kHz during the night . It broadcasts short , repeated beeps at a rate of around 50 per minute , for 24 hours per day . The beep signal is occasionally interrupted for voice messages in Russian . The Pip has been active since around 1986 , when its distinctive beeping sound was first recorded by listeners . The station is commonly referred to as `` The Pip '' among English-speaking radio listeners . In Russia , it is known as Капля ( Kaplya ) `` the drop '' . While its official name or callsign is not known , some of the voice transmissions begin with the code 8S1Shch ( Cyrillic : 8С1Щ ) , which is generally considered to be the name of the station . However , this code may not be a callsign , but instead serve some other purpose . Radioscanner.ru identifies the owner of this station as a North-Caucasian military district communication center with callsign `` Akacia '' ( ex-72nd communication center , Russian `` 72 узел связи штаба СКВО '' )","qid":"2744","docid":"The_Pip","rank":19,"score":77822},{"content":"Title: The Drop-In (podcast) Content: The Drop-In is an At Will Radio podcast hosted by Will Malnati . In each episode , Malnati has a candid conversation with an interesting person in popular culture or leader in entertainment , hospitality and business . Guests have included Chris Hardwick ( CEO at Nerdist Industries ) , Sebastian Stan ( Captain America : Civil War ) , and Nico Tortorella ( Younger ) .","qid":"2744","docid":"The_Drop-In_(podcast)","rank":20,"score":77127},{"content":"Title: Station model Content: In meteorology , station models are symbolic illustrations showing the weather occurring at a given reporting station . Meteorologists created the station model to fit a number of weather elements into a small space on weather maps . This allows map users to analyze patterns in atmospheric pressure , temperature , wind speed & direction , cloud cover , precipitation , and other parameters . The most common station plots depict surface weather observations although upper air plots at various mandatory levels are also frequently depicted . Station model plots use an internationally accepted coding convention that has changed little since August 1 , 1941 . Elements in the plot show the key weather elements , including temperature , dew point , wind , cloud cover , air pressure , pressure tendency , and precipitation .","qid":"2744","docid":"Station_model","rank":21,"score":76012},{"content":"Title: WARM-FM Content: WARM-FM is an American adult contemporary radio station based in York , Pennsylvania broadcasting at 103.3 MHz FM . It is owned and operated by Cumulus Media . WARM 's studios and offices are located off US 30 between York and Lancaster , PA. . Listeners in the Philadelphia region may have interference with WPRB , Princeton , New Jersey , which shares the same frequency , and WAPY , State College , Pennsylvania , at 103.1 as one drives northwest on US 322 or PA State Route 333 heading into Lewistown , Pennsylvania .","qid":"2744","docid":"WARM-FM","rank":22,"score":75928},{"content":"Title: Maria Okanrende Content: Maria Okanrende is a Nigerian television and radio personality . She is currently co-host of The Morning Rush on The Beat 99.9 FM . She previously hosted at Dropout UK , Hayes FM and worked as a production assistant at Global Radio .","qid":"2744","docid":"Maria_Okanrende","rank":23,"score":75743},{"content":"Title: TND (disambiguation) Content: TND is the call-sign for the Southern Cross Television station in Darwin , Northern Territory . TND may also refer to : Tomorrow Never Dies , James Bond 007 movie Tunisian dinar , the ISO 4217 code for the currency of Tunisia Traditional Neighborhood Development , a form of development associated with New Urbanism The Needle Drop , a blog and vlog created and run by music critic Anthony Fantano","qid":"2744","docid":"TND_(disambiguation)","rank":24,"score":75510},{"content":"Title: Total Star Warminster Content: Total Star Warminster was a radio station which broadcast on 107.5 FM in Warminster , Wiltshire , England and is owned by One Gold Radio Ltd. . The station was recently relaunched as More FM in June 2011 . On 2 November 2011 , Celador acquired the Warminster licence and rebranded the station as The Breeze .","qid":"2744","docid":"Total_Star_Warminster","rank":25,"score":75350},{"content":"Title: Heat Radio Content: heat Radio is a British digital radio station , broadcasting to the UK and forms part of Bauer 's National portfolio of radio brands .","qid":"2744","docid":"Heat_Radio","rank":26,"score":75221},{"content":"Title: KFXU Content: KFXU ( 90.5 FM , `` Keeping Him Close By 90.5 '' ) is a radio station broadcasting an Gospel Music music format . Licensed to Chickasha , Oklahoma , United States , the station is currently owned by Sister Sherry Lynn Foundation Inc. and features programing from Dial Global .","qid":"2744","docid":"KFXU","rank":27,"score":74569},{"content":"Title: Wouter van der Goes Content: Wouter van der Goes ( born 18 January 1973 , Alkmaar ) is a Dutch radio DJ . At age twelve , he was tinkering with audio equipment as a hobby . Later , during his free time , he worked with several local radio stations , as well as pirate stations , while having a regular job as an insurance salesman . In 1995 , Van der Goes is hired by Radio 538 and turns his hobby into a job . He has hosted several shows , such as Weekend Warming Up , Peepshow , After Dark and 538 Classics . In 1998 he transfers to Veronica FM , which in 2001 changed its name to Yorin FM . At this station , his shows include Gijs & Wout in de middag ( `` Gijs & Wout in the afternoon '' ) , which he hosts together with Gijs Staverman . Between 2004 and 2006 he hosted the show Wout ! on 3FM radio , every day between 16:00 and 18:00 . He participated in the House of Glass during the Serious Request project twice . He is now a programme director for Q-Music .","qid":"2744","docid":"Wouter_van_der_Goes","rank":28,"score":74454},{"content":"Title: Dropped (TV series) Content: Dropped is a French survival reality television series that was scheduled to air on TF1 in 2015 . Based on the Swedish television series Det största äventyret ( SV The Greatest Adventure ) , the premise of the programme is to drop celebrities into a hostile environment and leave them to fend for themselves . Filming began in February 2015 , but was halted in early March following a helicopter crash that claimed the lives of ten people , including three of the contestants and five of the production crew .","qid":"2744","docid":"Dropped_(TV_series)","rank":29,"score":73897},{"content":"Title: Gare de Gironde Content: Gironde is a railway station in Gironde-sur-Dropt , Aquitaine , France . The station is located on the Bordeaux -- Sète railway line . The station is served by TER ( local ) services operated by SNCF .","qid":"2744","docid":"Gare_de_Gironde","rank":30,"score":73880},{"content":"Title: The Million Pound Drop Content: The Million Pound Drop ( formerly The Million Pound Drop Live ) is a BAFTA-winning game show which broadcast on Channel 4 in the United Kingdom . The show began on 24 May 2010 and ended on 20 March 2015 with Davina McCall having presented the show 's eleven series . The show used social networking sites such as Facebook and Twitter to find contestants , and also to promote the show . David Flynn , managing director of Endemol 's Remarkable Television , which produced the show , said : `` The plan was to create buzz and an air of mystery around the show by trickling information about auditions via Twitter and Facebook , giving fans a level of exclusivity . '' On 8 March 2016 , Channel 4 announced that they had axed the show , in a bid to save money . Reruns of the old series are currently broadcast on Challenge .","qid":"2744","docid":"The_Million_Pound_Drop","rank":31,"score":73838},{"content":"Title: Million Dollar Money Drop Content: Million Dollar Money Drop is an American game show which aired on Fox in the United States and Canada . It is based on the UK series The Million Pound Drop Live . However , unlike the original UK version , it was not broadcast live , and there were several changes to the format . The show premiered on December 20 , 2010 , and was hosted by Kevin Pollak . On May 18 , 2011 , TVSeriesFinale.com reported that Fox had cancelled Million Dollar Money Drop and would not be producing a second season . However , more than 15 different international versions of the program will continue to air in other countries .","qid":"2744","docid":"Million_Dollar_Money_Drop","rank":32,"score":73598},{"content":"Title: WVTC Content: WVTC is the radio station of Vermont Technical College , operating on a 90.7 MHz FM carrier with an effective power of 300 watts . The station is located in Morey Hall on the Randolph Center campus . WVTC is operated and maintained by the students of VTC through the Radio Club , and is financially supported by VTC Student Council .","qid":"2744","docid":"WVTC","rank":33,"score":73529},{"content":"Title: 100 Milionë (The Million Dollar Drop) Albania Content: 100 Milionë is a famous game \\ quiz live show broadcast in Albania by Top Channel and hosted by Eno Popi . The show is also known as The Million Pound Drop all over the world . In Albania this show took place for the first time on 1 February 2011 . It has over 903,564 viewers in Albania , Kosovo , Macedonia and Montenegro . One contestant consists of a couple ( sisters , brothers , married couple , etc. . )","qid":"2744","docid":"100_Milionë_(The_Million_Dollar_Drop)_Albania","rank":34,"score":73354},{"content":"Title: Keepit Power Station Content: Keepit Power Station is a hydro-electric power station located at the Keepit Dam on the Namoi River , near Gunnedah in the North West Slopes region of New South Wales , Australia . The Keepit Power Station has one turbine with a generating capacity of 7.2 MW of electricity . The power station is operated by Eraring Energy and generated 1603 MW of net energy production during 2009 , used primarily for peak-load generation .","qid":"2744","docid":"Keepit_Power_Station","rank":35,"score":73286},{"content":"Title: The Million Peso Money Drop Content: The Million Peso Money Drop is a Philippine game show on TV5 . Unlike its UK counterpart , this version is pre-recorded and not broadcast live . The show is hosted by Vic Sotto . This is the second Endemol program adapted by TV5 after Extreme Makeover : Home Edition Philippines . The show premiered on October 14 , 2012 and airs on Sundays , 8:30 pm ( UTC +8 )","qid":"2744","docid":"The_Million_Peso_Money_Drop","rank":36,"score":73156},{"content":"Title: The Vault (Sirius) Content: The Vault was a classic rock music channel that aired on Sirius Satellite Radio channel 16 and Dish Network channel 6016 . The channel was officially dropped on November 12 , 2008 because of the Sirius-XM merger , and replaced by XM 's Deep Tracks . The Vault was one of the early satellite stations to broadcast in Dolby matrix surround sound . The station advertised itself as one that would play deep cuts of classic rock , and Entertainment Weekly described The Vault as `` a channel that spins less-familiar songs by dad-rock favorites like Eric Clapton and the Kinks . '' The station aired a week-long marathon of Pink Floyd and David Gilmour tracks in March 2006 .","qid":"2744","docid":"The_Vault_(Sirius)","rank":37,"score":72956},{"content":"Title: David Parker (climatologist) Content: David Parker is head of climate monitoring at the Hadley Centre , Exeter , England . He has published extensively on the land and marine temperature record and its consistency . In 2002 , he was an organiser of a `` Workshop on Advances in the Use of Historical Marine Climate Data '' . In 2004 , he has published a paper in Nature , showing that the urban heat island effect has not affected the historical temperature record . In this article , Parker shares his observations of the minimum temperature over 24 hours worldwide since 1950 that were expressed as anomalies . Also it includes his reasoning to why urbanization has not systematically exaggerated the observed global warming trends in minimum temperature . He further goes on to mention how the criterion for `` calm '' was changed while the global trend for minimum temperature remained unchanged . From his analysis he finds that windy and calm nights warmed at the same rate . Both the windy and calm increased at a rate of ( 0.16 + 0.03 C ) . He compares his small sample of 26 stations in North America and Siberia with global trends from 1950 to 1953 , covering over 5,000 stations . Estimates of recent global warming , supported by Parker 's analysis shows that urban warming has not introduced significant biases . `` The reality and magnitude of global-scale warming is supported by the near-equality of temperature trends on windy nights with trends based on all data . '' ( Parker ) This paper has been commented on by Roger Pielke , Sr. , et al. .","qid":"2744","docid":"David_Parker_(climatologist)","rank":38,"score":72501},{"content":"Title: The Raunt (LIRR station) Content: The Raunt was a former Long Island Rail Road station on the Rockaway Beach Branch . It had no address and no station house , because it was meant strictly as a dropping-off point for fishermen using a small island in Jamaica Bay . The station was located 1300 feet west of signal station `` ER '' ( presumably # 96 ) , and near the WU Tower . It was named for the channel on the south side of the island where it stood .","qid":"2744","docid":"The_Raunt_(LIRR_station)","rank":39,"score":72393},{"content":"Title: List of radio stations in France Content:","qid":"2744","docid":"List_of_radio_stations_in_France","rank":40,"score":72386},{"content":"Title: Dropsonde Content: A dropsonde is an expendable weather reconnaissance device created by the National Center for Atmospheric Research ( NCAR ) , designed to be dropped from an aircraft at altitude to more accurately measure ( and therefore track ) tropical storm conditions as the device falls to the surface . The sonde contains a GPS receiver , along with pressure , temperature , and humidity ( PTH ) sensors to capture atmospheric profiles and thermodynamic data . It typically relays these data to a computer in the aircraft by radio transmission . The device 's descent is slowed and stabilized by a small square-cone parachute , allowing for multiple readings to be taken before it reaches the ocean surface . The sonde is a lightweight system designed to be operated by one person and is launched through a chute installed in the measuring aircraft , with immediate deployment of the parachute to reduce or eliminate any pendulum effect , and typically drops from three to five minutes . The sonde has a casing of stiff cardboard . During a typical hurricane season , the 53d Weather Reconnaissance Squadron Hurricane Hunters deploys 1000 to 1500 sondes on training and storm missions .","qid":"2744","docid":"Dropsonde","rank":41,"score":72375},{"content":"Title: KFXT Content: KFXT ( Keeping Him Close By 90.7 FM ) is a radio station broadcasting a gospel music format . Licensed to Sulphur , Oklahoma , United States , the station is currently owned by Sister Sherry Lynn Foundation , Inc. .","qid":"2744","docid":"KFXT","rank":42,"score":72174},{"content":"Title: List of radio stations in Switzerland Content:","qid":"2744","docid":"List_of_radio_stations_in_Switzerland","rank":43,"score":72160},{"content":"Title: Nautical stationkeeping Content: Station-keeping in a nautical situation is when a vessel is to : maintain a position in relation to another moving vessel or vessels , such as when conducting underway replenishment or part of a task force or convoy maintaining a fixed position in relation to a fixed object or patrolling a defined sector in relation to a fixed object .","qid":"2744","docid":"Nautical_stationkeeping","rank":44,"score":72019},{"content":"Title: Hardpoint Content: A hardpoint ( more formally known as a station or weapon station ) is a location on an airframe designed to carry an external or internal load . This includes a station on the wing or fuselage of a civilian aircraft or military aircraft where external jet engine , ordnance , countermeasures , gun pods , targeting pods or drop tanks can be mounted .","qid":"2744","docid":"Hardpoint","rank":45,"score":71914},{"content":"Title: Grange Lane (Sheffield) railway station Content: Grange Lane railway station was a railway station located on the South Yorkshire Railway line between Sheffield and Barnsley in South Yorkshire , England . At the time of its building it was located alongside the lane from which it takes its name with few houses nearby . From the early 1890s it became the interchange point with coal traffic from Grange Colliery ( also known as Dropping Well Colliery ) at Kimberworth in Rotherham , South Yorkshire . The colliery was sunk in 1891 and coal production ceased in 1963 . The colliery site is now Grange Park golf course . The station , opened in June 1855 , consisted of two flanking platforms with buildings on each . The line and the crossing gates were controlled from a signal box situated at the end of the platform adjacent to the gates . The station was closed on 7 December 1953 and most buildings existed until late 2011 ; the station building is a private residence .","qid":"2744","docid":"Grange_Lane_(Sheffield)_railway_station","rank":46,"score":71723},{"content":"Title: List of radio stations in Slovakia Content:","qid":"2744","docid":"List_of_radio_stations_in_Slovakia","rank":47,"score":71549},{"content":"Title: 300 Club Content: The 300 Club is the name given to those who have endured a range of temperature of 300 ° Fahrenheit ( 166 ° C ) within a very short time . The practice originated at Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station in Antarctica . Participants in the 300 Club wait for a day when the temperature drops to − 100 ° F ( -73 ° C ) for more than a few minutes , generally in the winter . Those taking part first warm up in a sauna heated to 200 ° F ( 93 ° C ) for as long as 10 minutes . Then they run naked in the snow to the Geographic South Pole , running around it in the − 100 ° F weather . After this , they usually warm themselves back in the sauna again , often with the aid of alcoholic beverages . There are several patches made to commemorate the occasion that are entitled to be worn by those who have joined the 300 Club .","qid":"2744","docid":"300_Club","rank":48,"score":71532},{"content":"Title: Signal Station, Moreton Island Content: Signal Station , Moreton Island is a heritage-listed signal station at 25 Dorothy Newnham Street , Moreton Island , City of Brisbane , Queensland , Australia . It was built in the 1930s . It is also known as Former Navy Signal Station Fort Cowan . It was added to the Queensland Heritage Register on 1 February 1995 .","qid":"2744","docid":"Signal_Station,_Moreton_Island","rank":49,"score":71508},{"content":"Title: The Extreme Scene Content: The Extreme Scene is the first radio talk show dedicated specifically to extreme sports and action sports . The program is hosted by surf journalist Cyrus Saatsaz and pro surfer Omar Etcheverry . It debuted in August 2003 on KNBR 1050 AM in San Francisco/Bay Area , with KSCO 1080 AM in Santa Cruz/Monterey picking up the show via syndication on September 20 , 2008 . For reasons unknown , KNBR management decided to drop the show on April 30 , 2009 after nearly six years . A short time later , The Extreme Scene bid farewell to terrestrial radio on May 30 , 2009 after KSCO 1080 requested money for airtime . The Extreme Scene continued broadcasts via podcasting on TheExtremeScene.com and Stitcher Radio . It was announced that starting on May 1 , 2011 The Extreme Scene returned to terrestrial radio via national syndication on May 1 , 2011 . The Extreme Scene currently airs on over 200 radio stations across the U.S. on the Sports Byline radio network , in addition to broadcasting internationally through the American Forces Broadcast Network and on Sirius/XM satellite radio . Category : American sports radio programs","qid":"2744","docid":"The_Extreme_Scene","rank":50,"score":71443},{"content":"Title: RM 1,000,000 Money Drop Content: RM 1,000,000 Money Drop is the Malaysian edition of The Million Pound Drop Live and is broadcast on Astro Ria . The show began on 3 December 2011 at 10pm , the show later changed to 9pm on 14 January 2012 due to the finished airing and finale of MasterChef Malaysia . The host of the show is AC Mizal .","qid":"2744","docid":"RM_1,000,000_Money_Drop","rank":51,"score":71321},{"content":"Title: Ek Boond Ishq Content: Ek Boond Ishq ( English : A Drop of Love ) is an Indian television drama show , which premiered on 9 September 2013 . It airs on Life OK from Monday to Friday evenings . The show stars Viraf Patel and Chhavi Pandey in lead roles . The show is currently being written by Saba Mumtaz , Amit Senchoudhary and S. Manasvi and produced by BBC India.Now telecasting on star utsav at 11:00 at night and 2:00 at noon","qid":"2744","docid":"Ek_Boond_Ishq","rank":52,"score":71316},{"content":"Title: Showa Station (Antarctica) Content: , sometimes alternately spelled Syowa Station , is a Japanese permanent research station on East Ongul Island in Queen Maud Land , Antarctica . Built in 1957 , Showa Station is named for the era in the Japanese calendar during which it was established , the Shōwa period .","qid":"2744","docid":"Showa_Station_(Antarctica)","rank":53,"score":71249},{"content":"Title: List of radio stations in Finland Content:","qid":"2744","docid":"List_of_radio_stations_in_Finland","rank":54,"score":71049},{"content":"Title: DJ Laz Content: Lazaro Mendez , better known by his stage name DJ Laz ( born in December 2 , 1971 , in Hollywood , Florida , United States ) is a Cuban-American rapper and DJ from Miami , Florida . He hosted the weekday morning `` DJ Laz Morning Show '' in Miami on WPOW 96.5 FM , branded `` Power 96 , '' for 22 years until he left the company in April 2012 . Beginning July 4 , 2012 , the new DJ Laz Morning Show began after arbitration on the newly reformatted WRMA DJ106 .7 a Bilingual Dance/Rhythmic formatted station . He is best known for his albums DJ Laz and Category 6 , which charted on U.S. Billboard album charts . He is also notable for the singles `` Journey Into Bass '' ( 1994 ) and `` Move Shake Drop '' ( 2008 ) , which peaked at # 56 on the Billboard Hot 100 . The DJ Laz Morning Show on LA 96.3 of Los Angeles and DJ 106.7 of Miami is known for mysteriously getting their hands on exclusive content . DJ Laz is also known for his show 's prominent appearance on Fox 's television show , Dish Nation . In July 2012 , when Justin Bieber made a 911 call to authorities to report paparazzi that were following him , the DJ Laz Morning Show was the first to obtain Bieber 's 911 call , airing it on Los Angeles ' LA 96.3 . On Tuesday , September 11 , 2012 , the DJ Laz Morning Show aired a pre-recorded interview with President Barack Obama . Many Obama critics quickly bashed Obama for making no mention to the September 11 attacks in 2001 , despite the fact that the interview was pre-recorded . The White House later made it clear that the call was indeed pre-recorded and was supposed to have been played on Monday , September 10 . On May 5 , 2014 , DJ Laz was in command of a boat that was stuck on a sand bar in Biscayne Bay . When bystanders got out to push the boat , DJ Laz increased power to the engine , and a 23-year-old man who had been trying to help was killed by the boat prop . DJ Laz is now hosting the Morning Show for 97.3 in Miami .","qid":"2744","docid":"DJ_Laz","rank":55,"score":71047},{"content":"Title: List of radio stations in Bulgaria Content:","qid":"2744","docid":"List_of_radio_stations_in_Bulgaria","rank":56,"score":71000},{"content":"Title: KTAT Content: KTAT ( 1570 AM ) is a radio station licensed to Frederick , Oklahoma , United States . The station is currently owned by Morey Broadcasting , LLC .","qid":"2744","docid":"KTAT","rank":57,"score":70955},{"content":"Title: XHCMO-TDT Content: XHCMO-TDT is a television station in Cuernavaca , Morelos . Broadcasting on virtual channel 15 , XHCMO is a public and educational television station owned and operated by the state of Morelos and managed by the Instituto Morelense de Radio y Televisión ( IMRyT ) . The station went on air on April 17 , 1991 as XHCMO-TV , broadcasting on channel 3 . This made it the first state-run television station in Morelos , under the auspices of what was then known as the Morelos System of Radio and Television ( Sistema Morelense de Radio y Televisión or SMRTV , not to be confused with the similarly named Michoacán state network ) . After 1995 , when SMRTV was dissolved , the quality of its radio and television stations began to fade . The Canal 3 transmitter weakened with lack of maintenance , while equipment became outdated . In 2000 , the former SMRTV stations were reorganized , but for political reasons , the needed modernization of the radio and television stations did not happen . In 2010 , SMRTV was reformed , and in 2013 , it took on its current name of IMRyT . In April 2014 , XHCMO received approval to flash-cut to digital on channel 49 and increase its effective radiated power . The station shut off its analog signal on September 4 , 2014 , at which time it rebranded as Canal 49 ( but continued to use virtual channel 3.1 ) . XHCMO was assigned virtual channel 15 and moved to it on October 20 , 2016 , rebranding as `` El Canal de Morelos '' .","qid":"2744","docid":"XHCMO-TDT","rank":58,"score":70876},{"content":"Title: Leidenfrost effect Content: thumb | Leidenfrost droplet thumb | Demonstration of the Leidenfrost effect The Leidenfrost effect is a physical phenomenon in which a liquid , in near contact with a mass significantly hotter than the liquid 's boiling point , produces an insulating vapor layer keeping that liquid from boiling rapidly . Due to this ` repulsive force ' , a droplet hovers over the surface rather than making physical contact with it . This is most commonly seen when cooking : one sprinkles drops of water in a pan to gauge its temperature : if the pan 's temperature is at or above the Leidenfrost point , the water skitters across the pan and takes longer to evaporate than in a pan below the temperature of the Leidenfrost point ( but still above boiling temperature ) . The effect is also responsible for the ability of liquid nitrogen to skitter across floors . It has also been used in some potentially dangerous demonstrations , such as dipping a wet finger in molten lead or blowing out a mouthful of liquid nitrogen , both enacted without injury to the demonstrator . The latter is potentially lethal , particularly should one accidentally swallow the liquid nitrogen . It is named after Johann Gottlob Leidenfrost , who discussed it in A Tract About Some Qualities of Common Water in 1756 .","qid":"2744","docid":"Leidenfrost_effect","rank":59,"score":70685},{"content":"Title: Jelynn Rodriguez Content: Jelynn Rodriguez is a host on the popular American Sí TV show : The Drop , as well as an actress , dancer and singer . She is Filipino . She has been working in show business since she was a teenager living in San Diego attending Rancho Bernardo High School . She and now lives in Los Angeles . On television , Jelynn was a host on TV Guide Channel , and appeared in a pilot for CBS in 2005 called Three . She also hosted a local San Diego show from 2003-2004 called The Beat . She is still a host of The Drop which can be seen on Sí TV every day . New episodes are shown on Mondays . In late 2005 , Jelynn shot her first movie to be released sometime in 2007 , Bar Starz . She plays Melanie , one of the leads in this movie about `` the adventures of some seriously odd club denizens . '' Jelynn can be seen in the horror film Grizzly Park playing the character KiKi . Grizzly Park was released in Fall 2007 . Jelynn is starring in a new show called Engaged . It is being released on the internet . The premiere episode will be aired on August 23 , 9pm Eastern Time . She can be seen in an upcoming episode of NBC 's hit drama Las Vegas .","qid":"2744","docid":"Jelynn_Rodriguez","rank":60,"score":70613},{"content":"Title: The Million Dollar Drop Content: The Million Dollar Drop is a game show which airs on Nine Network in Australia and is based on the UK series The Million Pound Drop Live . However , unlike the original UK version , it is not broadcast live , and there are several changes to the format . The show premiered on 21 March 2011 and is hosted by Eddie McGuire .","qid":"2744","docid":"The_Million_Dollar_Drop","rank":61,"score":70540},{"content":"Title: List of radio stations in Lithuania Content:","qid":"2744","docid":"List_of_radio_stations_in_Lithuania","rank":62,"score":70490},{"content":"Title: In:Demand Content: In : Demand was the name of an English and Scottish syndicated radio program hosted by Stu Tolan . It was produced from Bauer Radio headquarters in Manchester , airing 1900 to 2200 on Sunday to Thursday nights on Bauer Place stations in England and Scotland . On 17 February 2014 In : Demand England and In : Demand Scotland merged to create a single In : Demand programme , respective presenters Alex James and Romeo were dropped , with new presenter Stu Tolan introduced . In October 2014 , as part of wider changes to schedules on the Bauer stations , In : Demand was rescheduled to run on Sunday to Thursday nights , replacing prior local/regional Sunday night content including Scotland 's In : Demand Uncut ; the prior Friday night In : Demand slot was used for a new upbeat music show , Friday Night Floor Fillers . The feature was dropped by Bauer on Monday 17 August and replaced by regional syndicates .","qid":"2744","docid":"In:Demand","rank":63,"score":70378},{"content":"Title: List of radio stations in Latvia Content:","qid":"2744","docid":"List_of_radio_stations_in_Latvia","rank":64,"score":70367},{"content":"Title: Drop shipping Content: Drop shipping is a supply chain management method in which the retailer does not keep goods in stock but instead transfers customer orders and shipment details to either the manufacturer , another retailer , or a wholesaler , who then ships the goods directly to the customer . As in retail businesses , the majority of retailers make their profit on the difference between the wholesale and retail price , but some retailers earn an agreed percentage of the sales in commission , paid by the wholesaler to the retailer .","qid":"2744","docid":"Drop_shipping","rank":65,"score":70340},{"content":"Title: Wenvoe railway station Content: Wenvoe railway station is a former railway station in Wenvoe in south Wales . It was on the Barry Railway between Creigiau and Cadoxton , which ran broadly north-south through Wenvoe . It had two platforms with passing loops to the south on both the up and down lines for goods and mineral trains to allow passenger trains to pass . To the north of the station was Wenvoe Tunnel , 1 mile and 108 yards long emerging just before Drope Junction . The northern portal is located slightly to the west of the A4232 by-pass . The station closed in 1962 and the line was abandoned six months later . The site of the station buildings and yard is now a private residence and is not accessible to the public .","qid":"2744","docid":"Wenvoe_railway_station","rank":66,"score":70319},{"content":"Title: List of Blue Drop: Tenshitachi no Gikyoku episodes Content: The episodes of the 2007 anime television series Blue Drop are based on the manga of the same name written by Akihito Yoshitomi , constituting a prequel to the manga . The episodes are directed by Masahiko Ohkura and animated by the Japanese animation studios Asahi Production and BeSTACK , with the 3D modeling done by Gonzo . The plot of the episodes follows Mari Wakatake 's relationship with the enigmatic Hagino Senkōji , a member of an alien race known as the Arume , and the prelude to an invasion by the Arume . The episodes aired from October 2 , 2007 to December 25 , 2007 on Chiba TV and KBS Kyoto , with AT-X , Mie TV , Tokyo MX TV , TV Kanagawa , TV Saitama , and TV Wakayama showing the episodes at later dates . The AT-X broadcast started much later than its counterparts , with the first episode airing in November , while most other stations started showing the episodes in October . Unlike most Japanese anime , the title of each episode is given in English . Each title is the name of a flower shown in that episode . Two pieces of theme music are used for the episodes ; one opening theme and one ending theme . The opening theme is `` BLUE '' by Japanese singer Suara , and another of her songs , is used as the closing theme . A single containing both songs was released on October 24 , 2007 . Six DVD compilations have been planned for release by King Records , and the first compilation , composing the first three episodes of the anime , was released on December 26 , 2007 . D The second compilation , which contains the next two episodes of the anime , was released on January 23 , 2008 . The anime has been licensed for release in North America by Sentai Filmworks and is distributed by Section23 Films . The subtitled complete collection was released on November 17 , 2009 . Sentai Filmworks and Section23 Films re-released the complete series with an English dub on September 7 , 2010 .","qid":"2744","docid":"List_of_Blue_Drop:_Tenshitachi_no_Gikyoku_episodes","rank":67,"score":70112},{"content":"Title: KONP Content: For Keep Our NHS Public , UK campaign group KONP is a radio station based in Port Angeles , Washington . It signed on the air at 6:30 a.m. local time February 3 , 1945 .","qid":"2744","docid":"KONP","rank":68,"score":70031},{"content":"Title: XHI-FM Content: XHI-FM is a radio station in Morelia , Michoacán broadcasting on 100.9 MHz . XHI-FM broadcasts in HD .","qid":"2744","docid":"XHI-FM","rank":69,"score":69970},{"content":"Title: More Radio Mid-Sussex Content: More Radio Mid-Sussex , formerly Bright FM , is an Independent Local Radio station serving Burgess Hill , Haywards Heath , Lewes and surrounding areas . It is owned and operated by Media Sound Holdings and broadcasts from studios in Worthing , as part of a network of stations across Sussex .","qid":"2744","docid":"More_Radio_Mid-Sussex","rank":70,"score":69803},{"content":"Title: Voltage drop Content: Voltage drop describes how energy is supplied of a voltage source that is reduced as electric current moves through the passive elements ( elements that do not supply voltage ) of an electrical circuit . Voltage drops across internal resistances of the source , across conductors , across contacts , and across connectors are undesired as the supplied energy is lost ( dissipated ) . Voltage drops across loads and across other active circuit elements are desired as the supplied energy performs useful work . For example , an electric space heater may have a resistance of ten ohms , and the wires which supply it may have a resistance of 0.2 ohms , about 2 % of the total circuit resistance . This means that approximately 2 % of the supplied voltage is lost in the wire itself . Excessive voltage drop may result in unsatisfactory operation of , and damage to , electrical and electronic equipment . National and local electrical codes may set guidelines for the maximum voltage drop allowed in electrical wiring , to ensure efficiency of distribution and proper operation of electrical equipment . The maximum permitted voltage drop varies from one country to another . In electronic design and power transmission , various techniques are employed to compensate for the effect of voltage drop on long circuits or where voltage levels must be accurately maintained . The simplest way to reduce voltage drop is to increase the diameter of the conductor between the source and the load , which lowers the overall resistance . In power distribution systems , a given amount of power can be transmitted with less voltage drop if a higher voltage is used . More sophisticated techniques use active elements to compensate for the undesired voltage drop .","qid":"2744","docid":"Voltage_drop","rank":71,"score":69797},{"content":"Title: Egg drop competition Content: The egg drop contest is an experiment usually performed by college or primary school students . Competitors typically attempt to create a device that can keep a raw chicken egg intact when dropped from a height . Students are asked to build a device made from a limited amount of materials to support an egg when dropped from various heights .","qid":"2744","docid":"Egg_drop_competition","rank":72,"score":69575},{"content":"Title: Keepin' It Real with Al Sharpton Content: Keepin ' It Real with Al Sharpton is a daily national talk radio program by New York City area civil rights activist Rev. Al Sharpton . While his show is based at New York City 's WWRL , Keepin It Real with Al Sharpton has also been broadcast on Sirius XM Satellite Radio since August 13 , 2007 . As noted by Sharpton , the show is also broadcast on Radio One . The show is broadcast weekday evenings , from 8:00 PM to 10:00 PM in New York City . It also airs in 40 media markets and is syndicated by Superadio Networks . In June 2005 , Sharpton signed a contract with Matrix Media to produce and host a live two-hour daily talk program , which did not air . In November 2005 , Sharpton signed with Radio One to host the program which began airing on January 30 , 2006 .","qid":"2744","docid":"Keepin'_It_Real_with_Al_Sharpton","rank":73,"score":69547},{"content":"Title: The Million Rupiah Money Drop Content: The Million Rupiah Money Drop is the Indonesian edition of The Million Pound Drop and is broadcast on RCTI . The show began on 28 February 2015 and the host of the show is the actor Anjasmara . Category :2015 Indonesian television series debuts Category : Indonesian game shows Category : Television series by Endemol","qid":"2744","docid":"The_Million_Rupiah_Money_Drop","rank":74,"score":69539},{"content":"Title: 3WBC Content: 3WBC FM is a local radio station in Melbourne , Australia with a frequency of 94.1 MHz . The station is operated under licence by Whitehorse-Boroondara Community FM Radio Incorporated . It often involves local school students in its programs and is developing a larger audience . Discussion topics include current events such as global warming . Since November 2007 , 3WBC has broadcast from studios in the Box Hill town hall , located in Box Hill , a suburb of Melbourne .","qid":"2744","docid":"3WBC","rank":75,"score":69486},{"content":"Title: The Sam FM Drop Content: The Drop ( Currently known as The Sam FM Drop ) is a tower ride that previously operated at Funland in Hayling Island , Hampshire , England , UK . and in the London Trocadero as The Pepsi Max Drop which featured 2 cars on top of each other and was attached to the wall . When the ride moved to Funland a support tower was constructed and only the bottom car remained . In 2016 the main car for the ride was removed , and the rest of the ride was left abandoned .","qid":"2744","docid":"The_Sam_FM_Drop","rank":76,"score":69239},{"content":"Title: Million Dollar Money Drop: Singapore Edition Content: Million Dollar Money Drop : Singapore Edition was a game show which aired on MediaCorp Channel 5 in the Singapore . It was based on the UK series The Million Pound Drop Live . However , unlike the original UK version , it was not broadcast live , and there were several changes to the format . The show premiered on 9 August 2011 , after the nation 's 46th National Day Parade segment , and is hosted by George Young . The show 's set , theme song and question cues was followed based on the British edition . About 300,000 people watched the premiere of the show : approximately 6 % of the total population of Singapore at that time .","qid":"2744","docid":"Million_Dollar_Money_Drop:_Singapore_Edition","rank":77,"score":69223},{"content":"Title: Heat-based contraception Content: An experimental male contraceptive method involves heating the testicles so that they can not produce sperm . Sperm are best produced at a temperature slightly below body temperature . The muscles around a male 's scrotum involuntarily tighten if the man 's body temperature drops , and they loosen , allowing the testes to hang , if the body temperature rises . This is the body 's way of keeping the sperm at an ideal temperature . Although research has not addressed methods of applying heat , sperm production can be disrupted with increased temperature . Some suggest exposure to high temperatures ( 116 ° F ) can affect fertility for months . Methods used include hot water applied to the scrotum , heat generated by ultrasound , and artificial cryptorchidism ( holding the testicles inside the abdomen ) using specialized briefs . One of the initial experiments resulted in partial infertility lasting more than four years . Initial experiments suggest it is effective and safe , though there have not been long-term studies to determine if it has any side effects on the body after reversal . The optimal heat level and time period of exposure are not known . One method under investigation is ultrasound , which involves the application of high-frequency sound waves to animal tissue , which in turn absorb the sound waves ' energy as heat . The possibility for ultrasound 's use for contraception is based on the idea that briefly heating the testes can halt sperm production , leading to temporary infertility for about six months . Additionally , ultrasound could affect cells ' absorption rates of ions , which itself could create an environment unfavorable to spermatogenesis . Its extremely localized effects on animal tissues make ultrasound an attractive candidate for research , but so far studies have only been performed on non-human animals , such as dogs .","qid":"2744","docid":"Heat-based_contraception","rank":78,"score":69130},{"content":"Title: AtmosFEAR (Morey's Piers) Content: AtmosFEAR is a 140 ft drop tower on the Surfside Pier at Morey 's Piers seaside park . It was designed by A.R.M. and Larson International , and officially opened in May 2005 . AtmosFEAR creates freefall speeds of 50 mph with a vertical acceleration upwards of three G 's . The ride experience on AtmosFEAR features a very slow ascent , which is accented by custom designed LED lighting and an on-board sound system with thunderous sound effects . As the vehicle climbs , fog fills the air , and then without warning the vehicle is released and literally forced downward by a special launch system that generates faster-than-freefall speeds . It is the third-tallest ride at Morey 's Piers .","qid":"2744","docid":"AtmosFEAR_(Morey's_Piers)","rank":79,"score":69098},{"content":"Title: Drip Drop Content: `` Drip Drop '' is a song by Azerbaijani singer Safura Alizadeh , written by Anders Bagge , Stefan Örn , Piotr Wass and Sandra Bjurman , and represented Azerbaijan at the Eurovision Song Contest 2010 in May 2010 . Alizadeh 's song was selected by a jury from the Azeri broadcaster İctimai Televiziya və Radio Yayımları Şirkəti ( İTV ) . On May 29 , 2010 `` Drip Drop '' gained the fifth place at the Eurovision 2010 final . Euromedia and Luxen Group of Companies on behalf of İTV received many remix offers for `` Drip Drop '' . Taking a selective attitude , they approached DJs Maverick and Alex Guerrero for the assignment . Their remixes went in rotation on various European radio stations . Željko Joksimović was asked to make a Balkan version of the song .","qid":"2744","docid":"Drip_Drop","rank":80,"score":69080},{"content":"Title: List of Sydney radio stations Content:","qid":"2744","docid":"List_of_Sydney_radio_stations","rank":81,"score":69073},{"content":"Title: Drop, Masovian Voivodeship Content: Drop -LSB- drop -RSB- is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Dobre , within Mińsk County , Masovian Voivodeship , in east-central Poland .","qid":"2744","docid":"Drop,_Masovian_Voivodeship","rank":82,"score":69009},{"content":"Title: Keeping up with the Joneses (TV series) Content: Keeping up with the Joneses is an Australian reality television series that follows the life of a family on a Cattle Station -- Coolibah Station -- 600 km south-west of Darwin , Northern Territory . The show follows the daily lives of the Jones family as they muster cattle , fight fires , battle floods and even wrestle crocodiles . This raw and humorous snapshot of family life shows just what it takes to live in the outback . They own over 1,000,000 acres .","qid":"2744","docid":"Keeping_up_with_the_Joneses_(TV_series)","rank":83,"score":68744},{"content":"Title: Lowest temperature recorded on Earth Content: The lowest natural temperature ever directly recorded at ground level on Earth is − 89.2 C , which was at the Soviet Vostok Station in Antarctica by ground measurements . A 2009 study estimated that under exceptional climate conditions similar to those recorded at Vostin 1983 , temperatures higher on the plateau around Dome Argus could potentially drop lower than − 95 C. On August 10 , 2010 , satellite observations measured a surface temperature of − 93.2 C at 81.8 ° S 59.3 ° E , along a ridge between Dome Argus and Dome Fuji , at 3,900 m elevation . The result was reported at the 46th annual meeting of the American Geophysical Union in San Francisco , in December 2013 ; it is a provisional figure , and may be subject to revision . The value may not be listed as the record coldest temperature as it was measured by remote sensing satellites and not by ground-based thermometers , unlike the 1983 record . The temperature announced reflects that of the ice surface , while the Vostok readings measured the air above the ice , and so the two are not directly comparable . However , it is most likely that the real temperature on the site was lower than that recorded at Vostok .","qid":"2744","docid":"Lowest_temperature_recorded_on_Earth","rank":84,"score":68223},{"content":"Title: KBFK-LP Content: KBFK-LP Channel 36 is a low power station that broadcasts in digital on channel 36 . Me-TV was seen on 36.1 , but was dropped in August 2014 . Movies ! was added to 36.2 on February 1 , 2014 . It is owned by Cocola Broadcasting .","qid":"2744","docid":"KBFK-LP","rank":85,"score":68198},{"content":"Title: Dropout (astronomy) Content: In astronomy , dropout is a radiation source whose radiation intensity falls off sharply below a specific wavelength . The source will be easily visible when its light is filtered to wavelengths longer than the cutoff value , but will `` drop out '' of the image when it is filtered to wavelengths shorter than the threshold . This is a standard method for locating distant galaxies in deep field images . Because the hydrogen that surrounds the galaxies absorbs light with a wavelength around 100 nanometers , the galaxies have a natural dropout threshold . The exact wavelength of this threshold is redshifted and can be used to determine the distance to the galaxy .","qid":"2744","docid":"Dropout_(astronomy)","rank":86,"score":68067},{"content":"Title: KCML Content: KCML ( 99.9 FM , `` More FM '' ) is a radio station in St. Cloud , Minnesota , airing an adult contemporary music format . The station is owned by Leighton Broadcasting .","qid":"2744","docid":"KCML","rank":87,"score":67886},{"content":"Title: More Radio Worthing Content: More Radio Worthing , formerly Splash FM , is an Independent Local Radio station serving Worthing , Shoreham , Littlehampton and surrounding areas . It is owned and operated by Media Sound Holdings and broadcasts from studios at The Guildbourne Centre in Worthing , as part of a network of stations across Sussex .","qid":"2744","docid":"More_Radio_Worthing","rank":88,"score":67744},{"content":"Title: Morera-Gifu Station Content: is a train station in Motosu , Gifu Prefecture , Japan .","qid":"2744","docid":"Morera-Gifu_Station","rank":89,"score":67731},{"content":"Title: More Radio Eastbourne Content: More Radio Eastbourne , formerly Sovereign FM , is an Independent Local Radio station serving Eastbourne , Hailsham , Polegate and surrounding areas . It is owned and operated by Media Sound Holdings and broadcasts from studios in Worthing , as part of a network of stations across Sussex .","qid":"2744","docid":"More_Radio_Eastbourne","rank":90,"score":67526},{"content":"Title: Drop.io Content: Drop.io was an online file sharing service . It allowed users to quickly create `` drops '' , which could contain files of any type , and could be accessed via the internet , e-mail , phone , fax , and widgets . The service did not require users to sign up for an account , and each drop was private unless the creator chose to share it . Drop.io was named one of TIME Magazine 's 50 Best Websites of 2009 , and CNET Webware 100 . On October 29 , 2010 , Drop.io announced that the company had been purchased by Facebook and that the service would be shutting down . Sam Lessin , one of the site 's founders , would be moving to Facebook . , the site is no longer active ; the blog is also down , as of November 2011 .","qid":"2744","docid":"Drop.io","rank":91,"score":67458},{"content":"Title: Max Keeping Content: Winston Maxwell `` Max '' Keeping , ( 1 April 1942 -- 1 October 2015 ) , was a Canadian broadcaster . He was vice-president of news and public affairs at CJOH-DT , the CTV station in Ottawa , Ontario . Keeping was anchor of the local evening news broadcast from 1972 until his retirement in 2010 and was the station 's community ambassador until March 2012 .","qid":"2744","docid":"Max_Keeping","rank":92,"score":67439},{"content":"Title: List of radio stations in Kathmandu Content: Kathmandu","qid":"2744","docid":"List_of_radio_stations_in_Kathmandu","rank":93,"score":67186},{"content":"Title: Dropwise condensation Content: In dropwise condensation the condensate liquid collects in the form of countless droplets of varying diameters on the condensing surface instead of forming a continuous film and does not wet the solid cooling surface . The droplets develop at a point of surface imperfection ( pit , scratch ) , called nucleation sites and grow in size as more vapour condenses on its exposed surface . When the size of droplets is large there comes a time the droplet breakaway from the surface and knock off other droplets and carries it downstream . The moving droplet devours the droplets of smaller size . Dropwise condensation is one of the most effective mechanism of heat transfer and extremely large heat transfer coefficients can be achieved with this mechanism . There is no liquid film in this case to resist heat transfer as a result heat transfer coefficients can be achieved more than 10 times larger than those associated with film condensation . Heat transfer coefficients is large so designers to achieve a specified heat transfer rate with a smaller surface area and thus a smaller and less expensive condenser . Dropwise condensation is achieved by adding a promoter chemical into the vapor , highly polished surface and surface contaminated with impurities like fatty acids and organic compounds , known as dropwise promoters . Dropwise condensation is provoked artificially with the help of silicons , teflons , assortment of waxes and fatty acids . These promoters are used to promote dropwise condensation but promoters are highly unstable and lose their effectiveness with time due to oxidation , fouling and removal of the promoter from the surface . Dropwise condensation sustain for a long time by the combined effects of surface coating and periodic injection of the promoter into the vapor neither it does not continue long time and converts to filmwise condensation . So most condensers are designed on the assumption that film condensation will take place on the surface . The total amount of heat transfer through a single droplet is a function of it 's radius and the size distribution over the condensation surface . The important factors which are involved in the mechanism of heat transfer through a single droplets are : Thermal conduction through a single droplet Thermal conduction in the substrate material Interphase matter transfer at the vapour liquid interface Curvature of vapour liquid interface","qid":"2744","docid":"Dropwise_condensation","rank":94,"score":67159},{"content":"Title: RTÉ Pulse Content: RTÉ Pulse is an electronic dance music station from Raidió Teilifís Éireann ( RTÉ ) , Ireland 's national broadcaster . It broadcasts on the RTÉ DAB Multiplex and Saorview , Ireland 's free-to-air DTT service in Ireland , as well as on Virgin Media cable television and over the Internet . It plays a varied mix of dance music , with a small number of shows covering RnB . It started broadcasting in April 2008 , but had an official launch alongside its sister services on 1 December 2008 . Originally started as a jukebox service with no presenters , it now carries daily live and pre-recorded shows from a number of Irish DJs , including Mo K , Will Kinsella , Orla Feeney and international DJs and brands like Ministry of Sound , Defected , Hed Kandi Paul Oakenfold , Ferry Corsten , Carl Cox , Nicky Romero , Mark Knight and Judge Jules . The schedule is designed to be stranded in its approach to fulfilling its remit of representing all genres of dance music . It also airs specialist live shows such as : The Drop with Aifric O Connell , which plays the most blogged about and brand new music ; Back2Basics , the all vinyl show , presented by Simon Palmer , which is believed to be the only vinyl show aired by a state broadcaster globally ; as well as content from the Red Bull Music Academy . Sunday 's scheduling draws very much from the eclectic styles of the genre and features soul , dub step , and drum and bass . The station also does outside broadcasts , such as from the Life Festival in 2013 . As well as airing music from many international live events during the Re-LIVE show . The majority of broadcast come from RTÉ main studios in Dublin ; however , the service also uses RTÉ facilities from all around the country and overseas . There are regular weekly live shows from the Cork , Limerick and Belfast studios . The service regularly broadcasts live from the RTÉ or BBC studios in London .","qid":"2744","docid":"RTÉ_Pulse","rank":95,"score":67155},{"content":"Title: Hip-Hop Nation Content: Hip-Hop Nation is a hip-hop radio station owned by Sirius XM Radio . The station broadcasts on Sirius Satellite Radio channel 44 ( previously 40 ) , XM Satellite Radio channel 44 ( previously 67 , where it replaced The City on November 12 , 2008 ) and on DISH Network channel 6044 ( previously 6040 ) until Sirius XM 's Liquid Metal took Dish Network 's 6040 and Sirius XM Radio 40 . Until February 9 , 2010 , it was on DirecTV channel 847 , but all of Sirius XM programming was dropped in favor for Sonic Tap by DMX . It began adding R&B hits on November 12 , 2008 , when the channel segued to Mainstream Urban , taking the format from The Heat , which moved to urban contemporary ( replacing the existing The City and Hot Jamz formats ) . Until September 12 , 2008 the channel was uncensored , and returned to being uncensored on November 12 , 2008 .","qid":"2744","docid":"Hip-Hop_Nation","rank":96,"score":67142},{"content":"Title: Keep Cool (board game) Content: Keep Cool is a board game created by Klaus Eisenack and Gerhard Petschel-Held of the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research and published by the German company Spieltrieb in November 2004 . The game can be classified as both a serious game and a global warming game . In Keep Cool , up to six players representing the world 's countries compete to balance their own economic interests and the world 's climate in a game of negotiation . The goal of the game as stated by the authors is to `` promote the general knowledge on climate change and the understanding of difficulties and obstacles , and `` to make it available for a board game and still retain the major elements and processes . ''","qid":"2744","docid":"Keep_Cool_(board_game)","rank":97,"score":67091},{"content":"Title: XHKW-FM Content: XHKW-FM is a radio station on 89.3 FM in Morelia , Michoacán .","qid":"2744","docid":"XHKW-FM","rank":98,"score":67065},{"content":"Title: James \"Plunky\" Branch Content: James `` Plunky '' Branch is an African-American performer , songwriter , and music and film producer . He is known for his participation in the band Plunky & Oneness , which began as Juju in 1971 and was renamed twice ( Oneness of Juju , Plunky & the Oneness of Juju ) before it was given its current name in 1988 . Branch is the president and founder of the independent record label N.A.M.E. Brand Records , through which he has released 25 albums . He has worked as a studio musician for The Cosby Show and has appeared on several avant-garde jazz albums . He has been Director of the Jazz Ensemble at Virginia Union University as well as an instructor of Afro-American Music History at Virginia Commonwealth University . One of Plunky & Oneness 's songs , `` Every Way But Loose '' , is featured on the video game Grand Theft Auto : Vice City Stories , playing on fictional radio station Paradise FM . In 2006 Plunky released the solo album Cold Heat , which featured the single `` Drop . ''","qid":"2744","docid":"James_\"Plunky\"_Branch","rank":99,"score":67011},{"content":"Title: WCEM-FM Content: WCEM-FM ( 106.3 FM , `` The Heat '' ) is a radio station playing a Mainstream Top 40 music format . It broadcasts from Cambridge , Maryland . The station broadcasts from its studios on the southern bank of the Choptank River . WCEM-FM 's transmitter is located in Cambridge . In addition to its usual music programming , WCEM-FM broadcasts Baltimore Ravens games and little league baseball all-star games during the summer .","qid":"2744","docid":"WCEM-FM","rank":100,"score":66963}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KEPT-LP Content: KEPT-LP is a low power radio station broadcasting from Hayward , California . It is owned by Calvary Chapel of Hayward , Inc. .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"KEPT-LP\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 106674\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Drop Hydro Content: The Drop Hydro Power Station is a Pacific Hydro hydroelectric power station on the Mulwala Canal , near Berrigan , New South Wales , Australia . It has one turbine , with a generating capacity of 2.5 MW of electricity . The power station was completed in November 2002 , and is Australia 's first hydroelectric power station built on an irrigation canal .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Drop_Hydro\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 94326\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Drop the Beat Content: Drop the Beat was a Canadian television series produced by Back Alley Films , which aired on CBC Television in 2000 . A short run dramatic series , the show was one of the first television series ever built around hip hop music and culture . The show , a spinoff of the earlier CBC series Straight Up , starred Mark Taylor as Jeff and Merwin Mondesir as Dennis , the hosts of a hip hop show on CIBJ-FM , a fictional campus radio station in Toronto , Ontario . Michie Mee starred as Divine , a rapper who was part of Jeff and Dennis ' crew , and Ingrid Veninger played the station manager . The supporting cast also included Arlene Duncan , Vanessa Ford , Jennifer Baxter , Jason Harrow , Shamann Williams and Omari Forrester . The use of a campus radio station was a deliberate reflection of Canadian reality -- until Toronto 's Flow 93.5 hit the airwaves in early 2001 , Canada did not have any radio stations dedicated specifically to urban music .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"Drop_the_Beat\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 93660\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KEEP Content: KEEP is a commercially supported FM radio station serving the general area of Fredericksburg , Texas , due west from Austin and due north of San Antonio . KEEP is owned by J & J Fritz Media and is broadcast from Johnson City , Texas . It was one of four member stations of the Texas Rebel Radio Network which supplies Texas music programming . This programming is available as streaming audio via the KEEP/Texas Rebel Radio website . On June 24 , 2011 , KEEP , after three months of silence , returned to the air simulcasting country-formatted KNAF-FM 105.7 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"KEEP\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 92552\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Orbital station-keeping Content: In astrodynamics , the orbital maneuvers made by thruster burns that are needed to keep a spacecraft in a particular assigned orbit are called orbital station-keeping . For many Earth satellites the effects of the non-Keplerian forces , i.e. the deviations of the gravitational force of the Earth from that of a homogeneous sphere , gravitational forces from Sun/Moon , solar radiation pressure and air-drag , must be counteracted . The deviation of Earth 's gravity field from that of a homogeneous sphere and gravitational forces from Sun/Moon will in general perturb the orbital plane . For a sun-synchronous orbit the precession of the orbital plane caused by the oblateness of the Earth is a desirable feature that is part of the mission design but the inclination change caused by the gravitational forces of Sun/Moon is undesirable . For geostationary spacecraft the inclination change caused by the gravitational forces of Sun/Moon must be counteracted by a rather large expense of fuel , as the inclination should be kept sufficiently small for the spacecraft to be tracked by a non-steerable antenna . For spacecraft in low orbits the effects of atmospheric drag must often be compensated for . For some missions this is needed simply to avoid re-entry ; for other missions , typically missions for which the orbit should be accurately synchronized with Earth rotation , this is necessary to avoid the orbital period shortening . Solar radiation pressure will in general perturb the eccentricity ( i.e. the eccentricity vector ) , see Orbital perturbation analysis ( spacecraft ) . For some missions this must be actively counter-acted with manoeuvres . For geostationary spacecraft the eccentricity must be kept sufficiently small for a spacecraft to be tracked with a non-steerable antenna . Also for Earth observation spacecraft for which a very repetitive orbit with a fixed ground track is desirable , the eccentricity vector should be kept as fixed as possible . A large part of this compensation can be done by using a frozen orbit design , but for the fine control manoeuvres with thrusters are needed . For spacecraft in a halo orbit around a Lagrangian point stationkeeping is even more fundamental as such an orbit is unstable ; without an active control with thruster burns the smallest deviation in position/velocity would result in the spacecraft leaving the orbit completely .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"Orbital_station-keeping\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 86792\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: WARM (AM) Content: WARM ( 590 AM ) is a radio station licensed to the city of Scranton , Pennsylvania . The station is currently owned by Cumulus Media . The station is a Class B AM broadcasting station according to the Federal Communications Commission . WARM broadcasts with a power of 5,000 watts with two types of directional antenna signal patterns during daytime and nighttime . The antenna patterns of the signal in both instances are generally aimed towards the southeast with some signal aimed towards the northwest from its transmitting facility located 15 miles northwest of Scranton in Falls , Pennsylvania . WARM uses five , 495 feet high broadcasting towers to transmit its signal from that location . The station used to derive a portion of its programming from Scott Shannon 's The True Oldies Channel from Cumulus Media Networks .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"WARM_(AM)\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 84259\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Look Who's Dropped In Content: Look Who 's Dropped In was a 4-part Australian television variety series which aired on Sydney station ABN-2 . The half-hour series presented jazz music , competing in the time-slot against Pick a Box on ATN-7 and U.S. series Racket Squad on TCN-9 . It aired fortnightly from 14 December 1957 to 25 January 1958 , alternating with Tele-Variety . It is worth noting that ABC variety series of the era typically had shorter seasons than those on commercial television . The series featured George Trevare .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"Look_Who's_Dropped_In\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 83529\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: U-Drop Inn Content: The U-Drop Inn , also known as Tower Station and U-Drop Inn and Tower Café , was built in 1936 in Shamrock , Texas along the historic Route 66 highway . Inspired by the image of a nail stuck in soil , the building was designed by J. C. Berry . An unusual example of art deco architecture applied to a gas station and restaurant , the building features two flared towers with geometric detailing , curvilinear massing , glazed ceramic tile walls , and neon light accents . It has traditionally held two separate business : `` Tower Station '' , a gas station on the western side , and the `` U-Drop Inn '' , a café on the eastern side . Though it has passed hands several times in its history , the building has consistently housed the same types of businesses it was originally constructed for . Once considered a beautiful and impressive example of Route 66 architecture in Texas , the U-Drop Inn fell into disrepair with the decommissioning of Route 66 . It closed for business in the late 1990s . After it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in September 1997 , the building was purchased by the First National Bank of Shamrock , which then gave it to the city . Primarily funded by a US$ 1.7 million federal grant , the city hired a firm specializing in historical renovation to restore the building to its original glory and adapt it into a museum , visitors ' center , gift shop , and the city 's chamber of commerce . In 2006 animated film Cars , the cartoon village of Radiator Springs was based on multiple real U.S. Route 66 landmarks from Peach Springs to Baxter Springs ; the U-Drop Inn 's distinctive architecture appears as Ramone 's automotive body and paint shop . On St. Patrick 's Day 2014 , a Tesla high power electric vehicle charging station , known commonly as a supercharger , was opened on site .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"U-Drop_Inn\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 81526\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Heat (Sirius XM) Content: The Heat is the name of Sirius XM Radio 's urban-leaning rhythmic contemporary channel , on Sirius channel 46 ( previously 50 ) and XM channel 46 ( previously 68 ) and as well as on Dish Network channel 6046 ( previously 6047 ) , Until February 9 , 2010 , it was on DirecTV channel 825 , due to all of the Sirius XM programming being dropped . The service signed on April 17 , 2006 . At the start The Heat was a Rhythmic Top 40 outlet and had played Rhythmic hits , but during the Sirius XM Merger on November 12 , 2008 , it changed to a more hit-driven R&B , urban pop , and melodic Hip-Hop channel .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Heat_(Sirius_XM)\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 80137\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hot Jamz Content: Hot Jamz was a Hip-Hop , Urban Contemporary and R&B music Channel on Sirius Satellite Radio channel 50 and Dish Network channel 6050 . On February 2008 , Sirius Canada dropped the channel , but it was reintroduced in June 2008 . On November 12 , 2008 , Hot Jamz was eliminated from the Sirius lineup and replaced by XM 's Channel devoted to Rhythmic Contemporary music , The Heat as part of the restructuring by Sirius XM Radio . The Heat also flipped from rhythmic top 40 to urban contemporary by that time , but later reverted to rhythmic when Pop2K converted to an online-only channel for the Sirius service on January 15 , 2009 . The station 's playlist was part of the weekly research for the Billboard Hot R&B / Hip-Hop Airplay chart .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"Hot_Jamz\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 79821\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Drop-in center Content: A drop-in center is a service agency for homeless people , teenagers , and other communities that offers a place where people can go to obtain food and other services . As opposed to a homeless shelter , a drop-in center usually does not provide a temporary residence ; rather , it aims to provide other services to endangered or disadvantaged groups in the community , including the homeless , people with addictions , or teenagers . Drop-in centers are usually open during the daytime . Some drop-in centers double as warming centers or cooling centers in the winter or summer , and may provide overnight shelter during these months . Many drop-in centers provide free services , and some offer services for a nominal fee .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"Drop-in_center\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 79801\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Animation Station Content: The Sci-Fi Channel 's Animation Station was a block of animation or puppetry-related television shows on the Sci Fi Channel ( now Syfy ) . Some of the shows shown were Ronin Warriors , Star Wars : Droids , Star Wars : Ewoks , Transformers , Bionic Six , and The New Adventures of Gigantor . Broadcast in 1995 after being renamed from Cartoon Quest , the programming was eventually dropped on August 29 , 1997 , due to low ratings . Thomas Vitale , Senior Vice President of the Sci Fi Channel ( Syfy ) , also stated that The Animation Station '' 's cancellation was the result of competition from other networks . As Animation Station was merely the continuation of Cartoon Quest '' , a good portion of the shows were retained , such as Gerry Anderson 's shows .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Animation_Station\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 79485\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Al Lohman Content: Al Lohman ( January 15 , 1933 , Sergeant Bluff , Iowa -- October 14 , 2002 , Rancho Mirage , California ) was a personality and comedian with a long career in American radio from the 1950s through the 1980s and into the 1990s . Among his early career stops was a stint as morning man at New York City top-40 station WABC ( AM ) when it first adopted a pop music format in 1960 . But he 's best remembered as a Los Angeles , California radio personality who , along with Roger Barkley , had the top-rated morning drive The Lohman and Barkley Show on KFI Los Angeles through most of the 1970s and early 1980s . Their fame extended beyond the Los Angeles area as the duo were frequent guests on `` The Ed Sullivan Show '' and were hosts of two short-lived television shows . The first was a 1969 game show , `` Lohman & Barkley 's Name Droppers '' while the second was a comedy/variety show from 1979 called `` Bedtime Stories . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"Al_Lohman\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 78954\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: More FM Content: MORE FM is a New Zealand radio network playing adult contemporary music or Pop music . It is operated by MediaWorks New Zealand . MORE FM broadcasts in 25 centres throughout New Zealand on 70 transmitters with a mix of local and network programming . The station targets a 25 to 49 year old audience and has the most local shows of any radio network in New Zealand . Currently there are 12 different breakfast shows and 15 day shows . The MORE FM network has grown from a local Wellington station to a large Network brand developed through expansion , acquisitions and re-branding of local stations already owned by MediaWorks .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"More_FM\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 78377\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Drop-In Content: Drop-In was a Canadian television series for youth broadcast on CBC Television from 28 September 1970 to 1974 . Various hosts were featured throughout the course of the series to present a variety of topics . The show was broadcast three times per week in the 1970-1971 season . This was increased to four times per week in the following year .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"Drop-In\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 78337\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Drop (telecommunication) Content: In a communications network , a drop is the portion of a device directly connected to the internal station facilities , such as toward a telephone switchboard , toward a switching center , or toward a telephone exchange . A drop can also be a wire or cable from a pole or cable terminus to a building , in which case it may be referred to as a downlead . These cables may be reinforced to withstand the tension ( due to gravity and weather ) of an aerial drop ( i.e. , hanging in air ) , as in `` messenger '' type RG-6 coaxial cable , which is reinforced with a steel messenger wire along its length .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"Drop_(telecommunication)\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 78061\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Rewarming shock Content: Rewarming Shock ( also known as rewarming collapse ) has been described as a drop in blood pressure following the warming of a person who is very cold . The real cause of this rewarming shock is unknown . There was a theoretical concern that external rewarming rather than internal rewarming may increase the risk . These concerns were partly believed to be due to afterdrop , a situation detected during laboratory experiments where there is a continued decrease in core temperature after rewarming has been started . Recent studies have not supported these concerns , and problems are not found with active external rewarming .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"Rewarming_shock\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 78035\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Station keeping Content: Station keeping may refer to : Orbital station-keeping , manoeuvres used to keep a spacecraft in an assigned orbit Nautical stationkeeping , maintaining a seagoing vessel in a position relative to other vessels or a fixed point\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"Station_keeping\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 77910\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Pip Content: The Pip is the nickname given by radio listeners to a shortwave radio station that broadcasts on the frequency 5448 kHz by day , and 3756 kHz during the night . It broadcasts short , repeated beeps at a rate of around 50 per minute , for 24 hours per day . The beep signal is occasionally interrupted for voice messages in Russian . The Pip has been active since around 1986 , when its distinctive beeping sound was first recorded by listeners . The station is commonly referred to as `` The Pip '' among English-speaking radio listeners . In Russia , it is known as Капля ( Kaplya ) `` the drop '' . While its official name or callsign is not known , some of the voice transmissions begin with the code 8S1Shch ( Cyrillic : 8С1Щ ) , which is generally considered to be the name of the station . However , this code may not be a callsign , but instead serve some other purpose . Radioscanner.ru identifies the owner of this station as a North-Caucasian military district communication center with callsign `` Akacia '' ( ex-72nd communication center , Russian `` 72 узел связи штаба СКВО '' )\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Pip\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 77822\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Drop-In (podcast) Content: The Drop-In is an At Will Radio podcast hosted by Will Malnati . In each episode , Malnati has a candid conversation with an interesting person in popular culture or leader in entertainment , hospitality and business . Guests have included Chris Hardwick ( CEO at Nerdist Industries ) , Sebastian Stan ( Captain America : Civil War ) , and Nico Tortorella ( Younger ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Drop-In_(podcast)\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 77127\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Station model Content: In meteorology , station models are symbolic illustrations showing the weather occurring at a given reporting station . Meteorologists created the station model to fit a number of weather elements into a small space on weather maps . This allows map users to analyze patterns in atmospheric pressure , temperature , wind speed & direction , cloud cover , precipitation , and other parameters . The most common station plots depict surface weather observations although upper air plots at various mandatory levels are also frequently depicted . Station model plots use an internationally accepted coding convention that has changed little since August 1 , 1941 . Elements in the plot show the key weather elements , including temperature , dew point , wind , cloud cover , air pressure , pressure tendency , and precipitation .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"Station_model\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 76012\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: WARM-FM Content: WARM-FM is an American adult contemporary radio station based in York , Pennsylvania broadcasting at 103.3 MHz FM . It is owned and operated by Cumulus Media . WARM 's studios and offices are located off US 30 between York and Lancaster , PA. . Listeners in the Philadelphia region may have interference with WPRB , Princeton , New Jersey , which shares the same frequency , and WAPY , State College , Pennsylvania , at 103.1 as one drives northwest on US 322 or PA State Route 333 heading into Lewistown , Pennsylvania .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"WARM-FM\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 75928\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Maria Okanrende Content: Maria Okanrende is a Nigerian television and radio personality . She is currently co-host of The Morning Rush on The Beat 99.9 FM . She previously hosted at Dropout UK , Hayes FM and worked as a production assistant at Global Radio .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"Maria_Okanrende\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 75743\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: TND (disambiguation) Content: TND is the call-sign for the Southern Cross Television station in Darwin , Northern Territory . TND may also refer to : Tomorrow Never Dies , James Bond 007 movie Tunisian dinar , the ISO 4217 code for the currency of Tunisia Traditional Neighborhood Development , a form of development associated with New Urbanism The Needle Drop , a blog and vlog created and run by music critic Anthony Fantano\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"TND_(disambiguation)\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 75510\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Total Star Warminster Content: Total Star Warminster was a radio station which broadcast on 107.5 FM in Warminster , Wiltshire , England and is owned by One Gold Radio Ltd. . The station was recently relaunched as More FM in June 2011 . On 2 November 2011 , Celador acquired the Warminster licence and rebranded the station as The Breeze .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"Total_Star_Warminster\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 75350\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Heat Radio Content: heat Radio is a British digital radio station , broadcasting to the UK and forms part of Bauer 's National portfolio of radio brands .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"Heat_Radio\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 75221\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KFXU Content: KFXU ( 90.5 FM , `` Keeping Him Close By 90.5 '' ) is a radio station broadcasting an Gospel Music music format . Licensed to Chickasha , Oklahoma , United States , the station is currently owned by Sister Sherry Lynn Foundation Inc. and features programing from Dial Global .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"KFXU\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 74569\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wouter van der Goes Content: Wouter van der Goes ( born 18 January 1973 , Alkmaar ) is a Dutch radio DJ . At age twelve , he was tinkering with audio equipment as a hobby . Later , during his free time , he worked with several local radio stations , as well as pirate stations , while having a regular job as an insurance salesman . In 1995 , Van der Goes is hired by Radio 538 and turns his hobby into a job . He has hosted several shows , such as Weekend Warming Up , Peepshow , After Dark and 538 Classics . In 1998 he transfers to Veronica FM , which in 2001 changed its name to Yorin FM . At this station , his shows include Gijs & Wout in de middag ( `` Gijs & Wout in the afternoon '' ) , which he hosts together with Gijs Staverman . Between 2004 and 2006 he hosted the show Wout ! on 3FM radio , every day between 16:00 and 18:00 . He participated in the House of Glass during the Serious Request project twice . He is now a programme director for Q-Music .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"Wouter_van_der_Goes\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 74454\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Dropped (TV series) Content: Dropped is a French survival reality television series that was scheduled to air on TF1 in 2015 . Based on the Swedish television series Det största äventyret ( SV The Greatest Adventure ) , the premise of the programme is to drop celebrities into a hostile environment and leave them to fend for themselves . Filming began in February 2015 , but was halted in early March following a helicopter crash that claimed the lives of ten people , including three of the contestants and five of the production crew .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"Dropped_(TV_series)\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 73897\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Gare de Gironde Content: Gironde is a railway station in Gironde-sur-Dropt , Aquitaine , France . The station is located on the Bordeaux -- Sète railway line . The station is served by TER ( local ) services operated by SNCF .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"Gare_de_Gironde\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 73880\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Million Pound Drop Content: The Million Pound Drop ( formerly The Million Pound Drop Live ) is a BAFTA-winning game show which broadcast on Channel 4 in the United Kingdom . The show began on 24 May 2010 and ended on 20 March 2015 with Davina McCall having presented the show 's eleven series . The show used social networking sites such as Facebook and Twitter to find contestants , and also to promote the show . David Flynn , managing director of Endemol 's Remarkable Television , which produced the show , said : `` The plan was to create buzz and an air of mystery around the show by trickling information about auditions via Twitter and Facebook , giving fans a level of exclusivity . '' On 8 March 2016 , Channel 4 announced that they had axed the show , in a bid to save money . Reruns of the old series are currently broadcast on Challenge .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Million_Pound_Drop\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 73838\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Million Dollar Money Drop Content: Million Dollar Money Drop is an American game show which aired on Fox in the United States and Canada . It is based on the UK series The Million Pound Drop Live . However , unlike the original UK version , it was not broadcast live , and there were several changes to the format . The show premiered on December 20 , 2010 , and was hosted by Kevin Pollak . On May 18 , 2011 , TVSeriesFinale.com reported that Fox had cancelled Million Dollar Money Drop and would not be producing a second season . However , more than 15 different international versions of the program will continue to air in other countries .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"Million_Dollar_Money_Drop\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 73598\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: WVTC Content: WVTC is the radio station of Vermont Technical College , operating on a 90.7 MHz FM carrier with an effective power of 300 watts . The station is located in Morey Hall on the Randolph Center campus . WVTC is operated and maintained by the students of VTC through the Radio Club , and is financially supported by VTC Student Council .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"WVTC\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 73529\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 100 Milionë (The Million Dollar Drop) Albania Content: 100 Milionë is a famous game \\\\ quiz live show broadcast in Albania by Top Channel and hosted by Eno Popi . The show is also known as The Million Pound Drop all over the world . In Albania this show took place for the first time on 1 February 2011 . It has over 903,564 viewers in Albania , Kosovo , Macedonia and Montenegro . One contestant consists of a couple ( sisters , brothers , married couple , etc. . )\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"100_Milionë_(The_Million_Dollar_Drop)_Albania\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 73354\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Keepit Power Station Content: Keepit Power Station is a hydro-electric power station located at the Keepit Dam on the Namoi River , near Gunnedah in the North West Slopes region of New South Wales , Australia . The Keepit Power Station has one turbine with a generating capacity of 7.2 MW of electricity . The power station is operated by Eraring Energy and generated 1603 MW of net energy production during 2009 , used primarily for peak-load generation .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"Keepit_Power_Station\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 73286\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Million Peso Money Drop Content: The Million Peso Money Drop is a Philippine game show on TV5 . Unlike its UK counterpart , this version is pre-recorded and not broadcast live . The show is hosted by Vic Sotto . This is the second Endemol program adapted by TV5 after Extreme Makeover : Home Edition Philippines . The show premiered on October 14 , 2012 and airs on Sundays , 8:30 pm ( UTC +8 )\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Million_Peso_Money_Drop\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 73156\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Vault (Sirius) Content: The Vault was a classic rock music channel that aired on Sirius Satellite Radio channel 16 and Dish Network channel 6016 . The channel was officially dropped on November 12 , 2008 because of the Sirius-XM merger , and replaced by XM 's Deep Tracks . The Vault was one of the early satellite stations to broadcast in Dolby matrix surround sound . The station advertised itself as one that would play deep cuts of classic rock , and Entertainment Weekly described The Vault as `` a channel that spins less-familiar songs by dad-rock favorites like Eric Clapton and the Kinks . '' The station aired a week-long marathon of Pink Floyd and David Gilmour tracks in March 2006 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Vault_(Sirius)\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 72956\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: David Parker (climatologist) Content: David Parker is head of climate monitoring at the Hadley Centre , Exeter , England . He has published extensively on the land and marine temperature record and its consistency . In 2002 , he was an organiser of a `` Workshop on Advances in the Use of Historical Marine Climate Data '' . In 2004 , he has published a paper in Nature , showing that the urban heat island effect has not affected the historical temperature record . In this article , Parker shares his observations of the minimum temperature over 24 hours worldwide since 1950 that were expressed as anomalies . Also it includes his reasoning to why urbanization has not systematically exaggerated the observed global warming trends in minimum temperature . He further goes on to mention how the criterion for `` calm '' was changed while the global trend for minimum temperature remained unchanged . From his analysis he finds that windy and calm nights warmed at the same rate . Both the windy and calm increased at a rate of ( 0.16 + 0.03 C ) . He compares his small sample of 26 stations in North America and Siberia with global trends from 1950 to 1953 , covering over 5,000 stations . Estimates of recent global warming , supported by Parker 's analysis shows that urban warming has not introduced significant biases . `` The reality and magnitude of global-scale warming is supported by the near-equality of temperature trends on windy nights with trends based on all data . '' ( Parker ) This paper has been commented on by Roger Pielke , Sr. , et al. .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"David_Parker_(climatologist)\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 72501\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Raunt (LIRR station) Content: The Raunt was a former Long Island Rail Road station on the Rockaway Beach Branch . It had no address and no station house , because it was meant strictly as a dropping-off point for fishermen using a small island in Jamaica Bay . The station was located 1300 feet west of signal station `` ER '' ( presumably # 96 ) , and near the WU Tower . It was named for the channel on the south side of the island where it stood .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Raunt_(LIRR_station)\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 72393\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of radio stations in France Content:\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_radio_stations_in_France\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 72386\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Dropsonde Content: A dropsonde is an expendable weather reconnaissance device created by the National Center for Atmospheric Research ( NCAR ) , designed to be dropped from an aircraft at altitude to more accurately measure ( and therefore track ) tropical storm conditions as the device falls to the surface . The sonde contains a GPS receiver , along with pressure , temperature , and humidity ( PTH ) sensors to capture atmospheric profiles and thermodynamic data . It typically relays these data to a computer in the aircraft by radio transmission . The device 's descent is slowed and stabilized by a small square-cone parachute , allowing for multiple readings to be taken before it reaches the ocean surface . The sonde is a lightweight system designed to be operated by one person and is launched through a chute installed in the measuring aircraft , with immediate deployment of the parachute to reduce or eliminate any pendulum effect , and typically drops from three to five minutes . The sonde has a casing of stiff cardboard . During a typical hurricane season , the 53d Weather Reconnaissance Squadron Hurricane Hunters deploys 1000 to 1500 sondes on training and storm missions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"Dropsonde\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 72375\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KFXT Content: KFXT ( Keeping Him Close By 90.7 FM ) is a radio station broadcasting a gospel music format . Licensed to Sulphur , Oklahoma , United States , the station is currently owned by Sister Sherry Lynn Foundation , Inc. .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"KFXT\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 72174\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of radio stations in Switzerland Content:\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_radio_stations_in_Switzerland\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 72160\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Nautical stationkeeping Content: Station-keeping in a nautical situation is when a vessel is to : maintain a position in relation to another moving vessel or vessels , such as when conducting underway replenishment or part of a task force or convoy maintaining a fixed position in relation to a fixed object or patrolling a defined sector in relation to a fixed object .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"Nautical_stationkeeping\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 72019\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hardpoint Content: A hardpoint ( more formally known as a station or weapon station ) is a location on an airframe designed to carry an external or internal load . This includes a station on the wing or fuselage of a civilian aircraft or military aircraft where external jet engine , ordnance , countermeasures , gun pods , targeting pods or drop tanks can be mounted .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"Hardpoint\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 71914\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Grange Lane (Sheffield) railway station Content: Grange Lane railway station was a railway station located on the South Yorkshire Railway line between Sheffield and Barnsley in South Yorkshire , England . At the time of its building it was located alongside the lane from which it takes its name with few houses nearby . From the early 1890s it became the interchange point with coal traffic from Grange Colliery ( also known as Dropping Well Colliery ) at Kimberworth in Rotherham , South Yorkshire . The colliery was sunk in 1891 and coal production ceased in 1963 . The colliery site is now Grange Park golf course . The station , opened in June 1855 , consisted of two flanking platforms with buildings on each . The line and the crossing gates were controlled from a signal box situated at the end of the platform adjacent to the gates . The station was closed on 7 December 1953 and most buildings existed until late 2011 ; the station building is a private residence .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"Grange_Lane_(Sheffield)_railway_station\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 71723\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of radio stations in Slovakia Content:\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_radio_stations_in_Slovakia\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 71549\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 300 Club Content: The 300 Club is the name given to those who have endured a range of temperature of 300 ° Fahrenheit ( 166 ° C ) within a very short time . The practice originated at Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station in Antarctica . Participants in the 300 Club wait for a day when the temperature drops to − 100 ° F ( -73 ° C ) for more than a few minutes , generally in the winter . Those taking part first warm up in a sauna heated to 200 ° F ( 93 ° C ) for as long as 10 minutes . Then they run naked in the snow to the Geographic South Pole , running around it in the − 100 ° F weather . After this , they usually warm themselves back in the sauna again , often with the aid of alcoholic beverages . There are several patches made to commemorate the occasion that are entitled to be worn by those who have joined the 300 Club .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"300_Club\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 71532\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Signal Station, Moreton Island Content: Signal Station , Moreton Island is a heritage-listed signal station at 25 Dorothy Newnham Street , Moreton Island , City of Brisbane , Queensland , Australia . It was built in the 1930s . It is also known as Former Navy Signal Station Fort Cowan . It was added to the Queensland Heritage Register on 1 February 1995 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"Signal_Station,_Moreton_Island\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 71508\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Extreme Scene Content: The Extreme Scene is the first radio talk show dedicated specifically to extreme sports and action sports . The program is hosted by surf journalist Cyrus Saatsaz and pro surfer Omar Etcheverry . It debuted in August 2003 on KNBR 1050 AM in San Francisco/Bay Area , with KSCO 1080 AM in Santa Cruz/Monterey picking up the show via syndication on September 20 , 2008 . For reasons unknown , KNBR management decided to drop the show on April 30 , 2009 after nearly six years . A short time later , The Extreme Scene bid farewell to terrestrial radio on May 30 , 2009 after KSCO 1080 requested money for airtime . The Extreme Scene continued broadcasts via podcasting on TheExtremeScene.com and Stitcher Radio . It was announced that starting on May 1 , 2011 The Extreme Scene returned to terrestrial radio via national syndication on May 1 , 2011 . The Extreme Scene currently airs on over 200 radio stations across the U.S. on the Sports Byline radio network , in addition to broadcasting internationally through the American Forces Broadcast Network and on Sirius/XM satellite radio . Category : American sports radio programs\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Extreme_Scene\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 71443\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: RM 1,000,000 Money Drop Content: RM 1,000,000 Money Drop is the Malaysian edition of The Million Pound Drop Live and is broadcast on Astro Ria . The show began on 3 December 2011 at 10pm , the show later changed to 9pm on 14 January 2012 due to the finished airing and finale of MasterChef Malaysia . The host of the show is AC Mizal .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"RM_1,000,000_Money_Drop\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 71321\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ek Boond Ishq Content: Ek Boond Ishq ( English : A Drop of Love ) is an Indian television drama show , which premiered on 9 September 2013 . It airs on Life OK from Monday to Friday evenings . The show stars Viraf Patel and Chhavi Pandey in lead roles . The show is currently being written by Saba Mumtaz , Amit Senchoudhary and S. Manasvi and produced by BBC India.Now telecasting on star utsav at 11:00 at night and 2:00 at noon\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"Ek_Boond_Ishq\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 71316\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Showa Station (Antarctica) Content: , sometimes alternately spelled Syowa Station , is a Japanese permanent research station on East Ongul Island in Queen Maud Land , Antarctica . Built in 1957 , Showa Station is named for the era in the Japanese calendar during which it was established , the Shōwa period .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"Showa_Station_(Antarctica)\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 71249\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of radio stations in Finland Content:\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_radio_stations_in_Finland\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 71049\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: DJ Laz Content: Lazaro Mendez , better known by his stage name DJ Laz ( born in December 2 , 1971 , in Hollywood , Florida , United States ) is a Cuban-American rapper and DJ from Miami , Florida . He hosted the weekday morning `` DJ Laz Morning Show '' in Miami on WPOW 96.5 FM , branded `` Power 96 , '' for 22 years until he left the company in April 2012 . Beginning July 4 , 2012 , the new DJ Laz Morning Show began after arbitration on the newly reformatted WRMA DJ106 .7 a Bilingual Dance/Rhythmic formatted station . He is best known for his albums DJ Laz and Category 6 , which charted on U.S. Billboard album charts . He is also notable for the singles `` Journey Into Bass '' ( 1994 ) and `` Move Shake Drop '' ( 2008 ) , which peaked at # 56 on the Billboard Hot 100 . The DJ Laz Morning Show on LA 96.3 of Los Angeles and DJ 106.7 of Miami is known for mysteriously getting their hands on exclusive content . DJ Laz is also known for his show 's prominent appearance on Fox 's television show , Dish Nation . In July 2012 , when Justin Bieber made a 911 call to authorities to report paparazzi that were following him , the DJ Laz Morning Show was the first to obtain Bieber 's 911 call , airing it on Los Angeles ' LA 96.3 . On Tuesday , September 11 , 2012 , the DJ Laz Morning Show aired a pre-recorded interview with President Barack Obama . Many Obama critics quickly bashed Obama for making no mention to the September 11 attacks in 2001 , despite the fact that the interview was pre-recorded . The White House later made it clear that the call was indeed pre-recorded and was supposed to have been played on Monday , September 10 . On May 5 , 2014 , DJ Laz was in command of a boat that was stuck on a sand bar in Biscayne Bay . When bystanders got out to push the boat , DJ Laz increased power to the engine , and a 23-year-old man who had been trying to help was killed by the boat prop . DJ Laz is now hosting the Morning Show for 97.3 in Miami .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"DJ_Laz\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 71047\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of radio stations in Bulgaria Content:\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_radio_stations_in_Bulgaria\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 71000\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KTAT Content: KTAT ( 1570 AM ) is a radio station licensed to Frederick , Oklahoma , United States . The station is currently owned by Morey Broadcasting , LLC .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"KTAT\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 70955\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: XHCMO-TDT Content: XHCMO-TDT is a television station in Cuernavaca , Morelos . Broadcasting on virtual channel 15 , XHCMO is a public and educational television station owned and operated by the state of Morelos and managed by the Instituto Morelense de Radio y Televisión ( IMRyT ) . The station went on air on April 17 , 1991 as XHCMO-TV , broadcasting on channel 3 . This made it the first state-run television station in Morelos , under the auspices of what was then known as the Morelos System of Radio and Television ( Sistema Morelense de Radio y Televisión or SMRTV , not to be confused with the similarly named Michoacán state network ) . After 1995 , when SMRTV was dissolved , the quality of its radio and television stations began to fade . The Canal 3 transmitter weakened with lack of maintenance , while equipment became outdated . In 2000 , the former SMRTV stations were reorganized , but for political reasons , the needed modernization of the radio and television stations did not happen . In 2010 , SMRTV was reformed , and in 2013 , it took on its current name of IMRyT . In April 2014 , XHCMO received approval to flash-cut to digital on channel 49 and increase its effective radiated power . The station shut off its analog signal on September 4 , 2014 , at which time it rebranded as Canal 49 ( but continued to use virtual channel 3.1 ) . XHCMO was assigned virtual channel 15 and moved to it on October 20 , 2016 , rebranding as `` El Canal de Morelos '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"XHCMO-TDT\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 70876\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Leidenfrost effect Content: thumb | Leidenfrost droplet thumb | Demonstration of the Leidenfrost effect The Leidenfrost effect is a physical phenomenon in which a liquid , in near contact with a mass significantly hotter than the liquid 's boiling point , produces an insulating vapor layer keeping that liquid from boiling rapidly . Due to this ` repulsive force ' , a droplet hovers over the surface rather than making physical contact with it . This is most commonly seen when cooking : one sprinkles drops of water in a pan to gauge its temperature : if the pan 's temperature is at or above the Leidenfrost point , the water skitters across the pan and takes longer to evaporate than in a pan below the temperature of the Leidenfrost point ( but still above boiling temperature ) . The effect is also responsible for the ability of liquid nitrogen to skitter across floors . It has also been used in some potentially dangerous demonstrations , such as dipping a wet finger in molten lead or blowing out a mouthful of liquid nitrogen , both enacted without injury to the demonstrator . The latter is potentially lethal , particularly should one accidentally swallow the liquid nitrogen . It is named after Johann Gottlob Leidenfrost , who discussed it in A Tract About Some Qualities of Common Water in 1756 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"Leidenfrost_effect\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 70685\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Jelynn Rodriguez Content: Jelynn Rodriguez is a host on the popular American Sí TV show : The Drop , as well as an actress , dancer and singer . She is Filipino . She has been working in show business since she was a teenager living in San Diego attending Rancho Bernardo High School . She and now lives in Los Angeles . On television , Jelynn was a host on TV Guide Channel , and appeared in a pilot for CBS in 2005 called Three . She also hosted a local San Diego show from 2003-2004 called The Beat . She is still a host of The Drop which can be seen on Sí TV every day . New episodes are shown on Mondays . In late 2005 , Jelynn shot her first movie to be released sometime in 2007 , Bar Starz . She plays Melanie , one of the leads in this movie about `` the adventures of some seriously odd club denizens . '' Jelynn can be seen in the horror film Grizzly Park playing the character KiKi . Grizzly Park was released in Fall 2007 . Jelynn is starring in a new show called Engaged . It is being released on the internet . The premiere episode will be aired on August 23 , 9pm Eastern Time . She can be seen in an upcoming episode of NBC 's hit drama Las Vegas .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"Jelynn_Rodriguez\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 70613\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Million Dollar Drop Content: The Million Dollar Drop is a game show which airs on Nine Network in Australia and is based on the UK series The Million Pound Drop Live . However , unlike the original UK version , it is not broadcast live , and there are several changes to the format . The show premiered on 21 March 2011 and is hosted by Eddie McGuire .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Million_Dollar_Drop\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 70540\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of radio stations in Lithuania Content:\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_radio_stations_in_Lithuania\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 70490\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: In:Demand Content: In : Demand was the name of an English and Scottish syndicated radio program hosted by Stu Tolan . It was produced from Bauer Radio headquarters in Manchester , airing 1900 to 2200 on Sunday to Thursday nights on Bauer Place stations in England and Scotland . On 17 February 2014 In : Demand England and In : Demand Scotland merged to create a single In : Demand programme , respective presenters Alex James and Romeo were dropped , with new presenter Stu Tolan introduced . In October 2014 , as part of wider changes to schedules on the Bauer stations , In : Demand was rescheduled to run on Sunday to Thursday nights , replacing prior local/regional Sunday night content including Scotland 's In : Demand Uncut ; the prior Friday night In : Demand slot was used for a new upbeat music show , Friday Night Floor Fillers . The feature was dropped by Bauer on Monday 17 August and replaced by regional syndicates .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"In:Demand\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 70378\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of radio stations in Latvia Content:\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_radio_stations_in_Latvia\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 70367\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Drop shipping Content: Drop shipping is a supply chain management method in which the retailer does not keep goods in stock but instead transfers customer orders and shipment details to either the manufacturer , another retailer , or a wholesaler , who then ships the goods directly to the customer . As in retail businesses , the majority of retailers make their profit on the difference between the wholesale and retail price , but some retailers earn an agreed percentage of the sales in commission , paid by the wholesaler to the retailer .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"Drop_shipping\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 70340\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wenvoe railway station Content: Wenvoe railway station is a former railway station in Wenvoe in south Wales . It was on the Barry Railway between Creigiau and Cadoxton , which ran broadly north-south through Wenvoe . It had two platforms with passing loops to the south on both the up and down lines for goods and mineral trains to allow passenger trains to pass . To the north of the station was Wenvoe Tunnel , 1 mile and 108 yards long emerging just before Drope Junction . The northern portal is located slightly to the west of the A4232 by-pass . The station closed in 1962 and the line was abandoned six months later . The site of the station buildings and yard is now a private residence and is not accessible to the public .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"Wenvoe_railway_station\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 70319\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of Blue Drop: Tenshitachi no Gikyoku episodes Content: The episodes of the 2007 anime television series Blue Drop are based on the manga of the same name written by Akihito Yoshitomi , constituting a prequel to the manga . The episodes are directed by Masahiko Ohkura and animated by the Japanese animation studios Asahi Production and BeSTACK , with the 3D modeling done by Gonzo . The plot of the episodes follows Mari Wakatake 's relationship with the enigmatic Hagino Senkōji , a member of an alien race known as the Arume , and the prelude to an invasion by the Arume . The episodes aired from October 2 , 2007 to December 25 , 2007 on Chiba TV and KBS Kyoto , with AT-X , Mie TV , Tokyo MX TV , TV Kanagawa , TV Saitama , and TV Wakayama showing the episodes at later dates . The AT-X broadcast started much later than its counterparts , with the first episode airing in November , while most other stations started showing the episodes in October . Unlike most Japanese anime , the title of each episode is given in English . Each title is the name of a flower shown in that episode . Two pieces of theme music are used for the episodes ; one opening theme and one ending theme . The opening theme is `` BLUE '' by Japanese singer Suara , and another of her songs , is used as the closing theme . A single containing both songs was released on October 24 , 2007 . Six DVD compilations have been planned for release by King Records , and the first compilation , composing the first three episodes of the anime , was released on December 26 , 2007 . D The second compilation , which contains the next two episodes of the anime , was released on January 23 , 2008 . The anime has been licensed for release in North America by Sentai Filmworks and is distributed by Section23 Films . The subtitled complete collection was released on November 17 , 2009 . Sentai Filmworks and Section23 Films re-released the complete series with an English dub on September 7 , 2010 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_Blue_Drop:_Tenshitachi_no_Gikyoku_episodes\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 70112\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KONP Content: For Keep Our NHS Public , UK campaign group KONP is a radio station based in Port Angeles , Washington . It signed on the air at 6:30 a.m. local time February 3 , 1945 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"KONP\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 70031\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: XHI-FM Content: XHI-FM is a radio station in Morelia , Michoacán broadcasting on 100.9 MHz . XHI-FM broadcasts in HD .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"XHI-FM\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 69970\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: More Radio Mid-Sussex Content: More Radio Mid-Sussex , formerly Bright FM , is an Independent Local Radio station serving Burgess Hill , Haywards Heath , Lewes and surrounding areas . It is owned and operated by Media Sound Holdings and broadcasts from studios in Worthing , as part of a network of stations across Sussex .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"More_Radio_Mid-Sussex\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 69803\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Voltage drop Content: Voltage drop describes how energy is supplied of a voltage source that is reduced as electric current moves through the passive elements ( elements that do not supply voltage ) of an electrical circuit . Voltage drops across internal resistances of the source , across conductors , across contacts , and across connectors are undesired as the supplied energy is lost ( dissipated ) . Voltage drops across loads and across other active circuit elements are desired as the supplied energy performs useful work . For example , an electric space heater may have a resistance of ten ohms , and the wires which supply it may have a resistance of 0.2 ohms , about 2 % of the total circuit resistance . This means that approximately 2 % of the supplied voltage is lost in the wire itself . Excessive voltage drop may result in unsatisfactory operation of , and damage to , electrical and electronic equipment . National and local electrical codes may set guidelines for the maximum voltage drop allowed in electrical wiring , to ensure efficiency of distribution and proper operation of electrical equipment . The maximum permitted voltage drop varies from one country to another . In electronic design and power transmission , various techniques are employed to compensate for the effect of voltage drop on long circuits or where voltage levels must be accurately maintained . The simplest way to reduce voltage drop is to increase the diameter of the conductor between the source and the load , which lowers the overall resistance . In power distribution systems , a given amount of power can be transmitted with less voltage drop if a higher voltage is used . More sophisticated techniques use active elements to compensate for the undesired voltage drop .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"Voltage_drop\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 69797\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Egg drop competition Content: The egg drop contest is an experiment usually performed by college or primary school students . Competitors typically attempt to create a device that can keep a raw chicken egg intact when dropped from a height . Students are asked to build a device made from a limited amount of materials to support an egg when dropped from various heights .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"Egg_drop_competition\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 69575\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Keepin' It Real with Al Sharpton Content: Keepin ' It Real with Al Sharpton is a daily national talk radio program by New York City area civil rights activist Rev. Al Sharpton . While his show is based at New York City 's WWRL , Keepin It Real with Al Sharpton has also been broadcast on Sirius XM Satellite Radio since August 13 , 2007 . As noted by Sharpton , the show is also broadcast on Radio One . The show is broadcast weekday evenings , from 8:00 PM to 10:00 PM in New York City . It also airs in 40 media markets and is syndicated by Superadio Networks . In June 2005 , Sharpton signed a contract with Matrix Media to produce and host a live two-hour daily talk program , which did not air . In November 2005 , Sharpton signed with Radio One to host the program which began airing on January 30 , 2006 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"Keepin'_It_Real_with_Al_Sharpton\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 69547\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Million Rupiah Money Drop Content: The Million Rupiah Money Drop is the Indonesian edition of The Million Pound Drop and is broadcast on RCTI . The show began on 28 February 2015 and the host of the show is the actor Anjasmara . Category :2015 Indonesian television series debuts Category : Indonesian game shows Category : Television series by Endemol\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Million_Rupiah_Money_Drop\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 69539\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 3WBC Content: 3WBC FM is a local radio station in Melbourne , Australia with a frequency of 94.1 MHz . The station is operated under licence by Whitehorse-Boroondara Community FM Radio Incorporated . It often involves local school students in its programs and is developing a larger audience . Discussion topics include current events such as global warming . Since November 2007 , 3WBC has broadcast from studios in the Box Hill town hall , located in Box Hill , a suburb of Melbourne .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"3WBC\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 69486\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Sam FM Drop Content: The Drop ( Currently known as The Sam FM Drop ) is a tower ride that previously operated at Funland in Hayling Island , Hampshire , England , UK . and in the London Trocadero as The Pepsi Max Drop which featured 2 cars on top of each other and was attached to the wall . When the ride moved to Funland a support tower was constructed and only the bottom car remained . In 2016 the main car for the ride was removed , and the rest of the ride was left abandoned .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Sam_FM_Drop\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 69239\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Million Dollar Money Drop: Singapore Edition Content: Million Dollar Money Drop : Singapore Edition was a game show which aired on MediaCorp Channel 5 in the Singapore . It was based on the UK series The Million Pound Drop Live . However , unlike the original UK version , it was not broadcast live , and there were several changes to the format . The show premiered on 9 August 2011 , after the nation 's 46th National Day Parade segment , and is hosted by George Young . The show 's set , theme song and question cues was followed based on the British edition . About 300,000 people watched the premiere of the show : approximately 6 % of the total population of Singapore at that time .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"Million_Dollar_Money_Drop:_Singapore_Edition\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 69223\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Heat-based contraception Content: An experimental male contraceptive method involves heating the testicles so that they can not produce sperm . Sperm are best produced at a temperature slightly below body temperature . The muscles around a male 's scrotum involuntarily tighten if the man 's body temperature drops , and they loosen , allowing the testes to hang , if the body temperature rises . This is the body 's way of keeping the sperm at an ideal temperature . Although research has not addressed methods of applying heat , sperm production can be disrupted with increased temperature . Some suggest exposure to high temperatures ( 116 ° F ) can affect fertility for months . Methods used include hot water applied to the scrotum , heat generated by ultrasound , and artificial cryptorchidism ( holding the testicles inside the abdomen ) using specialized briefs . One of the initial experiments resulted in partial infertility lasting more than four years . Initial experiments suggest it is effective and safe , though there have not been long-term studies to determine if it has any side effects on the body after reversal . The optimal heat level and time period of exposure are not known . One method under investigation is ultrasound , which involves the application of high-frequency sound waves to animal tissue , which in turn absorb the sound waves ' energy as heat . The possibility for ultrasound 's use for contraception is based on the idea that briefly heating the testes can halt sperm production , leading to temporary infertility for about six months . Additionally , ultrasound could affect cells ' absorption rates of ions , which itself could create an environment unfavorable to spermatogenesis . Its extremely localized effects on animal tissues make ultrasound an attractive candidate for research , but so far studies have only been performed on non-human animals , such as dogs .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"Heat-based_contraception\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 69130\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: AtmosFEAR (Morey's Piers) Content: AtmosFEAR is a 140 ft drop tower on the Surfside Pier at Morey 's Piers seaside park . It was designed by A.R.M. and Larson International , and officially opened in May 2005 . AtmosFEAR creates freefall speeds of 50 mph with a vertical acceleration upwards of three G 's . The ride experience on AtmosFEAR features a very slow ascent , which is accented by custom designed LED lighting and an on-board sound system with thunderous sound effects . As the vehicle climbs , fog fills the air , and then without warning the vehicle is released and literally forced downward by a special launch system that generates faster-than-freefall speeds . It is the third-tallest ride at Morey 's Piers .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"AtmosFEAR_(Morey's_Piers)\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 69098\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Drip Drop Content: `` Drip Drop '' is a song by Azerbaijani singer Safura Alizadeh , written by Anders Bagge , Stefan Örn , Piotr Wass and Sandra Bjurman , and represented Azerbaijan at the Eurovision Song Contest 2010 in May 2010 . Alizadeh 's song was selected by a jury from the Azeri broadcaster İctimai Televiziya və Radio Yayımları Şirkəti ( İTV ) . On May 29 , 2010 `` Drip Drop '' gained the fifth place at the Eurovision 2010 final . Euromedia and Luxen Group of Companies on behalf of İTV received many remix offers for `` Drip Drop '' . Taking a selective attitude , they approached DJs Maverick and Alex Guerrero for the assignment . Their remixes went in rotation on various European radio stations . Željko Joksimović was asked to make a Balkan version of the song .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"Drip_Drop\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 69080\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of Sydney radio stations Content:\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_Sydney_radio_stations\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 69073\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Drop, Masovian Voivodeship Content: Drop -LSB- drop -RSB- is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Dobre , within Mińsk County , Masovian Voivodeship , in east-central Poland .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"Drop,_Masovian_Voivodeship\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 69009\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Keeping up with the Joneses (TV series) Content: Keeping up with the Joneses is an Australian reality television series that follows the life of a family on a Cattle Station -- Coolibah Station -- 600 km south-west of Darwin , Northern Territory . The show follows the daily lives of the Jones family as they muster cattle , fight fires , battle floods and even wrestle crocodiles . This raw and humorous snapshot of family life shows just what it takes to live in the outback . They own over 1,000,000 acres .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"Keeping_up_with_the_Joneses_(TV_series)\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 68744\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Lowest temperature recorded on Earth Content: The lowest natural temperature ever directly recorded at ground level on Earth is − 89.2 C , which was at the Soviet Vostok Station in Antarctica by ground measurements . A 2009 study estimated that under exceptional climate conditions similar to those recorded at Vostin 1983 , temperatures higher on the plateau around Dome Argus could potentially drop lower than − 95 C. On August 10 , 2010 , satellite observations measured a surface temperature of − 93.2 C at 81.8 ° S 59.3 ° E , along a ridge between Dome Argus and Dome Fuji , at 3,900 m elevation . The result was reported at the 46th annual meeting of the American Geophysical Union in San Francisco , in December 2013 ; it is a provisional figure , and may be subject to revision . The value may not be listed as the record coldest temperature as it was measured by remote sensing satellites and not by ground-based thermometers , unlike the 1983 record . The temperature announced reflects that of the ice surface , while the Vostok readings measured the air above the ice , and so the two are not directly comparable . However , it is most likely that the real temperature on the site was lower than that recorded at Vostok .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"Lowest_temperature_recorded_on_Earth\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 68223\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KBFK-LP Content: KBFK-LP Channel 36 is a low power station that broadcasts in digital on channel 36 . Me-TV was seen on 36.1 , but was dropped in August 2014 . Movies ! was added to 36.2 on February 1 , 2014 . It is owned by Cocola Broadcasting .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"KBFK-LP\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 68198\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Dropout (astronomy) Content: In astronomy , dropout is a radiation source whose radiation intensity falls off sharply below a specific wavelength . The source will be easily visible when its light is filtered to wavelengths longer than the cutoff value , but will `` drop out '' of the image when it is filtered to wavelengths shorter than the threshold . This is a standard method for locating distant galaxies in deep field images . Because the hydrogen that surrounds the galaxies absorbs light with a wavelength around 100 nanometers , the galaxies have a natural dropout threshold . The exact wavelength of this threshold is redshifted and can be used to determine the distance to the galaxy .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"Dropout_(astronomy)\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 68067\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KCML Content: KCML ( 99.9 FM , `` More FM '' ) is a radio station in St. Cloud , Minnesota , airing an adult contemporary music format . The station is owned by Leighton Broadcasting .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"KCML\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 67886\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: More Radio Worthing Content: More Radio Worthing , formerly Splash FM , is an Independent Local Radio station serving Worthing , Shoreham , Littlehampton and surrounding areas . It is owned and operated by Media Sound Holdings and broadcasts from studios at The Guildbourne Centre in Worthing , as part of a network of stations across Sussex .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"More_Radio_Worthing\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 67744\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Morera-Gifu Station Content: is a train station in Motosu , Gifu Prefecture , Japan .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"Morera-Gifu_Station\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 67731\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: More Radio Eastbourne Content: More Radio Eastbourne , formerly Sovereign FM , is an Independent Local Radio station serving Eastbourne , Hailsham , Polegate and surrounding areas . It is owned and operated by Media Sound Holdings and broadcasts from studios in Worthing , as part of a network of stations across Sussex .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"More_Radio_Eastbourne\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 67526\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Drop.io Content: Drop.io was an online file sharing service . It allowed users to quickly create `` drops '' , which could contain files of any type , and could be accessed via the internet , e-mail , phone , fax , and widgets . The service did not require users to sign up for an account , and each drop was private unless the creator chose to share it . Drop.io was named one of TIME Magazine 's 50 Best Websites of 2009 , and CNET Webware 100 . On October 29 , 2010 , Drop.io announced that the company had been purchased by Facebook and that the service would be shutting down . Sam Lessin , one of the site 's founders , would be moving to Facebook . , the site is no longer active ; the blog is also down , as of November 2011 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"Drop.io\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 67458\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Max Keeping Content: Winston Maxwell `` Max '' Keeping , ( 1 April 1942 -- 1 October 2015 ) , was a Canadian broadcaster . He was vice-president of news and public affairs at CJOH-DT , the CTV station in Ottawa , Ontario . Keeping was anchor of the local evening news broadcast from 1972 until his retirement in 2010 and was the station 's community ambassador until March 2012 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"Max_Keeping\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 67439\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of radio stations in Kathmandu Content: Kathmandu\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_radio_stations_in_Kathmandu\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 67186\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Dropwise condensation Content: In dropwise condensation the condensate liquid collects in the form of countless droplets of varying diameters on the condensing surface instead of forming a continuous film and does not wet the solid cooling surface . The droplets develop at a point of surface imperfection ( pit , scratch ) , called nucleation sites and grow in size as more vapour condenses on its exposed surface . When the size of droplets is large there comes a time the droplet breakaway from the surface and knock off other droplets and carries it downstream . The moving droplet devours the droplets of smaller size . Dropwise condensation is one of the most effective mechanism of heat transfer and extremely large heat transfer coefficients can be achieved with this mechanism . There is no liquid film in this case to resist heat transfer as a result heat transfer coefficients can be achieved more than 10 times larger than those associated with film condensation . Heat transfer coefficients is large so designers to achieve a specified heat transfer rate with a smaller surface area and thus a smaller and less expensive condenser . Dropwise condensation is achieved by adding a promoter chemical into the vapor , highly polished surface and surface contaminated with impurities like fatty acids and organic compounds , known as dropwise promoters . Dropwise condensation is provoked artificially with the help of silicons , teflons , assortment of waxes and fatty acids . These promoters are used to promote dropwise condensation but promoters are highly unstable and lose their effectiveness with time due to oxidation , fouling and removal of the promoter from the surface . Dropwise condensation sustain for a long time by the combined effects of surface coating and periodic injection of the promoter into the vapor neither it does not continue long time and converts to filmwise condensation . So most condensers are designed on the assumption that film condensation will take place on the surface . The total amount of heat transfer through a single droplet is a function of it 's radius and the size distribution over the condensation surface . The important factors which are involved in the mechanism of heat transfer through a single droplets are : Thermal conduction through a single droplet Thermal conduction in the substrate material Interphase matter transfer at the vapour liquid interface Curvature of vapour liquid interface\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"Dropwise_condensation\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 67159\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: RTÉ Pulse Content: RTÉ Pulse is an electronic dance music station from Raidió Teilifís Éireann ( RTÉ ) , Ireland 's national broadcaster . It broadcasts on the RTÉ DAB Multiplex and Saorview , Ireland 's free-to-air DTT service in Ireland , as well as on Virgin Media cable television and over the Internet . It plays a varied mix of dance music , with a small number of shows covering RnB . It started broadcasting in April 2008 , but had an official launch alongside its sister services on 1 December 2008 . Originally started as a jukebox service with no presenters , it now carries daily live and pre-recorded shows from a number of Irish DJs , including Mo K , Will Kinsella , Orla Feeney and international DJs and brands like Ministry of Sound , Defected , Hed Kandi Paul Oakenfold , Ferry Corsten , Carl Cox , Nicky Romero , Mark Knight and Judge Jules . The schedule is designed to be stranded in its approach to fulfilling its remit of representing all genres of dance music . It also airs specialist live shows such as : The Drop with Aifric O Connell , which plays the most blogged about and brand new music ; Back2Basics , the all vinyl show , presented by Simon Palmer , which is believed to be the only vinyl show aired by a state broadcaster globally ; as well as content from the Red Bull Music Academy . Sunday 's scheduling draws very much from the eclectic styles of the genre and features soul , dub step , and drum and bass . The station also does outside broadcasts , such as from the Life Festival in 2013 . As well as airing music from many international live events during the Re-LIVE show . The majority of broadcast come from RTÉ main studios in Dublin ; however , the service also uses RTÉ facilities from all around the country and overseas . There are regular weekly live shows from the Cork , Limerick and Belfast studios . The service regularly broadcasts live from the RTÉ or BBC studios in London .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"RTÉ_Pulse\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 67155\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hip-Hop Nation Content: Hip-Hop Nation is a hip-hop radio station owned by Sirius XM Radio . The station broadcasts on Sirius Satellite Radio channel 44 ( previously 40 ) , XM Satellite Radio channel 44 ( previously 67 , where it replaced The City on November 12 , 2008 ) and on DISH Network channel 6044 ( previously 6040 ) until Sirius XM 's Liquid Metal took Dish Network 's 6040 and Sirius XM Radio 40 . Until February 9 , 2010 , it was on DirecTV channel 847 , but all of Sirius XM programming was dropped in favor for Sonic Tap by DMX . It began adding R&B hits on November 12 , 2008 , when the channel segued to Mainstream Urban , taking the format from The Heat , which moved to urban contemporary ( replacing the existing The City and Hot Jamz formats ) . Until September 12 , 2008 the channel was uncensored , and returned to being uncensored on November 12 , 2008 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"Hip-Hop_Nation\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 67142\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Keep Cool (board game) Content: Keep Cool is a board game created by Klaus Eisenack and Gerhard Petschel-Held of the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research and published by the German company Spieltrieb in November 2004 . The game can be classified as both a serious game and a global warming game . In Keep Cool , up to six players representing the world 's countries compete to balance their own economic interests and the world 's climate in a game of negotiation . The goal of the game as stated by the authors is to `` promote the general knowledge on climate change and the understanding of difficulties and obstacles , and `` to make it available for a board game and still retain the major elements and processes . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"Keep_Cool_(board_game)\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 67091\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: XHKW-FM Content: XHKW-FM is a radio station on 89.3 FM in Morelia , Michoacán .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"XHKW-FM\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 67065\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: James \\\"Plunky\\\" Branch Content: James `` Plunky '' Branch is an African-American performer , songwriter , and music and film producer . He is known for his participation in the band Plunky & Oneness , which began as Juju in 1971 and was renamed twice ( Oneness of Juju , Plunky & the Oneness of Juju ) before it was given its current name in 1988 . Branch is the president and founder of the independent record label N.A.M.E. Brand Records , through which he has released 25 albums . He has worked as a studio musician for The Cosby Show and has appeared on several avant-garde jazz albums . He has been Director of the Jazz Ensemble at Virginia Union University as well as an instructor of Afro-American Music History at Virginia Commonwealth University . One of Plunky & Oneness 's songs , `` Every Way But Loose '' , is featured on the video game Grand Theft Auto : Vice City Stories , playing on fictional radio station Paradise FM . In 2006 Plunky released the solo album Cold Heat , which featured the single `` Drop . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"James_\\\"Plunky\\\"_Branch\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 67011\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: WCEM-FM Content: WCEM-FM ( 106.3 FM , `` The Heat '' ) is a radio station playing a Mainstream Top 40 music format . It broadcasts from Cambridge , Maryland . The station broadcasts from its studios on the southern bank of the Choptank River . WCEM-FM 's transmitter is located in Cambridge . In addition to its usual music programming , WCEM-FM broadcasts Baltimore Ravens games and little league baseball all-star games during the summer .\",\n \"qid\": \"2744\",\n \"docid\": \"WCEM-FM\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 66963\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":1353,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"Two American researchers allege that U.S. government scientists have skewed global temperature trends by ignoring readings from thousands of local weather stations around the world, particularly those in colder altitudes and more northerly latitudes, such as Canada."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Climatic Research Unit documents Content: Climatic Research Unit documents including thousands of e-mails and other computer files were stolen from a server at the Climatic Research Unit of the University of East Anglia in a hacking incident in November 2009 . The documents were redistributed first through several blogs of global warming skeptics , and allegations were made that they indicated misconduct by leading climate scientists . A series of investigations rejected these allegations , while concluding that CRU scientists should have been more open with distributing data and methods on request . Precisely six committees investigated the allegations and published reports , finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct . The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged by the end of the investigations . The incident occurred shortly before the opening December 2009 Copenhagen global climate summit . It has prompted general discussion about increasing the openness of scientific data ( though the majority of climate data have always been freely available ) . Scientists , scientific organisations , and government officials have stated that the incident does not affect the overall scientific case for climate change . Andrew Revkin reported in the New York Times that `` The evidence pointing to a growing human contribution to global warming is so widely accepted that the hacked material is unlikely to erode the overall argument . ''","qid":"2745","docid":"Climatic_Research_Unit_documents","rank":1,"score":148512},{"content":"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.","qid":"2745","docid":"Climate_change_in_the_United_States","rank":2,"score":142110},{"content":"Title: Dr. Neil Trivett Global Atmosphere Watch Observatory Content: The Dr. Neil Trivett Global Atmosphere Watch Observatory is an atmospheric baseline station operated by Environment and Climate Change Canada located at Alert , Nunavut , on the north-eastern tip of Ellesmere Island , about 800 km south of the geographic north pole . The observatory is the northernmost of 31 Global Stations in an international network coordinated by the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) under its Global Atmosphere Watch ( GAW ) program to study the long-term effects of pollution on the atmospheric environment . Among these 31 stations , Alert is one of three greenhouse gas `` intercomparison supersites '' , along with Mauna Loa in Hawaii and Cape Grim in Australia , which , due to their locations far from industrial activity , provide the international scientific community with a baseline record of atmospheric chemistry .","qid":"2745","docid":"Dr._Neil_Trivett_Global_Atmosphere_Watch_Observatory","rank":3,"score":140337},{"content":"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .","qid":"2745","docid":"Regional_effects_of_global_warming","rank":4,"score":137371},{"content":"Title: David Parker (climatologist) Content: David Parker is head of climate monitoring at the Hadley Centre , Exeter , England . He has published extensively on the land and marine temperature record and its consistency . In 2002 , he was an organiser of a `` Workshop on Advances in the Use of Historical Marine Climate Data '' . In 2004 , he has published a paper in Nature , showing that the urban heat island effect has not affected the historical temperature record . In this article , Parker shares his observations of the minimum temperature over 24 hours worldwide since 1950 that were expressed as anomalies . Also it includes his reasoning to why urbanization has not systematically exaggerated the observed global warming trends in minimum temperature . He further goes on to mention how the criterion for `` calm '' was changed while the global trend for minimum temperature remained unchanged . From his analysis he finds that windy and calm nights warmed at the same rate . Both the windy and calm increased at a rate of ( 0.16 + 0.03 C ) . He compares his small sample of 26 stations in North America and Siberia with global trends from 1950 to 1953 , covering over 5,000 stations . Estimates of recent global warming , supported by Parker 's analysis shows that urban warming has not introduced significant biases . `` The reality and magnitude of global-scale warming is supported by the near-equality of temperature trends on windy nights with trends based on all data . '' ( Parker ) This paper has been commented on by Roger Pielke , Sr. , et al. .","qid":"2745","docid":"David_Parker_(climatologist)","rank":5,"score":137230},{"content":"Title: Climate Change Science Program Content: The Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) was the program responsible for coordinating and integrating research on global warming by U.S. government agencies from February 2002 to June 2009 . Toward the end of that period , CCSP issued 21 separate climate assessment reports that addressed climate observations , changes in the atmosphere , expected climate change , impacts and adaptation , and risk management issues . Shortly after President Obama took office , the program 's name was changed to U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which was also the program 's name before 2002 . Nevertheless , the Obama Administration generally embraced the CCSP products as sound science providing a basis for climate policy . Because those reports were mostly issued after the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and in some cases focused specifically on the United States , they were generally viewed within the United States as having an importance and scientific credibility comparable to the IPCC assessments for the first few years of the Obama Administration .","qid":"2745","docid":"Climate_Change_Science_Program","rank":6,"score":134221},{"content":"Title: North Ice Content: North Ice was a research station of the British North Greenland Expedition ( 1952 to 1954 ) on the inland ice of Greenland . The coordinates of the station were , at an altitude of 2341 m above sea level . The British North Greenland Expedition was led by Commander James Simpson RN . The station recorded the lowest temperature ever in North America with -66.1 C on 9 January 1954 . The name of the station contrasts to the former British South Ice station in Antarctica .","qid":"2745","docid":"North_Ice","rank":7,"score":131885},{"content":"Title: November 2014 North American cold wave Content: The November 2014 North American cold wave was an extreme weather event that occurred across most of Canada and the contiguous United States , including parts of the Western United States up to western California . One of the first events of the winter , the cold wave was caused by the northward movement of an extremely powerful bomb cyclone associated with Typhoon Nuri 's remnant , which shifted the jet stream far northward , creating an omega block pattern . This allowed a piece of the polar vortex to advance southward into the Central and Eastern United States , bringing record-cold temperatures to much of the region . In contrast , Alaska experienced above-average temperatures . This was the worst cold wave that the North American region had experienced since an earlier cold wave in early 2014 . The cold wave was expected to last for a few weeks , extending at least until American Thanksgiving . Although the Omega Block broke down on November 20 , due to a powerful storm moving into the Gulf of Alaska , frigid conditions continued to persist across much of the United States . There was also concern among some meteorologists that another cold wave or abnormally cold trend might persist throughout the winter of 2014 -- 15 , the chances of which were `` above average . '' On November 23 , a warming trend primarily in the Eastern United States brought an end to the cold wave ; however , below-average temperatures were forecast to return to the Midwest by November 24 . Despite the development of a second cold wave , it ended on December 6 , when a ridge of high pressure brought above-average temperatures to the region , especially in the Central United States .","qid":"2745","docid":"November_2014_North_American_cold_wave","rank":8,"score":127588},{"content":"Title: Petr Chýlek Content: Petr Chýlek is a researcher for Space and Remote Sensing Sciences at Los Alamos National Laboratory . Prior to becoming a government researcher in 2001 , Chýlek was a Professor at several US and Canadian universities including SUNY Albany , Purdue University , University of Oklahoma and Dalhousie University in Halifax , Canada . Chýlek has published over 100 first authored scientific papers in remote sensing , atmospheric radiation , climate change , cloud and aerosol physics , applied laser physics and ice core analysis . His work has been cited more than 4000 times . Chylek is best known for his work in remote sensing , aerosols and climate change . In 2006 , Chýlek served as Chairman , Scientific Program Committee for The Second International Conference on Global Warming and the Next Ice Age held at Los Alamos National Laboratory in Santa Fe , NM . Speakers included Venkatachalam Ramaswamy , Chris Folland , Gerald North , Roger A. Pielke , William M. Gray and Jan Veizer . The conference included a two-day workshop on climate prediction uncertainties . The papers presented at the 2006 Conference were published in a special section of the Journal of Geophysical Research - Atmospheres in 2007 . In 2007 , Chýlek and co-authors published a peer-reviewed paper estimating climate sensitivity to doubled atmospheric CO2 to be significantly less than the IPCC estimate . Chýlek received his diploma in theoretical physics from Charles University in Prague , Czech Republic . He received his Ph.D. in physics from UC Riverside in 1970 .","qid":"2745","docid":"Petr_Chýlek","rank":9,"score":127189},{"content":"Title: Antarctica cooling controversy Content: An apparent contradiction in the observed cooling behavior of Antarctica between 1966 and 2000 became part of the public debate in the global warming controversy , particularly between advocacy groups of both sides in the public arena including politicians , as well as the popular media . In his novel State of Fear , Michael Crichton asserted that the Antarctic data contradict global warming . The few scientists who have commented on the supposed controversy state that there is no contradiction , while the author of the paper whose work inspired Crichton 's remarks has said that Crichton `` misused '' his results . There is no similar controversy within the scientific community , as the small observed changes in Antarctica are consistent with the small changes predicted by climate models , and because the overall trend since comprehensive observations began is now known to be one of warming . At the South Pole , where some of the strongest cooling trends were observed between the 1950s and 1990s , the mean trend is flat from 1957 through 2013 .","qid":"2745","docid":"Antarctica_cooling_controversy","rank":10,"score":127172},{"content":"Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.","qid":"2745","docid":"Media_coverage_of_global_warming","rank":11,"score":126028},{"content":"Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .","qid":"2745","docid":"Global_warming_controversy","rank":12,"score":125742},{"content":"Title: Wibjörn Karlén Content: Wibjörn Karlén ( born 26 August 1937 in Kristine , Kopparberg County , Sweden ) , Ph.D. , is a professor emeritus of physical geography and quaternary geology at Stockholm University , Sweden . In an article which describes Karlén as a paleoclimatologist , he is quoted as saying : `` One of the big problems with trying to determine long-term temperature changes , is that weather records only go back to about 1860 . By relying on statistical reconstruction of the last 1000 years , using only the temperature patterns of the last 140 years instead of actual temperature readings , the IPCC report and Summary missed both a major cooling period as well as a significant warming trend during that millennium . '' Karlén has also criticized the mainstream media for `` spreading the exaggerated views of a human impact on climate . '' He was also named in a 2007 minority report of the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee as one of 400 `` prominent scientists '' who were said to dispute global warming . In 2010 , he predicted that natural climate changes , caused to a large degree by the sun 's activity , would more likely make the climate colder than warmer in the next decades . He is a contributing author to the Fraser Institute 2007 Independent Summary for Policymakers . Karlén is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences .","qid":"2745","docid":"Wibjörn_Karlén","rank":13,"score":124327},{"content":"Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.","qid":"2745","docid":"Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C","rank":14,"score":123149},{"content":"Title: North Report Content: The North Report was a 2006 report evaluating reconstructions of the temperature record of the past two millennia , providing an overview of the state of the science and the implications for understanding of global warming . It was produced by a National Research Council committee , chaired by Gerald North , at the request of Representative Sherwood Boehlert as chairman of the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Science . These reconstructions had been dubbed `` hockey stick graphs '' after the 1999 reconstruction by Mann , Bradley and Hughes ( MBH99 ) , which used the methodology of their 1998 reconstruction covering 600 years ( MBH98 ) . A graph based on MBH99 was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , and became a focus of the global warming controversy over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol . It was disputed by various contrarians , and in the politicisation of this hockey stick controversy the New York Times of 14 February 2005 hailed a paper by businessman Stephen McIntyre and economist Ross McKitrick ( MM05 ) as undermining the scientific consensus behind the Kyoto agreement . On 23 June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton , chairman of the House Committee on Energy and Commerce , with Ed Whitfield , Chairman of the Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations , wrote joint letters referring to issues raised by the Wall Street Journal article , and demanding that Mann , Bradley and Hughes provide full records on their data and methods , finances and careers , information about grants provided to the institutions they had worked for , and the exact computer codes used to generate their results . Boehlert said this was a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into something that should properly be under the jurisdiction of the Science Committee , and in November 2005 after Barton dismissed the offer of an independent investigation organised by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences , Boehlert requested the review , which became the North Report . The North Report went through a rigorous review process , and was published on 22 June 2006 . It concluded `` with a high level of confidence that global mean surface temperature was higher during the last few decades of the 20th century than during any comparable period during the preceding four centuries '' , justified by consistent evidence from a wide variety of geographically diverse proxies , but `` Less confidence can be placed in large-scale surface temperature reconstructions for the period from 900 to 1600 '' . It broadly agreed with the basic findings of the original MBH studies , which subsequently been supported by other reconstructions and proxy records , while emphasising uncertainties over earlier periods . The principal component analysis methodology that McIntyre and McKitrick had contested had a small tendency to bias results so was not recommended -- but it had little influence on the final reconstructions , and other methods produced similar results .","qid":"2745","docid":"North_Report","rank":15,"score":122613},{"content":"Title: Early 2014 North American cold wave Content: The 2014 North American cold wave was an extreme weather event that extended through the late winter months of the 2013 -- 2014 winter season , and was also part of an unusually cold winter affecting parts of Canada and parts of the north-central and upper eastern United States . The event occurred in early 2014 and was caused by a southward shift of the North Polar Vortex . Record-low temperatures also extended well into March . On January 2 , an Arctic cold front initially associated with a nor'easter tracked across Canada and the United States , resulting in heavy snowfall . Temperatures fell to unprecedented levels , and low temperature records were broken across the United States . Business , school , and road closures were common , as well as mass flight cancellations . Altogether , more than 200 million people were affected , in an area ranging from the Rocky Mountains to the Atlantic Ocean and extending south to include roughly 187 million residents of the Continental United States .","qid":"2745","docid":"Early_2014_North_American_cold_wave","rank":16,"score":122277},{"content":"Title: Climate of Scotland Content: The climate of Scotland is temperate and oceanic ( Köppen climate classification Cfb ) , and tends to be very changeable , but not normally extreme . It is warmed by the Gulf Stream from the Atlantic , and given its northerly latitude it is warmer than areas on similar latitudes , for example Labrador in Canada -- where the sea freezes over in winter and icebergs are a common feature in spring and early summer , or Fort McMurray , Canada -- where -35 ° C is not uncommon during winter . Even though most of the country has a temperate climate , the Northern islands and Highlands experience a type of weather close to the climate of the Faroe Islands or Southern Norway .","qid":"2745","docid":"Climate_of_Scotland","rank":17,"score":122160},{"content":"Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .","qid":"2745","docid":"List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming","rank":18,"score":120131},{"content":"Title: Plateau Station Content: Plateau Station is an inactive American research and South Pole -- Queen Maud Land Traverse support base on the central Antarctic Plateau . Construction on the site started on December 13 , 1965 , and the first traverse team ( named SPQML II ) arrived in early 1966 . The base was in continuous use until January 29 , 1969 , when it was closed but mothballed for future use , and was the most remote and coldest of any United States stations on the continent . It is also the site for the world 's coldest measured average temperature for a month , recorded in July 1968 , at -99.8 F. The station was operated and staffed by the National Science Foundation and United States Navy . A select team of four scientists and four navy personnel were on constant duty at the station , which was under the command of a naval medical doctor . Originally designed for two years of service , it was in use for three years . Until the Fuji Dome Station opened in 1995 , it was the outpost at the highest altitude at 3624 m above sea level . The effective altitude , due to polar circulation vortex was in excess of 4000 m , making the base a useful location for high-altitude research . Although the cold never reached the record set at Vostok Station , the average temperature was consistently lower . The buildings on the base were assembled from five pre-fabricated units flown in by Hercules C-130 aircraft with ski landing gear . Four units formed the main building , which is 8x25 meters ; and a smaller Jamesway huts unit was constructed 300 meters away . Two 75 kW diesel generators provided the necessary energy for the main unit ; and an additional generator was maintained at the standby unit . In addition , a 3500 m skiway was built for air transport . A 32 m meteorological tower was erected with instruments at varying heights to monitor the persistent thermal air inversion layer above the Antarctic snow . One primary purpose of the base was solar observations , given the high altitude , clear air , and relative short distance to the sun during the austral summer . But it was found that the base also provided unique opportunities to observe unusual weather phenomena . The major activities were : Micro Meteorology Study : This consisted of a tower equipped with instruments to take multiple samples of wind speed , wind direction and temperature . Periodic readings were taken at multiple levels on the tower to attempt to understand the `` topography of weather '' and how they fit into the larger framework of weather on the polar and global environment . The flatness of the Antarctic Plateau made Plateau Station a unique `` test tube '' for this study . Polar Illumination/Absorption Study : This was accomplished by the placement of multi color lenses with sensors that would measure the intensity of light striking the polar surface . Illumination from both direct and diffuse sources were periodically measured . Plateau Station was ideal for measuring this due to the relative clear atmospheric conditions . Upper Atomospheric Study : This was made up of instrumentation that would transmit a spectrum of Radio Frequency energy up into the atmosphere . The instrumentation would then simultaneously measure the amount of energy being reflected back to it from the upper atmosphere . Geomagnetic Study This consisted of large coils of wire that acted as sensors to measure the intensity of polar magnetic fields . Ice core samples were also made , but with mixed success . On October 29 , 1966 , the camp inhabitants experienced a severe snowquake that lowered the altitude by 1 cm . This was apparently caused by hoar frost crystals below the surface . The teams were also monitored for medical and psychological effects , though it turned out that selection of staff precluded any notable emotional effects . White cell counts were found to decrease as a result of few immunological stimuli in the sterile environment . On 22 December 2007 , the Norwegian-U.S. Scientific Traverse of East Antarctica visited the base and entered the buildings , finding that it was mostly intact . In 2017 , the CoFi-Expedition made a stop at the Plateau Station . They entered the station through a hatch at the top of highest building , the watch tower . The base ist completely snowbound nowadays . The only seeable building at the base ist the meteorological tower . The expedition left the base with the same general impression like the expedition in 2007 did . One of the researchers , Sepp Kipfstuhl said : `` If someone would visit the base in 10 or even 20 years , it 'll be barely changed . The meterological tower should be seeable for the next 500 years . ''","qid":"2745","docid":"Plateau_Station","rank":19,"score":120023},{"content":"Title: Global wind patterns Content: Global wind patterns : Winds are named by the direction from which they blow . The globe is encircled by six major wind belts , three in each hemisphere . From pole to equator , they are the polar easterlies , the westerlies , and the trade winds . All six belts move north in the northern summer and south in the northern winter . Each belt occupies about 30 degrees of latitude , that is , one third of the way from the pole to the equator . Polar Easterlies : At about the latitude of Norway , Alaska U.S.A , and northward ( 60-90 degrees ) , the Polar easterlies blow irregularly from the east and north . Polar Front : Between the polar easterlies and the westerlies is the polar front . Prevailing Westerlies : At about the latitude of Western Europe and Continental U.S. ( 30-60 degrees ) , the Westerlies blow from the west , tending somewhat toward the north . This causes most weather in the United States to move from west to east . Horse Latitudes : Where the Westerlies meet the trade winds at about 30 degrees ( Jacksonville , Florida ) is the Horse latitudes , also Variables of Cancer , Subtropical High , or Subtropical ridge . This is a region of high pressure , dry air , and variable winds , and is associated with deserts over land . Trade Winds : South of about 30 degrees the northern or northeast trade winds blow mostly from the northeast toward the equator . These were the sailor 's favorite winds , since the weather was warm , and the winds usually blew steadily in an advantageous direction . Columbus used these to sail to the Caribbean . Doldrums : At about the equator is Intertropical Convergence Zone or doldrums , a region of light and irregular wind broken by occasional thunderstorms and squalls . The width and exact location of the doldrums were hard to predict . Sailing ships are sometimes becalmed here for many days waiting for a proper wind . Southern hemisphere : In the southern hemisphere the belts are reversed . The southeast trade winds blow from the southeast toward the equator . The southern equivalent of the horse latitudes ( or Variables of Cancer ) is called the Variables of Capricorn . The southern westerlies start somewhat south of South Africa . They tend to be stronger than the northern westerlies because they are mostly over water ( roaring forties ) . The southern polar easterlies are mostly over Antarctica . Seasonal shifts : All of the belts move north during the northern summer and south during the northern winter . Because global heating and cooling lags behind the position of the sun , they reach their northernmost latitude at or after the end of the northern summer . This brought the trade winds within reach of the Spain and Portugal and determined the sailing time of the Spanish treasure fleet . The northernmost position of the wind belts corresponds to the Atlantic hurricane season . Land and sea breezes : Land gains and loses heat more rapidly than water . During the day , the land warms more rapidly than the water . The air above land warms , becomes thinner , and rises , drawing cooler air landward from the sea . At night , the process reverses , and cool heavy air from the land flows out to sea . These land and sea breezes are important along the coast . Monsoon : The annual equivalent of the daily land and sea breezes is the yearly monsoon . During summer , the continents heat more rapidly than the oceans . Air over the continents warms , thins and rises drawing cooler moist ocean air landward , producing a wet season . During winter , the process reverses and cold , dry heavy air flows outward from the continents , producing a dry season . The monsoon is most striking in south Asia because of the size of the Eurasian landmass and because the Himalayas tend to bottle up the air above the continent . Approximations of the Indian monsoon exist in other places , but they are poorly developed . Ocean Gyre : The fact that the westerlies and trade winds blow in opposite directions and that the continents prevent water from circling the globe contributes to the formation of circular ocean currents , clockwise in the northern hemisphere and counterclockwise in the southern hemisphere . The Coriolis force also plays a part . The trade winds push water west . At the doldrums it flows back east producing the equatorial countercurrent . See Ocean gyre . Coriolis force , Hadley cell and other things : In the northern hemisphere , the Coriolis effect causes wind and water currents to bend to the right ( clockwise ) . Cold heavy air flows south from the north pole and is bent west , forming the polar easterlies . Warm air rises at the equator drawing air from the north which bends to the west , contributing to the trade winds . The Coriolis effect bends the westerlies and trade winds slightly clockwise in the northern hemisphere . Hot air rises at the doldrums . As it rises , it cools producing thunderstorms . The dry air flows north at a high altitude and descends at the horse latitudes and flows back to the equator with the trade winds . This is called the Hadley cell . There is also a Ferrel cell over the westerlies and a polar cell over the pole . There are other complexities , not all of which are properly understood .","qid":"2745","docid":"Global_wind_patterns","rank":20,"score":119839},{"content":"Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .","qid":"2745","docid":"Global_cooling","rank":21,"score":119573},{"content":"Title: Pole of Inaccessibility (Antarctic research station) Content: The Pole of Inaccessibility Research Station is a defunct Soviet research station in Kemp Land , Antarctica , at the southern pole of inaccessibility ( the point in Antarctica furthest from any ocean ) as it was defined in 1958 when the station was established . Later definitions give other locations , all relatively near this point . It performed meteorological observations from 14 December 1958 to 26 December 1958 . The Pole of Inaccessibility has the world 's coldest year-round average temperature of -58.2 ° C. It is 878 km from the South Pole , and approximately 600 km from Sovetskaya . The surface elevation is 3,800 m . It was reached on 14 December 1958 by an 18-man traversing party of the 3rd Soviet Antarctic Expedition . Its WMO ID is 89550 .","qid":"2745","docid":"Pole_of_Inaccessibility_(Antarctic_research_station)","rank":22,"score":118723},{"content":"Title: The Real Global Warming Disaster Content: The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .","qid":"2745","docid":"The_Real_Global_Warming_Disaster","rank":23,"score":118405},{"content":"Title: North American Arctic Content: The North American Arctic comprises the northern portions of Alaska ( USA ) , Northern Canada and Greenland . Major bodies of water include the Arctic Ocean , Hudson Bay , the Gulf of Alaska and North Atlantic Ocean . The western limit is the Seward Peninsula and the Bering Strait . The southern limit is the Arctic Circle latitude of 66 ° 33 'N , which is the approximate limit of the midnight sun and the polar night . The region is defined by environmental limits where the average temperature for the warmest month ( July ) is below 10 C . The northernmost tree line roughly follows the isotherm at the boundary of this region . The area has tundra and polar vegetation .","qid":"2745","docid":"North_American_Arctic","rank":24,"score":118397},{"content":"Title: March 2012 North American heat wave Content: In March 2012 , one of the greatest heat waves was observed in many regions of North America . Very warm air pushed northward west of the Great Lakes region , and subsequently spread eastward . The intense poleward air mass movement was propelled by an unusually intense low level southerly jet that stretched from Louisiana to western Wisconsin . Once this warm surge inundated the area , a remarkably prolonged period of record setting temperatures ensued . NOAA 's National Climate Data Center reported that over 7,000 daily record high temperatures were tied or broken from 1 March through 27 March . In some places the temperature exceeded 86 ° F ( 30 ° C ) . For instance , in Grand Rapids , Michigan , the highest temperature recorded was 87 ° F on March 21 ; in Chicago a high of 87 ° F was also recorded on that same day . Records were broken in unusual ways . Chicago , for example , saw temperatures above 80 ° F every day between March 14 -- 18 , breaking records on all five days . Chicago would go on to record eight days at or above 80 ° F during the month , with many suburban areas recording an additional day in the 80s on March 19 ( that day , the city only tied its record high of 78 ° F ) . In context , the National Weather Service 's Chicago branch noted that Chicago typically averages only one day in the 80 's in April . And only once in 140 years of weather observations has April produced as many 80 ° F days as this March . In Traverse City , Michigan one day began with a low temperature ( 67 ° F ) higher than the previous record high for the day . Temperature records across much of southern Canada also were shattered . Some of the most impressive readings came from Nova Scotia on March 22 , when the mercury climbed to 30.0 C at a climate station in Lake Major , making it the highest March temperature recorded in Nova Scotia , and the third highest March temperature recorded in Canada . That same day , the temperature hit 29.2 C at Western Head , Nova Scotia . The heat reached as far east as Cape Breton Island , with the temperature climbing to 24.0 C at Sydney , Nova Scotia on March 22 , a place historically surrounded by ice-jammed waters , frigid winds , and snow in March . The week of March 18 also set record temperatures in Manitoba and much of Ontario as well as into the Maritime Provinces . Non-severe thunderstorms were reported on the evening hours of March 21 , through to the early morning hours March 22 into northern Ontario . In addition , NCEP/NCAR Reanalysis data show that the atmospheric pattern was so persistent that much of the Midwest and Northeast , and up into Ontario , had temperature departures over periods of several days to a week or more of magnitudes which would be unusual even for a single day . Averaged over the seven-day period from March 16 to March 22 inclusive , nearly the entire area of the Midwest and Northeast U.S. and most of Ontario and Quebec had temperatures 10 ° C ( 18 ° F ) or more above the 1981-2010 average . Even more dramatically , most of Iowa and Minnesota , all of Wisconsin and Michigan , and most of southeastern Ontario had seven-day mean temperatures more than 15 ° C ( 27 ° F ) above the climatological average for the same period . An 84 ° F high at Madison , WI in early March was 43 ° F above average and followed an overnight low of 60 ° F , 35 degrees above normal the daily high being more than seven standard deviations above the mean . The absolute temperature and departure statistically would be equivalent to a mid-July high at that station in excess of 125 ° F or more ; the highest temperature recorded there was 107 ° at least once during the heat waves of the middle 1930s . This mild warm spell brought out spring peepers in northern Ontario on 23 March , which are usually not heard until mid-to-late April , or sometimes early May . The warm weather was also responsible for several early-season tornado touchdowns , such as the EF3 that struck Dexter , Michigan , near Ann Arbor .","qid":"2745","docid":"March_2012_North_American_heat_wave","rank":25,"score":117789},{"content":"Title: Everything's Cool (film) Content: Everything 's Cool is a 2007 documentary film that examines the divide between scientists and the general populace on the topic of global warming . Director Dan Gold said of the motivation for the film that `` I 'm optimistic that finally the message that this is real , that human beings are the cause of the most recent warming trend , and that it 's an important issue , that message is actually reaching America . On the other hand ... if that message was fully understood , we would be moving a lot faster to slow this down and to reverse this course . '' The documentary was shown at the Sundance film festival in January 2007 and at the San Francisco International Film Festival in May 2007 . The directors also took Blue Vinyl , a film about plastic pollution , to Sundance in 2002 . It was shown on CBC in Canada as part of the Passionate Eye series . The New York Times called it `` a breezy polemic about the politics of global warming ... -LSB- that -RSB- adopts a cheerful comic tone to avoid scaring audiences . '' The LA Times said that `` With wit and passion , Gold and Helfand marshal a plethora of data and developments yet never lose their narrative thread . '' . The New York Sun was less favourable , calling it `` the best movie I 've ever seen about global warming for kids in junior high school , but it 's the most annoying movie about global warming I 've ever seen for adults . ''","qid":"2745","docid":"Everything's_Cool_(film)","rank":26,"score":117193},{"content":"Title: EdGCM Content: The Educational Global Climate Model or EdGCM is a fully functional global climate model ( GCM ) that has been ported for use on desktop computers ( Windows PCs and Macs ) . It operates through a graphical user interface and is integrated with a relational database and scientific visualization utllities , all of which aim at helping improve the quality of teaching and understanding of climatology by making real-world research experiences more accessible . EdGCM is designed to permit teachers and students to conduct in-depth investigations of past , present and future climate scenarios in a manner that is essentially identical to the techniques used by national and international climate research organizations . EdGCM was developed at the Goddard Institute for Space Studies as a joint project of Columbia University and NASA scientists and programmers . The Global Climate Model at the core of EdGCM is GISS Model II . During the 1980s and early 1990s this GCM was one of NASA 's primary climate research tools . Results from the model have appeared in hundreds of scientific publications . The coarser resolution of the climate model in EdGCM ( 8 ° x 10 ° , latitude x longitude ) makes it inexpensive to run . But , because it contains most of the key atmospheric physics of modern GCMs , EdGCM is also used by climate researchers who do not have access to the most recent GCM versions .","qid":"2745","docid":"EdGCM","rank":27,"score":117087},{"content":"Title: Temperature in Canada Content:","qid":"2745","docid":"Temperature_in_Canada","rank":28,"score":116897},{"content":"Title: Douglas-Daly Experiment Station Content: The Douglas-Daly Experiment Station was an extensive research site of the Northern Territory Administration ( NTA ) of the Government of Australia and , after statehood , of the Northern Territory Government . It formed part of a string of similar research sites in northern Australia . Located at the junction of the Douglas and Daly Rivers and covering an area of approximately 100 km ² , the site spanned three major soil types of the Top End of the Northern Territory - Blain , Tippera and Florina soil types . The climate is hot-humid tropical with a distinct six-month dry season and an annual rainfall of around 1 m . It was used mainly for pasture , forage , and grazing experiments with its main research activity beginning in the 1960s and continuing until the break-up of the site into development farms in the 1980s . Research from the site is mainly documented in scientific journal papers and annals of the NTA . Among the researchers on the site have been Bruce Franks , John Sturtz , John Austin and Lindsay Falvey , who were supported by the manager Heinz Mollman . The site was also used by CSIRO , especially for the rock-phosphate research of Ray Swaby .","qid":"2745","docid":"Douglas-Daly_Experiment_Station","rank":29,"score":116884},{"content":"Title: February 2015 North American cold wave Content: The February 2015 North American cold wave was an extreme weather event that affected most of Canada and the eastern half of the United States . Following an earlier cold wave in the winter , the period of below-average temperatures contributed to an already unusually cold winter for the Eastern U.S. Several places broke their records for their coldest February on record , while some areas came very close . The cause of the cold wave was due to the polar vortex advancing southwards into the eastern parts of the U.S , and even making it as far south as the Southeast , where snow is rare . By the beginning of March , although the pattern did continue for the first week , it abated and retreated near the official end of the winter . In addition to the extremely cold weather , multiple winter storms affected nearly the entire United States , especially in the snow-weary Northeast , which had already seen nearly 3 ft of snow in the latter part of January ; this was added to by roughly 3 -- 4 ft ( 36 -- 48 in ) more snow , leading to Boston having its highest seasonal snowfall on record .","qid":"2745","docid":"February_2015_North_American_cold_wave","rank":30,"score":116745},{"content":"Title: The Ny-Ålesund Symposium Content: The Ny-Ålesund Symposium is an annual high level international event where top researchers and politicians , senior business executives , representatives of NGOs and other decision makers meet to share experiences and to discuss climate change solutions . The topics are related to the challenges of climate change , other environmental issues , and issues directly connected to the Arctic and the Northern areas which could have major global consequences . Participation is limited to 45 people , by invitation only . The Symposium takes place on Svalbard at 79 degrees north . It is the world 's northernmost permanent settlement and is only 1200 km from the North Pole . The Norwegian Government has transformed this former mining community into a major base for scientific research and environmental monitoring in the Arctic . The base hosts scientists from more than 20 nations and plays an important role in international climate change research . It is owned and operated by the governmental company Kings Bay AS , a coal mining company in earlier days . The scenery is exceptional , with a backdrop of unspoiled Arctic nature . The purpose of the Symposium is to exchange knowledge , improve the understanding and seek solutions of the challenging impacts these issues have both on the Arctic regions and internationally . The Symposium is organized by Kings Bay AS in cooperation with the Norwegian Ministry of Education and Research , the Ministry of the Environment -RSB- , the Ministry of Foreign Affairs , the Ministry of Trade and Industry , the Ministry of Justice and the Police , and the -LSB- Research Council of Norway -RSB- . Statkraft AS is a co-organizer and sponsor of the Symposium . The secretariat is by CICERO Center for International Climate and Environmental Research-Oslo . His Royal Highness Crown Prince Haakon of Norway is patron of the Symposium . The first Symposium was arranged in March 2006 . The main themes for the symposia have been : 2006 - The changing Arctic - new opportunities and challenges 2007 - The changing Arctic - global climate change - the need for action 2008 - Global climate change and research challenges 2009 - Climate change : Understanding global politics towards Copenhagen and beyond 2010 - The Changing Arctic and Its Global Implications 2011 - cancelled due to volcanic ash cloud 2012 - Towards a green economy : the role of technology 2013 - The Changing Arctic - Opportunity or Threat 2014 - Breaking the Climate Stalemate","qid":"2745","docid":"The_Ny-Ålesund_Symposium","rank":31,"score":116524},{"content":"Title: Tierra fría Content: In Latin America , tierra fría ( Spanish for cold land ) are mountain locations where high elevation results in a markedly cooler climate than that encountered in the lowlands at a comparable latitude . The combination of low latitude and high altitude -- typically between approximately 6,000 ft ( about 1,850 m ) and 10,000 ft ( about 3,600 m ) in locations within 10 ° of the equator -- produces a climate that falls into the same category as many oceanic climates found along the west coasts of the continents within the temperate zones -- mild temperatures all year round , with monthly averages ranging from about 10 ° C ( 50 ° F ) in the coldest months to about 18 ° C ( 64.4 ° F ) in the warmest months ( at places further poleward the range of altitudes where this climate exists becomes progressively lower ) . Common crops grown in the tierra fría are potatoes , wheat , barley , oats , corn , and rye . Beyond the tierra fría is a region known as the suni , puna , or páramos ; near the Equator this encompasses places with altitudes of between roughly 12,000 ft ( 3,600 m ) and 15,000 ft ( 4,500 m ) , representing the treeline and the snow line respectively . Vegetation here resembles that found in the tundra of the polar regions . Still higher is the tierra nevada , where permanent snow and ice prevail . The Peruvian geographer Javier Pulgar Vidal ( Altitudinal zonation ) used following altitudes : 2,300 m ( end of the Cloud forest or Yunga fluvial ) , 3,500 m ( Treeline ) and 4,800 m ( Puna end ) . Some of Latin America 's largest cities are found in the tierra fria , most notably Bogotá , Colombia , altitude 2,640 m , Mexico City , Mexico , altitude 2,240 m and Quito , Ecuador , altitude 2,850 m ; all three cities are also the capitals of those respective countries . Agriculture in the region resembles that which is conducted in valley areas in the temperate zones , featuring such crops as barley and potatoes .","qid":"2745","docid":"Tierra_fría","rank":32,"score":115740},{"content":"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .","qid":"2745","docid":"Global_warming","rank":33,"score":115633},{"content":"Title: 2010 Northern Hemisphere heat waves Content: The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves included severe heat waves that impacted most of the United States, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, China, Hong Kong, North Africa and the European continent as a whole, along with parts of Canada, Russia, Indochina, South Korea and Japan during May, June, July, and August 2010. The first phase of the global heatwaves was caused by a moderate El Niño event, which lasted from June 2009 to May 2010. The first phase lasted only from April 2010 to June 2010, and caused only moderate above average temperatures in the areas affected. But it also set new record high temperatures for most of the area affected, in the Northern Hemisphere. The second phase (the main, and most devastating phase) was caused by a very strong La Niña event, which lasted from June 2010 to June 2011. According to meteorologists, the 2010–11 La Niña event was one of the strongest La Niña events ever observed. That same La Niña event also had devastating effects in the Eastern states of Australia. The second phase lasted from June 2010 to October 2010, caused severe heat waves, and multiple record-breaking temperatures. The heatwaves began on April 2010, when strong anticyclones began to develop, over most of the affected regions, in the Northern Hemisphere. The heatwaves ended in October 2010, when the powerful anticyclones over most of the affected areas dissipated. The heat wave during the summer of 2010 was at its worst in June, over the Eastern United States, Middle East, Eastern Europe and European Russia, and over Northeastern China and southeastern Russia. June 2010 marked the fourth consecutive warmest month on record globally, at 0.66 °C (1.22 °F) above average, while the period April–June was the warmest ever recorded for land areas in the Northern Hemisphere, at 1.25 °C (2.25 °F) above average. The previous record for the global average temperature in June was set in 2005 at 0.66 °C (1.19 °F), and the previous warm record for April–June over Northern Hemisphere land areas was 1.16 °C (2.09 °F), set in 2007. The strongest of the anticyclones, the one situated over Siberia, registered a maximum high pressure of 1040 millibars. The weather caused forest fires in China, where three in a team of 300 died fighting a fire that broke out in the Binchuan County of Dali, as Yunnan suffered the worst drought in 60 years by February 17. A major drought was reported across the Sahel as early as January. In August, a section of the Petermann Glacier tongue connecting northern Greenland, the Nares Strait and the Arctic Ocean broke off, the biggest ice shelf in the Arctic to detach in 48 years. By the time the heatwaves had ended in late October 2010, about $500 billion (2011 USD) of damage was done, in the Northern Hemisphere alone. The World Meteorological Organization stated that the heat waves, droughts and flooding events fit with predictions based on global warming for the 21st century, include those based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's 2007 4th Assessment Report. Some climatologists argue that these weather events would not have happened if the atmospheric carbon dioxide was at pre-industrial levels.","qid":"2745","docid":"2010_Northern_Hemisphere_heat_waves","rank":34,"score":115439},{"content":"Title: The Coming Global Superstorm Content: The Coming Global Superstorm ( ISBN 0-671-04190-8 ) is a 1999 book by Art Bell and Whitley Strieber , which warns that global warming might produce sudden and catastrophic climatic effects . First , the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic drift would generate a cordon of warm water around the North Pole , which in turn , holds in a frozen mass of Arctic air . Second , if the North Atlantic drift were to shut down , that barrier would fail , releasing a flood of frozen air into the Northern Hemisphere , causing a sudden and drastic temperature shift . The book discusses a possible cause of the failure of the Gulf Stream : the melting of the polar ice caps could drastically affect the salinity of the North Atlantic drift by dumping a large quantity of freshwater into the world 's oceans . Bell and Strieber explain the possibility that such current destabilizations have occurred before , as well as seemingly impossible engineering feats by the ancients . Among their examples is the island city of Nan Madol . The book claims that its construction , with exacting tolerances and extremely heavy basalt materials , necessitates a high degree of technical competency . Since no such society exists in the modern record or even , in legend , the society must have been destroyed by dramatic means . While other explanations beside a global meteorological event are possible , a correlating evidence set is presented in the woolly mammoth . Strieber and Bell assert that since mammoths have been found preserved with food still in their mouths and undigested in their stomachs , these animals must have been killed quickly , in otherwise normal conditions . They were preserved so well by quick freezing , which is taken as evidence of a rapid onset of a global blizzard or similar event . Interspersed with the analytical parts of the book are a series of interlinked short fictional scenarios , written in italics , describing what might transpire today if a destabilization of the North Atlantic Current were to occur . The fictional accounts of `` current events '' as the meteorological situation deteriorates provided background and inspiration for the 2004 science fiction film The Day After Tomorrow . Indeed , some events from the book are portrayed in the film with little modification .","qid":"2745","docid":"The_Coming_Global_Superstorm","rank":35,"score":115269},{"content":"Title: Heaven and Earth (book) Content: Heaven and Earth : Global Warming -- The Missing Science is a popular science book published in 2009 and written by Australian geologist , professor of mining geology at Adelaide University , and mining company director Ian Plimer . It disputes the scientific consensus on climate change , including the view that global warming is `` very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic ( man-made ) greenhouse gas concentrations '' and asserts that the debate is being driven by what the author regards as irrational and unscientific elements . The book received what The Age newspaper called `` glowing endorsements '' from the conservative press . The Australian said it gave `` all the scientific ammunition climate change skeptics could want . '' Other reviewers criticised the book as unscientific , inaccurate , based on obsolete research , and internally inconsistent . Ideas in it have been described as `` so wrong as to be laughable '' . Heaven and Earth was a bestseller in Australia when published in May 2009 , and is in its seventh printing , according to the publisher . The book has also been published in the United States and the United Kingdom .","qid":"2745","docid":"Heaven_and_Earth_(book)","rank":36,"score":115107},{"content":"Title: William Ferrel Content: William Ferrel ( January 29 , 1817 -- September 18 , 1891 ) , an American meteorologist , developed theories which explained the mid-latitude atmospheric circulation cell in detail , and it is after him that the Ferrel cell is named . He was born in southern Pennsylvania . His family moved to what would become West Virginia in 1829 . His formal elementary schooling was limited and he taught himself using science books well enough to become a school teacher . He attended Marshall College and despite financial difficulties , he was able to graduate from Bethany College 's first graduating class in 1844 . He would continue teaching in Missouri and Tennessee until 1858 . At that point , he took up a full-time position on the staff of American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac in Cambridge , Massachusetts . In 1882 , Ferrel joined the U.S. Army Signal Service ( which would become the Weather Bureau in 1891 ) . He retired in 1887 . He died in West Virginia in 1891 . Ferrel demonstrated that it is the tendency of rising warm air , as it rotates due to the Coriolis effect , to pull in air from more southerly , warmer regions and transport it poleward . It is this rotation which creates the complex curvatures in the frontal systems separating the cooler Arctic air to the north from the warmer continental tropical air to the south . Ferrel improved upon Hadley 's theory by recognizing an until then overlooked mechanism . This is a quote from his first paper : The fourth and last force arises from the combination of a relative east or west motion of the atmosphere with the rotatory motion of the earth . In consequence of the atmosphere 's revolving on a common axis with that of the earth , each particle is impressed with a centrifugal force , which , being resolved into a vertical and a horizontal force , the latter causes it to assume a spheroidal form conforming to the figure of the earth . But , if the rotatory motion of any part of the atmosphere is greater than that of the surface of the earth , or , in other words , if any part of the atmosphere has a relative eastern motion with regard to the earth 's surface , this force is increased , and if it has a relative western motion , it is diminished , and this difference gives rise to a disturbing force which prevents the atmosphere being in a state of equilibrium , with a figure conforming to that of the earth 's surface , but causes an accumulation of the atmosphere at certain latitudes and a depression at others , and the consequent difference in the pressure of the atmosphere at these latitudes very materially influences its motions . Hadley 's erroneous reasoning had been in terms of a tendency to conserve linear momentum , as air mass travels from north to south or from south to north . Ferrel recognized that in meteorology and oceanography what needs to be taken into account is a tendency , of an air mass that is in motion relative to Earth , to conserve its angular momentum with respect to Earth 's Axis .","qid":"2745","docid":"William_Ferrel","rank":37,"score":115069},{"content":"Title: Pacific–North American teleconnection pattern Content: The Pacific -- North American teleconnection pattern ( PNA ) is a climatological term for a large-scale weather pattern with two modes , denoted positive and negative , and which relates the atmospheric circulation pattern over the North Pacific Ocean with the one over the North American continent . The positive phase of the PNA pattern features above-average barometric pressure heights in the vicinity of Hawaii and over the inter-mountain region of North America , and below-average heights located south of the Aleutian Islands and over the southeastern United States . The PNA pattern is associated with strong fluctuations in the strength and location of the East Asian jet stream . The positive phase is associated with an enhanced East Asian jet stream and with an eastward shift in the jet exit region toward the western United States . The negative phase is associated with a westward retraction of that jet stream toward eastern Asia , blocking activity over the high latitudes of the North Pacific , and a strong split-flow configuration over the central North Pacific . The positive phase of the PNA pattern is associated with above-average temperatures over western Canada and the extreme western United States , and below-average temperatures across the south-central and southeastern US . The PNA tends to have little impact on surface temperature variability over North America during summer . The associated precipitation anomalies include above-average totals in the Gulf of Alaska extending into the Pacific Northwestern United States , and below-average totals over the upper Midwestern United States . The negative PNA phase is associated with the opposite . Although the PNA pattern is a natural internal mode of climate variability , it is also strongly influenced by the El Niño-Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) phenomenon . The positive phase of the PNA pattern tends to be associated with Pacific warm episodes ( El Niño ) , and the negative phase tends to be associated with Pacific cold episodes ( La Niña ) .","qid":"2745","docid":"Pacific–North_American_teleconnection_pattern","rank":38,"score":114979},{"content":"Title: Hockey stick graph Content: Hockey stick graphs present the global or hemispherical mean temperature record of the past 500 to 2000 years as shown by quantitative climate reconstructions based on climate proxy records . These reconstructions have consistently shown a slow long term cooling trend changing into relatively rapid warming in the 20th century , with the instrumental temperature record by 2000 exceeding earlier temperatures . The term `` hockey stick graph '' was coined by the climatologist Jerry Mahlman , to describe the pattern shown by the ( MBH99 ) reconstruction , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat with a downward trend to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' followed by a sharp , steady increase corresponding to the `` blade '' portion . The reconstructions have featured in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports as evidence of global warming . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . Paleoclimatology dates back to the 19th century , and the concept of examining varves in lake beds and tree rings to track local climatic changes was suggested in the 1930s . In the 1960s , Hubert Lamb generalised from historical documents and temperature records of central England to propose a Medieval Warm Period from around 900 to 1300 , followed by Little Ice Age . This was the basis of a `` schematic diagram '' featured in the IPCC First Assessment Report of 1990 beside cautions that the medieval warming might not have been global . The use of indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed , and by the late 1990s a number of competing teams of climatologists found indications that recent warming was exceptional . introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large scale reconstructions . Their study was featured in the IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . In 1998 Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 with shading emphasising that uncertainties ( to two standard error limits ) were much greater in earlier centuries . independently produced a CPS reconstruction extending back for a thousand years , and ( MBH99 ) used the MBH98 methodology to extend their study back to 1000 . A version of the MBH99 graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , which also drew on Jones et al. 1998 and three other reconstructions to support the conclusion that , in the Northern Hemisphere , the 1990s was likely to have been the warmest decade and 1998 the warmest year during the past 1,000 years . The graph became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th century warmth was exceptional . In 2003 , as lobbying over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol intensified , a paper claiming greater medieval warmth was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy . Later in 2003 , Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick published disputing the data used in MBH98 paper . In 2004 Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal components analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . Their analysis was subsequently disputed by published papers including and which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . Political disputes led to the formation of a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council , their North Report in 2006 supported Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , support the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Further reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .","qid":"2745","docid":"Hockey_stick_graph","rank":39,"score":114679},{"content":"Title: Climate of the United States Content: The climate of the United States varies due to differences in latitude , and a range of geographic features , including mountains and deserts . West of the 100th meridian , much of the US is semi-arid to desert in the far southwestern US , and Mediterranean along the California coast . East of the 100th meridian , the climate is humid continental in the northern areas east through New England , to humid subtropical in the Gulf and South Atlantic regions . Southern Florida is tropical , as is Hawaii and the US Virgin Islands . Higher-elevation areas of the Rocky Mountains , the Wasatch , Sierra Nevada , and Cascade Range are alpine . The West Coast areas in coastal Oregon and Washington are oceanic climate . The state of Alaska , on the northwestern corner of the North American continent , is largely subarctic climate , but with a subpolar oceanic climate in the southeast ( Alaska Panhandle ) , southwestern peninsula and Aleutian Islands . The primary drivers of weather in the contiguous United States are the seasonal change in the solar angle , the migration north/south of the subtropical highs , and the seasonal change in the position of the polar jet stream . In the Northern Hemisphere summer the Subtropical high pressure systems move northward and closer to the United States mainland . In the Atlantic Ocean , the `` Bermuda High '' creates a south-southwest flow of warm , humid air over the eastern , southern and central United States - resulting in warm to hot temperatures , high humidity and occasional thunderstorm activity . In the Pacific Ocean high pressure builds toward the California coast resulting in a northwesterly airflow creating the typical sunny , dry , and stable weather conditions along the West Coast . In the Northern Hemisphere winter , the subtropical highs retreat southward . The polar jet stream ( and associated conflict zone between cold , dry air masses from Canada and warm , moist air masses from the Gulf of Mexico ) drops further southward into the United States - bringing more precipitation and periods of disturbed weather , as well as colder or mild air masses . Areas in the southern US ( Florida , the Gulf Coast , the Desert Southwest , and southern California ) however , often have more stable weather , as the polar jet stream 's impact does not usually reach that far south . Weather systems , be they high-pressure systems ( anticyclones ) , low-pressure systems ( cyclones ) or fronts ( boundaries between air masses of differing temperature , humidity and most commonly , both ) are faster-moving and more intense in the winter/colder months than in the summer/warmer months , when the belt of lows and storms generally move into southern Canada . The Gulf of Alaska is the origination area of many storms that enter the United States . Such `` North Pacific lows '' enter the US through the Pacific Northwest , then move eastward across the northern Rocky Mountains , northern Great Plains , upper Midwest , Great Lakes and New England states . Across the central states from late fall to spring , `` Panhandle hook '' storms move from the central Rockies into the Oklahoma/Texas panhandle areas , then northeast toward the Great Lakes . They generate unusually large temperature contrasts , and often bring heavy Gulf moisture northward , resulting sometimes in cold conditions and possibly-heavy snow or ice north and west of the storm track , and warm conditions , heavy rains and potentially-severe thunderstorms south and east of the storm track - often simultaneously . Across the northern states in winter usually from Montana eastward , `` Alberta clipper '' storms track east and bring light to moderate snowfalls from the Great Lakes to New England , and often , windy and severe Arctic outbreaks behind them . When winter-season Canadian cold air masses drop unusually far southward , `` Gulf lows '' can develop in or near the Gulf of Mexico , then track eastward or northeastward across the Southern states , or nearby Gulf or South Atlantic waters . They often bring rain , but on rare occasions can bring ice to areas of the interior southern states . In the cold season ( generally November to March ) , most precipitation occurs in conjunction with organized low-pressure systems and associated fronts . In the summer , storms are much more localized , with short-duration thunderstorms common in many areas east of the 100th meridian . In the warm season , storm systems affecting a large area are less frequent , and weather conditions are more solar -LCB- sun -RCB- controlled , with the greatest chance for thunderstorm and severe weather activity during peak heating hours , mostly between 3 PM and 9 PM local time . From May to August especially , often-overnight mesoscale-convective-system ( MCS ) thunderstorm complexes , usually associated with frontal activity , can deliver significant to flooding rainfall amounts from the Dakotas/Nebraska eastward across Iowa/Minnesota to the Great Lakes states . From late summer into fall ( mostly August to October ) , tropical cyclones sometimes approach or cross the Gulf and Atlantic states , bringing high winds , heavy rainfall , and storm surges ( often topped with battering waves ) to coastal areas .","qid":"2745","docid":"Climate_of_the_United_States","rank":40,"score":114635},{"content":"Title: Ian Clark (geologist) Content: Ian D. Clark is a professor in the Department of Earth Sciences at the University of Ottawa ( Canada ) , who has been publishing research on geoscience , groundwater and geochemistry since 1982 . His graduate work in isotope hydrogeology was at the University of Waterloo and the University of Paris . Clark is among the scientists who reject the mainstream scientific opinion on climate change ; in the 2007 UK television documentary The Great Global Warming Swindle , he states that changes in global temperature correlate with solar activity , saying `` Solar activity of the last hundred years , over the last several hundred years correlates very nicely on a decadal basis , with sea ice and Arctic temperatures . ''","qid":"2745","docid":"Ian_Clark_(geologist)","rank":41,"score":114598},{"content":"Title: Duncan Wingham Content: Duncan John Wingham ( born 12 October 1957 ) is a British physicist who is Professor of Climate Physics at University College London , and was the first Director of the Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling . He is chief executive of the Natural Environment Research Council and Principal Scientist for the CryoSat Satellite Mission . In the 1990s , Wingham was involved in a four-year satellite study of the Antarctic ice sheet . His conclusion then , and from later research , is that the Antarctic has contributed little to observed rising sea levels in the 20th century . However , he has also stated that `` it is possible that the consequences of global warming on sea level rise have been underestimated ... Other sources of rise must be underestimated . In particular it is possible that the effect of global warming on thermal expansion -LSB- on the oceans -RSB- is larger than we thought '' . In a 2005 interview Wingham stated '' -LSB- t -RSB- he Antarctic is to some extent insulated from global warming because to its north are zonal flows in the atmosphere and ocean , unimpeded by other landmasses ... I am not denying global warming . ''","qid":"2745","docid":"Duncan_Wingham","rank":42,"score":114525},{"content":"Title: Middle latitudes Content: The middle latitudes ( mid-latitudes , sometimes midlatitudes ) are between 23 ° 26 ' 22 '' North and 66 ° 33 ' 39 '' North , and between 23 ° 26 ' 22 '' South and 66 ° 33 ' 39 '' South latitude , or , the Earth 's temperate zones between the tropics and the Arctic and Antarctic polar regions . Weather fronts and extratropical cyclones are usually found in this area , as well as occasional tropical cyclones which have traveled from their areas of formation closer to the equator . The prevailing winds in the middle latitudes are often very strong . These parts of the world also see a wide variety of fast-changing weather as cold air masses from the poles and warm air masses from the tropics push up and down over them , sometimes alternating within hours of each other , especially in the roaring forties ( between 40 and 50 degrees latitude in both hemispheres ) . There are four types of epic mid-latitude climates : mediterranean , humid subtropical , marine west coast , and humid continental .","qid":"2745","docid":"Middle_latitudes","rank":43,"score":114417},{"content":"Title: Global Historical Climatology Network Content: The Global Historical Climatology Network ( GHCN ) is a database of temperature , precipitation and pressure records managed by the National Climatic Data Center , Arizona State University and the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center . The aggregate data are collected from many continuously reporting fixed stations at the Earth 's surface and represent the input of approximately 6000 temperature stations , 7500 precipitation stations and 2000 pressure stations . This work has often been used as a foundation for reconstructing past global temperatures , and was used in previous versions of two of the best-known reconstructions , that prepared by the National Climatic Data Center ( NCDC ) , and that prepared by NASA as its Goddard Institute for Space Studies ( GISS ) temperature set . The average temperature record is 60 years long with ~ 1650 records greater than 100 years and ~ 220 greater than 150 years ( based on GHCN v2 in 2006 ) . The earliest data included in the database were collected in 1697 .","qid":"2745","docid":"Global_Historical_Climatology_Network","rank":44,"score":113325},{"content":"Title: Miller-Casella thermometer Content: The Miller-Casella thermometer was a Six 's thermometer with a double bulb used extensively by the Challenger expedition during the late nineteenth century . The thermomemeter was used for water temperature readings along 360 different research stations around the world 's oceans . The thermometer , which was about 9 inches in length , was enclosed in a copper case and filled with a solution of creosote in spirit . A U-shaped mercury tube recorded maximum and minimum temperature as the thermometer was lowered and raised into the ocean . This design assumed accurate measurements could be taken as long as the water closer to the surface of the ocean was always warmer than that below . Scientists aboard the HMS Challenger later questioned this assumption and made temperutare measurements with reversing thermometers instead which would n't require the coldest water to be at the ocean 's bottom .","qid":"2745","docid":"Miller-Casella_thermometer","rank":45,"score":113212},{"content":"Title: Bjørn Lomborg Content: Bjørn Lomborg ( -LSB- bjɶɐ̯n ˈlʌmbɒˀw -RSB- ; born 6 January 1965 ) is a Danish author and adjunct professor at the Copenhagen Business School as well as President of the Copenhagen Consensus Center . He is former director of the Danish government 's Environmental Assessment Institute ( EAI ) in Copenhagen . He became internationally known for his best-selling and controversial book , The Skeptical Environmentalist ( 2001 ) , in which he argues that many of the costly measures and actions adopted by scientists and policy makers to meet the challenges of global warming will ultimately have minimal impact on the world 's rising temperature . In 2002 , Lomborg and the Environmental Assessment Institute founded the Copenhagen Consensus , a project-based conference where prominent economists sought to establish priorities for advancing global welfare using methods based on the theory of welfare economics . In 2009 , Business Insider cited Lomborg as one of `` The 10 Most-Respected Global Warming Skeptics '' . While Lomborg campaigned against the Kyoto Protocol and other measures to cut carbon emissions in the short-term , he argued for adaptation to short-term temperature rises , and for spending money on research and development for longer-term environmental solutions . His issue is not with the reality of climate change , but rather with the economic and political approaches being taken ( or not taken ) to meet the challenges of that climate change . He is a strong advocate for focusing attention and resources on what he perceives as far more pressing world problems , such as AIDS , malaria and malnutrition . In his critique of the 2012 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development , Lomborg stated : `` Global warming is by no means our main environmental threat . '' In 2011 and 2012 , Lomborg was named a Top 100 Global Thinker by Foreign Policy `` for looking more right than ever on the politics of climate change '' .","qid":"2745","docid":"Bjørn_Lomborg","rank":46,"score":113116},{"content":"Title: Climatic Research Unit email controversy Content: The Climatic Research Unit email controversy ( also known as `` Climategate '' ) began in November 2009 with the hacking of a server at the Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) at the University of East Anglia ( UEA ) by an external attacker , copying thousands of emails and computer files , the Climatic Research Unit documents , to various internet locations several weeks before the Copenhagen Summit on climate change . The story was first broken by climate change denialists with columnist James Delingpole popularising the term `` Climategate '' to describe the controversy . Several people considered climate change `` skeptics '' argued that the emails showed global warming was a scientific conspiracy , that scientists manipulated climate data and attempted to suppress critics . The CRU rejected this , saying the emails had been taken out of context and merely reflected an honest exchange of ideas . The mainstream media picked up the story as negotiations over climate change mitigation began in Copenhagen on 7 December 2009 . Because of the timing , scientists , policy makers and public relations experts said that the release of emails was a smear campaign intended to undermine the climate conference . In response to the controversy , the American Association for the Advancement of Science ( AAAS ) , the American Meteorological Society ( AMS ) and the Union of Concerned Scientists ( UCS ) released statements supporting the scientific consensus that the Earth 's mean surface temperature had been rising for decades , with the AAAS concluding , `` based on multiple lines of scientific evidence that global climate change caused by human activities is now underway ... it is a growing threat to society . '' Eight committees investigated the allegations and published reports , finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct . However , the reports called on the scientists to avoid any such allegations in the future by taking steps to regain public confidence in their work , for example by opening up access to their supporting data , processing methods and software , and by promptly honouring freedom of information requests . The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged throughout the investigations .","qid":"2745","docid":"Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy","rank":47,"score":112872},{"content":"Title: Gordon McBean Content: Dr. Gordon McBean , , is a Canadian climatologist who serves as chairman of the board of trustees of the Canadian Foundation for Climate and Atmospheric Sciences . He is a professor at the University of Western Ontario and Chair for Policy in the Institute for Catastrophic Loss Reduction . Previously he was the Assistant Deputy Minister of Meteorological Service of Canada . In 1995 , McBean gave a speech to the World Meteorological Organization on global warming . In 2006 , McBean , with Dr. Andrew Weaver and Ken Denman , authored an open letter , signed by 90 climate scientists , to Prime Minister Stephen Harper calling for an effective national climate change strategy . Newswire press release The letter ( PDF ) Univ. of Western Ontario page Globe and Mail article The letter was a response to an earlier open letter to Harper from 60 scientists ( 19 Canadians ) arguing against the Kyoto accord and questioning its scientific basis : National Post April 6 , 2006 , retrieved April 20 , 2007 . In addition to his involvement with the Canadian Foundation for Climate and Atmospheric Sciences , McBean is member of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences partnerships committee and since 2014 president of the International Council for Science ( before 2014 member of the environment advisory committee ) . He also acts as a mentor for the Loran Scholars program .","qid":"2745","docid":"Gordon_McBean","rank":48,"score":112828},{"content":"Title: Alert, Nunavut Content: Alert , in the Qikiqtaaluk Region , Nunavut , Canada , is the northernmost permanently inhabited place in the world , at latitude 82 ° 30 ' 05 '' north , 817 km from the North Pole . The entire population of Baffin , Unorganized , the Statistics Canada name for Qikiqtaaluk , is located here . As of the 2016 census the population was reported as 62 , an increase of 1,140 % over the 2011 census . It takes its name from HMS Alert , which wintered 10 km east of the present station , off what is now Cape Sheridan , in 1875 -- 1876 . Alert has many temporary inhabitants as it hosts a military signals intelligence radio receiving facility at Canadian Forces Station Alert ( CFS Alert ) , as well as a co-located Environment Canada weather station , a Global Atmosphere Watch ( GAW ) atmosphere monitoring observatory , and the Alert Airport .","qid":"2745","docid":"Alert,_Nunavut","rank":49,"score":112819},{"content":"Title: 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves Content: The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves included severe heat waves that impacted most of the United States , Kazakhstan , Mongolia , China , Hong Kong , North Africa and the European continent as a whole , along with parts of Canada , Russia , Indochina , South Korea and Japan during May , June , July , and August 2010 . The first phase of the global heatwaves was caused by a moderate El Niño event , which lasted from June 2009 to May 2010 . The first phase lasted only from April 2010 to June 2010 , and caused only moderate above average temperatures in the areas affected . But it also set new record high temperatures for most of the area affected , in the Northern Hemisphere . The second phase ( the main , and most devastating phase ) was caused by a very strong La Niña event , which lasted from June 2010 to June 2011 . According to meteorologists , the 2010 -- 11 La Niña event was one of the strongest La Niña events ever observed . That same La Niña event also had devastating effects in the Eastern states of Australia . The second phase lasted from June 2010 to October 2010 , caused severe heat waves , and multiple record-breaking temperatures . The heatwaves began on April 2010 , when strong anticyclones began to develop , over most of the affected regions , in the Northern Hemisphere . The heatwaves ended in October 2010 , when the powerful anticyclones over most of the affected areas dissipated . The heat wave during the summer of 2010 was at its worst in June , over the Eastern United States , Middle East , Eastern Europe and European Russia , and over Northeastern China and southeastern Russia . June 2010 marked the fourth consecutive warmest month on record globally , at 0.66 ° C ( 1.22 ° F ) above average , while the period April -- June was the warmest ever recorded for land areas in the Northern Hemisphere , at 1.25 ° C ( 2.25 ° F ) above average . The previous record for the global average temperature in June was set in 2005 at 0.66 ° C ( 1.19 ° F ) , and the previous warm record for April -- June over Northern Hemisphere land areas was 1.16 ° C ( 2.09 ° F ) , set in 2007 . Sometime during June 2010 , the highest recorded temperature caused by the heatwave was 53.5 ° C , in Southeastern Russia , just north of Kazakhstan . The strongest of the anticyclones , the one situated over Siberia , registered a maximum high pressure of 1040 millibars . The weather caused forest fires in China , where three in a team of 300 died fighting a fire that broke out in the Binchuan County of Dali , as Yunnan suffered the worst drought in 60 years by February 17 . A major drought was reported across the Sahel as early as January . In August , a section of the Petermann Glacier tongue connecting northern Greenland , the Nares Strait and the Arctic Ocean broke off , the biggest ice shelf in the Arctic to detach in 48 years . By the time the heatwaves had ended in late October 2010 , about $ 500 billion ( 2011 USD ) of damage was done , in the Northern Hemisphere alone . The World Meteorological Organization stated that the heat waves , droughts and flooding events fit with predictions based on global warming for the 21st century , include those based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's 2007 4th Assessment Report . Some climatologists argue that these weather events would not have happened if the atmospheric carbon dioxide was at pre-industrial levels .","qid":"2745","docid":"2010_Northern_Hemisphere_summer_heat_waves","rank":50,"score":112574},{"content":"Title: Skew-T log-P diagram Content: A Skew-T Log-P diagram is one of four thermodynamic diagrams commonly used in weather analysis and forecasting . In 1947 , N. Herlofson proposed a modification to the emagram which allows straight , horizontal isobars , and provides for a large angle between isotherms and dry adiabats , similar to that in the tephigram . It was thus more suitable for some of the newer analysis techniques being invented by the United States Air Force . The major use for skew-T log-P diagrams is the plotting of radiosonde soundings , which give a vertical profile of the temperature and dew point temperature throughout the troposphere and lower stratosphere . The isopleths on the diagram can then be used to simplify many tedious calculations involved , which were previously performed by hand or not at all . Many skew-T log-P diagrams also include a vertical representation of the wind speed and direction using wind barbs . Important atmospheric characteristics such as saturation , atmospheric instability , and wind shear are critical in severe weather forecasting , by which skew-T log-P diagrams allow for quick visual analysis .","qid":"2745","docid":"Skew-T_log-P_diagram","rank":51,"score":112382},{"content":"Title: Global warming conspiracy theory Content: A global warming conspiracy theory invokes claims that scientific consensus on global warming is based on conspiracies to produce false data or suppress dissent . It is one of a number of tactics used in climate change denial to legitimize political controversy disputing this consensus . Global warming conspiracy theorists typically allege that , through worldwide acts of professional and criminal misconduct , the science behind global warming has been invented or distorted for ideological or financial reasons , or both .","qid":"2745","docid":"Global_warming_conspiracy_theory","rank":52,"score":112294},{"content":"Title: Leipzig Declaration Content: The Leipzig Declaration on Global Climate Change is a statement made in 1995 , seeking to refute the claim there is a scientific consensus on the global warming issue . It was issued in an updated form in 1997 and revised again in 2005 , claiming to have been signed by 80 scientists and 25 television news meteorologists while the posting of 33 additional signatories was pending verification that those 33 additional scientists still agreed with the statement . All versions of the declaration , which opposes the global warming hypothesis and the Kyoto Protocol , were penned by Fred Singer 's Science and Environmental Policy Project ( SEPP ) . The first declaration was based on a November 9 -- 10 , 1995 conference , organized by Helmut Metzner in Leipzig , Germany . The second declaration was additionally based on a successor conference in Bonn , Germany on November 10 -- 11 , 1997 . The conferences were cosponsored by SEPP and the European Academy for Environmental Affairs and titled International Symposium on the Greenhouse Controversy .","qid":"2745","docid":"Leipzig_Declaration","rank":53,"score":111717},{"content":"Title: Skeptical Science Content: Skeptical Science ( occasionally abbreviated SkS ) is a climate science blog and information resource created in 2007 by Australian cognitive scientist John Cook . In addition to publishing articles on current events relating to climate science and climate policy , the site maintains a large database of articles analyzing the merit of arguments commonly put forth by those who oppose the mainstream scientific opinion on climate change .","qid":"2745","docid":"Skeptical_Science","rank":54,"score":111412},{"content":"Title: Peter Doran Content: Peter Doran , Ph.D. is Professor of Geology and Geophysics at Louisiana State University . Doran specializes in polar regions , especially Antarctic climate and ecosystems . Doran was the lead author of a research paper about Antarctic temperatures that was published in the journal Nature in January 2002 . Because he and his colleagues found that some parts of Antarctica had cooled between 1964 and 2000 , his paper has been frequently cited by opponents of the global warming theory , such as Ann Coulter and Michael Crichton . In an opinion piece in the July 27 , 2006 New York Times , Doran characterized this as a `` misinterpretation '' and stated , `` I have never thought such a thing ... I would like to remove my name from the list of scientists who dispute global warming . '' ( The temporary phenomenon is related to the `` hole '' in the ozone . As the `` hole heals '' the Antarctic will dramatically warm quickly . ) Doran and his grad student Maggie Kendall Zimmerman also published a paper in the Jan 27 , 2009 issue of EOS showing that active climate researchers almost unanimously agree that humans have had a significant impact on the Earth 's climate . Both an Antarctic stream and glacier were named for Doran by the U.S. Geological Survey to commemorate his many significant research contributions conducted on the continent .","qid":"2745","docid":"Peter_Doran","rank":55,"score":111203},{"content":"Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .","qid":"2745","docid":"Media_coverage_of_climate_change","rank":56,"score":110710},{"content":"Title: Atmospheric Circulation Reconstructions over the Earth Content: The Atmospheric Circulation Reconstructions over the Earth , ACRE , is an international science project , began in 2008 , that recovers historical weather observations to reconstruct past global and local weather patterns and so support meteorological reanalysis . The project aims to collect weather data from the past 250 years by linking international meteorological organisations to support data recovery projects and the imaging and digitisation of historical meteorological observations made at , for example , inland stations , lighthouses , or by ships at sea or in ports . The project aims to create historical datasets that are spatially and temporally complete , so as to be of value at a local , or regional level , as well as on a global scale . ACRE aims to recover millions of historic weather observations . This data will be deposited into two databases , ISPD - the International Surface Pressure Databank , ICOADS - the International Comprehensive Ocean-Atmosphere Data Set . This data will also be used to build a global dataset of historical weather reconstructions based on a grid of two degrees of latitude by two of longitude at six hourly intervals , entitled the 20th Century Reanalysis , or 20CR . Version one of 20CR , covering 1891 to 2008 , was released in Autumn 2009 . Version two , covering 1871 to 2010 , appeared in December 2011 . Plans for a third version , covering 1850 to 2011 , have been put ` on hold ' following a cut in the budget of NOAA . It is intended that all the data recovered and the 20CR will be made freely available .","qid":"2745","docid":"Atmospheric_Circulation_Reconstructions_over_the_Earth","rank":57,"score":110584},{"content":"Title: Norwegian-U.S. Scientific Traverse of East Antarctica Content: The Norwegian-U.S. Scientific Traverse of East Antarctica is a research program consisting of two overland traverses of East Antarctica : the first from the Norwegian Troll Station to the South Pole in the 2007/2008 season ; and a return traverse via a different route in 2008/2009 . The main research focus of the program is climate change , the stated goals being to : Investigate climate variability in Dronning Maud Land of East Antarctica on time scales of years to a thousand years . Establish spatial and temporal variability in snow accumulation over this area of Antarctica to understand its impact on sea level . Investigate the impact of atmospheric and oceanic variability on the chemical composition of firn and ice in the region . Revisit areas and sites first explored by traverses in the 1960s , for detection of possible changes and to establish benchmark data sets for future research efforts . The program is part of Trans-Antarctic Scientific Traverse Expeditions -- Ice Divide of East Antarctica ( TASTE-IDEA ) , and the International Partners in Ice Coring Sciences ( IPICS ) , both of which have ISCU-WMO endorsement for the International Polar Year 2007-2009 .","qid":"2745","docid":"Norwegian-U.S._Scientific_Traverse_of_East_Antarctica","rank":58,"score":109966},{"content":"Title: David H. Bromwich Content: David H. Bromwich is a member of the Byrd Polar Research Center and a professor at the Department of Geography , The Ohio State University . His work has involved the evaluation and diagnosis of polar weather and climate variability . He received his Ph.D. in meteorology from the University of Wisconsin , Madison . In 1979 he joined Ohio State 's Byrd Polar Research Center as a research scientist . His research has focused on the variability of precipitation over Antarctica , Greenland , and the Arctic Ocean , thus contributing to the understanding of climate and potential sea level changes . He has made contributions to defining aspects of U.S. science policy . Having helped identify the need to improve numerical weather prediction ( NWP ) for the Antarctic , Bromwich has been influential in the development and evaluation of the Antarctic Mesoscale Prediction System ( AMPS ) . In April 2001 AMPS was one of four weather models used to predict a window of opportunity for the emergency medical evacuation of Ronald Shemenski from the Amundsen -- Scott South Pole Station . Flights to the base are normally halted from late February until November because of the extreme winter cold and darkness . But the airlift was successfully completed and pilot Sean Loutitt confirmed the reliance on the forecasts , stating `` The weather was the biggest concern '' .","qid":"2745","docid":"David_H._Bromwich","rank":59,"score":109636},{"content":"Title: Neoglaciation Content: The neoglaciation ( `` renewed glaciation '' ) describes the documented cooling trend in the Earth 's climate during the Holocene , following the retreat of the Wisconsin glaciation , the most recent glacial period . Neoglaciation has followed the hypsithermal or Holocene Climatic Optimum , the warmest point in the Earth 's climate during the current interglacial stage . The neoglaciation has no well-marked universal beginning : local conditions and ecological inertia affected the onset of detectably cooler ( and wetter ) conditions . Driven inexorably by the Milankovitch cycle , cooler summers in higher latitudes of North America , which would cease to completely melt the annual snowfall , were masked at first by the presence of the slowly disappearing continental ice sheets , which persisted long after the astronomically calculated moment of maximum summer warmth : `` the neoglaciation can be said to have begun when the cooling caught up with the warming '' , remarked E. C. Pielou . With the close of the `` Little Ice Age '' ( mid-14th to late 19th centuries ) , neoglaciation appears to have been stalled in the late 20th century , assumed to be caused by anthropogenic global warming . Whether it has been temporarily or semi-permanently stalled , neoglaciation has been marked by a retreat from the warm conditions of the Climatic Optimum and the advance or reformation of glaciers that had not existed since the last ice age . In the mountains of western North America , montane glaciers that had completely melted reformed shortly before 5000 BP . The most severe part of the best documented neoglacial period , especially in Europe and the North Atlantic , is termed the `` Little Ice Age '' . In North America , neoglaciation had ecological effects in the spread of muskeg on flat , poorly drained land , such as the bed of recently drained Lake Agassiz and in the Hudson Bay lowlands , in the retreat of grassland before an advancing forest border in the Great Plains , and in shifting ranges of forest trees and diagnostic plant species ( identified through palynology ) . The view that neoglaciation is ending in present times , is assumed by those who identify the most recent climate changes and global warming as the onset of a new period in Earth history , speculatively calling it the `` Early anthropocene '' , as a coming geological age dominated by the effects of Homo sapiens .","qid":"2745","docid":"Neoglaciation","rank":60,"score":109558},{"content":"Title: National Climate Assessment Content: The National Climate Assessment ( NCA ) is a United States government interagency ongoing effort on climate change science conducted under the auspices of the Global Change Research Act of 1990 . The NCA is a major product of the U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which coordinates a team of experts and receives input from a Federal Advisory Committee . The Fourth National Climate Assessment is being developed . For the Third National Climate Assessment , released in 2014 , USGCRP coordinated hundreds of experts and received advice from a sixty-member Federal Advisory Committee . NCA research is integrated and summarized in the mandatory ongoing National Climate Assessment Reports . The reports are `` extensively reviewed by the public and experts , including federal agencies and a panel of the National Academy of Sciences . The First National Climate Assessment was published in 2000 . The First National Climate Assessment Report was `` prepared by the National Assessment Synthesis Team ( NAST ) , an advisory committee chartered under the Federal Advisory Committee Act to help the US Global Change Research Program fulfill its mandate under the Global Change Research Act of 1990 . The National Science and Technology Council forwarded the report to the President and Congress for their consideration as required by the Global Change Research Act . Administrative support for the US Global Change Research Program is provided by the University Corporation for Atmospheric Research , which is sponsored by the National Science Foundation ( NCA 2000 ) . '' Between 2002 and 2009 , USGCRP previously known as the U.S. Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) , produced twenty-one Synthesis and Assessment Products ( SAPs ) . The second NCA was published in 2009 and the third was released in 2014 . NCA 's overarching goal according to their May 20 , 2011 engagement strategy summary , `` is to enhance the ability of the U.S. to anticipate , mitigate , and adapt to changes in the global environment ( NCA 2011:2 ) . '' According to the USGCRP official website the NCA , In 2013 , the President 's Climate Action Plan released by the Executive Office of the President specifically noted the importance of the National Climate Assessments in achieving the goal of `` Using Sound Science to Manage Climate Impacts '' .","qid":"2745","docid":"National_Climate_Assessment","rank":61,"score":109549},{"content":"Title: Freshet Content: The term freshet is most commonly used to describe a spring thaw resulting from snow and ice melt in rivers located in the northern latitudes of North America . A spring freshet can sometimes last several weeks on large river systems , resulting in significant inundation of flood plains as the snowpack melts in the river 's catchment area . Freshets occur with generally diminishing strength and duration depending upon the snowpacks having large accumulations and then the local average rates of warming temperatures ; late spring melts allowing faster flooding from the relatively longer days and higher solar angle against more southerly latitudes and elevations reaching average melting temperatures sooner where earlier and generally lesser seasonal snow piles melt more gradually spread over a longer melt period . Serious flooding from southern freshets are more often related to rain storms of large tropical weather systems rolling in from the South Atlantic or Gulf of Mexico , to add their powerful heating capacity to lesser snow packs . Tropically induced rainfall influenced quick melts can also affect snow cover to latitudes as far north as southern Canada , so long as the generally colder air mass is not blocking northward movement of low pressure systems . In the eastern part of the continent , annual freshets occur from the Canadian Taiga ranging along both sides of the Great Lakes then down through the heavily forested Appalachian mountain chain and St. Lawrence valley from Northern Maine into barrier ranges in North Carolina and Tennessee . In the western part of the continent , freshets occur throughout the generally much higher elevations of the various west coast mountain ranges that extend southward down from Alaska even into the northern parts of Arizona and New Mexico . The term can also refer to the following : A flood resulting from heavy rain or a spring thaw . Whereas heavy rain often causes a flash flood , a spring thaw event is generally a more incremental process , depending upon local climate and topography . A stream , river or flood of fresh water which empties into the ocean , usually flowing through an estuary . A small stream of fresh water , irrespective of its outflow . A pool of fresh water , according to Samuel Johnson and followed in Thomas Sheridan 's dictionary , but this might have been a misinterpretation on Johnson 's part , and it is at best not a common usage .","qid":"2745","docid":"Freshet","rank":62,"score":109265},{"content":"Title: Subarctic climate Content: The subarctic climate ( also called subpolar climate , subalpine climate , or boreal climate ) is a climate characterised by long , usually very cold winters , and short , cool to mild summers . It is found on large landmasses , away from the moderating effects of an ocean , generally at latitudes from 50 ° to 70 ° N poleward of the humid continental climates . These climates represent Köppen climate classification Dfc , Dwc , Dsc , Dfd , Dwd and Dsd . In very small areas at high altitudes around the Mediterranean Basin , Iran , Kyrgyzstan , Tajikistan , Turkey , Alaska and other parts of the northwestern United States ( Eastern Washington , Eastern Oregon and Idaho ) the climate is classified as Dsc with a dry summer climate , such as in Seneca , Oregon .","qid":"2745","docid":"Subarctic_climate","rank":63,"score":108811},{"content":"Title: Boreal ecosystem Content: A boreal ecosystem is an ecosystem with a subarctic climate in the Northern Hemisphere , roughly between latitude 60 ° to 70 ° N. Boreal forests are also known as the taiga , particularly in Europe and Asia . The Boreal Ecosystem-Atmosphere Study ( BOREAS ) was a major international research program in the Canadian boreal forest . NASA sponsored the program , and most research took place between 1994 and 1996 . Its primary goals were to determine how the boreal forest interacts with the atmosphere , how climate change will affect the forest , and how changes in the forest affect weather and climate . The ecosystems that lie immediately to the south ( in the Northern Hemisphere ) of boreal zones are often called hemiboreal . The Köppen symbols of boreal ecosystems are Dfc , Dwc , Dfd , and Dwd .","qid":"2745","docid":"Boreal_ecosystem","rank":64,"score":108722},{"content":"Title: King Sejong Station Content: The King Sejong Station is a research station for the Korea Antarctic Research Program that is named after King Sejong the Great of Joseon ( 1397 -- 1450 ) . Established on February 17 , 1988 , it consists of 11 facility buildings and two observatories , and it is located on the Barton Peninsula ( King George Island ) , it is currently overseen by station chief scientist In-Young Ahn . It experiences a fairly mild climate , and therefore draws a large number of animals for summer breeding ( which , unsurprisingly , draw a lot of biologists ) . In the summer , the station supports up to 90 people from the Korea Polar Research Institute , and guest scientists from other institutions as well . Over winter , it accommodates only 17 engineers and scientists who maintain the station and routinely collect data ( meteorological records , oceanographical parameters , etc. ) , but their main focus is on tracking the general change of the natural environment . Researchers from Korea continually collaborate with various other institutes in Antarctica and the rest of the world by participating in , monitoring , and contributing to the World Meteorological Organization , the Global Sea-level Observing System , the International Seismological Center , and the Intermagnet Project . The station is usually re-supplied yearly by the RV Onnuri and more frequently by planes flying from Jubany in Argentina and the Chilean Eduardo Frei Base . The RV Araon was commissioned in 2009 , and she supplies South Korea 's research stations , including the Jang Bogo Station .","qid":"2745","docid":"King_Sejong_Station","rank":65,"score":108415},{"content":"Title: Subtropical ridge Content: The subtropical ridge , also known as the subtropical high or horse latitudes , is a significant belt of atmospheric high pressure situated around the latitudes of 30 ° N in the Northern Hemisphere and 30 ° S in the Southern Hemisphere . It is the product of the global air circulation cell known as the Hadley Cell . The subtropical ridge is characterized by mostly calm winds , which act to reduce air quality under its axis by causing fog overnight , and haze during daylight hours as a result of the stable atmosphere found near its location . The air descending from the upper troposphere flows out from its center at surface level toward the upper and lower latitudes of each hemisphere , creating both the trade winds and the westerlies . The subtropical ridge moves poleward during the summer , reaching its most northern latitude in early fall , before moving equatorward during the cold season . The El Niño southern climate oscillation ( ENSO ) can displace the northern hemisphere subtropical ridge , with La Niñas allowing for a more northerly axis for the ridge , while El Niños show flatter , more southerly ridges . The change of the ridge position during ENSO cycles changes the tracks of tropical cyclones that form around their equatorward and western peripheries . As the subtropical ridge varies in position and strength , it can enhance or depress monsoon regimes around their low-latitude periphery . The term `` horse latitudes '' refers to and is synonymous with the subtropical ridge or subtropical high .","qid":"2745","docid":"Subtropical_ridge","rank":66,"score":108409},{"content":"Title: Myron Ebell Content: Myron Ebell is Director of Global Warming and International Environmental Policy at the Competitive Enterprise Institute ( CEI ) , a libertarian advocacy group based in Washington , D.C. . He is also the chairman of the Cooler Heads Coalition , a loose coalition formed in 1997 which presents itself as `` focused on dispelling the myths of global warming by exposing flawed economic , scientific , and risk analysis '' . In these organizations , Ebell has been central in promoting climate change denial , distributing his views to the media and politicians . Ebell , who is not a scientist , has been described as a climate change skeptic , a climate contrarian and a climate change denier . In September 2016 , Ebell was appointed by then Republican presidential candidate Donald Trump to lead his transition team for the United States Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) .","qid":"2745","docid":"Myron_Ebell","rank":67,"score":108385},{"content":"Title: LOWERN Content: LOWERN is an acronym for 6 factors that affect climate . Latitude . Depending on how close or how far it is to the equator . Ocean currents . Certain ocean currents have different temperatures . Warm ocean currents warm the air above it , which warms the coast . Cold ocean currents cool the air above it , which cools the coast . This helps keep the coast a consistent temperature . Wind and Air masses . Heated ground causes air to rise which results in lower air pressure . As it rises it cools and descends to the ground resulting in high air pressure . This cycle repeats which creates wind . These air masses absorb the climate of the air below it . Elevation . The higher up you are , the colder and drier it will be . When air rises it expands due to low air pressure which causes it to cool . Relief . The differences in the elevation in land . As air is forced to rise over a piece of land ( e.g. a mountain ) the temperature decreases and condensation increases . As it condensates water droplets get bigger and heavier and are forced to fall . Once the air mass goes over the mountain the temperature and evaporation increases but condensations decreases , resulting in a halt in precipitation and rain shadows . Nearness to Water . Water heats up and cools down slower than land does , having a moderating effect . On colder days , the water heats up the land , whereas on hotter days , the land is cooled down by the water . These areas also experience more precipitation . Category : Climatology","qid":"2745","docid":"LOWERN","rank":68,"score":108173},{"content":"Title: Carl Mears Content: Carl Mears is a Senior Scientist , at Remote Sensing Systems , since 1998 . He has worked on validation of SSM/I derived winds , and rain-flagging algorithm for the QuikScat scatterometer . He is best known for his work with Frank Wentz in developing a satellite temperature record from MSU and AMSU . Intercomparison of this record with the earlier UAH satellite temperature record , developed by John Christy and Roy Spencer , revealed deficiencies in the earlier work ; specifically , the warming trend in the RSS version is larger than the UAH one . Mears was a major contributor to Temperature Trends in the Lower Atmosphere : Steps for Understanding and Reconciling Differences , the first released report from the US Climate Change Science Program . He also contributed to the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Working Group one report , Climate Change 2007 - The Physical Science Basis .","qid":"2745","docid":"Carl_Mears","rank":69,"score":108085},{"content":"Title: 2011 North American heat wave Content: The 2011 North American heat wave was a deadly summer 2011 heat wave that affected the Southern Plains , Midwestern United States , Eastern Canada , Northeastern United States , and much of the Eastern Seaboard , and had Heat index/Humidex readings reaching upwards of 131 ° F. On a national basis , the heat wave was the hottest in 75 years .","qid":"2745","docid":"2011_North_American_heat_wave","rank":70,"score":108005},{"content":"Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .","qid":"2745","docid":"Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change","rank":71,"score":107752},{"content":"Title: Global Warming: The Signs and The Science Content: Global Warming : The Signs and The Science is a 2005 documentary film on global warming made by ETV , the PBS affiliate in South Carolina , and hosted by Alanis Morissette . The documentary examines the science behind global warming and pulls together segments filmed in the United States , Asia and South America and shows how people in these different locales are responding in different ways to the challenges of global warming to show some of the ways that the world can respond .","qid":"2745","docid":"Global_Warming:_The_Signs_and_The_Science","rank":72,"score":107689},{"content":"Title: Surveys of scientists' views on climate change Content: Surveys of scientists ' views on climate change - with a focus on human-caused or anthropogenic global warming ( AGW ) - have been undertaken since the 1990s . A 2016 paper ( which was co-authored by Naomi Oreskes , Peter Doran , William Anderegg , Bart Verheggen , Ed Maibach , J. Stuart Carlton and John Cook , and which was based on a half a dozen independent studies by the authors ) concluded that `` the finding of 97 % consensus -LSB- that humans are causing recent global warming -RSB- in published climate research is robust and consistent with other surveys of climate scientists and peer-reviewed studies . ''","qid":"2745","docid":"Surveys_of_scientists'_views_on_climate_change","rank":73,"score":107638},{"content":"Title: Thaw (weather) Content: January thaw is a term applied to a thaw or rise in temperature in mid-winter found in mid-latitude North America . Sinusoidal estimates of expected temperatures , for northern locales , usually place the lowest temperatures around January 23 and the highest around July 24 , and provide fairly accurate estimates of temperature expectations . Actual average temperatures in North America usually significantly differ twice over the course of the year : Mid-autumn temperatures tend to be warmer than predicted by the sinusoidal model , creating the impression of extended summer warmth known as Indian summer . For five days around January 25 , temperatures are usually significantly warmer than predicted by the sinusoidal estimate , and also warmer than neighboring temperatures on both sides . During this `` thaw '' period , usually lasting for about a week , temperatures are generally about 6 ° C ( 10 ° F ) above normal . This varies from year to year , and temperatures fluctuate enough that such a rise in late-January temperature would be unremarkable ; what is remarkable ( and unexplained ) is the tendency for such rises to occur more commonly in late January than in mid-January or early February , which sinusoidal estimates have to be slightly warmer . In some regions ( such as northern Canada ) this phenomenon will not be manifest as a `` thaw '' in the technical sense , since temperatures will remain below freezing . The January thaw is believed to be a weather singularity . A possible physical mechanism for such phenomena was offered in the 1950s by E.G. Bowen : he suggested that some `` calendaricities '' ( as he called them ) might be explicable in terms of meteoric particles from cometary orbits acting as ice nuclei in terrestrial clouds ; his theory then received some support from several sources . However , Bowen 's ideas later fell out of favour with the development of atmospheric dynamic modelling techniques , although one of his rainfall peaks does seem to correspond with the date of the January thaw . Data analysis has not found statistically significant support for the supposed January thaw . The authors of this study state that `` the effects of sampling in finite climate records are wholly adequate to account for the existence of January thaw ` features ' in northeastern U.S. temperature data . ''","qid":"2745","docid":"Thaw_(weather)","rank":74,"score":107594},{"content":"Title: U.S. Global Change Research Program Content: The United States Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) coordinates and integrates federal research on changes in the global environment and their implications for society . The program began as a presidential initiative in 1989 and was codified by Congress through the Global Change Research Act of 1990 ( P.L. 101-606 ) , which called for `` a comprehensive and integrated United States research program which will assist the Nation and the world to understand , assess , predict , and respond to human-induced and natural processes of global change . '' Thirteen departments and agencies participate in the USGCRP , which was known as the U.S. Climate Change Science Program from 2002 through 2008 . The program is steered by the Subcommittee on Global Change Research under the Committee on Environment , Natural Resources and Sustainability , overseen by the Executive Office of the President , and facilitated by a National Coordination Office . During the past two decades , the United States , through the USGCRP , has made the world 's largest scientific investment in the areas of climate change and global change research . Since its inception , the USGCRP has supported research and observational activities in collaboration with several other national and international science programs . These activities led to major advances in several key areas including : Observing and understanding short - and long-term changes in climate , the ozone layer , and land cover ; Identifying the impacts of these changes on ecosystems and society ; Estimating future changes in the physical environment , and vulnerabilities and risks associated with those changes ; and Providing scientific information to enable effective decision making to address the threats and opportunities posed by climate and global change . These advances have been documented in numerous assessments commissioned by the program and have played prominent roles in international assessments such as those of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Program results and plans are documented in the program 's annual report , Our Changing Planet .","qid":"2745","docid":"U.S._Global_Change_Research_Program","rank":75,"score":107554},{"content":"Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Content: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change : A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases was a 2005 international conference that examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration , and the 2 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) ceiling on global warming thought necessary to avoid the most serious effects of global warming . Previously this had generally been accepted as being 550 ppm . The conference took place under the United Kingdom 's presidency of the G8 , with the participation of around 200 ` internationally renowned ' scientists from 30 countries . It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter , from 1 February to 3 February .","qid":"2745","docid":"Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change","rank":76,"score":107016},{"content":"Title: Humid continental climate Content: A humid continental climate ( Köppen prefix D ) is a climatic region defined by Russian-German climatologist Wladimir Köppen in 1900 , which is typified by large seasonal temperature differences , with warm to hot ( and often humid ) summers and cold ( sometimes severely cold ) winters . Precipitation is usually well distributed through the year . The definition of this climate regarding temperature is as follows : the mean temperature of the coldest month must be below − 3 ° C and there must be at least four months whose mean temperatures are at or above 10 ° C . Some climatologists prefer to use the 0 ° C isotherm as it is more commonly used . In addition , the location in question must not be semi-arid or arid . Humid continental climates tend to be found between latitudes 40 ° N and 60 ° N , within the central and northeastern portions of North America , Europe , and Asia . They are much less commonly found in the Southern Hemisphere due to the larger ocean area at that latitude and the consequent greater maritime moderation . In the Northern Hemisphere some of the humid continental climates , typically in Scandinavia , Nova Scotia , and Newfoundland are heavily maritime-influenced , with relatively cool summers and winters being just below the freezing mark . More extreme humid continental climates found in southern Siberia and the American Midwest combine hotter summer maxima and colder winters than the marine-based variety . In some areas there are both strong subtropical and subarctic air mass influences depending on season , like the humid and hot summers and the frigid winters of Milwaukee , Wisconsin in the Upper Midwest of the United States .","qid":"2745","docid":"Humid_continental_climate","rank":77,"score":106650},{"content":"Title: Remote Sensing Systems Content: Remote Sensing Systems ( RSS ) is a private research company founded in 1974 by Frank Wentz . It processes microwave data from a variety of NASA satellites . Most of their research is supported by the Earth Science Enterprise program . The company is based in Santa Rosa , California . They are a widely cited source of data , on the satellite temperature record . Their data is one source of evidence for global warming . Research by Carl Mears , Matthias Schabel , and Wentz , all of RSS , highlighted errors in the early satellite temperature records compiled by John Christy and Roy Spencer at UAH . The UAH data had previously showed no significant temperature trend , bringing the derived satellite data into closer agreement with surface temperature trends , radiosonde data and computer models . The UAH data is now closer to the RSS data but differences remain , for example the Lower Troposphere global average trend since 1979 , RSS currently have +0.133 K/decade while UAH have 0.140 K/decade , while the mid troposphere difference is even more marked at 0.079 K/decade and 0.052 K/decade respectively . However , in a recent online YouTube video , Dr. Carl Mears , a senior scientist with the team behind the satellite data , explained how he believes his data set needed correction . I would have to say that the surface data seems that it 's more accurate , because a number of groups analyze the surface data , including some who set out to prove the other ones wrong , and they all get more or less the same answer .","qid":"2745","docid":"Remote_Sensing_Systems","rank":78,"score":106512},{"content":"Title: North American Ensemble Forecast System Content: The North American Ensemble Forecast System ( NAEFS ) is a joint project involving the Meteorological Service of Canada ( MSC ) in Canada , the National Weather Service ( NWS ) in the United States , and the National Meteorological Service of Mexico ( NMSM ) in Mexico providing numerical weather prediction ensemble guidance for the 1 - to 16-day forecast period . The NAEFS combines the Canadian MSC ( Global Environmental Multiscale Model ) and the US NWS global ensemble prediction systems ( Global Forecast System ) , improving probabilistic operational guidance over what can be built from any individual country 's ensemble . Model guidance from the NAEFS is incorporated into the forecasts of the respective national agencies . NAEFS operates on the fundamental principles of ensemble forecasting which provides a range of possible weather forecasts of the atmospheric state over a given forecast period . The initial state of the atmosphere and/or the numerical weather prediction model configuration are slightly varied to provide a range of possible forecast solutions . The global ensemble prediction systems at MSC and NWS use slightly different , but equally valid methods to initialize and integrate the atmospheric state . By combining the ensembles from both centers into one ensemble , the possible range of future atmospheric states for a given forecast period are better sampled , producing on average , improved estimates of the future atmospheric state and the associated uncertainty . NAEFS collaboration allows the national weather agencies to pool their research resources and make improvements to the ensemble prediction systems more quickly and efficiently . The exchange of knowledge allows research and operations to develop a new generation of ensemble products with the goal of improving timeliness and accuracy in alerting the public of high impact weather events .","qid":"2745","docid":"North_American_Ensemble_Forecast_System","rank":79,"score":106479},{"content":"Title: Eismitte Content: Eismitte , in English also called Mid-Ice , was the site of an Arctic expedition in the interior of Greenland that took place from July 1930 through August 1931 , and claimed the life of noted German scientist Alfred Wegener . The name `` Eismitte '' means Ice-Center in German , and the campsite was located 402 km from the coast at an estimated altitude of 3,000 meters ( 9,843 feet ) . The coldest temperature recorded during the expedition was − 64.9 ° C ( − 85 ° F ) , while the warmest temperature noted was − 2.8 ° C ( 27 ° F ) . For the 12-month period beginning September 1 , 1930 and ending August 31 , 1931 , the warmest month , July , had a mean monthly temperature of − 12.2 ° C ( 10 ° F ) , while the coldest month , February , averaged − 47.2 ° C ( − 53 ° F ) . Over the same period a total of 110 millimeters ( 4.33 inches ) of water-equivalent precipitation was recorded , with most of it , rather surprisingly , being received in winter . At the latitude of the camp , the sun does not set between May 13 and July 30 each year , and does not rise between November 23 and January 20 .","qid":"2745","docid":"Eismitte","rank":80,"score":106464},{"content":"Title: 50th parallel north Content: The 50th parallel north is a circle of latitude that is 50 degrees north of the Earth 's equatorial plane . It crosses Europe , Asia , the Pacific Ocean , North America , and the Atlantic Ocean . At this latitude the sun is visible for 16 hours , 22 minutes during the summer solstice and 8 hours , 4 minutes during the winter solstice . The maximum altitude of the sun on the summer solstice is 63.5 degrees and on the winter solstice it is 16.5 degrees . At this latitude , the average sea surface temperature between 1982 and 2011 was about 8.5 ° C ( 47.3 ° F ) .","qid":"2745","docid":"50th_parallel_north","rank":81,"score":106426},{"content":"Title: Patrick Michaels Content: Patrick J. ( `` Pat '' ) Michaels ( born February 15 , 1950 ) is an American climatologist . Michaels is a senior fellow in environmental studies at the Cato Institute . Until 2007 he was research professor of environmental sciences at the University of Virginia , where he had worked from 1980 . A self-described skeptic on the issue of global warming , he is a past president of the American Association of State Climatologists . He has written a number of books and papers on climate change , including Sound and Fury : The Science and Politics of Global Warming ( 1992 ) , The Satanic Gases ( 2000 ) , and Meltdown : The Predictable Distortion of Global Warming by Scientists , Politicians , and the Media ( 2004 ) . He 's also the co-author of Climate of Extremes : Global Warming Science They Do n't Want You to Know ( 2009 ) . Michaels ' viewpoint , as argued in a 2002 article in the journal Climate Research , is that the planet will see `` a warming range of 1.3 -- 3.0 ° C , with a central value of 1.9 ° C '' for the 1990 to 2100 period ( an analysis far smaller than the IPCC 's average predictions ) .","qid":"2745","docid":"Patrick_Michaels","rank":82,"score":106426},{"content":"Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .","qid":"2745","docid":"Climate_change","rank":83,"score":106227},{"content":"Title: Roger Pulwarty Content: Roger S. Pulwarty is a scientist from Trinidad and Tobago and contributed to the work of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . He is the director of the US National Integrated Drought Information System at the National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) in Boulder , Colorado . Roger Pulwarty earned a B.S. degree ( Hons . ) in Atmospheric Sciences from York University in Toronto in 1986 and a Ph.D. in Climatology from the University of Boulder at Colorado in 1994 , where he worked under Professors Roger Barry and Herbert Riehl . His research and publications are on climate , climate impacts and adaptation policy in Western North America , Latin America and the Caribbean . From 1998-2002 he was the program director for the NOAA Regional Integrated Sciences and Assessments . He is Professor Adjunct at the University of Colorado at Boulder and the University of the West Indies . Dr. Pulwarty is a lead author on Chapter 17 of the 2007 IPCC Working Group II on Impacts , Adaptation and Vulnerability , on the IPCC 2008 Technical Report on Climate Change and Water and on Synthesis and Assessments Reports of the US Global Change Research Program . The IPCC is an intergovernmental body mandated by the UN to study the origins and effects of climate change on society and ecosystems . Dr. Pulwarty has served on Committees of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences , and has provided testimonies before the U.S. Congress on climate , water resources and adaptation . Dr. Pulwarty acts in advisory roles on climate , natural resources , and disaster management to several U.S. and international interests including the Western Governors Association , the Department of the Interior , the governments of CARICOM ( the Caribbean Economic Community ) , the Organization of American States , the UNDP , UNEP and the World Bank .","qid":"2745","docid":"Roger_Pulwarty","rank":84,"score":106198},{"content":"Title: Global temperature record Content: The global temperature record shows the fluctuations of the temperature of the atmosphere and the oceans through various spans of time. The most detailed information exists since 1850, when methodical thermometer-based records began. There are numerous estimates of temperatures since the end of the Pleistocene glaciation, particularly during the current Holocene epoch. Older time periods are studied by paleoclimatology.","qid":"2745","docid":"Global_temperature_record","rank":85,"score":106046},{"content":"Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.","qid":"2745","docid":"Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change","rank":86,"score":105997},{"content":"Title: Canada Content: Canada ( -LSB- ˈkænədə -RSB- -LSB- kanadɑ -RSB- ) is a country in the northern part of North America . Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic to the Pacific and northward into the Arctic Ocean , covering 9.98 e6km2 , making it the world 's second-largest country by total area and the fourth-largest country by land area . Canada 's border with the United States is the world 's longest binational land border . The majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate , but southerly areas are warm in summer . Canada is sparsely populated , the majority of its land territory being dominated by forest and tundra and the Rocky Mountains . It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities , many near the southern border . One third of the population lives in the three largest cities : Toronto , Montreal and Vancouver . Its capital is Ottawa , and other major urban areas include Calgary , Edmonton , Quebec City , Winnipeg and Hamilton . Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization . Beginning in the 16th century , British and French claims were made on the area , with the colony of Canada first being established by the French in 1535 during Jacques Cartier 's second voyage to New France . As a consequence of various conflicts , Great Britain gained and lost territories within British North America until it was left , in the late 18th century , with what mostly geographically comprises Canada today . Pursuant to the British North America Act , on July 1 , 1867 , the colonies of Canada , New Brunswick , and Nova Scotia joined to form the semi-autonomous federal Dominion of Canada . This began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada . In 1931 , Canada achieved near total independence from the United Kingdom with the Statute of Westminster 1931 , but at the time , Canada decided to allow the British Parliament to temporarily retain the power to amend Canada 's constitution , on request from the Parliament of Canada . With the Constitution Act 1982 , Canada took over that authority ( as the conclusion of Patriation ) , removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom , giving the country full sovereignty . Canada is a federal parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy , with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state . The country is officially bilingual at the federal level . It is one of the world 's most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations , the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries . Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world , relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources and well-developed international trade networks . Canada 's long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture . Canada is a developed country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index . It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency , civil liberties , quality of life , economic freedom , and education . Canada is a Commonwealth realm member of the Commonwealth of Nations , a member of the Francophonie , and part of several major international and intergovernmental institutions or groupings including the United Nations , the North Atlantic Treaty Organization , the G8 , the Group of Ten , the G20 , the North American Free Trade Agreement and the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum .","qid":"2745","docid":"Canada","rank":87,"score":105841},{"content":"Title: Sudden stratospheric warming Content: A sudden stratospheric warming ( SSW ) is an event where the polar vortex of westerly winds in the winter hemisphere slows down or even reverses direction over the course of a few days . The change is accompanied by a rise of stratospheric temperature by several tens of kelvins .","qid":"2745","docid":"Sudden_stratospheric_warming","rank":88,"score":105838},{"content":"Title: Temperate climate Content: In geography , temperate or tepid latitudes of Earth lie between the tropics and the polar regions . The temperatures in these regions are generally relatively moderate , rather than extremely hot or cold , and the changes between summer and winter are also usually moderate .","qid":"2745","docid":"Temperate_climate","rank":89,"score":105831},{"content":"Title: Space mirror (climate engineering) Content: The use of space mirrors as an anti-global warming measure is a proposed technology for climate change mitigation by deflection of sunlight . It was one of a series of proposals for controlling global warming made to the United States government in 2001 . At the `` Response Options to Rapid or Severe Climate Change '' round-table meeting organized by the President 's Climate Change Technology Program in September 2001 to gather ideas for averting climate change , one of the proposals was to station one or more wire-mesh `` mirrors '' in orbit to deflect sunlight back into space or to filter it . The idea was proposed by Lowell Wood , a senior staff scientist at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory , who calculated that deflecting 1 % of sunlight would restore climatic stability , and that that would require either a single mirror 600000 sqmi in area or several smaller ones . Wood had been researching the idea for more than ten years but considered it so infeasible that it should only be a back-up plan for solving the global warming problem . In January 2007 , The Guardian reported that the US government was recommending that research on sunlight deflection , including space mirrors , be continued as `` insurance '' and that the next United Nations Report on Climate Change advocate such a strategy . In addition to the space mirror , suggested sunlight-reducing techniques included launching thousands of highly reflective balloons and pumping sulphate droplets into the upper atmosphere to emulate volcanic emissions . Space mirrors were first considered in the 1980s as a way to cool the climate of Venus . James Early , also at Livermore , in 1989 proposed using a `` space shade '' 2,000 kilometers in diameter orbiting at Lagrangian Point L1 . He estimated the cost at between one and ten trillion US dollars and suggested manufacturing it on the moon using moon rock . Using space mirrors as a space sunshade to reduce the impact of sunlight falls into the category of geoengineering : deliberately modifying the earth 's climate . At a conference on the topic organized by Daniel Schrag of Harvard University and David Keith of the University of Calgary in November 2007 , the consensus was that it was worth studying such ideas further despite their high cost , the doubtful feasibility of some including the space mirror , and the risk of their distracting attention from reduction of greenhouse gas emissions .","qid":"2745","docid":"Space_mirror_(climate_engineering)","rank":90,"score":105691},{"content":"Title: The Great Global Warming Swindle Content: The Great Global Warming Swindle is a polemical documentary film that suggests that the scientific opinion on climate change is influenced by funding and political factors , and questions whether scientific consensus on global warming exists . The program was formally criticised by Ofcom , the UK broadcasting regulatory agency , which upheld complaints of misrepresentation made by David King . The film , made by British television producer Martin Durkin , presents scientists , economists , politicians , writers , and others who dispute the scientific consensus regarding anthropogenic global warming . The programme 's publicity materials assert that man-made global warming is `` a lie '' and `` the biggest scam of modern times . '' Its original working title was `` Apocalypse my arse '' , but the title The Great Global Warming Swindle was later adopted as an allusion to the 1980 mockumentary The Great Rock 'n' Roll Swindle about British punk band the Sex Pistols . The UK 's Channel 4 premiered the documentary on 8 March 2007 . The channel described the film as `` a polemic that drew together the well-documented views of a number of respected scientists to reach the same conclusions . This is a controversial film but we feel that it is important that all sides of the debate are aired . '' According to Hamish Mykura , Channel 4 's head of documentaries , the film was commissioned `` to present the viewpoint of the small minority of scientists who do not believe global warming is caused by anthropogenic production of carbon dioxide . '' Although the documentary was welcomed by global warming sceptics , it was criticised by scientific organisations and individual scientists ( including one of the scientists interviewed in the film and one whose research was used to support the film 's claims ) . The film 's critics argued that it had misused and fabricated data , relied on out-of-date research , employed misleading arguments , and misrepresented the position of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Later broadcasts corrected three errors in the original film .","qid":"2745","docid":"The_Great_Global_Warming_Swindle","rank":91,"score":105599},{"content":"Title: Climate of the United Kingdom Content: The United Kingdom straddles the higher mid-latitudes between 49 ° and 61 ° N . It is on the western seaboard of Afro-Eurasia , the world 's largest land mass . These conditions allow convergence between moist maritime air and dry continental air . In this area , the large temperature variation creates atmospheric instability , and this is a major factor that influences the often unsettled weather the country experiences : where many types of weather can be experienced in a single day . In general the climate of the UK is cool and often cloudy , and hot temperatures are infrequent . The climate in the United Kingdom is defined as a temperate oceanic climate , or Cfb on the Köppen climate classification system , a classification it shares with most of north-west Europe . Regional climates are influenced by the Atlantic Ocean and latitude . Northern Ireland , Wales and western parts of England and Scotland , being closest to the Atlantic Ocean , are generally the mildest , wettest and windiest regions of the UK , and temperature ranges here are seldom extreme . Eastern areas are drier , cooler , less windy and also experience the greatest daily and seasonal temperature variations . Northern areas are generally cooler , wetter and have slightly larger temperature ranges than southern areas . Though the UK is mostly under the influence of the maritime tropical air mass from the south-west , different regions are more susceptible than others when different air masses affect the country : Northern Ireland and the west of Scotland are the most exposed to the maritime polar air mass which brings cool moist air ; the east of Scotland and north-east England are more exposed to the continental polar air mass which brings cold dry air ; the south and south-east of England are more exposed to the continental tropical air mass which brings warm dry air ( and consequently most of the time the warmest summer temperatures ) ; and Wales and south-west England are the most exposed to the maritime tropical air mass which brings warm moist air . If the air masses are strong enough in their respective areas during the summer , there can sometimes be a large difference in temperature between the far north of Scotland ( including the Islands ) and south-east of England -- often a difference of 10 -- 15 ° C ( 18-27 ° F ) but sometimes of as much as 20 ° C ( 36 ° F ) or more . In the height of summer the Northern Isles could have temperatures around 15 ° C ( 59 ° F ) and areas around London could reach 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) .","qid":"2745","docid":"Climate_of_the_United_Kingdom","rank":92,"score":105584},{"content":"Title: 1994 North American cold wave Content: The 1994 North American cold wave occurred over the midwestern United States , eastern United States , and southern Canada during January 1994 . Two notable cold air events occurred from January 18-19 and from January 21-22 . There were 67 minimum temperature records set on January 19 . Indiana and Kentucky both set state records on January 19 . The United States experienced its coldest temperature month since February 1934 , although much of the West experienced mild temperatures . Washington and Idaho experienced the second warmest January recorded in the previous 100 years . During the same period , the western United States experienced one of its most damaging earthquakes ever , and the eastern United States experienced a major snowfall that significantly delayed traffic . Over 100 deaths occurred in the United States as a result of the cold wave .","qid":"2745","docid":"1994_North_American_cold_wave","rank":93,"score":105561},{"content":"Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference) Content: In 2005, an international conference titled Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and global warming and its effects. The conference name was derived from Article 2 of the charter for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The conference explored the possible impacts at different levels of greenhouse gas emissions and how the climate might be stabilized at a desired level. The conference took place under the United Kingdom's presidency of the G8, with the participation of around 200 \"internationally renowned\" scientists from 30 countries. It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter, from 1 February to 3 February. The conference was one of many meetings leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, at which the international community agreed to limit global warming to no more than 2C in order to have a 50-50 chance of avoiding dangerous climate change. However, a 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting it is below the 2 degree temperature target.","qid":"2745","docid":"Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change_(2005_conference)","rank":94,"score":105124},{"content":"Title: Cold weather payment Content: Cold weather payments are paid by the United Kingdom government to recipients of certain state benefits in the event of particularly cold weather in the winter . The Social Fund Cold Weather Payments ( General ) Regulations 1988 govern the system under the Social Security Contributions and Benefits Act 1992 . Each time the local temperature is less than 0 ° C for seven consecutive days between 1 November and 31 March then a payment of # 25 is made . This is in addition to the Winter Fuel Payment . Category : Pensions and benefits in the United Kingdom","qid":"2745","docid":"Cold_weather_payment","rank":95,"score":104940},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Argentina Content: According to scientists , global warming is predicted to have significant effects on the climate of Argentina . Though temperatures have increased at a slower rate than the global average , nonetheless these impacts have occurred in many areas . If these trends continue , it is predicted that climate change will exacerbate existing natural disasters such as increasing the intensity and frequency of floods or create new ones .","qid":"2745","docid":"Climate_change_in_Argentina","rank":96,"score":104838},{"content":"Title: The Deniers Content: The Deniers is a 2008 book by Lawrence Solomon , a Canadian environmentalist and writer . Subtitled `` The world-renowned scientists who stood up against global warming hysteria , political persecution , and fraud , '' the book draws attention to a number of scientists and others who , according to Solomon , have advanced arguments against what he calls the `` alarmist '' view of global warming , as presented by Al Gore , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , the mainstream media , and others . The book is based on a series of columns Solomon wrote for Canada 's National Post .","qid":"2745","docid":"The_Deniers","rank":97,"score":104667},{"content":"Title: John Christy Content: John Raymond Christy is a climate scientist at the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) whose chief interests are satellite remote sensing of global climate and global climate change . He is best known , jointly with Roy Spencer , for the first successful development of a satellite temperature record .","qid":"2745","docid":"John_Christy","rank":98,"score":104652},{"content":"Title: Charles Eagan Content: Charles Eagan was a Canadian scientist working in cold weather physiology , known primarily for advancing the wind chill formula . Antarctic explorers Paul Siple and Charles Passel had created their original formula for wind chill measurements in 1939 by drawing on data that showed how long it took water to freeze in a cylinder under various wind and temperature conditions . While conducting research for the U.S. Air Force in Fairbanks , Alaska in 1964 , Eagan recognized it would be more accurate if the equation took into account the fact people normally walk outdoors and do n't spend a great deal of time at a standstill or in a windless environment . When Eagan included walking speed ( 1.8 metres per second ) into the formula , wind chill temperatures warmed . Eagan served with the air force as a radio operator in Gander , Newfoundland and Labrador during the Second World War . Upon his return he attended the University of Western Ontario and earned a master 's in biophysics . After graduating , he went on to develop clothing that allowed soldiers to work through the cold . In 1959 in Fort Wainwright , Alaska , he worked with the U.S. Air Force Arctic Aeromedical Laboratory to help pilots and crews maximize their effectiveness in cold conditions . Eagan worked with mountain climbers at 14,300 feet on the flank of Mount McKinley to test their adaptability to altitude and cold . Eagan spent six years as an associate professor at Colorado State University . He settled in Ottawa in 1973 , where he was employed as head of the physiology section of what was then the Department of National Health and Welfare . Here he examined the impact of coal mining on the respiratory health of people in Sydney , Nova Scotia . He finished his career with the Department of National Defence , returning to his work on protecting soldiers from the cold . Eagan died on March 11 , 2010 at the Pearley Rideau Veterans ' Health Centre in Ottawa .","qid":"2745","docid":"Charles_Eagan","rank":99,"score":104538},{"content":"Title: Global warming hiatus Content: A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .","qid":"2745","docid":"Global_warming_hiatus","rank":100,"score":104531}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climatic Research Unit documents Content: Climatic Research Unit documents including thousands of e-mails and other computer files were stolen from a server at the Climatic Research Unit of the University of East Anglia in a hacking incident in November 2009 . The documents were redistributed first through several blogs of global warming skeptics , and allegations were made that they indicated misconduct by leading climate scientists . A series of investigations rejected these allegations , while concluding that CRU scientists should have been more open with distributing data and methods on request . Precisely six committees investigated the allegations and published reports , finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct . The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged by the end of the investigations . The incident occurred shortly before the opening December 2009 Copenhagen global climate summit . It has prompted general discussion about increasing the openness of scientific data ( though the majority of climate data have always been freely available ) . Scientists , scientific organisations , and government officials have stated that the incident does not affect the overall scientific case for climate change . Andrew Revkin reported in the New York Times that `` The evidence pointing to a growing human contribution to global warming is so widely accepted that the hacked material is unlikely to erode the overall argument . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Climatic_Research_Unit_documents\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 148512\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 142110\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Dr. Neil Trivett Global Atmosphere Watch Observatory Content: The Dr. Neil Trivett Global Atmosphere Watch Observatory is an atmospheric baseline station operated by Environment and Climate Change Canada located at Alert , Nunavut , on the north-eastern tip of Ellesmere Island , about 800 km south of the geographic north pole . The observatory is the northernmost of 31 Global Stations in an international network coordinated by the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) under its Global Atmosphere Watch ( GAW ) program to study the long-term effects of pollution on the atmospheric environment . Among these 31 stations , Alert is one of three greenhouse gas `` intercomparison supersites '' , along with Mauna Loa in Hawaii and Cape Grim in Australia , which , due to their locations far from industrial activity , provide the international scientific community with a baseline record of atmospheric chemistry .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Dr._Neil_Trivett_Global_Atmosphere_Watch_Observatory\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 140337\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Regional_effects_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 137371\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: David Parker (climatologist) Content: David Parker is head of climate monitoring at the Hadley Centre , Exeter , England . He has published extensively on the land and marine temperature record and its consistency . In 2002 , he was an organiser of a `` Workshop on Advances in the Use of Historical Marine Climate Data '' . In 2004 , he has published a paper in Nature , showing that the urban heat island effect has not affected the historical temperature record . In this article , Parker shares his observations of the minimum temperature over 24 hours worldwide since 1950 that were expressed as anomalies . Also it includes his reasoning to why urbanization has not systematically exaggerated the observed global warming trends in minimum temperature . He further goes on to mention how the criterion for `` calm '' was changed while the global trend for minimum temperature remained unchanged . From his analysis he finds that windy and calm nights warmed at the same rate . Both the windy and calm increased at a rate of ( 0.16 + 0.03 C ) . He compares his small sample of 26 stations in North America and Siberia with global trends from 1950 to 1953 , covering over 5,000 stations . Estimates of recent global warming , supported by Parker 's analysis shows that urban warming has not introduced significant biases . `` The reality and magnitude of global-scale warming is supported by the near-equality of temperature trends on windy nights with trends based on all data . '' ( Parker ) This paper has been commented on by Roger Pielke , Sr. , et al. .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"David_Parker_(climatologist)\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 137230\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Change Science Program Content: The Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) was the program responsible for coordinating and integrating research on global warming by U.S. government agencies from February 2002 to June 2009 . Toward the end of that period , CCSP issued 21 separate climate assessment reports that addressed climate observations , changes in the atmosphere , expected climate change , impacts and adaptation , and risk management issues . Shortly after President Obama took office , the program 's name was changed to U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which was also the program 's name before 2002 . Nevertheless , the Obama Administration generally embraced the CCSP products as sound science providing a basis for climate policy . Because those reports were mostly issued after the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and in some cases focused specifically on the United States , they were generally viewed within the United States as having an importance and scientific credibility comparable to the IPCC assessments for the first few years of the Obama Administration .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Change_Science_Program\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 134221\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: North Ice Content: North Ice was a research station of the British North Greenland Expedition ( 1952 to 1954 ) on the inland ice of Greenland . The coordinates of the station were , at an altitude of 2341 m above sea level . The British North Greenland Expedition was led by Commander James Simpson RN . The station recorded the lowest temperature ever in North America with -66.1 C on 9 January 1954 . The name of the station contrasts to the former British South Ice station in Antarctica .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"North_Ice\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 131885\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: November 2014 North American cold wave Content: The November 2014 North American cold wave was an extreme weather event that occurred across most of Canada and the contiguous United States , including parts of the Western United States up to western California . One of the first events of the winter , the cold wave was caused by the northward movement of an extremely powerful bomb cyclone associated with Typhoon Nuri 's remnant , which shifted the jet stream far northward , creating an omega block pattern . This allowed a piece of the polar vortex to advance southward into the Central and Eastern United States , bringing record-cold temperatures to much of the region . In contrast , Alaska experienced above-average temperatures . This was the worst cold wave that the North American region had experienced since an earlier cold wave in early 2014 . The cold wave was expected to last for a few weeks , extending at least until American Thanksgiving . Although the Omega Block broke down on November 20 , due to a powerful storm moving into the Gulf of Alaska , frigid conditions continued to persist across much of the United States . There was also concern among some meteorologists that another cold wave or abnormally cold trend might persist throughout the winter of 2014 -- 15 , the chances of which were `` above average . '' On November 23 , a warming trend primarily in the Eastern United States brought an end to the cold wave ; however , below-average temperatures were forecast to return to the Midwest by November 24 . Despite the development of a second cold wave , it ended on December 6 , when a ridge of high pressure brought above-average temperatures to the region , especially in the Central United States .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"November_2014_North_American_cold_wave\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 127588\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Petr Chýlek Content: Petr Chýlek is a researcher for Space and Remote Sensing Sciences at Los Alamos National Laboratory . Prior to becoming a government researcher in 2001 , Chýlek was a Professor at several US and Canadian universities including SUNY Albany , Purdue University , University of Oklahoma and Dalhousie University in Halifax , Canada . Chýlek has published over 100 first authored scientific papers in remote sensing , atmospheric radiation , climate change , cloud and aerosol physics , applied laser physics and ice core analysis . His work has been cited more than 4000 times . Chylek is best known for his work in remote sensing , aerosols and climate change . In 2006 , Chýlek served as Chairman , Scientific Program Committee for The Second International Conference on Global Warming and the Next Ice Age held at Los Alamos National Laboratory in Santa Fe , NM . Speakers included Venkatachalam Ramaswamy , Chris Folland , Gerald North , Roger A. Pielke , William M. Gray and Jan Veizer . The conference included a two-day workshop on climate prediction uncertainties . The papers presented at the 2006 Conference were published in a special section of the Journal of Geophysical Research - Atmospheres in 2007 . In 2007 , Chýlek and co-authors published a peer-reviewed paper estimating climate sensitivity to doubled atmospheric CO2 to be significantly less than the IPCC estimate . Chýlek received his diploma in theoretical physics from Charles University in Prague , Czech Republic . He received his Ph.D. in physics from UC Riverside in 1970 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Petr_Chýlek\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 127189\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Antarctica cooling controversy Content: An apparent contradiction in the observed cooling behavior of Antarctica between 1966 and 2000 became part of the public debate in the global warming controversy , particularly between advocacy groups of both sides in the public arena including politicians , as well as the popular media . In his novel State of Fear , Michael Crichton asserted that the Antarctic data contradict global warming . The few scientists who have commented on the supposed controversy state that there is no contradiction , while the author of the paper whose work inspired Crichton 's remarks has said that Crichton `` misused '' his results . There is no similar controversy within the scientific community , as the small observed changes in Antarctica are consistent with the small changes predicted by climate models , and because the overall trend since comprehensive observations began is now known to be one of warming . At the South Pole , where some of the strongest cooling trends were observed between the 1950s and 1990s , the mean trend is flat from 1957 through 2013 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Antarctica_cooling_controversy\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 127172\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Media_coverage_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 126028\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_controversy\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 125742\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wibjörn Karlén Content: Wibjörn Karlén ( born 26 August 1937 in Kristine , Kopparberg County , Sweden ) , Ph.D. , is a professor emeritus of physical geography and quaternary geology at Stockholm University , Sweden . In an article which describes Karlén as a paleoclimatologist , he is quoted as saying : `` One of the big problems with trying to determine long-term temperature changes , is that weather records only go back to about 1860 . By relying on statistical reconstruction of the last 1000 years , using only the temperature patterns of the last 140 years instead of actual temperature readings , the IPCC report and Summary missed both a major cooling period as well as a significant warming trend during that millennium . '' Karlén has also criticized the mainstream media for `` spreading the exaggerated views of a human impact on climate . '' He was also named in a 2007 minority report of the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee as one of 400 `` prominent scientists '' who were said to dispute global warming . In 2010 , he predicted that natural climate changes , caused to a large degree by the sun 's activity , would more likely make the climate colder than warmer in the next decades . He is a contributing author to the Fraser Institute 2007 Independent Summary for Policymakers . Karlén is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Wibjörn_Karlén\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 124327\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \\\"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\\\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \\\"deep emissions reductions\\\" and \\\"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\\\" Furthermore, the report finds that \\\"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\\\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \\\"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\\\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 123149\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: North Report Content: The North Report was a 2006 report evaluating reconstructions of the temperature record of the past two millennia , providing an overview of the state of the science and the implications for understanding of global warming . It was produced by a National Research Council committee , chaired by Gerald North , at the request of Representative Sherwood Boehlert as chairman of the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Science . These reconstructions had been dubbed `` hockey stick graphs '' after the 1999 reconstruction by Mann , Bradley and Hughes ( MBH99 ) , which used the methodology of their 1998 reconstruction covering 600 years ( MBH98 ) . A graph based on MBH99 was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , and became a focus of the global warming controversy over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol . It was disputed by various contrarians , and in the politicisation of this hockey stick controversy the New York Times of 14 February 2005 hailed a paper by businessman Stephen McIntyre and economist Ross McKitrick ( MM05 ) as undermining the scientific consensus behind the Kyoto agreement . On 23 June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton , chairman of the House Committee on Energy and Commerce , with Ed Whitfield , Chairman of the Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations , wrote joint letters referring to issues raised by the Wall Street Journal article , and demanding that Mann , Bradley and Hughes provide full records on their data and methods , finances and careers , information about grants provided to the institutions they had worked for , and the exact computer codes used to generate their results . Boehlert said this was a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into something that should properly be under the jurisdiction of the Science Committee , and in November 2005 after Barton dismissed the offer of an independent investigation organised by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences , Boehlert requested the review , which became the North Report . The North Report went through a rigorous review process , and was published on 22 June 2006 . It concluded `` with a high level of confidence that global mean surface temperature was higher during the last few decades of the 20th century than during any comparable period during the preceding four centuries '' , justified by consistent evidence from a wide variety of geographically diverse proxies , but `` Less confidence can be placed in large-scale surface temperature reconstructions for the period from 900 to 1600 '' . It broadly agreed with the basic findings of the original MBH studies , which subsequently been supported by other reconstructions and proxy records , while emphasising uncertainties over earlier periods . The principal component analysis methodology that McIntyre and McKitrick had contested had a small tendency to bias results so was not recommended -- but it had little influence on the final reconstructions , and other methods produced similar results .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"North_Report\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 122613\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Early 2014 North American cold wave Content: The 2014 North American cold wave was an extreme weather event that extended through the late winter months of the 2013 -- 2014 winter season , and was also part of an unusually cold winter affecting parts of Canada and parts of the north-central and upper eastern United States . The event occurred in early 2014 and was caused by a southward shift of the North Polar Vortex . Record-low temperatures also extended well into March . On January 2 , an Arctic cold front initially associated with a nor'easter tracked across Canada and the United States , resulting in heavy snowfall . Temperatures fell to unprecedented levels , and low temperature records were broken across the United States . Business , school , and road closures were common , as well as mass flight cancellations . Altogether , more than 200 million people were affected , in an area ranging from the Rocky Mountains to the Atlantic Ocean and extending south to include roughly 187 million residents of the Continental United States .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Early_2014_North_American_cold_wave\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 122277\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate of Scotland Content: The climate of Scotland is temperate and oceanic ( Köppen climate classification Cfb ) , and tends to be very changeable , but not normally extreme . It is warmed by the Gulf Stream from the Atlantic , and given its northerly latitude it is warmer than areas on similar latitudes , for example Labrador in Canada -- where the sea freezes over in winter and icebergs are a common feature in spring and early summer , or Fort McMurray , Canada -- where -35 ° C is not uncommon during winter . Even though most of the country has a temperate climate , the Northern islands and Highlands experience a type of weather close to the climate of the Faroe Islands or Southern Norway .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_of_Scotland\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 122160\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 120131\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Plateau Station Content: Plateau Station is an inactive American research and South Pole -- Queen Maud Land Traverse support base on the central Antarctic Plateau . Construction on the site started on December 13 , 1965 , and the first traverse team ( named SPQML II ) arrived in early 1966 . The base was in continuous use until January 29 , 1969 , when it was closed but mothballed for future use , and was the most remote and coldest of any United States stations on the continent . It is also the site for the world 's coldest measured average temperature for a month , recorded in July 1968 , at -99.8 F. The station was operated and staffed by the National Science Foundation and United States Navy . A select team of four scientists and four navy personnel were on constant duty at the station , which was under the command of a naval medical doctor . Originally designed for two years of service , it was in use for three years . Until the Fuji Dome Station opened in 1995 , it was the outpost at the highest altitude at 3624 m above sea level . The effective altitude , due to polar circulation vortex was in excess of 4000 m , making the base a useful location for high-altitude research . Although the cold never reached the record set at Vostok Station , the average temperature was consistently lower . The buildings on the base were assembled from five pre-fabricated units flown in by Hercules C-130 aircraft with ski landing gear . Four units formed the main building , which is 8x25 meters ; and a smaller Jamesway huts unit was constructed 300 meters away . Two 75 kW diesel generators provided the necessary energy for the main unit ; and an additional generator was maintained at the standby unit . In addition , a 3500 m skiway was built for air transport . A 32 m meteorological tower was erected with instruments at varying heights to monitor the persistent thermal air inversion layer above the Antarctic snow . One primary purpose of the base was solar observations , given the high altitude , clear air , and relative short distance to the sun during the austral summer . But it was found that the base also provided unique opportunities to observe unusual weather phenomena . The major activities were : Micro Meteorology Study : This consisted of a tower equipped with instruments to take multiple samples of wind speed , wind direction and temperature . Periodic readings were taken at multiple levels on the tower to attempt to understand the `` topography of weather '' and how they fit into the larger framework of weather on the polar and global environment . The flatness of the Antarctic Plateau made Plateau Station a unique `` test tube '' for this study . Polar Illumination/Absorption Study : This was accomplished by the placement of multi color lenses with sensors that would measure the intensity of light striking the polar surface . Illumination from both direct and diffuse sources were periodically measured . Plateau Station was ideal for measuring this due to the relative clear atmospheric conditions . Upper Atomospheric Study : This was made up of instrumentation that would transmit a spectrum of Radio Frequency energy up into the atmosphere . The instrumentation would then simultaneously measure the amount of energy being reflected back to it from the upper atmosphere . Geomagnetic Study This consisted of large coils of wire that acted as sensors to measure the intensity of polar magnetic fields . Ice core samples were also made , but with mixed success . On October 29 , 1966 , the camp inhabitants experienced a severe snowquake that lowered the altitude by 1 cm . This was apparently caused by hoar frost crystals below the surface . The teams were also monitored for medical and psychological effects , though it turned out that selection of staff precluded any notable emotional effects . White cell counts were found to decrease as a result of few immunological stimuli in the sterile environment . On 22 December 2007 , the Norwegian-U.S. Scientific Traverse of East Antarctica visited the base and entered the buildings , finding that it was mostly intact . In 2017 , the CoFi-Expedition made a stop at the Plateau Station . They entered the station through a hatch at the top of highest building , the watch tower . The base ist completely snowbound nowadays . The only seeable building at the base ist the meteorological tower . The expedition left the base with the same general impression like the expedition in 2007 did . One of the researchers , Sepp Kipfstuhl said : `` If someone would visit the base in 10 or even 20 years , it 'll be barely changed . The meterological tower should be seeable for the next 500 years . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Plateau_Station\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 120023\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global wind patterns Content: Global wind patterns : Winds are named by the direction from which they blow . The globe is encircled by six major wind belts , three in each hemisphere . From pole to equator , they are the polar easterlies , the westerlies , and the trade winds . All six belts move north in the northern summer and south in the northern winter . Each belt occupies about 30 degrees of latitude , that is , one third of the way from the pole to the equator . Polar Easterlies : At about the latitude of Norway , Alaska U.S.A , and northward ( 60-90 degrees ) , the Polar easterlies blow irregularly from the east and north . Polar Front : Between the polar easterlies and the westerlies is the polar front . Prevailing Westerlies : At about the latitude of Western Europe and Continental U.S. ( 30-60 degrees ) , the Westerlies blow from the west , tending somewhat toward the north . This causes most weather in the United States to move from west to east . Horse Latitudes : Where the Westerlies meet the trade winds at about 30 degrees ( Jacksonville , Florida ) is the Horse latitudes , also Variables of Cancer , Subtropical High , or Subtropical ridge . This is a region of high pressure , dry air , and variable winds , and is associated with deserts over land . Trade Winds : South of about 30 degrees the northern or northeast trade winds blow mostly from the northeast toward the equator . These were the sailor 's favorite winds , since the weather was warm , and the winds usually blew steadily in an advantageous direction . Columbus used these to sail to the Caribbean . Doldrums : At about the equator is Intertropical Convergence Zone or doldrums , a region of light and irregular wind broken by occasional thunderstorms and squalls . The width and exact location of the doldrums were hard to predict . Sailing ships are sometimes becalmed here for many days waiting for a proper wind . Southern hemisphere : In the southern hemisphere the belts are reversed . The southeast trade winds blow from the southeast toward the equator . The southern equivalent of the horse latitudes ( or Variables of Cancer ) is called the Variables of Capricorn . The southern westerlies start somewhat south of South Africa . They tend to be stronger than the northern westerlies because they are mostly over water ( roaring forties ) . The southern polar easterlies are mostly over Antarctica . Seasonal shifts : All of the belts move north during the northern summer and south during the northern winter . Because global heating and cooling lags behind the position of the sun , they reach their northernmost latitude at or after the end of the northern summer . This brought the trade winds within reach of the Spain and Portugal and determined the sailing time of the Spanish treasure fleet . The northernmost position of the wind belts corresponds to the Atlantic hurricane season . Land and sea breezes : Land gains and loses heat more rapidly than water . During the day , the land warms more rapidly than the water . The air above land warms , becomes thinner , and rises , drawing cooler air landward from the sea . At night , the process reverses , and cool heavy air from the land flows out to sea . These land and sea breezes are important along the coast . Monsoon : The annual equivalent of the daily land and sea breezes is the yearly monsoon . During summer , the continents heat more rapidly than the oceans . Air over the continents warms , thins and rises drawing cooler moist ocean air landward , producing a wet season . During winter , the process reverses and cold , dry heavy air flows outward from the continents , producing a dry season . The monsoon is most striking in south Asia because of the size of the Eurasian landmass and because the Himalayas tend to bottle up the air above the continent . Approximations of the Indian monsoon exist in other places , but they are poorly developed . Ocean Gyre : The fact that the westerlies and trade winds blow in opposite directions and that the continents prevent water from circling the globe contributes to the formation of circular ocean currents , clockwise in the northern hemisphere and counterclockwise in the southern hemisphere . The Coriolis force also plays a part . The trade winds push water west . At the doldrums it flows back east producing the equatorial countercurrent . See Ocean gyre . Coriolis force , Hadley cell and other things : In the northern hemisphere , the Coriolis effect causes wind and water currents to bend to the right ( clockwise ) . Cold heavy air flows south from the north pole and is bent west , forming the polar easterlies . Warm air rises at the equator drawing air from the north which bends to the west , contributing to the trade winds . The Coriolis effect bends the westerlies and trade winds slightly clockwise in the northern hemisphere . Hot air rises at the doldrums . As it rises , it cools producing thunderstorms . The dry air flows north at a high altitude and descends at the horse latitudes and flows back to the equator with the trade winds . This is called the Hadley cell . There is also a Ferrel cell over the westerlies and a polar cell over the pole . There are other complexities , not all of which are properly understood .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_wind_patterns\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 119839\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_cooling\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 119573\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pole of Inaccessibility (Antarctic research station) Content: The Pole of Inaccessibility Research Station is a defunct Soviet research station in Kemp Land , Antarctica , at the southern pole of inaccessibility ( the point in Antarctica furthest from any ocean ) as it was defined in 1958 when the station was established . Later definitions give other locations , all relatively near this point . It performed meteorological observations from 14 December 1958 to 26 December 1958 . The Pole of Inaccessibility has the world 's coldest year-round average temperature of -58.2 ° C. It is 878 km from the South Pole , and approximately 600 km from Sovetskaya . The surface elevation is 3,800 m . It was reached on 14 December 1958 by an 18-man traversing party of the 3rd Soviet Antarctic Expedition . Its WMO ID is 89550 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Pole_of_Inaccessibility_(Antarctic_research_station)\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 118723\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Real Global Warming Disaster Content: The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Real_Global_Warming_Disaster\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 118405\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: North American Arctic Content: The North American Arctic comprises the northern portions of Alaska ( USA ) , Northern Canada and Greenland . Major bodies of water include the Arctic Ocean , Hudson Bay , the Gulf of Alaska and North Atlantic Ocean . The western limit is the Seward Peninsula and the Bering Strait . The southern limit is the Arctic Circle latitude of 66 ° 33 'N , which is the approximate limit of the midnight sun and the polar night . The region is defined by environmental limits where the average temperature for the warmest month ( July ) is below 10 C . The northernmost tree line roughly follows the isotherm at the boundary of this region . The area has tundra and polar vegetation .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"North_American_Arctic\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 118397\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: March 2012 North American heat wave Content: In March 2012 , one of the greatest heat waves was observed in many regions of North America . Very warm air pushed northward west of the Great Lakes region , and subsequently spread eastward . The intense poleward air mass movement was propelled by an unusually intense low level southerly jet that stretched from Louisiana to western Wisconsin . Once this warm surge inundated the area , a remarkably prolonged period of record setting temperatures ensued . NOAA 's National Climate Data Center reported that over 7,000 daily record high temperatures were tied or broken from 1 March through 27 March . In some places the temperature exceeded 86 ° F ( 30 ° C ) . For instance , in Grand Rapids , Michigan , the highest temperature recorded was 87 ° F on March 21 ; in Chicago a high of 87 ° F was also recorded on that same day . Records were broken in unusual ways . Chicago , for example , saw temperatures above 80 ° F every day between March 14 -- 18 , breaking records on all five days . Chicago would go on to record eight days at or above 80 ° F during the month , with many suburban areas recording an additional day in the 80s on March 19 ( that day , the city only tied its record high of 78 ° F ) . In context , the National Weather Service 's Chicago branch noted that Chicago typically averages only one day in the 80 's in April . And only once in 140 years of weather observations has April produced as many 80 ° F days as this March . In Traverse City , Michigan one day began with a low temperature ( 67 ° F ) higher than the previous record high for the day . Temperature records across much of southern Canada also were shattered . Some of the most impressive readings came from Nova Scotia on March 22 , when the mercury climbed to 30.0 C at a climate station in Lake Major , making it the highest March temperature recorded in Nova Scotia , and the third highest March temperature recorded in Canada . That same day , the temperature hit 29.2 C at Western Head , Nova Scotia . The heat reached as far east as Cape Breton Island , with the temperature climbing to 24.0 C at Sydney , Nova Scotia on March 22 , a place historically surrounded by ice-jammed waters , frigid winds , and snow in March . The week of March 18 also set record temperatures in Manitoba and much of Ontario as well as into the Maritime Provinces . Non-severe thunderstorms were reported on the evening hours of March 21 , through to the early morning hours March 22 into northern Ontario . In addition , NCEP/NCAR Reanalysis data show that the atmospheric pattern was so persistent that much of the Midwest and Northeast , and up into Ontario , had temperature departures over periods of several days to a week or more of magnitudes which would be unusual even for a single day . Averaged over the seven-day period from March 16 to March 22 inclusive , nearly the entire area of the Midwest and Northeast U.S. and most of Ontario and Quebec had temperatures 10 ° C ( 18 ° F ) or more above the 1981-2010 average . Even more dramatically , most of Iowa and Minnesota , all of Wisconsin and Michigan , and most of southeastern Ontario had seven-day mean temperatures more than 15 ° C ( 27 ° F ) above the climatological average for the same period . An 84 ° F high at Madison , WI in early March was 43 ° F above average and followed an overnight low of 60 ° F , 35 degrees above normal the daily high being more than seven standard deviations above the mean . The absolute temperature and departure statistically would be equivalent to a mid-July high at that station in excess of 125 ° F or more ; the highest temperature recorded there was 107 ° at least once during the heat waves of the middle 1930s . This mild warm spell brought out spring peepers in northern Ontario on 23 March , which are usually not heard until mid-to-late April , or sometimes early May . The warm weather was also responsible for several early-season tornado touchdowns , such as the EF3 that struck Dexter , Michigan , near Ann Arbor .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"March_2012_North_American_heat_wave\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 117789\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Everything's Cool (film) Content: Everything 's Cool is a 2007 documentary film that examines the divide between scientists and the general populace on the topic of global warming . Director Dan Gold said of the motivation for the film that `` I 'm optimistic that finally the message that this is real , that human beings are the cause of the most recent warming trend , and that it 's an important issue , that message is actually reaching America . On the other hand ... if that message was fully understood , we would be moving a lot faster to slow this down and to reverse this course . '' The documentary was shown at the Sundance film festival in January 2007 and at the San Francisco International Film Festival in May 2007 . The directors also took Blue Vinyl , a film about plastic pollution , to Sundance in 2002 . It was shown on CBC in Canada as part of the Passionate Eye series . The New York Times called it `` a breezy polemic about the politics of global warming ... -LSB- that -RSB- adopts a cheerful comic tone to avoid scaring audiences . '' The LA Times said that `` With wit and passion , Gold and Helfand marshal a plethora of data and developments yet never lose their narrative thread . '' . The New York Sun was less favourable , calling it `` the best movie I 've ever seen about global warming for kids in junior high school , but it 's the most annoying movie about global warming I 've ever seen for adults . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Everything's_Cool_(film)\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 117193\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: EdGCM Content: The Educational Global Climate Model or EdGCM is a fully functional global climate model ( GCM ) that has been ported for use on desktop computers ( Windows PCs and Macs ) . It operates through a graphical user interface and is integrated with a relational database and scientific visualization utllities , all of which aim at helping improve the quality of teaching and understanding of climatology by making real-world research experiences more accessible . EdGCM is designed to permit teachers and students to conduct in-depth investigations of past , present and future climate scenarios in a manner that is essentially identical to the techniques used by national and international climate research organizations . EdGCM was developed at the Goddard Institute for Space Studies as a joint project of Columbia University and NASA scientists and programmers . The Global Climate Model at the core of EdGCM is GISS Model II . During the 1980s and early 1990s this GCM was one of NASA 's primary climate research tools . Results from the model have appeared in hundreds of scientific publications . The coarser resolution of the climate model in EdGCM ( 8 ° x 10 ° , latitude x longitude ) makes it inexpensive to run . But , because it contains most of the key atmospheric physics of modern GCMs , EdGCM is also used by climate researchers who do not have access to the most recent GCM versions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"EdGCM\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 117087\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Temperature in Canada Content:\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Temperature_in_Canada\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 116897\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Douglas-Daly Experiment Station Content: The Douglas-Daly Experiment Station was an extensive research site of the Northern Territory Administration ( NTA ) of the Government of Australia and , after statehood , of the Northern Territory Government . It formed part of a string of similar research sites in northern Australia . Located at the junction of the Douglas and Daly Rivers and covering an area of approximately 100 km ² , the site spanned three major soil types of the Top End of the Northern Territory - Blain , Tippera and Florina soil types . The climate is hot-humid tropical with a distinct six-month dry season and an annual rainfall of around 1 m . It was used mainly for pasture , forage , and grazing experiments with its main research activity beginning in the 1960s and continuing until the break-up of the site into development farms in the 1980s . Research from the site is mainly documented in scientific journal papers and annals of the NTA . Among the researchers on the site have been Bruce Franks , John Sturtz , John Austin and Lindsay Falvey , who were supported by the manager Heinz Mollman . The site was also used by CSIRO , especially for the rock-phosphate research of Ray Swaby .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Douglas-Daly_Experiment_Station\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 116884\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: February 2015 North American cold wave Content: The February 2015 North American cold wave was an extreme weather event that affected most of Canada and the eastern half of the United States . Following an earlier cold wave in the winter , the period of below-average temperatures contributed to an already unusually cold winter for the Eastern U.S. Several places broke their records for their coldest February on record , while some areas came very close . The cause of the cold wave was due to the polar vortex advancing southwards into the eastern parts of the U.S , and even making it as far south as the Southeast , where snow is rare . By the beginning of March , although the pattern did continue for the first week , it abated and retreated near the official end of the winter . In addition to the extremely cold weather , multiple winter storms affected nearly the entire United States , especially in the snow-weary Northeast , which had already seen nearly 3 ft of snow in the latter part of January ; this was added to by roughly 3 -- 4 ft ( 36 -- 48 in ) more snow , leading to Boston having its highest seasonal snowfall on record .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"February_2015_North_American_cold_wave\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 116745\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Ny-Ålesund Symposium Content: The Ny-Ålesund Symposium is an annual high level international event where top researchers and politicians , senior business executives , representatives of NGOs and other decision makers meet to share experiences and to discuss climate change solutions . The topics are related to the challenges of climate change , other environmental issues , and issues directly connected to the Arctic and the Northern areas which could have major global consequences . Participation is limited to 45 people , by invitation only . The Symposium takes place on Svalbard at 79 degrees north . It is the world 's northernmost permanent settlement and is only 1200 km from the North Pole . The Norwegian Government has transformed this former mining community into a major base for scientific research and environmental monitoring in the Arctic . The base hosts scientists from more than 20 nations and plays an important role in international climate change research . It is owned and operated by the governmental company Kings Bay AS , a coal mining company in earlier days . The scenery is exceptional , with a backdrop of unspoiled Arctic nature . The purpose of the Symposium is to exchange knowledge , improve the understanding and seek solutions of the challenging impacts these issues have both on the Arctic regions and internationally . The Symposium is organized by Kings Bay AS in cooperation with the Norwegian Ministry of Education and Research , the Ministry of the Environment -RSB- , the Ministry of Foreign Affairs , the Ministry of Trade and Industry , the Ministry of Justice and the Police , and the -LSB- Research Council of Norway -RSB- . Statkraft AS is a co-organizer and sponsor of the Symposium . The secretariat is by CICERO Center for International Climate and Environmental Research-Oslo . His Royal Highness Crown Prince Haakon of Norway is patron of the Symposium . The first Symposium was arranged in March 2006 . The main themes for the symposia have been : 2006 - The changing Arctic - new opportunities and challenges 2007 - The changing Arctic - global climate change - the need for action 2008 - Global climate change and research challenges 2009 - Climate change : Understanding global politics towards Copenhagen and beyond 2010 - The Changing Arctic and Its Global Implications 2011 - cancelled due to volcanic ash cloud 2012 - Towards a green economy : the role of technology 2013 - The Changing Arctic - Opportunity or Threat 2014 - Breaking the Climate Stalemate\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Ny-Ålesund_Symposium\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 116524\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tierra fría Content: In Latin America , tierra fría ( Spanish for cold land ) are mountain locations where high elevation results in a markedly cooler climate than that encountered in the lowlands at a comparable latitude . The combination of low latitude and high altitude -- typically between approximately 6,000 ft ( about 1,850 m ) and 10,000 ft ( about 3,600 m ) in locations within 10 ° of the equator -- produces a climate that falls into the same category as many oceanic climates found along the west coasts of the continents within the temperate zones -- mild temperatures all year round , with monthly averages ranging from about 10 ° C ( 50 ° F ) in the coldest months to about 18 ° C ( 64.4 ° F ) in the warmest months ( at places further poleward the range of altitudes where this climate exists becomes progressively lower ) . Common crops grown in the tierra fría are potatoes , wheat , barley , oats , corn , and rye . Beyond the tierra fría is a region known as the suni , puna , or páramos ; near the Equator this encompasses places with altitudes of between roughly 12,000 ft ( 3,600 m ) and 15,000 ft ( 4,500 m ) , representing the treeline and the snow line respectively . Vegetation here resembles that found in the tundra of the polar regions . Still higher is the tierra nevada , where permanent snow and ice prevail . The Peruvian geographer Javier Pulgar Vidal ( Altitudinal zonation ) used following altitudes : 2,300 m ( end of the Cloud forest or Yunga fluvial ) , 3,500 m ( Treeline ) and 4,800 m ( Puna end ) . Some of Latin America 's largest cities are found in the tierra fria , most notably Bogotá , Colombia , altitude 2,640 m , Mexico City , Mexico , altitude 2,240 m and Quito , Ecuador , altitude 2,850 m ; all three cities are also the capitals of those respective countries . Agriculture in the region resembles that which is conducted in valley areas in the temperate zones , featuring such crops as barley and potatoes .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Tierra_fría\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 115740\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 115633\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2010 Northern Hemisphere heat waves Content: The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves included severe heat waves that impacted most of the United States, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, China, Hong Kong, North Africa and the European continent as a whole, along with parts of Canada, Russia, Indochina, South Korea and Japan during May, June, July, and August 2010. The first phase of the global heatwaves was caused by a moderate El Niño event, which lasted from June 2009 to May 2010. The first phase lasted only from April 2010 to June 2010, and caused only moderate above average temperatures in the areas affected. But it also set new record high temperatures for most of the area affected, in the Northern Hemisphere. The second phase (the main, and most devastating phase) was caused by a very strong La Niña event, which lasted from June 2010 to June 2011. According to meteorologists, the 2010–11 La Niña event was one of the strongest La Niña events ever observed. That same La Niña event also had devastating effects in the Eastern states of Australia. The second phase lasted from June 2010 to October 2010, caused severe heat waves, and multiple record-breaking temperatures. The heatwaves began on April 2010, when strong anticyclones began to develop, over most of the affected regions, in the Northern Hemisphere. The heatwaves ended in October 2010, when the powerful anticyclones over most of the affected areas dissipated. The heat wave during the summer of 2010 was at its worst in June, over the Eastern United States, Middle East, Eastern Europe and European Russia, and over Northeastern China and southeastern Russia. June 2010 marked the fourth consecutive warmest month on record globally, at 0.66 °C (1.22 °F) above average, while the period April–June was the warmest ever recorded for land areas in the Northern Hemisphere, at 1.25 °C (2.25 °F) above average. The previous record for the global average temperature in June was set in 2005 at 0.66 °C (1.19 °F), and the previous warm record for April–June over Northern Hemisphere land areas was 1.16 °C (2.09 °F), set in 2007. The strongest of the anticyclones, the one situated over Siberia, registered a maximum high pressure of 1040 millibars. The weather caused forest fires in China, where three in a team of 300 died fighting a fire that broke out in the Binchuan County of Dali, as Yunnan suffered the worst drought in 60 years by February 17. A major drought was reported across the Sahel as early as January. In August, a section of the Petermann Glacier tongue connecting northern Greenland, the Nares Strait and the Arctic Ocean broke off, the biggest ice shelf in the Arctic to detach in 48 years. By the time the heatwaves had ended in late October 2010, about $500 billion (2011 USD) of damage was done, in the Northern Hemisphere alone. The World Meteorological Organization stated that the heat waves, droughts and flooding events fit with predictions based on global warming for the 21st century, include those based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's 2007 4th Assessment Report. Some climatologists argue that these weather events would not have happened if the atmospheric carbon dioxide was at pre-industrial levels.\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"2010_Northern_Hemisphere_heat_waves\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 115439\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Coming Global Superstorm Content: The Coming Global Superstorm ( ISBN 0-671-04190-8 ) is a 1999 book by Art Bell and Whitley Strieber , which warns that global warming might produce sudden and catastrophic climatic effects . First , the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic drift would generate a cordon of warm water around the North Pole , which in turn , holds in a frozen mass of Arctic air . Second , if the North Atlantic drift were to shut down , that barrier would fail , releasing a flood of frozen air into the Northern Hemisphere , causing a sudden and drastic temperature shift . The book discusses a possible cause of the failure of the Gulf Stream : the melting of the polar ice caps could drastically affect the salinity of the North Atlantic drift by dumping a large quantity of freshwater into the world 's oceans . Bell and Strieber explain the possibility that such current destabilizations have occurred before , as well as seemingly impossible engineering feats by the ancients . Among their examples is the island city of Nan Madol . The book claims that its construction , with exacting tolerances and extremely heavy basalt materials , necessitates a high degree of technical competency . Since no such society exists in the modern record or even , in legend , the society must have been destroyed by dramatic means . While other explanations beside a global meteorological event are possible , a correlating evidence set is presented in the woolly mammoth . Strieber and Bell assert that since mammoths have been found preserved with food still in their mouths and undigested in their stomachs , these animals must have been killed quickly , in otherwise normal conditions . They were preserved so well by quick freezing , which is taken as evidence of a rapid onset of a global blizzard or similar event . Interspersed with the analytical parts of the book are a series of interlinked short fictional scenarios , written in italics , describing what might transpire today if a destabilization of the North Atlantic Current were to occur . The fictional accounts of `` current events '' as the meteorological situation deteriorates provided background and inspiration for the 2004 science fiction film The Day After Tomorrow . Indeed , some events from the book are portrayed in the film with little modification .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Coming_Global_Superstorm\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 115269\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Heaven and Earth (book) Content: Heaven and Earth : Global Warming -- The Missing Science is a popular science book published in 2009 and written by Australian geologist , professor of mining geology at Adelaide University , and mining company director Ian Plimer . It disputes the scientific consensus on climate change , including the view that global warming is `` very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic ( man-made ) greenhouse gas concentrations '' and asserts that the debate is being driven by what the author regards as irrational and unscientific elements . The book received what The Age newspaper called `` glowing endorsements '' from the conservative press . The Australian said it gave `` all the scientific ammunition climate change skeptics could want . '' Other reviewers criticised the book as unscientific , inaccurate , based on obsolete research , and internally inconsistent . Ideas in it have been described as `` so wrong as to be laughable '' . Heaven and Earth was a bestseller in Australia when published in May 2009 , and is in its seventh printing , according to the publisher . The book has also been published in the United States and the United Kingdom .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Heaven_and_Earth_(book)\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 115107\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: William Ferrel Content: William Ferrel ( January 29 , 1817 -- September 18 , 1891 ) , an American meteorologist , developed theories which explained the mid-latitude atmospheric circulation cell in detail , and it is after him that the Ferrel cell is named . He was born in southern Pennsylvania . His family moved to what would become West Virginia in 1829 . His formal elementary schooling was limited and he taught himself using science books well enough to become a school teacher . He attended Marshall College and despite financial difficulties , he was able to graduate from Bethany College 's first graduating class in 1844 . He would continue teaching in Missouri and Tennessee until 1858 . At that point , he took up a full-time position on the staff of American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac in Cambridge , Massachusetts . In 1882 , Ferrel joined the U.S. Army Signal Service ( which would become the Weather Bureau in 1891 ) . He retired in 1887 . He died in West Virginia in 1891 . Ferrel demonstrated that it is the tendency of rising warm air , as it rotates due to the Coriolis effect , to pull in air from more southerly , warmer regions and transport it poleward . It is this rotation which creates the complex curvatures in the frontal systems separating the cooler Arctic air to the north from the warmer continental tropical air to the south . Ferrel improved upon Hadley 's theory by recognizing an until then overlooked mechanism . This is a quote from his first paper : The fourth and last force arises from the combination of a relative east or west motion of the atmosphere with the rotatory motion of the earth . In consequence of the atmosphere 's revolving on a common axis with that of the earth , each particle is impressed with a centrifugal force , which , being resolved into a vertical and a horizontal force , the latter causes it to assume a spheroidal form conforming to the figure of the earth . But , if the rotatory motion of any part of the atmosphere is greater than that of the surface of the earth , or , in other words , if any part of the atmosphere has a relative eastern motion with regard to the earth 's surface , this force is increased , and if it has a relative western motion , it is diminished , and this difference gives rise to a disturbing force which prevents the atmosphere being in a state of equilibrium , with a figure conforming to that of the earth 's surface , but causes an accumulation of the atmosphere at certain latitudes and a depression at others , and the consequent difference in the pressure of the atmosphere at these latitudes very materially influences its motions . Hadley 's erroneous reasoning had been in terms of a tendency to conserve linear momentum , as air mass travels from north to south or from south to north . Ferrel recognized that in meteorology and oceanography what needs to be taken into account is a tendency , of an air mass that is in motion relative to Earth , to conserve its angular momentum with respect to Earth 's Axis .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"William_Ferrel\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 115069\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pacific–North American teleconnection pattern Content: The Pacific -- North American teleconnection pattern ( PNA ) is a climatological term for a large-scale weather pattern with two modes , denoted positive and negative , and which relates the atmospheric circulation pattern over the North Pacific Ocean with the one over the North American continent . The positive phase of the PNA pattern features above-average barometric pressure heights in the vicinity of Hawaii and over the inter-mountain region of North America , and below-average heights located south of the Aleutian Islands and over the southeastern United States . The PNA pattern is associated with strong fluctuations in the strength and location of the East Asian jet stream . The positive phase is associated with an enhanced East Asian jet stream and with an eastward shift in the jet exit region toward the western United States . The negative phase is associated with a westward retraction of that jet stream toward eastern Asia , blocking activity over the high latitudes of the North Pacific , and a strong split-flow configuration over the central North Pacific . The positive phase of the PNA pattern is associated with above-average temperatures over western Canada and the extreme western United States , and below-average temperatures across the south-central and southeastern US . The PNA tends to have little impact on surface temperature variability over North America during summer . The associated precipitation anomalies include above-average totals in the Gulf of Alaska extending into the Pacific Northwestern United States , and below-average totals over the upper Midwestern United States . The negative PNA phase is associated with the opposite . Although the PNA pattern is a natural internal mode of climate variability , it is also strongly influenced by the El Niño-Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) phenomenon . The positive phase of the PNA pattern tends to be associated with Pacific warm episodes ( El Niño ) , and the negative phase tends to be associated with Pacific cold episodes ( La Niña ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Pacific–North_American_teleconnection_pattern\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 114979\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hockey stick graph Content: Hockey stick graphs present the global or hemispherical mean temperature record of the past 500 to 2000 years as shown by quantitative climate reconstructions based on climate proxy records . These reconstructions have consistently shown a slow long term cooling trend changing into relatively rapid warming in the 20th century , with the instrumental temperature record by 2000 exceeding earlier temperatures . The term `` hockey stick graph '' was coined by the climatologist Jerry Mahlman , to describe the pattern shown by the ( MBH99 ) reconstruction , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat with a downward trend to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' followed by a sharp , steady increase corresponding to the `` blade '' portion . The reconstructions have featured in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports as evidence of global warming . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . Paleoclimatology dates back to the 19th century , and the concept of examining varves in lake beds and tree rings to track local climatic changes was suggested in the 1930s . In the 1960s , Hubert Lamb generalised from historical documents and temperature records of central England to propose a Medieval Warm Period from around 900 to 1300 , followed by Little Ice Age . This was the basis of a `` schematic diagram '' featured in the IPCC First Assessment Report of 1990 beside cautions that the medieval warming might not have been global . The use of indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed , and by the late 1990s a number of competing teams of climatologists found indications that recent warming was exceptional . introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large scale reconstructions . Their study was featured in the IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . In 1998 Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 with shading emphasising that uncertainties ( to two standard error limits ) were much greater in earlier centuries . independently produced a CPS reconstruction extending back for a thousand years , and ( MBH99 ) used the MBH98 methodology to extend their study back to 1000 . A version of the MBH99 graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , which also drew on Jones et al. 1998 and three other reconstructions to support the conclusion that , in the Northern Hemisphere , the 1990s was likely to have been the warmest decade and 1998 the warmest year during the past 1,000 years . The graph became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th century warmth was exceptional . In 2003 , as lobbying over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol intensified , a paper claiming greater medieval warmth was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy . Later in 2003 , Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick published disputing the data used in MBH98 paper . In 2004 Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal components analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . Their analysis was subsequently disputed by published papers including and which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . Political disputes led to the formation of a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council , their North Report in 2006 supported Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , support the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Further reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Hockey_stick_graph\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 114679\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate of the United States Content: The climate of the United States varies due to differences in latitude , and a range of geographic features , including mountains and deserts . West of the 100th meridian , much of the US is semi-arid to desert in the far southwestern US , and Mediterranean along the California coast . East of the 100th meridian , the climate is humid continental in the northern areas east through New England , to humid subtropical in the Gulf and South Atlantic regions . Southern Florida is tropical , as is Hawaii and the US Virgin Islands . Higher-elevation areas of the Rocky Mountains , the Wasatch , Sierra Nevada , and Cascade Range are alpine . The West Coast areas in coastal Oregon and Washington are oceanic climate . The state of Alaska , on the northwestern corner of the North American continent , is largely subarctic climate , but with a subpolar oceanic climate in the southeast ( Alaska Panhandle ) , southwestern peninsula and Aleutian Islands . The primary drivers of weather in the contiguous United States are the seasonal change in the solar angle , the migration north/south of the subtropical highs , and the seasonal change in the position of the polar jet stream . In the Northern Hemisphere summer the Subtropical high pressure systems move northward and closer to the United States mainland . In the Atlantic Ocean , the `` Bermuda High '' creates a south-southwest flow of warm , humid air over the eastern , southern and central United States - resulting in warm to hot temperatures , high humidity and occasional thunderstorm activity . In the Pacific Ocean high pressure builds toward the California coast resulting in a northwesterly airflow creating the typical sunny , dry , and stable weather conditions along the West Coast . In the Northern Hemisphere winter , the subtropical highs retreat southward . The polar jet stream ( and associated conflict zone between cold , dry air masses from Canada and warm , moist air masses from the Gulf of Mexico ) drops further southward into the United States - bringing more precipitation and periods of disturbed weather , as well as colder or mild air masses . Areas in the southern US ( Florida , the Gulf Coast , the Desert Southwest , and southern California ) however , often have more stable weather , as the polar jet stream 's impact does not usually reach that far south . Weather systems , be they high-pressure systems ( anticyclones ) , low-pressure systems ( cyclones ) or fronts ( boundaries between air masses of differing temperature , humidity and most commonly , both ) are faster-moving and more intense in the winter/colder months than in the summer/warmer months , when the belt of lows and storms generally move into southern Canada . The Gulf of Alaska is the origination area of many storms that enter the United States . Such `` North Pacific lows '' enter the US through the Pacific Northwest , then move eastward across the northern Rocky Mountains , northern Great Plains , upper Midwest , Great Lakes and New England states . Across the central states from late fall to spring , `` Panhandle hook '' storms move from the central Rockies into the Oklahoma/Texas panhandle areas , then northeast toward the Great Lakes . They generate unusually large temperature contrasts , and often bring heavy Gulf moisture northward , resulting sometimes in cold conditions and possibly-heavy snow or ice north and west of the storm track , and warm conditions , heavy rains and potentially-severe thunderstorms south and east of the storm track - often simultaneously . Across the northern states in winter usually from Montana eastward , `` Alberta clipper '' storms track east and bring light to moderate snowfalls from the Great Lakes to New England , and often , windy and severe Arctic outbreaks behind them . When winter-season Canadian cold air masses drop unusually far southward , `` Gulf lows '' can develop in or near the Gulf of Mexico , then track eastward or northeastward across the Southern states , or nearby Gulf or South Atlantic waters . They often bring rain , but on rare occasions can bring ice to areas of the interior southern states . In the cold season ( generally November to March ) , most precipitation occurs in conjunction with organized low-pressure systems and associated fronts . In the summer , storms are much more localized , with short-duration thunderstorms common in many areas east of the 100th meridian . In the warm season , storm systems affecting a large area are less frequent , and weather conditions are more solar -LCB- sun -RCB- controlled , with the greatest chance for thunderstorm and severe weather activity during peak heating hours , mostly between 3 PM and 9 PM local time . From May to August especially , often-overnight mesoscale-convective-system ( MCS ) thunderstorm complexes , usually associated with frontal activity , can deliver significant to flooding rainfall amounts from the Dakotas/Nebraska eastward across Iowa/Minnesota to the Great Lakes states . From late summer into fall ( mostly August to October ) , tropical cyclones sometimes approach or cross the Gulf and Atlantic states , bringing high winds , heavy rainfall , and storm surges ( often topped with battering waves ) to coastal areas .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_of_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 114635\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ian Clark (geologist) Content: Ian D. Clark is a professor in the Department of Earth Sciences at the University of Ottawa ( Canada ) , who has been publishing research on geoscience , groundwater and geochemistry since 1982 . His graduate work in isotope hydrogeology was at the University of Waterloo and the University of Paris . Clark is among the scientists who reject the mainstream scientific opinion on climate change ; in the 2007 UK television documentary The Great Global Warming Swindle , he states that changes in global temperature correlate with solar activity , saying `` Solar activity of the last hundred years , over the last several hundred years correlates very nicely on a decadal basis , with sea ice and Arctic temperatures . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Ian_Clark_(geologist)\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 114598\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Duncan Wingham Content: Duncan John Wingham ( born 12 October 1957 ) is a British physicist who is Professor of Climate Physics at University College London , and was the first Director of the Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling . He is chief executive of the Natural Environment Research Council and Principal Scientist for the CryoSat Satellite Mission . In the 1990s , Wingham was involved in a four-year satellite study of the Antarctic ice sheet . His conclusion then , and from later research , is that the Antarctic has contributed little to observed rising sea levels in the 20th century . However , he has also stated that `` it is possible that the consequences of global warming on sea level rise have been underestimated ... Other sources of rise must be underestimated . In particular it is possible that the effect of global warming on thermal expansion -LSB- on the oceans -RSB- is larger than we thought '' . In a 2005 interview Wingham stated '' -LSB- t -RSB- he Antarctic is to some extent insulated from global warming because to its north are zonal flows in the atmosphere and ocean , unimpeded by other landmasses ... I am not denying global warming . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Duncan_Wingham\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 114525\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Middle latitudes Content: The middle latitudes ( mid-latitudes , sometimes midlatitudes ) are between 23 ° 26 ' 22 '' North and 66 ° 33 ' 39 '' North , and between 23 ° 26 ' 22 '' South and 66 ° 33 ' 39 '' South latitude , or , the Earth 's temperate zones between the tropics and the Arctic and Antarctic polar regions . Weather fronts and extratropical cyclones are usually found in this area , as well as occasional tropical cyclones which have traveled from their areas of formation closer to the equator . The prevailing winds in the middle latitudes are often very strong . These parts of the world also see a wide variety of fast-changing weather as cold air masses from the poles and warm air masses from the tropics push up and down over them , sometimes alternating within hours of each other , especially in the roaring forties ( between 40 and 50 degrees latitude in both hemispheres ) . There are four types of epic mid-latitude climates : mediterranean , humid subtropical , marine west coast , and humid continental .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Middle_latitudes\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 114417\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Historical Climatology Network Content: The Global Historical Climatology Network ( GHCN ) is a database of temperature , precipitation and pressure records managed by the National Climatic Data Center , Arizona State University and the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center . The aggregate data are collected from many continuously reporting fixed stations at the Earth 's surface and represent the input of approximately 6000 temperature stations , 7500 precipitation stations and 2000 pressure stations . This work has often been used as a foundation for reconstructing past global temperatures , and was used in previous versions of two of the best-known reconstructions , that prepared by the National Climatic Data Center ( NCDC ) , and that prepared by NASA as its Goddard Institute for Space Studies ( GISS ) temperature set . The average temperature record is 60 years long with ~ 1650 records greater than 100 years and ~ 220 greater than 150 years ( based on GHCN v2 in 2006 ) . The earliest data included in the database were collected in 1697 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Historical_Climatology_Network\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 113325\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Miller-Casella thermometer Content: The Miller-Casella thermometer was a Six 's thermometer with a double bulb used extensively by the Challenger expedition during the late nineteenth century . The thermomemeter was used for water temperature readings along 360 different research stations around the world 's oceans . The thermometer , which was about 9 inches in length , was enclosed in a copper case and filled with a solution of creosote in spirit . A U-shaped mercury tube recorded maximum and minimum temperature as the thermometer was lowered and raised into the ocean . This design assumed accurate measurements could be taken as long as the water closer to the surface of the ocean was always warmer than that below . Scientists aboard the HMS Challenger later questioned this assumption and made temperutare measurements with reversing thermometers instead which would n't require the coldest water to be at the ocean 's bottom .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Miller-Casella_thermometer\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 113212\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bjørn Lomborg Content: Bjørn Lomborg ( -LSB- bjɶɐ̯n ˈlʌmbɒˀw -RSB- ; born 6 January 1965 ) is a Danish author and adjunct professor at the Copenhagen Business School as well as President of the Copenhagen Consensus Center . He is former director of the Danish government 's Environmental Assessment Institute ( EAI ) in Copenhagen . He became internationally known for his best-selling and controversial book , The Skeptical Environmentalist ( 2001 ) , in which he argues that many of the costly measures and actions adopted by scientists and policy makers to meet the challenges of global warming will ultimately have minimal impact on the world 's rising temperature . In 2002 , Lomborg and the Environmental Assessment Institute founded the Copenhagen Consensus , a project-based conference where prominent economists sought to establish priorities for advancing global welfare using methods based on the theory of welfare economics . In 2009 , Business Insider cited Lomborg as one of `` The 10 Most-Respected Global Warming Skeptics '' . While Lomborg campaigned against the Kyoto Protocol and other measures to cut carbon emissions in the short-term , he argued for adaptation to short-term temperature rises , and for spending money on research and development for longer-term environmental solutions . His issue is not with the reality of climate change , but rather with the economic and political approaches being taken ( or not taken ) to meet the challenges of that climate change . He is a strong advocate for focusing attention and resources on what he perceives as far more pressing world problems , such as AIDS , malaria and malnutrition . In his critique of the 2012 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development , Lomborg stated : `` Global warming is by no means our main environmental threat . '' In 2011 and 2012 , Lomborg was named a Top 100 Global Thinker by Foreign Policy `` for looking more right than ever on the politics of climate change '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Bjørn_Lomborg\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 113116\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climatic Research Unit email controversy Content: The Climatic Research Unit email controversy ( also known as `` Climategate '' ) began in November 2009 with the hacking of a server at the Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) at the University of East Anglia ( UEA ) by an external attacker , copying thousands of emails and computer files , the Climatic Research Unit documents , to various internet locations several weeks before the Copenhagen Summit on climate change . The story was first broken by climate change denialists with columnist James Delingpole popularising the term `` Climategate '' to describe the controversy . Several people considered climate change `` skeptics '' argued that the emails showed global warming was a scientific conspiracy , that scientists manipulated climate data and attempted to suppress critics . The CRU rejected this , saying the emails had been taken out of context and merely reflected an honest exchange of ideas . The mainstream media picked up the story as negotiations over climate change mitigation began in Copenhagen on 7 December 2009 . Because of the timing , scientists , policy makers and public relations experts said that the release of emails was a smear campaign intended to undermine the climate conference . In response to the controversy , the American Association for the Advancement of Science ( AAAS ) , the American Meteorological Society ( AMS ) and the Union of Concerned Scientists ( UCS ) released statements supporting the scientific consensus that the Earth 's mean surface temperature had been rising for decades , with the AAAS concluding , `` based on multiple lines of scientific evidence that global climate change caused by human activities is now underway ... it is a growing threat to society . '' Eight committees investigated the allegations and published reports , finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct . However , the reports called on the scientists to avoid any such allegations in the future by taking steps to regain public confidence in their work , for example by opening up access to their supporting data , processing methods and software , and by promptly honouring freedom of information requests . The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged throughout the investigations .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 112872\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Gordon McBean Content: Dr. Gordon McBean , , is a Canadian climatologist who serves as chairman of the board of trustees of the Canadian Foundation for Climate and Atmospheric Sciences . He is a professor at the University of Western Ontario and Chair for Policy in the Institute for Catastrophic Loss Reduction . Previously he was the Assistant Deputy Minister of Meteorological Service of Canada . In 1995 , McBean gave a speech to the World Meteorological Organization on global warming . In 2006 , McBean , with Dr. Andrew Weaver and Ken Denman , authored an open letter , signed by 90 climate scientists , to Prime Minister Stephen Harper calling for an effective national climate change strategy . Newswire press release The letter ( PDF ) Univ. of Western Ontario page Globe and Mail article The letter was a response to an earlier open letter to Harper from 60 scientists ( 19 Canadians ) arguing against the Kyoto accord and questioning its scientific basis : National Post April 6 , 2006 , retrieved April 20 , 2007 . In addition to his involvement with the Canadian Foundation for Climate and Atmospheric Sciences , McBean is member of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences partnerships committee and since 2014 president of the International Council for Science ( before 2014 member of the environment advisory committee ) . He also acts as a mentor for the Loran Scholars program .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Gordon_McBean\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 112828\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Alert, Nunavut Content: Alert , in the Qikiqtaaluk Region , Nunavut , Canada , is the northernmost permanently inhabited place in the world , at latitude 82 ° 30 ' 05 '' north , 817 km from the North Pole . The entire population of Baffin , Unorganized , the Statistics Canada name for Qikiqtaaluk , is located here . As of the 2016 census the population was reported as 62 , an increase of 1,140 % over the 2011 census . It takes its name from HMS Alert , which wintered 10 km east of the present station , off what is now Cape Sheridan , in 1875 -- 1876 . Alert has many temporary inhabitants as it hosts a military signals intelligence radio receiving facility at Canadian Forces Station Alert ( CFS Alert ) , as well as a co-located Environment Canada weather station , a Global Atmosphere Watch ( GAW ) atmosphere monitoring observatory , and the Alert Airport .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Alert,_Nunavut\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 112819\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves Content: The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves included severe heat waves that impacted most of the United States , Kazakhstan , Mongolia , China , Hong Kong , North Africa and the European continent as a whole , along with parts of Canada , Russia , Indochina , South Korea and Japan during May , June , July , and August 2010 . The first phase of the global heatwaves was caused by a moderate El Niño event , which lasted from June 2009 to May 2010 . The first phase lasted only from April 2010 to June 2010 , and caused only moderate above average temperatures in the areas affected . But it also set new record high temperatures for most of the area affected , in the Northern Hemisphere . The second phase ( the main , and most devastating phase ) was caused by a very strong La Niña event , which lasted from June 2010 to June 2011 . According to meteorologists , the 2010 -- 11 La Niña event was one of the strongest La Niña events ever observed . That same La Niña event also had devastating effects in the Eastern states of Australia . The second phase lasted from June 2010 to October 2010 , caused severe heat waves , and multiple record-breaking temperatures . The heatwaves began on April 2010 , when strong anticyclones began to develop , over most of the affected regions , in the Northern Hemisphere . The heatwaves ended in October 2010 , when the powerful anticyclones over most of the affected areas dissipated . The heat wave during the summer of 2010 was at its worst in June , over the Eastern United States , Middle East , Eastern Europe and European Russia , and over Northeastern China and southeastern Russia . June 2010 marked the fourth consecutive warmest month on record globally , at 0.66 ° C ( 1.22 ° F ) above average , while the period April -- June was the warmest ever recorded for land areas in the Northern Hemisphere , at 1.25 ° C ( 2.25 ° F ) above average . The previous record for the global average temperature in June was set in 2005 at 0.66 ° C ( 1.19 ° F ) , and the previous warm record for April -- June over Northern Hemisphere land areas was 1.16 ° C ( 2.09 ° F ) , set in 2007 . Sometime during June 2010 , the highest recorded temperature caused by the heatwave was 53.5 ° C , in Southeastern Russia , just north of Kazakhstan . The strongest of the anticyclones , the one situated over Siberia , registered a maximum high pressure of 1040 millibars . The weather caused forest fires in China , where three in a team of 300 died fighting a fire that broke out in the Binchuan County of Dali , as Yunnan suffered the worst drought in 60 years by February 17 . A major drought was reported across the Sahel as early as January . In August , a section of the Petermann Glacier tongue connecting northern Greenland , the Nares Strait and the Arctic Ocean broke off , the biggest ice shelf in the Arctic to detach in 48 years . By the time the heatwaves had ended in late October 2010 , about $ 500 billion ( 2011 USD ) of damage was done , in the Northern Hemisphere alone . The World Meteorological Organization stated that the heat waves , droughts and flooding events fit with predictions based on global warming for the 21st century , include those based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's 2007 4th Assessment Report . Some climatologists argue that these weather events would not have happened if the atmospheric carbon dioxide was at pre-industrial levels .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"2010_Northern_Hemisphere_summer_heat_waves\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 112574\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Skew-T log-P diagram Content: A Skew-T Log-P diagram is one of four thermodynamic diagrams commonly used in weather analysis and forecasting . In 1947 , N. Herlofson proposed a modification to the emagram which allows straight , horizontal isobars , and provides for a large angle between isotherms and dry adiabats , similar to that in the tephigram . It was thus more suitable for some of the newer analysis techniques being invented by the United States Air Force . The major use for skew-T log-P diagrams is the plotting of radiosonde soundings , which give a vertical profile of the temperature and dew point temperature throughout the troposphere and lower stratosphere . The isopleths on the diagram can then be used to simplify many tedious calculations involved , which were previously performed by hand or not at all . Many skew-T log-P diagrams also include a vertical representation of the wind speed and direction using wind barbs . Important atmospheric characteristics such as saturation , atmospheric instability , and wind shear are critical in severe weather forecasting , by which skew-T log-P diagrams allow for quick visual analysis .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Skew-T_log-P_diagram\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 112382\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming conspiracy theory Content: A global warming conspiracy theory invokes claims that scientific consensus on global warming is based on conspiracies to produce false data or suppress dissent . It is one of a number of tactics used in climate change denial to legitimize political controversy disputing this consensus . Global warming conspiracy theorists typically allege that , through worldwide acts of professional and criminal misconduct , the science behind global warming has been invented or distorted for ideological or financial reasons , or both .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_conspiracy_theory\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 112294\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Leipzig Declaration Content: The Leipzig Declaration on Global Climate Change is a statement made in 1995 , seeking to refute the claim there is a scientific consensus on the global warming issue . It was issued in an updated form in 1997 and revised again in 2005 , claiming to have been signed by 80 scientists and 25 television news meteorologists while the posting of 33 additional signatories was pending verification that those 33 additional scientists still agreed with the statement . All versions of the declaration , which opposes the global warming hypothesis and the Kyoto Protocol , were penned by Fred Singer 's Science and Environmental Policy Project ( SEPP ) . The first declaration was based on a November 9 -- 10 , 1995 conference , organized by Helmut Metzner in Leipzig , Germany . The second declaration was additionally based on a successor conference in Bonn , Germany on November 10 -- 11 , 1997 . The conferences were cosponsored by SEPP and the European Academy for Environmental Affairs and titled International Symposium on the Greenhouse Controversy .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Leipzig_Declaration\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 111717\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Skeptical Science Content: Skeptical Science ( occasionally abbreviated SkS ) is a climate science blog and information resource created in 2007 by Australian cognitive scientist John Cook . In addition to publishing articles on current events relating to climate science and climate policy , the site maintains a large database of articles analyzing the merit of arguments commonly put forth by those who oppose the mainstream scientific opinion on climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Skeptical_Science\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 111412\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Peter Doran Content: Peter Doran , Ph.D. is Professor of Geology and Geophysics at Louisiana State University . Doran specializes in polar regions , especially Antarctic climate and ecosystems . Doran was the lead author of a research paper about Antarctic temperatures that was published in the journal Nature in January 2002 . Because he and his colleagues found that some parts of Antarctica had cooled between 1964 and 2000 , his paper has been frequently cited by opponents of the global warming theory , such as Ann Coulter and Michael Crichton . In an opinion piece in the July 27 , 2006 New York Times , Doran characterized this as a `` misinterpretation '' and stated , `` I have never thought such a thing ... I would like to remove my name from the list of scientists who dispute global warming . '' ( The temporary phenomenon is related to the `` hole '' in the ozone . As the `` hole heals '' the Antarctic will dramatically warm quickly . ) Doran and his grad student Maggie Kendall Zimmerman also published a paper in the Jan 27 , 2009 issue of EOS showing that active climate researchers almost unanimously agree that humans have had a significant impact on the Earth 's climate . Both an Antarctic stream and glacier were named for Doran by the U.S. Geological Survey to commemorate his many significant research contributions conducted on the continent .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Peter_Doran\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 111203\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Media_coverage_of_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 110710\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmospheric Circulation Reconstructions over the Earth Content: The Atmospheric Circulation Reconstructions over the Earth , ACRE , is an international science project , began in 2008 , that recovers historical weather observations to reconstruct past global and local weather patterns and so support meteorological reanalysis . The project aims to collect weather data from the past 250 years by linking international meteorological organisations to support data recovery projects and the imaging and digitisation of historical meteorological observations made at , for example , inland stations , lighthouses , or by ships at sea or in ports . The project aims to create historical datasets that are spatially and temporally complete , so as to be of value at a local , or regional level , as well as on a global scale . ACRE aims to recover millions of historic weather observations . This data will be deposited into two databases , ISPD - the International Surface Pressure Databank , ICOADS - the International Comprehensive Ocean-Atmosphere Data Set . This data will also be used to build a global dataset of historical weather reconstructions based on a grid of two degrees of latitude by two of longitude at six hourly intervals , entitled the 20th Century Reanalysis , or 20CR . Version one of 20CR , covering 1891 to 2008 , was released in Autumn 2009 . Version two , covering 1871 to 2010 , appeared in December 2011 . Plans for a third version , covering 1850 to 2011 , have been put ` on hold ' following a cut in the budget of NOAA . It is intended that all the data recovered and the 20CR will be made freely available .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmospheric_Circulation_Reconstructions_over_the_Earth\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 110584\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Norwegian-U.S. Scientific Traverse of East Antarctica Content: The Norwegian-U.S. Scientific Traverse of East Antarctica is a research program consisting of two overland traverses of East Antarctica : the first from the Norwegian Troll Station to the South Pole in the 2007/2008 season ; and a return traverse via a different route in 2008/2009 . The main research focus of the program is climate change , the stated goals being to : Investigate climate variability in Dronning Maud Land of East Antarctica on time scales of years to a thousand years . Establish spatial and temporal variability in snow accumulation over this area of Antarctica to understand its impact on sea level . Investigate the impact of atmospheric and oceanic variability on the chemical composition of firn and ice in the region . Revisit areas and sites first explored by traverses in the 1960s , for detection of possible changes and to establish benchmark data sets for future research efforts . The program is part of Trans-Antarctic Scientific Traverse Expeditions -- Ice Divide of East Antarctica ( TASTE-IDEA ) , and the International Partners in Ice Coring Sciences ( IPICS ) , both of which have ISCU-WMO endorsement for the International Polar Year 2007-2009 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Norwegian-U.S._Scientific_Traverse_of_East_Antarctica\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 109966\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: David H. Bromwich Content: David H. Bromwich is a member of the Byrd Polar Research Center and a professor at the Department of Geography , The Ohio State University . His work has involved the evaluation and diagnosis of polar weather and climate variability . He received his Ph.D. in meteorology from the University of Wisconsin , Madison . In 1979 he joined Ohio State 's Byrd Polar Research Center as a research scientist . His research has focused on the variability of precipitation over Antarctica , Greenland , and the Arctic Ocean , thus contributing to the understanding of climate and potential sea level changes . He has made contributions to defining aspects of U.S. science policy . Having helped identify the need to improve numerical weather prediction ( NWP ) for the Antarctic , Bromwich has been influential in the development and evaluation of the Antarctic Mesoscale Prediction System ( AMPS ) . In April 2001 AMPS was one of four weather models used to predict a window of opportunity for the emergency medical evacuation of Ronald Shemenski from the Amundsen -- Scott South Pole Station . Flights to the base are normally halted from late February until November because of the extreme winter cold and darkness . But the airlift was successfully completed and pilot Sean Loutitt confirmed the reliance on the forecasts , stating `` The weather was the biggest concern '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"David_H._Bromwich\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 109636\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Neoglaciation Content: The neoglaciation ( `` renewed glaciation '' ) describes the documented cooling trend in the Earth 's climate during the Holocene , following the retreat of the Wisconsin glaciation , the most recent glacial period . Neoglaciation has followed the hypsithermal or Holocene Climatic Optimum , the warmest point in the Earth 's climate during the current interglacial stage . The neoglaciation has no well-marked universal beginning : local conditions and ecological inertia affected the onset of detectably cooler ( and wetter ) conditions . Driven inexorably by the Milankovitch cycle , cooler summers in higher latitudes of North America , which would cease to completely melt the annual snowfall , were masked at first by the presence of the slowly disappearing continental ice sheets , which persisted long after the astronomically calculated moment of maximum summer warmth : `` the neoglaciation can be said to have begun when the cooling caught up with the warming '' , remarked E. C. Pielou . With the close of the `` Little Ice Age '' ( mid-14th to late 19th centuries ) , neoglaciation appears to have been stalled in the late 20th century , assumed to be caused by anthropogenic global warming . Whether it has been temporarily or semi-permanently stalled , neoglaciation has been marked by a retreat from the warm conditions of the Climatic Optimum and the advance or reformation of glaciers that had not existed since the last ice age . In the mountains of western North America , montane glaciers that had completely melted reformed shortly before 5000 BP . The most severe part of the best documented neoglacial period , especially in Europe and the North Atlantic , is termed the `` Little Ice Age '' . In North America , neoglaciation had ecological effects in the spread of muskeg on flat , poorly drained land , such as the bed of recently drained Lake Agassiz and in the Hudson Bay lowlands , in the retreat of grassland before an advancing forest border in the Great Plains , and in shifting ranges of forest trees and diagnostic plant species ( identified through palynology ) . The view that neoglaciation is ending in present times , is assumed by those who identify the most recent climate changes and global warming as the onset of a new period in Earth history , speculatively calling it the `` Early anthropocene '' , as a coming geological age dominated by the effects of Homo sapiens .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Neoglaciation\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 109558\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: National Climate Assessment Content: The National Climate Assessment ( NCA ) is a United States government interagency ongoing effort on climate change science conducted under the auspices of the Global Change Research Act of 1990 . The NCA is a major product of the U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which coordinates a team of experts and receives input from a Federal Advisory Committee . The Fourth National Climate Assessment is being developed . For the Third National Climate Assessment , released in 2014 , USGCRP coordinated hundreds of experts and received advice from a sixty-member Federal Advisory Committee . NCA research is integrated and summarized in the mandatory ongoing National Climate Assessment Reports . The reports are `` extensively reviewed by the public and experts , including federal agencies and a panel of the National Academy of Sciences . The First National Climate Assessment was published in 2000 . The First National Climate Assessment Report was `` prepared by the National Assessment Synthesis Team ( NAST ) , an advisory committee chartered under the Federal Advisory Committee Act to help the US Global Change Research Program fulfill its mandate under the Global Change Research Act of 1990 . The National Science and Technology Council forwarded the report to the President and Congress for their consideration as required by the Global Change Research Act . Administrative support for the US Global Change Research Program is provided by the University Corporation for Atmospheric Research , which is sponsored by the National Science Foundation ( NCA 2000 ) . '' Between 2002 and 2009 , USGCRP previously known as the U.S. Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) , produced twenty-one Synthesis and Assessment Products ( SAPs ) . The second NCA was published in 2009 and the third was released in 2014 . NCA 's overarching goal according to their May 20 , 2011 engagement strategy summary , `` is to enhance the ability of the U.S. to anticipate , mitigate , and adapt to changes in the global environment ( NCA 2011:2 ) . '' According to the USGCRP official website the NCA , In 2013 , the President 's Climate Action Plan released by the Executive Office of the President specifically noted the importance of the National Climate Assessments in achieving the goal of `` Using Sound Science to Manage Climate Impacts '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"National_Climate_Assessment\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 109549\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Freshet Content: The term freshet is most commonly used to describe a spring thaw resulting from snow and ice melt in rivers located in the northern latitudes of North America . A spring freshet can sometimes last several weeks on large river systems , resulting in significant inundation of flood plains as the snowpack melts in the river 's catchment area . Freshets occur with generally diminishing strength and duration depending upon the snowpacks having large accumulations and then the local average rates of warming temperatures ; late spring melts allowing faster flooding from the relatively longer days and higher solar angle against more southerly latitudes and elevations reaching average melting temperatures sooner where earlier and generally lesser seasonal snow piles melt more gradually spread over a longer melt period . Serious flooding from southern freshets are more often related to rain storms of large tropical weather systems rolling in from the South Atlantic or Gulf of Mexico , to add their powerful heating capacity to lesser snow packs . Tropically induced rainfall influenced quick melts can also affect snow cover to latitudes as far north as southern Canada , so long as the generally colder air mass is not blocking northward movement of low pressure systems . In the eastern part of the continent , annual freshets occur from the Canadian Taiga ranging along both sides of the Great Lakes then down through the heavily forested Appalachian mountain chain and St. Lawrence valley from Northern Maine into barrier ranges in North Carolina and Tennessee . In the western part of the continent , freshets occur throughout the generally much higher elevations of the various west coast mountain ranges that extend southward down from Alaska even into the northern parts of Arizona and New Mexico . The term can also refer to the following : A flood resulting from heavy rain or a spring thaw . Whereas heavy rain often causes a flash flood , a spring thaw event is generally a more incremental process , depending upon local climate and topography . A stream , river or flood of fresh water which empties into the ocean , usually flowing through an estuary . A small stream of fresh water , irrespective of its outflow . A pool of fresh water , according to Samuel Johnson and followed in Thomas Sheridan 's dictionary , but this might have been a misinterpretation on Johnson 's part , and it is at best not a common usage .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Freshet\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 109265\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Subarctic climate Content: The subarctic climate ( also called subpolar climate , subalpine climate , or boreal climate ) is a climate characterised by long , usually very cold winters , and short , cool to mild summers . It is found on large landmasses , away from the moderating effects of an ocean , generally at latitudes from 50 ° to 70 ° N poleward of the humid continental climates . These climates represent Köppen climate classification Dfc , Dwc , Dsc , Dfd , Dwd and Dsd . In very small areas at high altitudes around the Mediterranean Basin , Iran , Kyrgyzstan , Tajikistan , Turkey , Alaska and other parts of the northwestern United States ( Eastern Washington , Eastern Oregon and Idaho ) the climate is classified as Dsc with a dry summer climate , such as in Seneca , Oregon .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Subarctic_climate\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 108811\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Boreal ecosystem Content: A boreal ecosystem is an ecosystem with a subarctic climate in the Northern Hemisphere , roughly between latitude 60 ° to 70 ° N. Boreal forests are also known as the taiga , particularly in Europe and Asia . The Boreal Ecosystem-Atmosphere Study ( BOREAS ) was a major international research program in the Canadian boreal forest . NASA sponsored the program , and most research took place between 1994 and 1996 . Its primary goals were to determine how the boreal forest interacts with the atmosphere , how climate change will affect the forest , and how changes in the forest affect weather and climate . The ecosystems that lie immediately to the south ( in the Northern Hemisphere ) of boreal zones are often called hemiboreal . The Köppen symbols of boreal ecosystems are Dfc , Dwc , Dfd , and Dwd .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Boreal_ecosystem\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 108722\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: King Sejong Station Content: The King Sejong Station is a research station for the Korea Antarctic Research Program that is named after King Sejong the Great of Joseon ( 1397 -- 1450 ) . Established on February 17 , 1988 , it consists of 11 facility buildings and two observatories , and it is located on the Barton Peninsula ( King George Island ) , it is currently overseen by station chief scientist In-Young Ahn . It experiences a fairly mild climate , and therefore draws a large number of animals for summer breeding ( which , unsurprisingly , draw a lot of biologists ) . In the summer , the station supports up to 90 people from the Korea Polar Research Institute , and guest scientists from other institutions as well . Over winter , it accommodates only 17 engineers and scientists who maintain the station and routinely collect data ( meteorological records , oceanographical parameters , etc. ) , but their main focus is on tracking the general change of the natural environment . Researchers from Korea continually collaborate with various other institutes in Antarctica and the rest of the world by participating in , monitoring , and contributing to the World Meteorological Organization , the Global Sea-level Observing System , the International Seismological Center , and the Intermagnet Project . The station is usually re-supplied yearly by the RV Onnuri and more frequently by planes flying from Jubany in Argentina and the Chilean Eduardo Frei Base . The RV Araon was commissioned in 2009 , and she supplies South Korea 's research stations , including the Jang Bogo Station .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"King_Sejong_Station\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 108415\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Subtropical ridge Content: The subtropical ridge , also known as the subtropical high or horse latitudes , is a significant belt of atmospheric high pressure situated around the latitudes of 30 ° N in the Northern Hemisphere and 30 ° S in the Southern Hemisphere . It is the product of the global air circulation cell known as the Hadley Cell . The subtropical ridge is characterized by mostly calm winds , which act to reduce air quality under its axis by causing fog overnight , and haze during daylight hours as a result of the stable atmosphere found near its location . The air descending from the upper troposphere flows out from its center at surface level toward the upper and lower latitudes of each hemisphere , creating both the trade winds and the westerlies . The subtropical ridge moves poleward during the summer , reaching its most northern latitude in early fall , before moving equatorward during the cold season . The El Niño southern climate oscillation ( ENSO ) can displace the northern hemisphere subtropical ridge , with La Niñas allowing for a more northerly axis for the ridge , while El Niños show flatter , more southerly ridges . The change of the ridge position during ENSO cycles changes the tracks of tropical cyclones that form around their equatorward and western peripheries . As the subtropical ridge varies in position and strength , it can enhance or depress monsoon regimes around their low-latitude periphery . The term `` horse latitudes '' refers to and is synonymous with the subtropical ridge or subtropical high .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Subtropical_ridge\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 108409\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Myron Ebell Content: Myron Ebell is Director of Global Warming and International Environmental Policy at the Competitive Enterprise Institute ( CEI ) , a libertarian advocacy group based in Washington , D.C. . He is also the chairman of the Cooler Heads Coalition , a loose coalition formed in 1997 which presents itself as `` focused on dispelling the myths of global warming by exposing flawed economic , scientific , and risk analysis '' . In these organizations , Ebell has been central in promoting climate change denial , distributing his views to the media and politicians . Ebell , who is not a scientist , has been described as a climate change skeptic , a climate contrarian and a climate change denier . In September 2016 , Ebell was appointed by then Republican presidential candidate Donald Trump to lead his transition team for the United States Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Myron_Ebell\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 108385\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: LOWERN Content: LOWERN is an acronym for 6 factors that affect climate . Latitude . Depending on how close or how far it is to the equator . Ocean currents . Certain ocean currents have different temperatures . Warm ocean currents warm the air above it , which warms the coast . Cold ocean currents cool the air above it , which cools the coast . This helps keep the coast a consistent temperature . Wind and Air masses . Heated ground causes air to rise which results in lower air pressure . As it rises it cools and descends to the ground resulting in high air pressure . This cycle repeats which creates wind . These air masses absorb the climate of the air below it . Elevation . The higher up you are , the colder and drier it will be . When air rises it expands due to low air pressure which causes it to cool . Relief . The differences in the elevation in land . As air is forced to rise over a piece of land ( e.g. a mountain ) the temperature decreases and condensation increases . As it condensates water droplets get bigger and heavier and are forced to fall . Once the air mass goes over the mountain the temperature and evaporation increases but condensations decreases , resulting in a halt in precipitation and rain shadows . Nearness to Water . Water heats up and cools down slower than land does , having a moderating effect . On colder days , the water heats up the land , whereas on hotter days , the land is cooled down by the water . These areas also experience more precipitation . Category : Climatology\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"LOWERN\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 108173\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carl Mears Content: Carl Mears is a Senior Scientist , at Remote Sensing Systems , since 1998 . He has worked on validation of SSM/I derived winds , and rain-flagging algorithm for the QuikScat scatterometer . He is best known for his work with Frank Wentz in developing a satellite temperature record from MSU and AMSU . Intercomparison of this record with the earlier UAH satellite temperature record , developed by John Christy and Roy Spencer , revealed deficiencies in the earlier work ; specifically , the warming trend in the RSS version is larger than the UAH one . Mears was a major contributor to Temperature Trends in the Lower Atmosphere : Steps for Understanding and Reconciling Differences , the first released report from the US Climate Change Science Program . He also contributed to the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Working Group one report , Climate Change 2007 - The Physical Science Basis .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Carl_Mears\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 108085\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2011 North American heat wave Content: The 2011 North American heat wave was a deadly summer 2011 heat wave that affected the Southern Plains , Midwestern United States , Eastern Canada , Northeastern United States , and much of the Eastern Seaboard , and had Heat index/Humidex readings reaching upwards of 131 ° F. On a national basis , the heat wave was the hottest in 75 years .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"2011_North_American_heat_wave\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 108005\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 107752\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Warming: The Signs and The Science Content: Global Warming : The Signs and The Science is a 2005 documentary film on global warming made by ETV , the PBS affiliate in South Carolina , and hosted by Alanis Morissette . The documentary examines the science behind global warming and pulls together segments filmed in the United States , Asia and South America and shows how people in these different locales are responding in different ways to the challenges of global warming to show some of the ways that the world can respond .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Warming:_The_Signs_and_The_Science\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 107689\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Surveys of scientists' views on climate change Content: Surveys of scientists ' views on climate change - with a focus on human-caused or anthropogenic global warming ( AGW ) - have been undertaken since the 1990s . A 2016 paper ( which was co-authored by Naomi Oreskes , Peter Doran , William Anderegg , Bart Verheggen , Ed Maibach , J. Stuart Carlton and John Cook , and which was based on a half a dozen independent studies by the authors ) concluded that `` the finding of 97 % consensus -LSB- that humans are causing recent global warming -RSB- in published climate research is robust and consistent with other surveys of climate scientists and peer-reviewed studies . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Surveys_of_scientists'_views_on_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 107638\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Thaw (weather) Content: January thaw is a term applied to a thaw or rise in temperature in mid-winter found in mid-latitude North America . Sinusoidal estimates of expected temperatures , for northern locales , usually place the lowest temperatures around January 23 and the highest around July 24 , and provide fairly accurate estimates of temperature expectations . Actual average temperatures in North America usually significantly differ twice over the course of the year : Mid-autumn temperatures tend to be warmer than predicted by the sinusoidal model , creating the impression of extended summer warmth known as Indian summer . For five days around January 25 , temperatures are usually significantly warmer than predicted by the sinusoidal estimate , and also warmer than neighboring temperatures on both sides . During this `` thaw '' period , usually lasting for about a week , temperatures are generally about 6 ° C ( 10 ° F ) above normal . This varies from year to year , and temperatures fluctuate enough that such a rise in late-January temperature would be unremarkable ; what is remarkable ( and unexplained ) is the tendency for such rises to occur more commonly in late January than in mid-January or early February , which sinusoidal estimates have to be slightly warmer . In some regions ( such as northern Canada ) this phenomenon will not be manifest as a `` thaw '' in the technical sense , since temperatures will remain below freezing . The January thaw is believed to be a weather singularity . A possible physical mechanism for such phenomena was offered in the 1950s by E.G. Bowen : he suggested that some `` calendaricities '' ( as he called them ) might be explicable in terms of meteoric particles from cometary orbits acting as ice nuclei in terrestrial clouds ; his theory then received some support from several sources . However , Bowen 's ideas later fell out of favour with the development of atmospheric dynamic modelling techniques , although one of his rainfall peaks does seem to correspond with the date of the January thaw . Data analysis has not found statistically significant support for the supposed January thaw . The authors of this study state that `` the effects of sampling in finite climate records are wholly adequate to account for the existence of January thaw ` features ' in northeastern U.S. temperature data . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Thaw_(weather)\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 107594\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: U.S. Global Change Research Program Content: The United States Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) coordinates and integrates federal research on changes in the global environment and their implications for society . The program began as a presidential initiative in 1989 and was codified by Congress through the Global Change Research Act of 1990 ( P.L. 101-606 ) , which called for `` a comprehensive and integrated United States research program which will assist the Nation and the world to understand , assess , predict , and respond to human-induced and natural processes of global change . '' Thirteen departments and agencies participate in the USGCRP , which was known as the U.S. Climate Change Science Program from 2002 through 2008 . The program is steered by the Subcommittee on Global Change Research under the Committee on Environment , Natural Resources and Sustainability , overseen by the Executive Office of the President , and facilitated by a National Coordination Office . During the past two decades , the United States , through the USGCRP , has made the world 's largest scientific investment in the areas of climate change and global change research . Since its inception , the USGCRP has supported research and observational activities in collaboration with several other national and international science programs . These activities led to major advances in several key areas including : Observing and understanding short - and long-term changes in climate , the ozone layer , and land cover ; Identifying the impacts of these changes on ecosystems and society ; Estimating future changes in the physical environment , and vulnerabilities and risks associated with those changes ; and Providing scientific information to enable effective decision making to address the threats and opportunities posed by climate and global change . These advances have been documented in numerous assessments commissioned by the program and have played prominent roles in international assessments such as those of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Program results and plans are documented in the program 's annual report , Our Changing Planet .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"U.S._Global_Change_Research_Program\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 107554\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Content: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change : A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases was a 2005 international conference that examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration , and the 2 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) ceiling on global warming thought necessary to avoid the most serious effects of global warming . Previously this had generally been accepted as being 550 ppm . The conference took place under the United Kingdom 's presidency of the G8 , with the participation of around 200 ` internationally renowned ' scientists from 30 countries . It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter , from 1 February to 3 February .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 107016\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Humid continental climate Content: A humid continental climate ( Köppen prefix D ) is a climatic region defined by Russian-German climatologist Wladimir Köppen in 1900 , which is typified by large seasonal temperature differences , with warm to hot ( and often humid ) summers and cold ( sometimes severely cold ) winters . Precipitation is usually well distributed through the year . The definition of this climate regarding temperature is as follows : the mean temperature of the coldest month must be below − 3 ° C and there must be at least four months whose mean temperatures are at or above 10 ° C . Some climatologists prefer to use the 0 ° C isotherm as it is more commonly used . In addition , the location in question must not be semi-arid or arid . Humid continental climates tend to be found between latitudes 40 ° N and 60 ° N , within the central and northeastern portions of North America , Europe , and Asia . They are much less commonly found in the Southern Hemisphere due to the larger ocean area at that latitude and the consequent greater maritime moderation . In the Northern Hemisphere some of the humid continental climates , typically in Scandinavia , Nova Scotia , and Newfoundland are heavily maritime-influenced , with relatively cool summers and winters being just below the freezing mark . More extreme humid continental climates found in southern Siberia and the American Midwest combine hotter summer maxima and colder winters than the marine-based variety . In some areas there are both strong subtropical and subarctic air mass influences depending on season , like the humid and hot summers and the frigid winters of Milwaukee , Wisconsin in the Upper Midwest of the United States .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Humid_continental_climate\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 106650\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Remote Sensing Systems Content: Remote Sensing Systems ( RSS ) is a private research company founded in 1974 by Frank Wentz . It processes microwave data from a variety of NASA satellites . Most of their research is supported by the Earth Science Enterprise program . The company is based in Santa Rosa , California . They are a widely cited source of data , on the satellite temperature record . Their data is one source of evidence for global warming . Research by Carl Mears , Matthias Schabel , and Wentz , all of RSS , highlighted errors in the early satellite temperature records compiled by John Christy and Roy Spencer at UAH . The UAH data had previously showed no significant temperature trend , bringing the derived satellite data into closer agreement with surface temperature trends , radiosonde data and computer models . The UAH data is now closer to the RSS data but differences remain , for example the Lower Troposphere global average trend since 1979 , RSS currently have +0.133 K/decade while UAH have 0.140 K/decade , while the mid troposphere difference is even more marked at 0.079 K/decade and 0.052 K/decade respectively . However , in a recent online YouTube video , Dr. Carl Mears , a senior scientist with the team behind the satellite data , explained how he believes his data set needed correction . I would have to say that the surface data seems that it 's more accurate , because a number of groups analyze the surface data , including some who set out to prove the other ones wrong , and they all get more or less the same answer .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Remote_Sensing_Systems\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 106512\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: North American Ensemble Forecast System Content: The North American Ensemble Forecast System ( NAEFS ) is a joint project involving the Meteorological Service of Canada ( MSC ) in Canada , the National Weather Service ( NWS ) in the United States , and the National Meteorological Service of Mexico ( NMSM ) in Mexico providing numerical weather prediction ensemble guidance for the 1 - to 16-day forecast period . The NAEFS combines the Canadian MSC ( Global Environmental Multiscale Model ) and the US NWS global ensemble prediction systems ( Global Forecast System ) , improving probabilistic operational guidance over what can be built from any individual country 's ensemble . Model guidance from the NAEFS is incorporated into the forecasts of the respective national agencies . NAEFS operates on the fundamental principles of ensemble forecasting which provides a range of possible weather forecasts of the atmospheric state over a given forecast period . The initial state of the atmosphere and/or the numerical weather prediction model configuration are slightly varied to provide a range of possible forecast solutions . The global ensemble prediction systems at MSC and NWS use slightly different , but equally valid methods to initialize and integrate the atmospheric state . By combining the ensembles from both centers into one ensemble , the possible range of future atmospheric states for a given forecast period are better sampled , producing on average , improved estimates of the future atmospheric state and the associated uncertainty . NAEFS collaboration allows the national weather agencies to pool their research resources and make improvements to the ensemble prediction systems more quickly and efficiently . The exchange of knowledge allows research and operations to develop a new generation of ensemble products with the goal of improving timeliness and accuracy in alerting the public of high impact weather events .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"North_American_Ensemble_Forecast_System\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 106479\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Eismitte Content: Eismitte , in English also called Mid-Ice , was the site of an Arctic expedition in the interior of Greenland that took place from July 1930 through August 1931 , and claimed the life of noted German scientist Alfred Wegener . The name `` Eismitte '' means Ice-Center in German , and the campsite was located 402 km from the coast at an estimated altitude of 3,000 meters ( 9,843 feet ) . The coldest temperature recorded during the expedition was − 64.9 ° C ( − 85 ° F ) , while the warmest temperature noted was − 2.8 ° C ( 27 ° F ) . For the 12-month period beginning September 1 , 1930 and ending August 31 , 1931 , the warmest month , July , had a mean monthly temperature of − 12.2 ° C ( 10 ° F ) , while the coldest month , February , averaged − 47.2 ° C ( − 53 ° F ) . Over the same period a total of 110 millimeters ( 4.33 inches ) of water-equivalent precipitation was recorded , with most of it , rather surprisingly , being received in winter . At the latitude of the camp , the sun does not set between May 13 and July 30 each year , and does not rise between November 23 and January 20 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Eismitte\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 106464\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 50th parallel north Content: The 50th parallel north is a circle of latitude that is 50 degrees north of the Earth 's equatorial plane . It crosses Europe , Asia , the Pacific Ocean , North America , and the Atlantic Ocean . At this latitude the sun is visible for 16 hours , 22 minutes during the summer solstice and 8 hours , 4 minutes during the winter solstice . The maximum altitude of the sun on the summer solstice is 63.5 degrees and on the winter solstice it is 16.5 degrees . At this latitude , the average sea surface temperature between 1982 and 2011 was about 8.5 ° C ( 47.3 ° F ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"50th_parallel_north\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 106426\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Patrick Michaels Content: Patrick J. ( `` Pat '' ) Michaels ( born February 15 , 1950 ) is an American climatologist . Michaels is a senior fellow in environmental studies at the Cato Institute . Until 2007 he was research professor of environmental sciences at the University of Virginia , where he had worked from 1980 . A self-described skeptic on the issue of global warming , he is a past president of the American Association of State Climatologists . He has written a number of books and papers on climate change , including Sound and Fury : The Science and Politics of Global Warming ( 1992 ) , The Satanic Gases ( 2000 ) , and Meltdown : The Predictable Distortion of Global Warming by Scientists , Politicians , and the Media ( 2004 ) . He 's also the co-author of Climate of Extremes : Global Warming Science They Do n't Want You to Know ( 2009 ) . Michaels ' viewpoint , as argued in a 2002 article in the journal Climate Research , is that the planet will see `` a warming range of 1.3 -- 3.0 ° C , with a central value of 1.9 ° C '' for the 1990 to 2100 period ( an analysis far smaller than the IPCC 's average predictions ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Patrick_Michaels\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 106426\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 106227\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Roger Pulwarty Content: Roger S. Pulwarty is a scientist from Trinidad and Tobago and contributed to the work of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . He is the director of the US National Integrated Drought Information System at the National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) in Boulder , Colorado . Roger Pulwarty earned a B.S. degree ( Hons . ) in Atmospheric Sciences from York University in Toronto in 1986 and a Ph.D. in Climatology from the University of Boulder at Colorado in 1994 , where he worked under Professors Roger Barry and Herbert Riehl . His research and publications are on climate , climate impacts and adaptation policy in Western North America , Latin America and the Caribbean . From 1998-2002 he was the program director for the NOAA Regional Integrated Sciences and Assessments . He is Professor Adjunct at the University of Colorado at Boulder and the University of the West Indies . Dr. Pulwarty is a lead author on Chapter 17 of the 2007 IPCC Working Group II on Impacts , Adaptation and Vulnerability , on the IPCC 2008 Technical Report on Climate Change and Water and on Synthesis and Assessments Reports of the US Global Change Research Program . The IPCC is an intergovernmental body mandated by the UN to study the origins and effects of climate change on society and ecosystems . Dr. Pulwarty has served on Committees of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences , and has provided testimonies before the U.S. Congress on climate , water resources and adaptation . Dr. Pulwarty acts in advisory roles on climate , natural resources , and disaster management to several U.S. and international interests including the Western Governors Association , the Department of the Interior , the governments of CARICOM ( the Caribbean Economic Community ) , the Organization of American States , the UNDP , UNEP and the World Bank .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Roger_Pulwarty\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 106198\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global temperature record Content: The global temperature record shows the fluctuations of the temperature of the atmosphere and the oceans through various spans of time. The most detailed information exists since 1850, when methodical thermometer-based records began. There are numerous estimates of temperatures since the end of the Pleistocene glaciation, particularly during the current Holocene epoch. Older time periods are studied by paleoclimatology.\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_temperature_record\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 106046\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 105997\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Canada Content: Canada ( -LSB- ˈkænədə -RSB- -LSB- kanadɑ -RSB- ) is a country in the northern part of North America . Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic to the Pacific and northward into the Arctic Ocean , covering 9.98 e6km2 , making it the world 's second-largest country by total area and the fourth-largest country by land area . Canada 's border with the United States is the world 's longest binational land border . The majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate , but southerly areas are warm in summer . Canada is sparsely populated , the majority of its land territory being dominated by forest and tundra and the Rocky Mountains . It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities , many near the southern border . One third of the population lives in the three largest cities : Toronto , Montreal and Vancouver . Its capital is Ottawa , and other major urban areas include Calgary , Edmonton , Quebec City , Winnipeg and Hamilton . Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization . Beginning in the 16th century , British and French claims were made on the area , with the colony of Canada first being established by the French in 1535 during Jacques Cartier 's second voyage to New France . As a consequence of various conflicts , Great Britain gained and lost territories within British North America until it was left , in the late 18th century , with what mostly geographically comprises Canada today . Pursuant to the British North America Act , on July 1 , 1867 , the colonies of Canada , New Brunswick , and Nova Scotia joined to form the semi-autonomous federal Dominion of Canada . This began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada . In 1931 , Canada achieved near total independence from the United Kingdom with the Statute of Westminster 1931 , but at the time , Canada decided to allow the British Parliament to temporarily retain the power to amend Canada 's constitution , on request from the Parliament of Canada . With the Constitution Act 1982 , Canada took over that authority ( as the conclusion of Patriation ) , removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom , giving the country full sovereignty . Canada is a federal parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy , with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state . The country is officially bilingual at the federal level . It is one of the world 's most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations , the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries . Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world , relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources and well-developed international trade networks . Canada 's long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture . Canada is a developed country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index . It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency , civil liberties , quality of life , economic freedom , and education . Canada is a Commonwealth realm member of the Commonwealth of Nations , a member of the Francophonie , and part of several major international and intergovernmental institutions or groupings including the United Nations , the North Atlantic Treaty Organization , the G8 , the Group of Ten , the G20 , the North American Free Trade Agreement and the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Canada\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 105841\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sudden stratospheric warming Content: A sudden stratospheric warming ( SSW ) is an event where the polar vortex of westerly winds in the winter hemisphere slows down or even reverses direction over the course of a few days . The change is accompanied by a rise of stratospheric temperature by several tens of kelvins .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Sudden_stratospheric_warming\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 105838\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Temperate climate Content: In geography , temperate or tepid latitudes of Earth lie between the tropics and the polar regions . The temperatures in these regions are generally relatively moderate , rather than extremely hot or cold , and the changes between summer and winter are also usually moderate .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Temperate_climate\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 105831\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Space mirror (climate engineering) Content: The use of space mirrors as an anti-global warming measure is a proposed technology for climate change mitigation by deflection of sunlight . It was one of a series of proposals for controlling global warming made to the United States government in 2001 . At the `` Response Options to Rapid or Severe Climate Change '' round-table meeting organized by the President 's Climate Change Technology Program in September 2001 to gather ideas for averting climate change , one of the proposals was to station one or more wire-mesh `` mirrors '' in orbit to deflect sunlight back into space or to filter it . The idea was proposed by Lowell Wood , a senior staff scientist at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory , who calculated that deflecting 1 % of sunlight would restore climatic stability , and that that would require either a single mirror 600000 sqmi in area or several smaller ones . Wood had been researching the idea for more than ten years but considered it so infeasible that it should only be a back-up plan for solving the global warming problem . In January 2007 , The Guardian reported that the US government was recommending that research on sunlight deflection , including space mirrors , be continued as `` insurance '' and that the next United Nations Report on Climate Change advocate such a strategy . In addition to the space mirror , suggested sunlight-reducing techniques included launching thousands of highly reflective balloons and pumping sulphate droplets into the upper atmosphere to emulate volcanic emissions . Space mirrors were first considered in the 1980s as a way to cool the climate of Venus . James Early , also at Livermore , in 1989 proposed using a `` space shade '' 2,000 kilometers in diameter orbiting at Lagrangian Point L1 . He estimated the cost at between one and ten trillion US dollars and suggested manufacturing it on the moon using moon rock . Using space mirrors as a space sunshade to reduce the impact of sunlight falls into the category of geoengineering : deliberately modifying the earth 's climate . At a conference on the topic organized by Daniel Schrag of Harvard University and David Keith of the University of Calgary in November 2007 , the consensus was that it was worth studying such ideas further despite their high cost , the doubtful feasibility of some including the space mirror , and the risk of their distracting attention from reduction of greenhouse gas emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Space_mirror_(climate_engineering)\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 105691\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Great Global Warming Swindle Content: The Great Global Warming Swindle is a polemical documentary film that suggests that the scientific opinion on climate change is influenced by funding and political factors , and questions whether scientific consensus on global warming exists . The program was formally criticised by Ofcom , the UK broadcasting regulatory agency , which upheld complaints of misrepresentation made by David King . The film , made by British television producer Martin Durkin , presents scientists , economists , politicians , writers , and others who dispute the scientific consensus regarding anthropogenic global warming . The programme 's publicity materials assert that man-made global warming is `` a lie '' and `` the biggest scam of modern times . '' Its original working title was `` Apocalypse my arse '' , but the title The Great Global Warming Swindle was later adopted as an allusion to the 1980 mockumentary The Great Rock 'n' Roll Swindle about British punk band the Sex Pistols . The UK 's Channel 4 premiered the documentary on 8 March 2007 . The channel described the film as `` a polemic that drew together the well-documented views of a number of respected scientists to reach the same conclusions . This is a controversial film but we feel that it is important that all sides of the debate are aired . '' According to Hamish Mykura , Channel 4 's head of documentaries , the film was commissioned `` to present the viewpoint of the small minority of scientists who do not believe global warming is caused by anthropogenic production of carbon dioxide . '' Although the documentary was welcomed by global warming sceptics , it was criticised by scientific organisations and individual scientists ( including one of the scientists interviewed in the film and one whose research was used to support the film 's claims ) . The film 's critics argued that it had misused and fabricated data , relied on out-of-date research , employed misleading arguments , and misrepresented the position of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Later broadcasts corrected three errors in the original film .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Great_Global_Warming_Swindle\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 105599\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate of the United Kingdom Content: The United Kingdom straddles the higher mid-latitudes between 49 ° and 61 ° N . It is on the western seaboard of Afro-Eurasia , the world 's largest land mass . These conditions allow convergence between moist maritime air and dry continental air . In this area , the large temperature variation creates atmospheric instability , and this is a major factor that influences the often unsettled weather the country experiences : where many types of weather can be experienced in a single day . In general the climate of the UK is cool and often cloudy , and hot temperatures are infrequent . The climate in the United Kingdom is defined as a temperate oceanic climate , or Cfb on the Köppen climate classification system , a classification it shares with most of north-west Europe . Regional climates are influenced by the Atlantic Ocean and latitude . Northern Ireland , Wales and western parts of England and Scotland , being closest to the Atlantic Ocean , are generally the mildest , wettest and windiest regions of the UK , and temperature ranges here are seldom extreme . Eastern areas are drier , cooler , less windy and also experience the greatest daily and seasonal temperature variations . Northern areas are generally cooler , wetter and have slightly larger temperature ranges than southern areas . Though the UK is mostly under the influence of the maritime tropical air mass from the south-west , different regions are more susceptible than others when different air masses affect the country : Northern Ireland and the west of Scotland are the most exposed to the maritime polar air mass which brings cool moist air ; the east of Scotland and north-east England are more exposed to the continental polar air mass which brings cold dry air ; the south and south-east of England are more exposed to the continental tropical air mass which brings warm dry air ( and consequently most of the time the warmest summer temperatures ) ; and Wales and south-west England are the most exposed to the maritime tropical air mass which brings warm moist air . If the air masses are strong enough in their respective areas during the summer , there can sometimes be a large difference in temperature between the far north of Scotland ( including the Islands ) and south-east of England -- often a difference of 10 -- 15 ° C ( 18-27 ° F ) but sometimes of as much as 20 ° C ( 36 ° F ) or more . In the height of summer the Northern Isles could have temperatures around 15 ° C ( 59 ° F ) and areas around London could reach 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_of_the_United_Kingdom\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 105584\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1994 North American cold wave Content: The 1994 North American cold wave occurred over the midwestern United States , eastern United States , and southern Canada during January 1994 . Two notable cold air events occurred from January 18-19 and from January 21-22 . There were 67 minimum temperature records set on January 19 . Indiana and Kentucky both set state records on January 19 . The United States experienced its coldest temperature month since February 1934 , although much of the West experienced mild temperatures . Washington and Idaho experienced the second warmest January recorded in the previous 100 years . During the same period , the western United States experienced one of its most damaging earthquakes ever , and the eastern United States experienced a major snowfall that significantly delayed traffic . Over 100 deaths occurred in the United States as a result of the cold wave .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"1994_North_American_cold_wave\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 105561\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference) Content: In 2005, an international conference titled Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and global warming and its effects. The conference name was derived from Article 2 of the charter for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The conference explored the possible impacts at different levels of greenhouse gas emissions and how the climate might be stabilized at a desired level. The conference took place under the United Kingdom's presidency of the G8, with the participation of around 200 \\\"internationally renowned\\\" scientists from 30 countries. It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter, from 1 February to 3 February. The conference was one of many meetings leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, at which the international community agreed to limit global warming to no more than 2C in order to have a 50-50 chance of avoiding dangerous climate change. However, a 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting it is below the 2 degree temperature target.\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change_(2005_conference)\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 105124\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cold weather payment Content: Cold weather payments are paid by the United Kingdom government to recipients of certain state benefits in the event of particularly cold weather in the winter . The Social Fund Cold Weather Payments ( General ) Regulations 1988 govern the system under the Social Security Contributions and Benefits Act 1992 . Each time the local temperature is less than 0 ° C for seven consecutive days between 1 November and 31 March then a payment of # 25 is made . This is in addition to the Winter Fuel Payment . Category : Pensions and benefits in the United Kingdom\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Cold_weather_payment\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 104940\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Argentina Content: According to scientists , global warming is predicted to have significant effects on the climate of Argentina . Though temperatures have increased at a slower rate than the global average , nonetheless these impacts have occurred in many areas . If these trends continue , it is predicted that climate change will exacerbate existing natural disasters such as increasing the intensity and frequency of floods or create new ones .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Argentina\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 104838\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Deniers Content: The Deniers is a 2008 book by Lawrence Solomon , a Canadian environmentalist and writer . Subtitled `` The world-renowned scientists who stood up against global warming hysteria , political persecution , and fraud , '' the book draws attention to a number of scientists and others who , according to Solomon , have advanced arguments against what he calls the `` alarmist '' view of global warming , as presented by Al Gore , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , the mainstream media , and others . The book is based on a series of columns Solomon wrote for Canada 's National Post .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Deniers\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 104667\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: John Christy Content: John Raymond Christy is a climate scientist at the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) whose chief interests are satellite remote sensing of global climate and global climate change . He is best known , jointly with Roy Spencer , for the first successful development of a satellite temperature record .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"John_Christy\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 104652\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Charles Eagan Content: Charles Eagan was a Canadian scientist working in cold weather physiology , known primarily for advancing the wind chill formula . Antarctic explorers Paul Siple and Charles Passel had created their original formula for wind chill measurements in 1939 by drawing on data that showed how long it took water to freeze in a cylinder under various wind and temperature conditions . While conducting research for the U.S. Air Force in Fairbanks , Alaska in 1964 , Eagan recognized it would be more accurate if the equation took into account the fact people normally walk outdoors and do n't spend a great deal of time at a standstill or in a windless environment . When Eagan included walking speed ( 1.8 metres per second ) into the formula , wind chill temperatures warmed . Eagan served with the air force as a radio operator in Gander , Newfoundland and Labrador during the Second World War . Upon his return he attended the University of Western Ontario and earned a master 's in biophysics . After graduating , he went on to develop clothing that allowed soldiers to work through the cold . In 1959 in Fort Wainwright , Alaska , he worked with the U.S. Air Force Arctic Aeromedical Laboratory to help pilots and crews maximize their effectiveness in cold conditions . Eagan worked with mountain climbers at 14,300 feet on the flank of Mount McKinley to test their adaptability to altitude and cold . Eagan spent six years as an associate professor at Colorado State University . He settled in Ottawa in 1973 , where he was employed as head of the physiology section of what was then the Department of National Health and Welfare . Here he examined the impact of coal mining on the respiratory health of people in Sydney , Nova Scotia . He finished his career with the Department of National Defence , returning to his work on protecting soldiers from the cold . Eagan died on March 11 , 2010 at the Pearley Rideau Veterans ' Health Centre in Ottawa .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Charles_Eagan\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 104538\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming hiatus Content: A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .\",\n \"qid\": \"2745\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_hiatus\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 104531\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":1354,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"Dropped weather stations actually show a slightly warmer trend compared to kept stations."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Tottenham Court Road chiller Content: In the 1930s , London Transport Board installed an experimental refrigeration plant on the London Underground at Tottenham Court Road tube station . The plant was operational between 1938 and 1949 . The experimental plant was built because temperature measurements through the 1930s showed that the Underground was steadily getting warmer . Although the temperatures were not at unsafe levels ( peaks of 82 ° F / 27.8 ° C occurred at a few stations in summertime ) , the LTB perceived that if the trend continued , cooling in summer would be required at some time in the future , and it would be sensible to develop suitable technology . The chiller used water as the working fluid . The evaporators consisted of indirect heat exchangers mounted in the platform tunnels which were fed water at just above 0 ° C . The condenser was sited in the outflow air path of an existing tunnel cooling fan , which had been installed in a disused lift shaft at the station in 1933 . The outgoing air going through the condenser was warmed by 2 -- 3 ° C , before being discharged to atmosphere . Two descriptions of the cooling capacity exist . The first ( from 1939 ) gives the capacity as `` about half a million British thermal units per hour . '' The second ( 1982 ) states that it was `` equivalent to melting approximately 51 tonnes of ice per day . '' In SI units , these are 146 kW and 197 kW respectively . The experimental plant was not considered a success , mainly because the cooling it provided was at high cost . An extract fan of the same cooling capacity ( ` cooling capacity ' in the sense that a fan removes warm air in the tunnels and replaces it with cooler air from outside ) used up one-eighth of the electricity of the experimental refrigeration plant . Not only that , such a fan was easier to maintain and cost less to install . In the austere post-war years , the electrical power drawn by the chiller could not be justified . It was used intermittently during the 1940s , and was decommissioned in 1949 .","qid":"2746","docid":"Tottenham_Court_Road_chiller","rank":1,"score":97610},{"content":"Title: WARM (AM) Content: WARM ( 590 AM ) is a radio station licensed to the city of Scranton , Pennsylvania . The station is currently owned by Cumulus Media . The station is a Class B AM broadcasting station according to the Federal Communications Commission . WARM broadcasts with a power of 5,000 watts with two types of directional antenna signal patterns during daytime and nighttime . The antenna patterns of the signal in both instances are generally aimed towards the southeast with some signal aimed towards the northwest from its transmitting facility located 15 miles northwest of Scranton in Falls , Pennsylvania . WARM uses five , 495 feet high broadcasting towers to transmit its signal from that location . The station used to derive a portion of its programming from Scott Shannon 's The True Oldies Channel from Cumulus Media Networks .","qid":"2746","docid":"WARM_(AM)","rank":2,"score":95213},{"content":"Title: Station model Content: In meteorology , station models are symbolic illustrations showing the weather occurring at a given reporting station . Meteorologists created the station model to fit a number of weather elements into a small space on weather maps . This allows map users to analyze patterns in atmospheric pressure , temperature , wind speed & direction , cloud cover , precipitation , and other parameters . The most common station plots depict surface weather observations although upper air plots at various mandatory levels are also frequently depicted . Station model plots use an internationally accepted coding convention that has changed little since August 1 , 1941 . Elements in the plot show the key weather elements , including temperature , dew point , wind , cloud cover , air pressure , pressure tendency , and precipitation .","qid":"2746","docid":"Station_model","rank":3,"score":94884},{"content":"Title: Weather station Content: A weather station is a facility , either on land or sea , with instruments and equipment for measuring atmospheric conditions to provide information for weather forecasts and to study the weather and climate . The measurements taken include temperature , atmospheric pressure , humidity , wind speed , wind direction , and precipitation amounts . Wind measurements are taken with as few other obstructions as possible , while temperature and humidity measurements are kept free from direct solar radiation , or insolation . Manual observations are taken at least once daily , while automated measurements are taken at least once an hour . Weather conditions out at sea are taken by ships and buoys , which measure slightly different meteorological quantities such as sea surface temperature ( SST ) , wave height , and wave period . Drifting weather buoys outnumber their moored versions by a significant amount .","qid":"2746","docid":"Weather_station","rank":4,"score":93439},{"content":"Title: Cold drop Content: The cold drop ( gota fría ) is a weather phenomenon often occurring in the Spanish autumn . It is experienced particularly along the western Mediterranean and as such , most frequently affects the east coast of Spain . It is a closed upper-level low which has become completely displaced ( cut off ) from basic westerly current , and moves independently of that current . Cutoff lows may remain nearly stationary for days , or on occasion may move westward opposite to the prevailing flow aloft ( i.e. , retrogression ) . The term is also used to describe the meteorological phenomenon associated . In Spain , it appears when a front of very cold polar air , a jet stream , advances slowly over Western Europe , at high altitude ( normally 5 -- 9 km or 3 -- 5.5 mi ) .","qid":"2746","docid":"Cold_drop","rank":5,"score":93298},{"content":"Title: Dropsonde Content: A dropsonde is an expendable weather reconnaissance device created by the National Center for Atmospheric Research ( NCAR ) , designed to be dropped from an aircraft at altitude to more accurately measure ( and therefore track ) tropical storm conditions as the device falls to the surface . The sonde contains a GPS receiver , along with pressure , temperature , and humidity ( PTH ) sensors to capture atmospheric profiles and thermodynamic data . It typically relays these data to a computer in the aircraft by radio transmission . The device 's descent is slowed and stabilized by a small square-cone parachute , allowing for multiple readings to be taken before it reaches the ocean surface . The sonde is a lightweight system designed to be operated by one person and is launched through a chute installed in the measuring aircraft , with immediate deployment of the parachute to reduce or eliminate any pendulum effect , and typically drops from three to five minutes . The sonde has a casing of stiff cardboard . During a typical hurricane season , the 53d Weather Reconnaissance Squadron Hurricane Hunters deploys 1000 to 1500 sondes on training and storm missions .","qid":"2746","docid":"Dropsonde","rank":6,"score":92929},{"content":"Title: 300 Club Content: The 300 Club is the name given to those who have endured a range of temperature of 300 ° Fahrenheit ( 166 ° C ) within a very short time . The practice originated at Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station in Antarctica . Participants in the 300 Club wait for a day when the temperature drops to − 100 ° F ( -73 ° C ) for more than a few minutes , generally in the winter . Those taking part first warm up in a sauna heated to 200 ° F ( 93 ° C ) for as long as 10 minutes . Then they run naked in the snow to the Geographic South Pole , running around it in the − 100 ° F weather . After this , they usually warm themselves back in the sauna again , often with the aid of alcoholic beverages . There are several patches made to commemorate the occasion that are entitled to be worn by those who have joined the 300 Club .","qid":"2746","docid":"300_Club","rank":7,"score":91100},{"content":"Title: Pneumonia front Content: The term Pneumonia front , first coined by Milwaukee Weather Bureau Office in the 1960s , is used to describe a rare meteorological phenomenon observed on the western Lake Michigan , USA , shoreline during the warm season . These fronts are defined as lake-modified synoptic scale cold fronts that result in one-hour temperature drops of 16 ° F ( 8.9 ° C ) or greater . They do not necessarily have to be synoptic , or large scale , cold fronts . Very often in the Spring to early summer the temperature difference between the cold lake waters and the warmer air over land can be as much as 35-40 ° F. Under weak prevailing winds , a density current can often develop in the form of a lake breeze that moves from that water to the adjacent shoreline and several miles inland . This `` lake-breeze cold front '' can drop temperature in places like Chicago , Milwaukee and Green Bay significantly as they cross the area . There has been many a Spring day at Wrigley Field that surprises people who may have travelled from an inland location toward the shore to take in an afternoon game , only to feel the effects of the `` pneumonia front '' as that cold blast of air comes through . The following are eighteen occurrences of a lake modified synoptic scale cold front or `` pneumonia front '' .","qid":"2746","docid":"Pneumonia_front","rank":8,"score":90916},{"content":"Title: David Parker (climatologist) Content: David Parker is head of climate monitoring at the Hadley Centre , Exeter , England . He has published extensively on the land and marine temperature record and its consistency . In 2002 , he was an organiser of a `` Workshop on Advances in the Use of Historical Marine Climate Data '' . In 2004 , he has published a paper in Nature , showing that the urban heat island effect has not affected the historical temperature record . In this article , Parker shares his observations of the minimum temperature over 24 hours worldwide since 1950 that were expressed as anomalies . Also it includes his reasoning to why urbanization has not systematically exaggerated the observed global warming trends in minimum temperature . He further goes on to mention how the criterion for `` calm '' was changed while the global trend for minimum temperature remained unchanged . From his analysis he finds that windy and calm nights warmed at the same rate . Both the windy and calm increased at a rate of ( 0.16 + 0.03 C ) . He compares his small sample of 26 stations in North America and Siberia with global trends from 1950 to 1953 , covering over 5,000 stations . Estimates of recent global warming , supported by Parker 's analysis shows that urban warming has not introduced significant biases . `` The reality and magnitude of global-scale warming is supported by the near-equality of temperature trends on windy nights with trends based on all data . '' ( Parker ) This paper has been commented on by Roger Pielke , Sr. , et al. .","qid":"2746","docid":"David_Parker_(climatologist)","rank":9,"score":89744},{"content":"Title: The Drop Hydro Content: The Drop Hydro Power Station is a Pacific Hydro hydroelectric power station on the Mulwala Canal , near Berrigan , New South Wales , Australia . It has one turbine , with a generating capacity of 2.5 MW of electricity . The power station was completed in November 2002 , and is Australia 's first hydroelectric power station built on an irrigation canal .","qid":"2746","docid":"The_Drop_Hydro","rank":10,"score":85651},{"content":"Title: A.M. Weather Content: A.M. Weather was an American weather news program that ran from October 30 , 1978 to February 3 , 1995 and was broadcast on PBS member stations throughout the United States . The 15-minute daily program , which aired fifteen minutes before or after the hour ( depending on the station 's scheduling of the program ) and was produced by Maryland Public Television ( MPT ) , featured detailed forecasts presented by meteorologists from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) . The program led the way in the use of computer graphics for televised weather reports , but had previously used hand-drawn maps and the show 's trademark yellow pointer .","qid":"2746","docid":"A.M._Weather","rank":11,"score":84850},{"content":"Title: Lowest temperature recorded on Earth Content: The lowest natural temperature ever directly recorded at ground level on Earth is − 89.2 C , which was at the Soviet Vostok Station in Antarctica by ground measurements . A 2009 study estimated that under exceptional climate conditions similar to those recorded at Vostin 1983 , temperatures higher on the plateau around Dome Argus could potentially drop lower than − 95 C. On August 10 , 2010 , satellite observations measured a surface temperature of − 93.2 C at 81.8 ° S 59.3 ° E , along a ridge between Dome Argus and Dome Fuji , at 3,900 m elevation . The result was reported at the 46th annual meeting of the American Geophysical Union in San Francisco , in December 2013 ; it is a provisional figure , and may be subject to revision . The value may not be listed as the record coldest temperature as it was measured by remote sensing satellites and not by ground-based thermometers , unlike the 1983 record . The temperature announced reflects that of the ice surface , while the Vostok readings measured the air above the ice , and so the two are not directly comparable . However , it is most likely that the real temperature on the site was lower than that recorded at Vostok .","qid":"2746","docid":"Lowest_temperature_recorded_on_Earth","rank":12,"score":83575},{"content":"Title: George Winterling Content: George Alfred Winterling ( born September 9 , 1931 ) is a retired television weatherman . He was the creator of the `` heat index '' . Chief Meteorologist for television station WJXT in Jacksonville , Florida for almost fifty years , Winterling helped develop modern forecasting .","qid":"2746","docid":"George_Winterling","rank":13,"score":82821},{"content":"Title: The Weather Station Content: The Weather Station is a Canadian folk music band fronted by Tamara Lindeman , formed in 2006 . The band membership has changed over the years , but now includes Lindeman , with Ben Whiteley on bass , Adrian Cook on pedal steel , and Ian Kehoe on drums . The debut album The Line was released in 2009 . The second album , All of It Was Mine , made in collaboration with Daniel Romano , was released in 2011 . Lindeman was a nominee for the 2013 SOCAN Songwriting Prize for The Weather Station song `` Mule in the Flowers '' , cowritten with Steve Lambke . The third album , Loyalty , was recorded at La Frette studios near Paris , France , with Afie Jurvanen and Robbie Lackritz , who has worked on albums with Bahamas , Feist , Zeus , and Jason Collett . Loyalty was released May 5 , 2015 on Paradise of Bachelors ( U.S. , worldwide ) , and Outside Music ( Canada ) .","qid":"2746","docid":"The_Weather_Station","rank":14,"score":81619},{"content":"Title: WARM-FM Content: WARM-FM is an American adult contemporary radio station based in York , Pennsylvania broadcasting at 103.3 MHz FM . It is owned and operated by Cumulus Media . WARM 's studios and offices are located off US 30 between York and Lancaster , PA. . Listeners in the Philadelphia region may have interference with WPRB , Princeton , New Jersey , which shares the same frequency , and WAPY , State College , Pennsylvania , at 103.1 as one drives northwest on US 322 or PA State Route 333 heading into Lewistown , Pennsylvania .","qid":"2746","docid":"WARM-FM","rank":15,"score":81277},{"content":"Title: Rover Environmental Monitoring Station Content: Rover Environmental Monitoring Station ( REMS ) is a weather station on Mars for Curiosity rover contributed by Spain and Finland . REMS measures humidity , pressure , temperatures , wind speeds , and ultraviolet radiation on Mars . This Spanish project is led by the Center for Astrobiology ( Madrid ) and includes the Finnish Meteorological Institute as a partner , contributing pressure and humidity sensors . All sensors are located around three elements : two booms attached to the rover Remote Sensing Mast ( RSM ) , the Ultraviolet Sensor ( UVS ) assembly located on the rover top deck , and the Instrument Control Unit ( ICU ) inside the rover . Goals include understanding Martian general circulation , microscale weather systems , local hydrological cycle , destructive potential of UV radiation , and subsurface habitability based on ground-atmosphere interaction . By August 18 , 2012 , REMS was turned on and its data was being returned to Earth . The temperature at that time : 37 degrees Fahrenheit ( 2.8 degrees Celsius ) . On August 21 , 2012 , one of two windspeedmeters returned data with errors . After testing it was concluded that it was broken , probably hit by a rock on descent . Martian winds can still be detected with the other sensor . Reports are posted on the Center for Astrobiology website and twitter daily . Parts of REMS Instrument Control Unit Ultraviolet Sensor Boom 1 with : Air Temperature Sensor Wind Sensor Ground Temperature Sensor Boom 2 with : Air Temperature Sensor Wind Sensor Humidity Sensor The pressure sensor can detect pressures from 1 to 1150 Pa ( Pascal ) ( 0.000145038 PSI to 0.1667934 PSI ) . For comparison , 1 atmosphere is 101,325 Pascals or 14.7 PSI .","qid":"2746","docid":"Rover_Environmental_Monitoring_Station","rank":16,"score":81060},{"content":"Title: Drop the Beat Content: Drop the Beat was a Canadian television series produced by Back Alley Films , which aired on CBC Television in 2000 . A short run dramatic series , the show was one of the first television series ever built around hip hop music and culture . The show , a spinoff of the earlier CBC series Straight Up , starred Mark Taylor as Jeff and Merwin Mondesir as Dennis , the hosts of a hip hop show on CIBJ-FM , a fictional campus radio station in Toronto , Ontario . Michie Mee starred as Divine , a rapper who was part of Jeff and Dennis ' crew , and Ingrid Veninger played the station manager . The supporting cast also included Arlene Duncan , Vanessa Ford , Jennifer Baxter , Jason Harrow , Shamann Williams and Omari Forrester . The use of a campus radio station was a deliberate reflection of Canadian reality -- until Toronto 's Flow 93.5 hit the airwaves in early 2001 , Canada did not have any radio stations dedicated specifically to urban music .","qid":"2746","docid":"Drop_the_Beat","rank":17,"score":81018},{"content":"Title: KGG68 Content: KGG68 ( sometimes referred to as Houston All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station operating at 162.40 MHz that serves the city proper and suburbs in Greater Houston . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in League City , Texas with its transmitter located in Tomball , Texas . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following Counties : Brazoria , Chambers , Fort Bend , Galveston , Harris , Liberty , Montgomery , and Waller .","qid":"2746","docid":"KGG68","rank":18,"score":80676},{"content":"Title: KHB34 Content: KHB34 is a NOAA Weather Radio ( NWR ) station that serves a part of the South Florida metropolitan area on an assigned frequency of 162.550 MHz ; it can also be heard about 60 mi east into the Atlantic Ocean , nearly to the Bahamas . Programming originates from NOAA 's National Weather Service ( NWS ) weather forecast office ( WFO ) in Miami , Florida , with the transmitter located in Andover/Miami Gardens . It continuously broadcasts weather and marine forecasts , as well as civil hazards information , for the following counties in the South Florida region : Miami-Dade and Broward . The radio station plays a vital role in alerting the general public to hazardous weather conditions in an area prone to severe weather events such as lightning storms , tornadoes , waterspouts and hurricanes . The signal also reaches North Key Largo and inland parts of mainland Monroe , eastern Collier , far southeastern Hendry , and most of Palm Beach counties -- however it does not issue alerts for those areas . There are other adjacent NWR stations that serve the forecast area . WNG663 ( 162.425 MHz ) also covers Miami-Dade from Princeton , near Homestead , as well as mainland Monroe and the Upper Keys . Other stations programmed by the Miami-South Florida WFO include : KEC50 Mangonia Park/West Palm Beach ( 162.475 MHz ) to the north , serving Palm Beach County and the adjacent coastal waters ; WXM58 Belle Glade ( 162.400 MHz ) to the northwest , in western Palm Beach County near Lake Okeechobee ; and WWG92 Naples ( 162.525 MHz ) to the northwest , near Florida 's west coast , serving Collier , Hendry and a portion of mainland Monroe County . Recognizing the need to serve the local area 's large Spanish-speaking population , NWS added a low-power station in June 2012 , WZ2531 ( 162.500 MHz ) transmitting from Hialeah - the first dedicated Spanish language NWR station in Florida . Its broadcast , featuring a computer-synthesized voice known by the nickname `` Javier '' , covers Miami-Dade and Broward counties .","qid":"2746","docid":"KHB34","rank":19,"score":79552},{"content":"Title: VVC weather station Content: The VDNKh weather station is the principal weather station in Moscow , Russia . It opened in 1948 on the grounds of the All-Russia Exhibition Centre . Temperature and precipitation readings at VVC weather station form the official weather reports and historical statistics . The station 's World meteorological organization classification index is 27612 .","qid":"2746","docid":"VVC_weather_station","rank":20,"score":79467},{"content":"Title: Remote Automated Weather Station Content: The Remote Automatic Weather Stations ( RAWS ) system is a network of automated weather stations run by the U.S. Forest Service ( USFS ) and Bureau of Land Management ( BLM ) and monitored by the National Interagency Fire Center ( NIFC ) , mainly to observe potential wildfire conditions . Unlike the automated airport weather stations which are located at significant airports , RAWS stations are often located in remote areas , particularly in national forests . Because of this , they usually are not connected to the electrical grid , but rather have their own solar panels , and a battery to store power for overnight reporting . Some instead run on a generator . In both cases , data important to operating the station itself , such as battery voltage or fuel level , is often included in the hourly reports . Also because of the remote locations , most communicate with a modem via telephone , or via a VSAT connection to a GOES satellite . In this regard , they are similar to mesonets and may be mesonets if the distance between stations ( spatial resolution ) is sufficiently dense . They often lack the consistently high-quality data needed for use in numerical weather prediction and climatology , however . Road Weather Information System ( RWIS ) may likewise be self-powered and located in remote areas .","qid":"2746","docid":"Remote_Automated_Weather_Station","rank":21,"score":79403},{"content":"Title: KHB37 Content: KHB37 is a NOAA Weather Radio station broadcasting at 162.55 megahertz and transmitting from Norfolk in Hampton Roads , Virginia . It covers most of southeastern Virginia , and northeastern North Carolina . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Wakefield , Virginia . The signal reliably covers the Virginia cities of Norfolk , Virginia Beach , Poquoson , Suffolk , Hampton , Newport News , Portsmouth , Williamsburg , Chesapeake , Franklin , and the Virginia counties of Isle of Wight , James City , Accomack , Surry , Sussex and York . Reception is also reliable in the North Carolina counties of Camden , Currituck , Gates , Perquimans , Hertford , and Pasquotank .","qid":"2746","docid":"KHB37","rank":22,"score":79211},{"content":"Title: WNG636 Content: WNG636 ( sometimes referred to as Cisco All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves Cisco and surrounding cities . It is programmed from the NWS Fort Worth office with its transmitter located in Cisco . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following Counties : Brown , Callahan , Comanche , Eastland , Erath , Shackelford , and Stephens . Throughout early 2009 , all NOAA Weather Radio Stations within the North Texas region ( including WNG636 ) began airing a monthly 5 minute talk show titled `` The Lightning Bolt '' where listener-submitted questions related to weather are answered by meteorologists .","qid":"2746","docid":"WNG636","rank":23,"score":79109},{"content":"Title: KWO37 Content: KWO37 ( sometimes referred to as Los Angeles All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Los Angeles/Oxnard , California with its transmitter located in Mount Lukens in the San Gabriel Mountains . Although it serves much of the Greater Los Angeles Area and the Pacific Coast Line , it broadcasts weather and hazard information only for Los Angeles and Ventura Counties as well as the coastal waters of Ventura , Los Angeles and Orange Counties . Its primary forecast point covers the Los Angeles County Coast , the Los Angeles County Valleys including the Santa Clarita Valley , Los Angeles County Mountains excluding the Santa Monica Range , and the Antelope Valley . Hourly conditions on this station are reported for the following cities : Downtown Los Angeles , Los Angeles Airport , Torrance , Long Beach Airport , Santa Ana , Burbank , Van Nuys , Ontario , Woodland Hills , Sandburg , Mount Wilson , Lancaster , Palm Springs , and Santa Barbara . These conditions are not broadcast during hazardous weather events .","qid":"2746","docid":"KWO37","rank":24,"score":79007},{"content":"Title: List of coastal weather stations in the British Isles Content: Reports from these coastal stations and automatic weather logging stations in the British Isles are included in the extended Shipping Forecasts on BBC Radio 4 at 0048 and 0520 local time each day . The stations are listed in the order they are read in the forecast , the numbers in brackets refer to the map on the right . Weather reports included in the forecasts are issued at 2300 local time for the late broadcast and 0400 for the early one , although reports issued at other times may be included if for some reason the most recent did not arrive . Tiree Automatic ( 1 ) Stornoway ( 2 ) Lerwick ( 3 ) Wick Automatic ( 0048 only ) Aberdeen ( 0048 only ) Leuchars ( 4 ) Boulmer ( 0048 only ) Bridlington ( 5 ) Sandettie Light Vessel Automatic ( 6 ) Greenwich Light Vessel Automatic ( 7 ) St. Catherine 's Point Automatic ( 0048 only ) Jersey ( 8 ) Channel Light Vessel Automatic ( 9 ) Scilly Automatic ( 10 ) Milford Haven ( 0048 only ) Aberporth ( 0048 only ) Valley ( 0048 only ) Liverpool Crosby ( 0048 only ) Valentia ( 11 ) Ronaldsway ( 12 ) Malin Head ( 13 ) Machrihanish Automatic ( 0048 only ) Category : Meteorological data and networks Weather stations Category : Marine meteorology and sailing Weather","qid":"2746","docid":"List_of_coastal_weather_stations_in_the_British_Isles","rank":25,"score":78998},{"content":"Title: KHB49 Content: KHB49 ( sometimes referred to as San Francisco All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the San Francisco Bay Area and can be heard 40 miles into the Pacific Ocean . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Monterey , California with its transmitter located in Mt. Pise . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following counties : Alameda , Contra Costa , Marin , Napa , San Francisco , San Mateo , Santa Clara , and Sonoma .","qid":"2746","docid":"KHB49","rank":26,"score":78987},{"content":"Title: List of hill stations of Pakistan Content: There are many hill stations in Pakistan , where there is snow in the winter . In the summer , the temperatures are much cooler than the hot areas of Punjab and Sindh . People from all over the country flock to these hill stations to enjoy the snow in winters , and to enjoy the cool summers away from the hot plains . This is a list","qid":"2746","docid":"List_of_hill_stations_of_Pakistan","rank":27,"score":78888},{"content":"Title: WXK30 Content: WXK30 ( sometimes referred to as College Station All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the Bryan/College Station , Texas area and surrounding cities . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Houston , Texas with its transmitter located in College Station . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following Counties : Austin , Brazos , Burleson , Grimes , Leon , Madison , Milam , Robertson , Walker , Waller , and Washington .","qid":"2746","docid":"WXK30","rank":28,"score":78734},{"content":"Title: KWN34 Content: KWN34 ( sometimes referred to as Palestine All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves Palestine and surrounding cities . It is programmed from the NWS Fort Worth office with its transmitter located in Palestine . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following Counties : Anderson , Cherokee , Freestone , Henderson , Houston , Leon , and Navarro . Throughout early 2009 , all NOAA Weather Radio Stations within the North Texas region ( including KWN34 ) began airing a monthly 15 minute talk show titled `` The Lightning Bolt '' where listener-submitted questions related to weather are answered by meteorologists .","qid":"2746","docid":"KWN34","rank":29,"score":78733},{"content":"Title: WXM87 Content: WXM87 is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves portions of northeast Colorado , southwest Nebraska , and northwest Kansas . It broadcasts on NOAA Weather Radio channel 4 , or 162.475 Megahertz . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Goodland , Kansas with its transmitter located in Wray , Colorado . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following counties : Cheyenne County , Kansas , Dundy County , Nebraska , and Yuma County , Colorado .","qid":"2746","docid":"WXM87","rank":30,"score":78651},{"content":"Title: KZEE Content: KZEE ( branded as Hot Pepper 1220 AM ) is a brokered South Asian AM radio station that serves the Weatherford , Texas , area , and is owned by Tarrant Radio Broadcasters .","qid":"2746","docid":"KZEE","rank":31,"score":78555},{"content":"Title: WNG663 Content: WNG663 is a NOAA Weather Radio ( NWR ) station serving the southern part of the South Florida metropolitan area and its adjacent coastal waters as well as the northern portion of the Florida Keys , broadcasting on an assigned frequency of 162.425 MHz ; it can also be heard 35 miles into the Atlantic Ocean . It is programmed by NOAA 's National Weather Service ( NWS ) weather forecast office ( WFO ) in Miami , Florida , with its transmitter located in Princeton , near Homestead . It continuously broadcasts weather and marine forecasts , as well as civil hazards information , for the following counties in the South Florida region : Miami-Dade and parts of Monroe ( mainland and Upper Keys ) . The radio station plays a vital role in alerting the general public to hazardous weather conditions in an area prone to severe weather events such as lightning storms , tornadoes , waterspouts and hurricanes . Although its signal also reaches extreme southern Broward County , WNG663 does not issue alerts for that area . There are other adjacent NWR stations that serve the forecast area . KHB34 Andover/Miami Gardens ( 162.550 MHz ) also covers Miami-Dade , as well as Broward and much of Palm Beach counties . Other stations programmed by the Miami-South Florida WFO include : KEC50 Mangonia Park/West Palm Beach ( 162.475 MHz ) to the north , serving Palm Beach County and the adjacent coastal waters ; WXM58 Belle Glade ( 162.400 MHz ) to the northwest , in western Palm Beach County near Lake Okeechobee ; and WWG92 Naples ( 162.525 MHz ) to the northwest , near Florida 's west coast , serving Collier , Hendry and a portion of mainland Monroe County . Recognizing the need to serve the local area 's large Spanish-speaking population , NWS added a low-power station in June 2012 , WZ2531 ( 162.500 MHz ) transmitting from Hialeah - the first dedicated Spanish language NWR station in Florida . Its broadcast , featuring a computer-synthesized voice known by the nickname `` Javier '' , covers Miami-Dade and Broward counties .","qid":"2746","docid":"WNG663","rank":32,"score":78495},{"content":"Title: WXK25 Content: WXK25 ( also known as El Paso English All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the El Paso metropolitan area and surrounding cities . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Santa Teresa , New Mexico with its transmitter located on Franklin Mountain in El Paso , Texas . It broadcasts weather and hazard information in English for El Paso & Hudspeth counties in Texas and Doña Ana & Otero Counties in New Mexico . El Paso was the largest city in the United States without a NOAA Weather Radio transmitter , which first made its debut in 1980 . Originally broadcasting on 162.55 MHz , its frequency was moved to 162.475 MHz by 1981 .","qid":"2746","docid":"WXK25","rank":33,"score":78483},{"content":"Title: WNG652 Content: WNG652 is a NOAA Weather Radio ( Radio del Tiempo de NOAA in Spanish ) station that serves the El Paso metropolitan area and surrounding cities . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in El Paso , Texas with its transmitter located in El Paso . It broadcasts weather and hazard information in Spanish for El Paso & Hudspeth counties in Texas and Doña Ana & Otero Counties in New Mexico . It is one of few NOAA Weather Radio stations across the United States to broadcast in a Spanish language .","qid":"2746","docid":"WNG652","rank":34,"score":78378},{"content":"Title: KHA99 Content: Not to be confused with NOAA Weather Radio station KBA99 in Oahu , Hawaii . KHA99 ( sometimes referred to as Muenster All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves Gainesville and surrounding cities near the Red River including the western half of the Sherman-Denison Metro Area . It is programmed from the NWS Fort Worth office with its transmitter located in Muenster . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for Cooke , Denton , Grayson , Montague , and Wise counties in Texas as well as Carter , Jefferson , and Love counties in Oklahoma . Throughout early 2009 , all NOAA Weather Radio Stations within the North Texas region ( including KHA99 ) began airing a monthly 5 minute talk show titled `` The Lightning Bolt '' where listener-submitted questions related to weather are answered by meteorologists .","qid":"2746","docid":"KHA99","rank":35,"score":78365},{"content":"Title: WXJ55 Content: WXJ55 ( sometimes referred to as Little Rock All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the Little Rock-North Little Rock-Conway metropolitan area and Central Arkansas . It is programmed from the National Weather Service Forecast Office in North Little Rock , Arkansas with its transmitter located on Shinall Mountain . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following counties : Arkansas , Cleburne , Conway , Faulkner , Garland , Grant , Hot Spring , Jefferson , Lonoke , Perry , Pope , Prairie , Pulaski , Saline , Van Buren , White , and Yell .","qid":"2746","docid":"WXJ55","rank":36,"score":78348},{"content":"Title: Hill station Content: A hill station is a town located at a higher elevation than the nearby plain or valley . The term was used mostly in colonial Asia , but also in Africa ( albeit rarely ) , for towns founded by European colonial rulers as refuges from the summer heat , up where temperatures are cooler . In the Indian context most hill stations are at an altitude of approximately 1,000 to 2,500 metres ( 3,500 to 7,500 feet ) ; very few are outside this range .","qid":"2746","docid":"Hill_station","rank":37,"score":78335},{"content":"Title: KIG86 Content: KIG86 ( sometimes referred to as Columbus All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the city of Columbus and vicinity . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office Wilmington , Ohio with its transmitter located in Columbus . The station 's warning alarm tone is activated for watches and warnings that effect the following counties : Champaign , Clark , Delaware , Fairfield , Fayette , Franklin , Greene , Hocking , Knox , Licking , Madison , Marion , Morrow , Muskingum , Perry , Pickaway , and Union . Hourly weather observations are broadcast for the following locations : Port Columbus International Airport , Toledo , Cleveland , Akron , Canton , Youngstown , Cincinnati , Dayton , and Wilmington .","qid":"2746","docid":"KIG86","rank":38,"score":78334},{"content":"Title: WXL60 Content: WXL60 ( sometimes referred to as Roanoke All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the Roanoke metropolitan area and surrounding cities . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Blacksburg , Virginia , with its transmitter located on the broadcast tower of public radio station WVTF in Roanoke . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following counties : Alleghany , Amherst , Bedford , Bland , Botetourt , Carroll , Craig , Floyd , Franklin , Giles , Halifax , Henry , Montgomery , Patrick , Pittsylvania , Pulaski , Roanoke , Rockbridge , and Wythe as well as the individual cities of Bedford , Buena Vista , Clifton Forge , Covington , Danville , Galax , Lexington , Martinsville , Radford , Roanoke and Salem .","qid":"2746","docid":"WXL60","rank":39,"score":78204},{"content":"Title: KEC74 Content: KEC74 ( sometimes referred to as Indianapolis All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the Indianapolis metropolitan area and surrounding cities . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Indianapolis , Indiana with its transmitter located in the same city . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following counties : Boone , Decatur , Delaware , Hamilton , Hancock , Hendricks , Henry , Johnson , Madison , Marion , Morgan , Rush , Shelby , and Tipton .","qid":"2746","docid":"KEC74","rank":40,"score":78120},{"content":"Title: Automatic weather station Content: An automatic weather station ( AWS ) is an automated version of the traditional weather station , either to save human labour or to enable measurements from remote areas . An AWS will typically consist of a weather-proof enclosure containing the data logger , rechargeable battery , telemetry ( optional ) and the meteorological sensors with an attached solar panel or wind turbine and mounted upon a mast . The specific configuration may vary due to the purpose of the system . The system may report in near real time via the Argos System and the Global Telecommunications System , or save the data for later recovery . In the past , automatic weather stations were often placed where electricity and communication lines were available . Nowadays , the solar panel , wind turbine and mobile phone technology have made it possible to have wireless stations that are not connected to the electrical grid or hardline telecommunications network .","qid":"2746","docid":"Automatic_weather_station","rank":41,"score":78097},{"content":"Title: Trend type forecast Content: A trend type forecast ( TTF ) also known simply as a trend , is an aviation weather forecast written by a real person on location at a major airport or military base . A TTF is a professionally considered forecast for weather over a two-hour period , and is based on an actual weather report , such as a METAR or SPECI and appended to the end of it . A TTF is similar to or sometimes in addition to a TAF , a terminal aerodrome forecast , but during the TTF 's validity period is considered superior to a TAF .","qid":"2746","docid":"Trend_type_forecast","rank":42,"score":78094},{"content":"Title: KEC49 Content: KEC49 ( sometimes referred to as Monterey All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves Monterey , California and vicinity including some parts of the San Francisco Bay Area and can be heard 40 miles into the Pacific Ocean . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Monterey with its transmitter located atop McQueen Ridge near Mount Umunhum . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following counties : Alameda , Contra Costa , Monterey , Napa , San Benito , San Francisco , San Mateo , Santa Clara , and Santa Cruz .","qid":"2746","docid":"KEC49","rank":43,"score":78036},{"content":"Title: KIH61 Content: KIH61 ( sometimes referred to as Omaha All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the Omaha-Council Bluffs metropolitan area and surrounding cities . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Omaha , Nebraska with its transmitter located on the University of Nebraska - Omaha campus in Omaha . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for Burt , Cass , Dodge , Douglas , Otoe , Sarpy , Saunders , and Washington Counties in Nebraska as well as Harrison , Mills , and Pottawattamie counties in Iowa .","qid":"2746","docid":"KIH61","rank":44,"score":78027},{"content":"Title: KBA99 Content: KBA99 is a NOAA Weather Radio station that is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Honolulu , Hawaii with its transmitter located on Mt. Ka'ala in Oahu . Although this station primarily serves Honolulu and surrounding islands , several repeater translators are added , broadcasting weather and hazard information for the entire state of Hawaii and can be heard 40 miles into the Pacific Ocean . It also transmits on Oceanic Time Warner Cable digital channel 880 for all of Hawaii . It is the only NOAA station in the United States that still uses the early version of the `` Tom '' voice . Hourly conditions on this station are reported for the following cities - On Oahu : Honolulu International Airport , Kalaeloa , Kaneohe , and Wheeler Field . On Kauai : Lihue , and Barking Sands . On Molokai : Molokai Airport . On Lanai : Lanai City . On Maui : Kahului , Kapalua , and Haleakalā . On The Big Island : Hilo , Kona , and Bradshaw Field . As of June 25 , 2014 , translator WWF39 in Hawaii Kai has moved from frequency 162.400 MHz to 162.450 MHz as new upgraded equipment was installed at the station , producing an enhanced signal . This enhancement allows important emergency messages as well as weather forecasts and current conditions to be heard in portions of East Oahu where the broadcast was previously not available .","qid":"2746","docid":"KBA99","rank":45,"score":78016},{"content":"Title: KEC43 Content: KEC43 ( sometimes referred to as Anchorage All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the Anchorage metropolitan area and surrounding cities . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Anchorage , Alaska with its transmitter located in the same city . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following boroughs Anchorage , Kenai Peninsula , and Matanuska-Susitna .","qid":"2746","docid":"KEC43","rank":46,"score":78014},{"content":"Title: KEC56 Content: KEC56 ( sometimes referred to as Dallas All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves Dallas/Fort Worth and surrounding areas south , east and north of the immediate metroplex . It is programmed from the NWS Fort Worth office with its transmitter located in Dallas . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following Counties : Collin , Dallas , Denton , Ellis , Hunt , Kaufman , Rockwall , and Tarrant . Hourly conditions on this station are reported for the following cities : DFW Airport , Dallas Love Field , Fort Worth Meacham , Arlington , McKinney , Denton , Wichita Falls , Abilene , Waco , and Tyler . The audio feed is heard on WFAA-TV 's `` AccuWeather channel '' on channel 8.2 .","qid":"2746","docid":"KEC56","rank":47,"score":77937},{"content":"Title: KIH27 Content: KIH27 ( sometimes referred to as Tulsa All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the Tulsa Metropolitan Area and surrounding cities . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Tulsa , Oklahoma with its transmitter located in Tulsa . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following Counties : Cherokee , Creek , Mayes , Muskogee , Nowata , Okmulgee , Osage , Pawnee , Rogers , Tulsa , Wagoner , and Washington . Hourly conditions on this station are reported for the following cities : In Oklahoma - Tulsa International Airport , Oklahoma City , Bartlesville , McAlester , Ponca City , Jones Riverside Airport , Tahlequah , Claremore , and Muskogee . Elsewhere across the region : Dallas/Fort Worth , Texas ; Kansas City , Missouri ; Joplin , Missouri ; Springfield , Missouri ; Wichita , Kansas ; Fort Smith , Arkansas ; and Fayetteville , Arkansas .","qid":"2746","docid":"KIH27","rank":48,"score":77922},{"content":"Title: WNG649 Content: WNG649 ( sometimes referred to as Milano All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves Milano and surrounding cities . It is programmed from the NWS Fort Worth office with its transmitter located in Milano . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following Counties : Bell , Brazos , Burleson , Falls , Hill , Lee , Milam , Robertson , and Willamson . Throughout early 2009 , all NOAA Weather Radio Stations within the North Texas region ( including WNG649 ) began airing a monthly 5 minute talk show titled `` The Lightning Bolt '' where listener-submitted questions related to weather are answered by meteorologists .","qid":"2746","docid":"WNG649","rank":49,"score":77921},{"content":"Title: Weather radio Content: A weather radio service is a public broadcast service dedicated to airing continuous weather reports . In most locations , it requires a specially-designed radio capable of receiving `` weather band '' frequencies - when tuned to one of these channels , it receives a radio station that broadcasts both routine and emergency weather information . Some weather radio receivers are equipped with a standby alerting function - if the radio is off or tuned to another band and a severe weather bulletin is transmitted , it can automatically sound an alarm and/or switch to a pre-tuned weather channel for emergency weather information . Weather radio services may also broadcast non-weather-related emergency information , such as in the event of a natural disaster , an AMBER alert or a terrorist attack . They generally broadcast in a pre-allocated very high frequency ( VHF ) range using FM . Usually a dedicated weather radio receiver or radio scanner is needed for listening , although in some locations a weather radio broadcast may be retransmitted on a conventional AM or FM frequency ( as well as HD Radio substations ) , some terrestrial television stations broadcasting in MTS stereo transmit weather radio on their second audio program ( SAP ) channel as well as on one of its digital subchannels ( where news and weather are applicable ) , on local public , educational , and government access ( PEG ) cable TV channels or during Emergency Alert System activations for tornado warnings primarily on cable systems . These weather-specific channels have experienced very low adoption . In Chicago , for example , there are no dedicated stations that provide transmissions for these channels .","qid":"2746","docid":"Weather_radio","rank":50,"score":77800},{"content":"Title: WXK20 Content: WXK20 ( sometimes referred to as Paris All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves Paris and surrounding areas near the Red River . It is programmed from the NWS Fort Worth office with its transmitter located in Paris . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for Delta , Fannin , Franklin , Hopkins , Hunt , Lamar , Red River , & Titus counties in Texas and Bryan & Choctaw counties in Oklahoma . Throughout early 2009 , all NOAA Weather Radio Stations within the North Texas region ( including WXK20 ) began airing a monthly 5 minute talk show titled `` The Lightning Bolt '' where listener-submitted questions related to weather are answered by meteorologists .","qid":"2746","docid":"WXK20","rank":51,"score":77790},{"content":"Title: KIH45 Content: KIH45 ( sometimes referred to as Bowling Green All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves parts of south central Kentucky , including Bowling Green and surrounding cities . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Louisville , Kentucky with its transmitter located in Hadley , Kentucky along US Route 231 near the Warren/Butler County line . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for these counties in Kentucky : Allen , Barren , Butler , Christian , Daviess , Edmonson , Hopkins , Grayson , Logan , McLean , Muhlenberg , Ohio , Simpson , Todd , and Warren . It also broadcasts watch and warning information for these counties in Tennessee : Macon , Montgomery , Robertson , and Sumner . Hart County is within range of KIH-45 's signal , but the station does not provide anything but warning information for that area due to that area being served by WNG570 , the Horse Cave All Hazards weather radio station . This station 's audio is simulcast on the third digital subchannel of PBS station WKYU-TV , with a loop of the National Weather Service 's doppler radar based near Fort Campbell .","qid":"2746","docid":"KIH45","rank":52,"score":77777},{"content":"Title: Effect of radiation on perceived temperature Content: The `` radiation effect '' results from radiation heat exchange between human bodies and surrounding surfaces , such as walls and ceilings . It may lead to phenomena such as houses feeling cooler in the winter and warmer in the summer at the same temperature . For example , in a room in which air temperature is maintained at 22 ° Celsius at all times , but in which the inner surfaces of the house is estimated to be an average temperature of 10 ° Celsius in the winter or 25 ° Celsius in the summer , heat transfer from the surfaces to the individual will occur , resulting in a difference in the perceived temperature . We can observe and compare the rate of radiation heat transfer between a person and the surrounding surfaces if we first make a few simplifying assumptions : The heat exchange in the environment is in a `` steady state '' , meaning that there is a constant flow of heat either into or out of the house . The person is completely surrounded by the interior surfaces of the room . Heat transfer by convection is not considered . The walls , ceiling , and floor are all at the same temperature . For an average person , the outer surface area is 1.4 m ² , the surface temperature is 30 ° Celsius , and the emissivity is 0.95 . Emissivity is the ability of a surface to emit radiant energy compared to that of a black body at the same temperature . We will be using the following equation to find out how much heat is lost by a person standing in the same room in summertime as compared to the winter , at exactly the same thermostat reading temperature : Q ̇ = εσA_s ( T_s ^ 4-T_surr ^ 4 ) Where Q ̇ is the rate of heat loss ( W ) , ε is the emissivity ( or the ability of an objects surface to emit energy by radiation ) of a person , σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant ( 5.670 x 10 ^ ( -8 ) W/m2 ∙ K4 ) , As is the surface area of a person , Ts is the surface temperature of a person ( K ) , and Tsurr is the surface temperature of the walls , ceiling , and floor ( K ) . Please note that this equation is only valid for an object standing in a completely enclosed room , box , etc. . In the winter , the amount of heat loss from a person , when the inner surfaces of the room were 10 degrees Celsius , was found to be 152 Watts . ( Q ̇ = ( 0.95 ) ( 5.67 x 10 ^ ( -8 ) ) ( 1.4 ) -LSB- ( 30 +273 ) ^ 4 - ( 10 +273 ) ^ 4 -RSB- = 152 ) ̇ In the summer , the amount of heat loss from a person , when the inner surfaces of the room were 25 degrees Celsius , was found to be 40.9 Watts . ( Q ̇ = ( 0.95 ) ( 5.67 x 10 ^ ( -8 ) ) ( 1.4 ) -LSB- ( 30 +273 ) ^ 4 - ( 25 +273 ) ^ 4 -RSB- = 40.9 ) ̇ Thermal radiation is the form of radiation emitted by bodies because of their temperature . It differs from other forms of electromagnetic radiation such as x-rays , gamma rays , microwaves , radio waves , and television rays that are not related to temperature . Scientists have found that all bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal radiation . People are constantly radiating their body heat , but at different rates . From these values , the rate of heat loss from a person is almost four times as large in the winter than in the summer , which explains the `` chill '' we feel in the winter even if the thermostat setting is kept the same .","qid":"2746","docid":"Effect_of_radiation_on_perceived_temperature","rank":53,"score":77772},{"content":"Title: KEC62 Content: KEC62 ( sometimes referred to as San Diego All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the San Diego metropolitan area and can be heard 40 miles in the Pacific Ocean . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in San Diego , California with its transmitter located in Mt. Woodson . It broadcasts weather and hazard information only for San Diego County and the coastal waters from San Mateo Point to the Mexican border and out 60 nautical miles . The station 's forecast coverage includes the San Diego County Coast , San Diego County Valleys , San Diego County Mountains and San Diego County Deserts . Hourly weather observations are updated at 10 minutes past each hour , and covers mostly San Diego County , with conditions reported for most of Southern California as well as Las Vegas , Yuma and Phoenix .","qid":"2746","docid":"KEC62","rank":54,"score":77678},{"content":"Title: Die by the Drop Content: `` Die by the Drop '' is the first single from The Dead Weather 's second album Sea of Cowards . It was released on March 30 , 2010 in the United States and April 25 in the UK . The single includes the B-side `` Old Mary '' . The video of the song was directed by Floria Sigismondi who also directed the videos for `` Blue Orchid '' by The White Stripes and `` Broken Boy Soldier '' by The Raconteurs , Jack White 's other two bands . It is the band 's first official video to show all of the Dead Weather members playing their instruments . Footage from the video was used in teaser trailers for the bands upcoming singles , `` Blue Blood Blues '' , `` Gasoline '' and `` Jawbreaker '' .","qid":"2746","docid":"Die_by_the_Drop","rank":55,"score":77648},{"content":"Title: KEC63 Content: KEC63 ( sometimes referred to as Detroit All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the Metro Detroit area and surrounding cities . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Detroit/Pontiac , Michigan with its transmitter located in Southfield , on WDIV 's broadcast tower . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following Counties : Lenawee , Livingston , Monroe , Oakland , St. Clair , Washtenaw , and Wayne . Under exceptionally rare conditions , such as when KEC63 is down for maintenance or off the air from lighting strikes to its tower , Cleveland , Ohio 's weather radio station , KHB59 can be faintly heard , since it also operates on 162.550 MHz .","qid":"2746","docid":"KEC63","rank":56,"score":77625},{"content":"Title: Automated airport weather station Content: Automated airport weather stations are automated sensor suites which are designed to serve aviation and meteorological observing needs for safe and efficient aviation operations , weather forecasting and climatology . Automated airport weather stations have become part of the backbone of weather observing in the United States and Canada and are becoming increasingly more prevalent worldwide due to their efficiency and cost-savings .","qid":"2746","docid":"Automated_airport_weather_station","rank":57,"score":77612},{"content":"Title: WXK67 Content: WXK67 ( sometimes referred to as San Antonio All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves Greater San Antonio and surrounding areas . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in San Antonio , Texas with its transmitter located in San Antonio . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following Counties : Atascosa , Bandera , Bexar , Comal , Guadalupe , Kendall , Medina , and Wilson","qid":"2746","docid":"WXK67","rank":58,"score":77580},{"content":"Title: KIH20 Content: KIH20 ( 162.400 MHz , sometimes referred to as Huntsville All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the greater Huntsville , Alabama , area . It broadcasts weather forecasts and hazard information for Jackson , Lawrence , Limestone , Madison , Marshall , and Morgan Counties in Alabama plus Giles and Lincoln Counties in Tennessee .","qid":"2746","docid":"KIH20","rank":59,"score":77531},{"content":"Title: KZZ72 Content: KZZ72 is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves Southeast Idaho . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Pocatello , Idaho with its transmitter located on Sedgwick Peak near Soda Springs . It can be heard across most of Southeastern and South Central Idaho . Some of its signal might reach Northeastern Utah and Southwestern Wyoming . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for Bannock , Bear Lake , Bingham , Caribou , Franklin and Oneida counties in Idaho .","qid":"2746","docid":"KZZ72","rank":60,"score":77492},{"content":"Title: KIH36 Content: KIH36 is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves Coastal Washington . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Seattle , Washington with its transmitter located on Bahokus Peak near Neah Bay . It has a repeater , KXI27 , that broadcasts from Mt. Octopus near Forks on a frequency of 162.425 MHz . It can be heard across Coastal Washington and Southwestern British Columbia . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for Clallam , Grays Harbor , Jefferson and Pacific counties in Washington .","qid":"2746","docid":"KIH36","rank":61,"score":77370},{"content":"Title: KAD93 Content: KAD93 is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves Northwestern Washington State . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Seattle , Washington with its transmitter located near Blaine . It is heard across Northwestern Washington and can also be heard as far south as Seattle and as far north as Vancouver , British Columbia . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for San Juan and Whatcom counties in Washington .","qid":"2746","docid":"KAD93","rank":62,"score":77334},{"content":"Title: WXK98 Content: WXK98 is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the Southern Idaho Panhandle and the Washington Palouse . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Spokane , Washington with its transmitter located near Lewiston . It has two repeaters , KXI82 which broadcasts from Grangeville on a frequency of 162.450 MHz and WZ2535 which broadcasts from Norton Knob near Orofino on a frequency of 162.500 MHz . It can be heard across the Idaho Panhandle and Washington Palouse . At night , it can be heard as far north as Spokane and as far west as Moses Lake . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for Asotin , Garfield and Whitman counties in Washington ; plus Clearwater , Idaho , Idaho , Lewis and Nez Perce counties in Idaho .","qid":"2746","docid":"WXK98","rank":63,"score":77246},{"content":"Title: KHB60 Content: KHB60 ( sometimes referred to as Seattle All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves Seattle metropolitan area and surrounding cities . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Seattle , Washington with its transmitter located at Cougar Mountain near Issaquah . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following Counties : King , Kitsap , Pierce , and Snohomish .","qid":"2746","docid":"KHB60","rank":64,"score":77240},{"content":"Title: WXK27 Content: WXK27 ( sometimes referred to as Austin All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves Greater Austin and surrounding areas . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in San Antonio , Texas with its transmitter located in Austin . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following Counties : Bastrop , Blanco , Burnet , Caldwell , Hays , Lee , Travis , and Williamson","qid":"2746","docid":"WXK27","rank":65,"score":77226},{"content":"Title: WXL36 Content: WXL36 ( sometimes referred to as Las Vegas All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the Las Vegas Valley and surrounding areas . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Enterprise , Nevada with its transmitter located on Red Mountain near Boulder City , Nevada . The station operates on a frequency of 162.550 MHz and provides primarily weather forecasts , watches , warnings and advisories for Clark County in Southern Nevada . The station 's primary forecast areas are the Las Vegas Valley and Lake Mead National Recreation Area . Hourly weather observations covers conditions for Las Vegas , North Las Vegas , Nellis Air Force Base , Desert Rock , Reno , Barstow , California and Needles , California . The Las Vegas Valley is also served by another NOAA Weather Radio transmitter , WNG634 , which until 2007 was a simulcast station of WXL36 , and transmitted on 162.400 MHz from Mount Potosi . This station 's primary focus areas are the Las Vegas Valley , Mount Charleston and Western Clark and Southern Nye Counties . Watches , warnings and advisories are issued for Clark and Southern Nye County in Nevada and San Bernardino County in California .","qid":"2746","docid":"WXL36","rank":66,"score":77194},{"content":"Title: WNG735 Content: WNG735 ( sometimes referred to as New Philadelphia All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves New Philadelphia and surrounding cities . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Pittsburgh with its transmitter located in New Philadelphia , Ohio . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following Counties : Carroll , Coshocton , Guernsey , Harrison , Holmes , Stark , Tuscarawas , and Wayne . This transmitter was brought online in 1965 to the NOAA Weather Radio network . It was one only of a few broadcasting weather radio stations in the New Philadelphia area . The station is located in a wooded area at the top of Steel Hill Aces Road in New Philadelphia .","qid":"2746","docid":"WNG735","rank":67,"score":77170},{"content":"Title: WXM20 Content: WXM20 ( sometimes referred to as Lincoln All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the Lincoln metropolitan area and surrounding cities . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Omaha , Nebraska with its transmitter located at the KOLN-TV studio tower in Lincoln . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following Counties : Butler , Cass , Gage , Johnson , Lancaster , Otoe , Saline , Sarpy , Saunders , and Seward .","qid":"2746","docid":"WXM20","rank":68,"score":77160},{"content":"Title: KIH38 Content: KIH38 ( sometimes referred to as Jackson All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the Jackson metropolitan area and surrounding cities . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Jackson , Mississippi with its transmitter located in the same city . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for Claiborne , Copiah , Hinds , Issaquena , Jefferson , Lawrence , Leake , Lincoln , Madison , Rankin , Scott , Simpson , Smith , Warren , & Yazoo Counties in Mississippi ; and Madison , & Tensas Parishes in Louisiana .","qid":"2746","docid":"KIH38","rank":69,"score":77134},{"content":"Title: Wibjörn Karlén Content: Wibjörn Karlén ( born 26 August 1937 in Kristine , Kopparberg County , Sweden ) , Ph.D. , is a professor emeritus of physical geography and quaternary geology at Stockholm University , Sweden . In an article which describes Karlén as a paleoclimatologist , he is quoted as saying : `` One of the big problems with trying to determine long-term temperature changes , is that weather records only go back to about 1860 . By relying on statistical reconstruction of the last 1000 years , using only the temperature patterns of the last 140 years instead of actual temperature readings , the IPCC report and Summary missed both a major cooling period as well as a significant warming trend during that millennium . '' Karlén has also criticized the mainstream media for `` spreading the exaggerated views of a human impact on climate . '' He was also named in a 2007 minority report of the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee as one of 400 `` prominent scientists '' who were said to dispute global warming . In 2010 , he predicted that natural climate changes , caused to a large degree by the sun 's activity , would more likely make the climate colder than warmer in the next decades . He is a contributing author to the Fraser Institute 2007 Independent Summary for Policymakers . Karlén is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences .","qid":"2746","docid":"Wibjörn_Karlén","rank":70,"score":77096},{"content":"Title: WXJ39 Content: WXJ39 is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the Providence metropolitan area and surrounding areas as well as part of the Boston metropolitan area . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Taunton , Massachusetts with its transmitter located at Johnston , Rhode Island . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for Providence , Kent , Bristol , Newport , & Washington counties in Rhode Island and Bristol & Norfolk counties in Massachusetts .","qid":"2746","docid":"WXJ39","rank":71,"score":77085},{"content":"Title: KXI92 Content: KXI92 ( sometimes referred to as Mount Ida All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves Mount Ida , Arkansas and surrounding cities . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Little Rock , Arkansas with its transmitter located in Mount Ida . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following counties : Clark , Garland , Hot Spring , Perry , Pike , Polk , Yell , and Montgomery .","qid":"2746","docid":"KXI92","rank":72,"score":77056},{"content":"Title: WNG605 Content: WNG605 is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves South Central Idaho . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Pocatello , Idaho with its transmitter located near Burley . It can be heard across South Central Idaho , and as far north and east as Idaho Falls . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for Blaine , Cassia , Jerome , Lincoln , Minidoka and Power counties in Idaho .","qid":"2746","docid":"WNG605","rank":73,"score":77043},{"content":"Title: WXK35 Content: WXK35 ( sometimes referred to as Waco All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the Waco metropolitan area and surrounding areas of Central Texas . It is programmed from the NWS Fort Worth office with its transmitter located in Moody . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following Counties : Bell , Bosque , Coryell , Falls , Hamilton , Hill , Lampasas , Limestone , McLennan , Milam , Navarro , and Robertson . Hourly conditions on this station are reported for the following cities : Waco , Temple , Killeen-Fort Hood , Gatesville , Georgetown , Hillsboro , DFW Airport , Abilene , Austin , and Bryan-College Station . Throughout early 2009 , all NOAA Weather Radio Stations within the North Texas region ( including WXK35 ) began airing a monthly 5 minute talk show titled `` The Lightning Bolt '' where listener-submitted questions related to weather are answered by meteorologists .","qid":"2746","docid":"WXK35","rank":74,"score":77021},{"content":"Title: KHB36 Content: KHB36 ( sometimes referred to as Manassas All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station broadcasting at 162.55 megahertz and transmitting from Independent Hill in central Prince William County , Virginia . It covers most of northern Virginia , Washington , D.C. , and southern Maryland . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Sterling , Virginia . The signal reliably covers the Virginia counties of Prince William , Fairfax , Arlington , Loudoun , Fauquier , Rappahannock , Culpeper , Spotsylvania , Caroline , King George , and Stafford . Reception is also possible in the Maryland counties of Montgomery , Prince George 's , and Charles County , Maryland . Additionally , reception is possible but unreliable in the Virginia counties of Clarke , Frederick , Orange , Louisa , Hanover , Essex , Richmond ( no relation to the capital city of the state , which is not covered ) , and Northumberland , plus Calvert County , Maryland and Anne Arundel County , Maryland .","qid":"2746","docid":"KHB36","rank":75,"score":76963},{"content":"Title: KWN31 Content: KWN31 ( sometimes referred to as Greenville All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves Greenville , Sulphur Springs and surrounding cities . It is programmed from the NWS Fort Worth office with its transmitter located in Cumby . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following Counties : Collin , Delta , Fannin , Franklin , Hopkins , Hunt , Kaufman , Rains , Rockwall , Van Zandt , and Wood . It also broadcasts hourly weather observations for the following cities : Greenville , Sulphur Springs , Paris , McKinney , Terrell , Mineola , and Mount Pleasant ; and elsewhere around the region : DFW Airport , Sherman-Denison , Tyler , and Texarkana . Throughout early 2009 , all NOAA Weather Radio Stations within the North Texas region ( including KWN31 ) began airing a monthly 15 minute talk show titled `` The Lightning Bolt '' where listener-submitted questions related to weather are answered by meteorologists .","qid":"2746","docid":"KWN31","rank":76,"score":76948},{"content":"Title: KXI87 Content: KXI87 ( sometimes referred to as Corsicana All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves Corsicana and surrounding cities . It is programmed from the NWS Fort Worth office with its transmitter located in Corsicana . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following Counties : Anderson , Ellis , Erath , Freestone , Henderson , Hill , Kaufman , Limestone , Navarro , and Van Zandt . Hourly conditions on this station are reported for the following cities : Corsicana , Midlothian/Waxahachie , Hillsboro , Waco , Palestine , DFW Airport , Tyler , and Bryan/College Station . Throughout early 2009 , all NOAA Weather Radio Stations within the North Texas region ( including KXI87 ) began airing a monthly 5 minute talk show titled `` The Lightning Bolt '' where listener-submitted questions related to weather are answered by meteorologists .","qid":"2746","docid":"KXI87","rank":77,"score":76939},{"content":"Title: KIH28 Content: KIH28 ( sometimes referred to as Philadelphia All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves Delaware Valley and surrounding areas . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office of Philadelphia , Pennsylvania in Mount Holly , New Jersey with its transmitter located at Philadelphia . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for Berks County , Pennsylvania , Bucks County , Pennsylvania , Chester County , Pennsylvania , Delaware County , Pennsylvania , Montgomery County , Pennsylvania , & Philadelphia County , Pennsylvania Counties in Pennsylvania ; plus Burlington County , New Jersey , Camden County , New Jersey , Cumberland County , New Jersey , Gloucester County , New Jersey , Hunterdon County , New Jersey , Mercer County , New Jersey , Monmouth County , New Jersey & Salem County , New Jersey Counties in New Jersey ; as well as Kent County , Delaware & New Castle County , Delaware Counties in Delaware ; and Cecil County , Maryland County in Maryland .","qid":"2746","docid":"KIH28","rank":78,"score":76920},{"content":"Title: Ice accretion indicator Content: The ice accretion indicator is an L-shaped piece of aluminium 38 cm long by 4 to wide . It is used to indicate the formation of ice , frost or the presence of freezing rain or freezing drizzle . It is normally attached to a Stevenson screen , about 1 m above ground , but may be mounted in other areas away from any artificial heat sources . The weather station would have two on site and they would be exchanged after every weather observation . The spare indicator should always be at the outside air temperature to ensure that it is ready for use and would normally be stored inside the screen . If the observer notes the presence of ice or frost on the indicator then a remark to that effect should be sent in the next weather observation . Examples of these are ` rime icing on indicator ' and ` FROIN ' ( frost on indicator ) . As the indicator is at air temperature and is kept horizontal it provides an excellent surface on which to observe freezing precipitation .","qid":"2746","docid":"Ice_accretion_indicator","rank":79,"score":76890},{"content":"Title: KEC76 Content: KEC76 ( sometimes referred to as NOAA All Hazards Radio ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the Denver metropolitan area and surrounding cities . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Boulder , Colorado with its transmitter located in Denver ( The NWS refers to the transmitter as Glendale however the tower is in Denver south of Glendale City Limits ) . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following Counties : Adams , Arapahoe , Broomfield , Clear Creek , Denver , Douglas , Elbert , Gilpin , central & eastern Park , Jefferson and Southern Weld .","qid":"2746","docid":"KEC76","rank":80,"score":76862},{"content":"Title: KIG98 Content: KIG98 ( sometimes referred to as Portland All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves Portland , Oregon metropolitan area and surrounding cities . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Portland , Oregon , with its transmitter located at Goat Mountain . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for Clackamas , Columbia , Multnomah , and Washington Counties in Oregon as well as Clark , Cowlitz , and Skamania Counties in Washington .","qid":"2746","docid":"KIG98","rank":81,"score":76847},{"content":"Title: WXM34 Content: WXM34 is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the Cascades of Northern Oregon and Southern Washington . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Pendleton , Oregon with its transmitter located on Stacker Butte near The Dalles . It can be heard across its listening area and usually does not extend further than the listening area . The furthest areas WXM34 's signal has been heard was on Interstate 84 on The Cabbage Hill east of Pendleton , Interstate 82 Eastbound between Ellensburg and Yakima and as far north as Moses Lake . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for Klickitat and Skamania counties in Washington as well as Hood River , Sherman and Wasco counties in Oregon .","qid":"2746","docid":"WXM34","rank":82,"score":76829},{"content":"Title: WNG559 Content: WNG559 is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves North Central Oregon . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Pendleton , Oregon with its transmitter located near Fossil . It is heard across most of North Central Oregon . The signal has also been reported as far north as Adams County and Moses Lake , Grant County , Washington . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for Gilliam and Wheeler counties in Oregon .","qid":"2746","docid":"WNG559","rank":83,"score":76767},{"content":"Title: KHB32 Content: KHB32 ( sometimes referred to as Tampa Bay All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the Tampa Bay Area and surrounding cities . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Tampa , Florida with its transmitter located in Ruskin . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following Counties : Hardee , Hillsborough , Manatee , Pasco , Pinellas , and Polk .","qid":"2746","docid":"KHB32","rank":84,"score":76757},{"content":"Title: KIG60 Content: KIG60 ( sometimes referred to as Burlington All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the Burlington metropolitan area and surrounding cities . The broadcasts can also be heard throughout southern parts of Quebec and Ontario . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Burlington , Vermont with its transmitter located in Mt. Mansfield . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for Addison , Chittenden , Franklin , Grand Isle , Lamoille , and Washington counties in Vermont , plus Clinton , Essex , Franklin , and St. Lawrence counties in New York .","qid":"2746","docid":"KIG60","rank":85,"score":76723},{"content":"Title: KWN59 Content: KWN59 is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves portions of north central Kansas and south central Nebraska . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Hastings , Nebraska with its transmitter located in Kirwin , Kansas . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following Counties : Phillips County , Kansas , Norton County , Kansas , Osborne County , Kansas , Rooks County , Kansas , Smith County , Kansas , Harlan County , Nebraska , and Franklin County , Nebraska . The station was created with the cooperation of the Phillips , Rooks , Smith , and Osbourne county emergency managements .","qid":"2746","docid":"KWN59","rank":86,"score":76690},{"content":"Title: KHB40 Content: KHB40 ( sometimes referred to as Galveston All Hazards ) is a U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Weather Radio station that serves the coastal communities of Greater Houston and can be heard over 40 miles into the Gulf of Mexico . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in League City , Texas with its transmitter located in Hitchcock , Texas . The transmitter used to be on top of the American National Insurance building in Galveston . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following counties : Brazoria , Chambers , Galveston , and Southeast Harris","qid":"2746","docid":"KHB40","rank":87,"score":76674},{"content":"Title: WXJ96 Content: WXJ96 ( sometimes referred to as Monroe All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the Monroe , Louisiana metropolitan area along with northeast Louisiana . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Shreveport , Louisiana with its transmitter located in Monroe , Louisiana . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for : Cadwell , Franklin , Jackson , Lincoln , Morehouse , Ouachita , Richland , Union , West Carroll , & Winn parishes in Louisiana .","qid":"2746","docid":"WXJ96","rank":88,"score":76613},{"content":"Title: KIG65 Content: KIG65 ( sometimes referred to as Green Bay All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the Green Bay metropolitan area and surrounding cities . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Green Bay , Wisconsin with its transmitter located in the same city . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following Counties : Brown , Calumet , Door , Kewaunee , Manitowoc , Marinette , Menominee , Oconto , Outagamie , Shawano , and Winnebago .","qid":"2746","docid":"KIG65","rank":89,"score":76605},{"content":"Title: KIH63 Content: KIH63 ( sometimes referred to as Orlando All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves Orlando and surrounding locations . It is programmed from the National Weather Service office in Melbourne , Florida with its transmitter located in Orlando , and broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following counties : Lake , Orange , Osceola , Polk , Seminole , and Volusia .","qid":"2746","docid":"KIH63","rank":90,"score":76605},{"content":"Title: KHB33 Content: KHB33 ( sometimes referred to as Pharr All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Brownsville , Texas with its transmitter located in Brownsville . Although the directional signal serves much of the whole Rio Grande Valley area , it broadcasts weather and hazard information for Cameron , Hidalgo & Willacy Counties .","qid":"2746","docid":"KHB33","rank":91,"score":76590},{"content":"Title: WNG651 Content: WNG651 ( sometimes referred to as Mineral Wells All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves Mineral Wells and surrounding cities including the western half of the Dallas-Fort Worth Metroplex . It is programmed from the NWS Fort Worth office with its transmitter located in Palo Pinto . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following Counties : Erath , Hood , Jack , Palo Pinto , Parker , Stephens , Tarrant , Wise , and Young . Hourly conditions on this station are reported for the following cities : Mineral Wells , Graham , Bridgeport , Granbury , Stephenville , Abilene , Wichita Falls , and DFW Airport . Throughout early 2009 , all NOAA Weather Radio Stations within the North Texas region ( including WNG651 ) began airing a monthly 15-minute talk show titled `` The Lightning Bolt '' where listener-submitted questions related to weather are answered by meteorologists .","qid":"2746","docid":"WNG651","rank":92,"score":76567},{"content":"Title: WXJ68 Content: WXJ68 ( sometimes referred to as Maricao All-Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the western Puerto Rico area . Its transmitter is located in Maricao , Puerto Rico . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for Mayagüez and vicinity , Ponce and vicinity , Northwest , Southwest , Central Interior and Northern Puerto Rico . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in San Juan , Puerto Rico .","qid":"2746","docid":"WXJ68","rank":93,"score":76514},{"content":"Title: KIH55 Content: KIH55 ( sometimes referred to as Montgomery All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the Montgomery Metropolitan Area and surrounding cities . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Birmingham , Alabama with its transmitter located in Montgomery . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following Counties : Autauga , Bullock , Chilton , Coosa , Dallas , Elmore , Lowndes , Macon , and Montgomery .","qid":"2746","docid":"KIH55","rank":94,"score":76508},{"content":"Title: WXL70 Content: WXL70 ( sometimes referred to as Charlotte All-Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the Charlotte metropolitan area and surrounding cities . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office at the Greenville-Spartanburg International Airport in Greer , South Carolina with its transmitter located in Spencer Mountain . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for Alexander , Anson , Cabarrus , Catawba , Cleveland , Gaston , Iredell , Lincoln , Mecklenburg , Montgomery , Richmond , Rowan , Stanly , and Union Counties in North Carolina ; plus Cherokee , and York counties in South Carolina . Until mid-2012 , WXL-70 's audio could also be heard on WCCB digital channel 18.3 on audio feed 2 , because Me-TV had taken over audio feed 1 .","qid":"2746","docid":"WXL70","rank":95,"score":76490},{"content":"Title: WNG600 Content: WNG600 ( sometimes referred to as D'Hanis All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves D'Hanis as well as the extreme western portion of Greater San Antonio . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in San Antonio , Texas with its transmitter located in D'Hanis . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following Counties : Frio , Medina , and Uvalde .","qid":"2746","docid":"WNG600","rank":96,"score":76461},{"content":"Title: KEC57 Content: KEC57 ( sometimes referred to as Sacramento All-Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the Sacramento metropolitan area and surrounding cities . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Sacramento , California with its transmitter located in Jackson . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following counties : Amador , Calaveras , Colusa , El Dorado , Placer , Sacramento , San Joaquin , Solano , Stanislaus , Sutter , and Yolo .","qid":"2746","docid":"KEC57","rank":97,"score":76434},{"content":"Title: WXK68 Content: WXK68 ( sometimes referred to as Boise All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the Boise metropolitan area . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Boise , Idaho , with its transmitter located in Doe Point . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following counties : Ada , Boise , Canyon , Elmore , Gem , and Owyhee","qid":"2746","docid":"WXK68","rank":98,"score":76433},{"content":"Title: KEC65 Content: KEC65 ( sometimes referred to as Minneapolis/St . Paul All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the Minneapolis -- Saint Paul metropolitan area . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Twin Cities , Minnesota , with its transmitter located in Saint Paul atop the KSTP television tower . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for Anoka , Carver , Chisago , Dakota , Goodhue , Hennepin , Ramsey , Rice , Scott , Washington , & Wright Counties in Minnesota as well as Pierce , Polk , St. Croix Counties in Wisconsin . The broadcasts can be heard on KTCA Channel 2.4 . KEC65 is now heard on KTCA ( TPT ) Channel 2.5 due to the impending Children 's programming channel slated to launch in January 2017 on 2.4 .","qid":"2746","docid":"KEC65","rank":99,"score":76430},{"content":"Title: WNG575 Content: WNG575 is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves Southern New Hampshire , Windham County , Vermont , and North Central and Northeast Massachusetts . Some cities served include Manchester , Nashua , Keene , Lowell , and Lawrence . However , the station can be received in parts of Central and Western Massachusetts as well as a portion of Southeast Vermont . The station is programmed by the National Weather Service office in Gray , Maine , and the station is transmitting atop Pack Monadnock near Peterborough , New Hampshire on a frequency of 162.525 megahertz .","qid":"2746","docid":"WNG575","rank":100,"score":76428}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tottenham Court Road chiller Content: In the 1930s , London Transport Board installed an experimental refrigeration plant on the London Underground at Tottenham Court Road tube station . The plant was operational between 1938 and 1949 . The experimental plant was built because temperature measurements through the 1930s showed that the Underground was steadily getting warmer . Although the temperatures were not at unsafe levels ( peaks of 82 ° F / 27.8 ° C occurred at a few stations in summertime ) , the LTB perceived that if the trend continued , cooling in summer would be required at some time in the future , and it would be sensible to develop suitable technology . The chiller used water as the working fluid . The evaporators consisted of indirect heat exchangers mounted in the platform tunnels which were fed water at just above 0 ° C . The condenser was sited in the outflow air path of an existing tunnel cooling fan , which had been installed in a disused lift shaft at the station in 1933 . The outgoing air going through the condenser was warmed by 2 -- 3 ° C , before being discharged to atmosphere . Two descriptions of the cooling capacity exist . The first ( from 1939 ) gives the capacity as `` about half a million British thermal units per hour . '' The second ( 1982 ) states that it was `` equivalent to melting approximately 51 tonnes of ice per day . '' In SI units , these are 146 kW and 197 kW respectively . The experimental plant was not considered a success , mainly because the cooling it provided was at high cost . An extract fan of the same cooling capacity ( ` cooling capacity ' in the sense that a fan removes warm air in the tunnels and replaces it with cooler air from outside ) used up one-eighth of the electricity of the experimental refrigeration plant . Not only that , such a fan was easier to maintain and cost less to install . In the austere post-war years , the electrical power drawn by the chiller could not be justified . It was used intermittently during the 1940s , and was decommissioned in 1949 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"Tottenham_Court_Road_chiller\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 97610\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: WARM (AM) Content: WARM ( 590 AM ) is a radio station licensed to the city of Scranton , Pennsylvania . The station is currently owned by Cumulus Media . The station is a Class B AM broadcasting station according to the Federal Communications Commission . WARM broadcasts with a power of 5,000 watts with two types of directional antenna signal patterns during daytime and nighttime . The antenna patterns of the signal in both instances are generally aimed towards the southeast with some signal aimed towards the northwest from its transmitting facility located 15 miles northwest of Scranton in Falls , Pennsylvania . WARM uses five , 495 feet high broadcasting towers to transmit its signal from that location . The station used to derive a portion of its programming from Scott Shannon 's The True Oldies Channel from Cumulus Media Networks .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"WARM_(AM)\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 95213\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Station model Content: In meteorology , station models are symbolic illustrations showing the weather occurring at a given reporting station . Meteorologists created the station model to fit a number of weather elements into a small space on weather maps . This allows map users to analyze patterns in atmospheric pressure , temperature , wind speed & direction , cloud cover , precipitation , and other parameters . The most common station plots depict surface weather observations although upper air plots at various mandatory levels are also frequently depicted . Station model plots use an internationally accepted coding convention that has changed little since August 1 , 1941 . Elements in the plot show the key weather elements , including temperature , dew point , wind , cloud cover , air pressure , pressure tendency , and precipitation .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"Station_model\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 94884\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Weather station Content: A weather station is a facility , either on land or sea , with instruments and equipment for measuring atmospheric conditions to provide information for weather forecasts and to study the weather and climate . The measurements taken include temperature , atmospheric pressure , humidity , wind speed , wind direction , and precipitation amounts . Wind measurements are taken with as few other obstructions as possible , while temperature and humidity measurements are kept free from direct solar radiation , or insolation . Manual observations are taken at least once daily , while automated measurements are taken at least once an hour . Weather conditions out at sea are taken by ships and buoys , which measure slightly different meteorological quantities such as sea surface temperature ( SST ) , wave height , and wave period . Drifting weather buoys outnumber their moored versions by a significant amount .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"Weather_station\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 93439\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cold drop Content: The cold drop ( gota fría ) is a weather phenomenon often occurring in the Spanish autumn . It is experienced particularly along the western Mediterranean and as such , most frequently affects the east coast of Spain . It is a closed upper-level low which has become completely displaced ( cut off ) from basic westerly current , and moves independently of that current . Cutoff lows may remain nearly stationary for days , or on occasion may move westward opposite to the prevailing flow aloft ( i.e. , retrogression ) . The term is also used to describe the meteorological phenomenon associated . In Spain , it appears when a front of very cold polar air , a jet stream , advances slowly over Western Europe , at high altitude ( normally 5 -- 9 km or 3 -- 5.5 mi ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"Cold_drop\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 93298\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Dropsonde Content: A dropsonde is an expendable weather reconnaissance device created by the National Center for Atmospheric Research ( NCAR ) , designed to be dropped from an aircraft at altitude to more accurately measure ( and therefore track ) tropical storm conditions as the device falls to the surface . The sonde contains a GPS receiver , along with pressure , temperature , and humidity ( PTH ) sensors to capture atmospheric profiles and thermodynamic data . It typically relays these data to a computer in the aircraft by radio transmission . The device 's descent is slowed and stabilized by a small square-cone parachute , allowing for multiple readings to be taken before it reaches the ocean surface . The sonde is a lightweight system designed to be operated by one person and is launched through a chute installed in the measuring aircraft , with immediate deployment of the parachute to reduce or eliminate any pendulum effect , and typically drops from three to five minutes . The sonde has a casing of stiff cardboard . During a typical hurricane season , the 53d Weather Reconnaissance Squadron Hurricane Hunters deploys 1000 to 1500 sondes on training and storm missions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"Dropsonde\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 92929\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 300 Club Content: The 300 Club is the name given to those who have endured a range of temperature of 300 ° Fahrenheit ( 166 ° C ) within a very short time . The practice originated at Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station in Antarctica . Participants in the 300 Club wait for a day when the temperature drops to − 100 ° F ( -73 ° C ) for more than a few minutes , generally in the winter . Those taking part first warm up in a sauna heated to 200 ° F ( 93 ° C ) for as long as 10 minutes . Then they run naked in the snow to the Geographic South Pole , running around it in the − 100 ° F weather . After this , they usually warm themselves back in the sauna again , often with the aid of alcoholic beverages . There are several patches made to commemorate the occasion that are entitled to be worn by those who have joined the 300 Club .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"300_Club\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 91100\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pneumonia front Content: The term Pneumonia front , first coined by Milwaukee Weather Bureau Office in the 1960s , is used to describe a rare meteorological phenomenon observed on the western Lake Michigan , USA , shoreline during the warm season . These fronts are defined as lake-modified synoptic scale cold fronts that result in one-hour temperature drops of 16 ° F ( 8.9 ° C ) or greater . They do not necessarily have to be synoptic , or large scale , cold fronts . Very often in the Spring to early summer the temperature difference between the cold lake waters and the warmer air over land can be as much as 35-40 ° F. Under weak prevailing winds , a density current can often develop in the form of a lake breeze that moves from that water to the adjacent shoreline and several miles inland . This `` lake-breeze cold front '' can drop temperature in places like Chicago , Milwaukee and Green Bay significantly as they cross the area . There has been many a Spring day at Wrigley Field that surprises people who may have travelled from an inland location toward the shore to take in an afternoon game , only to feel the effects of the `` pneumonia front '' as that cold blast of air comes through . The following are eighteen occurrences of a lake modified synoptic scale cold front or `` pneumonia front '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"Pneumonia_front\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 90916\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: David Parker (climatologist) Content: David Parker is head of climate monitoring at the Hadley Centre , Exeter , England . He has published extensively on the land and marine temperature record and its consistency . In 2002 , he was an organiser of a `` Workshop on Advances in the Use of Historical Marine Climate Data '' . In 2004 , he has published a paper in Nature , showing that the urban heat island effect has not affected the historical temperature record . In this article , Parker shares his observations of the minimum temperature over 24 hours worldwide since 1950 that were expressed as anomalies . Also it includes his reasoning to why urbanization has not systematically exaggerated the observed global warming trends in minimum temperature . He further goes on to mention how the criterion for `` calm '' was changed while the global trend for minimum temperature remained unchanged . From his analysis he finds that windy and calm nights warmed at the same rate . Both the windy and calm increased at a rate of ( 0.16 + 0.03 C ) . He compares his small sample of 26 stations in North America and Siberia with global trends from 1950 to 1953 , covering over 5,000 stations . Estimates of recent global warming , supported by Parker 's analysis shows that urban warming has not introduced significant biases . `` The reality and magnitude of global-scale warming is supported by the near-equality of temperature trends on windy nights with trends based on all data . '' ( Parker ) This paper has been commented on by Roger Pielke , Sr. , et al. .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"David_Parker_(climatologist)\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 89744\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Drop Hydro Content: The Drop Hydro Power Station is a Pacific Hydro hydroelectric power station on the Mulwala Canal , near Berrigan , New South Wales , Australia . It has one turbine , with a generating capacity of 2.5 MW of electricity . The power station was completed in November 2002 , and is Australia 's first hydroelectric power station built on an irrigation canal .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Drop_Hydro\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 85651\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: A.M. Weather Content: A.M. Weather was an American weather news program that ran from October 30 , 1978 to February 3 , 1995 and was broadcast on PBS member stations throughout the United States . The 15-minute daily program , which aired fifteen minutes before or after the hour ( depending on the station 's scheduling of the program ) and was produced by Maryland Public Television ( MPT ) , featured detailed forecasts presented by meteorologists from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) . The program led the way in the use of computer graphics for televised weather reports , but had previously used hand-drawn maps and the show 's trademark yellow pointer .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"A.M._Weather\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 84850\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Lowest temperature recorded on Earth Content: The lowest natural temperature ever directly recorded at ground level on Earth is − 89.2 C , which was at the Soviet Vostok Station in Antarctica by ground measurements . A 2009 study estimated that under exceptional climate conditions similar to those recorded at Vostin 1983 , temperatures higher on the plateau around Dome Argus could potentially drop lower than − 95 C. On August 10 , 2010 , satellite observations measured a surface temperature of − 93.2 C at 81.8 ° S 59.3 ° E , along a ridge between Dome Argus and Dome Fuji , at 3,900 m elevation . The result was reported at the 46th annual meeting of the American Geophysical Union in San Francisco , in December 2013 ; it is a provisional figure , and may be subject to revision . The value may not be listed as the record coldest temperature as it was measured by remote sensing satellites and not by ground-based thermometers , unlike the 1983 record . The temperature announced reflects that of the ice surface , while the Vostok readings measured the air above the ice , and so the two are not directly comparable . However , it is most likely that the real temperature on the site was lower than that recorded at Vostok .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"Lowest_temperature_recorded_on_Earth\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 83575\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: George Winterling Content: George Alfred Winterling ( born September 9 , 1931 ) is a retired television weatherman . He was the creator of the `` heat index '' . Chief Meteorologist for television station WJXT in Jacksonville , Florida for almost fifty years , Winterling helped develop modern forecasting .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"George_Winterling\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 82821\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Weather Station Content: The Weather Station is a Canadian folk music band fronted by Tamara Lindeman , formed in 2006 . The band membership has changed over the years , but now includes Lindeman , with Ben Whiteley on bass , Adrian Cook on pedal steel , and Ian Kehoe on drums . The debut album The Line was released in 2009 . The second album , All of It Was Mine , made in collaboration with Daniel Romano , was released in 2011 . Lindeman was a nominee for the 2013 SOCAN Songwriting Prize for The Weather Station song `` Mule in the Flowers '' , cowritten with Steve Lambke . The third album , Loyalty , was recorded at La Frette studios near Paris , France , with Afie Jurvanen and Robbie Lackritz , who has worked on albums with Bahamas , Feist , Zeus , and Jason Collett . Loyalty was released May 5 , 2015 on Paradise of Bachelors ( U.S. , worldwide ) , and Outside Music ( Canada ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Weather_Station\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 81619\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: WARM-FM Content: WARM-FM is an American adult contemporary radio station based in York , Pennsylvania broadcasting at 103.3 MHz FM . It is owned and operated by Cumulus Media . WARM 's studios and offices are located off US 30 between York and Lancaster , PA. . Listeners in the Philadelphia region may have interference with WPRB , Princeton , New Jersey , which shares the same frequency , and WAPY , State College , Pennsylvania , at 103.1 as one drives northwest on US 322 or PA State Route 333 heading into Lewistown , Pennsylvania .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"WARM-FM\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 81277\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Rover Environmental Monitoring Station Content: Rover Environmental Monitoring Station ( REMS ) is a weather station on Mars for Curiosity rover contributed by Spain and Finland . REMS measures humidity , pressure , temperatures , wind speeds , and ultraviolet radiation on Mars . This Spanish project is led by the Center for Astrobiology ( Madrid ) and includes the Finnish Meteorological Institute as a partner , contributing pressure and humidity sensors . All sensors are located around three elements : two booms attached to the rover Remote Sensing Mast ( RSM ) , the Ultraviolet Sensor ( UVS ) assembly located on the rover top deck , and the Instrument Control Unit ( ICU ) inside the rover . Goals include understanding Martian general circulation , microscale weather systems , local hydrological cycle , destructive potential of UV radiation , and subsurface habitability based on ground-atmosphere interaction . By August 18 , 2012 , REMS was turned on and its data was being returned to Earth . The temperature at that time : 37 degrees Fahrenheit ( 2.8 degrees Celsius ) . On August 21 , 2012 , one of two windspeedmeters returned data with errors . After testing it was concluded that it was broken , probably hit by a rock on descent . Martian winds can still be detected with the other sensor . Reports are posted on the Center for Astrobiology website and twitter daily . Parts of REMS Instrument Control Unit Ultraviolet Sensor Boom 1 with : Air Temperature Sensor Wind Sensor Ground Temperature Sensor Boom 2 with : Air Temperature Sensor Wind Sensor Humidity Sensor The pressure sensor can detect pressures from 1 to 1150 Pa ( Pascal ) ( 0.000145038 PSI to 0.1667934 PSI ) . For comparison , 1 atmosphere is 101,325 Pascals or 14.7 PSI .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"Rover_Environmental_Monitoring_Station\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 81060\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Drop the Beat Content: Drop the Beat was a Canadian television series produced by Back Alley Films , which aired on CBC Television in 2000 . A short run dramatic series , the show was one of the first television series ever built around hip hop music and culture . The show , a spinoff of the earlier CBC series Straight Up , starred Mark Taylor as Jeff and Merwin Mondesir as Dennis , the hosts of a hip hop show on CIBJ-FM , a fictional campus radio station in Toronto , Ontario . Michie Mee starred as Divine , a rapper who was part of Jeff and Dennis ' crew , and Ingrid Veninger played the station manager . The supporting cast also included Arlene Duncan , Vanessa Ford , Jennifer Baxter , Jason Harrow , Shamann Williams and Omari Forrester . The use of a campus radio station was a deliberate reflection of Canadian reality -- until Toronto 's Flow 93.5 hit the airwaves in early 2001 , Canada did not have any radio stations dedicated specifically to urban music .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"Drop_the_Beat\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 81018\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KGG68 Content: KGG68 ( sometimes referred to as Houston All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station operating at 162.40 MHz that serves the city proper and suburbs in Greater Houston . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in League City , Texas with its transmitter located in Tomball , Texas . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following Counties : Brazoria , Chambers , Fort Bend , Galveston , Harris , Liberty , Montgomery , and Waller .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"KGG68\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 80676\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KHB34 Content: KHB34 is a NOAA Weather Radio ( NWR ) station that serves a part of the South Florida metropolitan area on an assigned frequency of 162.550 MHz ; it can also be heard about 60 mi east into the Atlantic Ocean , nearly to the Bahamas . Programming originates from NOAA 's National Weather Service ( NWS ) weather forecast office ( WFO ) in Miami , Florida , with the transmitter located in Andover/Miami Gardens . It continuously broadcasts weather and marine forecasts , as well as civil hazards information , for the following counties in the South Florida region : Miami-Dade and Broward . The radio station plays a vital role in alerting the general public to hazardous weather conditions in an area prone to severe weather events such as lightning storms , tornadoes , waterspouts and hurricanes . The signal also reaches North Key Largo and inland parts of mainland Monroe , eastern Collier , far southeastern Hendry , and most of Palm Beach counties -- however it does not issue alerts for those areas . There are other adjacent NWR stations that serve the forecast area . WNG663 ( 162.425 MHz ) also covers Miami-Dade from Princeton , near Homestead , as well as mainland Monroe and the Upper Keys . Other stations programmed by the Miami-South Florida WFO include : KEC50 Mangonia Park/West Palm Beach ( 162.475 MHz ) to the north , serving Palm Beach County and the adjacent coastal waters ; WXM58 Belle Glade ( 162.400 MHz ) to the northwest , in western Palm Beach County near Lake Okeechobee ; and WWG92 Naples ( 162.525 MHz ) to the northwest , near Florida 's west coast , serving Collier , Hendry and a portion of mainland Monroe County . Recognizing the need to serve the local area 's large Spanish-speaking population , NWS added a low-power station in June 2012 , WZ2531 ( 162.500 MHz ) transmitting from Hialeah - the first dedicated Spanish language NWR station in Florida . Its broadcast , featuring a computer-synthesized voice known by the nickname `` Javier '' , covers Miami-Dade and Broward counties .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"KHB34\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 79552\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: VVC weather station Content: The VDNKh weather station is the principal weather station in Moscow , Russia . It opened in 1948 on the grounds of the All-Russia Exhibition Centre . Temperature and precipitation readings at VVC weather station form the official weather reports and historical statistics . The station 's World meteorological organization classification index is 27612 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"VVC_weather_station\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 79467\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Remote Automated Weather Station Content: The Remote Automatic Weather Stations ( RAWS ) system is a network of automated weather stations run by the U.S. Forest Service ( USFS ) and Bureau of Land Management ( BLM ) and monitored by the National Interagency Fire Center ( NIFC ) , mainly to observe potential wildfire conditions . Unlike the automated airport weather stations which are located at significant airports , RAWS stations are often located in remote areas , particularly in national forests . Because of this , they usually are not connected to the electrical grid , but rather have their own solar panels , and a battery to store power for overnight reporting . Some instead run on a generator . In both cases , data important to operating the station itself , such as battery voltage or fuel level , is often included in the hourly reports . Also because of the remote locations , most communicate with a modem via telephone , or via a VSAT connection to a GOES satellite . In this regard , they are similar to mesonets and may be mesonets if the distance between stations ( spatial resolution ) is sufficiently dense . They often lack the consistently high-quality data needed for use in numerical weather prediction and climatology , however . Road Weather Information System ( RWIS ) may likewise be self-powered and located in remote areas .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"Remote_Automated_Weather_Station\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 79403\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KHB37 Content: KHB37 is a NOAA Weather Radio station broadcasting at 162.55 megahertz and transmitting from Norfolk in Hampton Roads , Virginia . It covers most of southeastern Virginia , and northeastern North Carolina . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Wakefield , Virginia . The signal reliably covers the Virginia cities of Norfolk , Virginia Beach , Poquoson , Suffolk , Hampton , Newport News , Portsmouth , Williamsburg , Chesapeake , Franklin , and the Virginia counties of Isle of Wight , James City , Accomack , Surry , Sussex and York . Reception is also reliable in the North Carolina counties of Camden , Currituck , Gates , Perquimans , Hertford , and Pasquotank .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"KHB37\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 79211\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: WNG636 Content: WNG636 ( sometimes referred to as Cisco All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves Cisco and surrounding cities . It is programmed from the NWS Fort Worth office with its transmitter located in Cisco . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following Counties : Brown , Callahan , Comanche , Eastland , Erath , Shackelford , and Stephens . Throughout early 2009 , all NOAA Weather Radio Stations within the North Texas region ( including WNG636 ) began airing a monthly 5 minute talk show titled `` The Lightning Bolt '' where listener-submitted questions related to weather are answered by meteorologists .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"WNG636\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 79109\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KWO37 Content: KWO37 ( sometimes referred to as Los Angeles All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Los Angeles/Oxnard , California with its transmitter located in Mount Lukens in the San Gabriel Mountains . Although it serves much of the Greater Los Angeles Area and the Pacific Coast Line , it broadcasts weather and hazard information only for Los Angeles and Ventura Counties as well as the coastal waters of Ventura , Los Angeles and Orange Counties . Its primary forecast point covers the Los Angeles County Coast , the Los Angeles County Valleys including the Santa Clarita Valley , Los Angeles County Mountains excluding the Santa Monica Range , and the Antelope Valley . Hourly conditions on this station are reported for the following cities : Downtown Los Angeles , Los Angeles Airport , Torrance , Long Beach Airport , Santa Ana , Burbank , Van Nuys , Ontario , Woodland Hills , Sandburg , Mount Wilson , Lancaster , Palm Springs , and Santa Barbara . These conditions are not broadcast during hazardous weather events .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"KWO37\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 79007\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of coastal weather stations in the British Isles Content: Reports from these coastal stations and automatic weather logging stations in the British Isles are included in the extended Shipping Forecasts on BBC Radio 4 at 0048 and 0520 local time each day . The stations are listed in the order they are read in the forecast , the numbers in brackets refer to the map on the right . Weather reports included in the forecasts are issued at 2300 local time for the late broadcast and 0400 for the early one , although reports issued at other times may be included if for some reason the most recent did not arrive . Tiree Automatic ( 1 ) Stornoway ( 2 ) Lerwick ( 3 ) Wick Automatic ( 0048 only ) Aberdeen ( 0048 only ) Leuchars ( 4 ) Boulmer ( 0048 only ) Bridlington ( 5 ) Sandettie Light Vessel Automatic ( 6 ) Greenwich Light Vessel Automatic ( 7 ) St. Catherine 's Point Automatic ( 0048 only ) Jersey ( 8 ) Channel Light Vessel Automatic ( 9 ) Scilly Automatic ( 10 ) Milford Haven ( 0048 only ) Aberporth ( 0048 only ) Valley ( 0048 only ) Liverpool Crosby ( 0048 only ) Valentia ( 11 ) Ronaldsway ( 12 ) Malin Head ( 13 ) Machrihanish Automatic ( 0048 only ) Category : Meteorological data and networks Weather stations Category : Marine meteorology and sailing Weather\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_coastal_weather_stations_in_the_British_Isles\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 78998\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KHB49 Content: KHB49 ( sometimes referred to as San Francisco All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the San Francisco Bay Area and can be heard 40 miles into the Pacific Ocean . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Monterey , California with its transmitter located in Mt. Pise . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following counties : Alameda , Contra Costa , Marin , Napa , San Francisco , San Mateo , Santa Clara , and Sonoma .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"KHB49\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 78987\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of hill stations of Pakistan Content: There are many hill stations in Pakistan , where there is snow in the winter . In the summer , the temperatures are much cooler than the hot areas of Punjab and Sindh . People from all over the country flock to these hill stations to enjoy the snow in winters , and to enjoy the cool summers away from the hot plains . This is a list\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_hill_stations_of_Pakistan\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 78888\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: WXK30 Content: WXK30 ( sometimes referred to as College Station All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the Bryan/College Station , Texas area and surrounding cities . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Houston , Texas with its transmitter located in College Station . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following Counties : Austin , Brazos , Burleson , Grimes , Leon , Madison , Milam , Robertson , Walker , Waller , and Washington .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"WXK30\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 78734\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KWN34 Content: KWN34 ( sometimes referred to as Palestine All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves Palestine and surrounding cities . It is programmed from the NWS Fort Worth office with its transmitter located in Palestine . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following Counties : Anderson , Cherokee , Freestone , Henderson , Houston , Leon , and Navarro . Throughout early 2009 , all NOAA Weather Radio Stations within the North Texas region ( including KWN34 ) began airing a monthly 15 minute talk show titled `` The Lightning Bolt '' where listener-submitted questions related to weather are answered by meteorologists .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"KWN34\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 78733\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: WXM87 Content: WXM87 is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves portions of northeast Colorado , southwest Nebraska , and northwest Kansas . It broadcasts on NOAA Weather Radio channel 4 , or 162.475 Megahertz . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Goodland , Kansas with its transmitter located in Wray , Colorado . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following counties : Cheyenne County , Kansas , Dundy County , Nebraska , and Yuma County , Colorado .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"WXM87\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 78651\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KZEE Content: KZEE ( branded as Hot Pepper 1220 AM ) is a brokered South Asian AM radio station that serves the Weatherford , Texas , area , and is owned by Tarrant Radio Broadcasters .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"KZEE\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 78555\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: WNG663 Content: WNG663 is a NOAA Weather Radio ( NWR ) station serving the southern part of the South Florida metropolitan area and its adjacent coastal waters as well as the northern portion of the Florida Keys , broadcasting on an assigned frequency of 162.425 MHz ; it can also be heard 35 miles into the Atlantic Ocean . It is programmed by NOAA 's National Weather Service ( NWS ) weather forecast office ( WFO ) in Miami , Florida , with its transmitter located in Princeton , near Homestead . It continuously broadcasts weather and marine forecasts , as well as civil hazards information , for the following counties in the South Florida region : Miami-Dade and parts of Monroe ( mainland and Upper Keys ) . The radio station plays a vital role in alerting the general public to hazardous weather conditions in an area prone to severe weather events such as lightning storms , tornadoes , waterspouts and hurricanes . Although its signal also reaches extreme southern Broward County , WNG663 does not issue alerts for that area . There are other adjacent NWR stations that serve the forecast area . KHB34 Andover/Miami Gardens ( 162.550 MHz ) also covers Miami-Dade , as well as Broward and much of Palm Beach counties . Other stations programmed by the Miami-South Florida WFO include : KEC50 Mangonia Park/West Palm Beach ( 162.475 MHz ) to the north , serving Palm Beach County and the adjacent coastal waters ; WXM58 Belle Glade ( 162.400 MHz ) to the northwest , in western Palm Beach County near Lake Okeechobee ; and WWG92 Naples ( 162.525 MHz ) to the northwest , near Florida 's west coast , serving Collier , Hendry and a portion of mainland Monroe County . Recognizing the need to serve the local area 's large Spanish-speaking population , NWS added a low-power station in June 2012 , WZ2531 ( 162.500 MHz ) transmitting from Hialeah - the first dedicated Spanish language NWR station in Florida . Its broadcast , featuring a computer-synthesized voice known by the nickname `` Javier '' , covers Miami-Dade and Broward counties .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"WNG663\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 78495\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: WXK25 Content: WXK25 ( also known as El Paso English All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the El Paso metropolitan area and surrounding cities . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Santa Teresa , New Mexico with its transmitter located on Franklin Mountain in El Paso , Texas . It broadcasts weather and hazard information in English for El Paso & Hudspeth counties in Texas and Doña Ana & Otero Counties in New Mexico . El Paso was the largest city in the United States without a NOAA Weather Radio transmitter , which first made its debut in 1980 . Originally broadcasting on 162.55 MHz , its frequency was moved to 162.475 MHz by 1981 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"WXK25\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 78483\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: WNG652 Content: WNG652 is a NOAA Weather Radio ( Radio del Tiempo de NOAA in Spanish ) station that serves the El Paso metropolitan area and surrounding cities . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in El Paso , Texas with its transmitter located in El Paso . It broadcasts weather and hazard information in Spanish for El Paso & Hudspeth counties in Texas and Doña Ana & Otero Counties in New Mexico . It is one of few NOAA Weather Radio stations across the United States to broadcast in a Spanish language .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"WNG652\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 78378\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KHA99 Content: Not to be confused with NOAA Weather Radio station KBA99 in Oahu , Hawaii . KHA99 ( sometimes referred to as Muenster All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves Gainesville and surrounding cities near the Red River including the western half of the Sherman-Denison Metro Area . It is programmed from the NWS Fort Worth office with its transmitter located in Muenster . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for Cooke , Denton , Grayson , Montague , and Wise counties in Texas as well as Carter , Jefferson , and Love counties in Oklahoma . Throughout early 2009 , all NOAA Weather Radio Stations within the North Texas region ( including KHA99 ) began airing a monthly 5 minute talk show titled `` The Lightning Bolt '' where listener-submitted questions related to weather are answered by meteorologists .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"KHA99\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 78365\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: WXJ55 Content: WXJ55 ( sometimes referred to as Little Rock All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the Little Rock-North Little Rock-Conway metropolitan area and Central Arkansas . It is programmed from the National Weather Service Forecast Office in North Little Rock , Arkansas with its transmitter located on Shinall Mountain . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following counties : Arkansas , Cleburne , Conway , Faulkner , Garland , Grant , Hot Spring , Jefferson , Lonoke , Perry , Pope , Prairie , Pulaski , Saline , Van Buren , White , and Yell .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"WXJ55\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 78348\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hill station Content: A hill station is a town located at a higher elevation than the nearby plain or valley . The term was used mostly in colonial Asia , but also in Africa ( albeit rarely ) , for towns founded by European colonial rulers as refuges from the summer heat , up where temperatures are cooler . In the Indian context most hill stations are at an altitude of approximately 1,000 to 2,500 metres ( 3,500 to 7,500 feet ) ; very few are outside this range .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"Hill_station\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 78335\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KIG86 Content: KIG86 ( sometimes referred to as Columbus All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the city of Columbus and vicinity . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office Wilmington , Ohio with its transmitter located in Columbus . The station 's warning alarm tone is activated for watches and warnings that effect the following counties : Champaign , Clark , Delaware , Fairfield , Fayette , Franklin , Greene , Hocking , Knox , Licking , Madison , Marion , Morrow , Muskingum , Perry , Pickaway , and Union . Hourly weather observations are broadcast for the following locations : Port Columbus International Airport , Toledo , Cleveland , Akron , Canton , Youngstown , Cincinnati , Dayton , and Wilmington .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"KIG86\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 78334\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: WXL60 Content: WXL60 ( sometimes referred to as Roanoke All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the Roanoke metropolitan area and surrounding cities . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Blacksburg , Virginia , with its transmitter located on the broadcast tower of public radio station WVTF in Roanoke . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following counties : Alleghany , Amherst , Bedford , Bland , Botetourt , Carroll , Craig , Floyd , Franklin , Giles , Halifax , Henry , Montgomery , Patrick , Pittsylvania , Pulaski , Roanoke , Rockbridge , and Wythe as well as the individual cities of Bedford , Buena Vista , Clifton Forge , Covington , Danville , Galax , Lexington , Martinsville , Radford , Roanoke and Salem .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"WXL60\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 78204\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KEC74 Content: KEC74 ( sometimes referred to as Indianapolis All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the Indianapolis metropolitan area and surrounding cities . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Indianapolis , Indiana with its transmitter located in the same city . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following counties : Boone , Decatur , Delaware , Hamilton , Hancock , Hendricks , Henry , Johnson , Madison , Marion , Morgan , Rush , Shelby , and Tipton .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"KEC74\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 78120\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Automatic weather station Content: An automatic weather station ( AWS ) is an automated version of the traditional weather station , either to save human labour or to enable measurements from remote areas . An AWS will typically consist of a weather-proof enclosure containing the data logger , rechargeable battery , telemetry ( optional ) and the meteorological sensors with an attached solar panel or wind turbine and mounted upon a mast . The specific configuration may vary due to the purpose of the system . The system may report in near real time via the Argos System and the Global Telecommunications System , or save the data for later recovery . In the past , automatic weather stations were often placed where electricity and communication lines were available . Nowadays , the solar panel , wind turbine and mobile phone technology have made it possible to have wireless stations that are not connected to the electrical grid or hardline telecommunications network .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"Automatic_weather_station\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 78097\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Trend type forecast Content: A trend type forecast ( TTF ) also known simply as a trend , is an aviation weather forecast written by a real person on location at a major airport or military base . A TTF is a professionally considered forecast for weather over a two-hour period , and is based on an actual weather report , such as a METAR or SPECI and appended to the end of it . A TTF is similar to or sometimes in addition to a TAF , a terminal aerodrome forecast , but during the TTF 's validity period is considered superior to a TAF .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"Trend_type_forecast\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 78094\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KEC49 Content: KEC49 ( sometimes referred to as Monterey All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves Monterey , California and vicinity including some parts of the San Francisco Bay Area and can be heard 40 miles into the Pacific Ocean . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Monterey with its transmitter located atop McQueen Ridge near Mount Umunhum . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following counties : Alameda , Contra Costa , Monterey , Napa , San Benito , San Francisco , San Mateo , Santa Clara , and Santa Cruz .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"KEC49\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 78036\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KIH61 Content: KIH61 ( sometimes referred to as Omaha All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the Omaha-Council Bluffs metropolitan area and surrounding cities . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Omaha , Nebraska with its transmitter located on the University of Nebraska - Omaha campus in Omaha . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for Burt , Cass , Dodge , Douglas , Otoe , Sarpy , Saunders , and Washington Counties in Nebraska as well as Harrison , Mills , and Pottawattamie counties in Iowa .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"KIH61\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 78027\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KBA99 Content: KBA99 is a NOAA Weather Radio station that is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Honolulu , Hawaii with its transmitter located on Mt. Ka'ala in Oahu . Although this station primarily serves Honolulu and surrounding islands , several repeater translators are added , broadcasting weather and hazard information for the entire state of Hawaii and can be heard 40 miles into the Pacific Ocean . It also transmits on Oceanic Time Warner Cable digital channel 880 for all of Hawaii . It is the only NOAA station in the United States that still uses the early version of the `` Tom '' voice . Hourly conditions on this station are reported for the following cities - On Oahu : Honolulu International Airport , Kalaeloa , Kaneohe , and Wheeler Field . On Kauai : Lihue , and Barking Sands . On Molokai : Molokai Airport . On Lanai : Lanai City . On Maui : Kahului , Kapalua , and Haleakalā . On The Big Island : Hilo , Kona , and Bradshaw Field . As of June 25 , 2014 , translator WWF39 in Hawaii Kai has moved from frequency 162.400 MHz to 162.450 MHz as new upgraded equipment was installed at the station , producing an enhanced signal . This enhancement allows important emergency messages as well as weather forecasts and current conditions to be heard in portions of East Oahu where the broadcast was previously not available .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"KBA99\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 78016\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KEC43 Content: KEC43 ( sometimes referred to as Anchorage All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the Anchorage metropolitan area and surrounding cities . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Anchorage , Alaska with its transmitter located in the same city . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following boroughs Anchorage , Kenai Peninsula , and Matanuska-Susitna .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"KEC43\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 78014\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KEC56 Content: KEC56 ( sometimes referred to as Dallas All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves Dallas/Fort Worth and surrounding areas south , east and north of the immediate metroplex . It is programmed from the NWS Fort Worth office with its transmitter located in Dallas . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following Counties : Collin , Dallas , Denton , Ellis , Hunt , Kaufman , Rockwall , and Tarrant . Hourly conditions on this station are reported for the following cities : DFW Airport , Dallas Love Field , Fort Worth Meacham , Arlington , McKinney , Denton , Wichita Falls , Abilene , Waco , and Tyler . The audio feed is heard on WFAA-TV 's `` AccuWeather channel '' on channel 8.2 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"KEC56\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 77937\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KIH27 Content: KIH27 ( sometimes referred to as Tulsa All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the Tulsa Metropolitan Area and surrounding cities . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Tulsa , Oklahoma with its transmitter located in Tulsa . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following Counties : Cherokee , Creek , Mayes , Muskogee , Nowata , Okmulgee , Osage , Pawnee , Rogers , Tulsa , Wagoner , and Washington . Hourly conditions on this station are reported for the following cities : In Oklahoma - Tulsa International Airport , Oklahoma City , Bartlesville , McAlester , Ponca City , Jones Riverside Airport , Tahlequah , Claremore , and Muskogee . Elsewhere across the region : Dallas/Fort Worth , Texas ; Kansas City , Missouri ; Joplin , Missouri ; Springfield , Missouri ; Wichita , Kansas ; Fort Smith , Arkansas ; and Fayetteville , Arkansas .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"KIH27\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 77922\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: WNG649 Content: WNG649 ( sometimes referred to as Milano All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves Milano and surrounding cities . It is programmed from the NWS Fort Worth office with its transmitter located in Milano . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following Counties : Bell , Brazos , Burleson , Falls , Hill , Lee , Milam , Robertson , and Willamson . Throughout early 2009 , all NOAA Weather Radio Stations within the North Texas region ( including WNG649 ) began airing a monthly 5 minute talk show titled `` The Lightning Bolt '' where listener-submitted questions related to weather are answered by meteorologists .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"WNG649\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 77921\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Weather radio Content: A weather radio service is a public broadcast service dedicated to airing continuous weather reports . In most locations , it requires a specially-designed radio capable of receiving `` weather band '' frequencies - when tuned to one of these channels , it receives a radio station that broadcasts both routine and emergency weather information . Some weather radio receivers are equipped with a standby alerting function - if the radio is off or tuned to another band and a severe weather bulletin is transmitted , it can automatically sound an alarm and/or switch to a pre-tuned weather channel for emergency weather information . Weather radio services may also broadcast non-weather-related emergency information , such as in the event of a natural disaster , an AMBER alert or a terrorist attack . They generally broadcast in a pre-allocated very high frequency ( VHF ) range using FM . Usually a dedicated weather radio receiver or radio scanner is needed for listening , although in some locations a weather radio broadcast may be retransmitted on a conventional AM or FM frequency ( as well as HD Radio substations ) , some terrestrial television stations broadcasting in MTS stereo transmit weather radio on their second audio program ( SAP ) channel as well as on one of its digital subchannels ( where news and weather are applicable ) , on local public , educational , and government access ( PEG ) cable TV channels or during Emergency Alert System activations for tornado warnings primarily on cable systems . These weather-specific channels have experienced very low adoption . In Chicago , for example , there are no dedicated stations that provide transmissions for these channels .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"Weather_radio\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 77800\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: WXK20 Content: WXK20 ( sometimes referred to as Paris All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves Paris and surrounding areas near the Red River . It is programmed from the NWS Fort Worth office with its transmitter located in Paris . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for Delta , Fannin , Franklin , Hopkins , Hunt , Lamar , Red River , & Titus counties in Texas and Bryan & Choctaw counties in Oklahoma . Throughout early 2009 , all NOAA Weather Radio Stations within the North Texas region ( including WXK20 ) began airing a monthly 5 minute talk show titled `` The Lightning Bolt '' where listener-submitted questions related to weather are answered by meteorologists .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"WXK20\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 77790\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KIH45 Content: KIH45 ( sometimes referred to as Bowling Green All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves parts of south central Kentucky , including Bowling Green and surrounding cities . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Louisville , Kentucky with its transmitter located in Hadley , Kentucky along US Route 231 near the Warren/Butler County line . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for these counties in Kentucky : Allen , Barren , Butler , Christian , Daviess , Edmonson , Hopkins , Grayson , Logan , McLean , Muhlenberg , Ohio , Simpson , Todd , and Warren . It also broadcasts watch and warning information for these counties in Tennessee : Macon , Montgomery , Robertson , and Sumner . Hart County is within range of KIH-45 's signal , but the station does not provide anything but warning information for that area due to that area being served by WNG570 , the Horse Cave All Hazards weather radio station . This station 's audio is simulcast on the third digital subchannel of PBS station WKYU-TV , with a loop of the National Weather Service 's doppler radar based near Fort Campbell .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"KIH45\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 77777\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effect of radiation on perceived temperature Content: The `` radiation effect '' results from radiation heat exchange between human bodies and surrounding surfaces , such as walls and ceilings . It may lead to phenomena such as houses feeling cooler in the winter and warmer in the summer at the same temperature . For example , in a room in which air temperature is maintained at 22 ° Celsius at all times , but in which the inner surfaces of the house is estimated to be an average temperature of 10 ° Celsius in the winter or 25 ° Celsius in the summer , heat transfer from the surfaces to the individual will occur , resulting in a difference in the perceived temperature . We can observe and compare the rate of radiation heat transfer between a person and the surrounding surfaces if we first make a few simplifying assumptions : The heat exchange in the environment is in a `` steady state '' , meaning that there is a constant flow of heat either into or out of the house . The person is completely surrounded by the interior surfaces of the room . Heat transfer by convection is not considered . The walls , ceiling , and floor are all at the same temperature . For an average person , the outer surface area is 1.4 m ² , the surface temperature is 30 ° Celsius , and the emissivity is 0.95 . Emissivity is the ability of a surface to emit radiant energy compared to that of a black body at the same temperature . We will be using the following equation to find out how much heat is lost by a person standing in the same room in summertime as compared to the winter , at exactly the same thermostat reading temperature : Q ̇ = εσA_s ( T_s ^ 4-T_surr ^ 4 ) Where Q ̇ is the rate of heat loss ( W ) , ε is the emissivity ( or the ability of an objects surface to emit energy by radiation ) of a person , σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant ( 5.670 x 10 ^ ( -8 ) W/m2 ∙ K4 ) , As is the surface area of a person , Ts is the surface temperature of a person ( K ) , and Tsurr is the surface temperature of the walls , ceiling , and floor ( K ) . Please note that this equation is only valid for an object standing in a completely enclosed room , box , etc. . In the winter , the amount of heat loss from a person , when the inner surfaces of the room were 10 degrees Celsius , was found to be 152 Watts . ( Q ̇ = ( 0.95 ) ( 5.67 x 10 ^ ( -8 ) ) ( 1.4 ) -LSB- ( 30 +273 ) ^ 4 - ( 10 +273 ) ^ 4 -RSB- = 152 ) ̇ In the summer , the amount of heat loss from a person , when the inner surfaces of the room were 25 degrees Celsius , was found to be 40.9 Watts . ( Q ̇ = ( 0.95 ) ( 5.67 x 10 ^ ( -8 ) ) ( 1.4 ) -LSB- ( 30 +273 ) ^ 4 - ( 25 +273 ) ^ 4 -RSB- = 40.9 ) ̇ Thermal radiation is the form of radiation emitted by bodies because of their temperature . It differs from other forms of electromagnetic radiation such as x-rays , gamma rays , microwaves , radio waves , and television rays that are not related to temperature . Scientists have found that all bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal radiation . People are constantly radiating their body heat , but at different rates . From these values , the rate of heat loss from a person is almost four times as large in the winter than in the summer , which explains the `` chill '' we feel in the winter even if the thermostat setting is kept the same .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"Effect_of_radiation_on_perceived_temperature\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 77772\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KEC62 Content: KEC62 ( sometimes referred to as San Diego All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the San Diego metropolitan area and can be heard 40 miles in the Pacific Ocean . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in San Diego , California with its transmitter located in Mt. Woodson . It broadcasts weather and hazard information only for San Diego County and the coastal waters from San Mateo Point to the Mexican border and out 60 nautical miles . The station 's forecast coverage includes the San Diego County Coast , San Diego County Valleys , San Diego County Mountains and San Diego County Deserts . Hourly weather observations are updated at 10 minutes past each hour , and covers mostly San Diego County , with conditions reported for most of Southern California as well as Las Vegas , Yuma and Phoenix .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"KEC62\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 77678\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Die by the Drop Content: `` Die by the Drop '' is the first single from The Dead Weather 's second album Sea of Cowards . It was released on March 30 , 2010 in the United States and April 25 in the UK . The single includes the B-side `` Old Mary '' . The video of the song was directed by Floria Sigismondi who also directed the videos for `` Blue Orchid '' by The White Stripes and `` Broken Boy Soldier '' by The Raconteurs , Jack White 's other two bands . It is the band 's first official video to show all of the Dead Weather members playing their instruments . Footage from the video was used in teaser trailers for the bands upcoming singles , `` Blue Blood Blues '' , `` Gasoline '' and `` Jawbreaker '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"Die_by_the_Drop\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 77648\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KEC63 Content: KEC63 ( sometimes referred to as Detroit All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the Metro Detroit area and surrounding cities . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Detroit/Pontiac , Michigan with its transmitter located in Southfield , on WDIV 's broadcast tower . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following Counties : Lenawee , Livingston , Monroe , Oakland , St. Clair , Washtenaw , and Wayne . Under exceptionally rare conditions , such as when KEC63 is down for maintenance or off the air from lighting strikes to its tower , Cleveland , Ohio 's weather radio station , KHB59 can be faintly heard , since it also operates on 162.550 MHz .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"KEC63\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 77625\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Automated airport weather station Content: Automated airport weather stations are automated sensor suites which are designed to serve aviation and meteorological observing needs for safe and efficient aviation operations , weather forecasting and climatology . Automated airport weather stations have become part of the backbone of weather observing in the United States and Canada and are becoming increasingly more prevalent worldwide due to their efficiency and cost-savings .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"Automated_airport_weather_station\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 77612\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: WXK67 Content: WXK67 ( sometimes referred to as San Antonio All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves Greater San Antonio and surrounding areas . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in San Antonio , Texas with its transmitter located in San Antonio . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following Counties : Atascosa , Bandera , Bexar , Comal , Guadalupe , Kendall , Medina , and Wilson\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"WXK67\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 77580\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KIH20 Content: KIH20 ( 162.400 MHz , sometimes referred to as Huntsville All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the greater Huntsville , Alabama , area . It broadcasts weather forecasts and hazard information for Jackson , Lawrence , Limestone , Madison , Marshall , and Morgan Counties in Alabama plus Giles and Lincoln Counties in Tennessee .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"KIH20\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 77531\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KZZ72 Content: KZZ72 is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves Southeast Idaho . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Pocatello , Idaho with its transmitter located on Sedgwick Peak near Soda Springs . It can be heard across most of Southeastern and South Central Idaho . Some of its signal might reach Northeastern Utah and Southwestern Wyoming . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for Bannock , Bear Lake , Bingham , Caribou , Franklin and Oneida counties in Idaho .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"KZZ72\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 77492\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KIH36 Content: KIH36 is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves Coastal Washington . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Seattle , Washington with its transmitter located on Bahokus Peak near Neah Bay . It has a repeater , KXI27 , that broadcasts from Mt. Octopus near Forks on a frequency of 162.425 MHz . It can be heard across Coastal Washington and Southwestern British Columbia . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for Clallam , Grays Harbor , Jefferson and Pacific counties in Washington .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"KIH36\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 77370\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KAD93 Content: KAD93 is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves Northwestern Washington State . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Seattle , Washington with its transmitter located near Blaine . It is heard across Northwestern Washington and can also be heard as far south as Seattle and as far north as Vancouver , British Columbia . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for San Juan and Whatcom counties in Washington .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"KAD93\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 77334\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: WXK98 Content: WXK98 is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the Southern Idaho Panhandle and the Washington Palouse . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Spokane , Washington with its transmitter located near Lewiston . It has two repeaters , KXI82 which broadcasts from Grangeville on a frequency of 162.450 MHz and WZ2535 which broadcasts from Norton Knob near Orofino on a frequency of 162.500 MHz . It can be heard across the Idaho Panhandle and Washington Palouse . At night , it can be heard as far north as Spokane and as far west as Moses Lake . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for Asotin , Garfield and Whitman counties in Washington ; plus Clearwater , Idaho , Idaho , Lewis and Nez Perce counties in Idaho .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"WXK98\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 77246\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KHB60 Content: KHB60 ( sometimes referred to as Seattle All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves Seattle metropolitan area and surrounding cities . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Seattle , Washington with its transmitter located at Cougar Mountain near Issaquah . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following Counties : King , Kitsap , Pierce , and Snohomish .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"KHB60\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 77240\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: WXK27 Content: WXK27 ( sometimes referred to as Austin All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves Greater Austin and surrounding areas . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in San Antonio , Texas with its transmitter located in Austin . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following Counties : Bastrop , Blanco , Burnet , Caldwell , Hays , Lee , Travis , and Williamson\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"WXK27\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 77226\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: WXL36 Content: WXL36 ( sometimes referred to as Las Vegas All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the Las Vegas Valley and surrounding areas . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Enterprise , Nevada with its transmitter located on Red Mountain near Boulder City , Nevada . The station operates on a frequency of 162.550 MHz and provides primarily weather forecasts , watches , warnings and advisories for Clark County in Southern Nevada . The station 's primary forecast areas are the Las Vegas Valley and Lake Mead National Recreation Area . Hourly weather observations covers conditions for Las Vegas , North Las Vegas , Nellis Air Force Base , Desert Rock , Reno , Barstow , California and Needles , California . The Las Vegas Valley is also served by another NOAA Weather Radio transmitter , WNG634 , which until 2007 was a simulcast station of WXL36 , and transmitted on 162.400 MHz from Mount Potosi . This station 's primary focus areas are the Las Vegas Valley , Mount Charleston and Western Clark and Southern Nye Counties . Watches , warnings and advisories are issued for Clark and Southern Nye County in Nevada and San Bernardino County in California .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"WXL36\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 77194\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: WNG735 Content: WNG735 ( sometimes referred to as New Philadelphia All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves New Philadelphia and surrounding cities . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Pittsburgh with its transmitter located in New Philadelphia , Ohio . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following Counties : Carroll , Coshocton , Guernsey , Harrison , Holmes , Stark , Tuscarawas , and Wayne . This transmitter was brought online in 1965 to the NOAA Weather Radio network . It was one only of a few broadcasting weather radio stations in the New Philadelphia area . The station is located in a wooded area at the top of Steel Hill Aces Road in New Philadelphia .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"WNG735\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 77170\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: WXM20 Content: WXM20 ( sometimes referred to as Lincoln All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the Lincoln metropolitan area and surrounding cities . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Omaha , Nebraska with its transmitter located at the KOLN-TV studio tower in Lincoln . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following Counties : Butler , Cass , Gage , Johnson , Lancaster , Otoe , Saline , Sarpy , Saunders , and Seward .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"WXM20\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 77160\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KIH38 Content: KIH38 ( sometimes referred to as Jackson All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the Jackson metropolitan area and surrounding cities . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Jackson , Mississippi with its transmitter located in the same city . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for Claiborne , Copiah , Hinds , Issaquena , Jefferson , Lawrence , Leake , Lincoln , Madison , Rankin , Scott , Simpson , Smith , Warren , & Yazoo Counties in Mississippi ; and Madison , & Tensas Parishes in Louisiana .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"KIH38\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 77134\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wibjörn Karlén Content: Wibjörn Karlén ( born 26 August 1937 in Kristine , Kopparberg County , Sweden ) , Ph.D. , is a professor emeritus of physical geography and quaternary geology at Stockholm University , Sweden . In an article which describes Karlén as a paleoclimatologist , he is quoted as saying : `` One of the big problems with trying to determine long-term temperature changes , is that weather records only go back to about 1860 . By relying on statistical reconstruction of the last 1000 years , using only the temperature patterns of the last 140 years instead of actual temperature readings , the IPCC report and Summary missed both a major cooling period as well as a significant warming trend during that millennium . '' Karlén has also criticized the mainstream media for `` spreading the exaggerated views of a human impact on climate . '' He was also named in a 2007 minority report of the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee as one of 400 `` prominent scientists '' who were said to dispute global warming . In 2010 , he predicted that natural climate changes , caused to a large degree by the sun 's activity , would more likely make the climate colder than warmer in the next decades . He is a contributing author to the Fraser Institute 2007 Independent Summary for Policymakers . Karlén is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"Wibjörn_Karlén\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 77096\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: WXJ39 Content: WXJ39 is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the Providence metropolitan area and surrounding areas as well as part of the Boston metropolitan area . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Taunton , Massachusetts with its transmitter located at Johnston , Rhode Island . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for Providence , Kent , Bristol , Newport , & Washington counties in Rhode Island and Bristol & Norfolk counties in Massachusetts .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"WXJ39\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 77085\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KXI92 Content: KXI92 ( sometimes referred to as Mount Ida All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves Mount Ida , Arkansas and surrounding cities . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Little Rock , Arkansas with its transmitter located in Mount Ida . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following counties : Clark , Garland , Hot Spring , Perry , Pike , Polk , Yell , and Montgomery .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"KXI92\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 77056\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: WNG605 Content: WNG605 is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves South Central Idaho . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Pocatello , Idaho with its transmitter located near Burley . It can be heard across South Central Idaho , and as far north and east as Idaho Falls . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for Blaine , Cassia , Jerome , Lincoln , Minidoka and Power counties in Idaho .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"WNG605\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 77043\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: WXK35 Content: WXK35 ( sometimes referred to as Waco All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the Waco metropolitan area and surrounding areas of Central Texas . It is programmed from the NWS Fort Worth office with its transmitter located in Moody . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following Counties : Bell , Bosque , Coryell , Falls , Hamilton , Hill , Lampasas , Limestone , McLennan , Milam , Navarro , and Robertson . Hourly conditions on this station are reported for the following cities : Waco , Temple , Killeen-Fort Hood , Gatesville , Georgetown , Hillsboro , DFW Airport , Abilene , Austin , and Bryan-College Station . Throughout early 2009 , all NOAA Weather Radio Stations within the North Texas region ( including WXK35 ) began airing a monthly 5 minute talk show titled `` The Lightning Bolt '' where listener-submitted questions related to weather are answered by meteorologists .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"WXK35\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 77021\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KHB36 Content: KHB36 ( sometimes referred to as Manassas All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station broadcasting at 162.55 megahertz and transmitting from Independent Hill in central Prince William County , Virginia . It covers most of northern Virginia , Washington , D.C. , and southern Maryland . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Sterling , Virginia . The signal reliably covers the Virginia counties of Prince William , Fairfax , Arlington , Loudoun , Fauquier , Rappahannock , Culpeper , Spotsylvania , Caroline , King George , and Stafford . Reception is also possible in the Maryland counties of Montgomery , Prince George 's , and Charles County , Maryland . Additionally , reception is possible but unreliable in the Virginia counties of Clarke , Frederick , Orange , Louisa , Hanover , Essex , Richmond ( no relation to the capital city of the state , which is not covered ) , and Northumberland , plus Calvert County , Maryland and Anne Arundel County , Maryland .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"KHB36\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 76963\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KWN31 Content: KWN31 ( sometimes referred to as Greenville All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves Greenville , Sulphur Springs and surrounding cities . It is programmed from the NWS Fort Worth office with its transmitter located in Cumby . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following Counties : Collin , Delta , Fannin , Franklin , Hopkins , Hunt , Kaufman , Rains , Rockwall , Van Zandt , and Wood . It also broadcasts hourly weather observations for the following cities : Greenville , Sulphur Springs , Paris , McKinney , Terrell , Mineola , and Mount Pleasant ; and elsewhere around the region : DFW Airport , Sherman-Denison , Tyler , and Texarkana . Throughout early 2009 , all NOAA Weather Radio Stations within the North Texas region ( including KWN31 ) began airing a monthly 15 minute talk show titled `` The Lightning Bolt '' where listener-submitted questions related to weather are answered by meteorologists .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"KWN31\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 76948\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KXI87 Content: KXI87 ( sometimes referred to as Corsicana All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves Corsicana and surrounding cities . It is programmed from the NWS Fort Worth office with its transmitter located in Corsicana . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following Counties : Anderson , Ellis , Erath , Freestone , Henderson , Hill , Kaufman , Limestone , Navarro , and Van Zandt . Hourly conditions on this station are reported for the following cities : Corsicana , Midlothian/Waxahachie , Hillsboro , Waco , Palestine , DFW Airport , Tyler , and Bryan/College Station . Throughout early 2009 , all NOAA Weather Radio Stations within the North Texas region ( including KXI87 ) began airing a monthly 5 minute talk show titled `` The Lightning Bolt '' where listener-submitted questions related to weather are answered by meteorologists .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"KXI87\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 76939\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KIH28 Content: KIH28 ( sometimes referred to as Philadelphia All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves Delaware Valley and surrounding areas . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office of Philadelphia , Pennsylvania in Mount Holly , New Jersey with its transmitter located at Philadelphia . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for Berks County , Pennsylvania , Bucks County , Pennsylvania , Chester County , Pennsylvania , Delaware County , Pennsylvania , Montgomery County , Pennsylvania , & Philadelphia County , Pennsylvania Counties in Pennsylvania ; plus Burlington County , New Jersey , Camden County , New Jersey , Cumberland County , New Jersey , Gloucester County , New Jersey , Hunterdon County , New Jersey , Mercer County , New Jersey , Monmouth County , New Jersey & Salem County , New Jersey Counties in New Jersey ; as well as Kent County , Delaware & New Castle County , Delaware Counties in Delaware ; and Cecil County , Maryland County in Maryland .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"KIH28\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 76920\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ice accretion indicator Content: The ice accretion indicator is an L-shaped piece of aluminium 38 cm long by 4 to wide . It is used to indicate the formation of ice , frost or the presence of freezing rain or freezing drizzle . It is normally attached to a Stevenson screen , about 1 m above ground , but may be mounted in other areas away from any artificial heat sources . The weather station would have two on site and they would be exchanged after every weather observation . The spare indicator should always be at the outside air temperature to ensure that it is ready for use and would normally be stored inside the screen . If the observer notes the presence of ice or frost on the indicator then a remark to that effect should be sent in the next weather observation . Examples of these are ` rime icing on indicator ' and ` FROIN ' ( frost on indicator ) . As the indicator is at air temperature and is kept horizontal it provides an excellent surface on which to observe freezing precipitation .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"Ice_accretion_indicator\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 76890\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KEC76 Content: KEC76 ( sometimes referred to as NOAA All Hazards Radio ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the Denver metropolitan area and surrounding cities . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Boulder , Colorado with its transmitter located in Denver ( The NWS refers to the transmitter as Glendale however the tower is in Denver south of Glendale City Limits ) . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following Counties : Adams , Arapahoe , Broomfield , Clear Creek , Denver , Douglas , Elbert , Gilpin , central & eastern Park , Jefferson and Southern Weld .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"KEC76\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 76862\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KIG98 Content: KIG98 ( sometimes referred to as Portland All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves Portland , Oregon metropolitan area and surrounding cities . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Portland , Oregon , with its transmitter located at Goat Mountain . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for Clackamas , Columbia , Multnomah , and Washington Counties in Oregon as well as Clark , Cowlitz , and Skamania Counties in Washington .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"KIG98\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 76847\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: WXM34 Content: WXM34 is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the Cascades of Northern Oregon and Southern Washington . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Pendleton , Oregon with its transmitter located on Stacker Butte near The Dalles . It can be heard across its listening area and usually does not extend further than the listening area . The furthest areas WXM34 's signal has been heard was on Interstate 84 on The Cabbage Hill east of Pendleton , Interstate 82 Eastbound between Ellensburg and Yakima and as far north as Moses Lake . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for Klickitat and Skamania counties in Washington as well as Hood River , Sherman and Wasco counties in Oregon .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"WXM34\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 76829\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: WNG559 Content: WNG559 is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves North Central Oregon . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Pendleton , Oregon with its transmitter located near Fossil . It is heard across most of North Central Oregon . The signal has also been reported as far north as Adams County and Moses Lake , Grant County , Washington . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for Gilliam and Wheeler counties in Oregon .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"WNG559\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 76767\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KHB32 Content: KHB32 ( sometimes referred to as Tampa Bay All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the Tampa Bay Area and surrounding cities . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Tampa , Florida with its transmitter located in Ruskin . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following Counties : Hardee , Hillsborough , Manatee , Pasco , Pinellas , and Polk .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"KHB32\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 76757\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KIG60 Content: KIG60 ( sometimes referred to as Burlington All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the Burlington metropolitan area and surrounding cities . The broadcasts can also be heard throughout southern parts of Quebec and Ontario . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Burlington , Vermont with its transmitter located in Mt. Mansfield . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for Addison , Chittenden , Franklin , Grand Isle , Lamoille , and Washington counties in Vermont , plus Clinton , Essex , Franklin , and St. Lawrence counties in New York .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"KIG60\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 76723\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KWN59 Content: KWN59 is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves portions of north central Kansas and south central Nebraska . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Hastings , Nebraska with its transmitter located in Kirwin , Kansas . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following Counties : Phillips County , Kansas , Norton County , Kansas , Osborne County , Kansas , Rooks County , Kansas , Smith County , Kansas , Harlan County , Nebraska , and Franklin County , Nebraska . The station was created with the cooperation of the Phillips , Rooks , Smith , and Osbourne county emergency managements .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"KWN59\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 76690\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KHB40 Content: KHB40 ( sometimes referred to as Galveston All Hazards ) is a U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Weather Radio station that serves the coastal communities of Greater Houston and can be heard over 40 miles into the Gulf of Mexico . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in League City , Texas with its transmitter located in Hitchcock , Texas . The transmitter used to be on top of the American National Insurance building in Galveston . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following counties : Brazoria , Chambers , Galveston , and Southeast Harris\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"KHB40\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 76674\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: WXJ96 Content: WXJ96 ( sometimes referred to as Monroe All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the Monroe , Louisiana metropolitan area along with northeast Louisiana . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Shreveport , Louisiana with its transmitter located in Monroe , Louisiana . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for : Cadwell , Franklin , Jackson , Lincoln , Morehouse , Ouachita , Richland , Union , West Carroll , & Winn parishes in Louisiana .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"WXJ96\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 76613\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KIG65 Content: KIG65 ( sometimes referred to as Green Bay All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the Green Bay metropolitan area and surrounding cities . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Green Bay , Wisconsin with its transmitter located in the same city . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following Counties : Brown , Calumet , Door , Kewaunee , Manitowoc , Marinette , Menominee , Oconto , Outagamie , Shawano , and Winnebago .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"KIG65\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 76605\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KIH63 Content: KIH63 ( sometimes referred to as Orlando All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves Orlando and surrounding locations . It is programmed from the National Weather Service office in Melbourne , Florida with its transmitter located in Orlando , and broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following counties : Lake , Orange , Osceola , Polk , Seminole , and Volusia .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"KIH63\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 76605\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KHB33 Content: KHB33 ( sometimes referred to as Pharr All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Brownsville , Texas with its transmitter located in Brownsville . Although the directional signal serves much of the whole Rio Grande Valley area , it broadcasts weather and hazard information for Cameron , Hidalgo & Willacy Counties .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"KHB33\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 76590\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: WNG651 Content: WNG651 ( sometimes referred to as Mineral Wells All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves Mineral Wells and surrounding cities including the western half of the Dallas-Fort Worth Metroplex . It is programmed from the NWS Fort Worth office with its transmitter located in Palo Pinto . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following Counties : Erath , Hood , Jack , Palo Pinto , Parker , Stephens , Tarrant , Wise , and Young . Hourly conditions on this station are reported for the following cities : Mineral Wells , Graham , Bridgeport , Granbury , Stephenville , Abilene , Wichita Falls , and DFW Airport . Throughout early 2009 , all NOAA Weather Radio Stations within the North Texas region ( including WNG651 ) began airing a monthly 15-minute talk show titled `` The Lightning Bolt '' where listener-submitted questions related to weather are answered by meteorologists .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"WNG651\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 76567\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: WXJ68 Content: WXJ68 ( sometimes referred to as Maricao All-Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the western Puerto Rico area . Its transmitter is located in Maricao , Puerto Rico . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for Mayagüez and vicinity , Ponce and vicinity , Northwest , Southwest , Central Interior and Northern Puerto Rico . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in San Juan , Puerto Rico .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"WXJ68\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 76514\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KIH55 Content: KIH55 ( sometimes referred to as Montgomery All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the Montgomery Metropolitan Area and surrounding cities . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Birmingham , Alabama with its transmitter located in Montgomery . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following Counties : Autauga , Bullock , Chilton , Coosa , Dallas , Elmore , Lowndes , Macon , and Montgomery .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"KIH55\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 76508\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: WXL70 Content: WXL70 ( sometimes referred to as Charlotte All-Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the Charlotte metropolitan area and surrounding cities . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office at the Greenville-Spartanburg International Airport in Greer , South Carolina with its transmitter located in Spencer Mountain . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for Alexander , Anson , Cabarrus , Catawba , Cleveland , Gaston , Iredell , Lincoln , Mecklenburg , Montgomery , Richmond , Rowan , Stanly , and Union Counties in North Carolina ; plus Cherokee , and York counties in South Carolina . Until mid-2012 , WXL-70 's audio could also be heard on WCCB digital channel 18.3 on audio feed 2 , because Me-TV had taken over audio feed 1 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"WXL70\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 76490\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: WNG600 Content: WNG600 ( sometimes referred to as D'Hanis All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves D'Hanis as well as the extreme western portion of Greater San Antonio . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in San Antonio , Texas with its transmitter located in D'Hanis . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following Counties : Frio , Medina , and Uvalde .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"WNG600\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 76461\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KEC57 Content: KEC57 ( sometimes referred to as Sacramento All-Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the Sacramento metropolitan area and surrounding cities . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Sacramento , California with its transmitter located in Jackson . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following counties : Amador , Calaveras , Colusa , El Dorado , Placer , Sacramento , San Joaquin , Solano , Stanislaus , Sutter , and Yolo .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"KEC57\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 76434\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: WXK68 Content: WXK68 ( sometimes referred to as Boise All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the Boise metropolitan area . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Boise , Idaho , with its transmitter located in Doe Point . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following counties : Ada , Boise , Canyon , Elmore , Gem , and Owyhee\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"WXK68\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 76433\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KEC65 Content: KEC65 ( sometimes referred to as Minneapolis/St . Paul All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the Minneapolis -- Saint Paul metropolitan area . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Twin Cities , Minnesota , with its transmitter located in Saint Paul atop the KSTP television tower . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for Anoka , Carver , Chisago , Dakota , Goodhue , Hennepin , Ramsey , Rice , Scott , Washington , & Wright Counties in Minnesota as well as Pierce , Polk , St. Croix Counties in Wisconsin . The broadcasts can be heard on KTCA Channel 2.4 . KEC65 is now heard on KTCA ( TPT ) Channel 2.5 due to the impending Children 's programming channel slated to launch in January 2017 on 2.4 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"KEC65\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 76430\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: WNG575 Content: WNG575 is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves Southern New Hampshire , Windham County , Vermont , and North Central and Northeast Massachusetts . Some cities served include Manchester , Nashua , Keene , Lowell , and Lawrence . However , the station can be received in parts of Central and Western Massachusetts as well as a portion of Southeast Vermont . The station is programmed by the National Weather Service office in Gray , Maine , and the station is transmitting atop Pack Monadnock near Peterborough , New Hampshire on a frequency of 162.525 megahertz .\",\n \"qid\": \"2746\",\n \"docid\": \"WNG575\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 76428\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":1355,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"There is no way for us to prevent the world’s CO2 emissions from doubling by 2100\""},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .","qid":"2750","docid":"Carbon_diet","rank":1,"score":126886},{"content":"Title: Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 Content: The Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 - a bill to amend the Clean Air Act to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide , and for other purposes . It was proposed in the 110th United States Congress by Senators Bernie Sanders ( I-VT ) and Barbara Boxer ( D-CA ) on January 15 , 2007 . It was referred to the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works . The measure was intended to increase performance standards for electricity generation and motor vehicles with the option of an emissions `` cap and trade '' system . The emissions cap would begin in 2010 with the aim of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 15 percent by 2020 and 83 percent by 2050 . The legislation would also provide funding for R&D on geologic sequestration of carbon dioxide , among other projects ; set emissions standards for new vehicles and a renewable fuels requirement for gasoline beginning in 2016 ; establish energy efficiency and renewable portfolio standards beginning in 2008 and low-carbon electric generation standards beginning in 2016 for electric utilities ; and require periodic evaluations by the National Academy of Sciences to determine whether emissions targets are adequate .","qid":"2750","docid":"Global_Warming_Pollution_Reduction_Act_of_2007","rank":2,"score":123416},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .","qid":"2750","docid":"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom","rank":3,"score":114983},{"content":"Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .","qid":"2750","docid":"Low-carbon_emission","rank":4,"score":111844},{"content":"Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .","qid":"2750","docid":"Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact","rank":5,"score":111008},{"content":"Title: California Senate Bill 32 Content: The California Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 : emissions limit , or SB-32 , is a California Senate bill expanding upon AB-32 to reduce greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions . The lead author is Senator Fran Pavley and the principal co-author is Assemblymember Eduardo Garcia . SB-32 was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 , by Governor Edmund Gerald `` Jerry '' Brown Jr. . SB-32 sets into law the mandated reduction target in GHG emissions as written into Executive Order B-30-15 . The Senate bill requires that there be a reduction in GHG emissions to 40 % below the 1990 levels by 2030 . Greenhouse gas emissions include carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , sulfur hexafluoride , hydrofluorocarbons , and perfluorocarbons . The California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) is responsible for ensuring that California meets this goal . The provisions of SB-32 were added to Section 38566 of the Health and Safety Code subsequent to the bill 's approval . The bill goes into effect January 1 , 2017 . SB-32 builds onto Assembly Bill ( AB ) 32 written by Senator Fran Pavley and Assembly Speaker Fabian Nunez passed into law on September 27 , 2006 . AB-32 required California to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by 2020 and SB-32 continues that timeline to reach the targets set in Executive Order B-30-15 . SB-32 provides another intermediate target between the 2020 and 2050 targets set in Executive Order S-3-05 . SB-32 was contingent on the passing of AB-197 , which increases legislative oversight of CARB and is intended to ensure CARB must report to the Legislature . AB-197 also passed and was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 .","qid":"2750","docid":"California_Senate_Bill_32","rank":6,"score":107718},{"content":"Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .","qid":"2750","docid":"Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios","rank":7,"score":106664},{"content":"Title: Plan Bay Area Content: Plan Bay Area 2040 is a state-mandated law that aims to integrate sustainable strategies to reduce transportation-related pollution and external greenhouse gas emission within the nine-counties of the San Francisco Bay Area . It is also known as the implementation of the Sustainable Communities and Climate Protection Act of 2008 or SB 375 . The plan addresses methods of transportation , land-use , and housing . Over the next 25 years , the Bay Area is expected to grow by an estimated 2 million people and because of the projected growth and the growing economy , the Bay Area must provide more housing and transportation choices that will reduce their carbon footprint . This adopted plan will invest in increasing methods of transportation with the goal of reducing CO2 emissions . To do so , the plan will invest in extending ferry services , freeway express lanes , and developing newer BART Stations to expand travel reach . The goal of this plan is to improve on their earlier efforts of network and growth within the context of finance and environmental responsibility . Like all plans , it is a work in progress that is updated every four years to reflect on new priorities and changes with the goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . The plan was approved on July 18 , 2013 by the Association of Bay Area Governments and by the Metropolitan Transportation Commission . The adoption of the plan by regional planners was covered by the San Francisco Chronicle .","qid":"2750","docid":"Plan_Bay_Area","rank":8,"score":105921},{"content":"Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .","qid":"2750","docid":"Low-carbon_economy","rank":9,"score":105362},{"content":"Title: Carbon price Content: Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' . Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain . The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions . The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations .","qid":"2750","docid":"Carbon_price","rank":10,"score":105296},{"content":"Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .","qid":"2750","docid":"Global_Carbon_Project","rank":11,"score":105216},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .","qid":"2750","docid":"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States","rank":12,"score":104967},{"content":"Title: Cool Earth 50 Content: Cool Earth 50 ( also known as Cool Earth ) is a plan developed by Japan to reduce global CO2 emissions 50 % by 2050 , which was discussed at the 34th G8 summit . Cool Earth 50 is planned to be a framework that would continue towards the goals set forth in the Kyoto Protocols . This plan includes three proposals : a long-term strategy , a mid-term strategy and launching a national campaign for achieving the Kyoto Protocol Target . The plan was first proposed on May 24 , 2007 at an international conference called Asian Future and was initiated by Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe . The program 's goal is to reduce current global green house emissions by 50 % by the year 2050 the . The goal of reduction was aimed particular towards the largest green house emitting countries The United States , China , Japan , and India . Also , for the major green house emitters to create a frame work for reduction . Cool Earth aims at reducing green house emissions by improve technology in energy fields . A large goal of Cool Earth is to promote economic prosperity through green technology and to encourage political stability domestically and internationally .","qid":"2750","docid":"Cool_Earth_50","rank":13,"score":103277},{"content":"Title: Carbon Neutral Cities Alliance Content: The Carbon Neutral Cities Alliance ( CNCA or `` Alliance '' ) is a collaboration of leading global cities working to cut greenhouse gas emissions by 80 % or more by 2050 or sooner ( `` 80x50 '' ) -- the most aggressive greenhouse gas reduction targets undertaken by any cities across the globe . The Alliance aims to address what it will take for leading international cities to achieve these deep emissions reductions and how they can work together to meet their respective goals more efficiently and effectively .","qid":"2750","docid":"Carbon_Neutral_Cities_Alliance","rank":14,"score":102156},{"content":"Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .","qid":"2750","docid":"350.org","rank":15,"score":101786},{"content":"Title: Kyoto Protocol Content: The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , based on the fact that ( a ) global warming exists and ( b ) human-made CO2 emissions have caused it . The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto , Japan , on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005 . There are currently 192 parties ( Canada withdrew effective December 2012 ) to the Protocol . The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to `` a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' ( Art. 2 ) . The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities : it puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . The Protocol 's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012 . A second commitment period was agreed on in 2012 , known as the Doha Amendment to the protocol , in which 37 countries have binding targets : Australia , the European Union ( and its 28 member states ) , Belarus , Iceland , Kazakhstan , Liechtenstein , Norway , Switzerland , and Ukraine . Belarus , Kazakhstan and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets . Japan , New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyoto 's first-round but have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period . Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada ( which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012 ) and the United States ( which has not ratified the Protocol ) . As of July 2016 , 66 states have accepted the Doha Amendment , while entry into force requires the acceptances of 144 states . Of the 37 countries with binding commitments , 7 have ratified . Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ends in 2020 . This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the Paris Agreement , which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto protocol .","qid":"2750","docid":"Kyoto_Protocol","rank":16,"score":101719},{"content":"Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .","qid":"2750","docid":"Effects_of_global_warming","rank":17,"score":101092},{"content":"Title: Sustainable automotive air conditioning Content: Sustainable automotive air conditioning is the subject of a debate -- nicknamed the Cool War -- about the next-generation refrigerant in car air conditioning . The Alliance for CO2 Solutions supports the uptake of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) as a refrigerant in passenger cars , and the chemical industry is developing new chemical blends . The Alliance and its supporters -- scientists , NGOs and business leaders -- urge the car industry to replace high global warming chemical substances with the natural refrigerant carbon dioxide ( CO2 , R744 / R-744 ) in car cooling and heating . This , they argue , would lead to 10 % less car emissions , and knock out 1 % of total greenhouse gas emissions worldwide . If CO2 Technology is applied in other sectors , such as commercial and industrial refrigeration , heat pumps for water heating etc. , it may even save up to 3 % of the world 's greenhouse gases . Opponents of the Alliance claim that CO2 Technology is not cost-efficient and safe , hence seeking to postpone the global industry decision to be taken to develop new chemical blends instead .","qid":"2750","docid":"Sustainable_automotive_air_conditioning","rank":18,"score":101013},{"content":"Title: Carbon emissions reporting Content: Human activities continue to impact Earth 's climate through the emission of greenhouse gases . One of the proposed ways to combat this climate change is through reporting by businesses on the impact of their activities . Large power stations and manufacturing plants are often required to report their emissions to appropriate government entities , for example to the European Union as part of the Emissions Trading System or to the US EPA as part of the Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program . In the United Kingdom , Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra ) has described climate change as the `` greatest environmental challenge facing the world today , '' and it is now a legal requirement for all quoted companies to report their annual greenhouse gas emissions .","qid":"2750","docid":"Carbon_emissions_reporting","rank":19,"score":100963},{"content":"Title: Climate change in China Content: The position of the Chinese government on climate change is contentious . China has ratified the Kyoto Protocol , but as a non-Annex I country which is not required to limit greenhouse gas emissions under terms of the agreement . In particular since 2007 the Chinese government has n't changed its attitude towards climate change policy and has become one of the major drivers of low-carbon technology developments . In 2002 , on the basis of an analysis of fossil fuel consumption ( including especially the coal power plants ) and cement production data , that China surpassed the United States as the world 's largest emitter of carbon dioxide , putting out 7,000 million tonnes , in comparison with America 's 5,800 million . According to data from the US Energy Information Administration China was the top emitter by fossil fuels CO2 in 2009 China : 7,710 million tonnes ( mt ) ( 25.4 % ) ahead of US : 5,420 mt ( 17.8 % ) , India : 5.3 % , Russia : 5.2 % and Japan : 3.6 % . China was also the top emitter of all greenhouse gas emissions including building and deforestation in 2005 : China : 7,220 mt ( 16.4 % ) , US : 6,930 mt ( 15.7 % ) , 3 . Brazil 6.5 % , 4 . Indonesia : 4.6 % , 5 . Russia 4.6 % , 6 . India 4.2 % , 7 . Japan 3.1 % , 8 . Germany 2.3 % , 9 . Canada 1.8 % , and 10 . Mexico 1.6 % . In the cumulative emissions between 1850 and 2007 the top emitters were : 1 . US 28.8 % 2 . China : 9.0 % , 3 . Russia 8.0 % , 4 . Germany 6.9 % , 5 . UK 5.8 % , 6 . Japan 3.9 % , 7 . France 2.8 % , 8 . India 2.4 % , 9 . Canada 2.2 % and 10 . Ukraine 2.2 % . According to BBC News , in September 2014 , China surpassed the European Union 's per capita carbon emissions for the first time in history . China 's per capita carbon emissions now stand at 7.2 t/capita . China 's carbon emissions have increased rapidly since its economic boom in the early 2000s . Since then , their per capita carbon emissions have increased by more than 2.5 times .","qid":"2750","docid":"Climate_change_in_China","rank":20,"score":100478},{"content":"Title: Environmental impact of transport Content: The environmental impact of transport is significant because it is a major user of energy , and burns most of the world 's petroleum . This creates air pollution , including nitrous oxides and particulates , and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon dioxide , for sector . By subsector , road transport is the largest contributor to global warming . Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced the individual vehicle 's emission ; however , this has been offset by an increase in the number of vehicles , and more use of each vehicle . Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road vehicles considerably have been studied . Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes , causing environmentalists to call for a transition from air and road to rail and human-powered transport , and increase transport electrification and energy efficiency . The transportation sector is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) in the United States . An estimated 30 percent of national GHGs are directly attributable to transportation -- and in some regions , the proportion is even higher . Transportation methods are the greatest contributing source of GHGs in the U.S. , accounting for 47 percent of the net increase in total U.S. emissions since 1990 . Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urban sprawl , which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands . By reducing transportation emissions globally , it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects on Earth 's air quality , acid rain , smog and climate change . The health impact of transport emissions is also of concern . A recent survey of the studies on the effect of traffic emissions on pregnancy outcomes has linked exposure to emissions to adverse effects on gestational duration and possibly also intrauterine growth . As listed above direct impacts such as noise and carbon monoxide emissions create direct and harmful effects on the environment , along with indirect impacts . The indirect impacts are often of higher consequence which leads to the misconception that it 's the opposite since it is frequently understood that initial effects cause the most damage . For example , particulates which are the outcome of incomplete combustion done by an internal combustion engine , are not linked with respiratory and cardiovascular problems since they contribute to other factors not only to that specific condition . Even though the environmental impacts are usually listed individually there are also cumulative impacts . The synergetic consequences of transport activities . They take into account of the varied effects of direct and indirect impacts on an ecosystem . Climate change is the sum total impact of several natural and human-made factors . 15 % of global CO2 emissions are attributed to the transport sector .","qid":"2750","docid":"Environmental_impact_of_transport","rank":21,"score":100178},{"content":"Title: American Electric Power Co. v. Connecticut Content: American Electric Power Company v. Connecticut , , was a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court , in an 8 -- 0 decision , held that corporations can not be sued for greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) under federal common law , primarily because the Clean Air Act ( CAA ) delegates the management of carbon dioxide and other GHG emissions to the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) . Brought to court in July 2004 in the Southern District of New York , this was the first global warming case based on a public nuisance claim .","qid":"2750","docid":"American_Electric_Power_Co._v._Connecticut","rank":22,"score":99281},{"content":"Title: Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Content: The Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme ( or CPRS ) was a cap-and-trade emissions trading scheme for anthropogenic greenhouse gases proposed by the Rudd government , as part of its climate change policy , which had been due to commence in Australia in 2010 . It marked a major change in the energy policy of Australia . The policy began to be formulated in April 2007 , when the federal Labor Party was in Opposition and the six Labor-controlled states commissioned an independent review on energy policy , the Garnaut Climate Change Review , which published a number of reports . After Labor won the 2007 federal election and formed government , it published a Green Paper on climate change for discussion and comment . The Federal Treasury then modelled some of the financial and economic impacts of the proposed CPRS scheme . The Rudd government published a final White Paper on 15 December 2008 , and announced that legislation was intended to take effect in July 2010 ; but the legislation for the CPRS ( aka ETS ) failed to gain the numbers in the Senate and was twice rejected creating a double dissolution election trigger . A bitter political debate within the Coalition Opposition saw Opposition leader Malcolm Turnbull lose the leadership to the anti-CPRS Tony Abbott . The Rudd government did not call an election and in April 2010 , Rudd deferred plans for the CPRS . After the 2010 federal election , the Gillard Government was able to get the Carbon Pricing Mechanism ( CPM ) passed into law as part of the Clean Energy Futures Package ( CEF ) in 2011 , and became effective on 1 July 2012 . However , after the 2013 federal election there was a change in government , and the Abbott Government repealed the CEF package on 17 July 2014 . Due to the great deal of policy uncertainty surrounding the scheme , organizations in Australia responded in a rather informal and tepid manner and largely withheld from making any large-scale investments in emissions reductions technology during the scheme 's operation .","qid":"2750","docid":"Carbon_Pollution_Reduction_Scheme","rank":23,"score":99277},{"content":"Title: Contribution to global warming by Australia Content: Australia has one of the highest per capita emissions of carbon dioxide in the world , with 0.3 % of the world 's population it produces 1.8 % of the world 's greenhouse gasses . It was 18.3 tonnes per year per person and the 11th highest in the world per capita in 2009 . Australia uses principally coal power ( 70 % ) for electricity , with the remainder mainly gas , with no nuclear , low levels of hydro power , and low , but increasing , levels of solar , wind and wave power .","qid":"2750","docid":"Contribution_to_global_warming_by_Australia","rank":24,"score":99032},{"content":"Title: List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries ranked by greenhouse-gas emissions per capita in 2000 . It is based on data for carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , perfluorocarbon , hydrofluorocarbon and sulfur hexafluoride emissions compiled by the World Resources Institute ( WRI ) from a variety of sources , including CDIAC and the US Environmental Protection Agency . Bunker-fuel emissions are not included . Two sets of per capita emissions are given , one with an estimate of the effects of land-use change ( for example , cutting down forests ) and one without . The former is based on regional estimates in Houghton ( 2003 ) . Difficulties with determining rates of deforestation and the magnitude of carbon stocks held by the remaining forests and with distributing regional carbon fluxes among individual countries mean that the land-use change components have a large margin of error , perhaps as large as + / -150 % in some cases . They are included here because , although difficult to quantify accurately at a country level , land-use change is a significant contributor to global warming . The WRI estimates that it accounted for almost a fifth of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions in 2000 . For 2005 the data for a large number of countries only includes emissions ( see note 12 . )","qid":"2750","docid":"List_of_countries_by_greenhouse_gas_emissions_per_capita","rank":25,"score":98828},{"content":"Title: Carbon shifting Content: Carbon shifting is the tendency for an individual to increase carbon dioxide emissions in one area of their lifestyle as a result of reducing emissions elsewhere . ` Carbon shifting ' might more accurately be termed ` domestic carbon shifting ' to distinguish it from carbon leakage which has occasionally also been called carbon shifting . Many attempts to encourage people to change aspects of their lifestyle and so reduce their carbon dioxide emissions make a virtue of the financial savings . In the United Kingdom the Energy Saving Trust lists various ways of saving energy , e.g. `` Energy saving light bulbs last up to 12 times longer than ordinary lightbulbs and can save you # 9 per year in electricity ( and 38 kilograms of ) or # 100 over the bulbs lifetime . '' However , whether or not carbon dioxide emissions are ultimately reduced will depend on how that saved money is spent . If the amount of money saved through walking to work is eventually spent on an extra city break involving air travel the net emissions may well increase . The problem of carbon shifting may undermine many voluntary piecemeal attempts at reducing carbon dioxide emissions . However , carbon shifting is not inherently negative . If a person can be persuaded to avoid activities that produce a high level of emissions for a given financial outlay then they may shift to activities that produce lower emissions for that same amount of money . Positive carbon shifting might be encouraged through the use of a carbon tax or the implementation of a Personal carbon trading scheme . The phenomenon of carbon shifting also suggests that for some comparative purposes the most appropriate measure of emissions would be emissions per unit of currency rather than total emissions . An activity that produces slightly lower emissions at a significantly lower cost may not necessarily be the best activity to promote as it leaves the individual with more money to spend on other emitting activities . Similarly , if two passengers are traveling on the same aircraft they might be deemed to be emitting the same total amount of carbon dioxide . However , if one of them paid a lower fare then , by this measure , they would be deemed to be damaging the environment more .","qid":"2750","docid":"Carbon_shifting","rank":26,"score":98741},{"content":"Title: German response to Kyoto Protocol Content: Germany is Europe 's largest and the world 's 6th greatest single emitter of CO2 . In July 2007 , Germany had the largest European population , with 82.4 million people . Germany imports most of its materials and energy sources , and in 2004 imported 2.135 million barrels of oil and 85.02 billion m ³ ( 2003 ) of natural gas a day . In 2004 , Germany emitted 886 million metric tonnes of CO2 . In 2004 , there were approximately 45 million registered cars in Germany . Between March 1998 and March 1999 , 84 countries including Germany signed the Kyoto Protocol . In March 2002 , the Bundestag unanimously ratified Kyoto . In May 2002 , the European Union submitted the articles of ratification for all 15 of its then member states . As an Annex II nation , Germany 's commitment to the UNFCCC with respect to Kyoto was to reduce emissions as well as to provide an economic crutch to developing nations via Clean Development Mechanisms . In November 2006 , Germany 's planned annual quota was 482 million metric tonnes of CO2 . German Greenhouse Gas Emissions reduced by 17.2 % from 1990 to 2004 , according to UNFCCC . Germany actively promotes government carbon funds and supports multilateral carbon funds that are intent on purchasing Carbon Credits from non-Annex I parties . Government organizations work closely with major utility , energy , oil and gas , and chemicals conglomerates to try to acquire as many Greenhouse Gas Certificates as cheaply as possible . Since signing and ratifying the protocol , Germany has committed to reducing its emissions to 21 % below 1990 levels between 2008 and 2012 . In November 2008 , a study found that Germany had already reduced its greenhouse gas emissions by 22.4 % , which means it already reached its Kyoto Emissions Commitments .","qid":"2750","docid":"German_response_to_Kyoto_Protocol","rank":27,"score":98738},{"content":"Title: Campus carbon neutrality Content: All across the world , colleges and universities are looking to a sustainable future by working to become carbon neutral . Universities are taking responsibility for their environmental impact and are working to neutralize those effects . To become carbon neutral , universities are working to reduce their emissions of greenhouse gases , cut their use of energy , use more renewable energy , and emphasize the importance of sustainable energy sources . Universities that have committed to becoming carbon neutral have recognized the threat of global warming and are therefore committing to reverse the trend .","qid":"2750","docid":"Campus_carbon_neutrality","rank":28,"score":98721},{"content":"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.","qid":"2750","docid":"Climate_change_in_the_United_States","rank":29,"score":98661},{"content":"Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .","qid":"2750","docid":"Environmental_impact_of_aviation","rank":30,"score":98547},{"content":"Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita from 1990 through 2011 . All data was calculated by the US Department of Energy 's Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) , mostly based on data collected from country agencies by the United Nations Statistics Division . Countries are ranked by their metric tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions per capita in 2009 . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use such as deforestation . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The carbon dioxide emissions of a country are only an indicator of one greenhouse gas . For a more complete idea of how a country influences climate change , gases such as methane and nitrous oxide should be taken into account . This is particularly so in agricultural economies . Carbon dioxide emissions are also known for earlier periods . A study of a global sample of twelve countries provide estimates for emissions since 1800 and explores the long-run drivers of carbon dioxide emissions by decomposing changes in carbon emissions into population , income , technological and energy mix changes .","qid":"2750","docid":"List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions_per_capita","rank":31,"score":98220},{"content":"Title: Climate change in the United Kingdom Content: Climate change in the United Kingdom has been a subject of protests and controversies and various policies have been developed to mitigate its effects . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . The UK Government has a commitment to reduce CO2 equivalent emissions by 80 % on 1990 levels by 2025 and by 50 % on 1990 levels by 2050 .","qid":"2750","docid":"Climate_change_in_the_United_Kingdom","rank":32,"score":98180},{"content":"Title: Michael Raupach Content: Michael Robin Raupach ( 30 October 1950 -- 10 February 2015 ) was an Australian climate scientist . He is credited with developing the concept of a carbon budget , the amount of CO2 that is emitted and absorbed in the global ecosystem in the course of a year . When the in balance , CO2 emissions and absorption in carbon sinks are roughly the same , but when disturbed , possibly large changes in the ecosystem ensue . He was a founding co-chair of the Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) , a network of the world 's leading carbon cycle researchers . He was instrumental in publishing the Annual Carbon Budget , which draws on a large amount of scientific data to determine the level of imbalance and options for addressing it . He worked for the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation before becoming the director of the Australian National University 's Climate Change Institute in 2014 . He was a co-chair of the Global Carbon Project from 2000 to 2008 , and contributed to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Fourth Assessment Report in 2007 . He chaired the steering committee of the ` Australia 2050 ' project of the Australian Academy of Science ( AAS ) . In 2009 -- 2010 he chaired the Expert Working Group on Challenges at the Intersection of Carbon , Energy and Water , reporting to the Prime Minister 's Science , Engineering and Innovation Council and the Office of the Chief Scientist of Australia . His career included the publication of 150 scientific papers and 50 reports . His research developed in three stages , the first focused on very localized flow and transport of matter and energy through and above plant canopies . At the next stage , he worked on quantification of CO2 transport through and above plant canopies , though still on a small scale . In the 1990s , his focus began to shift to global ecosystems when he became a member of the scientific steering committee of the Biospheric Aspects of the Hydrological Cycle core project of the IGBP ( International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme ) . One of the most fundamental and important questions that the project addressed was : does the land-surface matter in climate and weather ? His research contributed to addressing that question , through his work on turbulent fluxes near the land surface , boundary-layer budgeting and quantifying the water balance at broader scales . He was a fellow of the Australian Academy of Science , the Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering , and the American Geophysical Union . Just before his death following a short illness , he co-chaired the working group of the Australian Academy of Science drafting the AAS booklet The Science of Climate Change : Questions and Answers .","qid":"2750","docid":"Michael_Raupach","rank":33,"score":97789},{"content":"Title: Emission Reduction Unit Content: The emission reduction unit ( ERU ) is an emissions unit issued under a Joint Implementation project in terms of the Kyoto Protocol . An ERU represents a reduction of greenhouse gases under the Joint Implementation mechanism , where it represents one tonne of equivalent reduced . To allow comparison between the different effects of gases on the environment , scientists have defined multipliers for gases that compare their greenhouse potency ( global warming potential ) relative to that of carbon dioxide . One example of a Joint Implementation project resulting in an emission reduction unit , is the production of biogases by landfill sites . These gases consist of mainly methane which escapes to the atmosphere if it is not collected . The main reason for dealing with methane is that it has a 100-year global warming potential multiplier of 25 compared to carbon dioxide ( i.e. has 25 times the greenhouse potency ) . Collection of methane is usually accompanied by its combustion . Burning one tonne of methane produces nearly 3 tonnes of , thus reducing its greenhouse effect by ( 25-3 = 22 ) ERU . In December 2012 , ERU prices crashed to a low of 15 euro cents before recovering to 23c after news that EU 's Climate Change Committee was to vote on a ban of ERUs from countries that have not signed up to a second commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol . In January 2013 , Bloomberg reported that emission reduction unit prices declined 89 percent in 2012","qid":"2750","docid":"Emission_Reduction_Unit","rank":34,"score":97732},{"content":"Title: Voluntary Emission Reduction Content: Voluntary Emission Reductions or Verified Emission Reductions ( VERs ) are a type of carbon offset exchanged in the voluntary or over-the-counter market for carbon credits . Verified Emission Reductions are usually certified through a voluntary certification process . Verified Emission Reductions are usually created by projects which have been verified outside of the Kyoto Protocol . One VER is equivalent to 1 tonne of CO2e emissions . Through these schemes , industries and individuals voluntarily compensate for their emissions or provide an additional contribution to mitigating climate change . VERs may be developed and calculated in compliance with one of several VER standards . These set out rules defining how emission reductions are measured . Standards provide assurance for buyers of VERs . At a minimum , all VERs should be verified by an independent third party .","qid":"2750","docid":"Voluntary_Emission_Reduction","rank":35,"score":97703},{"content":"Title: Carbon leakage Content: Carbon leakage occurs when there is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions in one country as a result of an emissions reduction by a second country with a strict climate policy . Carbon leakage may occur for a number of reasons : if the emissions policy of a country raises local costs , then another country with a more relaxed policy may have a trading advantage . If demand for these goods remains the same , production may move offshore to the cheaper country with lower standards , and global emissions will not be reduced . if environmental policies in one country add a premium to certain fuels or commodities , then the demand may decline and their price may fall . Countries that do not place a premium on those items may then take up the demand and use the same supply , negating any benefit . There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term leakage effects . This is important for the problem of climate change . Carbon leakage is one type of spill-over effect . Spill-over effects can be positive or negative ; for example , emission reductions policy might lead to technological developments that aid reductions outside of the policy area . `` Carbon leakage is defined as the increase in emissions outside the countries taking domestic mitigation action divided by the reduction in the emissions of these countries . '' It is expressed as a percentage , and can be greater or less than 100 % . Carbon leakage may occur through changes in trading patterns , and that is sometimes measured as the balance of emissions embodied in trade ( BEET ) .","qid":"2750","docid":"Carbon_leakage","rank":36,"score":97218},{"content":"Title: ACEA agreement Content: The ACEA agreement refers to a voluntary agreement between the European Automobile Manufacturers Association ( ACEA ) and the European Commission to limit the amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) emitted by passenger cars sold in Europe . With 18 million cars sold each year , Europe is the last major car market in the world . Signed in 1998 , the agreement sought to achieve an average of 140 g/km of CO2 by 2008 for new passenger vehicles sold by the association 's cars in Europe . This target represents a 25 % reduction from the 1995 level of 186 g/km and is equivalent to a fuel economy of 5.8 L/100 km or 5.25 L/100 km for petrol and diesel engines respectively . However , the average for the whole car market for 2008 was 153.7 g/km , so the target has not been achieved . Besides the agreement with ACEA , the European Commission also closed agreements with the Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association ( JAMA ) and Korea Automobile Manufacturers Association ( KAMA ) . However , for the latter two the target date is 2009 instead of 2008 and as ACEA accounts for 86.4 % of car sales in Europe , the impact of the latter two is much smaller . The ultimate EU target to which these agreements are to contribute , is to reach an average CO2 emission ( as measured according to Commission Directive 93/116/EC ) of 130 g/km for all new passenger cars by 2015 . The European Commission announced in late 2006 that it is working on a proposal for legally binding measures and limits . In February 2007 , the Commission acknowledged the failure of the voluntary agreement . Following this , a proposal of regulation was introduced by the Commission on 19 December 2007 .","qid":"2750","docid":"ACEA_agreement","rank":37,"score":97002},{"content":"Title: Carbon emission trading Content: Carbon emissions trading is a form of emissions trading that specifically targets carbon dioxide ( calculated in tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent or tCO2e ) and it currently constitutes the bulk of emissions trading . This form of permit trading is a common method countries utilize in order to meet their obligations specified by the Kyoto Protocol ; namely the reduction of carbon emissions in an attempt to reduce ( mitigate ) future climate change . Under Carbon trading , a country having more emissions of carbon is able to purchase the right to emit more and the country having less emission trades the right to emit carbon to other countries . More carbon emitting countries , by this way try to keep the limit of carbon emission specified to them .","qid":"2750","docid":"Carbon_emission_trading","rank":38,"score":96365},{"content":"Title: Mitigation of global warming in Australia Content: Mitigation of global warming involves taking actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to enhance sinks aimed at reducing the extent of global warming . This is in distinction to adaptation to global warming , which involves taking action to minimise the effects of global warming . Scientific consensus on global warming , together with the precautionary principle and the fear of non-linear climate transitions , is leading to increased effort to develop new technologies and sciences and carefully manage others in an attempt to mitigate global warming . Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) for coal-fired power stations has been put forward as a solution to rising greenhouse gas emissions . However , CCS can not deliver in time to avoid dangerous increases in temperatures , as widespread commercial use of CCS is not expected before 2030 . Following the introduction of government mandatory renewable energy targets , more opportunities have opened up for renewable energy technologies such as wind power , photovoltaics , and solar thermal technologies . The deployment of these technologies provides opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gases . A carbon price was introduced on 1 July 2012 by the government of Julia Gillard with the purpose of reducing Australia 's carbon emissions . It requires large businesses ( defined as those with annual carbon dioxide equivalent emissions over 25,000 tonnes annually ) to pay a price for emissions permits . The tax was scrapped by the Abbott government in July 2014 in what was a widely criticised and highly publicised move .","qid":"2750","docid":"Mitigation_of_global_warming_in_Australia","rank":39,"score":96117},{"content":"Title: European Union Emission Trading Scheme Content: The European Union Emissions Trading System ( EU ETS ) , also known as the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme , was the first large greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme in the world , and remains the biggest . It was launched in 2005 to fight Global warming and is a major pillar of EU climate policy . As of 2013 , the EU ETS covers more than 11,000 factories , power stations , and other installations with a net heat excess of 20 MW in 31 countries -- all 28 EU member states plus Iceland , Norway , and Liechtenstein . In 2008 , the installations regulated by the EU ETS were collectively responsible for close to half of the EU 's anthropogenic emissions of CO2 and 40 % of its total greenhouse gas emissions . Under the ` cap and trade ' principle , a maximum ( cap ) is set on the total amount of greenhouse gases that can be emitted by all participating installations . ` Allowances ' for emissions are then auctioned off or allocated for free , and can subsequently be traded . Installations must monitor and report their CO2 emissions , ensuring they hand in enough allowances to the authorities to cover their emissions . If emission exceeds what is permitted by its allowances , an installation must purchase allowances from others . Conversely , if an installation has performed well at reducing its emissions , it can sell its leftover credits . This allows the system to find the most cost-effective ways of reducing emissions without significant government intervention . The scheme has been divided into a number of `` trading periods '' . The first ETS trading period lasted three years , from January 2005 to December 2007 . The second trading period ran from January 2008 until December 2012 , coinciding with the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol . The third trading period began in January 2013 and will span until December 2020 . Compared to 2005 , when the EU ETS was first implemented , the proposed caps for 2020 represents a 21 % reduction of greenhouse gases . This target has been reached 6 years early as emissions in the ETS fell to 1812 mln tonnes in 2014 . The EU ETS has seen a number of significant changes , with the first trading period described as a ` learning by doing ' phase . Phase III sees a turn to auctioning a majority of permits rather than allocating freely ; harmonisation of rules for the remaining allocations ; and the inclusion of other greenhouse gases , such as nitrous oxide and perfluorocarbons . In 2012 , the EU ETS was also extended to the airline industry , though this has been paused for one year given the possibility of a global system for these emissions . The price of EU ETS carbon credits has been lower than intended , with a large surplus of allowances , in part because of the impact of the recent economic crisis on demand . In 2012 , the Commission said it would delay the auctioning of some allowances . Currently legislation is under way which would introduce a Market Stability Reserve to the EU ETS that adjusts the annual supply of CO2 permits based on the CO2 permits in circulation . Overall , since its conception , the EU ETS has been characterized by relatively high levels of policy uncertainty . This uncertainty has been both technical , in terms of its detailed rules and procedures , and political , in terms of its public , industry , and governmental support . As a result , the scheme has resulted in a rather informal and tepid response by regulated organizations .","qid":"2750","docid":"European_Union_Emission_Trading_Scheme","rank":40,"score":96098},{"content":"Title: No Pressure (film) Content: No Pressure is a 2010 short film produced by the global warming mitigation campaign 10:10 , written by Richard Curtis and Franny Armstrong , and directed by Dougal Wilson . Intended for cinema and television advertisements , No Pressure is composed of scenes in which a variety of people in every-day situations are graphically blown to pieces for failing to be sufficiently enthusiastic about the 10:10 campaign to reduce CO2 emissions . The film 's makers said that they viewed No Pressure as `` a funny and satirical tongue-in-cheek little film in the over-the-top style of Monty Python or South Park '' . Before its release , The Guardian described it as `` attention-grabbing '' and `` pretty edgy . '' The film was withdrawn from public circulation by 10:10 , on the same day it was released , due to negative publicity . Charities that had backed the film stated they were `` absolutely appalled '' upon seeing it , and several of 10:10 's corporate and strategic partners withdrew from partnership .","qid":"2750","docid":"No_Pressure_(film)","rank":41,"score":95987},{"content":"Title: Carbon emission label Content: A carbon emission label or carbon label describes the carbon dioxide emissions created as a by-product of manufacturing , transporting , or disposing of a consumer product . This information is important to consumers wishing to minimize their ecological footprint and contribution to global warming made by their purchases .","qid":"2750","docid":"Carbon_emission_label","rank":42,"score":95960},{"content":"Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions Content: -RSB- This is a list of sovereign states and territories by carbon dioxide emissions due to certain forms of human activity , based on the EDGAR database created by European Commission and Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency released in 2015 . The following table lists the 2015 annual emissions estimates ( in thousands of tonnes ) along with a list of emissions per capita ( in tonnes of per year ) from same source . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use , land-use change and forestry . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The top 10 largest emitter countries account for 67.6 % of the world total . Other powerful , more potent greenhouse gases , including methane , are not included in this data .","qid":"2750","docid":"List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions","rank":43,"score":95786},{"content":"Title: Carbon offset Content: A carbon offset is a reduction in emissions of carbon dioxide or greenhouse gases made in order to compensate for or to offset an emission made elsewhere . Carbon offsets are measured in metric tons of carbon dioxide-equivalent ( CO2e ) and may represent six primary categories of greenhouse gases : carbon dioxide , methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFCs ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) , and sulfur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . One carbon offset represents the reduction of one metric ton of carbon dioxide or its equivalent in other greenhouse gases . There are two markets for carbon offsets . In the larger , compliance market , companies , governments , or other entities buy carbon offsets in order to comply with caps on the total amount of carbon dioxide they are allowed to emit . This market exists in order to achieve compliance with obligations of Annex 1 Parties under the Kyoto Protocol , and of liable entities under the EU Emission Trading Scheme . In 2006 , about $ 5.5 billion of carbon offsets were purchased in the compliance market , representing about 1.6 billion metric tons of CO2e reductions . In the much smaller , voluntary market , individuals , companies , or governments purchase carbon offsets to mitigate their own greenhouse gas emissions from transportation , electricity use , and other sources . For example , an individual might purchase carbon offsets to compensate for the greenhouse gas emissions caused by personal air travel . Many companies ( see list ) offer carbon offsets as an up-sell during the sales process so that customers can mitigate the emissions related with their product or service purchase ( such as offsetting emissions related to a vacation flight , car rental , hotel stay , consumer good , etc. ) . In 2008 , about $ 705 million of carbon offsets were purchased in the voluntary market , representing about 123.4 million metric tons of CO2e reductions . Some fuel suppliers in the UK offer fuel which has been carbon offset such as Fuel dyes . Offsets are typically achieved through financial support of projects that reduce the emission of greenhouse gases in the short - or long-term . The most common project type is renewable energy , such as wind farms , biomass energy , or hydroelectric dams . Others include energy efficiency projects , the destruction of industrial pollutants or agricultural byproducts , destruction of landfill methane , and forestry projects . Some of the most popular carbon offset projects from a corporate perspective are energy efficiency and wind turbine projects . Carbon offsetting has gained some appeal and momentum mainly among consumers in western countries who have become aware and concerned about the potentially negative environmental effects of energy-intensive lifestyles and economies . The Kyoto Protocol has sanctioned offsets as a way for governments and private companies to earn carbon credits that can be traded on a marketplace . The protocol established the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) , which validates and measures projects to ensure they produce authentic benefits and are genuinely `` additional '' activities that would not otherwise have been undertaken . Organizations that are unable to meet their emissions quota can offset their emissions by buying CDM-approved Certified Emissions Reductions . Emissions from burning fuel , such as red diesel , has pushed one UK fuel supplier to create a carbon offset fuel named Carbon Offset Red Diesel . Offsets may be cheaper or more convenient alternatives to reducing one 's own fossil-fuel consumption . However , some critics object to carbon offsets , and question the benefits of certain types of offsets . Due diligence is recommended to help businesses in the assessment and identification of `` good quality '' offsets to ensure offsetting provides the desired additional environmental benefits , and to avoid reputational risk associated with poor quality offsets . Offsets are viewed as an important policy tool to maintain stable economies and to improve sustainability . One of the hidden dangers of climate change policy is unequal prices of carbon in the economy , which can cause economic collateral damage if production flows to regions or industries that have a lower price of carbon -- unless carbon can be purchased from that area , which offsets effectively permit , equalizing the price .","qid":"2750","docid":"Carbon_offset","rank":44,"score":95512},{"content":"Title: Environmental impact of shipping Content: The environmental impact of shipping includes greenhouse gas emissions , acoustic , and oil pollution . The International Maritime Organization ( IMO ) estimates that Carbon dioxide emissions from shipping were equal to 2.2 % of the global human-made emissions in 2012 and expects them to rise by as much as 2 to 3 times by 2050 if no action is taken . The First Intersessional Meeting of the IMO Working Group on Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Ships took place in Oslo , Norway on 23 -- 27 June 2008 . It was tasked with developing the technical basis for the reduction mechanisms that may form part of a future IMO regime to control greenhouse gas emissions from international shipping , and a draft of the actual reduction mechanisms themselves , for further consideration by IMO 's Marine Environment Protection Committee ( MEPC ) .","qid":"2750","docid":"Environmental_impact_of_shipping","rank":45,"score":95355},{"content":"Title: Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources Content: Measurement of life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions involves calculating the global-warming potential of electrical energy sources through life-cycle assessment of each energy source . The findings are presented in units of global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated by that source . The scale uses the global warming potential unit , the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) , and the unit of electrical energy , the kilowatt hour ( kWh ) . The goal of such assessments is to cover the full life of the source , from material and fuel mining through construction to operation and waste management . In 2014 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change harmonized the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) findings of the major electricity generating sources in use worldwide . This was done by analyzing the findings of hundreds of individual scientific papers assessing each energy source . For all technologies , advances in efficiency , and therefore reductions in e since the time of publication , have not been included . For example , the total life cycle emissions from wind power may have lessened since publication . Similarly , due to the time frame over which the studies were conducted , nuclear Generation II reactor 's e results are presented and not the global warming potential of Generation III reactors , presently under construction in the United States and China . Other limitations of the data include : a ) missing life cycle phases , and , b ) uncertainty as to where to define the cut-off point in the global warming potential of an energy source . The latter is important in assessing a combined electrical grid in the real world , rather than the established practice of simply assessing the energy source in isolation .","qid":"2750","docid":"Life-cycle_greenhouse-gas_emissions_of_energy_sources","rank":46,"score":95136},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .","qid":"2750","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere","rank":47,"score":94957},{"content":"Title: The 2030 °Challenge Content: The 2030 ° Challenge is an initiative by Edward Mazria and Architecture 2030 asking the global architecture and construction community to adopt a series of greenhouse gas reduction targets for new and renovated buildings . In many developed countries the construction and use of buildings is the leading consumer of energy and producer of greenhouse gas emissions . Stabilizing and reversing emissions in this sector is key to keeping future global warming under one degree celsius ( ° C ) above today 's level , in order to avoid increased global warming , potentially to reach a tipping point .","qid":"2750","docid":"The_2030_°Challenge","rank":48,"score":94931},{"content":"Title: Carbon governance in England Content: The reduction of carbon emissions , along with other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , has become a vitally important task of international , national and local actors . If we understand governance as the creation of `` conditions for ordered rule and collective action '' then , given the fact that the reduction of carbon emissions will require concerted collective action , it follows that the governance of carbon will be of paramount concern . We have seen numerous international conferences over the past 20 years tasked with finding a way of facilitating this , and while international agreements have been infamously difficult to reach , action at the national level has been much more effective . In the UK , the Climate Change Act 2008 committed the government to meeting significant carbon reduction targets . In England , these carbon emissions are governed using numerous different instruments , which involve a variety of actors . While it has been argued by authors like Rhodes that there has been a `` hollowing out '' of the nation state , and that governments have lost their capabilities to govern to a variety of non-state actors and the European Union , the case of carbon governance in England actually runs counter to this . The government body responsible for the task , the Department of Energy and Climate Change ( DECC ) , is the `` main external dynamic '' behind governing actions in this area , and `` rather than hollowing out ( there has actually been a strengthening of ) central co-ordination '' . The department may rely on other bodies to deliver its desired outcomes , but it is still ultimately responsible for the imposition of the rules and regulations that `` steer ( carbon ) governmental action at the national level '' . It is therefore evident that carbon governance in England is hierarchical in nature , in that `` legislative decisions and executive decisions '' are the main dynamic behind carbon governance action . This does not deny the existence of a network of bodies around DECC who are part of the process , but they are supplementary actors who are steered by central decisions . This article focuses on carbon governance in England as the other countries of the UK ( Scotland , Wales and Northern Ireland ) all have devolved assemblies who are responsible for the governance of carbon emissions in their respective countries .","qid":"2750","docid":"Carbon_governance_in_England","rank":49,"score":94523},{"content":"Title: Contraction and Convergence Content: Contraction and Convergence ( C&C ) is a proposed global framework for reducing greenhouse gas emissions to combat climate change . Conceived by the Global Commons Institute -LSB- GCI -RSB- in the early 1990s , the Contraction and Convergence strategy consists of reducing overall emissions of greenhouse gases to a safe level ( contraction ) , resulting from every country bringing its emissions per capita to a level which is equal for all countries ( convergence ) . It is intended to form the basis of an international agreement which will reduce carbon dioxide emissions to avoid dangerous climate change , carbon dioxide being the gas that is primarily responsible for changes in the greenhouse effect on Earth . It is expressed as a simple mathematical formula . This formula can be used as a way for the world to stabilize carbon levels at any level . Advocates of Contraction and Convergence stress that negotiations at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change -LSB- UNFCCC -RSB- are governed sequentially by the ` objective ' of the UNFCCC -LSB- safe and stable GHG concentration in the global atmosphere -RSB- followed by its organising principles -LSB- ` precaution ' and ` equity ' -RSB- . C&C is widely cited and supported .","qid":"2750","docid":"Contraction_and_Convergence","rank":50,"score":94364},{"content":"Title: CERINA-Plan Content: CERINA Plan is the abbreviation for `` CO2 Emissions and Renewable Investment Action Plan '' . It is a CO2 reduction concept developed by the German renewable energy institute IWR . The CERINA Plan proposes a technical investment approach linking a country 's CO2 emissions to its investment in renewable energy technology . Therefore , it is an alternative model to approaches like the Kyoto idea of mere cuts in greenhouse gas emissions . The model is meant to be flexible and to adapt to the special national circumstances of each country .","qid":"2750","docid":"CERINA-Plan","rank":51,"score":94100},{"content":"Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .","qid":"2750","docid":"Economics_of_global_warming","rank":52,"score":94000},{"content":"Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .","qid":"2750","docid":"Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change","rank":53,"score":93911},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .","qid":"2750","docid":"Climate_change_in_Japan","rank":54,"score":93834},{"content":"Title: Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 Content: The Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 , or Assembly Bill ( AB ) 32 , is a California State Law that fights global warming by establishing a comprehensive program to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from all sources throughout the state . AB 32 was authored by then-Assembly member Fran Pavley and Assembly Speaker Fabian Nunez ( D-Los Angeles ) and signed into law by Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger on September 27 , 2006 . On June 1 , 2005 , Governor Schwarzenegger signed an executive order known as Executive Order S-3-05 which established greenhouse gas emissions targets for the state . The executive order required the state to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions levels to 2000 levels by 2010 , to 1990 levels by 2020 , and to a level 80 % below 1990 levels by 2050 . However , to implement this measure , the California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) needed authority from the legislature . The California State Legislature passed the Global Warming Solutions Act to address this issue and gave the CARB authority to implement the program . AB 32 requires the California Air Resources Board ( CARB or ARB ) to develop regulations and market mechanisms to reduce California 's greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by the year of 2020 , representing approximately a 30 % reduction statewide , with mandatory caps beginning in 2012 for significant emissions sources . The bill also allows the Governor to suspend the emissions caps for up to a year in case of emergency or significant economic harm . The State of California leads the nation in energy efficiency standards and plays a lead role in environmental protection , but is also the 12th largest emitter of carbon worldwide . Greenhouse gas emissions are defined in the bill to include all of the following : carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , sulfur hexafluoride , hydrofluorocarbons and perfluorocarbons . These are the same greenhouse gases listed in Annex A of the Kyoto Protocol .","qid":"2750","docid":"Global_Warming_Solutions_Act_of_2006","rank":55,"score":93807},{"content":"Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .","qid":"2750","docid":"Carbon_neutrality","rank":56,"score":93785},{"content":"Title: Eco-costs Content: Eco-costs are a measure to express the amount of environmental burden of a product on the basis of prevention of that burden . They are the costs which should be made to reduce the environmental pollution and materials depletion in our world to a level which is in line with the carrying capacity of our earth . For example : for each 1000 kg CO2 emission , one should invest $ 135 , - in offshore windmill parks ( and the other CO2 reduction systems at that price or less ) . When this is done consequently , the total CO2 emissions in the world will be reduced by 65 % compared to the emissions in 2008 . As a result , global warming will stabilise . In short : `` the eco-costs of 1000kg CO2 are $ 135 , - '' . Similar calculations can be made on the environmental burden of acidification , eutrification , summer smog , fine dust , eco-toxicity , and the use of metals , rare earth , fossil fuels , water and land ( nature ) . As such , the eco-costs are virtual costs , since they are not yet integrated in the real life costs of current production chains ( Life Cycle Costs ) . The eco-costs should be regarded as hidden obligations . The eco-costs of a product are the sum of all eco-costs of emissions and use of resources during the life cycle `` from cradle to cradle '' . The widely accepted method to make such a calculation is called Life Cycle Assessment ( LCA ) , which is basically a mass and energy balance , defined in the 14040 and ISO 14044 . The practical use of eco-costs is to compare the sustainability of several product types with the same functionality . The advantage of eco-costs is that they are expressed in a standardized monetary value which appears to be easily understood ` by instinct ' . Also the calculation is transparent and relatively easy , compared to damage based models which have the disadvantage of extremely complex calculations with subjective weighting of the various aspects contributing to the overall environmental burden . The system of eco-costs is part of the bigger model of the Ecocosts/Value Ratio , EVR","qid":"2750","docid":"Eco-costs","rank":57,"score":93759},{"content":"Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .","qid":"2750","docid":"CO2_fertilization_effect","rank":58,"score":92548},{"content":"Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .","qid":"2750","docid":"Carbon_tax","rank":59,"score":92399},{"content":"Title: Executive Orders S-3-05 and B-30-15 Content: Executive Orders S-3-05 is an Executive Order of the State of California signed by Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger in June 2005 that set greenhouse gas emissions reduction targets for the State of California and laid out responsibilities among the state agencies for implementing the Executive Order and for reporting on progress toward the targets . Specifically , the Executive Order established these targets : By 2010 , reduce GHG emissions to 2000 levels By 2020 , reduce GHG emissions to 1990 levels By 2050 , reduce GHG emissions to 80 percent below 1990 levels The first and second goals were enshrined into law by the legislation known as AB 32 , or the Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 , which gave the California Air Resources Board broad authority to implement a market-based system ( also known as cap-and-trade ) to achieve these goals . California Executive Order B-30-15 ( April 2015 , signed by Governor Jerry Brown ) added the intermediate target of : By 2030 , reduce GHG emissions to 40 percent below 1990 levels .","qid":"2750","docid":"Executive_Orders_S-3-05_and_B-30-15","rank":60,"score":92025},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Europe Content: Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe . According to international climate experts global temperature rise should not exceed 2 ° C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of the climate change . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . It is estimated that from the now living persons alive are 70 % in the year 2050 . Emission reduction means development and implementation of new energy technology solutions . Some people consider that the technology revolution has already started in Europe since the markets of the renewable technology have annually grown . European Union climate chief is Connie Hedegaard since 10 February 2010 .","qid":"2750","docid":"Climate_change_in_Europe","rank":61,"score":91422},{"content":"Title: CRC Energy Efficiency Scheme Content: The CRC Energy Efficiency Scheme ( the CRC , formerly the Carbon Reduction Commitment ) is a mandatory carbon emissions reduction scheme in the United Kingdom that applies to large non-energy-intensive organisations in the public and private sectors . It has been estimated that the scheme will reduce carbon emissions by 1.2 million tonnes of carbon per year by 2020 . In an effort to avoid dangerous climate change , the British Government first committed to cutting UK carbon emissions by 60 % by 2050 ( compared to 1990 levels ) , and in October 2008 increased this commitment to 80 % . The scheme has also been credited with driving up demand for energy-efficient goods and services . The CRC was announced in the 2007 Energy White Paper , published on 23 May 2007 . A consultation in 2006 showed strong support for it to be mandatory , rather than voluntary . The Commitment was introduced under enabling powers in Part 3 of the Climate Change Act 2008 . A consultation into the scheme 's implementation was launched in June 2007 . The Scheme is being introduced under the CRC Energy Efficiency Scheme Order 2010 .","qid":"2750","docid":"CRC_Energy_Efficiency_Scheme","rank":62,"score":91163},{"content":"Title: Airport Carbon Accreditation Content: Airport Carbon Accreditation is a global carbon management programme for airports that independently assesses and recognises airports ' efforts to manage and reduce their CO2 emissions . There are 4 different levels of accreditation : Mapping , Reduction , Optimisation and Neutrality . The programme was launched by European airports ' trade body ACI EUROPE at their Annual Congress in June 2009 . It is independently administered by WSP , an international consultancy firm . The programme provides airports with a common framework for active carbon management with measurable goal-posts . Individual airport carbon footprints are independently verified in accordance with ISO 14064 ( Greenhouse Gas Accounting ) on the basis of supporting evidence . Claims regarding airports ' carbon management processes are also independently verified by a group of 117 independent verifiers , based in 36 countries .","qid":"2750","docid":"Airport_Carbon_Accreditation","rank":63,"score":91008},{"content":"Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .","qid":"2750","docid":"Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center","rank":64,"score":90973},{"content":"Title: Clean Energy Act 2011 Content: The Clean Energy Act 2011 is the main Act in a package of legislation that established an Australian emissions trading scheme , to be preceded by a three-year period of fixed carbon pricing designed to reduce carbon dioxide emissions and limit global warming . The package was introduced by the Gillard Labor Government in February 2011 and repealed on 17 July 2014 by the Abbott Government .","qid":"2750","docid":"Clean_Energy_Act_2011","rank":65,"score":90955},{"content":"Title: Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative Content: ` The Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI , pronounced `` Reggie '' ) is the first mandatory market based program in the United States to reduce greenhouse gas emissions . RGGI is a cooperative effort among the states of Connecticut , Delaware , Maine , Maryland , Massachusetts , New Hampshire , New York , Rhode Island , and Vermont to cap and reduce CO2 emissions from the power sector . RGGI compliance obligations apply to fossil-fueled power plants 25MW and larger within the nine-state region . RGGI establishes a regional cap on the amount of CO2 pollution that power plants can emit by issuing a limited number of tradable CO2 allowances . Each allowance represents an authorization for a regulated power plant to emit one short ton of CO2 . Individual CO2 budget trading programs in each RGGI state together create a regional market for CO2 allowances . The RGGI states distribute over 90 percent of allowances through quarterly auctions . These allowance auctions generate proceeds , which participating states are able to invest in strategic energy and consumer benefit programs . Programs funded through RGGI have included energy efficiency , clean and renewable energy , greenhouse gas abatement , and direct bill assistance . An initial milestone program 's development occurred in 2005 , when seven states signed a Memorandum of Understanding ( MOU ) announcing an agreement to implement RGGI . The RGGI states then established individual CO2 budget trading programs , based on the RGGI Model Rule . The first pre-compliance RGGI auction took place in September 2008 , and the program became effective on January 1 , 2009 . The RGGI program is currently in its third three-year compliance period , which began January 1 , 2015 .","qid":"2750","docid":"Regional_Greenhouse_Gas_Initiative","rank":66,"score":90835},{"content":"Title: Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation Content: Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation and the role of conservation , sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries ( REDD + ) was first negotiated under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) since 2005 , with the objective of mitigating climate change through reducing net emissions of greenhouse gases through enhanced forest management in developing countries . Most of the key REDD + decisions were completed by 2013 , with the final pieces of the rulebook finished in 2015 . In the last two decades , various studies estimate that land use change , including deforestation and forest degradation , accounts for 12-29 % of global greenhouse gas emissions . For this reason the inclusion of reducing emissions from land use change is considered essential to achieve the objectives of the UNFCCC . During the negotiations for the Kyoto Protocol , and then in particular its Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) , the inclusion of tropical forest management was debated but eventually dropped due to anticipated methodological difficulties in establishing -- in particular -- additionality and leakage ( detrimental effects outside of the project area attributable to project activities ) . What remained on forestry was `` Afforestation and Reforestation '' , sectoral scope 14 of the CDM . Under this sectoral scope areas of land that had no forest cover since 1990 could be replanted with commercial or indigenous tree species . In its first eight years of operation 52 projects had been registered under the `` Afforestation and Reforestation '' scope of the CDM . The cumbersome administrative procedures and corresponding high transaction costs are often blamed for this slow uptake . Beyond the CDM , all developed countries that were parties to the Kyoto Protocol also committed to measuring and reporting on efforts to reduce net greenhouse gas emissions from forests . The United States also measures and reports on the net greenhouse gas sequestration in its forests . In response to what many perceived to be a failure to address a major source of global greenhouse gas emissions , the Coalition for Rainforest Nations ( CfRN ) was established and in 2005 they proposed to the Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC policy approaches and positive incentives for the reduction of emissions of greenhouse gases stemming from tropical deforestation and forest degradation as a climate change mitigation measure .","qid":"2750","docid":"Reducing_emissions_from_deforestation_and_forest_degradation","rank":67,"score":90568},{"content":"Title: Sustainable Communities and Climate Protection Act of 2008 Content: The Sustainable Communities and Climate Protection Act of 2008 , also known as Senate Bill 375 or SB 375 , is a State of California law targeting greenhouse gas emissions from passenger vehicles . The Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 ( AB 32 ) sets goals for the reduction of statewide greenhouse gas emissions . Passenger vehicles are the single largest source of greenhouse gas emissions statewide , accounting for 30 % of total emissions . SB 375 therefore provides key support to achieve the goals of AB 32 . SB 375 instructs the California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) to set regional emissions ' reduction targets from passenger vehicles . The Metropolitan Planning Organization for each region must then develop a `` Sustainable Communities Strategy '' ( SCS ) that integrates transportation , land-use and housing policies to plan for achievement of the emissions target for their region . In a press release the day he signed the bill into law , Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger stated , `` What this will mean is more environmentally-friendly communities , more sustainable developments , less time people spend in their cars , more alternative transportation options and neighborhoods we can safely and proudly pass on to future generations . ''","qid":"2750","docid":"Sustainable_Communities_and_Climate_Protection_Act_of_2008","rank":68,"score":90532},{"content":"Title: Regional climate change initiatives in the United States Content: Twenty-eight states have climate action plans and nine have statewide emission targets . The states of California and New Mexico have committed most recently to emission reductions targets , joining New Jersey , Maine , Massachusetts , Connecticut , New York , Washington and Oregon . Regional initiatives can be more efficient than programs at the state level , as they encompass a broader geographical area , eliminate duplication of work , and create more uniform regulatory environments . Over the past few years , a number of regional initiatives have begun developing systems to reduce carbon dioxide emissions from power plants , increase renewable energy generation , track renewable energy credits , and research and establish baselines for carbon sequestration .","qid":"2750","docid":"Regional_climate_change_initiatives_in_the_United_States","rank":69,"score":90409},{"content":"Title: Forests for the 21st Century Content: Forests for the 21st Century is a short video promoting and explaining the benefits of forest landscape restoration . In the last few centuries people have removed more than half of the world 's forest cover . Deforestation is currently responsible for nearly 20 per cent of global carbon emissions . This tide of deforestation can be reversed , but we can make a much greater impact if we also put back some of our lost forests . Planting more trees can lock up more carbon , improve the environment and people 's lives . Many regions and countries have already restored much of their forest .","qid":"2750","docid":"Forests_for_the_21st_Century","rank":70,"score":90311},{"content":"Title: Decarbonisation measures in proposed UK electricity market reform Content: The United Kingdom is committed to legally binding greenhouse gas emissions reduction targets of 34 % by 2020 and 80 % by 2050 , compared to 1990 levels , as set out in the Climate Change Act 2008 . DECC ( 2008 ) . Climate Change Act . Decarbonisation of electricity generation will form a major part of this reduction and is essential before other sectors of the economy can be successfully decarbonised.DECC ( 2011a ) . Planning Our Electric Future : A White Paper for Secure , Affordable and Low-Carbon Electricity . The Government 's proposals for electricity market reform , published in a White Paper in July 2011 , included three initiatives to encourage decarbonisation of electricity generation in the UK : A Carbon Price Floor to complement the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme ( EU ETS ) ; Feed-in tariffs which will eventually replace the Renewables Obligation ; and an Emissions Performance Standard to restrict future use of the most carbon intensive forms of generation . In implementing these proposals , the Government aims to attract investment in low-carbon generation , deliver security of supply through an appropriate mix of electricity sources and ensure a minimum amount of impact on consumer bills ; all this at a time when security of supply is threatened by scheduled closures of existing plants and both the demand for , and subsequently the price of , electricity is increasing .","qid":"2750","docid":"Decarbonisation_measures_in_proposed_UK_electricity_market_reform","rank":71,"score":90268},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .","qid":"2750","docid":"Climate_change_in_Pakistan","rank":72,"score":90232},{"content":"Title: Carbon capture and storage in Mexico Content: Mexico highly depends on the burning of its fossil fuels , and for the same reason , it is in its interest to look into mitigation solutions for its corresponding emissions . In the General Law on Climate Change on 2012 , Mexico promised to reduce 20 % of its GHG emissions by 2020 and 50 % by 2050 , as well as in the Paris Agreement . 19 % of the this new mitigation plan will be dedicated to carbon capture and storage and specifically 10 % to the energetic industry .","qid":"2750","docid":"Carbon_capture_and_storage_in_Mexico","rank":73,"score":89861},{"content":"Title: Carbon footprint Content: A carbon footprint is historically defined as the total set of greenhouse gas emissions caused by an individual , event , organisation , or product , expressed as carbon dioxide equivalent . In most cases , the total carbon footprint can not be exactly calculated because of inadequate knowledge of and data about the complex interactions between contributing processes , especially which including the influence on natural processes storing or releasing carbon dioxide . For this reason , Wright , Kemp , and Williams , have suggested to define the carbon footprint as : A measure of the total amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and methane ( CH4 ) emissions of a defined population , system or activity , considering all relevant sources , sinks and storage within the spatial and temporal boundary of the population , system or activity of interest . Calculated as carbon dioxide equivalent using the relevant 100-year global warming potential ( GWP100 ) . Greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) can be emitted through land clearance and the production and consumption of food , fuels , manufactured goods , materials , wood , roads , buildings , transportation and other services . For simplicity of reporting , it is often expressed in terms of the amount of carbon dioxide , or its equivalent of other GHGs , emitted . Most of the carbon footprint emissions for the average U.S. household come from `` indirect '' sources , i.e. fuel burned to produce goods far away from the final consumer . These are distinguished from emissions which come from burning fuel directly in one 's car or stove , commonly referred to as `` direct '' sources of the consumer 's carbon footprint . The concept name of the carbon footprint originates from ecological footprint , discussion , which was developed by Rees and Wackernagel in the 1990s which estimates the number of `` earths '' that would theoretically be required if everyone on the planet consumed resources at the same level as the person calculating their ecological footprint . However , given that ecological footprints are a measure of failure , Anindita Mitra ( CREA , Seattle ) chose the more easily calculated `` carbon footprint '' to easily measure use of carbon , as an indicator of unsustainable energy use . In 2007 , carbon footprint was used as a measure of carbon emissions to develop the energy plan for City of Lynnwood , Washington . Carbon footprints are much more specific than ecological footprints since they measure direct emissions of gases that cause climate change into the atmosphere . Carbon footprint is one of a family of footprint indicators , which also includes water footprint and land footprint .","qid":"2750","docid":"Carbon_footprint","rank":74,"score":89688},{"content":"Title: Fugitive emissions Content: Fugitive emissions are emissions of gases or vapors from pressurized equipment due to leaks and other unintended or irregular releases of gases , mostly from industrial activities . As well as the economic cost of lost commodities , fugitive emissions contribute to air pollution and climate change . A detailed inventory of greenhouse gas emissions from upstream oil and gas activities in Canada for the year 2000 estimated that fugitive equipment leaks had a global warming potential equivalent to the release of 17 million metric tonnes of carbon dioxide , or 12 per cent of all greenhouse gases emitted by the sector . Venting of natural gas , flaring , accidental releases and storage losses accounted for an additional 38 per cent . Fugitive emissions present other risks and hazards . Emissions of volatile organic compounds such as benzene from oil refineries and chemical plants pose a long term health risk to workers and local communities . In situations where large amounts of flammable liquids and gases are contained under pressure , leaks also increase the risk of fire and explosion . Leaks from pressurized process equipment generally occur through valves , pipe connections , mechanical seals , or related equipment . Fugitive emissions also occur at evaporative sources such as waste water treatment ponds and storage tanks . Because of the huge number of potential leak sources at large industrial facilities and the difficulties in detecting and repairing some leaks , fugitive emissions can be a significant proportion of total emissions . Though the quantities of leaked gases may be small , gases that have serious health or environmental impacts can cause a significant problem . To minimize and control leaks at process facilities operators carry out regular leak detection and repair activities . Routine inspections of process equipment with gas detectors can be used to identify leaks and estimate the leak rate in order to decide on appropriate corrective action . Proper routine maintenance of equipment reduces the likelihood of leaks . Because of the technical difficulties and costs of detecting and quantifying actual fugitive emissions at a site or facility , and the variability and intermittent nature of emission flow rates , bottom-up estimates based on standard emission factors are generally used for annual reporting purposes . New technologies are under development that could revolutionize the detection and monitoring of fugitive emissions . One technology , known as differential absorption lidar ( DIAL ) , can be used to remotely measure concentration profiles of hydrocarbons in the atmosphere up to several hundred meters from a facility . DIAL has been used for refinery surveys in Europe for over 15 years . A pilot study carried out in 2005 using DIAL found that actual emissions at a refinery were fifteen times higher than those previously reported using the emission factor approach . The fugitive emissions were equivalent to 0.17 % of the refinery throughput . Portable gas leak imaging cameras are also a new technology that can be used to improve leak detection and repair , leading to reduced fugitive emissions . The cameras use infrared imaging technology to produce video images in which invisible gases escaping from leak sources can be clearly identified .","qid":"2750","docid":"Fugitive_emissions","rank":75,"score":89347},{"content":"Title: Low-carbon diet Content: A low-carbon diet refers to making lifestyle choices to reduce the greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGe ) resulting from consumption decisions . It is estimated that the U.S. food system is responsible for at least 20 percent of U.S. greenhouse gases . This estimate may be low , as it counts only direct sources of GHGe . Indirect sources , such as demand for products from other countries , are often not counted . A low-carbon diet minimizes the emissions released from the production , packaging , processing , transport , preparation and waste of food . Major tenets of a low-carbon diet include eating less industrial meat and dairy , eating less industrially produced food in general , eating food grown locally and seasonally , eating less processed and packaged foods and reducing waste from food by proper portion size , recycling or composting .","qid":"2750","docid":"Low-carbon_diet","rank":76,"score":89299},{"content":"Title: Chinese national carbon trading scheme Content: The Chinese national carbon trading scheme is a cap and trade system for carbon dioxide emissions set to be implemented in July 2017 . This emission trading scheme ( ETS ) creates a carbon market where emitters can buy and sell emission credits . From this scheme , China can limit emissions , but allow economic freedom for emitters to reduce emissions or purchase emission allowances from other emitters . China is currently the largest emitter of greenhouse gases and many major Chinese cities have severe air pollution . With this plan , China will soon be the largest market in carbon trading . The scheme will limit emissions from six of China 's top carbon dioxide emitting industries , including coal-fired power plants . China was able to gain experience in drafting and implementation of an ETS plan from the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , where China was part of the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) . From this experience with carbon markets , and lengthy discussions with the next largest carbon market , the European Union ( EU ) , as well as analysis of small scale pilot markets in major Chinese cities and provinces , China 's national ETS will be the largest of its kind and will help China achieve its Intended Nationally Determined Contribution ( INDC ) from the Paris Agreement in 2016 .","qid":"2750","docid":"Chinese_national_carbon_trading_scheme","rank":77,"score":89226},{"content":"Title: CarboNZero programme Content: The carboNZero programme and CEMARS programme are the world 's first internationally accredited greenhouse gas ( GHG ) certification schemes under ISO 14065 . They provide tools for organisations , products , services and events to measure and reduce their greenhouse gas emissions ( otherwise known as carbon footprint ) , and optionally offset it . The programmes are owned and operated by Enviro-Mark Solutions Limited , a wholly owned subsidiary of Landcare Research ( 100 % NZ government-owned ) .","qid":"2750","docid":"CarboNZero_programme","rank":78,"score":89142},{"content":"Title: Christine Wiedinmyer Content: Christine Wiedinmyer is a research scientist in the Atmospheric Chemistry Division of the National Center for Atmospheric Research . She has a Ph.D. in Chemical Engineering from the University of Texas at Austin . Wiedinmyer developed the Fire INventory from NCAR ( FINN ) , `` a high resolution global fire emissions model now used by local , regional , and global chemical modelers to better quantify the impacts of fire emissions on atmospheric composition , both in hindsight and forecast model applications . '' She used the model to estimate that the 2010 Russian wildfires liberated 22 teragrams of highly toxic carbon monoxide , though this amount was less than the cumulative carbon monoxide emissions of 2012 and 2003 . Wiedinmyer discovered that in the long run , controlled burning of forests will produce up to sixty percent less carbon dioxide emissions compared to the full-fledged wildfires they prevented . Undergrowth will be destroyed by the controlled burns while carbon-rich mature trees survive . Without removing the undergrowth , wildfires can quickly escalate out of control using the undergrowth as fuel , and then burn down mature trees as well . Wiedinmyer is also a co-founder of the Earth Science Women 's Network .","qid":"2750","docid":"Christine_Wiedinmyer","rank":79,"score":88808},{"content":"Title: PopOffsets Content: PopOffsets is a web-based , carbon offsetting project of Population Matters , ( formerly known as the Optimum Population Trust ) , a charity devoted to offsetting CO2 emissions by enabling individuals and organisations to fund rights-based family planning schemes , health programs , relationship and sex education worldwide .","qid":"2750","docid":"PopOffsets","rank":80,"score":88615},{"content":"Title: ECOCITIES (software) Content: All member states of the European Union are bound to decrease their greenhouse gas emissions . For example , the EU climate and energy package requires member states to improve their energy efficiency by 20 % , increase - renewable energy production by 20 % and reduce their emissions by 20 % . With about 40 % of CO2 emissions heating , cooling and hot water production in buildings is one of the largest greenhouse gas producers . At the same time the building sector has the largest potential for energy savings . In their effort to lead a change towards greater energy efficiency and a reduction of greenhouse gas , many companies , cities and municipalities are in the process of developing low carbon action plans . However , the costs for developing optimal action plans and their continuous monitoring and optimization are very high , thus , often hindered by the tense financial situation , especially of cities and municipalities . With significant economic and environmental downsides ; the consequences are additional costs due to the non-compliance to the national and EU emission goals and untapped energy saving potential . ECOCITIES is an energy optimization system for building portfolios combining and extending the benefits of Energy Management Software ( EMS ) , Computer-aided Facility Management ( CAFM ) software and building portfolio management software . It integrates building administration and monitoring , energy accounting and building portfolio optimization . Thereby , it supports the definition of low carbon action plans in terms of environmental impact ( e.g. , carbon footprint , energy efficiency ) and financial impact ( e.g. , investment costs , running , costs ) . The system considers the following options for each building and the resulting ( inter - ) dependencies : energy-efficient building configurations ( e.g. , the compatibility of building components and its contribution to the energy efficiency level ) , energy used at the production and distribution of building components ( i.e. , gray energy ) , environmental impact ( e.g. , CO2 emissions ) , financial constraints , such as ( governmental ) funding and limited long term loans , legal constraints , e.g. , building codes , national and international standards , energy consumption for the operation of buildings , i.e. , heating , ventilation , and air conditioning ( HVAC ) as well as the electricity demand , energy production , storage and load shifting between buildings in combination with renewable energy production ( solar PV and thermal , Micro combined heat and power ) and conversion . energy flows between a building 's on-site networks ( Heating/Cooling and low voltage networks ) , the micro networks on neighborhood level and the city-wide energy networks ( district heating and district cooling networks , mid-voltage distribution networks ) , local typology ( position of buildings , energy networks ) . ECOCITIES calculates all energy - and cost-efficient development scenarios , visualizes them on the screen and allows decision makers to interactively explore the consequences of their actions ( e.g. , what are the citywide costs and the corresponding CO2 reductions of introducing a neighborhood-scale combined heat and power plant ) . ECOCITIES is an enabler for the realization of energy goals and provides synergies with existing endeavors of achieving national and European energy goals . On an operational level , ECOCITIES supports the following processes : Administration and integrated optimization of the entire building portfolio . Energy accounting and monitoring for all buildings . Identification , evaluation and definition of energy efficiency strategies ( low carbon action plans ) . Continuous monitoring , review and optimization of energy efficiency strategies ( low carbon action plans ) . Ensure the alignment of individual initiatives with the overall energy strategy of the company/city , e.g. , planning the cost - and energy efficient integration of new or refurbished single buildings , groups of buildings or entire neighborhoods into a new or existing energy efficiency strategy . Continuous monitoring of the performance related to the contribution to national and European energy goals .","qid":"2750","docid":"ECOCITIES_(software)","rank":81,"score":88583},{"content":"Title: Under2 MOU Content: The Under2 MOU is a memorandum of understanding between subnational governments that aims to achieve greenhouse gases emissions mitigation . The memorandum was signed by twelve founding jurisdictions on May 19 , 2015 in Sacramento , California . As of December 10 , 2016 , the list of signatories has grown to 165 jurisdictions which combined encompasses 1 billion people and one third of the world economy . The Under2 MOU was conceived through a partnership between the governments of California and Baden-Wurttemberg .","qid":"2750","docid":"Under2_MOU","rank":82,"score":88571},{"content":"Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .","qid":"2750","docid":"Global_warming_potential","rank":83,"score":88157},{"content":"Title: German Climate Action Plan 2050 Content: The German Climate Action Plan 2050 ( Klimaschutzplan 2050 ) is a climate protection policy document approved by the German government on 14November 2016 . The plan outlines measures by which Germany can meet its various national greenhouse gas emissions reduction goals through to 2050 ( see table ) and service its international commitments under the 2016 Paris Climate Agreement . The Federal Ministry for the Environment , Nature Conservation , Building and Nuclear Safety ( BMUB ) , under minister Barbara Hendricks , led the development of the plan . The plan was progressively watered down since a draft was first leaked in 2016 . Projections from the environment ministry in September 2016 indicate that Germany will likely miss its 2020 climate target . The Climate Action Plan2050 should not be confused with an earlier document , the Climate Action Programme2020 ( Aktionsprogramm Klimaschutz ) , approved in December 2014 and which only covers the period until 2020 .","qid":"2750","docid":"German_Climate_Action_Plan_2050","rank":84,"score":87947},{"content":"Title: America's Climate Security Act of 2007 Content: The America 's Climate Security Act of 2007 was a global warming bill that was considered by the United States Senate to reduce the amount of greenhouse gases emitted in the United States . Also known as the Lieberman-Warner bill , bill number , the legislation was introduced by Sens. Joseph Lieberman ( I-CT ) and John Warner ( R-VA ) on October 18 , 2007 . The bill was approved by the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works in December 2007 , and was debated in the Senate during the week of June 2 . The bill would create a national cap-and-trade scheme for greenhouse gas emissions , in which polluters would mostly be allocated right-to-emit credits based on how much greenhouse gas they currently emit . The cap would get tighter over time , until by 2050 , emissions would be reduced to 63 % below 2005 levels . Several environmental groups express their encouragement at the progress in legislation on the global warming issue while at the same time expressing disappointment that the bill does n't reduce emissions enough . On June 6 , 2008 , the bill was killed by Senate Republicans over worries that it would damage the economy .","qid":"2750","docid":"America's_Climate_Security_Act_of_2007","rank":85,"score":87903},{"content":"Title: Emissions Trading Registry Content: An Emissions Trading Registry is a web-based application that records : CO2 allowances and units allocated to and held in operator , person and Government accounts The movement of allowances and units between accounts ( including allocations , transfers , surrender and cancellations ) Annual verified emissions of installations Annual compliance status of installations . An account holder can therefore hold , transfer , cancel or acquire EU Allowances ( EUAs ) and Kyoto units ( e.g. CERs , ERUs , AAUs , RMUs , tCERs and lCERs ) . Further details regarding each of these unit types can be found in A Guide to Using Kyoto Units in the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme , available on the Environment Agency 's website . In addition , regulators and nominated competent authorities can manage regulated industries ( those with legal emissions reduction targets ) , and monitor national compliance and performance against international emissions reductions obligations . Computerised registries are key components of the EU Emissions Trading System ( EU ETS ) and wider international emissions trading under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 's ( UNFCCC 's ) Kyoto Protocol . Under Directive 2003/87/EC , EU Member States were required to put in place a standardised , electronic national registry from 2005 , whilst Parties to the Kyoto Protocol were required to put in place a national registry to allow international emissions trading from 2008 . The functional requirements of the Registry are determined by the European Commission ( through the Registry Regulations ) and the UNFCCC secretariat ( through various COP / MOP decisions ) . All national registries are connected directly to the UNFCCC 's International Transaction Log ( ITL ) . This transaction log is responsible for checking all transactions to ensure they adhere to the rules of international emissions trading under the Kyoto Protocol . The ITL also has a link to the EC 's Community Independent Transaction Log ( CITL ) . This transaction log is responsible for checking all transactions to ensure that they adhere to the rules of the EU ETS .","qid":"2750","docid":"Emissions_Trading_Registry","rank":86,"score":87563},{"content":"Title: Sustainable Silicon Valley Content: Sustainable Silicon Valley ( SSV ) is a collaboration of businesses , governments , and non-governmental organizations that are identifying and addressing environmental and resource pressures in Silicon Valley . As its first initiative , SSV engaged Valley organizations , who are the SSV Partners , to work towards a goal of reducing regional carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) emissions 20 % below 1990 levels by 2010 . The SSV approach to reaching this goal is to facilitate strategies to reduce CO2 emissions through increased energy and fuel efficiency and through the use of renewable sources of energy .","qid":"2750","docid":"Sustainable_Silicon_Valley","rank":87,"score":87460},{"content":"Title: Intended Nationally Determined Contributions Content: Intended Nationally Determined Contributions ( INDCs ) is a term used under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) for reductions in greenhouse gas emissions that all countries that signed the UNFCCC were asked to publish in the lead up to the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference held in Paris , France in December 2015 . These intended contributions were determined without prejudice to the legal nature of the contributions . The term was intended as a compromise between `` quantified emissions limitation and reduction objective '' ( QUELROs ) and `` nationally appropriate mitigation actions '' ( NAMAs ) that the Kyoto Protocol used to describe the different legal obligations of developed and developing countries . Under the Paris Agreement , adopted in December 2015 , the INDC will become the first Nationally Determined Contribution when a country ratifies the agreement , unless they decide to submit a new NDC at the same time . Once the Paris Agreement is ratified , the NDC will become the first greenhouse gas targets under the UNFCCC that applied equally to both developed and developing countries . On 3 August 2016 China and US ratified 2015 agreement on INDC . Together they both constitute 38 % of total global emission , with China 's alone emitting total of 20 % . India that has a Global share of GHGs emission at 4.1 % of that of world ratified Paris climate agreement on October 2 , 2016 by depositing the Instrument of ratification with the United nations .","qid":"2750","docid":"Intended_Nationally_Determined_Contributions","rank":88,"score":87419},{"content":"Title: Carbon capture and storage in Australia Content: Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) is an approach to mitigate global warming by capturing carbon dioxide from large point sources such as fossil fuel power plants and storing it instead of releasing it into the atmosphere . Carbon capture and storage is also used for Enhanced Oil Recovery to increase yield from declining oil fields , and for storage of from natural gas fields . No coal-fired power station in Australia has CCS of . CCS is proven technology but is not yet commercially viable for reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from coal-fired power stations . Without an economic driver such as a high carbon price or revenue from Enhanced Oil Recovery CCS is not expected to be commercially viable until at least 2020 . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until 2100 . In the 2015 budget , the Abbott Government cut $ 460m from CCS research projects leaving $ 191.7 m to continue existing projects for the next seven years . The program had already been cut by the previous Labor government and much of the funding remained unallocated .","qid":"2750","docid":"Carbon_capture_and_storage_in_Australia","rank":89,"score":86975},{"content":"Title: Open Carbon World Content: Open Carbon World is the first full-service carbon planning Web site dedicated to the promotion of market-based solutions to greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions reductions . The site is an open access community with the goal of helping companies establish clear policies towards reducing carbon emissions . Open Carbon World provides a convenient , single resource for carbon information and policy discussions . It offers up-to-date , accurate information on emissions trading and carbon markets and serves as a forum for members of the carbon community interested in driving market-based emissions reduction policy . Like Wikipedia , Open Carbon World is predicated on the idea of open access , enabling anyone to submit content and events to the Web site . An editorial board drawn from key industry participants oversees the veracity and quality of all information contributed to the portal .","qid":"2750","docid":"Open_Carbon_World","rank":90,"score":86843},{"content":"Title: List of global sustainability statistics Content: Site under development - please add to this list where appropriate Global sustainability statistics are benchmarks for measuring the status of sustainability parameters . The following agencies provide baseline data for sustainability governance . They are just one form of data used for sustainability accounting and are valuable for assessing trends and measuring progress . This list provides sources of statistics at the global level of governance only . General lists Meadows , D.H. , Randers , J. & Meadows , D.L. 2004 . Limits to growth : the 30-year update . Chelsea Green Publishing Company , White River Junction , USA . The CIAs World Fact Book World Data Center United Nations Environmental Indicators Also publications on environmental statistics and statistical methods . Water ( water resources , water supply industry , waste water ) Air pollution ( SO2 & NOx ) , Climate change ( greenhouse gas emissions ; by sector ( absolute & percentage ) ; CO2 emissions ; CH4 & N2O emissions ) Waste ( municipal waste collection , treatment , hazardous waste ) Land use ( total land area by country , forest area by country , agricultural area by country ) . European Commission ( Eurostat ) Biodiversity Groombridge , B & Jenkins , M.D. 2002 . World Atlas of Biodiversity . UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre . Energy BP Statistical Review of World Energy The International Energy Agency . Key World Energy Statistics UN Energy Statistics Database Fisheries UN Food and Agriculture Organisation . Forests UN Food and Agriculture Organisation . Fertilizer International Fertilizer Industry Association Food and agriculture UN Food and Agriculture Organisation . FAOSTAT Population United Nations Population Division United Nations Database Population Reference Bureau American Association for Advancement of Science Water International Water Management Institute Stockholm International Water Institute United Nations Environmental Program Global Runoff Data Centre","qid":"2750","docid":"List_of_global_sustainability_statistics","rank":91,"score":86736},{"content":"Title: Earth 2100 Content: Earth 2100 is a television program that was presented by the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) network on June 2 , 2009 and was aired on the History Channel in January 2010 and was shown through the year . Hosted by ABC journalist Bob Woodruff , the two-hour special explored what `` a worst-case '' future might look like if humans do not take action on current or impending problems that could threaten civilization . The problems addressed in the program include current climate change , overpopulation , and misuse of energy resources . The events following the life of a fictitious storyteller , `` Lucy '' ( told through the use of motion comics , or limited animation ) , as she describes how the events affect her life . The program included predictions of a dystopian Earth in the years 2015 , 2030 , 2050 , 2085 , and 2100 by scientists , historians , social anthropologists , and economists , including Jared Diamond , Thomas Homer-Dixon , Peter Gleick , James Howard Kunstler , Heidi Cullen , Alex Steffen and Joseph Tainter . It ended with a quote from writer Alex Steffen , saying `` Kids born today will see us navigate past the first greatest test of humanity , which is : can we actually be smart enough to live on a planet without destroying it ? '' According to Executive Producer Michael Bicks , `` this program was developed to show the worst-case scenario for human civilization . Again , we are not saying that these events will happen -- rather , that if we fail to seriously address the complex problems of climate change , resource depletion and overpopulation , they are much more likely to happen . ''","qid":"2750","docid":"Earth_2100","rank":92,"score":86688},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .","qid":"2750","docid":"Greenhouse_gas","rank":93,"score":86580},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide removal Content: Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions .","qid":"2750","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_removal","rank":94,"score":86469},{"content":"Title: Carbon monitoring Content: Carbon monitoring refers to tracking how much carbon dioxide or methane is produced by particular activity at a particular point in time . For example , it may refer to tracking methane emissions from agriculture , or carbon dioxide emissions from land use changes , such as deforestation , or from burning fossil fuels , whether in a power plant , automobile , or other device . Because carbon dioxide is the greenhouse gas emitted in the largest quantities , and methane is an even more potent greenhouse gas , monitoring carbon emissions is widely seen as crucial to any effort to reduce emissions and thereby slow climate change . Monitoring carbon emissions is key to the cap-and-trade program currently being used in Europe , as well as the one in California , and will be necessary for any such program in the future , like the Paris Agreement . The lack of reliable sources of consistent data on carbon emissions is a significant barrier to efforts to reduce emissions .","qid":"2750","docid":"Carbon_monitoring","rank":95,"score":86380},{"content":"Title: Climate change mitigation Content: Climate change mitigation consists of actions to limit the magnitude or rate of long-term climate change . Climate change mitigation generally involves reductions in human ( anthropogenic ) emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) . Mitigation may also be achieved by increasing the capacity of carbon sinks , e.g. , through reforestation . Mitigation policies can substantially reduce the risks associated with human-induced global warming . According to the IPCC 's 2014 assessment report , `` Mitigation is a public good ; climate change is a case of the ` tragedy of the commons . Effective climate change mitigation will not be achieved if each agent ( individual , institution or country ) acts independently in its own selfish interest ( see international cooperation and emissions trading ) , suggesting the need for collective action . Some adaptation actions , on the other hand , have characteristics of a private good as benefits of actions may accrue more directly to the individuals , regions , or countries that undertake them , at least in the short term . Nevertheless , financing such adaptive activities remains an issue , particularly for poor individuals and countries . '' Examples of mitigation include phasing out fossil fuels by switching to low-carbon energy sources , such as renewable and nuclear energy , and expanding forests and other `` sinks '' to remove greater amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Energy efficiency may also play a role , for example , through improving the insulation of buildings . Another approach to climate change mitigation is climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to stabilize atmospheric concentrations of GHGs at a level that would prevent dangerous human interference of the climate system . Scientific analysis can provide information on the impacts of climate change , but deciding which impacts are dangerous requires value judgments . In 2010 , Parties to the UNFCCC agreed that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) relative to the pre-industrial level . With the Paris Agreement of 2015 this was confirmed , but was revised with a new target laying down `` parties will do the best '' to achieve warming below 1.5 ° C . The current trajectory of global greenhouse gas emissions does not appear to be consistent with limiting global warming to below 1.5 or 2 ° C . Other mitigation policies have been proposed , some of which are more stringent or modest than the 2 ° C limit .","qid":"2750","docid":"Climate_change_mitigation","rank":96,"score":85848},{"content":"Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .","qid":"2750","docid":"Carbon_rift","rank":97,"score":85840},{"content":"Title: Five Ways to Save the World Content: Five Ways to Save the World is a British documentary film on environmental issues related to climate change , released in 2006 . The film was made by Karen O'Connor , for the big screen and was shot in the English language to reach an international audience . It includes interviews with five environmental scientists and experts including Paul Crutzen , James Roger Angel , John Latham , Ian Jones , and Klaus Lackner . The `` five ways '' proposed are geoengineering techniques : space lenses in orbit , to diffract sunlight away from the earth cloud seeding with seawater to increase albedo sulfur launched into the stratosphere to increase albedo ocean fertilization with iron or urea ( nitrogen fertilizer ) artificial trees ( see carbon capture and sequestration ) Since the first three methods do not remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , they would only reduce global warming but not ocean acidification . Since the last two methods would remove carbon dioxide , they could in theory reduce both global warming and ocean acidification .","qid":"2750","docid":"Five_Ways_to_Save_the_World","rank":98,"score":85804},{"content":"Title: Territorialisation of carbon governance Content: Territorialisation of Carbon Governance ( ToCG ) is a concept used in political geography or environmental policy which is considered to be a new logic of environmental governance . This method creates carbon-relevant citizens who become enrolled in the process of governing the climate . The territorialisation of carbon governance transforms climate change from a global to local issue . It embodies political practices that serve to connect the causes and consequences of global climate change to local communities . The commitment to reducing greenhouse gas emissions ( GHG ) has been a key component of sustainability within governance since the early 1990s . The ICLEI - Local Governments for Sustainability is an international association of local governments which brings together 1200 cities , towns and the associated 70 countries in their commitment to sustainable development . Further responses that seek to address these issues , include international body the IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , the Rio Earth Summit and United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . These organisations strive to tackle anthropogenic forces which are increasing risks of global warming . Under the territorialisation of carbon , climate and global flows of carbon are regarded as ` national sinks ' . This is a means by which the carbon cycle can be managed and territorialised through being assigned to a physical geographical space instead of being thought of as a global phenomenon . The act of territorialisation oversees the combining of material natures and state institutions into one system through the creation of carbon territories . This approach can allow individual states and governments to control and monitor their carbon emissions in order to improve their efforts in carbon governance . Carbon governance can be interpreted as the institutional arrangements under which greenhouse gas emissions are addressed and mitigated . This is achieved through regulating and controlling carbon activities . Measures and protocols exist in an attempt to address the issues surrounding greenhouse gas emissions . Carbon governance is addressed via governmental decisions made through leadership and management which attempt to improve and resolve problems related to climate change .","qid":"2750","docid":"Territorialisation_of_carbon_governance","rank":99,"score":85775},{"content":"Title: Chicago Climate Exchange Content: The Chicago Climate Exchange ( CCX ) was North America 's only voluntary , legally binding greenhouse gas ( GHG ) reduction and trading system for emission sources and offset projects in North America and Brazil . CCX employed independent verification , included six greenhouse gases , and traded greenhouse gas emission allowances from 2003 to 2010 . The companies joining the exchange committed to reducing their aggregate emissions by 6 % by 2010 . CCX had an aggregate baseline of 680 million metric tons of CO2 equivalent . CCX ceased trading carbon credits at the end of 2010 due to inactivity in the U.S. carbon markets , although carbon exchanges were intended to still be facilitated .","qid":"2750","docid":"Chicago_Climate_Exchange","rank":100,"score":85624}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_diet\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 126886\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 Content: The Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 - a bill to amend the Clean Air Act to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide , and for other purposes . It was proposed in the 110th United States Congress by Senators Bernie Sanders ( I-VT ) and Barbara Boxer ( D-CA ) on January 15 , 2007 . It was referred to the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works . The measure was intended to increase performance standards for electricity generation and motor vehicles with the option of an emissions `` cap and trade '' system . The emissions cap would begin in 2010 with the aim of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 15 percent by 2020 and 83 percent by 2050 . The legislation would also provide funding for R&D on geologic sequestration of carbon dioxide , among other projects ; set emissions standards for new vehicles and a renewable fuels requirement for gasoline beginning in 2016 ; establish energy efficiency and renewable portfolio standards beginning in 2008 and low-carbon electric generation standards beginning in 2016 for electric utilities ; and require periodic evaluations by the National Academy of Sciences to determine whether emissions targets are adequate .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Warming_Pollution_Reduction_Act_of_2007\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 123416\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 114983\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Low-carbon_emission\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 111844\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 111008\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: California Senate Bill 32 Content: The California Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 : emissions limit , or SB-32 , is a California Senate bill expanding upon AB-32 to reduce greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions . The lead author is Senator Fran Pavley and the principal co-author is Assemblymember Eduardo Garcia . SB-32 was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 , by Governor Edmund Gerald `` Jerry '' Brown Jr. . SB-32 sets into law the mandated reduction target in GHG emissions as written into Executive Order B-30-15 . The Senate bill requires that there be a reduction in GHG emissions to 40 % below the 1990 levels by 2030 . Greenhouse gas emissions include carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , sulfur hexafluoride , hydrofluorocarbons , and perfluorocarbons . The California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) is responsible for ensuring that California meets this goal . The provisions of SB-32 were added to Section 38566 of the Health and Safety Code subsequent to the bill 's approval . The bill goes into effect January 1 , 2017 . SB-32 builds onto Assembly Bill ( AB ) 32 written by Senator Fran Pavley and Assembly Speaker Fabian Nunez passed into law on September 27 , 2006 . AB-32 required California to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by 2020 and SB-32 continues that timeline to reach the targets set in Executive Order B-30-15 . SB-32 provides another intermediate target between the 2020 and 2050 targets set in Executive Order S-3-05 . SB-32 was contingent on the passing of AB-197 , which increases legislative oversight of CARB and is intended to ensure CARB must report to the Legislature . AB-197 also passed and was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"California_Senate_Bill_32\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 107718\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 106664\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Plan Bay Area Content: Plan Bay Area 2040 is a state-mandated law that aims to integrate sustainable strategies to reduce transportation-related pollution and external greenhouse gas emission within the nine-counties of the San Francisco Bay Area . It is also known as the implementation of the Sustainable Communities and Climate Protection Act of 2008 or SB 375 . The plan addresses methods of transportation , land-use , and housing . Over the next 25 years , the Bay Area is expected to grow by an estimated 2 million people and because of the projected growth and the growing economy , the Bay Area must provide more housing and transportation choices that will reduce their carbon footprint . This adopted plan will invest in increasing methods of transportation with the goal of reducing CO2 emissions . To do so , the plan will invest in extending ferry services , freeway express lanes , and developing newer BART Stations to expand travel reach . The goal of this plan is to improve on their earlier efforts of network and growth within the context of finance and environmental responsibility . Like all plans , it is a work in progress that is updated every four years to reflect on new priorities and changes with the goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . The plan was approved on July 18 , 2013 by the Association of Bay Area Governments and by the Metropolitan Transportation Commission . The adoption of the plan by regional planners was covered by the San Francisco Chronicle .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Plan_Bay_Area\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 105921\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Low-carbon_economy\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 105362\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon price Content: Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' . Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain . The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions . The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_price\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 105296\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Carbon_Project\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 105216\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 104967\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cool Earth 50 Content: Cool Earth 50 ( also known as Cool Earth ) is a plan developed by Japan to reduce global CO2 emissions 50 % by 2050 , which was discussed at the 34th G8 summit . Cool Earth 50 is planned to be a framework that would continue towards the goals set forth in the Kyoto Protocols . This plan includes three proposals : a long-term strategy , a mid-term strategy and launching a national campaign for achieving the Kyoto Protocol Target . The plan was first proposed on May 24 , 2007 at an international conference called Asian Future and was initiated by Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe . The program 's goal is to reduce current global green house emissions by 50 % by the year 2050 the . The goal of reduction was aimed particular towards the largest green house emitting countries The United States , China , Japan , and India . Also , for the major green house emitters to create a frame work for reduction . Cool Earth aims at reducing green house emissions by improve technology in energy fields . A large goal of Cool Earth is to promote economic prosperity through green technology and to encourage political stability domestically and internationally .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Cool_Earth_50\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 103277\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon Neutral Cities Alliance Content: The Carbon Neutral Cities Alliance ( CNCA or `` Alliance '' ) is a collaboration of leading global cities working to cut greenhouse gas emissions by 80 % or more by 2050 or sooner ( `` 80x50 '' ) -- the most aggressive greenhouse gas reduction targets undertaken by any cities across the globe . The Alliance aims to address what it will take for leading international cities to achieve these deep emissions reductions and how they can work together to meet their respective goals more efficiently and effectively .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_Neutral_Cities_Alliance\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 102156\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"350.org\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 101786\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kyoto Protocol Content: The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , based on the fact that ( a ) global warming exists and ( b ) human-made CO2 emissions have caused it . The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto , Japan , on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005 . There are currently 192 parties ( Canada withdrew effective December 2012 ) to the Protocol . The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to `` a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' ( Art. 2 ) . The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities : it puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . The Protocol 's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012 . A second commitment period was agreed on in 2012 , known as the Doha Amendment to the protocol , in which 37 countries have binding targets : Australia , the European Union ( and its 28 member states ) , Belarus , Iceland , Kazakhstan , Liechtenstein , Norway , Switzerland , and Ukraine . Belarus , Kazakhstan and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets . Japan , New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyoto 's first-round but have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period . Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada ( which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012 ) and the United States ( which has not ratified the Protocol ) . As of July 2016 , 66 states have accepted the Doha Amendment , while entry into force requires the acceptances of 144 states . Of the 37 countries with binding commitments , 7 have ratified . Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ends in 2020 . This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the Paris Agreement , which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto protocol .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Kyoto_Protocol\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 101719\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 101092\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sustainable automotive air conditioning Content: Sustainable automotive air conditioning is the subject of a debate -- nicknamed the Cool War -- about the next-generation refrigerant in car air conditioning . The Alliance for CO2 Solutions supports the uptake of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) as a refrigerant in passenger cars , and the chemical industry is developing new chemical blends . The Alliance and its supporters -- scientists , NGOs and business leaders -- urge the car industry to replace high global warming chemical substances with the natural refrigerant carbon dioxide ( CO2 , R744 / R-744 ) in car cooling and heating . This , they argue , would lead to 10 % less car emissions , and knock out 1 % of total greenhouse gas emissions worldwide . If CO2 Technology is applied in other sectors , such as commercial and industrial refrigeration , heat pumps for water heating etc. , it may even save up to 3 % of the world 's greenhouse gases . Opponents of the Alliance claim that CO2 Technology is not cost-efficient and safe , hence seeking to postpone the global industry decision to be taken to develop new chemical blends instead .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Sustainable_automotive_air_conditioning\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 101013\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon emissions reporting Content: Human activities continue to impact Earth 's climate through the emission of greenhouse gases . One of the proposed ways to combat this climate change is through reporting by businesses on the impact of their activities . Large power stations and manufacturing plants are often required to report their emissions to appropriate government entities , for example to the European Union as part of the Emissions Trading System or to the US EPA as part of the Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program . In the United Kingdom , Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra ) has described climate change as the `` greatest environmental challenge facing the world today , '' and it is now a legal requirement for all quoted companies to report their annual greenhouse gas emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_emissions_reporting\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 100963\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in China Content: The position of the Chinese government on climate change is contentious . China has ratified the Kyoto Protocol , but as a non-Annex I country which is not required to limit greenhouse gas emissions under terms of the agreement . In particular since 2007 the Chinese government has n't changed its attitude towards climate change policy and has become one of the major drivers of low-carbon technology developments . In 2002 , on the basis of an analysis of fossil fuel consumption ( including especially the coal power plants ) and cement production data , that China surpassed the United States as the world 's largest emitter of carbon dioxide , putting out 7,000 million tonnes , in comparison with America 's 5,800 million . According to data from the US Energy Information Administration China was the top emitter by fossil fuels CO2 in 2009 China : 7,710 million tonnes ( mt ) ( 25.4 % ) ahead of US : 5,420 mt ( 17.8 % ) , India : 5.3 % , Russia : 5.2 % and Japan : 3.6 % . China was also the top emitter of all greenhouse gas emissions including building and deforestation in 2005 : China : 7,220 mt ( 16.4 % ) , US : 6,930 mt ( 15.7 % ) , 3 . Brazil 6.5 % , 4 . Indonesia : 4.6 % , 5 . Russia 4.6 % , 6 . India 4.2 % , 7 . Japan 3.1 % , 8 . Germany 2.3 % , 9 . Canada 1.8 % , and 10 . Mexico 1.6 % . In the cumulative emissions between 1850 and 2007 the top emitters were : 1 . US 28.8 % 2 . China : 9.0 % , 3 . Russia 8.0 % , 4 . Germany 6.9 % , 5 . UK 5.8 % , 6 . Japan 3.9 % , 7 . France 2.8 % , 8 . India 2.4 % , 9 . Canada 2.2 % and 10 . Ukraine 2.2 % . According to BBC News , in September 2014 , China surpassed the European Union 's per capita carbon emissions for the first time in history . China 's per capita carbon emissions now stand at 7.2 t/capita . China 's carbon emissions have increased rapidly since its economic boom in the early 2000s . Since then , their per capita carbon emissions have increased by more than 2.5 times .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_China\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 100478\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental impact of transport Content: The environmental impact of transport is significant because it is a major user of energy , and burns most of the world 's petroleum . This creates air pollution , including nitrous oxides and particulates , and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon dioxide , for sector . By subsector , road transport is the largest contributor to global warming . Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced the individual vehicle 's emission ; however , this has been offset by an increase in the number of vehicles , and more use of each vehicle . Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road vehicles considerably have been studied . Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes , causing environmentalists to call for a transition from air and road to rail and human-powered transport , and increase transport electrification and energy efficiency . The transportation sector is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) in the United States . An estimated 30 percent of national GHGs are directly attributable to transportation -- and in some regions , the proportion is even higher . Transportation methods are the greatest contributing source of GHGs in the U.S. , accounting for 47 percent of the net increase in total U.S. emissions since 1990 . Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urban sprawl , which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands . By reducing transportation emissions globally , it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects on Earth 's air quality , acid rain , smog and climate change . The health impact of transport emissions is also of concern . A recent survey of the studies on the effect of traffic emissions on pregnancy outcomes has linked exposure to emissions to adverse effects on gestational duration and possibly also intrauterine growth . As listed above direct impacts such as noise and carbon monoxide emissions create direct and harmful effects on the environment , along with indirect impacts . The indirect impacts are often of higher consequence which leads to the misconception that it 's the opposite since it is frequently understood that initial effects cause the most damage . For example , particulates which are the outcome of incomplete combustion done by an internal combustion engine , are not linked with respiratory and cardiovascular problems since they contribute to other factors not only to that specific condition . Even though the environmental impacts are usually listed individually there are also cumulative impacts . The synergetic consequences of transport activities . They take into account of the varied effects of direct and indirect impacts on an ecosystem . Climate change is the sum total impact of several natural and human-made factors . 15 % of global CO2 emissions are attributed to the transport sector .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_impact_of_transport\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 100178\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: American Electric Power Co. v. Connecticut Content: American Electric Power Company v. Connecticut , , was a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court , in an 8 -- 0 decision , held that corporations can not be sued for greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) under federal common law , primarily because the Clean Air Act ( CAA ) delegates the management of carbon dioxide and other GHG emissions to the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) . Brought to court in July 2004 in the Southern District of New York , this was the first global warming case based on a public nuisance claim .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"American_Electric_Power_Co._v._Connecticut\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 99281\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Content: The Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme ( or CPRS ) was a cap-and-trade emissions trading scheme for anthropogenic greenhouse gases proposed by the Rudd government , as part of its climate change policy , which had been due to commence in Australia in 2010 . It marked a major change in the energy policy of Australia . The policy began to be formulated in April 2007 , when the federal Labor Party was in Opposition and the six Labor-controlled states commissioned an independent review on energy policy , the Garnaut Climate Change Review , which published a number of reports . After Labor won the 2007 federal election and formed government , it published a Green Paper on climate change for discussion and comment . The Federal Treasury then modelled some of the financial and economic impacts of the proposed CPRS scheme . The Rudd government published a final White Paper on 15 December 2008 , and announced that legislation was intended to take effect in July 2010 ; but the legislation for the CPRS ( aka ETS ) failed to gain the numbers in the Senate and was twice rejected creating a double dissolution election trigger . A bitter political debate within the Coalition Opposition saw Opposition leader Malcolm Turnbull lose the leadership to the anti-CPRS Tony Abbott . The Rudd government did not call an election and in April 2010 , Rudd deferred plans for the CPRS . After the 2010 federal election , the Gillard Government was able to get the Carbon Pricing Mechanism ( CPM ) passed into law as part of the Clean Energy Futures Package ( CEF ) in 2011 , and became effective on 1 July 2012 . However , after the 2013 federal election there was a change in government , and the Abbott Government repealed the CEF package on 17 July 2014 . Due to the great deal of policy uncertainty surrounding the scheme , organizations in Australia responded in a rather informal and tepid manner and largely withheld from making any large-scale investments in emissions reductions technology during the scheme 's operation .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_Pollution_Reduction_Scheme\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 99277\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Contribution to global warming by Australia Content: Australia has one of the highest per capita emissions of carbon dioxide in the world , with 0.3 % of the world 's population it produces 1.8 % of the world 's greenhouse gasses . It was 18.3 tonnes per year per person and the 11th highest in the world per capita in 2009 . Australia uses principally coal power ( 70 % ) for electricity , with the remainder mainly gas , with no nuclear , low levels of hydro power , and low , but increasing , levels of solar , wind and wave power .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Contribution_to_global_warming_by_Australia\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 99032\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries ranked by greenhouse-gas emissions per capita in 2000 . It is based on data for carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , perfluorocarbon , hydrofluorocarbon and sulfur hexafluoride emissions compiled by the World Resources Institute ( WRI ) from a variety of sources , including CDIAC and the US Environmental Protection Agency . Bunker-fuel emissions are not included . Two sets of per capita emissions are given , one with an estimate of the effects of land-use change ( for example , cutting down forests ) and one without . The former is based on regional estimates in Houghton ( 2003 ) . Difficulties with determining rates of deforestation and the magnitude of carbon stocks held by the remaining forests and with distributing regional carbon fluxes among individual countries mean that the land-use change components have a large margin of error , perhaps as large as + / -150 % in some cases . They are included here because , although difficult to quantify accurately at a country level , land-use change is a significant contributor to global warming . The WRI estimates that it accounted for almost a fifth of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions in 2000 . For 2005 the data for a large number of countries only includes emissions ( see note 12 . )\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_countries_by_greenhouse_gas_emissions_per_capita\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 98828\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon shifting Content: Carbon shifting is the tendency for an individual to increase carbon dioxide emissions in one area of their lifestyle as a result of reducing emissions elsewhere . ` Carbon shifting ' might more accurately be termed ` domestic carbon shifting ' to distinguish it from carbon leakage which has occasionally also been called carbon shifting . Many attempts to encourage people to change aspects of their lifestyle and so reduce their carbon dioxide emissions make a virtue of the financial savings . In the United Kingdom the Energy Saving Trust lists various ways of saving energy , e.g. `` Energy saving light bulbs last up to 12 times longer than ordinary lightbulbs and can save you # 9 per year in electricity ( and 38 kilograms of ) or # 100 over the bulbs lifetime . '' However , whether or not carbon dioxide emissions are ultimately reduced will depend on how that saved money is spent . If the amount of money saved through walking to work is eventually spent on an extra city break involving air travel the net emissions may well increase . The problem of carbon shifting may undermine many voluntary piecemeal attempts at reducing carbon dioxide emissions . However , carbon shifting is not inherently negative . If a person can be persuaded to avoid activities that produce a high level of emissions for a given financial outlay then they may shift to activities that produce lower emissions for that same amount of money . Positive carbon shifting might be encouraged through the use of a carbon tax or the implementation of a Personal carbon trading scheme . The phenomenon of carbon shifting also suggests that for some comparative purposes the most appropriate measure of emissions would be emissions per unit of currency rather than total emissions . An activity that produces slightly lower emissions at a significantly lower cost may not necessarily be the best activity to promote as it leaves the individual with more money to spend on other emitting activities . Similarly , if two passengers are traveling on the same aircraft they might be deemed to be emitting the same total amount of carbon dioxide . However , if one of them paid a lower fare then , by this measure , they would be deemed to be damaging the environment more .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_shifting\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 98741\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: German response to Kyoto Protocol Content: Germany is Europe 's largest and the world 's 6th greatest single emitter of CO2 . In July 2007 , Germany had the largest European population , with 82.4 million people . Germany imports most of its materials and energy sources , and in 2004 imported 2.135 million barrels of oil and 85.02 billion m ³ ( 2003 ) of natural gas a day . In 2004 , Germany emitted 886 million metric tonnes of CO2 . In 2004 , there were approximately 45 million registered cars in Germany . Between March 1998 and March 1999 , 84 countries including Germany signed the Kyoto Protocol . In March 2002 , the Bundestag unanimously ratified Kyoto . In May 2002 , the European Union submitted the articles of ratification for all 15 of its then member states . As an Annex II nation , Germany 's commitment to the UNFCCC with respect to Kyoto was to reduce emissions as well as to provide an economic crutch to developing nations via Clean Development Mechanisms . In November 2006 , Germany 's planned annual quota was 482 million metric tonnes of CO2 . German Greenhouse Gas Emissions reduced by 17.2 % from 1990 to 2004 , according to UNFCCC . Germany actively promotes government carbon funds and supports multilateral carbon funds that are intent on purchasing Carbon Credits from non-Annex I parties . Government organizations work closely with major utility , energy , oil and gas , and chemicals conglomerates to try to acquire as many Greenhouse Gas Certificates as cheaply as possible . Since signing and ratifying the protocol , Germany has committed to reducing its emissions to 21 % below 1990 levels between 2008 and 2012 . In November 2008 , a study found that Germany had already reduced its greenhouse gas emissions by 22.4 % , which means it already reached its Kyoto Emissions Commitments .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"German_response_to_Kyoto_Protocol\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 98738\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Campus carbon neutrality Content: All across the world , colleges and universities are looking to a sustainable future by working to become carbon neutral . Universities are taking responsibility for their environmental impact and are working to neutralize those effects . To become carbon neutral , universities are working to reduce their emissions of greenhouse gases , cut their use of energy , use more renewable energy , and emphasize the importance of sustainable energy sources . Universities that have committed to becoming carbon neutral have recognized the threat of global warming and are therefore committing to reverse the trend .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Campus_carbon_neutrality\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 98721\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 98661\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_impact_of_aviation\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 98547\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita from 1990 through 2011 . All data was calculated by the US Department of Energy 's Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) , mostly based on data collected from country agencies by the United Nations Statistics Division . Countries are ranked by their metric tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions per capita in 2009 . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use such as deforestation . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The carbon dioxide emissions of a country are only an indicator of one greenhouse gas . For a more complete idea of how a country influences climate change , gases such as methane and nitrous oxide should be taken into account . This is particularly so in agricultural economies . Carbon dioxide emissions are also known for earlier periods . A study of a global sample of twelve countries provide estimates for emissions since 1800 and explores the long-run drivers of carbon dioxide emissions by decomposing changes in carbon emissions into population , income , technological and energy mix changes .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions_per_capita\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 98220\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in the United Kingdom Content: Climate change in the United Kingdom has been a subject of protests and controversies and various policies have been developed to mitigate its effects . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . The UK Government has a commitment to reduce CO2 equivalent emissions by 80 % on 1990 levels by 2025 and by 50 % on 1990 levels by 2050 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_the_United_Kingdom\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 98180\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Michael Raupach Content: Michael Robin Raupach ( 30 October 1950 -- 10 February 2015 ) was an Australian climate scientist . He is credited with developing the concept of a carbon budget , the amount of CO2 that is emitted and absorbed in the global ecosystem in the course of a year . When the in balance , CO2 emissions and absorption in carbon sinks are roughly the same , but when disturbed , possibly large changes in the ecosystem ensue . He was a founding co-chair of the Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) , a network of the world 's leading carbon cycle researchers . He was instrumental in publishing the Annual Carbon Budget , which draws on a large amount of scientific data to determine the level of imbalance and options for addressing it . He worked for the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation before becoming the director of the Australian National University 's Climate Change Institute in 2014 . He was a co-chair of the Global Carbon Project from 2000 to 2008 , and contributed to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Fourth Assessment Report in 2007 . He chaired the steering committee of the ` Australia 2050 ' project of the Australian Academy of Science ( AAS ) . In 2009 -- 2010 he chaired the Expert Working Group on Challenges at the Intersection of Carbon , Energy and Water , reporting to the Prime Minister 's Science , Engineering and Innovation Council and the Office of the Chief Scientist of Australia . His career included the publication of 150 scientific papers and 50 reports . His research developed in three stages , the first focused on very localized flow and transport of matter and energy through and above plant canopies . At the next stage , he worked on quantification of CO2 transport through and above plant canopies , though still on a small scale . In the 1990s , his focus began to shift to global ecosystems when he became a member of the scientific steering committee of the Biospheric Aspects of the Hydrological Cycle core project of the IGBP ( International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme ) . One of the most fundamental and important questions that the project addressed was : does the land-surface matter in climate and weather ? His research contributed to addressing that question , through his work on turbulent fluxes near the land surface , boundary-layer budgeting and quantifying the water balance at broader scales . He was a fellow of the Australian Academy of Science , the Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering , and the American Geophysical Union . Just before his death following a short illness , he co-chaired the working group of the Australian Academy of Science drafting the AAS booklet The Science of Climate Change : Questions and Answers .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Michael_Raupach\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 97789\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Emission Reduction Unit Content: The emission reduction unit ( ERU ) is an emissions unit issued under a Joint Implementation project in terms of the Kyoto Protocol . An ERU represents a reduction of greenhouse gases under the Joint Implementation mechanism , where it represents one tonne of equivalent reduced . To allow comparison between the different effects of gases on the environment , scientists have defined multipliers for gases that compare their greenhouse potency ( global warming potential ) relative to that of carbon dioxide . One example of a Joint Implementation project resulting in an emission reduction unit , is the production of biogases by landfill sites . These gases consist of mainly methane which escapes to the atmosphere if it is not collected . The main reason for dealing with methane is that it has a 100-year global warming potential multiplier of 25 compared to carbon dioxide ( i.e. has 25 times the greenhouse potency ) . Collection of methane is usually accompanied by its combustion . Burning one tonne of methane produces nearly 3 tonnes of , thus reducing its greenhouse effect by ( 25-3 = 22 ) ERU . In December 2012 , ERU prices crashed to a low of 15 euro cents before recovering to 23c after news that EU 's Climate Change Committee was to vote on a ban of ERUs from countries that have not signed up to a second commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol . In January 2013 , Bloomberg reported that emission reduction unit prices declined 89 percent in 2012\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Emission_Reduction_Unit\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 97732\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Voluntary Emission Reduction Content: Voluntary Emission Reductions or Verified Emission Reductions ( VERs ) are a type of carbon offset exchanged in the voluntary or over-the-counter market for carbon credits . Verified Emission Reductions are usually certified through a voluntary certification process . Verified Emission Reductions are usually created by projects which have been verified outside of the Kyoto Protocol . One VER is equivalent to 1 tonne of CO2e emissions . Through these schemes , industries and individuals voluntarily compensate for their emissions or provide an additional contribution to mitigating climate change . VERs may be developed and calculated in compliance with one of several VER standards . These set out rules defining how emission reductions are measured . Standards provide assurance for buyers of VERs . At a minimum , all VERs should be verified by an independent third party .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Voluntary_Emission_Reduction\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 97703\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon leakage Content: Carbon leakage occurs when there is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions in one country as a result of an emissions reduction by a second country with a strict climate policy . Carbon leakage may occur for a number of reasons : if the emissions policy of a country raises local costs , then another country with a more relaxed policy may have a trading advantage . If demand for these goods remains the same , production may move offshore to the cheaper country with lower standards , and global emissions will not be reduced . if environmental policies in one country add a premium to certain fuels or commodities , then the demand may decline and their price may fall . Countries that do not place a premium on those items may then take up the demand and use the same supply , negating any benefit . There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term leakage effects . This is important for the problem of climate change . Carbon leakage is one type of spill-over effect . Spill-over effects can be positive or negative ; for example , emission reductions policy might lead to technological developments that aid reductions outside of the policy area . `` Carbon leakage is defined as the increase in emissions outside the countries taking domestic mitigation action divided by the reduction in the emissions of these countries . '' It is expressed as a percentage , and can be greater or less than 100 % . Carbon leakage may occur through changes in trading patterns , and that is sometimes measured as the balance of emissions embodied in trade ( BEET ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_leakage\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 97218\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: ACEA agreement Content: The ACEA agreement refers to a voluntary agreement between the European Automobile Manufacturers Association ( ACEA ) and the European Commission to limit the amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) emitted by passenger cars sold in Europe . With 18 million cars sold each year , Europe is the last major car market in the world . Signed in 1998 , the agreement sought to achieve an average of 140 g/km of CO2 by 2008 for new passenger vehicles sold by the association 's cars in Europe . This target represents a 25 % reduction from the 1995 level of 186 g/km and is equivalent to a fuel economy of 5.8 L/100 km or 5.25 L/100 km for petrol and diesel engines respectively . However , the average for the whole car market for 2008 was 153.7 g/km , so the target has not been achieved . Besides the agreement with ACEA , the European Commission also closed agreements with the Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association ( JAMA ) and Korea Automobile Manufacturers Association ( KAMA ) . However , for the latter two the target date is 2009 instead of 2008 and as ACEA accounts for 86.4 % of car sales in Europe , the impact of the latter two is much smaller . The ultimate EU target to which these agreements are to contribute , is to reach an average CO2 emission ( as measured according to Commission Directive 93/116/EC ) of 130 g/km for all new passenger cars by 2015 . The European Commission announced in late 2006 that it is working on a proposal for legally binding measures and limits . In February 2007 , the Commission acknowledged the failure of the voluntary agreement . Following this , a proposal of regulation was introduced by the Commission on 19 December 2007 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"ACEA_agreement\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 97002\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon emission trading Content: Carbon emissions trading is a form of emissions trading that specifically targets carbon dioxide ( calculated in tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent or tCO2e ) and it currently constitutes the bulk of emissions trading . This form of permit trading is a common method countries utilize in order to meet their obligations specified by the Kyoto Protocol ; namely the reduction of carbon emissions in an attempt to reduce ( mitigate ) future climate change . Under Carbon trading , a country having more emissions of carbon is able to purchase the right to emit more and the country having less emission trades the right to emit carbon to other countries . More carbon emitting countries , by this way try to keep the limit of carbon emission specified to them .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_emission_trading\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 96365\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mitigation of global warming in Australia Content: Mitigation of global warming involves taking actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to enhance sinks aimed at reducing the extent of global warming . This is in distinction to adaptation to global warming , which involves taking action to minimise the effects of global warming . Scientific consensus on global warming , together with the precautionary principle and the fear of non-linear climate transitions , is leading to increased effort to develop new technologies and sciences and carefully manage others in an attempt to mitigate global warming . Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) for coal-fired power stations has been put forward as a solution to rising greenhouse gas emissions . However , CCS can not deliver in time to avoid dangerous increases in temperatures , as widespread commercial use of CCS is not expected before 2030 . Following the introduction of government mandatory renewable energy targets , more opportunities have opened up for renewable energy technologies such as wind power , photovoltaics , and solar thermal technologies . The deployment of these technologies provides opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gases . A carbon price was introduced on 1 July 2012 by the government of Julia Gillard with the purpose of reducing Australia 's carbon emissions . It requires large businesses ( defined as those with annual carbon dioxide equivalent emissions over 25,000 tonnes annually ) to pay a price for emissions permits . The tax was scrapped by the Abbott government in July 2014 in what was a widely criticised and highly publicised move .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Mitigation_of_global_warming_in_Australia\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 96117\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: European Union Emission Trading Scheme Content: The European Union Emissions Trading System ( EU ETS ) , also known as the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme , was the first large greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme in the world , and remains the biggest . It was launched in 2005 to fight Global warming and is a major pillar of EU climate policy . As of 2013 , the EU ETS covers more than 11,000 factories , power stations , and other installations with a net heat excess of 20 MW in 31 countries -- all 28 EU member states plus Iceland , Norway , and Liechtenstein . In 2008 , the installations regulated by the EU ETS were collectively responsible for close to half of the EU 's anthropogenic emissions of CO2 and 40 % of its total greenhouse gas emissions . Under the ` cap and trade ' principle , a maximum ( cap ) is set on the total amount of greenhouse gases that can be emitted by all participating installations . ` Allowances ' for emissions are then auctioned off or allocated for free , and can subsequently be traded . Installations must monitor and report their CO2 emissions , ensuring they hand in enough allowances to the authorities to cover their emissions . If emission exceeds what is permitted by its allowances , an installation must purchase allowances from others . Conversely , if an installation has performed well at reducing its emissions , it can sell its leftover credits . This allows the system to find the most cost-effective ways of reducing emissions without significant government intervention . The scheme has been divided into a number of `` trading periods '' . The first ETS trading period lasted three years , from January 2005 to December 2007 . The second trading period ran from January 2008 until December 2012 , coinciding with the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol . The third trading period began in January 2013 and will span until December 2020 . Compared to 2005 , when the EU ETS was first implemented , the proposed caps for 2020 represents a 21 % reduction of greenhouse gases . This target has been reached 6 years early as emissions in the ETS fell to 1812 mln tonnes in 2014 . The EU ETS has seen a number of significant changes , with the first trading period described as a ` learning by doing ' phase . Phase III sees a turn to auctioning a majority of permits rather than allocating freely ; harmonisation of rules for the remaining allocations ; and the inclusion of other greenhouse gases , such as nitrous oxide and perfluorocarbons . In 2012 , the EU ETS was also extended to the airline industry , though this has been paused for one year given the possibility of a global system for these emissions . The price of EU ETS carbon credits has been lower than intended , with a large surplus of allowances , in part because of the impact of the recent economic crisis on demand . In 2012 , the Commission said it would delay the auctioning of some allowances . Currently legislation is under way which would introduce a Market Stability Reserve to the EU ETS that adjusts the annual supply of CO2 permits based on the CO2 permits in circulation . Overall , since its conception , the EU ETS has been characterized by relatively high levels of policy uncertainty . This uncertainty has been both technical , in terms of its detailed rules and procedures , and political , in terms of its public , industry , and governmental support . As a result , the scheme has resulted in a rather informal and tepid response by regulated organizations .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"European_Union_Emission_Trading_Scheme\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 96098\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: No Pressure (film) Content: No Pressure is a 2010 short film produced by the global warming mitigation campaign 10:10 , written by Richard Curtis and Franny Armstrong , and directed by Dougal Wilson . Intended for cinema and television advertisements , No Pressure is composed of scenes in which a variety of people in every-day situations are graphically blown to pieces for failing to be sufficiently enthusiastic about the 10:10 campaign to reduce CO2 emissions . The film 's makers said that they viewed No Pressure as `` a funny and satirical tongue-in-cheek little film in the over-the-top style of Monty Python or South Park '' . Before its release , The Guardian described it as `` attention-grabbing '' and `` pretty edgy . '' The film was withdrawn from public circulation by 10:10 , on the same day it was released , due to negative publicity . Charities that had backed the film stated they were `` absolutely appalled '' upon seeing it , and several of 10:10 's corporate and strategic partners withdrew from partnership .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"No_Pressure_(film)\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 95987\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon emission label Content: A carbon emission label or carbon label describes the carbon dioxide emissions created as a by-product of manufacturing , transporting , or disposing of a consumer product . This information is important to consumers wishing to minimize their ecological footprint and contribution to global warming made by their purchases .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_emission_label\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 95960\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions Content: -RSB- This is a list of sovereign states and territories by carbon dioxide emissions due to certain forms of human activity , based on the EDGAR database created by European Commission and Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency released in 2015 . The following table lists the 2015 annual emissions estimates ( in thousands of tonnes ) along with a list of emissions per capita ( in tonnes of per year ) from same source . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use , land-use change and forestry . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The top 10 largest emitter countries account for 67.6 % of the world total . Other powerful , more potent greenhouse gases , including methane , are not included in this data .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 95786\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon offset Content: A carbon offset is a reduction in emissions of carbon dioxide or greenhouse gases made in order to compensate for or to offset an emission made elsewhere . Carbon offsets are measured in metric tons of carbon dioxide-equivalent ( CO2e ) and may represent six primary categories of greenhouse gases : carbon dioxide , methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFCs ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) , and sulfur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . One carbon offset represents the reduction of one metric ton of carbon dioxide or its equivalent in other greenhouse gases . There are two markets for carbon offsets . In the larger , compliance market , companies , governments , or other entities buy carbon offsets in order to comply with caps on the total amount of carbon dioxide they are allowed to emit . This market exists in order to achieve compliance with obligations of Annex 1 Parties under the Kyoto Protocol , and of liable entities under the EU Emission Trading Scheme . In 2006 , about $ 5.5 billion of carbon offsets were purchased in the compliance market , representing about 1.6 billion metric tons of CO2e reductions . In the much smaller , voluntary market , individuals , companies , or governments purchase carbon offsets to mitigate their own greenhouse gas emissions from transportation , electricity use , and other sources . For example , an individual might purchase carbon offsets to compensate for the greenhouse gas emissions caused by personal air travel . Many companies ( see list ) offer carbon offsets as an up-sell during the sales process so that customers can mitigate the emissions related with their product or service purchase ( such as offsetting emissions related to a vacation flight , car rental , hotel stay , consumer good , etc. ) . In 2008 , about $ 705 million of carbon offsets were purchased in the voluntary market , representing about 123.4 million metric tons of CO2e reductions . Some fuel suppliers in the UK offer fuel which has been carbon offset such as Fuel dyes . Offsets are typically achieved through financial support of projects that reduce the emission of greenhouse gases in the short - or long-term . The most common project type is renewable energy , such as wind farms , biomass energy , or hydroelectric dams . Others include energy efficiency projects , the destruction of industrial pollutants or agricultural byproducts , destruction of landfill methane , and forestry projects . Some of the most popular carbon offset projects from a corporate perspective are energy efficiency and wind turbine projects . Carbon offsetting has gained some appeal and momentum mainly among consumers in western countries who have become aware and concerned about the potentially negative environmental effects of energy-intensive lifestyles and economies . The Kyoto Protocol has sanctioned offsets as a way for governments and private companies to earn carbon credits that can be traded on a marketplace . The protocol established the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) , which validates and measures projects to ensure they produce authentic benefits and are genuinely `` additional '' activities that would not otherwise have been undertaken . Organizations that are unable to meet their emissions quota can offset their emissions by buying CDM-approved Certified Emissions Reductions . Emissions from burning fuel , such as red diesel , has pushed one UK fuel supplier to create a carbon offset fuel named Carbon Offset Red Diesel . Offsets may be cheaper or more convenient alternatives to reducing one 's own fossil-fuel consumption . However , some critics object to carbon offsets , and question the benefits of certain types of offsets . Due diligence is recommended to help businesses in the assessment and identification of `` good quality '' offsets to ensure offsetting provides the desired additional environmental benefits , and to avoid reputational risk associated with poor quality offsets . Offsets are viewed as an important policy tool to maintain stable economies and to improve sustainability . One of the hidden dangers of climate change policy is unequal prices of carbon in the economy , which can cause economic collateral damage if production flows to regions or industries that have a lower price of carbon -- unless carbon can be purchased from that area , which offsets effectively permit , equalizing the price .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_offset\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 95512\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental impact of shipping Content: The environmental impact of shipping includes greenhouse gas emissions , acoustic , and oil pollution . The International Maritime Organization ( IMO ) estimates that Carbon dioxide emissions from shipping were equal to 2.2 % of the global human-made emissions in 2012 and expects them to rise by as much as 2 to 3 times by 2050 if no action is taken . The First Intersessional Meeting of the IMO Working Group on Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Ships took place in Oslo , Norway on 23 -- 27 June 2008 . It was tasked with developing the technical basis for the reduction mechanisms that may form part of a future IMO regime to control greenhouse gas emissions from international shipping , and a draft of the actual reduction mechanisms themselves , for further consideration by IMO 's Marine Environment Protection Committee ( MEPC ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_impact_of_shipping\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 95355\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources Content: Measurement of life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions involves calculating the global-warming potential of electrical energy sources through life-cycle assessment of each energy source . The findings are presented in units of global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated by that source . The scale uses the global warming potential unit , the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) , and the unit of electrical energy , the kilowatt hour ( kWh ) . The goal of such assessments is to cover the full life of the source , from material and fuel mining through construction to operation and waste management . In 2014 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change harmonized the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) findings of the major electricity generating sources in use worldwide . This was done by analyzing the findings of hundreds of individual scientific papers assessing each energy source . For all technologies , advances in efficiency , and therefore reductions in e since the time of publication , have not been included . For example , the total life cycle emissions from wind power may have lessened since publication . Similarly , due to the time frame over which the studies were conducted , nuclear Generation II reactor 's e results are presented and not the global warming potential of Generation III reactors , presently under construction in the United States and China . Other limitations of the data include : a ) missing life cycle phases , and , b ) uncertainty as to where to define the cut-off point in the global warming potential of an energy source . The latter is important in assessing a combined electrical grid in the real world , rather than the established practice of simply assessing the energy source in isolation .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Life-cycle_greenhouse-gas_emissions_of_energy_sources\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 95136\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 94957\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The 2030 °Challenge Content: The 2030 ° Challenge is an initiative by Edward Mazria and Architecture 2030 asking the global architecture and construction community to adopt a series of greenhouse gas reduction targets for new and renovated buildings . In many developed countries the construction and use of buildings is the leading consumer of energy and producer of greenhouse gas emissions . Stabilizing and reversing emissions in this sector is key to keeping future global warming under one degree celsius ( ° C ) above today 's level , in order to avoid increased global warming , potentially to reach a tipping point .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"The_2030_°Challenge\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 94931\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon governance in England Content: The reduction of carbon emissions , along with other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , has become a vitally important task of international , national and local actors . If we understand governance as the creation of `` conditions for ordered rule and collective action '' then , given the fact that the reduction of carbon emissions will require concerted collective action , it follows that the governance of carbon will be of paramount concern . We have seen numerous international conferences over the past 20 years tasked with finding a way of facilitating this , and while international agreements have been infamously difficult to reach , action at the national level has been much more effective . In the UK , the Climate Change Act 2008 committed the government to meeting significant carbon reduction targets . In England , these carbon emissions are governed using numerous different instruments , which involve a variety of actors . While it has been argued by authors like Rhodes that there has been a `` hollowing out '' of the nation state , and that governments have lost their capabilities to govern to a variety of non-state actors and the European Union , the case of carbon governance in England actually runs counter to this . The government body responsible for the task , the Department of Energy and Climate Change ( DECC ) , is the `` main external dynamic '' behind governing actions in this area , and `` rather than hollowing out ( there has actually been a strengthening of ) central co-ordination '' . The department may rely on other bodies to deliver its desired outcomes , but it is still ultimately responsible for the imposition of the rules and regulations that `` steer ( carbon ) governmental action at the national level '' . It is therefore evident that carbon governance in England is hierarchical in nature , in that `` legislative decisions and executive decisions '' are the main dynamic behind carbon governance action . This does not deny the existence of a network of bodies around DECC who are part of the process , but they are supplementary actors who are steered by central decisions . This article focuses on carbon governance in England as the other countries of the UK ( Scotland , Wales and Northern Ireland ) all have devolved assemblies who are responsible for the governance of carbon emissions in their respective countries .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_governance_in_England\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 94523\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Contraction and Convergence Content: Contraction and Convergence ( C&C ) is a proposed global framework for reducing greenhouse gas emissions to combat climate change . Conceived by the Global Commons Institute -LSB- GCI -RSB- in the early 1990s , the Contraction and Convergence strategy consists of reducing overall emissions of greenhouse gases to a safe level ( contraction ) , resulting from every country bringing its emissions per capita to a level which is equal for all countries ( convergence ) . It is intended to form the basis of an international agreement which will reduce carbon dioxide emissions to avoid dangerous climate change , carbon dioxide being the gas that is primarily responsible for changes in the greenhouse effect on Earth . It is expressed as a simple mathematical formula . This formula can be used as a way for the world to stabilize carbon levels at any level . Advocates of Contraction and Convergence stress that negotiations at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change -LSB- UNFCCC -RSB- are governed sequentially by the ` objective ' of the UNFCCC -LSB- safe and stable GHG concentration in the global atmosphere -RSB- followed by its organising principles -LSB- ` precaution ' and ` equity ' -RSB- . C&C is widely cited and supported .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Contraction_and_Convergence\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 94364\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: CERINA-Plan Content: CERINA Plan is the abbreviation for `` CO2 Emissions and Renewable Investment Action Plan '' . It is a CO2 reduction concept developed by the German renewable energy institute IWR . The CERINA Plan proposes a technical investment approach linking a country 's CO2 emissions to its investment in renewable energy technology . Therefore , it is an alternative model to approaches like the Kyoto idea of mere cuts in greenhouse gas emissions . The model is meant to be flexible and to adapt to the special national circumstances of each country .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"CERINA-Plan\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 94100\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Economics_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 94000\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 93911\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Japan\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 93834\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 Content: The Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 , or Assembly Bill ( AB ) 32 , is a California State Law that fights global warming by establishing a comprehensive program to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from all sources throughout the state . AB 32 was authored by then-Assembly member Fran Pavley and Assembly Speaker Fabian Nunez ( D-Los Angeles ) and signed into law by Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger on September 27 , 2006 . On June 1 , 2005 , Governor Schwarzenegger signed an executive order known as Executive Order S-3-05 which established greenhouse gas emissions targets for the state . The executive order required the state to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions levels to 2000 levels by 2010 , to 1990 levels by 2020 , and to a level 80 % below 1990 levels by 2050 . However , to implement this measure , the California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) needed authority from the legislature . The California State Legislature passed the Global Warming Solutions Act to address this issue and gave the CARB authority to implement the program . AB 32 requires the California Air Resources Board ( CARB or ARB ) to develop regulations and market mechanisms to reduce California 's greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by the year of 2020 , representing approximately a 30 % reduction statewide , with mandatory caps beginning in 2012 for significant emissions sources . The bill also allows the Governor to suspend the emissions caps for up to a year in case of emergency or significant economic harm . The State of California leads the nation in energy efficiency standards and plays a lead role in environmental protection , but is also the 12th largest emitter of carbon worldwide . Greenhouse gas emissions are defined in the bill to include all of the following : carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , sulfur hexafluoride , hydrofluorocarbons and perfluorocarbons . These are the same greenhouse gases listed in Annex A of the Kyoto Protocol .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Warming_Solutions_Act_of_2006\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 93807\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_neutrality\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 93785\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Eco-costs Content: Eco-costs are a measure to express the amount of environmental burden of a product on the basis of prevention of that burden . They are the costs which should be made to reduce the environmental pollution and materials depletion in our world to a level which is in line with the carrying capacity of our earth . For example : for each 1000 kg CO2 emission , one should invest $ 135 , - in offshore windmill parks ( and the other CO2 reduction systems at that price or less ) . When this is done consequently , the total CO2 emissions in the world will be reduced by 65 % compared to the emissions in 2008 . As a result , global warming will stabilise . In short : `` the eco-costs of 1000kg CO2 are $ 135 , - '' . Similar calculations can be made on the environmental burden of acidification , eutrification , summer smog , fine dust , eco-toxicity , and the use of metals , rare earth , fossil fuels , water and land ( nature ) . As such , the eco-costs are virtual costs , since they are not yet integrated in the real life costs of current production chains ( Life Cycle Costs ) . The eco-costs should be regarded as hidden obligations . The eco-costs of a product are the sum of all eco-costs of emissions and use of resources during the life cycle `` from cradle to cradle '' . The widely accepted method to make such a calculation is called Life Cycle Assessment ( LCA ) , which is basically a mass and energy balance , defined in the 14040 and ISO 14044 . The practical use of eco-costs is to compare the sustainability of several product types with the same functionality . The advantage of eco-costs is that they are expressed in a standardized monetary value which appears to be easily understood ` by instinct ' . Also the calculation is transparent and relatively easy , compared to damage based models which have the disadvantage of extremely complex calculations with subjective weighting of the various aspects contributing to the overall environmental burden . The system of eco-costs is part of the bigger model of the Ecocosts/Value Ratio , EVR\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Eco-costs\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 93759\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"CO2_fertilization_effect\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 92548\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_tax\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 92399\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Executive Orders S-3-05 and B-30-15 Content: Executive Orders S-3-05 is an Executive Order of the State of California signed by Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger in June 2005 that set greenhouse gas emissions reduction targets for the State of California and laid out responsibilities among the state agencies for implementing the Executive Order and for reporting on progress toward the targets . Specifically , the Executive Order established these targets : By 2010 , reduce GHG emissions to 2000 levels By 2020 , reduce GHG emissions to 1990 levels By 2050 , reduce GHG emissions to 80 percent below 1990 levels The first and second goals were enshrined into law by the legislation known as AB 32 , or the Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 , which gave the California Air Resources Board broad authority to implement a market-based system ( also known as cap-and-trade ) to achieve these goals . California Executive Order B-30-15 ( April 2015 , signed by Governor Jerry Brown ) added the intermediate target of : By 2030 , reduce GHG emissions to 40 percent below 1990 levels .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Executive_Orders_S-3-05_and_B-30-15\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 92025\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Europe Content: Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe . According to international climate experts global temperature rise should not exceed 2 ° C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of the climate change . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . It is estimated that from the now living persons alive are 70 % in the year 2050 . Emission reduction means development and implementation of new energy technology solutions . Some people consider that the technology revolution has already started in Europe since the markets of the renewable technology have annually grown . European Union climate chief is Connie Hedegaard since 10 February 2010 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Europe\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 91422\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: CRC Energy Efficiency Scheme Content: The CRC Energy Efficiency Scheme ( the CRC , formerly the Carbon Reduction Commitment ) is a mandatory carbon emissions reduction scheme in the United Kingdom that applies to large non-energy-intensive organisations in the public and private sectors . It has been estimated that the scheme will reduce carbon emissions by 1.2 million tonnes of carbon per year by 2020 . In an effort to avoid dangerous climate change , the British Government first committed to cutting UK carbon emissions by 60 % by 2050 ( compared to 1990 levels ) , and in October 2008 increased this commitment to 80 % . The scheme has also been credited with driving up demand for energy-efficient goods and services . The CRC was announced in the 2007 Energy White Paper , published on 23 May 2007 . A consultation in 2006 showed strong support for it to be mandatory , rather than voluntary . The Commitment was introduced under enabling powers in Part 3 of the Climate Change Act 2008 . A consultation into the scheme 's implementation was launched in June 2007 . The Scheme is being introduced under the CRC Energy Efficiency Scheme Order 2010 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"CRC_Energy_Efficiency_Scheme\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 91163\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Airport Carbon Accreditation Content: Airport Carbon Accreditation is a global carbon management programme for airports that independently assesses and recognises airports ' efforts to manage and reduce their CO2 emissions . There are 4 different levels of accreditation : Mapping , Reduction , Optimisation and Neutrality . The programme was launched by European airports ' trade body ACI EUROPE at their Annual Congress in June 2009 . It is independently administered by WSP , an international consultancy firm . The programme provides airports with a common framework for active carbon management with measurable goal-posts . Individual airport carbon footprints are independently verified in accordance with ISO 14064 ( Greenhouse Gas Accounting ) on the basis of supporting evidence . Claims regarding airports ' carbon management processes are also independently verified by a group of 117 independent verifiers , based in 36 countries .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Airport_Carbon_Accreditation\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 91008\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 90973\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Clean Energy Act 2011 Content: The Clean Energy Act 2011 is the main Act in a package of legislation that established an Australian emissions trading scheme , to be preceded by a three-year period of fixed carbon pricing designed to reduce carbon dioxide emissions and limit global warming . The package was introduced by the Gillard Labor Government in February 2011 and repealed on 17 July 2014 by the Abbott Government .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Clean_Energy_Act_2011\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 90955\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative Content: ` The Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI , pronounced `` Reggie '' ) is the first mandatory market based program in the United States to reduce greenhouse gas emissions . RGGI is a cooperative effort among the states of Connecticut , Delaware , Maine , Maryland , Massachusetts , New Hampshire , New York , Rhode Island , and Vermont to cap and reduce CO2 emissions from the power sector . RGGI compliance obligations apply to fossil-fueled power plants 25MW and larger within the nine-state region . RGGI establishes a regional cap on the amount of CO2 pollution that power plants can emit by issuing a limited number of tradable CO2 allowances . Each allowance represents an authorization for a regulated power plant to emit one short ton of CO2 . Individual CO2 budget trading programs in each RGGI state together create a regional market for CO2 allowances . The RGGI states distribute over 90 percent of allowances through quarterly auctions . These allowance auctions generate proceeds , which participating states are able to invest in strategic energy and consumer benefit programs . Programs funded through RGGI have included energy efficiency , clean and renewable energy , greenhouse gas abatement , and direct bill assistance . An initial milestone program 's development occurred in 2005 , when seven states signed a Memorandum of Understanding ( MOU ) announcing an agreement to implement RGGI . The RGGI states then established individual CO2 budget trading programs , based on the RGGI Model Rule . The first pre-compliance RGGI auction took place in September 2008 , and the program became effective on January 1 , 2009 . The RGGI program is currently in its third three-year compliance period , which began January 1 , 2015 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Regional_Greenhouse_Gas_Initiative\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 90835\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation Content: Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation and the role of conservation , sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries ( REDD + ) was first negotiated under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) since 2005 , with the objective of mitigating climate change through reducing net emissions of greenhouse gases through enhanced forest management in developing countries . Most of the key REDD + decisions were completed by 2013 , with the final pieces of the rulebook finished in 2015 . In the last two decades , various studies estimate that land use change , including deforestation and forest degradation , accounts for 12-29 % of global greenhouse gas emissions . For this reason the inclusion of reducing emissions from land use change is considered essential to achieve the objectives of the UNFCCC . During the negotiations for the Kyoto Protocol , and then in particular its Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) , the inclusion of tropical forest management was debated but eventually dropped due to anticipated methodological difficulties in establishing -- in particular -- additionality and leakage ( detrimental effects outside of the project area attributable to project activities ) . What remained on forestry was `` Afforestation and Reforestation '' , sectoral scope 14 of the CDM . Under this sectoral scope areas of land that had no forest cover since 1990 could be replanted with commercial or indigenous tree species . In its first eight years of operation 52 projects had been registered under the `` Afforestation and Reforestation '' scope of the CDM . The cumbersome administrative procedures and corresponding high transaction costs are often blamed for this slow uptake . Beyond the CDM , all developed countries that were parties to the Kyoto Protocol also committed to measuring and reporting on efforts to reduce net greenhouse gas emissions from forests . The United States also measures and reports on the net greenhouse gas sequestration in its forests . In response to what many perceived to be a failure to address a major source of global greenhouse gas emissions , the Coalition for Rainforest Nations ( CfRN ) was established and in 2005 they proposed to the Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC policy approaches and positive incentives for the reduction of emissions of greenhouse gases stemming from tropical deforestation and forest degradation as a climate change mitigation measure .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Reducing_emissions_from_deforestation_and_forest_degradation\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 90568\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sustainable Communities and Climate Protection Act of 2008 Content: The Sustainable Communities and Climate Protection Act of 2008 , also known as Senate Bill 375 or SB 375 , is a State of California law targeting greenhouse gas emissions from passenger vehicles . The Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 ( AB 32 ) sets goals for the reduction of statewide greenhouse gas emissions . Passenger vehicles are the single largest source of greenhouse gas emissions statewide , accounting for 30 % of total emissions . SB 375 therefore provides key support to achieve the goals of AB 32 . SB 375 instructs the California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) to set regional emissions ' reduction targets from passenger vehicles . The Metropolitan Planning Organization for each region must then develop a `` Sustainable Communities Strategy '' ( SCS ) that integrates transportation , land-use and housing policies to plan for achievement of the emissions target for their region . In a press release the day he signed the bill into law , Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger stated , `` What this will mean is more environmentally-friendly communities , more sustainable developments , less time people spend in their cars , more alternative transportation options and neighborhoods we can safely and proudly pass on to future generations . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Sustainable_Communities_and_Climate_Protection_Act_of_2008\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 90532\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Regional climate change initiatives in the United States Content: Twenty-eight states have climate action plans and nine have statewide emission targets . The states of California and New Mexico have committed most recently to emission reductions targets , joining New Jersey , Maine , Massachusetts , Connecticut , New York , Washington and Oregon . Regional initiatives can be more efficient than programs at the state level , as they encompass a broader geographical area , eliminate duplication of work , and create more uniform regulatory environments . Over the past few years , a number of regional initiatives have begun developing systems to reduce carbon dioxide emissions from power plants , increase renewable energy generation , track renewable energy credits , and research and establish baselines for carbon sequestration .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Regional_climate_change_initiatives_in_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 90409\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Forests for the 21st Century Content: Forests for the 21st Century is a short video promoting and explaining the benefits of forest landscape restoration . In the last few centuries people have removed more than half of the world 's forest cover . Deforestation is currently responsible for nearly 20 per cent of global carbon emissions . This tide of deforestation can be reversed , but we can make a much greater impact if we also put back some of our lost forests . Planting more trees can lock up more carbon , improve the environment and people 's lives . Many regions and countries have already restored much of their forest .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Forests_for_the_21st_Century\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 90311\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Decarbonisation measures in proposed UK electricity market reform Content: The United Kingdom is committed to legally binding greenhouse gas emissions reduction targets of 34 % by 2020 and 80 % by 2050 , compared to 1990 levels , as set out in the Climate Change Act 2008 . DECC ( 2008 ) . Climate Change Act . Decarbonisation of electricity generation will form a major part of this reduction and is essential before other sectors of the economy can be successfully decarbonised.DECC ( 2011a ) . Planning Our Electric Future : A White Paper for Secure , Affordable and Low-Carbon Electricity . The Government 's proposals for electricity market reform , published in a White Paper in July 2011 , included three initiatives to encourage decarbonisation of electricity generation in the UK : A Carbon Price Floor to complement the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme ( EU ETS ) ; Feed-in tariffs which will eventually replace the Renewables Obligation ; and an Emissions Performance Standard to restrict future use of the most carbon intensive forms of generation . In implementing these proposals , the Government aims to attract investment in low-carbon generation , deliver security of supply through an appropriate mix of electricity sources and ensure a minimum amount of impact on consumer bills ; all this at a time when security of supply is threatened by scheduled closures of existing plants and both the demand for , and subsequently the price of , electricity is increasing .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Decarbonisation_measures_in_proposed_UK_electricity_market_reform\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 90268\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Pakistan\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 90232\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon capture and storage in Mexico Content: Mexico highly depends on the burning of its fossil fuels , and for the same reason , it is in its interest to look into mitigation solutions for its corresponding emissions . In the General Law on Climate Change on 2012 , Mexico promised to reduce 20 % of its GHG emissions by 2020 and 50 % by 2050 , as well as in the Paris Agreement . 19 % of the this new mitigation plan will be dedicated to carbon capture and storage and specifically 10 % to the energetic industry .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_capture_and_storage_in_Mexico\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 89861\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon footprint Content: A carbon footprint is historically defined as the total set of greenhouse gas emissions caused by an individual , event , organisation , or product , expressed as carbon dioxide equivalent . In most cases , the total carbon footprint can not be exactly calculated because of inadequate knowledge of and data about the complex interactions between contributing processes , especially which including the influence on natural processes storing or releasing carbon dioxide . For this reason , Wright , Kemp , and Williams , have suggested to define the carbon footprint as : A measure of the total amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and methane ( CH4 ) emissions of a defined population , system or activity , considering all relevant sources , sinks and storage within the spatial and temporal boundary of the population , system or activity of interest . Calculated as carbon dioxide equivalent using the relevant 100-year global warming potential ( GWP100 ) . Greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) can be emitted through land clearance and the production and consumption of food , fuels , manufactured goods , materials , wood , roads , buildings , transportation and other services . For simplicity of reporting , it is often expressed in terms of the amount of carbon dioxide , or its equivalent of other GHGs , emitted . Most of the carbon footprint emissions for the average U.S. household come from `` indirect '' sources , i.e. fuel burned to produce goods far away from the final consumer . These are distinguished from emissions which come from burning fuel directly in one 's car or stove , commonly referred to as `` direct '' sources of the consumer 's carbon footprint . The concept name of the carbon footprint originates from ecological footprint , discussion , which was developed by Rees and Wackernagel in the 1990s which estimates the number of `` earths '' that would theoretically be required if everyone on the planet consumed resources at the same level as the person calculating their ecological footprint . However , given that ecological footprints are a measure of failure , Anindita Mitra ( CREA , Seattle ) chose the more easily calculated `` carbon footprint '' to easily measure use of carbon , as an indicator of unsustainable energy use . In 2007 , carbon footprint was used as a measure of carbon emissions to develop the energy plan for City of Lynnwood , Washington . Carbon footprints are much more specific than ecological footprints since they measure direct emissions of gases that cause climate change into the atmosphere . Carbon footprint is one of a family of footprint indicators , which also includes water footprint and land footprint .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_footprint\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 89688\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Fugitive emissions Content: Fugitive emissions are emissions of gases or vapors from pressurized equipment due to leaks and other unintended or irregular releases of gases , mostly from industrial activities . As well as the economic cost of lost commodities , fugitive emissions contribute to air pollution and climate change . A detailed inventory of greenhouse gas emissions from upstream oil and gas activities in Canada for the year 2000 estimated that fugitive equipment leaks had a global warming potential equivalent to the release of 17 million metric tonnes of carbon dioxide , or 12 per cent of all greenhouse gases emitted by the sector . Venting of natural gas , flaring , accidental releases and storage losses accounted for an additional 38 per cent . Fugitive emissions present other risks and hazards . Emissions of volatile organic compounds such as benzene from oil refineries and chemical plants pose a long term health risk to workers and local communities . In situations where large amounts of flammable liquids and gases are contained under pressure , leaks also increase the risk of fire and explosion . Leaks from pressurized process equipment generally occur through valves , pipe connections , mechanical seals , or related equipment . Fugitive emissions also occur at evaporative sources such as waste water treatment ponds and storage tanks . Because of the huge number of potential leak sources at large industrial facilities and the difficulties in detecting and repairing some leaks , fugitive emissions can be a significant proportion of total emissions . Though the quantities of leaked gases may be small , gases that have serious health or environmental impacts can cause a significant problem . To minimize and control leaks at process facilities operators carry out regular leak detection and repair activities . Routine inspections of process equipment with gas detectors can be used to identify leaks and estimate the leak rate in order to decide on appropriate corrective action . Proper routine maintenance of equipment reduces the likelihood of leaks . Because of the technical difficulties and costs of detecting and quantifying actual fugitive emissions at a site or facility , and the variability and intermittent nature of emission flow rates , bottom-up estimates based on standard emission factors are generally used for annual reporting purposes . New technologies are under development that could revolutionize the detection and monitoring of fugitive emissions . One technology , known as differential absorption lidar ( DIAL ) , can be used to remotely measure concentration profiles of hydrocarbons in the atmosphere up to several hundred meters from a facility . DIAL has been used for refinery surveys in Europe for over 15 years . A pilot study carried out in 2005 using DIAL found that actual emissions at a refinery were fifteen times higher than those previously reported using the emission factor approach . The fugitive emissions were equivalent to 0.17 % of the refinery throughput . Portable gas leak imaging cameras are also a new technology that can be used to improve leak detection and repair , leading to reduced fugitive emissions . The cameras use infrared imaging technology to produce video images in which invisible gases escaping from leak sources can be clearly identified .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Fugitive_emissions\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 89347\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Low-carbon diet Content: A low-carbon diet refers to making lifestyle choices to reduce the greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGe ) resulting from consumption decisions . It is estimated that the U.S. food system is responsible for at least 20 percent of U.S. greenhouse gases . This estimate may be low , as it counts only direct sources of GHGe . Indirect sources , such as demand for products from other countries , are often not counted . A low-carbon diet minimizes the emissions released from the production , packaging , processing , transport , preparation and waste of food . Major tenets of a low-carbon diet include eating less industrial meat and dairy , eating less industrially produced food in general , eating food grown locally and seasonally , eating less processed and packaged foods and reducing waste from food by proper portion size , recycling or composting .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Low-carbon_diet\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 89299\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Chinese national carbon trading scheme Content: The Chinese national carbon trading scheme is a cap and trade system for carbon dioxide emissions set to be implemented in July 2017 . This emission trading scheme ( ETS ) creates a carbon market where emitters can buy and sell emission credits . From this scheme , China can limit emissions , but allow economic freedom for emitters to reduce emissions or purchase emission allowances from other emitters . China is currently the largest emitter of greenhouse gases and many major Chinese cities have severe air pollution . With this plan , China will soon be the largest market in carbon trading . The scheme will limit emissions from six of China 's top carbon dioxide emitting industries , including coal-fired power plants . China was able to gain experience in drafting and implementation of an ETS plan from the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , where China was part of the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) . From this experience with carbon markets , and lengthy discussions with the next largest carbon market , the European Union ( EU ) , as well as analysis of small scale pilot markets in major Chinese cities and provinces , China 's national ETS will be the largest of its kind and will help China achieve its Intended Nationally Determined Contribution ( INDC ) from the Paris Agreement in 2016 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Chinese_national_carbon_trading_scheme\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 89226\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: CarboNZero programme Content: The carboNZero programme and CEMARS programme are the world 's first internationally accredited greenhouse gas ( GHG ) certification schemes under ISO 14065 . They provide tools for organisations , products , services and events to measure and reduce their greenhouse gas emissions ( otherwise known as carbon footprint ) , and optionally offset it . The programmes are owned and operated by Enviro-Mark Solutions Limited , a wholly owned subsidiary of Landcare Research ( 100 % NZ government-owned ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"CarboNZero_programme\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 89142\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Christine Wiedinmyer Content: Christine Wiedinmyer is a research scientist in the Atmospheric Chemistry Division of the National Center for Atmospheric Research . She has a Ph.D. in Chemical Engineering from the University of Texas at Austin . Wiedinmyer developed the Fire INventory from NCAR ( FINN ) , `` a high resolution global fire emissions model now used by local , regional , and global chemical modelers to better quantify the impacts of fire emissions on atmospheric composition , both in hindsight and forecast model applications . '' She used the model to estimate that the 2010 Russian wildfires liberated 22 teragrams of highly toxic carbon monoxide , though this amount was less than the cumulative carbon monoxide emissions of 2012 and 2003 . Wiedinmyer discovered that in the long run , controlled burning of forests will produce up to sixty percent less carbon dioxide emissions compared to the full-fledged wildfires they prevented . Undergrowth will be destroyed by the controlled burns while carbon-rich mature trees survive . Without removing the undergrowth , wildfires can quickly escalate out of control using the undergrowth as fuel , and then burn down mature trees as well . Wiedinmyer is also a co-founder of the Earth Science Women 's Network .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Christine_Wiedinmyer\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 88808\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: PopOffsets Content: PopOffsets is a web-based , carbon offsetting project of Population Matters , ( formerly known as the Optimum Population Trust ) , a charity devoted to offsetting CO2 emissions by enabling individuals and organisations to fund rights-based family planning schemes , health programs , relationship and sex education worldwide .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"PopOffsets\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 88615\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: ECOCITIES (software) Content: All member states of the European Union are bound to decrease their greenhouse gas emissions . For example , the EU climate and energy package requires member states to improve their energy efficiency by 20 % , increase - renewable energy production by 20 % and reduce their emissions by 20 % . With about 40 % of CO2 emissions heating , cooling and hot water production in buildings is one of the largest greenhouse gas producers . At the same time the building sector has the largest potential for energy savings . In their effort to lead a change towards greater energy efficiency and a reduction of greenhouse gas , many companies , cities and municipalities are in the process of developing low carbon action plans . However , the costs for developing optimal action plans and their continuous monitoring and optimization are very high , thus , often hindered by the tense financial situation , especially of cities and municipalities . With significant economic and environmental downsides ; the consequences are additional costs due to the non-compliance to the national and EU emission goals and untapped energy saving potential . ECOCITIES is an energy optimization system for building portfolios combining and extending the benefits of Energy Management Software ( EMS ) , Computer-aided Facility Management ( CAFM ) software and building portfolio management software . It integrates building administration and monitoring , energy accounting and building portfolio optimization . Thereby , it supports the definition of low carbon action plans in terms of environmental impact ( e.g. , carbon footprint , energy efficiency ) and financial impact ( e.g. , investment costs , running , costs ) . The system considers the following options for each building and the resulting ( inter - ) dependencies : energy-efficient building configurations ( e.g. , the compatibility of building components and its contribution to the energy efficiency level ) , energy used at the production and distribution of building components ( i.e. , gray energy ) , environmental impact ( e.g. , CO2 emissions ) , financial constraints , such as ( governmental ) funding and limited long term loans , legal constraints , e.g. , building codes , national and international standards , energy consumption for the operation of buildings , i.e. , heating , ventilation , and air conditioning ( HVAC ) as well as the electricity demand , energy production , storage and load shifting between buildings in combination with renewable energy production ( solar PV and thermal , Micro combined heat and power ) and conversion . energy flows between a building 's on-site networks ( Heating/Cooling and low voltage networks ) , the micro networks on neighborhood level and the city-wide energy networks ( district heating and district cooling networks , mid-voltage distribution networks ) , local typology ( position of buildings , energy networks ) . ECOCITIES calculates all energy - and cost-efficient development scenarios , visualizes them on the screen and allows decision makers to interactively explore the consequences of their actions ( e.g. , what are the citywide costs and the corresponding CO2 reductions of introducing a neighborhood-scale combined heat and power plant ) . ECOCITIES is an enabler for the realization of energy goals and provides synergies with existing endeavors of achieving national and European energy goals . On an operational level , ECOCITIES supports the following processes : Administration and integrated optimization of the entire building portfolio . Energy accounting and monitoring for all buildings . Identification , evaluation and definition of energy efficiency strategies ( low carbon action plans ) . Continuous monitoring , review and optimization of energy efficiency strategies ( low carbon action plans ) . Ensure the alignment of individual initiatives with the overall energy strategy of the company/city , e.g. , planning the cost - and energy efficient integration of new or refurbished single buildings , groups of buildings or entire neighborhoods into a new or existing energy efficiency strategy . Continuous monitoring of the performance related to the contribution to national and European energy goals .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"ECOCITIES_(software)\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 88583\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Under2 MOU Content: The Under2 MOU is a memorandum of understanding between subnational governments that aims to achieve greenhouse gases emissions mitigation . The memorandum was signed by twelve founding jurisdictions on May 19 , 2015 in Sacramento , California . As of December 10 , 2016 , the list of signatories has grown to 165 jurisdictions which combined encompasses 1 billion people and one third of the world economy . The Under2 MOU was conceived through a partnership between the governments of California and Baden-Wurttemberg .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Under2_MOU\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 88571\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_potential\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 88157\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: German Climate Action Plan 2050 Content: The German Climate Action Plan 2050 ( Klimaschutzplan 2050 ) is a climate protection policy document approved by the German government on 14November 2016 . The plan outlines measures by which Germany can meet its various national greenhouse gas emissions reduction goals through to 2050 ( see table ) and service its international commitments under the 2016 Paris Climate Agreement . The Federal Ministry for the Environment , Nature Conservation , Building and Nuclear Safety ( BMUB ) , under minister Barbara Hendricks , led the development of the plan . The plan was progressively watered down since a draft was first leaked in 2016 . Projections from the environment ministry in September 2016 indicate that Germany will likely miss its 2020 climate target . The Climate Action Plan2050 should not be confused with an earlier document , the Climate Action Programme2020 ( Aktionsprogramm Klimaschutz ) , approved in December 2014 and which only covers the period until 2020 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"German_Climate_Action_Plan_2050\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 87947\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: America's Climate Security Act of 2007 Content: The America 's Climate Security Act of 2007 was a global warming bill that was considered by the United States Senate to reduce the amount of greenhouse gases emitted in the United States . Also known as the Lieberman-Warner bill , bill number , the legislation was introduced by Sens. Joseph Lieberman ( I-CT ) and John Warner ( R-VA ) on October 18 , 2007 . The bill was approved by the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works in December 2007 , and was debated in the Senate during the week of June 2 . The bill would create a national cap-and-trade scheme for greenhouse gas emissions , in which polluters would mostly be allocated right-to-emit credits based on how much greenhouse gas they currently emit . The cap would get tighter over time , until by 2050 , emissions would be reduced to 63 % below 2005 levels . Several environmental groups express their encouragement at the progress in legislation on the global warming issue while at the same time expressing disappointment that the bill does n't reduce emissions enough . On June 6 , 2008 , the bill was killed by Senate Republicans over worries that it would damage the economy .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"America's_Climate_Security_Act_of_2007\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 87903\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Emissions Trading Registry Content: An Emissions Trading Registry is a web-based application that records : CO2 allowances and units allocated to and held in operator , person and Government accounts The movement of allowances and units between accounts ( including allocations , transfers , surrender and cancellations ) Annual verified emissions of installations Annual compliance status of installations . An account holder can therefore hold , transfer , cancel or acquire EU Allowances ( EUAs ) and Kyoto units ( e.g. CERs , ERUs , AAUs , RMUs , tCERs and lCERs ) . Further details regarding each of these unit types can be found in A Guide to Using Kyoto Units in the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme , available on the Environment Agency 's website . In addition , regulators and nominated competent authorities can manage regulated industries ( those with legal emissions reduction targets ) , and monitor national compliance and performance against international emissions reductions obligations . Computerised registries are key components of the EU Emissions Trading System ( EU ETS ) and wider international emissions trading under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 's ( UNFCCC 's ) Kyoto Protocol . Under Directive 2003/87/EC , EU Member States were required to put in place a standardised , electronic national registry from 2005 , whilst Parties to the Kyoto Protocol were required to put in place a national registry to allow international emissions trading from 2008 . The functional requirements of the Registry are determined by the European Commission ( through the Registry Regulations ) and the UNFCCC secretariat ( through various COP / MOP decisions ) . All national registries are connected directly to the UNFCCC 's International Transaction Log ( ITL ) . This transaction log is responsible for checking all transactions to ensure they adhere to the rules of international emissions trading under the Kyoto Protocol . The ITL also has a link to the EC 's Community Independent Transaction Log ( CITL ) . This transaction log is responsible for checking all transactions to ensure that they adhere to the rules of the EU ETS .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Emissions_Trading_Registry\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 87563\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sustainable Silicon Valley Content: Sustainable Silicon Valley ( SSV ) is a collaboration of businesses , governments , and non-governmental organizations that are identifying and addressing environmental and resource pressures in Silicon Valley . As its first initiative , SSV engaged Valley organizations , who are the SSV Partners , to work towards a goal of reducing regional carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) emissions 20 % below 1990 levels by 2010 . The SSV approach to reaching this goal is to facilitate strategies to reduce CO2 emissions through increased energy and fuel efficiency and through the use of renewable sources of energy .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Sustainable_Silicon_Valley\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 87460\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Intended Nationally Determined Contributions Content: Intended Nationally Determined Contributions ( INDCs ) is a term used under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) for reductions in greenhouse gas emissions that all countries that signed the UNFCCC were asked to publish in the lead up to the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference held in Paris , France in December 2015 . These intended contributions were determined without prejudice to the legal nature of the contributions . The term was intended as a compromise between `` quantified emissions limitation and reduction objective '' ( QUELROs ) and `` nationally appropriate mitigation actions '' ( NAMAs ) that the Kyoto Protocol used to describe the different legal obligations of developed and developing countries . Under the Paris Agreement , adopted in December 2015 , the INDC will become the first Nationally Determined Contribution when a country ratifies the agreement , unless they decide to submit a new NDC at the same time . Once the Paris Agreement is ratified , the NDC will become the first greenhouse gas targets under the UNFCCC that applied equally to both developed and developing countries . On 3 August 2016 China and US ratified 2015 agreement on INDC . Together they both constitute 38 % of total global emission , with China 's alone emitting total of 20 % . India that has a Global share of GHGs emission at 4.1 % of that of world ratified Paris climate agreement on October 2 , 2016 by depositing the Instrument of ratification with the United nations .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Intended_Nationally_Determined_Contributions\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 87419\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon capture and storage in Australia Content: Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) is an approach to mitigate global warming by capturing carbon dioxide from large point sources such as fossil fuel power plants and storing it instead of releasing it into the atmosphere . Carbon capture and storage is also used for Enhanced Oil Recovery to increase yield from declining oil fields , and for storage of from natural gas fields . No coal-fired power station in Australia has CCS of . CCS is proven technology but is not yet commercially viable for reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from coal-fired power stations . Without an economic driver such as a high carbon price or revenue from Enhanced Oil Recovery CCS is not expected to be commercially viable until at least 2020 . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until 2100 . In the 2015 budget , the Abbott Government cut $ 460m from CCS research projects leaving $ 191.7 m to continue existing projects for the next seven years . The program had already been cut by the previous Labor government and much of the funding remained unallocated .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_capture_and_storage_in_Australia\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 86975\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Open Carbon World Content: Open Carbon World is the first full-service carbon planning Web site dedicated to the promotion of market-based solutions to greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions reductions . The site is an open access community with the goal of helping companies establish clear policies towards reducing carbon emissions . Open Carbon World provides a convenient , single resource for carbon information and policy discussions . It offers up-to-date , accurate information on emissions trading and carbon markets and serves as a forum for members of the carbon community interested in driving market-based emissions reduction policy . Like Wikipedia , Open Carbon World is predicated on the idea of open access , enabling anyone to submit content and events to the Web site . An editorial board drawn from key industry participants oversees the veracity and quality of all information contributed to the portal .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Open_Carbon_World\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 86843\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of global sustainability statistics Content: Site under development - please add to this list where appropriate Global sustainability statistics are benchmarks for measuring the status of sustainability parameters . The following agencies provide baseline data for sustainability governance . They are just one form of data used for sustainability accounting and are valuable for assessing trends and measuring progress . This list provides sources of statistics at the global level of governance only . General lists Meadows , D.H. , Randers , J. & Meadows , D.L. 2004 . Limits to growth : the 30-year update . Chelsea Green Publishing Company , White River Junction , USA . The CIAs World Fact Book World Data Center United Nations Environmental Indicators Also publications on environmental statistics and statistical methods . Water ( water resources , water supply industry , waste water ) Air pollution ( SO2 & NOx ) , Climate change ( greenhouse gas emissions ; by sector ( absolute & percentage ) ; CO2 emissions ; CH4 & N2O emissions ) Waste ( municipal waste collection , treatment , hazardous waste ) Land use ( total land area by country , forest area by country , agricultural area by country ) . European Commission ( Eurostat ) Biodiversity Groombridge , B & Jenkins , M.D. 2002 . World Atlas of Biodiversity . UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre . Energy BP Statistical Review of World Energy The International Energy Agency . Key World Energy Statistics UN Energy Statistics Database Fisheries UN Food and Agriculture Organisation . Forests UN Food and Agriculture Organisation . Fertilizer International Fertilizer Industry Association Food and agriculture UN Food and Agriculture Organisation . FAOSTAT Population United Nations Population Division United Nations Database Population Reference Bureau American Association for Advancement of Science Water International Water Management Institute Stockholm International Water Institute United Nations Environmental Program Global Runoff Data Centre\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_global_sustainability_statistics\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 86736\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Earth 2100 Content: Earth 2100 is a television program that was presented by the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) network on June 2 , 2009 and was aired on the History Channel in January 2010 and was shown through the year . Hosted by ABC journalist Bob Woodruff , the two-hour special explored what `` a worst-case '' future might look like if humans do not take action on current or impending problems that could threaten civilization . The problems addressed in the program include current climate change , overpopulation , and misuse of energy resources . The events following the life of a fictitious storyteller , `` Lucy '' ( told through the use of motion comics , or limited animation ) , as she describes how the events affect her life . The program included predictions of a dystopian Earth in the years 2015 , 2030 , 2050 , 2085 , and 2100 by scientists , historians , social anthropologists , and economists , including Jared Diamond , Thomas Homer-Dixon , Peter Gleick , James Howard Kunstler , Heidi Cullen , Alex Steffen and Joseph Tainter . It ended with a quote from writer Alex Steffen , saying `` Kids born today will see us navigate past the first greatest test of humanity , which is : can we actually be smart enough to live on a planet without destroying it ? '' According to Executive Producer Michael Bicks , `` this program was developed to show the worst-case scenario for human civilization . Again , we are not saying that these events will happen -- rather , that if we fail to seriously address the complex problems of climate change , resource depletion and overpopulation , they are much more likely to happen . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Earth_2100\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 86688\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 86580\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide removal Content: Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_removal\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 86469\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon monitoring Content: Carbon monitoring refers to tracking how much carbon dioxide or methane is produced by particular activity at a particular point in time . For example , it may refer to tracking methane emissions from agriculture , or carbon dioxide emissions from land use changes , such as deforestation , or from burning fossil fuels , whether in a power plant , automobile , or other device . Because carbon dioxide is the greenhouse gas emitted in the largest quantities , and methane is an even more potent greenhouse gas , monitoring carbon emissions is widely seen as crucial to any effort to reduce emissions and thereby slow climate change . Monitoring carbon emissions is key to the cap-and-trade program currently being used in Europe , as well as the one in California , and will be necessary for any such program in the future , like the Paris Agreement . The lack of reliable sources of consistent data on carbon emissions is a significant barrier to efforts to reduce emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_monitoring\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 86380\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change mitigation Content: Climate change mitigation consists of actions to limit the magnitude or rate of long-term climate change . Climate change mitigation generally involves reductions in human ( anthropogenic ) emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) . Mitigation may also be achieved by increasing the capacity of carbon sinks , e.g. , through reforestation . Mitigation policies can substantially reduce the risks associated with human-induced global warming . According to the IPCC 's 2014 assessment report , `` Mitigation is a public good ; climate change is a case of the ` tragedy of the commons . Effective climate change mitigation will not be achieved if each agent ( individual , institution or country ) acts independently in its own selfish interest ( see international cooperation and emissions trading ) , suggesting the need for collective action . Some adaptation actions , on the other hand , have characteristics of a private good as benefits of actions may accrue more directly to the individuals , regions , or countries that undertake them , at least in the short term . Nevertheless , financing such adaptive activities remains an issue , particularly for poor individuals and countries . '' Examples of mitigation include phasing out fossil fuels by switching to low-carbon energy sources , such as renewable and nuclear energy , and expanding forests and other `` sinks '' to remove greater amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Energy efficiency may also play a role , for example , through improving the insulation of buildings . Another approach to climate change mitigation is climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to stabilize atmospheric concentrations of GHGs at a level that would prevent dangerous human interference of the climate system . Scientific analysis can provide information on the impacts of climate change , but deciding which impacts are dangerous requires value judgments . In 2010 , Parties to the UNFCCC agreed that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) relative to the pre-industrial level . With the Paris Agreement of 2015 this was confirmed , but was revised with a new target laying down `` parties will do the best '' to achieve warming below 1.5 ° C . The current trajectory of global greenhouse gas emissions does not appear to be consistent with limiting global warming to below 1.5 or 2 ° C . Other mitigation policies have been proposed , some of which are more stringent or modest than the 2 ° C limit .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_mitigation\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 85848\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_rift\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 85840\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Five Ways to Save the World Content: Five Ways to Save the World is a British documentary film on environmental issues related to climate change , released in 2006 . The film was made by Karen O'Connor , for the big screen and was shot in the English language to reach an international audience . It includes interviews with five environmental scientists and experts including Paul Crutzen , James Roger Angel , John Latham , Ian Jones , and Klaus Lackner . The `` five ways '' proposed are geoengineering techniques : space lenses in orbit , to diffract sunlight away from the earth cloud seeding with seawater to increase albedo sulfur launched into the stratosphere to increase albedo ocean fertilization with iron or urea ( nitrogen fertilizer ) artificial trees ( see carbon capture and sequestration ) Since the first three methods do not remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , they would only reduce global warming but not ocean acidification . Since the last two methods would remove carbon dioxide , they could in theory reduce both global warming and ocean acidification .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Five_Ways_to_Save_the_World\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 85804\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Territorialisation of carbon governance Content: Territorialisation of Carbon Governance ( ToCG ) is a concept used in political geography or environmental policy which is considered to be a new logic of environmental governance . This method creates carbon-relevant citizens who become enrolled in the process of governing the climate . The territorialisation of carbon governance transforms climate change from a global to local issue . It embodies political practices that serve to connect the causes and consequences of global climate change to local communities . The commitment to reducing greenhouse gas emissions ( GHG ) has been a key component of sustainability within governance since the early 1990s . The ICLEI - Local Governments for Sustainability is an international association of local governments which brings together 1200 cities , towns and the associated 70 countries in their commitment to sustainable development . Further responses that seek to address these issues , include international body the IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , the Rio Earth Summit and United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . These organisations strive to tackle anthropogenic forces which are increasing risks of global warming . Under the territorialisation of carbon , climate and global flows of carbon are regarded as ` national sinks ' . This is a means by which the carbon cycle can be managed and territorialised through being assigned to a physical geographical space instead of being thought of as a global phenomenon . The act of territorialisation oversees the combining of material natures and state institutions into one system through the creation of carbon territories . This approach can allow individual states and governments to control and monitor their carbon emissions in order to improve their efforts in carbon governance . Carbon governance can be interpreted as the institutional arrangements under which greenhouse gas emissions are addressed and mitigated . This is achieved through regulating and controlling carbon activities . Measures and protocols exist in an attempt to address the issues surrounding greenhouse gas emissions . Carbon governance is addressed via governmental decisions made through leadership and management which attempt to improve and resolve problems related to climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Territorialisation_of_carbon_governance\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 85775\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Chicago Climate Exchange Content: The Chicago Climate Exchange ( CCX ) was North America 's only voluntary , legally binding greenhouse gas ( GHG ) reduction and trading system for emission sources and offset projects in North America and Brazil . CCX employed independent verification , included six greenhouse gases , and traded greenhouse gas emission allowances from 2003 to 2010 . The companies joining the exchange committed to reducing their aggregate emissions by 6 % by 2010 . CCX had an aggregate baseline of 680 million metric tons of CO2 equivalent . CCX ceased trading carbon credits at the end of 2010 due to inactivity in the U.S. carbon markets , although carbon exchanges were intended to still be facilitated .\",\n \"qid\": \"2750\",\n \"docid\": \"Chicago_Climate_Exchange\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 85624\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":1356,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"The argument that solving the global warming problem by reducing human greenhouse gas emissions is \"too hard\" generally stems from the belief that (i) our technology is not sufficiently advanced to achieve significant emissions reductions,"},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .","qid":"2751","docid":"Economics_of_global_warming","rank":1,"score":177906},{"content":"Title: Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 Content: The Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 , or Assembly Bill ( AB ) 32 , is a California State Law that fights global warming by establishing a comprehensive program to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from all sources throughout the state . AB 32 was authored by then-Assembly member Fran Pavley and Assembly Speaker Fabian Nunez ( D-Los Angeles ) and signed into law by Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger on September 27 , 2006 . On June 1 , 2005 , Governor Schwarzenegger signed an executive order known as Executive Order S-3-05 which established greenhouse gas emissions targets for the state . The executive order required the state to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions levels to 2000 levels by 2010 , to 1990 levels by 2020 , and to a level 80 % below 1990 levels by 2050 . However , to implement this measure , the California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) needed authority from the legislature . The California State Legislature passed the Global Warming Solutions Act to address this issue and gave the CARB authority to implement the program . AB 32 requires the California Air Resources Board ( CARB or ARB ) to develop regulations and market mechanisms to reduce California 's greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by the year of 2020 , representing approximately a 30 % reduction statewide , with mandatory caps beginning in 2012 for significant emissions sources . The bill also allows the Governor to suspend the emissions caps for up to a year in case of emergency or significant economic harm . The State of California leads the nation in energy efficiency standards and plays a lead role in environmental protection , but is also the 12th largest emitter of carbon worldwide . Greenhouse gas emissions are defined in the bill to include all of the following : carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , sulfur hexafluoride , hydrofluorocarbons and perfluorocarbons . These are the same greenhouse gases listed in Annex A of the Kyoto Protocol .","qid":"2751","docid":"Global_Warming_Solutions_Act_of_2006","rank":2,"score":176476},{"content":"Title: California Senate Bill 32 Content: The California Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 : emissions limit , or SB-32 , is a California Senate bill expanding upon AB-32 to reduce greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions . The lead author is Senator Fran Pavley and the principal co-author is Assemblymember Eduardo Garcia . SB-32 was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 , by Governor Edmund Gerald `` Jerry '' Brown Jr. . SB-32 sets into law the mandated reduction target in GHG emissions as written into Executive Order B-30-15 . The Senate bill requires that there be a reduction in GHG emissions to 40 % below the 1990 levels by 2030 . Greenhouse gas emissions include carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , sulfur hexafluoride , hydrofluorocarbons , and perfluorocarbons . The California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) is responsible for ensuring that California meets this goal . The provisions of SB-32 were added to Section 38566 of the Health and Safety Code subsequent to the bill 's approval . The bill goes into effect January 1 , 2017 . SB-32 builds onto Assembly Bill ( AB ) 32 written by Senator Fran Pavley and Assembly Speaker Fabian Nunez passed into law on September 27 , 2006 . AB-32 required California to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by 2020 and SB-32 continues that timeline to reach the targets set in Executive Order B-30-15 . SB-32 provides another intermediate target between the 2020 and 2050 targets set in Executive Order S-3-05 . SB-32 was contingent on the passing of AB-197 , which increases legislative oversight of CARB and is intended to ensure CARB must report to the Legislature . AB-197 also passed and was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 .","qid":"2751","docid":"California_Senate_Bill_32","rank":3,"score":169917},{"content":"Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .","qid":"2751","docid":"Low-carbon_economy","rank":4,"score":169780},{"content":"Title: Sustainable Communities and Climate Protection Act of 2008 Content: The Sustainable Communities and Climate Protection Act of 2008 , also known as Senate Bill 375 or SB 375 , is a State of California law targeting greenhouse gas emissions from passenger vehicles . The Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 ( AB 32 ) sets goals for the reduction of statewide greenhouse gas emissions . Passenger vehicles are the single largest source of greenhouse gas emissions statewide , accounting for 30 % of total emissions . SB 375 therefore provides key support to achieve the goals of AB 32 . SB 375 instructs the California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) to set regional emissions ' reduction targets from passenger vehicles . The Metropolitan Planning Organization for each region must then develop a `` Sustainable Communities Strategy '' ( SCS ) that integrates transportation , land-use and housing policies to plan for achievement of the emissions target for their region . In a press release the day he signed the bill into law , Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger stated , `` What this will mean is more environmentally-friendly communities , more sustainable developments , less time people spend in their cars , more alternative transportation options and neighborhoods we can safely and proudly pass on to future generations . ''","qid":"2751","docid":"Sustainable_Communities_and_Climate_Protection_Act_of_2008","rank":5,"score":164634},{"content":"Title: Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 Content: The Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 - a bill to amend the Clean Air Act to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide , and for other purposes . It was proposed in the 110th United States Congress by Senators Bernie Sanders ( I-VT ) and Barbara Boxer ( D-CA ) on January 15 , 2007 . It was referred to the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works . The measure was intended to increase performance standards for electricity generation and motor vehicles with the option of an emissions `` cap and trade '' system . The emissions cap would begin in 2010 with the aim of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 15 percent by 2020 and 83 percent by 2050 . The legislation would also provide funding for R&D on geologic sequestration of carbon dioxide , among other projects ; set emissions standards for new vehicles and a renewable fuels requirement for gasoline beginning in 2016 ; establish energy efficiency and renewable portfolio standards beginning in 2008 and low-carbon electric generation standards beginning in 2016 for electric utilities ; and require periodic evaluations by the National Academy of Sciences to determine whether emissions targets are adequate .","qid":"2751","docid":"Global_Warming_Pollution_Reduction_Act_of_2007","rank":6,"score":163921},{"content":"Title: America's Climate Security Act of 2007 Content: The America 's Climate Security Act of 2007 was a global warming bill that was considered by the United States Senate to reduce the amount of greenhouse gases emitted in the United States . Also known as the Lieberman-Warner bill , bill number , the legislation was introduced by Sens. Joseph Lieberman ( I-CT ) and John Warner ( R-VA ) on October 18 , 2007 . The bill was approved by the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works in December 2007 , and was debated in the Senate during the week of June 2 . The bill would create a national cap-and-trade scheme for greenhouse gas emissions , in which polluters would mostly be allocated right-to-emit credits based on how much greenhouse gas they currently emit . The cap would get tighter over time , until by 2050 , emissions would be reduced to 63 % below 2005 levels . Several environmental groups express their encouragement at the progress in legislation on the global warming issue while at the same time expressing disappointment that the bill does n't reduce emissions enough . On June 6 , 2008 , the bill was killed by Senate Republicans over worries that it would damage the economy .","qid":"2751","docid":"America's_Climate_Security_Act_of_2007","rank":7,"score":162298},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .","qid":"2751","docid":"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom","rank":8,"score":160671},{"content":"Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .","qid":"2751","docid":"Effects_of_global_warming","rank":9,"score":160134},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Massachusetts Content: Formet Massachusetts Governor Deval Patrick has signed into law three global warming and energy-related bills that will promote advanced biofuels , support the growth of the clean energy technology industry , and cut the emissions of greenhouse gases within the state . The Clean Energy Biofuels Act , signed in late July , exempts cellulosic ethanol from the state 's gasoline tax , but only if the ethanol achieves a 60 % reduction in greenhouse gas emissions relative to gasoline . The act also requires all diesel motor fuels and all No. 2 fuel oil sold for heating to include at least 2 % `` substitute fuel '' by July 2010 , where substitute fuel is defined as a fuel derived from renewable non-food biomass that achieves at least a 50 % reduction in greenhouse gas emissions . The requirement for both motor diesel fuel and heating oil increases by a percentage point per year until 2013 , after which it holds steady 5 % . The act also allows the state to expand the requirement to other forms of fuel oil , and it requires the state to work to establish a low-carbon fuel standard under the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative . In early August of 2008 , Governor Patrick signed two additional bills : the Green Jobs Act and the Global Warming Solutions Act . The Green Jobs Act will support the growth of a clean energy technology industry within the state , backed by $ 68 million in funding over 5 years . The Global Warming Solutions Act requires a reduction of greenhouse gas emissions in the state to 10 % -25 % below 1990 levels by 2020 and to 80 % below 1990 levels by 2050 . Under the act , the Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection will carry the burdens of determining the baseline level of emissions in 1990 and creating a plan to meet the future emissions limits , including the establishment of interim limits for 2030 and 2040","qid":"2751","docid":"Climate_change_in_Massachusetts","rank":10,"score":158917},{"content":"Title: Mitigation of global warming in Australia Content: Mitigation of global warming involves taking actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to enhance sinks aimed at reducing the extent of global warming . This is in distinction to adaptation to global warming , which involves taking action to minimise the effects of global warming . Scientific consensus on global warming , together with the precautionary principle and the fear of non-linear climate transitions , is leading to increased effort to develop new technologies and sciences and carefully manage others in an attempt to mitigate global warming . Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) for coal-fired power stations has been put forward as a solution to rising greenhouse gas emissions . However , CCS can not deliver in time to avoid dangerous increases in temperatures , as widespread commercial use of CCS is not expected before 2030 . Following the introduction of government mandatory renewable energy targets , more opportunities have opened up for renewable energy technologies such as wind power , photovoltaics , and solar thermal technologies . The deployment of these technologies provides opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gases . A carbon price was introduced on 1 July 2012 by the government of Julia Gillard with the purpose of reducing Australia 's carbon emissions . It requires large businesses ( defined as those with annual carbon dioxide equivalent emissions over 25,000 tonnes annually ) to pay a price for emissions permits . The tax was scrapped by the Abbott government in July 2014 in what was a widely criticised and highly publicised move .","qid":"2751","docid":"Mitigation_of_global_warming_in_Australia","rank":11,"score":158696},{"content":"Title: Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation Content: Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation and the role of conservation , sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries ( REDD + ) was first negotiated under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) since 2005 , with the objective of mitigating climate change through reducing net emissions of greenhouse gases through enhanced forest management in developing countries . Most of the key REDD + decisions were completed by 2013 , with the final pieces of the rulebook finished in 2015 . In the last two decades , various studies estimate that land use change , including deforestation and forest degradation , accounts for 12-29 % of global greenhouse gas emissions . For this reason the inclusion of reducing emissions from land use change is considered essential to achieve the objectives of the UNFCCC . During the negotiations for the Kyoto Protocol , and then in particular its Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) , the inclusion of tropical forest management was debated but eventually dropped due to anticipated methodological difficulties in establishing -- in particular -- additionality and leakage ( detrimental effects outside of the project area attributable to project activities ) . What remained on forestry was `` Afforestation and Reforestation '' , sectoral scope 14 of the CDM . Under this sectoral scope areas of land that had no forest cover since 1990 could be replanted with commercial or indigenous tree species . In its first eight years of operation 52 projects had been registered under the `` Afforestation and Reforestation '' scope of the CDM . The cumbersome administrative procedures and corresponding high transaction costs are often blamed for this slow uptake . Beyond the CDM , all developed countries that were parties to the Kyoto Protocol also committed to measuring and reporting on efforts to reduce net greenhouse gas emissions from forests . The United States also measures and reports on the net greenhouse gas sequestration in its forests . In response to what many perceived to be a failure to address a major source of global greenhouse gas emissions , the Coalition for Rainforest Nations ( CfRN ) was established and in 2005 they proposed to the Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC policy approaches and positive incentives for the reduction of emissions of greenhouse gases stemming from tropical deforestation and forest degradation as a climate change mitigation measure .","qid":"2751","docid":"Reducing_emissions_from_deforestation_and_forest_degradation","rank":12,"score":157103},{"content":"Title: Kyoto Protocol Content: The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , based on the fact that ( a ) global warming exists and ( b ) human-made CO2 emissions have caused it . The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto , Japan , on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005 . There are currently 192 parties ( Canada withdrew effective December 2012 ) to the Protocol . The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to `` a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' ( Art. 2 ) . The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities : it puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . The Protocol 's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012 . A second commitment period was agreed on in 2012 , known as the Doha Amendment to the protocol , in which 37 countries have binding targets : Australia , the European Union ( and its 28 member states ) , Belarus , Iceland , Kazakhstan , Liechtenstein , Norway , Switzerland , and Ukraine . Belarus , Kazakhstan and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets . Japan , New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyoto 's first-round but have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period . Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada ( which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012 ) and the United States ( which has not ratified the Protocol ) . As of July 2016 , 66 states have accepted the Doha Amendment , while entry into force requires the acceptances of 144 states . Of the 37 countries with binding commitments , 7 have ratified . Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ends in 2020 . This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the Paris Agreement , which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto protocol .","qid":"2751","docid":"Kyoto_Protocol","rank":13,"score":155155},{"content":"Title: Contraction and Convergence Content: Contraction and Convergence ( C&C ) is a proposed global framework for reducing greenhouse gas emissions to combat climate change . Conceived by the Global Commons Institute -LSB- GCI -RSB- in the early 1990s , the Contraction and Convergence strategy consists of reducing overall emissions of greenhouse gases to a safe level ( contraction ) , resulting from every country bringing its emissions per capita to a level which is equal for all countries ( convergence ) . It is intended to form the basis of an international agreement which will reduce carbon dioxide emissions to avoid dangerous climate change , carbon dioxide being the gas that is primarily responsible for changes in the greenhouse effect on Earth . It is expressed as a simple mathematical formula . This formula can be used as a way for the world to stabilize carbon levels at any level . Advocates of Contraction and Convergence stress that negotiations at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change -LSB- UNFCCC -RSB- are governed sequentially by the ` objective ' of the UNFCCC -LSB- safe and stable GHG concentration in the global atmosphere -RSB- followed by its organising principles -LSB- ` precaution ' and ` equity ' -RSB- . C&C is widely cited and supported .","qid":"2751","docid":"Contraction_and_Convergence","rank":14,"score":154986},{"content":"Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .","qid":"2751","docid":"Carbon_diet","rank":15,"score":154864},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas inventory Content: Greenhouse gas inventories are a type of emission inventory that are developed for a variety of reasons . Scientists use inventories of natural and anthropogenic ( human-caused ) emissions as tools when developing atmospheric models . Policy makers use inventories to develop strategies and policies for emissions reductions and to track the progress of those policies . And , regulatory agencies and corporations rely on inventories to establish compliance records with allowable emission rates . Businesses , the public , and other interest groups use inventories to better understand the sources and trends in emissions . Unlike some other air emission inventories , greenhouse gas inventories include not only emissions from source categories , but also removals by carbon sinks . These removals are typically referred to as carbon sequestration . Greenhouse gas inventories , typically use Global warming potential ( GWP ) values to combine emissions of various greenhouse gases into a single weighted value of emissions . Some of the key examples of greenhouse gas inventories include : All Annex I countries are required to report annual emissions and sinks of greenhouse gases under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) National governments that are Parties to the UNFCCC and/or the Kyoto Protocol are required to submit annual inventories of all anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions from sources and removals from sinks . The Kyoto Protocol includes additional requirements for national inventory systems , inventory reporting , and annual inventory review for determining compliance with Articles 5 and 8 of the Protocol . Project developers under the Clean Development Mechanism of the Kyoto Protocol prepare inventories as part of their project baselines . Corporation and other entities can prepare greenhouse gas inventories to track progress towards meeting an emission reduction goal . Scientific efforts aimed at understanding detail of total net carbon exchange . Example : Project Vulcan - a comprehensive US inventory of fossil-fuel greenhouse gas emissions .","qid":"2751","docid":"Greenhouse_gas_inventory","rank":16,"score":154780},{"content":"Title: California Proposition 23 (2010) Content: Proposition 23 was a California ballot proposition that was on the November 2 , 2010 California statewide ballot . It was defeated by California voters during the statewide election by a 23 % margin . If passed , it would have suspended AB 32 , a law enacted in 2006 , legally referred to its long name , the Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 . Sponsors of the initiative referred to their measure as the California Jobs Initiative while opponents called it the Dirty Energy Prop . The goal of the proposition was to freeze the provisions of AB 32 until California 's unemployment rate dropped to 5.5 % or below for four consecutive quarters . Since the rate was then at 12.4 % , and it had been decades since the state had seen an unemployment rate below 5.5 % for such a period of time , this wording was seen by former Gov. Arnold Schwarzenegger and others as a wording trick to delay the environmental regulations indefinitely . AB 32 requires that greenhouse emission levels in the state be cut to 1990 levels by 2020 , in a gradual process of cutting that is slated to begin in 2012 . Reducing greenhouse emission levels to 1990 levels will involve cutting them by about 15 % from 2010 levels . AB 32 includes a provision allowing the Governor of California to suspend the provisions of AB 32 if there are `` extraordinary circumstances '' in place , such as `` significant economic harm '' . The supporters of Prop 23 , Assemblyman Dan Logue and Ted Costa , decided to circulate a petition to accomplish a suspension of the environmental regulations . Governor Schwarzenegger , as well as the major party candidates for Governor , Jerry Brown , and Meg Whitman , all stated they would vote `` no '' on Prop 23 . Brown however favored `` adjustments '' to AB 32 , while Whitman would have immediately suspended the law . Louise Bedsworth , a research fellow at the Public Policy Institute of California , predicted in April 2010 that total campaign spending on this proposition would top the $ 154 million record set in 2006 by Proposition 87 . If campaign spending on the proposition does reach that level , it could be because supporters and opponents view the battle over the suspension of AB 32 as symbolic in the larger national debate over global warming . Steven Maviglio , speaking for a group that wants to keep AB 32 intact , said , '' ... this could be a ground zero for the battle for the future of clean energy '' .","qid":"2751","docid":"California_Proposition_23_(2010)","rank":17,"score":154515},{"content":"Title: Climate change mitigation Content: Climate change mitigation consists of actions to limit the magnitude or rate of long-term climate change . Climate change mitigation generally involves reductions in human ( anthropogenic ) emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) . Mitigation may also be achieved by increasing the capacity of carbon sinks , e.g. , through reforestation . Mitigation policies can substantially reduce the risks associated with human-induced global warming . According to the IPCC 's 2014 assessment report , `` Mitigation is a public good ; climate change is a case of the ` tragedy of the commons . Effective climate change mitigation will not be achieved if each agent ( individual , institution or country ) acts independently in its own selfish interest ( see international cooperation and emissions trading ) , suggesting the need for collective action . Some adaptation actions , on the other hand , have characteristics of a private good as benefits of actions may accrue more directly to the individuals , regions , or countries that undertake them , at least in the short term . Nevertheless , financing such adaptive activities remains an issue , particularly for poor individuals and countries . '' Examples of mitigation include phasing out fossil fuels by switching to low-carbon energy sources , such as renewable and nuclear energy , and expanding forests and other `` sinks '' to remove greater amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Energy efficiency may also play a role , for example , through improving the insulation of buildings . Another approach to climate change mitigation is climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to stabilize atmospheric concentrations of GHGs at a level that would prevent dangerous human interference of the climate system . Scientific analysis can provide information on the impacts of climate change , but deciding which impacts are dangerous requires value judgments . In 2010 , Parties to the UNFCCC agreed that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) relative to the pre-industrial level . With the Paris Agreement of 2015 this was confirmed , but was revised with a new target laying down `` parties will do the best '' to achieve warming below 1.5 ° C . The current trajectory of global greenhouse gas emissions does not appear to be consistent with limiting global warming to below 1.5 or 2 ° C . Other mitigation policies have been proposed , some of which are more stringent or modest than the 2 ° C limit .","qid":"2751","docid":"Climate_change_mitigation","rank":18,"score":154446},{"content":"Title: Executive Orders S-3-05 and B-30-15 Content: Executive Orders S-3-05 is an Executive Order of the State of California signed by Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger in June 2005 that set greenhouse gas emissions reduction targets for the State of California and laid out responsibilities among the state agencies for implementing the Executive Order and for reporting on progress toward the targets . Specifically , the Executive Order established these targets : By 2010 , reduce GHG emissions to 2000 levels By 2020 , reduce GHG emissions to 1990 levels By 2050 , reduce GHG emissions to 80 percent below 1990 levels The first and second goals were enshrined into law by the legislation known as AB 32 , or the Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 , which gave the California Air Resources Board broad authority to implement a market-based system ( also known as cap-and-trade ) to achieve these goals . California Executive Order B-30-15 ( April 2015 , signed by Governor Jerry Brown ) added the intermediate target of : By 2030 , reduce GHG emissions to 40 percent below 1990 levels .","qid":"2751","docid":"Executive_Orders_S-3-05_and_B-30-15","rank":19,"score":154324},{"content":"Title: Cap and Share Content: Cap and Share was originally developed by Feasta ( the Foundation for the Economics of Sustainability ) and is a regulatory and economic framework for controlling the use of fossil fuels in relation to climate stabilisation . Accepting that climate change is a global problem and that there is a need to cap and reduce greenhouse gas emissions globally , the philosophy of Cap and Share maintains that the earth 's atmosphere is a fundamental common resource . Consequently , it is argued , each individual should get an equal share of the benefits from the limited amount of fossil fuels that will have to be burned and their emissions released into the atmosphere in the period until the atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gases has been stabilised at a safe level .","qid":"2751","docid":"Cap_and_Share","rank":20,"score":152110},{"content":"Title: Emission Reduction Unit Content: The emission reduction unit ( ERU ) is an emissions unit issued under a Joint Implementation project in terms of the Kyoto Protocol . An ERU represents a reduction of greenhouse gases under the Joint Implementation mechanism , where it represents one tonne of equivalent reduced . To allow comparison between the different effects of gases on the environment , scientists have defined multipliers for gases that compare their greenhouse potency ( global warming potential ) relative to that of carbon dioxide . One example of a Joint Implementation project resulting in an emission reduction unit , is the production of biogases by landfill sites . These gases consist of mainly methane which escapes to the atmosphere if it is not collected . The main reason for dealing with methane is that it has a 100-year global warming potential multiplier of 25 compared to carbon dioxide ( i.e. has 25 times the greenhouse potency ) . Collection of methane is usually accompanied by its combustion . Burning one tonne of methane produces nearly 3 tonnes of , thus reducing its greenhouse effect by ( 25-3 = 22 ) ERU . In December 2012 , ERU prices crashed to a low of 15 euro cents before recovering to 23c after news that EU 's Climate Change Committee was to vote on a ban of ERUs from countries that have not signed up to a second commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol . In January 2013 , Bloomberg reported that emission reduction unit prices declined 89 percent in 2012","qid":"2751","docid":"Emission_Reduction_Unit","rank":21,"score":151705},{"content":"Title: Environmental impact of transport Content: The environmental impact of transport is significant because it is a major user of energy , and burns most of the world 's petroleum . This creates air pollution , including nitrous oxides and particulates , and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon dioxide , for sector . By subsector , road transport is the largest contributor to global warming . Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced the individual vehicle 's emission ; however , this has been offset by an increase in the number of vehicles , and more use of each vehicle . Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road vehicles considerably have been studied . Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes , causing environmentalists to call for a transition from air and road to rail and human-powered transport , and increase transport electrification and energy efficiency . The transportation sector is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) in the United States . An estimated 30 percent of national GHGs are directly attributable to transportation -- and in some regions , the proportion is even higher . Transportation methods are the greatest contributing source of GHGs in the U.S. , accounting for 47 percent of the net increase in total U.S. emissions since 1990 . Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urban sprawl , which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands . By reducing transportation emissions globally , it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects on Earth 's air quality , acid rain , smog and climate change . The health impact of transport emissions is also of concern . A recent survey of the studies on the effect of traffic emissions on pregnancy outcomes has linked exposure to emissions to adverse effects on gestational duration and possibly also intrauterine growth . As listed above direct impacts such as noise and carbon monoxide emissions create direct and harmful effects on the environment , along with indirect impacts . The indirect impacts are often of higher consequence which leads to the misconception that it 's the opposite since it is frequently understood that initial effects cause the most damage . For example , particulates which are the outcome of incomplete combustion done by an internal combustion engine , are not linked with respiratory and cardiovascular problems since they contribute to other factors not only to that specific condition . Even though the environmental impacts are usually listed individually there are also cumulative impacts . The synergetic consequences of transport activities . They take into account of the varied effects of direct and indirect impacts on an ecosystem . Climate change is the sum total impact of several natural and human-made factors . 15 % of global CO2 emissions are attributed to the transport sector .","qid":"2751","docid":"Environmental_impact_of_transport","rank":22,"score":150944},{"content":"Title: The 2030 °Challenge Content: The 2030 ° Challenge is an initiative by Edward Mazria and Architecture 2030 asking the global architecture and construction community to adopt a series of greenhouse gas reduction targets for new and renovated buildings . In many developed countries the construction and use of buildings is the leading consumer of energy and producer of greenhouse gas emissions . Stabilizing and reversing emissions in this sector is key to keeping future global warming under one degree celsius ( ° C ) above today 's level , in order to avoid increased global warming , potentially to reach a tipping point .","qid":"2751","docid":"The_2030_°Challenge","rank":23,"score":150124},{"content":"Title: Air pollution in Germany Content: Air pollution in Germany has significantly decreased over the past decade . Air pollution occurs when harmful substances are released into the Earth 's atmosphere . These pollutants are released through human activity and natural sources . Germany took interest in reducing its greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions by switching to renewable energy sources . Renewable energy use rose from 6.3 % in 2000 to 34 % in 2016 . Through the transition to renewable energy sources , Germany has become the climate change policy leader and renewable energy leader in the European Union ( EU ) and in the world with ambitious climate change programs . The current goal of the German government was approved on 14 November 2016 in the German Climate Action Plan 2050 , which outlines measures by which Germany can meet its greenhouse gas emissions by 2050 . By 2050 , Germany wants to reduce their GHGs by 80 to 95 % and by 2030 they want to reduce it by 55 % , compared to the EU target of 40 % . In order to achieve these goals , a variety of strategies and policies are used rather than legislation . The four strategies the German government bases air pollution control on are laying down environmental quality standards , emission reduction requirements according to the best available technology , production regulations , and laying down emission ceilings . Through these strategies , policy instruments have been put in place that have contributed to the success of the significant air pollution reduction in Germany . These instruments include the Federal Emission Control Act and Implementing Ordinances , Technical Instructions on Air Quality Control ( TA Luft ) , Amendment to Ordinance on Small Firing Installations , Implementation of the directive on industrial emissions , and Transboundary air pollution control policy . The German Feed-in-Tariff policy introduced in 2000 led to the significant increase in renewable energy use and decreasing air pollution . They have been introduced in Germany to increase the use of renewables , such as wind power , biomass , hydropower , geothermal power , and photovoltaics , thereby reducing GHG emissions causing air pollution and combating climate change . The German government has been an agenda setter in international climate policy negotiations since the late 1980s . However , national and global climate policies have become a top priority since the conservative-social democratic government came into power in 2005 , pushing both European and international climate negotiations . Positive path dependency in Germany 's climate and energy policies has occurred over the past 20 years . There are three main triggers that put Germany on this positive path dependency and what led them to becoming a climate change policy leader . The first being the widespread damages to health , due to smog , and to nature , due to acid rain , caused by air pollution . The second being the shock of the two oil price crises , in 1973 and 1979 , that highlighted the problem of the German economy 's strong dependence on unsure foreign sources . The third being the growing opposition to the country 's growing reliance on nuclear energy . Air pollution began to be seen as a problem in Germany due to these three triggers , causing Germany to put policies into place to control air pollution . This has now developed from controlling air pollution to being a leader in climate change politics . __ TOC __","qid":"2751","docid":"Air_pollution_in_Germany","rank":24,"score":149432},{"content":"Title: Carbon price Content: Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' . Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain . The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions . The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations .","qid":"2751","docid":"Carbon_price","rank":25,"score":148932},{"content":"Title: Intended Nationally Determined Contributions Content: Intended Nationally Determined Contributions ( INDCs ) is a term used under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) for reductions in greenhouse gas emissions that all countries that signed the UNFCCC were asked to publish in the lead up to the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference held in Paris , France in December 2015 . These intended contributions were determined without prejudice to the legal nature of the contributions . The term was intended as a compromise between `` quantified emissions limitation and reduction objective '' ( QUELROs ) and `` nationally appropriate mitigation actions '' ( NAMAs ) that the Kyoto Protocol used to describe the different legal obligations of developed and developing countries . Under the Paris Agreement , adopted in December 2015 , the INDC will become the first Nationally Determined Contribution when a country ratifies the agreement , unless they decide to submit a new NDC at the same time . Once the Paris Agreement is ratified , the NDC will become the first greenhouse gas targets under the UNFCCC that applied equally to both developed and developing countries . On 3 August 2016 China and US ratified 2015 agreement on INDC . Together they both constitute 38 % of total global emission , with China 's alone emitting total of 20 % . India that has a Global share of GHGs emission at 4.1 % of that of world ratified Paris climate agreement on October 2 , 2016 by depositing the Instrument of ratification with the United nations .","qid":"2751","docid":"Intended_Nationally_Determined_Contributions","rank":26,"score":147341},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .","qid":"2751","docid":"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States","rank":27,"score":147332},{"content":"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.","qid":"2751","docid":"Climate_change_in_the_United_States","rank":28,"score":147179},{"content":"Title: Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Content: The Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme ( or CPRS ) was a cap-and-trade emissions trading scheme for anthropogenic greenhouse gases proposed by the Rudd government , as part of its climate change policy , which had been due to commence in Australia in 2010 . It marked a major change in the energy policy of Australia . The policy began to be formulated in April 2007 , when the federal Labor Party was in Opposition and the six Labor-controlled states commissioned an independent review on energy policy , the Garnaut Climate Change Review , which published a number of reports . After Labor won the 2007 federal election and formed government , it published a Green Paper on climate change for discussion and comment . The Federal Treasury then modelled some of the financial and economic impacts of the proposed CPRS scheme . The Rudd government published a final White Paper on 15 December 2008 , and announced that legislation was intended to take effect in July 2010 ; but the legislation for the CPRS ( aka ETS ) failed to gain the numbers in the Senate and was twice rejected creating a double dissolution election trigger . A bitter political debate within the Coalition Opposition saw Opposition leader Malcolm Turnbull lose the leadership to the anti-CPRS Tony Abbott . The Rudd government did not call an election and in April 2010 , Rudd deferred plans for the CPRS . After the 2010 federal election , the Gillard Government was able to get the Carbon Pricing Mechanism ( CPM ) passed into law as part of the Clean Energy Futures Package ( CEF ) in 2011 , and became effective on 1 July 2012 . However , after the 2013 federal election there was a change in government , and the Abbott Government repealed the CEF package on 17 July 2014 . Due to the great deal of policy uncertainty surrounding the scheme , organizations in Australia responded in a rather informal and tepid manner and largely withheld from making any large-scale investments in emissions reductions technology during the scheme 's operation .","qid":"2751","docid":"Carbon_Pollution_Reduction_Scheme","rank":29,"score":146770},{"content":"Title: Drawdown (climate) Content: Climate drawdown is the point at which greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere begin to decline on a year-to-year basis . Drawdown is a goal for reversing climate change , and eventually reducing global average temperatures . Project Drawdown is a climate change mitigation project initiated by Paul Hawken and climate activist Amanda Joy Ravenhill . Central to the project is the compilation of a list of the `` 100 most substantive solutions to global warming . '' The list , encompassing only technologically viable , existing solutions , was compiled by a team of over 200 scholars , scientists , policymakers , business leaders and activists ; for each solution the carbon impact through the year 2050 , the total and net cost to society , and the total lifetime savings were measured and modelled .","qid":"2751","docid":"Drawdown_(climate)","rank":30,"score":144764},{"content":"Title: Carbon governance in England Content: The reduction of carbon emissions , along with other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , has become a vitally important task of international , national and local actors . If we understand governance as the creation of `` conditions for ordered rule and collective action '' then , given the fact that the reduction of carbon emissions will require concerted collective action , it follows that the governance of carbon will be of paramount concern . We have seen numerous international conferences over the past 20 years tasked with finding a way of facilitating this , and while international agreements have been infamously difficult to reach , action at the national level has been much more effective . In the UK , the Climate Change Act 2008 committed the government to meeting significant carbon reduction targets . In England , these carbon emissions are governed using numerous different instruments , which involve a variety of actors . While it has been argued by authors like Rhodes that there has been a `` hollowing out '' of the nation state , and that governments have lost their capabilities to govern to a variety of non-state actors and the European Union , the case of carbon governance in England actually runs counter to this . The government body responsible for the task , the Department of Energy and Climate Change ( DECC ) , is the `` main external dynamic '' behind governing actions in this area , and `` rather than hollowing out ( there has actually been a strengthening of ) central co-ordination '' . The department may rely on other bodies to deliver its desired outcomes , but it is still ultimately responsible for the imposition of the rules and regulations that `` steer ( carbon ) governmental action at the national level '' . It is therefore evident that carbon governance in England is hierarchical in nature , in that `` legislative decisions and executive decisions '' are the main dynamic behind carbon governance action . This does not deny the existence of a network of bodies around DECC who are part of the process , but they are supplementary actors who are steered by central decisions . This article focuses on carbon governance in England as the other countries of the UK ( Scotland , Wales and Northern Ireland ) all have devolved assemblies who are responsible for the governance of carbon emissions in their respective countries .","qid":"2751","docid":"Carbon_governance_in_England","rank":31,"score":144497},{"content":"Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .","qid":"2751","docid":"Global_warming_controversy","rank":32,"score":144082},{"content":"Title: Environmental issue Content: Environmental issues are harmful trouble effects of human activity on the biophysical environment . Environmental protection is a practice of protecting the natural environment on individual , organizational or governmental levels , for the benefit of both the environment and humans . Environmentalism , a social and environmental movement , addresses environmental issues through advocacy , education and activism . The carbon dioxide equivalent of greenhouse gases ( GHG ) in the atmosphere has already exceeded 400 parts per million ( NOAA ) ( with total `` long-term '' GHG exceeding 455 parts per million ) . ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Report ) This level is considered a tipping point . `` The amount of greenhouse gas in the atmosphere is already above the threshold that can potentially cause dangerous climate change . We are already at risk of many areas of pollution ... It 's not next year or next decade , it 's now . '' Report from the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs ( OCHA ) : Environment destruction caused by humans is a global problem , and this is a problem that is on going every day . By year 2050 , the global human population is expected to grow by 2 billion people , thereby reaching a level of 9.6 billion people ( Living Blue Planet 24 ) . The human effects on Earth can be seen in many different ways . A main one is the temperature rise , and according to the report '' Our Changing Climate '' , the global warming that has been going on for the past 50 years is primarily due to human activities ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) . Since 1895 , the U.S. average temperature has increased from 1.3 ° F to 1.9 ° F , with most of the increase taken place since around year 1970 ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) .","qid":"2751","docid":"Environmental_issue","rank":33,"score":143818},{"content":"Title: Carbon emissions reporting Content: Human activities continue to impact Earth 's climate through the emission of greenhouse gases . One of the proposed ways to combat this climate change is through reporting by businesses on the impact of their activities . Large power stations and manufacturing plants are often required to report their emissions to appropriate government entities , for example to the European Union as part of the Emissions Trading System or to the US EPA as part of the Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program . In the United Kingdom , Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra ) has described climate change as the `` greatest environmental challenge facing the world today , '' and it is now a legal requirement for all quoted companies to report their annual greenhouse gas emissions .","qid":"2751","docid":"Carbon_emissions_reporting","rank":34,"score":142237},{"content":"Title: Global Climate Coalition Content: The Global Climate Coalition ( GCC ) ( 1989 -- 2001 ) was an international lobbyist group of businesses that opposed action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and challenged the science behind global warming . The GCC was the largest industry group active in climate policy and the most prominent industry advocate in international climate negotiations . The GCC was involved in opposition to the Kyoto Protocol , and played a role in blocking ratification by the United States . The coalition promoted the views of climate skeptics . The GCC dissolved in 2001 after membership declined in the face of improved understanding of the role of greenhouse gases in climate change and of public criticism .","qid":"2751","docid":"Global_Climate_Coalition","rank":35,"score":141982},{"content":"Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.","qid":"2751","docid":"Media_coverage_of_global_warming","rank":36,"score":141169},{"content":"Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .","qid":"2751","docid":"Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact","rank":37,"score":139465},{"content":"Title: American Electric Power Co. v. Connecticut Content: American Electric Power Company v. Connecticut , , was a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court , in an 8 -- 0 decision , held that corporations can not be sued for greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) under federal common law , primarily because the Clean Air Act ( CAA ) delegates the management of carbon dioxide and other GHG emissions to the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) . Brought to court in July 2004 in the Southern District of New York , this was the first global warming case based on a public nuisance claim .","qid":"2751","docid":"American_Electric_Power_Co._v._Connecticut","rank":38,"score":138294},{"content":"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .","qid":"2751","docid":"Global_warming","rank":39,"score":137573},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse debt Content: Greenhouse debt or carbon debt is the measure to which an individual person , incorporated association , business enterprise , government instrumentality or geographic community exceeds its permitted greenhouse footprint and contributes greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming and climate change . The concept makes no sense without a clear numerical value for the permitted greenhouse footprint . It is not clear what this value is . Friends of the Earth and similar organisations put forward the concept to define specifically the environmental harm caused by developed countries ' past and present policies . Some governments , at least the Australian Labor leadership , have a tendency to accept such a line of reasoning . The greenhouse debt assessment thus forms an ecological footprint analysis but can be used separately . Taken conjointly with a ` water debt ' analysis and an ecological impact assessment , greenhouse debt analysis is basic to giving individuals , organisations , governments and communities an understanding of the effects they are having on Gaia , life , and global warming . Ensuring that the greenhouse debt is zero is essential towards achieving ecologically sustainable development or a sustainable retreat . Any greenhouse debt incurred will contribute to making life harder for future generations of humans and non-human lifeforms . There are three possible consequences that occur as a result of a greenhouse debt . Mitigation : finding compensatory ways of reducing the greenhouse debt so its effects are neutralised Adaptation : finding ways of adjusting to the resulting global warming or climate change Suffering : having one 's quality of life reduced as a result of the consequences","qid":"2751","docid":"Greenhouse_debt","rank":40,"score":137312},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .","qid":"2751","docid":"Greenhouse_gas","rank":41,"score":137210},{"content":"Title: Paris Agreement Content: The Paris Agreement ( Accord de Paris ) is an agreement within the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) dealing with greenhouse gas emissions mitigation , adaptation and finance starting in the year 2020 . The language of the agreement was negotiated by representatives of 195 countries at the 21st Conference of the Parties of the UNFCCC in Paris and adopted by consensus on 12 December 2015 . It was opened for signature on 22 April 2016 ( Earth Day ) at a ceremony in New York . As of May 2017 , 195 UNFCCC members have signed the treaty , 147 of which have ratified it . After several European Union states ratified the agreement in October 2016 , there were enough countries that had ratified the agreement that produce enough of the world 's greenhouse gases for the agreement to enter into force . The agreement went into effect on 4 November 2016 . The head of the Paris Conference , France 's foreign minister Laurent Fabius , said this `` ambitious and balanced '' plan is a `` historic turning point '' in the goal of reducing global warming . One year on , the ratification of the Paris Agreement was celebrated by the Mayor of Paris Anne Hidalgo by illuminating the Eiffel Tower and the Arc de Triomphe , Paris ' most iconic monuments , in green .","qid":"2751","docid":"Paris_Agreement","rank":42,"score":136865},{"content":"Title: Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources Content: Measurement of life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions involves calculating the global-warming potential of electrical energy sources through life-cycle assessment of each energy source . The findings are presented in units of global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated by that source . The scale uses the global warming potential unit , the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) , and the unit of electrical energy , the kilowatt hour ( kWh ) . The goal of such assessments is to cover the full life of the source , from material and fuel mining through construction to operation and waste management . In 2014 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change harmonized the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) findings of the major electricity generating sources in use worldwide . This was done by analyzing the findings of hundreds of individual scientific papers assessing each energy source . For all technologies , advances in efficiency , and therefore reductions in e since the time of publication , have not been included . For example , the total life cycle emissions from wind power may have lessened since publication . Similarly , due to the time frame over which the studies were conducted , nuclear Generation II reactor 's e results are presented and not the global warming potential of Generation III reactors , presently under construction in the United States and China . Other limitations of the data include : a ) missing life cycle phases , and , b ) uncertainty as to where to define the cut-off point in the global warming potential of an energy source . The latter is important in assessing a combined electrical grid in the real world , rather than the established practice of simply assessing the energy source in isolation .","qid":"2751","docid":"Life-cycle_greenhouse-gas_emissions_of_energy_sources","rank":43,"score":136730},{"content":"Title: 88888 Lights Out Content: 88888 Lights Out was a campaign with the stated goal of increasing awareness of global warming and promoting actions to reduce energy consumption . By encouraging India 's residents to turn out the lights for eight minutes and to become more aware of environmental concerns , the organisers sought to limit greenhouse gas emissions and reduce pollution of the globe .","qid":"2751","docid":"88888_Lights_Out","rank":44,"score":135698},{"content":"Title: Climate change litigation and the California Environmental Quality Act Content: Litigation related to climate change and greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions has become increasingly common in federal and state courts . Following adoption of the Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 ( AB 32 ) and publication of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) , additional pressure was placed on California public agencies to evaluate potential adverse effects to global climate change caused by GHG emissions . In particular , several lawsuits have been filed against agencies for failure to analyze GHG emissions generated by projects subject to the California Environmental Quality Act ( CEQA ) . Court decisions prior to the 2010 revisions to the CEQA guidelines gave early insights as to how CEQA would be used as a vehicle to identify and mitigate GHG emissions within the state . Decisions issued after adoption of the revised guidelines are now being used to interpret CEQA 's new requirement to evaluate GHG emissions and climate change .","qid":"2751","docid":"Climate_change_litigation_and_the_California_Environmental_Quality_Act","rank":45,"score":135514},{"content":"Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .","qid":"2751","docid":"Global_Carbon_Project","rank":46,"score":135342},{"content":"Title: Hell and High Water (book) Content: Hell and High Water : Global Warming -- the Solution and the Politics -- and What We Should Do is a book by author , scientist , and former U.S. Department of Energy official Joseph J. Romm , published December 26 , 2006 . The author is `` one of the world 's leading experts on clean energy , advanced vehicles , energy security , and greenhouse gas mitigation . '' The book warns of dire consequences to the U.S. and the world if wide-scale environmental changes are not enacted by the U.S. government within the next decade . It reviews the evidence that the current initial global warming changes will lead to accelerated warming . According to Romm , the oceans , soils , Arctic permafrost , and rainforests may become sources of greenhouse gas emissions . The book claims that , without serious government action within the next ten years , sea levels will rise high enough to submerge numerous coastal communities and inland areas on both U.S. coasts and around the world by the year 2100 . In April 2008 , TIME magazine wrote that `` On -LSB- Romm 's -RSB- blog and in his most recent book , Hell and High Water , you can find some of the most cogent , memorable , and deployable arguments for immediate and overwhelming action to confront global warming . '' Romm was interviewed on Fox News on January 31 , 2007 about the book and the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report climate report .","qid":"2751","docid":"Hell_and_High_Water_(book)","rank":47,"score":135322},{"content":"Title: Post–Kyoto Protocol negotiations on greenhouse gas emissions Content: Post-Kyoto negotiations refers to high level talks attempting to address global warming by limiting greenhouse gas emissions . Generally part of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , these talks concern the period after the first `` commitment period '' of the Kyoto Protocol , which expired at the end of 2012 . Negotiations have been mandated by the adoption of the Bali Road Map and Decision 1/CP .13 ( `` The Bali Action Plan '' ) . UNFCCC negotiations are conducted within two subsidiary bodies , the Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action under the Convention ( AWG-LCA ) and the Ad Hoc Working Group on Further Commitments for Annex I Parties under the Kyoto Protocol ( AWG-KP ) and were expected to culminate in the United Nations Climate Change Conference taking place in December 2009 in Copenhagen ( COP-15 ) ; negotiations are supported by a number of external processes , including the G8 process , a number of regional meetings and the Major Economies Forum on Energy and Climate that was launched by US President Barack Obama in March 2009 . High level talks were held at the meeting of the G8 +5 Climate Change Dialogue in February 2007 and at a number of subsequent G8 meetings , most recently leading to the adoption of the G8 leaders declaration `` Responsible Leadership for a Sustainable Future '' during the G8 summit in L ´ Aquila , Italy , in July 2009 .","qid":"2751","docid":"Post–Kyoto_Protocol_negotiations_on_greenhouse_gas_emissions","rank":48,"score":135133},{"content":"Title: Global Climate and Energy Project Content: The Global Climate and Energy Project ( GCEP ) at Stanford University , `` seeks new solutions to one of the grand challenges of this century : supplying energy to meet the changing needs of a growing world population in a way that protects the environment . '' Beginning in December 2002 , GCEP is a 10-year , $ 225m research project aimed at developing new energy technologies . These new energy technologies include areas of interest such as renewable energy , CO2 capture and storage , hydrogen storage and electrocatalysis . It has the support of four major companies - ExxonMobil , General Electric , Schlumberger , and Toyota . Under the heading `` Grand Challenge '' , it identifies a global warming-related need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions through future energy development .","qid":"2751","docid":"Global_Climate_and_Energy_Project","rank":49,"score":134490},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Europe Content: Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe . According to international climate experts global temperature rise should not exceed 2 ° C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of the climate change . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . It is estimated that from the now living persons alive are 70 % in the year 2050 . Emission reduction means development and implementation of new energy technology solutions . Some people consider that the technology revolution has already started in Europe since the markets of the renewable technology have annually grown . European Union climate chief is Connie Hedegaard since 10 February 2010 .","qid":"2751","docid":"Climate_change_in_Europe","rank":50,"score":134432},{"content":"Title: Ozone depletion and climate change Content: Ozone depletion and climate change , or Ozone hole and global warming in more popular terms , are environmental challenges whose connections have been explored and which have been compared and contrasted , for example in terms of global regulation , in various studies and books . There is widespread scientific interest in better regulation of climate change , ozone depletion and air pollution , as in general the human relationship with the biosphere is deemed of major historiographical and political significance . Already by 1994 the legal debates about respective regulation regimes on climate change , ozone depletion and air pollution were being dubbed `` monumental '' and a combined synopsis provided . There are some parallels between atmospheric chemistry and anthropogenic emissions in the discussions which have taken place and the regulatory attempts which have been made . Most important is that the gases causing both problems have long lifetimes after emission to the atmosphere , thus causing problems which are difficult to reverse . However , the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and the Montreal Protocol that amended it are seen as success stories , while the Kyoto Protocol on anthropogenic climate change has largely failed . Currently efforts are being undertaken to assess the reasons and to use synergies , for example with regard to data reporting and policy design and further exchanging of information . While the general public tends to see global warming as a subset of ozone depletion , in fact ozone and chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons ( CFCs ) and other halocarbons , which are held responsible for ozone depletion , are important greenhouse gasses . Furthermore , natural levels of ozone in both the stratosphere and troposphere have a warming effect .","qid":"2751","docid":"Ozone_depletion_and_climate_change","rank":51,"score":134184},{"content":"Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .","qid":"2751","docid":"History_of_climate_change_science","rank":52,"score":133328},{"content":"Title: Plan Bay Area Content: Plan Bay Area 2040 is a state-mandated law that aims to integrate sustainable strategies to reduce transportation-related pollution and external greenhouse gas emission within the nine-counties of the San Francisco Bay Area . It is also known as the implementation of the Sustainable Communities and Climate Protection Act of 2008 or SB 375 . The plan addresses methods of transportation , land-use , and housing . Over the next 25 years , the Bay Area is expected to grow by an estimated 2 million people and because of the projected growth and the growing economy , the Bay Area must provide more housing and transportation choices that will reduce their carbon footprint . This adopted plan will invest in increasing methods of transportation with the goal of reducing CO2 emissions . To do so , the plan will invest in extending ferry services , freeway express lanes , and developing newer BART Stations to expand travel reach . The goal of this plan is to improve on their earlier efforts of network and growth within the context of finance and environmental responsibility . Like all plans , it is a work in progress that is updated every four years to reflect on new priorities and changes with the goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . The plan was approved on July 18 , 2013 by the Association of Bay Area Governments and by the Metropolitan Transportation Commission . The adoption of the plan by regional planners was covered by the San Francisco Chronicle .","qid":"2751","docid":"Plan_Bay_Area","rank":53,"score":133169},{"content":"Title: Ten Technologies to Fix Energy and Climate Content: Ten Technologies to Fix Energy and Climate ( second edition , 2009 ) or Ten Technologies to Save the Planet ( first edition , 2008 ) is a popular science book by Chris Goodall first published in 2008 and re-issued in 2009 by Profile Books . Its ten chapters each detail a technology that has the potential to reduce Greenhouse Gases while being economically and technologically viable in the present or near future . The book received a positive critical response for the way in which it was written and dealt with the issues surrounding Global Warming .","qid":"2751","docid":"Ten_Technologies_to_Fix_Energy_and_Climate","rank":54,"score":133016},{"content":"Title: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates Content: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) are cause by the exploitation of natural resources , rapid population growth , and high energy demand . The continuing temperature rise caused by global warming contributes to UAE 's water scarcity , drought , rising sea level and aridity . The countryside of the UAE , characterized with its great arid land , infrequent precipitation , and high temperatures are already facing long-term aridity . This precondition is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change and contributes to worsening water scarcity , quality , and water contamination . The United Arab Emirates are located in the Middle East between Oman and Saudi Arabia , adjoining the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf . In the last years , the impact of global warming on the UAE has intensified the already existing environmental issues , including water scarcity and limited agricultural land . The United Arab Emirates are a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , listed as having the 29th highest carbon dioxide emissions . Since the boom of the oil-industry occurred in the early 21st century , the population and its consumption of energy have sharply increased . The UAE contains the world 's seventh largest natural resource of oil and seventeenth-largest natural gas reserve . This possession of a high amount of valuable natural resources , pushed the UAE to the position of the ninth wealthiest country in the world by 2016 GDP per capita . These financial resources support their adaptation capacity to `` climate change-induced challenges '' . Currently , they are investing in increasing air conditioning infrastructure , rainwater drainage systems , constructing flood barriers and new desalination plants . In June 2016 Abu Dhabi announced a project for an enhanced rainwater drainage system due to unnaturally occurring thunderstorms in March 2016 which caused 860 damages on properties and flooding . Also the three main characteristics of UAE 's politics contribute to the recent natural unsustainability : First , the Emirates feature components of a Rentier state . It is governed by an authoritarian political system and finally both facts cause critical natural resource-related trades . In particular , UAE as a rentier state means that the federalization gains external rent from foreign individuals , companies and governments . A rentier state 's economy is predominated by the dependency on external rents . Oil revenues also count as external rent .","qid":"2751","docid":"Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates","rank":55,"score":132885},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions accounting Content: Greenhouse gas emissions accounting is a method of calculating the amount of greenhouse gases ( GHG ) emitted by a region in a given time-scale . A National Emissions Inventory ( NEI ) measuring a country 's GHG emissions in a year is required by the UNFCCC to provide a benchmark for the country 's emission reductions , and subsequently to evaluate international climate policies such as the Kyoto protocol ( although the original has now expired , extensions have been agreed ) as well as regional climate policies such as the EU Emissions Trading Scheme ( ETS ) . There are two conflicting ways of measuring GHG emissions : production-based ( sometimes referred to as territorial-based ) or consumption-based . Production-based emissions take place `` within national territory and offshore areas over which the country has jurisdiction '' . Consumption-based emissions encompass those emissions from domestic final consumption and those caused by the production of its imports . This means the importing country takes responsibility for emissions related to production of the exporting country 's exports . By these definitions production-based emissions include exports but exclude imports and emissions embodied in international trade , whereas consumption-based emissions refer to the reverse ( Table 1 ) . Which technique is applied by policymakers is fundamental as each can generate a very different NEI . Different NEIs would result in a country 's choosing different optimal mitigation activities , the wrong choice based on wrong information being potentially damaging . The application of production-based emissions accounting is currently favoured in policy terms , although much of the literature favours consumption-based accounting . The former method is criticised in the literature principally for its inability to allocate emissions embodied in international trade/transportation and the potential for carbon leakage .","qid":"2751","docid":"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_accounting","rank":56,"score":132806},{"content":"Title: The Hype about Hydrogen Content: The Hype about Hydrogen : Fact and Fiction in the Race to Save the Climate is a book by Joseph J. Romm , published in 2004 by Island Press and updated in 2005 . The book has been translated into German as Der Wasserstoff-Boom . Romm is an expert on clean energy , advanced vehicles , energy security , and greenhouse gas mitigation . Over 200 publications , including Scientific American , Forbes magazine and The New York Times , have cited this book . The book was named one of the best science and technology books of 2004 by Library Journal . The thrust of the book is that hydrogen is not economically feasible to use for transportation , nor will its use reduce global warming , because of the cost and greenhouse gases generated during production , the low energy content per volume and weight of the container , the cost of the fuel cells , and the cost of the infrastructure . The author argues that a major effort to introduce hydrogen cars before 2030 would actually undermine efforts to reduce emissions of heat-trapping greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide .","qid":"2751","docid":"The_Hype_about_Hydrogen","rank":57,"score":132655},{"content":"Title: Carbon Neutral Cities Alliance Content: The Carbon Neutral Cities Alliance ( CNCA or `` Alliance '' ) is a collaboration of leading global cities working to cut greenhouse gas emissions by 80 % or more by 2050 or sooner ( `` 80x50 '' ) -- the most aggressive greenhouse gas reduction targets undertaken by any cities across the globe . The Alliance aims to address what it will take for leading international cities to achieve these deep emissions reductions and how they can work together to meet their respective goals more efficiently and effectively .","qid":"2751","docid":"Carbon_Neutral_Cities_Alliance","rank":58,"score":132405},{"content":"Title: List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries ranked by greenhouse-gas emissions per capita in 2000 . It is based on data for carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , perfluorocarbon , hydrofluorocarbon and sulfur hexafluoride emissions compiled by the World Resources Institute ( WRI ) from a variety of sources , including CDIAC and the US Environmental Protection Agency . Bunker-fuel emissions are not included . Two sets of per capita emissions are given , one with an estimate of the effects of land-use change ( for example , cutting down forests ) and one without . The former is based on regional estimates in Houghton ( 2003 ) . Difficulties with determining rates of deforestation and the magnitude of carbon stocks held by the remaining forests and with distributing regional carbon fluxes among individual countries mean that the land-use change components have a large margin of error , perhaps as large as + / -150 % in some cases . They are included here because , although difficult to quantify accurately at a country level , land-use change is a significant contributor to global warming . The WRI estimates that it accounted for almost a fifth of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions in 2000 . For 2005 the data for a large number of countries only includes emissions ( see note 12 . )","qid":"2751","docid":"List_of_countries_by_greenhouse_gas_emissions_per_capita","rank":59,"score":132197},{"content":"Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .","qid":"2751","docid":"Carbon_tax","rank":60,"score":132113},{"content":"Title: International Council of Academies of Engineering and Technological Sciences Content: The International Council of Academies of Engineering and Technological Sciences , Inc. ( CAETS ) is an organization of national engineering and technological sciences academies . Its primary mission is to advise governments and international organizations on technical and policy issues , to improve the understanding of engineering and technology by the public , to offer a forum for discussion and communication , to support cooperation , and to improve education and practice of its field of interest . CAETS was founded in 1978 by the Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering , the Royal Academy of Engineering , the Mexican National Academy of Engineering , the US National Academy of Engineering and the Royal Swedish Academy of Engineering Sciences and , as of 2007 , has more than 25 members among the national academies of engineering of many major industrialized countries . CAETS is incorporated as a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit corporation in the District of Columbia , USA . In October 2007 , CAETS issued a Statement on Environment and Sustainable Growth : As reported by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , most of the observed global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human-produced emission of greenhouse gases and this warming will continue unabated if present anthropogenic emissions continue or , worse , expand without control . CAETS , therefore , endorses the many recent calls to decrease and control greenhouse gas emissions to an acceptable level as quickly as possible .","qid":"2751","docid":"International_Council_of_Academies_of_Engineering_and_Technological_Sciences","rank":61,"score":131850},{"content":"Title: San Francisco Climate Action Plan Content: The San Francisco Climate Action Plan is a greenhouse gas reduction initiative adopted by the City and County of San Francisco , United States in 2002 . It aims to reduce the city 's greenhouse gas emissions to 20 % below 1990 levels by 2012 .","qid":"2751","docid":"San_Francisco_Climate_Action_Plan","rank":62,"score":131766},{"content":"Title: Sustainability and systemic change resistance Content: The environmental sustainability problem has proven difficult to solve . The modern environmental movement has attempted to solve the problem in a large variety of ways . But little progress has been made , as shown by severe ecological footprint overshoot and lack of sufficient progress on the climate change problem . Something within the human system is preventing change to a sustainable mode of behavior . That system trait is systemic change resistance . Change resistance is also known as organizational resistance , barriers to change , or policy resistance .","qid":"2751","docid":"Sustainability_and_systemic_change_resistance","rank":63,"score":131555},{"content":"Title: Emissions trading Content: Emissions trading or cap and trade is a government-mandated , market-based approach to controlling pollution by providing economic incentives for achieving reductions in the emissions of pollutants . In contrast to command-and-control environmental regulations such as best available technology ( BAT ) standards and government subsidies , cap and trade ( CAT ) schemes are a type of flexible environmental regulation that allows organizations to decide how best to meet policy targets . Various countries , states and groups of companies have adopted such trading systems , notably for mitigating climate change . A central authority ( usually a governmental body ) allocates or sells a limited number of permits to discharge specific quantities of a specific pollutant per time period . Polluters are required to hold permits in amount equal to their emissions . Polluters that want to increase their emissions must buy permits from others willing to sell them . Financial derivatives of permits can also be traded on secondary markets . In theory , polluters who can reduce emissions most cheaply will do so , achieving the emission reduction at the lowest cost to society . Cap and trade is meant to provide the private sector with the flexibility required to reduce emissions while stimulating technological innovation and economic growth . There are active trading programs in several air pollutants . For greenhouse gases , which cause climate change , permit units are often called carbon credits . The largest greenhouse gases trading program is the European Union Emission Trading Scheme , which trades primarily in European Union Allowances ( EUAs ) ; the Californian scheme trades in California Carbon Allowances , the New Zealand scheme in New Zealand Units and the Australian scheme in Australian Units . The United States has a national market to reduce acid rain and several regional markets in nitrogen oxides .","qid":"2751","docid":"Emissions_trading","rank":64,"score":131380},{"content":"Title: Fugitive emissions Content: Fugitive emissions are emissions of gases or vapors from pressurized equipment due to leaks and other unintended or irregular releases of gases , mostly from industrial activities . As well as the economic cost of lost commodities , fugitive emissions contribute to air pollution and climate change . A detailed inventory of greenhouse gas emissions from upstream oil and gas activities in Canada for the year 2000 estimated that fugitive equipment leaks had a global warming potential equivalent to the release of 17 million metric tonnes of carbon dioxide , or 12 per cent of all greenhouse gases emitted by the sector . Venting of natural gas , flaring , accidental releases and storage losses accounted for an additional 38 per cent . Fugitive emissions present other risks and hazards . Emissions of volatile organic compounds such as benzene from oil refineries and chemical plants pose a long term health risk to workers and local communities . In situations where large amounts of flammable liquids and gases are contained under pressure , leaks also increase the risk of fire and explosion . Leaks from pressurized process equipment generally occur through valves , pipe connections , mechanical seals , or related equipment . Fugitive emissions also occur at evaporative sources such as waste water treatment ponds and storage tanks . Because of the huge number of potential leak sources at large industrial facilities and the difficulties in detecting and repairing some leaks , fugitive emissions can be a significant proportion of total emissions . Though the quantities of leaked gases may be small , gases that have serious health or environmental impacts can cause a significant problem . To minimize and control leaks at process facilities operators carry out regular leak detection and repair activities . Routine inspections of process equipment with gas detectors can be used to identify leaks and estimate the leak rate in order to decide on appropriate corrective action . Proper routine maintenance of equipment reduces the likelihood of leaks . Because of the technical difficulties and costs of detecting and quantifying actual fugitive emissions at a site or facility , and the variability and intermittent nature of emission flow rates , bottom-up estimates based on standard emission factors are generally used for annual reporting purposes . New technologies are under development that could revolutionize the detection and monitoring of fugitive emissions . One technology , known as differential absorption lidar ( DIAL ) , can be used to remotely measure concentration profiles of hydrocarbons in the atmosphere up to several hundred meters from a facility . DIAL has been used for refinery surveys in Europe for over 15 years . A pilot study carried out in 2005 using DIAL found that actual emissions at a refinery were fifteen times higher than those previously reported using the emission factor approach . The fugitive emissions were equivalent to 0.17 % of the refinery throughput . Portable gas leak imaging cameras are also a new technology that can be used to improve leak detection and repair , leading to reduced fugitive emissions . The cameras use infrared imaging technology to produce video images in which invisible gases escaping from leak sources can be clearly identified .","qid":"2751","docid":"Fugitive_emissions","rank":65,"score":131046},{"content":"Title: Territorialisation of carbon governance Content: Territorialisation of Carbon Governance ( ToCG ) is a concept used in political geography or environmental policy which is considered to be a new logic of environmental governance . This method creates carbon-relevant citizens who become enrolled in the process of governing the climate . The territorialisation of carbon governance transforms climate change from a global to local issue . It embodies political practices that serve to connect the causes and consequences of global climate change to local communities . The commitment to reducing greenhouse gas emissions ( GHG ) has been a key component of sustainability within governance since the early 1990s . The ICLEI - Local Governments for Sustainability is an international association of local governments which brings together 1200 cities , towns and the associated 70 countries in their commitment to sustainable development . Further responses that seek to address these issues , include international body the IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , the Rio Earth Summit and United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . These organisations strive to tackle anthropogenic forces which are increasing risks of global warming . Under the territorialisation of carbon , climate and global flows of carbon are regarded as ` national sinks ' . This is a means by which the carbon cycle can be managed and territorialised through being assigned to a physical geographical space instead of being thought of as a global phenomenon . The act of territorialisation oversees the combining of material natures and state institutions into one system through the creation of carbon territories . This approach can allow individual states and governments to control and monitor their carbon emissions in order to improve their efforts in carbon governance . Carbon governance can be interpreted as the institutional arrangements under which greenhouse gas emissions are addressed and mitigated . This is achieved through regulating and controlling carbon activities . Measures and protocols exist in an attempt to address the issues surrounding greenhouse gas emissions . Carbon governance is addressed via governmental decisions made through leadership and management which attempt to improve and resolve problems related to climate change .","qid":"2751","docid":"Territorialisation_of_carbon_governance","rank":66,"score":130996},{"content":"Title: Wildland fire emission Content: Wildland fire and wildland fire atmospheric emissions have been a part of the global biosphere for millennia . The major wildland fire emissions include greenhouse gasses and several criteria pollutants that impact human health and welfare. : Compared to the preindustrial era , wildland land fire in the conterminous U.S. has been reduced 90 percent with proportional reductions in wildland fire emissions . Land use changes ( agriculture and urbanization ) are responsible for roughly 50 percent of this decrease , and land management decisions ( land fragmentation , suppression actions , etc. ) are responsible for the remainder . Anthropogenic activities ( e.g. , industrial production , transportation , agriculture , etc. ) today have more than replaced the lost preindustrial wildland fire atmospheric emissions . The following charts compare preindustrial wildland fire emissions with contemporary emissions .","qid":"2751","docid":"Wildland_fire_emission","rank":67,"score":130950},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse Mafia Content: Greenhouse Mafia is the title of a TV program aired by the ABC on the 13 February 2006 episode of its weekly current affairs program Four Corners . The program says the term greenhouse mafia is the `` in house '' name used by Australia 's carbon lobby for itself . The program featured former Liberal Party member Guy Pearse and Four Corners host Janine Cohen , while others concerned about the influence exerted by the fossil fuel lobby also participated . The report was based on a thesis Pearse wrote at the Australian National University between 1999 and 2005 regarding the response of Australian business to global warming . According to the program , lobby groups representing the coal , car , oil , and aluminium industries have wielded their power to prevent Australia from reducing its greenhouse gas emissions , which were already among the highest per capita in the world in 1990 .","qid":"2751","docid":"Greenhouse_Mafia","rank":68,"score":130663},{"content":"Title: Kyogami Content: Kyogami is a board game based around the issue of climate change and the Kyoto Protocol , which considered reducing greenhouse gas emissions without hindering economic growth . The game was designed to raise awareness of this and most of the game components are made out of recyclable materials . The basic aim of the game is for the players to expand their businesses without increasing emissions , by cleaning up their plants by trading carbon dioxide quotas and using ` flexible mechanisms ' as outlined in the protocol , the winner being the first player to own four factories without chimneys .","qid":"2751","docid":"Kyogami","rank":69,"score":130533},{"content":"Title: Land use, land-use change and forestry Content: Land use , land-use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) is defined by the United Nations Climate Change Secretariat as a `` greenhouse gas inventory sector that covers emissions and removals of greenhouse gases resulting from direct human-induced land use , land-use change and forestry activities . '' LULUCF has impacts on the global carbon cycle and as such , these activities can add or remove carbon dioxide ( or , more generally , carbon ) from the atmosphere , influencing climate . LULUCF has been the subject of two major reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Additionally , land use is of critical importance for biodiversity .","qid":"2751","docid":"Land_use,_land-use_change_and_forestry","rank":70,"score":130189},{"content":"Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .","qid":"2751","docid":"Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios","rank":71,"score":129752},{"content":"Title: Sustainable automotive air conditioning Content: Sustainable automotive air conditioning is the subject of a debate -- nicknamed the Cool War -- about the next-generation refrigerant in car air conditioning . The Alliance for CO2 Solutions supports the uptake of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) as a refrigerant in passenger cars , and the chemical industry is developing new chemical blends . The Alliance and its supporters -- scientists , NGOs and business leaders -- urge the car industry to replace high global warming chemical substances with the natural refrigerant carbon dioxide ( CO2 , R744 / R-744 ) in car cooling and heating . This , they argue , would lead to 10 % less car emissions , and knock out 1 % of total greenhouse gas emissions worldwide . If CO2 Technology is applied in other sectors , such as commercial and industrial refrigeration , heat pumps for water heating etc. , it may even save up to 3 % of the world 's greenhouse gases . Opponents of the Alliance claim that CO2 Technology is not cost-efficient and safe , hence seeking to postpone the global industry decision to be taken to develop new chemical blends instead .","qid":"2751","docid":"Sustainable_automotive_air_conditioning","rank":72,"score":129134},{"content":"Title: European Union Emission Trading Scheme Content: The European Union Emissions Trading System ( EU ETS ) , also known as the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme , was the first large greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme in the world , and remains the biggest . It was launched in 2005 to fight Global warming and is a major pillar of EU climate policy . As of 2013 , the EU ETS covers more than 11,000 factories , power stations , and other installations with a net heat excess of 20 MW in 31 countries -- all 28 EU member states plus Iceland , Norway , and Liechtenstein . In 2008 , the installations regulated by the EU ETS were collectively responsible for close to half of the EU 's anthropogenic emissions of CO2 and 40 % of its total greenhouse gas emissions . Under the ` cap and trade ' principle , a maximum ( cap ) is set on the total amount of greenhouse gases that can be emitted by all participating installations . ` Allowances ' for emissions are then auctioned off or allocated for free , and can subsequently be traded . Installations must monitor and report their CO2 emissions , ensuring they hand in enough allowances to the authorities to cover their emissions . If emission exceeds what is permitted by its allowances , an installation must purchase allowances from others . Conversely , if an installation has performed well at reducing its emissions , it can sell its leftover credits . This allows the system to find the most cost-effective ways of reducing emissions without significant government intervention . The scheme has been divided into a number of `` trading periods '' . The first ETS trading period lasted three years , from January 2005 to December 2007 . The second trading period ran from January 2008 until December 2012 , coinciding with the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol . The third trading period began in January 2013 and will span until December 2020 . Compared to 2005 , when the EU ETS was first implemented , the proposed caps for 2020 represents a 21 % reduction of greenhouse gases . This target has been reached 6 years early as emissions in the ETS fell to 1812 mln tonnes in 2014 . The EU ETS has seen a number of significant changes , with the first trading period described as a ` learning by doing ' phase . Phase III sees a turn to auctioning a majority of permits rather than allocating freely ; harmonisation of rules for the remaining allocations ; and the inclusion of other greenhouse gases , such as nitrous oxide and perfluorocarbons . In 2012 , the EU ETS was also extended to the airline industry , though this has been paused for one year given the possibility of a global system for these emissions . The price of EU ETS carbon credits has been lower than intended , with a large surplus of allowances , in part because of the impact of the recent economic crisis on demand . In 2012 , the Commission said it would delay the auctioning of some allowances . Currently legislation is under way which would introduce a Market Stability Reserve to the EU ETS that adjusts the annual supply of CO2 permits based on the CO2 permits in circulation . Overall , since its conception , the EU ETS has been characterized by relatively high levels of policy uncertainty . This uncertainty has been both technical , in terms of its detailed rules and procedures , and political , in terms of its public , industry , and governmental support . As a result , the scheme has resulted in a rather informal and tepid response by regulated organizations .","qid":"2751","docid":"European_Union_Emission_Trading_Scheme","rank":73,"score":128937},{"content":"Title: New England Governors and Eastern Canadian Premiers Climate Change Action Plan 2001 Content: The New England Governors and Eastern Canadian Premiers ( NEG-ECP ) Climate Change Action Plan 2001 is a resolution adopted on August 28 , 2001 , by the New England Governors and the Eastern Canadian Premiers . The resolution calls for a reduction in greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions to 1990 levels by 2010 , at least 10 % below 1990 levels by 2020 , and a 75-85 % reduction of 2001 levels as a long-term goal . Participating are the six states belonging to New England : Connecticut , Maine , Massachusetts , New Hampshire , Rhode Island , and Vermont ; as well as the Eastern Canadian provinces : New Brunswick , Newfoundland and Labrador , Nova Scotia , Prince Edward Island , and Quebec . In addition , the Northeast States for Coordinated Air Use Management ( NESCAUM ) is building a Regional Greenhouse Gas Registry ( RGGR ) to help track emissions in the region . This effort is similar to that of the California Climate Action Registry .","qid":"2751","docid":"New_England_Governors_and_Eastern_Canadian_Premiers_Climate_Change_Action_Plan_2001","rank":74,"score":128662},{"content":"Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .","qid":"2751","docid":"Global_warming_potential","rank":75,"score":128623},{"content":"Title: Global Methane Initiative Content: The Global Methane Initiative ( GMI ) is a voluntary , international partnership that brings together national governments , private sector entities , development banks , NGOs and other interested stakeholders in a collaborative effort to reduce methane gas emissions and advance methane recovery and use as a clean energy source . National governments are encouraged to join GMI as Partner Countries , while other non-State organizations may join GMI 's extensive Project Network . As a public-private initiative , GMI creates an international platform to build capacity , development methane abatement strategies , engage in technology transfer , and remove political and economic barriers to project development for emissions reduction . The initiative currently focuses on five sectors , which are known sources of anthropogenic methane emissions : agriculture , coal mining , municipal solid waste , municipal wastewater , and oil and gas systems . Through international cooperation , GMI seeks to reduce global methane emissions , the second largest contributor to atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases , in order to enhance economic growth , promote energy security , improve the environment , and reduce greenhouse gases . Other expected benefits include improving mine safety , reducing waste , and improving local air quality .","qid":"2751","docid":"Global_Methane_Initiative","rank":76,"score":128622},{"content":"Title: Environmental impact of shipping Content: The environmental impact of shipping includes greenhouse gas emissions , acoustic , and oil pollution . The International Maritime Organization ( IMO ) estimates that Carbon dioxide emissions from shipping were equal to 2.2 % of the global human-made emissions in 2012 and expects them to rise by as much as 2 to 3 times by 2050 if no action is taken . The First Intersessional Meeting of the IMO Working Group on Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Ships took place in Oslo , Norway on 23 -- 27 June 2008 . It was tasked with developing the technical basis for the reduction mechanisms that may form part of a future IMO regime to control greenhouse gas emissions from international shipping , and a draft of the actual reduction mechanisms themselves , for further consideration by IMO 's Marine Environment Protection Committee ( MEPC ) .","qid":"2751","docid":"Environmental_impact_of_shipping","rank":77,"score":128402},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas accounting Content: Greenhouse gas accounting describes the way to inventory and audit greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions . A corporate or organisational greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions assessment quantifies the total greenhouse gases produced directly and indirectly from a business or organisation 's activities . Also known as a carbon footprint , it is a business tool that provides information with a basis for understanding and managing climate change impacts . The drivers for corporate GHG accounting include mandatory GHG reporting in directors ' reports , investment due diligence , shareholder and stakeholder communication , staff engagement , green messaging , and tender requirements for business and government contracts . Accounting for greenhouse gas emissions is increasingly seen as a standard requirement for business . For example , in June 2012 , the UK coalition government announced the introduction of mandatory carbon reporting , requiring around 1,100 of the UK 's largest listed companies to report their greenhouse gas emissions every year . Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg confirmed that emission reporting rules would come into effect from April 2013 in his piece for The Guardian . Guidance for accounting for GHG emissions from organizations and emission reduction projects is provided by the World Resources Institute ( WRI ) and World Business Council for Sustainable Development ( WBCSD ) GHG Protocol . For national GHG inventories , guidance is provided by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) methodology reports . The International Organization for Standardization ( ISO ) also provides some general standards for greenhouse gas emissions at organisation level ( ISO 14064 - 1 ) and greenhouse gas emissions at project level ( ISO 14064 - 2 ) . Specifications to validate and verify relevant accountings are documented in ( ISO 14064 - 3 ) .","qid":"2751","docid":"Greenhouse_gas_accounting","rank":78,"score":128325},{"content":"Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .","qid":"2751","docid":"Media_coverage_of_climate_change","rank":79,"score":128177},{"content":"Title: CarboNZero programme Content: The carboNZero programme and CEMARS programme are the world 's first internationally accredited greenhouse gas ( GHG ) certification schemes under ISO 14065 . They provide tools for organisations , products , services and events to measure and reduce their greenhouse gas emissions ( otherwise known as carbon footprint ) , and optionally offset it . The programmes are owned and operated by Enviro-Mark Solutions Limited , a wholly owned subsidiary of Landcare Research ( 100 % NZ government-owned ) .","qid":"2751","docid":"CarboNZero_programme","rank":80,"score":127734},{"content":"Title: Turning the Corner Plan Content: Turning the Corner Plan is a Canadian climate change action plan introduced by the Harper Conservative Government in April 2007 by then Minister of the Environment John Baird . Turning the Corner has plans set out to reduce Canada 's greenhouse gas emissions by 20 % relative to 2006 levels by 2020 , and reductions of 60 to 70 percent below 2006 levels by 2050 .","qid":"2751","docid":"Turning_the_Corner_Plan","rank":81,"score":127576},{"content":"Title: Compact of Mayors Content: The Compact of Mayors is a global coalition of city leaders addressing climate change by pledging to cut greenhouse gas emissions and prepare for the future impacts of climate change . The Compact highlights cities ' climate impact while measuring their relative risk levels and carbon pollution . The Compact of Mayors seeks to show the importance of city climate action , both at the local level and around the world . The Compact was launched in 2014 by UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon and former New York City Mayor Michael Bloomberg , the UN Special Envoy for Cities and Climate Change . The Compact represents a common effort from global city networks C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group ( C40 ) , ICLEI , and United Cities and Local Governments ( UCLG ) , as well as UN-Habitat , to unite against climate change . 428 global cities have committed to the Compact of Mayors . The collective member cities comprise over 376 million people and 5.19 % of the global population .","qid":"2751","docid":"Compact_of_Mayors","rank":82,"score":127345},{"content":"Title: Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Action Content: Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Action ( NAMA ) refers to a set of policies and actions that countries undertake as part of a commitment to reduce greenhouse gas emissions . The term recognizes that different countries may take different nationally appropriate action on the basis of equity and in accordance with common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities . It also emphasizes financial assistance from developed countries to developing countries to reduce emissions . NAMA was first used in the Bali Action Plan as part of the Bali Road Map agreed at the United Nations Climate Change Conference in Bali in December 2007 , and also formed part of the Copenhagen Accord issued following the United Nations Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen ( COP 15 ) in December 2009 .","qid":"2751","docid":"Nationally_Appropriate_Mitigation_Action","rank":83,"score":127221},{"content":"Title: Scientists for Global Responsibility Content: Scientists for Global Responsibility ( SGR ) in the United Kingdom promotes the ethical practice and use of science and technology . SGR is affiliated to the International Network of Engineers and Scientists for Global Responsibility ( INES ) . SGR 's main areas of concern are arms and arms control , including military involvement in UK universities ; effect of excessive greenhouse gas emissions on climate ; the nature of war and reducing barbarity ; topsoil and water shortages resulting from modern agricultural methods ; depletion of species of fish due to over-fishing ; continual spread of nuclear weapons , and reduction of occurrence of serious nuclear accidents . SGR evaluates the risk of new science and new technological solutions to older science-based problems and threats , while recognizing the enormous contribution science , design and technology has made to civilisation and human well-being .","qid":"2751","docid":"Scientists_for_Global_Responsibility","rank":84,"score":127202},{"content":"Title: Climate-friendly gardening Content: Climate-friendly gardening is gardening in ways which reduce emissions of greenhouse gases from gardens and encourage the absorption of carbon dioxide by soils and plants in order to aid the reduction of global warming . To be a climate-friendly gardener means considering both what happens in a garden and the materials brought into it and the impact they have on land use and climate . It can also include garden features or activities in the garden that help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions elsewhere .","qid":"2751","docid":"Climate-friendly_gardening","rank":85,"score":127077},{"content":"Title: Midwestern Greenhouse Gas Reduction Accord Content: The Midwestern Greenhouse Gas Reduction Accord ( Midwestern Accord ) is a regional agreement by six governors of states in the US Midwest who are members of the Midwestern Governors Association ( MGA ) , and the premier of one Canadian province , whose purpose is to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to combat climate change . The accord has been inactive since March 2010 , when an advisory group presented a plan for action to the association with a scheduled implementation date of January 2012 . Signatories to the accord are the US states of Minnesota , Wisconsin , Illinois , Iowa , Michigan , Kansas , and the Canadian Province of Manitoba . Observers of the accord are Indiana , Ohio , and South Dakota , as well as the Canadian Province of Ontario . While the Midwest has intensive manufacturing and agriculture sectors , making it the most coal-dependent region in North America , it also has significant renewable energy resources and is particularly vulnerable to the climate change caused by burning coal and other fossil fuels . The Midwestern Accord was the fourth tier of the MGA Energy Security and Climate Stewardship Summit Platform , signed on November 15 , 2007 . It established the Midwestern Greenhouse Gas Reduction Program , which aimed to : establish greenhouse gas reduction targets and time frames consistent with signing states ' targets ; develop a market-based and multi-sector cap-and-trade mechanism to help achieve those reduction targets ; establish a system to enable tracking , management , and crediting for entities that reduce greenhouse gas emissions ; and develop and implement additional steps as needed to achieve the reduction targets , such as a low-carbon fuel standards and regional incentives and funding mechanisms . Through the Midwestern Accord , the governors agreed to establish a Midwestern greenhouse gas reduction program to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in their states , as well as a working group to provide recommendations regarding the implementation of the accord . In June 2009 , the Midwestern Greenhouse Gas Reduction Accord Advisory Group finalized its draft recommendations . In March 2010 the advisory group presented a plan to the MGA that called for implementation beginning in January 2012 . No further action was taken , as leadership in several of the states switched positions on climate policy . In July 2014 , accord member Kansas and observers Indiana , South Dakota , and Ohio joined a lawsuit opposing the EPA Clean Power Plan , federal climate regulations which could be met by implementation of the accord .","qid":"2751","docid":"Midwestern_Greenhouse_Gas_Reduction_Accord","rank":86,"score":127046},{"content":"Title: U.S. Climate Change Technology Program Content: The United States Climate Change Technology Program or CCTP is a multi-agency planning and coordination entity . Its purpose is to accelerate the development and deployment of technologies that can reduce , avoid , or capture and store greenhouse gas emissions . CCTP was established administratively in 2002 , authorized by the Energy Policy Act of 2005 , and appropriated funds in 2007 . Currently , the Department of Energy is designated as the lead agency .","qid":"2751","docid":"U.S._Climate_Change_Technology_Program","rank":87,"score":126960},{"content":"Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .","qid":"2751","docid":"Environmental_impact_of_aviation","rank":88,"score":126392},{"content":"Title: Carbon leakage Content: Carbon leakage occurs when there is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions in one country as a result of an emissions reduction by a second country with a strict climate policy . Carbon leakage may occur for a number of reasons : if the emissions policy of a country raises local costs , then another country with a more relaxed policy may have a trading advantage . If demand for these goods remains the same , production may move offshore to the cheaper country with lower standards , and global emissions will not be reduced . if environmental policies in one country add a premium to certain fuels or commodities , then the demand may decline and their price may fall . Countries that do not place a premium on those items may then take up the demand and use the same supply , negating any benefit . There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term leakage effects . This is important for the problem of climate change . Carbon leakage is one type of spill-over effect . Spill-over effects can be positive or negative ; for example , emission reductions policy might lead to technological developments that aid reductions outside of the policy area . `` Carbon leakage is defined as the increase in emissions outside the countries taking domestic mitigation action divided by the reduction in the emissions of these countries . '' It is expressed as a percentage , and can be greater or less than 100 % . Carbon leakage may occur through changes in trading patterns , and that is sometimes measured as the balance of emissions embodied in trade ( BEET ) .","qid":"2751","docid":"Carbon_leakage","rank":89,"score":126005},{"content":"Title: Boulder Climate Action Plan Content: The Climate Action Plan ( CAP ) is a set of strategies intended to guide community efforts for reducing greenhouse gas emissions . Those strategies have focused on improving energy efficiency and conservation in our homes and businesses -- the source of nearly three-fourths of local emissions . The plan also promotes strategies to reduce emissions from transportation , which account for over 20 percent of our local greenhouse gas sources .","qid":"2751","docid":"Boulder_Climate_Action_Plan","rank":90,"score":125917},{"content":"Title: AB32 Content: AB32 or variant thereof may mean : AB postcode area , the Aberdeen postcode area Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 , a California law concerning greenhouse gas emission reduction - correctly spelled as AB 32 A Turkish patrol ship of the Türk class","qid":"2751","docid":"AB32","rank":91,"score":125847},{"content":"Title: New South Wales Greenhouse Gas Abatement Scheme Content: The New South Wales Greenhouse Gas Abatement Scheme ( also known as GGAS ) was a mandatory greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme that aimed to lower greenhouse gas emissions in New South Wales , Australia , to 7.27 tonnes of carbon dioxide per capita by the year 2007 , which commenced on 1 January 2003 . The Scheme imposed obligations on NSW electricity retailers and certain other parties , including large electricity users who elected to manage their own benchmark to abate a portion of the greenhouse gas emissions attributable to their sales/consumption of electricity in NSW . They did this by purchasing and acquitting NSW Greenhouse Abatement Certificates ( also known as NGACs ) created by accredited `` Abatement Certificate Providers '' ( ACPs ) . The NSW Minister for Energy , Chris Hartcher , announced closure of the scheme in April 2012 , effective from 30 June 2012 . The Greenhouse Gas Reduction Scheme ( GGAS ) closed on 30 June 2012 . The NSW Government closed GGAS to avoid duplication with the Commonwealth 's carbon price which commenced on 1 July 2012 .","qid":"2751","docid":"New_South_Wales_Greenhouse_Gas_Abatement_Scheme","rank":92,"score":125672},{"content":"Title: Emissions Reduction Currency System Content: Emissions Reduction Currency Systems ( ERCS ) are schemes that provide a positive economic and or social reward for reductions in greenhouse gas emissions , either through distribution or redistribution of national currency or through the publishing of coupons , reward points , local currency , or complementary currency .","qid":"2751","docid":"Emissions_Reduction_Currency_System","rank":93,"score":124917},{"content":"Title: Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate Content: The Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate , also known as APP , was an international , voluntary , public-private partnership among Australia , Canada , India , Japan , the People 's Republic of China , South Korea , and the United States announced July 28 , 2005 at an Association of South East Asian Nations ( ASEAN ) Regional Forum meeting and launched on January 12 , 2006 at the Partnership 's inaugural Ministerial meeting in Sydney . As of 5 April 2011 , the Partnership formally concluded although a number of individual projects continue . The conclusion of the APP and cancellation of many of its projects attracted almost no media comment . Foreign , Environment and Energy Ministers from partner countries agreed to co-operate on the development and transfer of technology which enables reduction of greenhouse gas emissions that is consistent with and complementary to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change and other relevant international instruments , and is intended to complement but not replace the Kyoto Protocol. , Ministers agreed to a Charter , Communique and Work Plan that `` outline a ground-breaking new model of private-public task forces to address climate change , energy security and air pollution . '' Member countries account for over 50 % of the world 's greenhouse gas emissions , energy consumption , GDP and population . Unlike the Kyoto Protocol ( currently unratified by the United States ) , which imposes mandatory limits on greenhouse gas emissions , the Partnership engages member countries to accelerate the development and deployment of clean energy technologies , with no mandatory enforcement mechanism . This has led to criticism that the Partnership is worthless , by other governments , climate scientists and environmental groups . Proponents , on the other hand , argue that unrestricted economic growth and emission reductions can only be brought about through active engagement by all major polluters , which includes India and China , within the Kyoto Protocol framework neither India nor China are yet required to reduce emissions . Canada became the 7th member of the APP at the Second Ministerial Meeting in New Delhi on October 15 , 2007 . Canada 's Prime Minister Stephen Harper earlier expressed his intention to join the Partnership in August 2007 , despite some domestic opposition .","qid":"2751","docid":"Asia-Pacific_Partnership_on_Clean_Development_and_Climate","rank":94,"score":124911},{"content":"Title: Fran Pavley Content: Frances J. `` Fran '' Pavley ( born November 11 , 1948 ) is an American politician who served two terms in the California State Senate and three terms in the California State Assembly . A Democrat , she last represented the 27th Senate District , which encompasses the Conejo Valley , and portions of the San Fernando and Santa Clarita Valleys . Before the 2010 redistricting , she represented the 23rd Senate District . Before being elected to the State Senate in 2008 , Pavley served in the California State Assembly , representing the 41st Assembly District . She was also the first Mayor of Agoura Hills . She was a middle school teacher for 29 years before serving in elected office . Pavley is widely renowned for her pioneering work on environmental and climate change legislation . She was the author of AB 32 , the Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 , which created a groundbreaking cap-and-trade system to reduce California 's greenhouse gas emissions . In 2016 , she cemented her legacy by authoring and passing SB 32 , which extended California 's emissions reduction goals to 40 percent below 1990 levels by 2030 .","qid":"2751","docid":"Fran_Pavley","rank":95,"score":124869},{"content":"Title: Eaarth Content: Eaarth : Making a Life on a Tough New Planet is a book written by Bill McKibben , published by Henry Holt and Company in 2010 . In the opening chapter , McKibben presents an array of facts and statistics about climate change that are already visible , supported by extensive footnotes . In the second and third chapters , McKibben lays out his analysis of how we have arrived at the current situation , and conveys genuine sorrow as he explains how the drive for economic growth based on hydrocarbons since the 1970s has led the planet to the point of breakdown . In a review of the book , British economist Nicholas Stern suggests that there is no doubting McKibben 's sincerity and his ability to communicate the significant risks which humanity faces . According to Stern , his `` overall thesis that we are already seeing widespread effects of climate change is sound and supported by much robust scientific evidence '' . But Stern says McKibben is too pessimistic when it comes to the recent advances in avoiding even bigger changes to the climate by reducing emissions of greenhouse gases .","qid":"2751","docid":"Eaarth","rank":96,"score":124710},{"content":"Title: Campus carbon neutrality Content: All across the world , colleges and universities are looking to a sustainable future by working to become carbon neutral . Universities are taking responsibility for their environmental impact and are working to neutralize those effects . To become carbon neutral , universities are working to reduce their emissions of greenhouse gases , cut their use of energy , use more renewable energy , and emphasize the importance of sustainable energy sources . Universities that have committed to becoming carbon neutral have recognized the threat of global warming and are therefore committing to reverse the trend .","qid":"2751","docid":"Campus_carbon_neutrality","rank":97,"score":124264},{"content":"Title: Low-carbon diet Content: A low-carbon diet refers to making lifestyle choices to reduce the greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGe ) resulting from consumption decisions . It is estimated that the U.S. food system is responsible for at least 20 percent of U.S. greenhouse gases . This estimate may be low , as it counts only direct sources of GHGe . Indirect sources , such as demand for products from other countries , are often not counted . A low-carbon diet minimizes the emissions released from the production , packaging , processing , transport , preparation and waste of food . Major tenets of a low-carbon diet include eating less industrial meat and dairy , eating less industrially produced food in general , eating food grown locally and seasonally , eating less processed and packaged foods and reducing waste from food by proper portion size , recycling or composting .","qid":"2751","docid":"Low-carbon_diet","rank":98,"score":123573},{"content":"Title: Views on the Kyoto Protocol Content: This article is about certain views on the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change . A 2007 study by Gupta et al. assessed the literature on climate change policy which showed no authoritative assessments of the UNFCCC or its Protocol , that assert these agreements have , or will , succeed in fully solving the climate problem . It was assumed that the UNFCCC or its Protocol would not be changed . The Framework Convention and its Protocol , include provisions for future policy actions to be taken . Some environmentalists have supported the Kyoto Protocol because it is `` the only game in town , '' and possibly because they expect that future emission reduction commitments may demand more stringent emission reductions ( Aldy et al. . , 2003 , p. 9 ) . Some environmentalists and scientists have criticized the existing commitments for being too weak ( Grubb , 2000 , p. 5 ) . On the other hand , many economists think that the commitments are stronger than is justified . Particularly in the US , many economists have also been critical of the failure to include quantified commitments for developing countries ( Grubb , 2000 , p. 31 ) .","qid":"2751","docid":"Views_on_the_Kyoto_Protocol","rank":99,"score":122912},{"content":"Title: Decarbonisation measures in proposed UK electricity market reform Content: The United Kingdom is committed to legally binding greenhouse gas emissions reduction targets of 34 % by 2020 and 80 % by 2050 , compared to 1990 levels , as set out in the Climate Change Act 2008 . DECC ( 2008 ) . Climate Change Act . Decarbonisation of electricity generation will form a major part of this reduction and is essential before other sectors of the economy can be successfully decarbonised.DECC ( 2011a ) . Planning Our Electric Future : A White Paper for Secure , Affordable and Low-Carbon Electricity . The Government 's proposals for electricity market reform , published in a White Paper in July 2011 , included three initiatives to encourage decarbonisation of electricity generation in the UK : A Carbon Price Floor to complement the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme ( EU ETS ) ; Feed-in tariffs which will eventually replace the Renewables Obligation ; and an Emissions Performance Standard to restrict future use of the most carbon intensive forms of generation . In implementing these proposals , the Government aims to attract investment in low-carbon generation , deliver security of supply through an appropriate mix of electricity sources and ensure a minimum amount of impact on consumer bills ; all this at a time when security of supply is threatened by scheduled closures of existing plants and both the demand for , and subsequently the price of , electricity is increasing .","qid":"2751","docid":"Decarbonisation_measures_in_proposed_UK_electricity_market_reform","rank":100,"score":122896}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Economics_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 177906\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 Content: The Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 , or Assembly Bill ( AB ) 32 , is a California State Law that fights global warming by establishing a comprehensive program to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from all sources throughout the state . AB 32 was authored by then-Assembly member Fran Pavley and Assembly Speaker Fabian Nunez ( D-Los Angeles ) and signed into law by Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger on September 27 , 2006 . On June 1 , 2005 , Governor Schwarzenegger signed an executive order known as Executive Order S-3-05 which established greenhouse gas emissions targets for the state . The executive order required the state to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions levels to 2000 levels by 2010 , to 1990 levels by 2020 , and to a level 80 % below 1990 levels by 2050 . However , to implement this measure , the California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) needed authority from the legislature . The California State Legislature passed the Global Warming Solutions Act to address this issue and gave the CARB authority to implement the program . AB 32 requires the California Air Resources Board ( CARB or ARB ) to develop regulations and market mechanisms to reduce California 's greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by the year of 2020 , representing approximately a 30 % reduction statewide , with mandatory caps beginning in 2012 for significant emissions sources . The bill also allows the Governor to suspend the emissions caps for up to a year in case of emergency or significant economic harm . The State of California leads the nation in energy efficiency standards and plays a lead role in environmental protection , but is also the 12th largest emitter of carbon worldwide . Greenhouse gas emissions are defined in the bill to include all of the following : carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , sulfur hexafluoride , hydrofluorocarbons and perfluorocarbons . These are the same greenhouse gases listed in Annex A of the Kyoto Protocol .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Warming_Solutions_Act_of_2006\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 176476\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: California Senate Bill 32 Content: The California Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 : emissions limit , or SB-32 , is a California Senate bill expanding upon AB-32 to reduce greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions . The lead author is Senator Fran Pavley and the principal co-author is Assemblymember Eduardo Garcia . SB-32 was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 , by Governor Edmund Gerald `` Jerry '' Brown Jr. . SB-32 sets into law the mandated reduction target in GHG emissions as written into Executive Order B-30-15 . The Senate bill requires that there be a reduction in GHG emissions to 40 % below the 1990 levels by 2030 . Greenhouse gas emissions include carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , sulfur hexafluoride , hydrofluorocarbons , and perfluorocarbons . The California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) is responsible for ensuring that California meets this goal . The provisions of SB-32 were added to Section 38566 of the Health and Safety Code subsequent to the bill 's approval . The bill goes into effect January 1 , 2017 . SB-32 builds onto Assembly Bill ( AB ) 32 written by Senator Fran Pavley and Assembly Speaker Fabian Nunez passed into law on September 27 , 2006 . AB-32 required California to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by 2020 and SB-32 continues that timeline to reach the targets set in Executive Order B-30-15 . SB-32 provides another intermediate target between the 2020 and 2050 targets set in Executive Order S-3-05 . SB-32 was contingent on the passing of AB-197 , which increases legislative oversight of CARB and is intended to ensure CARB must report to the Legislature . AB-197 also passed and was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"California_Senate_Bill_32\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 169917\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Low-carbon_economy\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 169780\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sustainable Communities and Climate Protection Act of 2008 Content: The Sustainable Communities and Climate Protection Act of 2008 , also known as Senate Bill 375 or SB 375 , is a State of California law targeting greenhouse gas emissions from passenger vehicles . The Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 ( AB 32 ) sets goals for the reduction of statewide greenhouse gas emissions . Passenger vehicles are the single largest source of greenhouse gas emissions statewide , accounting for 30 % of total emissions . SB 375 therefore provides key support to achieve the goals of AB 32 . SB 375 instructs the California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) to set regional emissions ' reduction targets from passenger vehicles . The Metropolitan Planning Organization for each region must then develop a `` Sustainable Communities Strategy '' ( SCS ) that integrates transportation , land-use and housing policies to plan for achievement of the emissions target for their region . In a press release the day he signed the bill into law , Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger stated , `` What this will mean is more environmentally-friendly communities , more sustainable developments , less time people spend in their cars , more alternative transportation options and neighborhoods we can safely and proudly pass on to future generations . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Sustainable_Communities_and_Climate_Protection_Act_of_2008\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 164634\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 Content: The Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 - a bill to amend the Clean Air Act to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide , and for other purposes . It was proposed in the 110th United States Congress by Senators Bernie Sanders ( I-VT ) and Barbara Boxer ( D-CA ) on January 15 , 2007 . It was referred to the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works . The measure was intended to increase performance standards for electricity generation and motor vehicles with the option of an emissions `` cap and trade '' system . The emissions cap would begin in 2010 with the aim of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 15 percent by 2020 and 83 percent by 2050 . The legislation would also provide funding for R&D on geologic sequestration of carbon dioxide , among other projects ; set emissions standards for new vehicles and a renewable fuels requirement for gasoline beginning in 2016 ; establish energy efficiency and renewable portfolio standards beginning in 2008 and low-carbon electric generation standards beginning in 2016 for electric utilities ; and require periodic evaluations by the National Academy of Sciences to determine whether emissions targets are adequate .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Warming_Pollution_Reduction_Act_of_2007\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 163921\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: America's Climate Security Act of 2007 Content: The America 's Climate Security Act of 2007 was a global warming bill that was considered by the United States Senate to reduce the amount of greenhouse gases emitted in the United States . Also known as the Lieberman-Warner bill , bill number , the legislation was introduced by Sens. Joseph Lieberman ( I-CT ) and John Warner ( R-VA ) on October 18 , 2007 . The bill was approved by the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works in December 2007 , and was debated in the Senate during the week of June 2 . The bill would create a national cap-and-trade scheme for greenhouse gas emissions , in which polluters would mostly be allocated right-to-emit credits based on how much greenhouse gas they currently emit . The cap would get tighter over time , until by 2050 , emissions would be reduced to 63 % below 2005 levels . Several environmental groups express their encouragement at the progress in legislation on the global warming issue while at the same time expressing disappointment that the bill does n't reduce emissions enough . On June 6 , 2008 , the bill was killed by Senate Republicans over worries that it would damage the economy .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"America's_Climate_Security_Act_of_2007\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 162298\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 160671\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 160134\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Massachusetts Content: Formet Massachusetts Governor Deval Patrick has signed into law three global warming and energy-related bills that will promote advanced biofuels , support the growth of the clean energy technology industry , and cut the emissions of greenhouse gases within the state . The Clean Energy Biofuels Act , signed in late July , exempts cellulosic ethanol from the state 's gasoline tax , but only if the ethanol achieves a 60 % reduction in greenhouse gas emissions relative to gasoline . The act also requires all diesel motor fuels and all No. 2 fuel oil sold for heating to include at least 2 % `` substitute fuel '' by July 2010 , where substitute fuel is defined as a fuel derived from renewable non-food biomass that achieves at least a 50 % reduction in greenhouse gas emissions . The requirement for both motor diesel fuel and heating oil increases by a percentage point per year until 2013 , after which it holds steady 5 % . The act also allows the state to expand the requirement to other forms of fuel oil , and it requires the state to work to establish a low-carbon fuel standard under the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative . In early August of 2008 , Governor Patrick signed two additional bills : the Green Jobs Act and the Global Warming Solutions Act . The Green Jobs Act will support the growth of a clean energy technology industry within the state , backed by $ 68 million in funding over 5 years . The Global Warming Solutions Act requires a reduction of greenhouse gas emissions in the state to 10 % -25 % below 1990 levels by 2020 and to 80 % below 1990 levels by 2050 . Under the act , the Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection will carry the burdens of determining the baseline level of emissions in 1990 and creating a plan to meet the future emissions limits , including the establishment of interim limits for 2030 and 2040\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Massachusetts\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 158917\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mitigation of global warming in Australia Content: Mitigation of global warming involves taking actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to enhance sinks aimed at reducing the extent of global warming . This is in distinction to adaptation to global warming , which involves taking action to minimise the effects of global warming . Scientific consensus on global warming , together with the precautionary principle and the fear of non-linear climate transitions , is leading to increased effort to develop new technologies and sciences and carefully manage others in an attempt to mitigate global warming . Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) for coal-fired power stations has been put forward as a solution to rising greenhouse gas emissions . However , CCS can not deliver in time to avoid dangerous increases in temperatures , as widespread commercial use of CCS is not expected before 2030 . Following the introduction of government mandatory renewable energy targets , more opportunities have opened up for renewable energy technologies such as wind power , photovoltaics , and solar thermal technologies . The deployment of these technologies provides opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gases . A carbon price was introduced on 1 July 2012 by the government of Julia Gillard with the purpose of reducing Australia 's carbon emissions . It requires large businesses ( defined as those with annual carbon dioxide equivalent emissions over 25,000 tonnes annually ) to pay a price for emissions permits . The tax was scrapped by the Abbott government in July 2014 in what was a widely criticised and highly publicised move .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Mitigation_of_global_warming_in_Australia\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 158696\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation Content: Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation and the role of conservation , sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries ( REDD + ) was first negotiated under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) since 2005 , with the objective of mitigating climate change through reducing net emissions of greenhouse gases through enhanced forest management in developing countries . Most of the key REDD + decisions were completed by 2013 , with the final pieces of the rulebook finished in 2015 . In the last two decades , various studies estimate that land use change , including deforestation and forest degradation , accounts for 12-29 % of global greenhouse gas emissions . For this reason the inclusion of reducing emissions from land use change is considered essential to achieve the objectives of the UNFCCC . During the negotiations for the Kyoto Protocol , and then in particular its Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) , the inclusion of tropical forest management was debated but eventually dropped due to anticipated methodological difficulties in establishing -- in particular -- additionality and leakage ( detrimental effects outside of the project area attributable to project activities ) . What remained on forestry was `` Afforestation and Reforestation '' , sectoral scope 14 of the CDM . Under this sectoral scope areas of land that had no forest cover since 1990 could be replanted with commercial or indigenous tree species . In its first eight years of operation 52 projects had been registered under the `` Afforestation and Reforestation '' scope of the CDM . The cumbersome administrative procedures and corresponding high transaction costs are often blamed for this slow uptake . Beyond the CDM , all developed countries that were parties to the Kyoto Protocol also committed to measuring and reporting on efforts to reduce net greenhouse gas emissions from forests . The United States also measures and reports on the net greenhouse gas sequestration in its forests . In response to what many perceived to be a failure to address a major source of global greenhouse gas emissions , the Coalition for Rainforest Nations ( CfRN ) was established and in 2005 they proposed to the Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC policy approaches and positive incentives for the reduction of emissions of greenhouse gases stemming from tropical deforestation and forest degradation as a climate change mitigation measure .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Reducing_emissions_from_deforestation_and_forest_degradation\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 157103\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kyoto Protocol Content: The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , based on the fact that ( a ) global warming exists and ( b ) human-made CO2 emissions have caused it . The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto , Japan , on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005 . There are currently 192 parties ( Canada withdrew effective December 2012 ) to the Protocol . The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to `` a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' ( Art. 2 ) . The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities : it puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . The Protocol 's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012 . A second commitment period was agreed on in 2012 , known as the Doha Amendment to the protocol , in which 37 countries have binding targets : Australia , the European Union ( and its 28 member states ) , Belarus , Iceland , Kazakhstan , Liechtenstein , Norway , Switzerland , and Ukraine . Belarus , Kazakhstan and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets . Japan , New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyoto 's first-round but have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period . Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada ( which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012 ) and the United States ( which has not ratified the Protocol ) . As of July 2016 , 66 states have accepted the Doha Amendment , while entry into force requires the acceptances of 144 states . Of the 37 countries with binding commitments , 7 have ratified . Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ends in 2020 . This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the Paris Agreement , which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto protocol .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Kyoto_Protocol\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 155155\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Contraction and Convergence Content: Contraction and Convergence ( C&C ) is a proposed global framework for reducing greenhouse gas emissions to combat climate change . Conceived by the Global Commons Institute -LSB- GCI -RSB- in the early 1990s , the Contraction and Convergence strategy consists of reducing overall emissions of greenhouse gases to a safe level ( contraction ) , resulting from every country bringing its emissions per capita to a level which is equal for all countries ( convergence ) . It is intended to form the basis of an international agreement which will reduce carbon dioxide emissions to avoid dangerous climate change , carbon dioxide being the gas that is primarily responsible for changes in the greenhouse effect on Earth . It is expressed as a simple mathematical formula . This formula can be used as a way for the world to stabilize carbon levels at any level . Advocates of Contraction and Convergence stress that negotiations at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change -LSB- UNFCCC -RSB- are governed sequentially by the ` objective ' of the UNFCCC -LSB- safe and stable GHG concentration in the global atmosphere -RSB- followed by its organising principles -LSB- ` precaution ' and ` equity ' -RSB- . C&C is widely cited and supported .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Contraction_and_Convergence\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 154986\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_diet\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 154864\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas inventory Content: Greenhouse gas inventories are a type of emission inventory that are developed for a variety of reasons . Scientists use inventories of natural and anthropogenic ( human-caused ) emissions as tools when developing atmospheric models . Policy makers use inventories to develop strategies and policies for emissions reductions and to track the progress of those policies . And , regulatory agencies and corporations rely on inventories to establish compliance records with allowable emission rates . Businesses , the public , and other interest groups use inventories to better understand the sources and trends in emissions . Unlike some other air emission inventories , greenhouse gas inventories include not only emissions from source categories , but also removals by carbon sinks . These removals are typically referred to as carbon sequestration . Greenhouse gas inventories , typically use Global warming potential ( GWP ) values to combine emissions of various greenhouse gases into a single weighted value of emissions . Some of the key examples of greenhouse gas inventories include : All Annex I countries are required to report annual emissions and sinks of greenhouse gases under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) National governments that are Parties to the UNFCCC and/or the Kyoto Protocol are required to submit annual inventories of all anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions from sources and removals from sinks . The Kyoto Protocol includes additional requirements for national inventory systems , inventory reporting , and annual inventory review for determining compliance with Articles 5 and 8 of the Protocol . Project developers under the Clean Development Mechanism of the Kyoto Protocol prepare inventories as part of their project baselines . Corporation and other entities can prepare greenhouse gas inventories to track progress towards meeting an emission reduction goal . Scientific efforts aimed at understanding detail of total net carbon exchange . Example : Project Vulcan - a comprehensive US inventory of fossil-fuel greenhouse gas emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas_inventory\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 154780\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: California Proposition 23 (2010) Content: Proposition 23 was a California ballot proposition that was on the November 2 , 2010 California statewide ballot . It was defeated by California voters during the statewide election by a 23 % margin . If passed , it would have suspended AB 32 , a law enacted in 2006 , legally referred to its long name , the Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 . Sponsors of the initiative referred to their measure as the California Jobs Initiative while opponents called it the Dirty Energy Prop . The goal of the proposition was to freeze the provisions of AB 32 until California 's unemployment rate dropped to 5.5 % or below for four consecutive quarters . Since the rate was then at 12.4 % , and it had been decades since the state had seen an unemployment rate below 5.5 % for such a period of time , this wording was seen by former Gov. Arnold Schwarzenegger and others as a wording trick to delay the environmental regulations indefinitely . AB 32 requires that greenhouse emission levels in the state be cut to 1990 levels by 2020 , in a gradual process of cutting that is slated to begin in 2012 . Reducing greenhouse emission levels to 1990 levels will involve cutting them by about 15 % from 2010 levels . AB 32 includes a provision allowing the Governor of California to suspend the provisions of AB 32 if there are `` extraordinary circumstances '' in place , such as `` significant economic harm '' . The supporters of Prop 23 , Assemblyman Dan Logue and Ted Costa , decided to circulate a petition to accomplish a suspension of the environmental regulations . Governor Schwarzenegger , as well as the major party candidates for Governor , Jerry Brown , and Meg Whitman , all stated they would vote `` no '' on Prop 23 . Brown however favored `` adjustments '' to AB 32 , while Whitman would have immediately suspended the law . Louise Bedsworth , a research fellow at the Public Policy Institute of California , predicted in April 2010 that total campaign spending on this proposition would top the $ 154 million record set in 2006 by Proposition 87 . If campaign spending on the proposition does reach that level , it could be because supporters and opponents view the battle over the suspension of AB 32 as symbolic in the larger national debate over global warming . Steven Maviglio , speaking for a group that wants to keep AB 32 intact , said , '' ... this could be a ground zero for the battle for the future of clean energy '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"California_Proposition_23_(2010)\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 154515\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change mitigation Content: Climate change mitigation consists of actions to limit the magnitude or rate of long-term climate change . Climate change mitigation generally involves reductions in human ( anthropogenic ) emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) . Mitigation may also be achieved by increasing the capacity of carbon sinks , e.g. , through reforestation . Mitigation policies can substantially reduce the risks associated with human-induced global warming . According to the IPCC 's 2014 assessment report , `` Mitigation is a public good ; climate change is a case of the ` tragedy of the commons . Effective climate change mitigation will not be achieved if each agent ( individual , institution or country ) acts independently in its own selfish interest ( see international cooperation and emissions trading ) , suggesting the need for collective action . Some adaptation actions , on the other hand , have characteristics of a private good as benefits of actions may accrue more directly to the individuals , regions , or countries that undertake them , at least in the short term . Nevertheless , financing such adaptive activities remains an issue , particularly for poor individuals and countries . '' Examples of mitigation include phasing out fossil fuels by switching to low-carbon energy sources , such as renewable and nuclear energy , and expanding forests and other `` sinks '' to remove greater amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Energy efficiency may also play a role , for example , through improving the insulation of buildings . Another approach to climate change mitigation is climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to stabilize atmospheric concentrations of GHGs at a level that would prevent dangerous human interference of the climate system . Scientific analysis can provide information on the impacts of climate change , but deciding which impacts are dangerous requires value judgments . In 2010 , Parties to the UNFCCC agreed that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) relative to the pre-industrial level . With the Paris Agreement of 2015 this was confirmed , but was revised with a new target laying down `` parties will do the best '' to achieve warming below 1.5 ° C . The current trajectory of global greenhouse gas emissions does not appear to be consistent with limiting global warming to below 1.5 or 2 ° C . Other mitigation policies have been proposed , some of which are more stringent or modest than the 2 ° C limit .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_mitigation\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 154446\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Executive Orders S-3-05 and B-30-15 Content: Executive Orders S-3-05 is an Executive Order of the State of California signed by Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger in June 2005 that set greenhouse gas emissions reduction targets for the State of California and laid out responsibilities among the state agencies for implementing the Executive Order and for reporting on progress toward the targets . Specifically , the Executive Order established these targets : By 2010 , reduce GHG emissions to 2000 levels By 2020 , reduce GHG emissions to 1990 levels By 2050 , reduce GHG emissions to 80 percent below 1990 levels The first and second goals were enshrined into law by the legislation known as AB 32 , or the Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 , which gave the California Air Resources Board broad authority to implement a market-based system ( also known as cap-and-trade ) to achieve these goals . California Executive Order B-30-15 ( April 2015 , signed by Governor Jerry Brown ) added the intermediate target of : By 2030 , reduce GHG emissions to 40 percent below 1990 levels .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Executive_Orders_S-3-05_and_B-30-15\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 154324\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cap and Share Content: Cap and Share was originally developed by Feasta ( the Foundation for the Economics of Sustainability ) and is a regulatory and economic framework for controlling the use of fossil fuels in relation to climate stabilisation . Accepting that climate change is a global problem and that there is a need to cap and reduce greenhouse gas emissions globally , the philosophy of Cap and Share maintains that the earth 's atmosphere is a fundamental common resource . Consequently , it is argued , each individual should get an equal share of the benefits from the limited amount of fossil fuels that will have to be burned and their emissions released into the atmosphere in the period until the atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gases has been stabilised at a safe level .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Cap_and_Share\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 152110\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Emission Reduction Unit Content: The emission reduction unit ( ERU ) is an emissions unit issued under a Joint Implementation project in terms of the Kyoto Protocol . An ERU represents a reduction of greenhouse gases under the Joint Implementation mechanism , where it represents one tonne of equivalent reduced . To allow comparison between the different effects of gases on the environment , scientists have defined multipliers for gases that compare their greenhouse potency ( global warming potential ) relative to that of carbon dioxide . One example of a Joint Implementation project resulting in an emission reduction unit , is the production of biogases by landfill sites . These gases consist of mainly methane which escapes to the atmosphere if it is not collected . The main reason for dealing with methane is that it has a 100-year global warming potential multiplier of 25 compared to carbon dioxide ( i.e. has 25 times the greenhouse potency ) . Collection of methane is usually accompanied by its combustion . Burning one tonne of methane produces nearly 3 tonnes of , thus reducing its greenhouse effect by ( 25-3 = 22 ) ERU . In December 2012 , ERU prices crashed to a low of 15 euro cents before recovering to 23c after news that EU 's Climate Change Committee was to vote on a ban of ERUs from countries that have not signed up to a second commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol . In January 2013 , Bloomberg reported that emission reduction unit prices declined 89 percent in 2012\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Emission_Reduction_Unit\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 151705\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental impact of transport Content: The environmental impact of transport is significant because it is a major user of energy , and burns most of the world 's petroleum . This creates air pollution , including nitrous oxides and particulates , and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon dioxide , for sector . By subsector , road transport is the largest contributor to global warming . Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced the individual vehicle 's emission ; however , this has been offset by an increase in the number of vehicles , and more use of each vehicle . Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road vehicles considerably have been studied . Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes , causing environmentalists to call for a transition from air and road to rail and human-powered transport , and increase transport electrification and energy efficiency . The transportation sector is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) in the United States . An estimated 30 percent of national GHGs are directly attributable to transportation -- and in some regions , the proportion is even higher . Transportation methods are the greatest contributing source of GHGs in the U.S. , accounting for 47 percent of the net increase in total U.S. emissions since 1990 . Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urban sprawl , which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands . By reducing transportation emissions globally , it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects on Earth 's air quality , acid rain , smog and climate change . The health impact of transport emissions is also of concern . A recent survey of the studies on the effect of traffic emissions on pregnancy outcomes has linked exposure to emissions to adverse effects on gestational duration and possibly also intrauterine growth . As listed above direct impacts such as noise and carbon monoxide emissions create direct and harmful effects on the environment , along with indirect impacts . The indirect impacts are often of higher consequence which leads to the misconception that it 's the opposite since it is frequently understood that initial effects cause the most damage . For example , particulates which are the outcome of incomplete combustion done by an internal combustion engine , are not linked with respiratory and cardiovascular problems since they contribute to other factors not only to that specific condition . Even though the environmental impacts are usually listed individually there are also cumulative impacts . The synergetic consequences of transport activities . They take into account of the varied effects of direct and indirect impacts on an ecosystem . Climate change is the sum total impact of several natural and human-made factors . 15 % of global CO2 emissions are attributed to the transport sector .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_impact_of_transport\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 150944\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The 2030 °Challenge Content: The 2030 ° Challenge is an initiative by Edward Mazria and Architecture 2030 asking the global architecture and construction community to adopt a series of greenhouse gas reduction targets for new and renovated buildings . In many developed countries the construction and use of buildings is the leading consumer of energy and producer of greenhouse gas emissions . Stabilizing and reversing emissions in this sector is key to keeping future global warming under one degree celsius ( ° C ) above today 's level , in order to avoid increased global warming , potentially to reach a tipping point .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"The_2030_°Challenge\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 150124\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Air pollution in Germany Content: Air pollution in Germany has significantly decreased over the past decade . Air pollution occurs when harmful substances are released into the Earth 's atmosphere . These pollutants are released through human activity and natural sources . Germany took interest in reducing its greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions by switching to renewable energy sources . Renewable energy use rose from 6.3 % in 2000 to 34 % in 2016 . Through the transition to renewable energy sources , Germany has become the climate change policy leader and renewable energy leader in the European Union ( EU ) and in the world with ambitious climate change programs . The current goal of the German government was approved on 14 November 2016 in the German Climate Action Plan 2050 , which outlines measures by which Germany can meet its greenhouse gas emissions by 2050 . By 2050 , Germany wants to reduce their GHGs by 80 to 95 % and by 2030 they want to reduce it by 55 % , compared to the EU target of 40 % . In order to achieve these goals , a variety of strategies and policies are used rather than legislation . The four strategies the German government bases air pollution control on are laying down environmental quality standards , emission reduction requirements according to the best available technology , production regulations , and laying down emission ceilings . Through these strategies , policy instruments have been put in place that have contributed to the success of the significant air pollution reduction in Germany . These instruments include the Federal Emission Control Act and Implementing Ordinances , Technical Instructions on Air Quality Control ( TA Luft ) , Amendment to Ordinance on Small Firing Installations , Implementation of the directive on industrial emissions , and Transboundary air pollution control policy . The German Feed-in-Tariff policy introduced in 2000 led to the significant increase in renewable energy use and decreasing air pollution . They have been introduced in Germany to increase the use of renewables , such as wind power , biomass , hydropower , geothermal power , and photovoltaics , thereby reducing GHG emissions causing air pollution and combating climate change . The German government has been an agenda setter in international climate policy negotiations since the late 1980s . However , national and global climate policies have become a top priority since the conservative-social democratic government came into power in 2005 , pushing both European and international climate negotiations . Positive path dependency in Germany 's climate and energy policies has occurred over the past 20 years . There are three main triggers that put Germany on this positive path dependency and what led them to becoming a climate change policy leader . The first being the widespread damages to health , due to smog , and to nature , due to acid rain , caused by air pollution . The second being the shock of the two oil price crises , in 1973 and 1979 , that highlighted the problem of the German economy 's strong dependence on unsure foreign sources . The third being the growing opposition to the country 's growing reliance on nuclear energy . Air pollution began to be seen as a problem in Germany due to these three triggers , causing Germany to put policies into place to control air pollution . This has now developed from controlling air pollution to being a leader in climate change politics . __ TOC __\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Air_pollution_in_Germany\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 149432\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon price Content: Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' . Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain . The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions . The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_price\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 148932\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Intended Nationally Determined Contributions Content: Intended Nationally Determined Contributions ( INDCs ) is a term used under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) for reductions in greenhouse gas emissions that all countries that signed the UNFCCC were asked to publish in the lead up to the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference held in Paris , France in December 2015 . These intended contributions were determined without prejudice to the legal nature of the contributions . The term was intended as a compromise between `` quantified emissions limitation and reduction objective '' ( QUELROs ) and `` nationally appropriate mitigation actions '' ( NAMAs ) that the Kyoto Protocol used to describe the different legal obligations of developed and developing countries . Under the Paris Agreement , adopted in December 2015 , the INDC will become the first Nationally Determined Contribution when a country ratifies the agreement , unless they decide to submit a new NDC at the same time . Once the Paris Agreement is ratified , the NDC will become the first greenhouse gas targets under the UNFCCC that applied equally to both developed and developing countries . On 3 August 2016 China and US ratified 2015 agreement on INDC . Together they both constitute 38 % of total global emission , with China 's alone emitting total of 20 % . India that has a Global share of GHGs emission at 4.1 % of that of world ratified Paris climate agreement on October 2 , 2016 by depositing the Instrument of ratification with the United nations .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Intended_Nationally_Determined_Contributions\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 147341\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 147332\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 147179\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Content: The Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme ( or CPRS ) was a cap-and-trade emissions trading scheme for anthropogenic greenhouse gases proposed by the Rudd government , as part of its climate change policy , which had been due to commence in Australia in 2010 . It marked a major change in the energy policy of Australia . The policy began to be formulated in April 2007 , when the federal Labor Party was in Opposition and the six Labor-controlled states commissioned an independent review on energy policy , the Garnaut Climate Change Review , which published a number of reports . After Labor won the 2007 federal election and formed government , it published a Green Paper on climate change for discussion and comment . The Federal Treasury then modelled some of the financial and economic impacts of the proposed CPRS scheme . The Rudd government published a final White Paper on 15 December 2008 , and announced that legislation was intended to take effect in July 2010 ; but the legislation for the CPRS ( aka ETS ) failed to gain the numbers in the Senate and was twice rejected creating a double dissolution election trigger . A bitter political debate within the Coalition Opposition saw Opposition leader Malcolm Turnbull lose the leadership to the anti-CPRS Tony Abbott . The Rudd government did not call an election and in April 2010 , Rudd deferred plans for the CPRS . After the 2010 federal election , the Gillard Government was able to get the Carbon Pricing Mechanism ( CPM ) passed into law as part of the Clean Energy Futures Package ( CEF ) in 2011 , and became effective on 1 July 2012 . However , after the 2013 federal election there was a change in government , and the Abbott Government repealed the CEF package on 17 July 2014 . Due to the great deal of policy uncertainty surrounding the scheme , organizations in Australia responded in a rather informal and tepid manner and largely withheld from making any large-scale investments in emissions reductions technology during the scheme 's operation .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_Pollution_Reduction_Scheme\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 146770\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Drawdown (climate) Content: Climate drawdown is the point at which greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere begin to decline on a year-to-year basis . Drawdown is a goal for reversing climate change , and eventually reducing global average temperatures . Project Drawdown is a climate change mitigation project initiated by Paul Hawken and climate activist Amanda Joy Ravenhill . Central to the project is the compilation of a list of the `` 100 most substantive solutions to global warming . '' The list , encompassing only technologically viable , existing solutions , was compiled by a team of over 200 scholars , scientists , policymakers , business leaders and activists ; for each solution the carbon impact through the year 2050 , the total and net cost to society , and the total lifetime savings were measured and modelled .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Drawdown_(climate)\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 144764\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon governance in England Content: The reduction of carbon emissions , along with other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , has become a vitally important task of international , national and local actors . If we understand governance as the creation of `` conditions for ordered rule and collective action '' then , given the fact that the reduction of carbon emissions will require concerted collective action , it follows that the governance of carbon will be of paramount concern . We have seen numerous international conferences over the past 20 years tasked with finding a way of facilitating this , and while international agreements have been infamously difficult to reach , action at the national level has been much more effective . In the UK , the Climate Change Act 2008 committed the government to meeting significant carbon reduction targets . In England , these carbon emissions are governed using numerous different instruments , which involve a variety of actors . While it has been argued by authors like Rhodes that there has been a `` hollowing out '' of the nation state , and that governments have lost their capabilities to govern to a variety of non-state actors and the European Union , the case of carbon governance in England actually runs counter to this . The government body responsible for the task , the Department of Energy and Climate Change ( DECC ) , is the `` main external dynamic '' behind governing actions in this area , and `` rather than hollowing out ( there has actually been a strengthening of ) central co-ordination '' . The department may rely on other bodies to deliver its desired outcomes , but it is still ultimately responsible for the imposition of the rules and regulations that `` steer ( carbon ) governmental action at the national level '' . It is therefore evident that carbon governance in England is hierarchical in nature , in that `` legislative decisions and executive decisions '' are the main dynamic behind carbon governance action . This does not deny the existence of a network of bodies around DECC who are part of the process , but they are supplementary actors who are steered by central decisions . This article focuses on carbon governance in England as the other countries of the UK ( Scotland , Wales and Northern Ireland ) all have devolved assemblies who are responsible for the governance of carbon emissions in their respective countries .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_governance_in_England\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 144497\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_controversy\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 144082\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental issue Content: Environmental issues are harmful trouble effects of human activity on the biophysical environment . Environmental protection is a practice of protecting the natural environment on individual , organizational or governmental levels , for the benefit of both the environment and humans . Environmentalism , a social and environmental movement , addresses environmental issues through advocacy , education and activism . The carbon dioxide equivalent of greenhouse gases ( GHG ) in the atmosphere has already exceeded 400 parts per million ( NOAA ) ( with total `` long-term '' GHG exceeding 455 parts per million ) . ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Report ) This level is considered a tipping point . `` The amount of greenhouse gas in the atmosphere is already above the threshold that can potentially cause dangerous climate change . We are already at risk of many areas of pollution ... It 's not next year or next decade , it 's now . '' Report from the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs ( OCHA ) : Environment destruction caused by humans is a global problem , and this is a problem that is on going every day . By year 2050 , the global human population is expected to grow by 2 billion people , thereby reaching a level of 9.6 billion people ( Living Blue Planet 24 ) . The human effects on Earth can be seen in many different ways . A main one is the temperature rise , and according to the report '' Our Changing Climate '' , the global warming that has been going on for the past 50 years is primarily due to human activities ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) . Since 1895 , the U.S. average temperature has increased from 1.3 ° F to 1.9 ° F , with most of the increase taken place since around year 1970 ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_issue\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 143818\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon emissions reporting Content: Human activities continue to impact Earth 's climate through the emission of greenhouse gases . One of the proposed ways to combat this climate change is through reporting by businesses on the impact of their activities . Large power stations and manufacturing plants are often required to report their emissions to appropriate government entities , for example to the European Union as part of the Emissions Trading System or to the US EPA as part of the Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program . In the United Kingdom , Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra ) has described climate change as the `` greatest environmental challenge facing the world today , '' and it is now a legal requirement for all quoted companies to report their annual greenhouse gas emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_emissions_reporting\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 142237\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Climate Coalition Content: The Global Climate Coalition ( GCC ) ( 1989 -- 2001 ) was an international lobbyist group of businesses that opposed action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and challenged the science behind global warming . The GCC was the largest industry group active in climate policy and the most prominent industry advocate in international climate negotiations . The GCC was involved in opposition to the Kyoto Protocol , and played a role in blocking ratification by the United States . The coalition promoted the views of climate skeptics . The GCC dissolved in 2001 after membership declined in the face of improved understanding of the role of greenhouse gases in climate change and of public criticism .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Climate_Coalition\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 141982\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Media_coverage_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 141169\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 139465\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: American Electric Power Co. v. Connecticut Content: American Electric Power Company v. Connecticut , , was a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court , in an 8 -- 0 decision , held that corporations can not be sued for greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) under federal common law , primarily because the Clean Air Act ( CAA ) delegates the management of carbon dioxide and other GHG emissions to the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) . Brought to court in July 2004 in the Southern District of New York , this was the first global warming case based on a public nuisance claim .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"American_Electric_Power_Co._v._Connecticut\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 138294\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 137573\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse debt Content: Greenhouse debt or carbon debt is the measure to which an individual person , incorporated association , business enterprise , government instrumentality or geographic community exceeds its permitted greenhouse footprint and contributes greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming and climate change . The concept makes no sense without a clear numerical value for the permitted greenhouse footprint . It is not clear what this value is . Friends of the Earth and similar organisations put forward the concept to define specifically the environmental harm caused by developed countries ' past and present policies . Some governments , at least the Australian Labor leadership , have a tendency to accept such a line of reasoning . The greenhouse debt assessment thus forms an ecological footprint analysis but can be used separately . Taken conjointly with a ` water debt ' analysis and an ecological impact assessment , greenhouse debt analysis is basic to giving individuals , organisations , governments and communities an understanding of the effects they are having on Gaia , life , and global warming . Ensuring that the greenhouse debt is zero is essential towards achieving ecologically sustainable development or a sustainable retreat . Any greenhouse debt incurred will contribute to making life harder for future generations of humans and non-human lifeforms . There are three possible consequences that occur as a result of a greenhouse debt . Mitigation : finding compensatory ways of reducing the greenhouse debt so its effects are neutralised Adaptation : finding ways of adjusting to the resulting global warming or climate change Suffering : having one 's quality of life reduced as a result of the consequences\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_debt\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 137312\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 137210\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Paris Agreement Content: The Paris Agreement ( Accord de Paris ) is an agreement within the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) dealing with greenhouse gas emissions mitigation , adaptation and finance starting in the year 2020 . The language of the agreement was negotiated by representatives of 195 countries at the 21st Conference of the Parties of the UNFCCC in Paris and adopted by consensus on 12 December 2015 . It was opened for signature on 22 April 2016 ( Earth Day ) at a ceremony in New York . As of May 2017 , 195 UNFCCC members have signed the treaty , 147 of which have ratified it . After several European Union states ratified the agreement in October 2016 , there were enough countries that had ratified the agreement that produce enough of the world 's greenhouse gases for the agreement to enter into force . The agreement went into effect on 4 November 2016 . The head of the Paris Conference , France 's foreign minister Laurent Fabius , said this `` ambitious and balanced '' plan is a `` historic turning point '' in the goal of reducing global warming . One year on , the ratification of the Paris Agreement was celebrated by the Mayor of Paris Anne Hidalgo by illuminating the Eiffel Tower and the Arc de Triomphe , Paris ' most iconic monuments , in green .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Paris_Agreement\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 136865\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources Content: Measurement of life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions involves calculating the global-warming potential of electrical energy sources through life-cycle assessment of each energy source . The findings are presented in units of global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated by that source . The scale uses the global warming potential unit , the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) , and the unit of electrical energy , the kilowatt hour ( kWh ) . The goal of such assessments is to cover the full life of the source , from material and fuel mining through construction to operation and waste management . In 2014 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change harmonized the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) findings of the major electricity generating sources in use worldwide . This was done by analyzing the findings of hundreds of individual scientific papers assessing each energy source . For all technologies , advances in efficiency , and therefore reductions in e since the time of publication , have not been included . For example , the total life cycle emissions from wind power may have lessened since publication . Similarly , due to the time frame over which the studies were conducted , nuclear Generation II reactor 's e results are presented and not the global warming potential of Generation III reactors , presently under construction in the United States and China . Other limitations of the data include : a ) missing life cycle phases , and , b ) uncertainty as to where to define the cut-off point in the global warming potential of an energy source . The latter is important in assessing a combined electrical grid in the real world , rather than the established practice of simply assessing the energy source in isolation .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Life-cycle_greenhouse-gas_emissions_of_energy_sources\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 136730\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 88888 Lights Out Content: 88888 Lights Out was a campaign with the stated goal of increasing awareness of global warming and promoting actions to reduce energy consumption . By encouraging India 's residents to turn out the lights for eight minutes and to become more aware of environmental concerns , the organisers sought to limit greenhouse gas emissions and reduce pollution of the globe .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"88888_Lights_Out\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 135698\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change litigation and the California Environmental Quality Act Content: Litigation related to climate change and greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions has become increasingly common in federal and state courts . Following adoption of the Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 ( AB 32 ) and publication of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) , additional pressure was placed on California public agencies to evaluate potential adverse effects to global climate change caused by GHG emissions . In particular , several lawsuits have been filed against agencies for failure to analyze GHG emissions generated by projects subject to the California Environmental Quality Act ( CEQA ) . Court decisions prior to the 2010 revisions to the CEQA guidelines gave early insights as to how CEQA would be used as a vehicle to identify and mitigate GHG emissions within the state . Decisions issued after adoption of the revised guidelines are now being used to interpret CEQA 's new requirement to evaluate GHG emissions and climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_litigation_and_the_California_Environmental_Quality_Act\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 135514\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Carbon_Project\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 135342\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hell and High Water (book) Content: Hell and High Water : Global Warming -- the Solution and the Politics -- and What We Should Do is a book by author , scientist , and former U.S. Department of Energy official Joseph J. Romm , published December 26 , 2006 . The author is `` one of the world 's leading experts on clean energy , advanced vehicles , energy security , and greenhouse gas mitigation . '' The book warns of dire consequences to the U.S. and the world if wide-scale environmental changes are not enacted by the U.S. government within the next decade . It reviews the evidence that the current initial global warming changes will lead to accelerated warming . According to Romm , the oceans , soils , Arctic permafrost , and rainforests may become sources of greenhouse gas emissions . The book claims that , without serious government action within the next ten years , sea levels will rise high enough to submerge numerous coastal communities and inland areas on both U.S. coasts and around the world by the year 2100 . In April 2008 , TIME magazine wrote that `` On -LSB- Romm 's -RSB- blog and in his most recent book , Hell and High Water , you can find some of the most cogent , memorable , and deployable arguments for immediate and overwhelming action to confront global warming . '' Romm was interviewed on Fox News on January 31 , 2007 about the book and the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report climate report .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Hell_and_High_Water_(book)\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 135322\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Post–Kyoto Protocol negotiations on greenhouse gas emissions Content: Post-Kyoto negotiations refers to high level talks attempting to address global warming by limiting greenhouse gas emissions . Generally part of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , these talks concern the period after the first `` commitment period '' of the Kyoto Protocol , which expired at the end of 2012 . Negotiations have been mandated by the adoption of the Bali Road Map and Decision 1/CP .13 ( `` The Bali Action Plan '' ) . UNFCCC negotiations are conducted within two subsidiary bodies , the Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action under the Convention ( AWG-LCA ) and the Ad Hoc Working Group on Further Commitments for Annex I Parties under the Kyoto Protocol ( AWG-KP ) and were expected to culminate in the United Nations Climate Change Conference taking place in December 2009 in Copenhagen ( COP-15 ) ; negotiations are supported by a number of external processes , including the G8 process , a number of regional meetings and the Major Economies Forum on Energy and Climate that was launched by US President Barack Obama in March 2009 . High level talks were held at the meeting of the G8 +5 Climate Change Dialogue in February 2007 and at a number of subsequent G8 meetings , most recently leading to the adoption of the G8 leaders declaration `` Responsible Leadership for a Sustainable Future '' during the G8 summit in L ´ Aquila , Italy , in July 2009 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Post–Kyoto_Protocol_negotiations_on_greenhouse_gas_emissions\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 135133\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Climate and Energy Project Content: The Global Climate and Energy Project ( GCEP ) at Stanford University , `` seeks new solutions to one of the grand challenges of this century : supplying energy to meet the changing needs of a growing world population in a way that protects the environment . '' Beginning in December 2002 , GCEP is a 10-year , $ 225m research project aimed at developing new energy technologies . These new energy technologies include areas of interest such as renewable energy , CO2 capture and storage , hydrogen storage and electrocatalysis . It has the support of four major companies - ExxonMobil , General Electric , Schlumberger , and Toyota . Under the heading `` Grand Challenge '' , it identifies a global warming-related need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions through future energy development .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Climate_and_Energy_Project\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 134490\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Europe Content: Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe . According to international climate experts global temperature rise should not exceed 2 ° C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of the climate change . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . It is estimated that from the now living persons alive are 70 % in the year 2050 . Emission reduction means development and implementation of new energy technology solutions . Some people consider that the technology revolution has already started in Europe since the markets of the renewable technology have annually grown . European Union climate chief is Connie Hedegaard since 10 February 2010 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Europe\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 134432\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ozone depletion and climate change Content: Ozone depletion and climate change , or Ozone hole and global warming in more popular terms , are environmental challenges whose connections have been explored and which have been compared and contrasted , for example in terms of global regulation , in various studies and books . There is widespread scientific interest in better regulation of climate change , ozone depletion and air pollution , as in general the human relationship with the biosphere is deemed of major historiographical and political significance . Already by 1994 the legal debates about respective regulation regimes on climate change , ozone depletion and air pollution were being dubbed `` monumental '' and a combined synopsis provided . There are some parallels between atmospheric chemistry and anthropogenic emissions in the discussions which have taken place and the regulatory attempts which have been made . Most important is that the gases causing both problems have long lifetimes after emission to the atmosphere , thus causing problems which are difficult to reverse . However , the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and the Montreal Protocol that amended it are seen as success stories , while the Kyoto Protocol on anthropogenic climate change has largely failed . Currently efforts are being undertaken to assess the reasons and to use synergies , for example with regard to data reporting and policy design and further exchanging of information . While the general public tends to see global warming as a subset of ozone depletion , in fact ozone and chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons ( CFCs ) and other halocarbons , which are held responsible for ozone depletion , are important greenhouse gasses . Furthermore , natural levels of ozone in both the stratosphere and troposphere have a warming effect .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Ozone_depletion_and_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 134184\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"History_of_climate_change_science\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 133328\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Plan Bay Area Content: Plan Bay Area 2040 is a state-mandated law that aims to integrate sustainable strategies to reduce transportation-related pollution and external greenhouse gas emission within the nine-counties of the San Francisco Bay Area . It is also known as the implementation of the Sustainable Communities and Climate Protection Act of 2008 or SB 375 . The plan addresses methods of transportation , land-use , and housing . Over the next 25 years , the Bay Area is expected to grow by an estimated 2 million people and because of the projected growth and the growing economy , the Bay Area must provide more housing and transportation choices that will reduce their carbon footprint . This adopted plan will invest in increasing methods of transportation with the goal of reducing CO2 emissions . To do so , the plan will invest in extending ferry services , freeway express lanes , and developing newer BART Stations to expand travel reach . The goal of this plan is to improve on their earlier efforts of network and growth within the context of finance and environmental responsibility . Like all plans , it is a work in progress that is updated every four years to reflect on new priorities and changes with the goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . The plan was approved on July 18 , 2013 by the Association of Bay Area Governments and by the Metropolitan Transportation Commission . The adoption of the plan by regional planners was covered by the San Francisco Chronicle .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Plan_Bay_Area\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 133169\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ten Technologies to Fix Energy and Climate Content: Ten Technologies to Fix Energy and Climate ( second edition , 2009 ) or Ten Technologies to Save the Planet ( first edition , 2008 ) is a popular science book by Chris Goodall first published in 2008 and re-issued in 2009 by Profile Books . Its ten chapters each detail a technology that has the potential to reduce Greenhouse Gases while being economically and technologically viable in the present or near future . The book received a positive critical response for the way in which it was written and dealt with the issues surrounding Global Warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Ten_Technologies_to_Fix_Energy_and_Climate\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 133016\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates Content: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) are cause by the exploitation of natural resources , rapid population growth , and high energy demand . The continuing temperature rise caused by global warming contributes to UAE 's water scarcity , drought , rising sea level and aridity . The countryside of the UAE , characterized with its great arid land , infrequent precipitation , and high temperatures are already facing long-term aridity . This precondition is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change and contributes to worsening water scarcity , quality , and water contamination . The United Arab Emirates are located in the Middle East between Oman and Saudi Arabia , adjoining the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf . In the last years , the impact of global warming on the UAE has intensified the already existing environmental issues , including water scarcity and limited agricultural land . The United Arab Emirates are a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , listed as having the 29th highest carbon dioxide emissions . Since the boom of the oil-industry occurred in the early 21st century , the population and its consumption of energy have sharply increased . The UAE contains the world 's seventh largest natural resource of oil and seventeenth-largest natural gas reserve . This possession of a high amount of valuable natural resources , pushed the UAE to the position of the ninth wealthiest country in the world by 2016 GDP per capita . These financial resources support their adaptation capacity to `` climate change-induced challenges '' . Currently , they are investing in increasing air conditioning infrastructure , rainwater drainage systems , constructing flood barriers and new desalination plants . In June 2016 Abu Dhabi announced a project for an enhanced rainwater drainage system due to unnaturally occurring thunderstorms in March 2016 which caused 860 damages on properties and flooding . Also the three main characteristics of UAE 's politics contribute to the recent natural unsustainability : First , the Emirates feature components of a Rentier state . It is governed by an authoritarian political system and finally both facts cause critical natural resource-related trades . In particular , UAE as a rentier state means that the federalization gains external rent from foreign individuals , companies and governments . A rentier state 's economy is predominated by the dependency on external rents . Oil revenues also count as external rent .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 132885\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions accounting Content: Greenhouse gas emissions accounting is a method of calculating the amount of greenhouse gases ( GHG ) emitted by a region in a given time-scale . A National Emissions Inventory ( NEI ) measuring a country 's GHG emissions in a year is required by the UNFCCC to provide a benchmark for the country 's emission reductions , and subsequently to evaluate international climate policies such as the Kyoto protocol ( although the original has now expired , extensions have been agreed ) as well as regional climate policies such as the EU Emissions Trading Scheme ( ETS ) . There are two conflicting ways of measuring GHG emissions : production-based ( sometimes referred to as territorial-based ) or consumption-based . Production-based emissions take place `` within national territory and offshore areas over which the country has jurisdiction '' . Consumption-based emissions encompass those emissions from domestic final consumption and those caused by the production of its imports . This means the importing country takes responsibility for emissions related to production of the exporting country 's exports . By these definitions production-based emissions include exports but exclude imports and emissions embodied in international trade , whereas consumption-based emissions refer to the reverse ( Table 1 ) . Which technique is applied by policymakers is fundamental as each can generate a very different NEI . Different NEIs would result in a country 's choosing different optimal mitigation activities , the wrong choice based on wrong information being potentially damaging . The application of production-based emissions accounting is currently favoured in policy terms , although much of the literature favours consumption-based accounting . The former method is criticised in the literature principally for its inability to allocate emissions embodied in international trade/transportation and the potential for carbon leakage .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_accounting\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 132806\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Hype about Hydrogen Content: The Hype about Hydrogen : Fact and Fiction in the Race to Save the Climate is a book by Joseph J. Romm , published in 2004 by Island Press and updated in 2005 . The book has been translated into German as Der Wasserstoff-Boom . Romm is an expert on clean energy , advanced vehicles , energy security , and greenhouse gas mitigation . Over 200 publications , including Scientific American , Forbes magazine and The New York Times , have cited this book . The book was named one of the best science and technology books of 2004 by Library Journal . The thrust of the book is that hydrogen is not economically feasible to use for transportation , nor will its use reduce global warming , because of the cost and greenhouse gases generated during production , the low energy content per volume and weight of the container , the cost of the fuel cells , and the cost of the infrastructure . The author argues that a major effort to introduce hydrogen cars before 2030 would actually undermine efforts to reduce emissions of heat-trapping greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Hype_about_Hydrogen\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 132655\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon Neutral Cities Alliance Content: The Carbon Neutral Cities Alliance ( CNCA or `` Alliance '' ) is a collaboration of leading global cities working to cut greenhouse gas emissions by 80 % or more by 2050 or sooner ( `` 80x50 '' ) -- the most aggressive greenhouse gas reduction targets undertaken by any cities across the globe . The Alliance aims to address what it will take for leading international cities to achieve these deep emissions reductions and how they can work together to meet their respective goals more efficiently and effectively .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_Neutral_Cities_Alliance\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 132405\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries ranked by greenhouse-gas emissions per capita in 2000 . It is based on data for carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , perfluorocarbon , hydrofluorocarbon and sulfur hexafluoride emissions compiled by the World Resources Institute ( WRI ) from a variety of sources , including CDIAC and the US Environmental Protection Agency . Bunker-fuel emissions are not included . Two sets of per capita emissions are given , one with an estimate of the effects of land-use change ( for example , cutting down forests ) and one without . The former is based on regional estimates in Houghton ( 2003 ) . Difficulties with determining rates of deforestation and the magnitude of carbon stocks held by the remaining forests and with distributing regional carbon fluxes among individual countries mean that the land-use change components have a large margin of error , perhaps as large as + / -150 % in some cases . They are included here because , although difficult to quantify accurately at a country level , land-use change is a significant contributor to global warming . The WRI estimates that it accounted for almost a fifth of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions in 2000 . For 2005 the data for a large number of countries only includes emissions ( see note 12 . )\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_countries_by_greenhouse_gas_emissions_per_capita\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 132197\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_tax\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 132113\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: International Council of Academies of Engineering and Technological Sciences Content: The International Council of Academies of Engineering and Technological Sciences , Inc. ( CAETS ) is an organization of national engineering and technological sciences academies . Its primary mission is to advise governments and international organizations on technical and policy issues , to improve the understanding of engineering and technology by the public , to offer a forum for discussion and communication , to support cooperation , and to improve education and practice of its field of interest . CAETS was founded in 1978 by the Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering , the Royal Academy of Engineering , the Mexican National Academy of Engineering , the US National Academy of Engineering and the Royal Swedish Academy of Engineering Sciences and , as of 2007 , has more than 25 members among the national academies of engineering of many major industrialized countries . CAETS is incorporated as a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit corporation in the District of Columbia , USA . In October 2007 , CAETS issued a Statement on Environment and Sustainable Growth : As reported by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , most of the observed global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human-produced emission of greenhouse gases and this warming will continue unabated if present anthropogenic emissions continue or , worse , expand without control . CAETS , therefore , endorses the many recent calls to decrease and control greenhouse gas emissions to an acceptable level as quickly as possible .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"International_Council_of_Academies_of_Engineering_and_Technological_Sciences\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 131850\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: San Francisco Climate Action Plan Content: The San Francisco Climate Action Plan is a greenhouse gas reduction initiative adopted by the City and County of San Francisco , United States in 2002 . It aims to reduce the city 's greenhouse gas emissions to 20 % below 1990 levels by 2012 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"San_Francisco_Climate_Action_Plan\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 131766\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sustainability and systemic change resistance Content: The environmental sustainability problem has proven difficult to solve . The modern environmental movement has attempted to solve the problem in a large variety of ways . But little progress has been made , as shown by severe ecological footprint overshoot and lack of sufficient progress on the climate change problem . Something within the human system is preventing change to a sustainable mode of behavior . That system trait is systemic change resistance . Change resistance is also known as organizational resistance , barriers to change , or policy resistance .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Sustainability_and_systemic_change_resistance\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 131555\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Emissions trading Content: Emissions trading or cap and trade is a government-mandated , market-based approach to controlling pollution by providing economic incentives for achieving reductions in the emissions of pollutants . In contrast to command-and-control environmental regulations such as best available technology ( BAT ) standards and government subsidies , cap and trade ( CAT ) schemes are a type of flexible environmental regulation that allows organizations to decide how best to meet policy targets . Various countries , states and groups of companies have adopted such trading systems , notably for mitigating climate change . A central authority ( usually a governmental body ) allocates or sells a limited number of permits to discharge specific quantities of a specific pollutant per time period . Polluters are required to hold permits in amount equal to their emissions . Polluters that want to increase their emissions must buy permits from others willing to sell them . Financial derivatives of permits can also be traded on secondary markets . In theory , polluters who can reduce emissions most cheaply will do so , achieving the emission reduction at the lowest cost to society . Cap and trade is meant to provide the private sector with the flexibility required to reduce emissions while stimulating technological innovation and economic growth . There are active trading programs in several air pollutants . For greenhouse gases , which cause climate change , permit units are often called carbon credits . The largest greenhouse gases trading program is the European Union Emission Trading Scheme , which trades primarily in European Union Allowances ( EUAs ) ; the Californian scheme trades in California Carbon Allowances , the New Zealand scheme in New Zealand Units and the Australian scheme in Australian Units . The United States has a national market to reduce acid rain and several regional markets in nitrogen oxides .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Emissions_trading\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 131380\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Fugitive emissions Content: Fugitive emissions are emissions of gases or vapors from pressurized equipment due to leaks and other unintended or irregular releases of gases , mostly from industrial activities . As well as the economic cost of lost commodities , fugitive emissions contribute to air pollution and climate change . A detailed inventory of greenhouse gas emissions from upstream oil and gas activities in Canada for the year 2000 estimated that fugitive equipment leaks had a global warming potential equivalent to the release of 17 million metric tonnes of carbon dioxide , or 12 per cent of all greenhouse gases emitted by the sector . Venting of natural gas , flaring , accidental releases and storage losses accounted for an additional 38 per cent . Fugitive emissions present other risks and hazards . Emissions of volatile organic compounds such as benzene from oil refineries and chemical plants pose a long term health risk to workers and local communities . In situations where large amounts of flammable liquids and gases are contained under pressure , leaks also increase the risk of fire and explosion . Leaks from pressurized process equipment generally occur through valves , pipe connections , mechanical seals , or related equipment . Fugitive emissions also occur at evaporative sources such as waste water treatment ponds and storage tanks . Because of the huge number of potential leak sources at large industrial facilities and the difficulties in detecting and repairing some leaks , fugitive emissions can be a significant proportion of total emissions . Though the quantities of leaked gases may be small , gases that have serious health or environmental impacts can cause a significant problem . To minimize and control leaks at process facilities operators carry out regular leak detection and repair activities . Routine inspections of process equipment with gas detectors can be used to identify leaks and estimate the leak rate in order to decide on appropriate corrective action . Proper routine maintenance of equipment reduces the likelihood of leaks . Because of the technical difficulties and costs of detecting and quantifying actual fugitive emissions at a site or facility , and the variability and intermittent nature of emission flow rates , bottom-up estimates based on standard emission factors are generally used for annual reporting purposes . New technologies are under development that could revolutionize the detection and monitoring of fugitive emissions . One technology , known as differential absorption lidar ( DIAL ) , can be used to remotely measure concentration profiles of hydrocarbons in the atmosphere up to several hundred meters from a facility . DIAL has been used for refinery surveys in Europe for over 15 years . A pilot study carried out in 2005 using DIAL found that actual emissions at a refinery were fifteen times higher than those previously reported using the emission factor approach . The fugitive emissions were equivalent to 0.17 % of the refinery throughput . Portable gas leak imaging cameras are also a new technology that can be used to improve leak detection and repair , leading to reduced fugitive emissions . The cameras use infrared imaging technology to produce video images in which invisible gases escaping from leak sources can be clearly identified .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Fugitive_emissions\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 131046\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Territorialisation of carbon governance Content: Territorialisation of Carbon Governance ( ToCG ) is a concept used in political geography or environmental policy which is considered to be a new logic of environmental governance . This method creates carbon-relevant citizens who become enrolled in the process of governing the climate . The territorialisation of carbon governance transforms climate change from a global to local issue . It embodies political practices that serve to connect the causes and consequences of global climate change to local communities . The commitment to reducing greenhouse gas emissions ( GHG ) has been a key component of sustainability within governance since the early 1990s . The ICLEI - Local Governments for Sustainability is an international association of local governments which brings together 1200 cities , towns and the associated 70 countries in their commitment to sustainable development . Further responses that seek to address these issues , include international body the IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , the Rio Earth Summit and United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . These organisations strive to tackle anthropogenic forces which are increasing risks of global warming . Under the territorialisation of carbon , climate and global flows of carbon are regarded as ` national sinks ' . This is a means by which the carbon cycle can be managed and territorialised through being assigned to a physical geographical space instead of being thought of as a global phenomenon . The act of territorialisation oversees the combining of material natures and state institutions into one system through the creation of carbon territories . This approach can allow individual states and governments to control and monitor their carbon emissions in order to improve their efforts in carbon governance . Carbon governance can be interpreted as the institutional arrangements under which greenhouse gas emissions are addressed and mitigated . This is achieved through regulating and controlling carbon activities . Measures and protocols exist in an attempt to address the issues surrounding greenhouse gas emissions . Carbon governance is addressed via governmental decisions made through leadership and management which attempt to improve and resolve problems related to climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Territorialisation_of_carbon_governance\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 130996\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wildland fire emission Content: Wildland fire and wildland fire atmospheric emissions have been a part of the global biosphere for millennia . The major wildland fire emissions include greenhouse gasses and several criteria pollutants that impact human health and welfare. : Compared to the preindustrial era , wildland land fire in the conterminous U.S. has been reduced 90 percent with proportional reductions in wildland fire emissions . Land use changes ( agriculture and urbanization ) are responsible for roughly 50 percent of this decrease , and land management decisions ( land fragmentation , suppression actions , etc. ) are responsible for the remainder . Anthropogenic activities ( e.g. , industrial production , transportation , agriculture , etc. ) today have more than replaced the lost preindustrial wildland fire atmospheric emissions . The following charts compare preindustrial wildland fire emissions with contemporary emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Wildland_fire_emission\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 130950\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse Mafia Content: Greenhouse Mafia is the title of a TV program aired by the ABC on the 13 February 2006 episode of its weekly current affairs program Four Corners . The program says the term greenhouse mafia is the `` in house '' name used by Australia 's carbon lobby for itself . The program featured former Liberal Party member Guy Pearse and Four Corners host Janine Cohen , while others concerned about the influence exerted by the fossil fuel lobby also participated . The report was based on a thesis Pearse wrote at the Australian National University between 1999 and 2005 regarding the response of Australian business to global warming . According to the program , lobby groups representing the coal , car , oil , and aluminium industries have wielded their power to prevent Australia from reducing its greenhouse gas emissions , which were already among the highest per capita in the world in 1990 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_Mafia\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 130663\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kyogami Content: Kyogami is a board game based around the issue of climate change and the Kyoto Protocol , which considered reducing greenhouse gas emissions without hindering economic growth . The game was designed to raise awareness of this and most of the game components are made out of recyclable materials . The basic aim of the game is for the players to expand their businesses without increasing emissions , by cleaning up their plants by trading carbon dioxide quotas and using ` flexible mechanisms ' as outlined in the protocol , the winner being the first player to own four factories without chimneys .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Kyogami\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 130533\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Land use, land-use change and forestry Content: Land use , land-use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) is defined by the United Nations Climate Change Secretariat as a `` greenhouse gas inventory sector that covers emissions and removals of greenhouse gases resulting from direct human-induced land use , land-use change and forestry activities . '' LULUCF has impacts on the global carbon cycle and as such , these activities can add or remove carbon dioxide ( or , more generally , carbon ) from the atmosphere , influencing climate . LULUCF has been the subject of two major reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Additionally , land use is of critical importance for biodiversity .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Land_use,_land-use_change_and_forestry\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 130189\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 129752\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sustainable automotive air conditioning Content: Sustainable automotive air conditioning is the subject of a debate -- nicknamed the Cool War -- about the next-generation refrigerant in car air conditioning . The Alliance for CO2 Solutions supports the uptake of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) as a refrigerant in passenger cars , and the chemical industry is developing new chemical blends . The Alliance and its supporters -- scientists , NGOs and business leaders -- urge the car industry to replace high global warming chemical substances with the natural refrigerant carbon dioxide ( CO2 , R744 / R-744 ) in car cooling and heating . This , they argue , would lead to 10 % less car emissions , and knock out 1 % of total greenhouse gas emissions worldwide . If CO2 Technology is applied in other sectors , such as commercial and industrial refrigeration , heat pumps for water heating etc. , it may even save up to 3 % of the world 's greenhouse gases . Opponents of the Alliance claim that CO2 Technology is not cost-efficient and safe , hence seeking to postpone the global industry decision to be taken to develop new chemical blends instead .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Sustainable_automotive_air_conditioning\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 129134\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: European Union Emission Trading Scheme Content: The European Union Emissions Trading System ( EU ETS ) , also known as the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme , was the first large greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme in the world , and remains the biggest . It was launched in 2005 to fight Global warming and is a major pillar of EU climate policy . As of 2013 , the EU ETS covers more than 11,000 factories , power stations , and other installations with a net heat excess of 20 MW in 31 countries -- all 28 EU member states plus Iceland , Norway , and Liechtenstein . In 2008 , the installations regulated by the EU ETS were collectively responsible for close to half of the EU 's anthropogenic emissions of CO2 and 40 % of its total greenhouse gas emissions . Under the ` cap and trade ' principle , a maximum ( cap ) is set on the total amount of greenhouse gases that can be emitted by all participating installations . ` Allowances ' for emissions are then auctioned off or allocated for free , and can subsequently be traded . Installations must monitor and report their CO2 emissions , ensuring they hand in enough allowances to the authorities to cover their emissions . If emission exceeds what is permitted by its allowances , an installation must purchase allowances from others . Conversely , if an installation has performed well at reducing its emissions , it can sell its leftover credits . This allows the system to find the most cost-effective ways of reducing emissions without significant government intervention . The scheme has been divided into a number of `` trading periods '' . The first ETS trading period lasted three years , from January 2005 to December 2007 . The second trading period ran from January 2008 until December 2012 , coinciding with the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol . The third trading period began in January 2013 and will span until December 2020 . Compared to 2005 , when the EU ETS was first implemented , the proposed caps for 2020 represents a 21 % reduction of greenhouse gases . This target has been reached 6 years early as emissions in the ETS fell to 1812 mln tonnes in 2014 . The EU ETS has seen a number of significant changes , with the first trading period described as a ` learning by doing ' phase . Phase III sees a turn to auctioning a majority of permits rather than allocating freely ; harmonisation of rules for the remaining allocations ; and the inclusion of other greenhouse gases , such as nitrous oxide and perfluorocarbons . In 2012 , the EU ETS was also extended to the airline industry , though this has been paused for one year given the possibility of a global system for these emissions . The price of EU ETS carbon credits has been lower than intended , with a large surplus of allowances , in part because of the impact of the recent economic crisis on demand . In 2012 , the Commission said it would delay the auctioning of some allowances . Currently legislation is under way which would introduce a Market Stability Reserve to the EU ETS that adjusts the annual supply of CO2 permits based on the CO2 permits in circulation . Overall , since its conception , the EU ETS has been characterized by relatively high levels of policy uncertainty . This uncertainty has been both technical , in terms of its detailed rules and procedures , and political , in terms of its public , industry , and governmental support . As a result , the scheme has resulted in a rather informal and tepid response by regulated organizations .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"European_Union_Emission_Trading_Scheme\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 128937\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: New England Governors and Eastern Canadian Premiers Climate Change Action Plan 2001 Content: The New England Governors and Eastern Canadian Premiers ( NEG-ECP ) Climate Change Action Plan 2001 is a resolution adopted on August 28 , 2001 , by the New England Governors and the Eastern Canadian Premiers . The resolution calls for a reduction in greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions to 1990 levels by 2010 , at least 10 % below 1990 levels by 2020 , and a 75-85 % reduction of 2001 levels as a long-term goal . Participating are the six states belonging to New England : Connecticut , Maine , Massachusetts , New Hampshire , Rhode Island , and Vermont ; as well as the Eastern Canadian provinces : New Brunswick , Newfoundland and Labrador , Nova Scotia , Prince Edward Island , and Quebec . In addition , the Northeast States for Coordinated Air Use Management ( NESCAUM ) is building a Regional Greenhouse Gas Registry ( RGGR ) to help track emissions in the region . This effort is similar to that of the California Climate Action Registry .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"New_England_Governors_and_Eastern_Canadian_Premiers_Climate_Change_Action_Plan_2001\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 128662\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_potential\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 128623\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Methane Initiative Content: The Global Methane Initiative ( GMI ) is a voluntary , international partnership that brings together national governments , private sector entities , development banks , NGOs and other interested stakeholders in a collaborative effort to reduce methane gas emissions and advance methane recovery and use as a clean energy source . National governments are encouraged to join GMI as Partner Countries , while other non-State organizations may join GMI 's extensive Project Network . As a public-private initiative , GMI creates an international platform to build capacity , development methane abatement strategies , engage in technology transfer , and remove political and economic barriers to project development for emissions reduction . The initiative currently focuses on five sectors , which are known sources of anthropogenic methane emissions : agriculture , coal mining , municipal solid waste , municipal wastewater , and oil and gas systems . Through international cooperation , GMI seeks to reduce global methane emissions , the second largest contributor to atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases , in order to enhance economic growth , promote energy security , improve the environment , and reduce greenhouse gases . Other expected benefits include improving mine safety , reducing waste , and improving local air quality .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Methane_Initiative\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 128622\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental impact of shipping Content: The environmental impact of shipping includes greenhouse gas emissions , acoustic , and oil pollution . The International Maritime Organization ( IMO ) estimates that Carbon dioxide emissions from shipping were equal to 2.2 % of the global human-made emissions in 2012 and expects them to rise by as much as 2 to 3 times by 2050 if no action is taken . The First Intersessional Meeting of the IMO Working Group on Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Ships took place in Oslo , Norway on 23 -- 27 June 2008 . It was tasked with developing the technical basis for the reduction mechanisms that may form part of a future IMO regime to control greenhouse gas emissions from international shipping , and a draft of the actual reduction mechanisms themselves , for further consideration by IMO 's Marine Environment Protection Committee ( MEPC ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_impact_of_shipping\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 128402\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas accounting Content: Greenhouse gas accounting describes the way to inventory and audit greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions . A corporate or organisational greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions assessment quantifies the total greenhouse gases produced directly and indirectly from a business or organisation 's activities . Also known as a carbon footprint , it is a business tool that provides information with a basis for understanding and managing climate change impacts . The drivers for corporate GHG accounting include mandatory GHG reporting in directors ' reports , investment due diligence , shareholder and stakeholder communication , staff engagement , green messaging , and tender requirements for business and government contracts . Accounting for greenhouse gas emissions is increasingly seen as a standard requirement for business . For example , in June 2012 , the UK coalition government announced the introduction of mandatory carbon reporting , requiring around 1,100 of the UK 's largest listed companies to report their greenhouse gas emissions every year . Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg confirmed that emission reporting rules would come into effect from April 2013 in his piece for The Guardian . Guidance for accounting for GHG emissions from organizations and emission reduction projects is provided by the World Resources Institute ( WRI ) and World Business Council for Sustainable Development ( WBCSD ) GHG Protocol . For national GHG inventories , guidance is provided by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) methodology reports . The International Organization for Standardization ( ISO ) also provides some general standards for greenhouse gas emissions at organisation level ( ISO 14064 - 1 ) and greenhouse gas emissions at project level ( ISO 14064 - 2 ) . Specifications to validate and verify relevant accountings are documented in ( ISO 14064 - 3 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas_accounting\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 128325\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Media_coverage_of_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 128177\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: CarboNZero programme Content: The carboNZero programme and CEMARS programme are the world 's first internationally accredited greenhouse gas ( GHG ) certification schemes under ISO 14065 . They provide tools for organisations , products , services and events to measure and reduce their greenhouse gas emissions ( otherwise known as carbon footprint ) , and optionally offset it . The programmes are owned and operated by Enviro-Mark Solutions Limited , a wholly owned subsidiary of Landcare Research ( 100 % NZ government-owned ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"CarboNZero_programme\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 127734\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Turning the Corner Plan Content: Turning the Corner Plan is a Canadian climate change action plan introduced by the Harper Conservative Government in April 2007 by then Minister of the Environment John Baird . Turning the Corner has plans set out to reduce Canada 's greenhouse gas emissions by 20 % relative to 2006 levels by 2020 , and reductions of 60 to 70 percent below 2006 levels by 2050 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Turning_the_Corner_Plan\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 127576\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Compact of Mayors Content: The Compact of Mayors is a global coalition of city leaders addressing climate change by pledging to cut greenhouse gas emissions and prepare for the future impacts of climate change . The Compact highlights cities ' climate impact while measuring their relative risk levels and carbon pollution . The Compact of Mayors seeks to show the importance of city climate action , both at the local level and around the world . The Compact was launched in 2014 by UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon and former New York City Mayor Michael Bloomberg , the UN Special Envoy for Cities and Climate Change . The Compact represents a common effort from global city networks C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group ( C40 ) , ICLEI , and United Cities and Local Governments ( UCLG ) , as well as UN-Habitat , to unite against climate change . 428 global cities have committed to the Compact of Mayors . The collective member cities comprise over 376 million people and 5.19 % of the global population .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Compact_of_Mayors\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 127345\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Action Content: Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Action ( NAMA ) refers to a set of policies and actions that countries undertake as part of a commitment to reduce greenhouse gas emissions . The term recognizes that different countries may take different nationally appropriate action on the basis of equity and in accordance with common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities . It also emphasizes financial assistance from developed countries to developing countries to reduce emissions . NAMA was first used in the Bali Action Plan as part of the Bali Road Map agreed at the United Nations Climate Change Conference in Bali in December 2007 , and also formed part of the Copenhagen Accord issued following the United Nations Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen ( COP 15 ) in December 2009 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Nationally_Appropriate_Mitigation_Action\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 127221\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Scientists for Global Responsibility Content: Scientists for Global Responsibility ( SGR ) in the United Kingdom promotes the ethical practice and use of science and technology . SGR is affiliated to the International Network of Engineers and Scientists for Global Responsibility ( INES ) . SGR 's main areas of concern are arms and arms control , including military involvement in UK universities ; effect of excessive greenhouse gas emissions on climate ; the nature of war and reducing barbarity ; topsoil and water shortages resulting from modern agricultural methods ; depletion of species of fish due to over-fishing ; continual spread of nuclear weapons , and reduction of occurrence of serious nuclear accidents . SGR evaluates the risk of new science and new technological solutions to older science-based problems and threats , while recognizing the enormous contribution science , design and technology has made to civilisation and human well-being .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Scientists_for_Global_Responsibility\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 127202\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate-friendly gardening Content: Climate-friendly gardening is gardening in ways which reduce emissions of greenhouse gases from gardens and encourage the absorption of carbon dioxide by soils and plants in order to aid the reduction of global warming . To be a climate-friendly gardener means considering both what happens in a garden and the materials brought into it and the impact they have on land use and climate . It can also include garden features or activities in the garden that help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions elsewhere .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate-friendly_gardening\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 127077\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Midwestern Greenhouse Gas Reduction Accord Content: The Midwestern Greenhouse Gas Reduction Accord ( Midwestern Accord ) is a regional agreement by six governors of states in the US Midwest who are members of the Midwestern Governors Association ( MGA ) , and the premier of one Canadian province , whose purpose is to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to combat climate change . The accord has been inactive since March 2010 , when an advisory group presented a plan for action to the association with a scheduled implementation date of January 2012 . Signatories to the accord are the US states of Minnesota , Wisconsin , Illinois , Iowa , Michigan , Kansas , and the Canadian Province of Manitoba . Observers of the accord are Indiana , Ohio , and South Dakota , as well as the Canadian Province of Ontario . While the Midwest has intensive manufacturing and agriculture sectors , making it the most coal-dependent region in North America , it also has significant renewable energy resources and is particularly vulnerable to the climate change caused by burning coal and other fossil fuels . The Midwestern Accord was the fourth tier of the MGA Energy Security and Climate Stewardship Summit Platform , signed on November 15 , 2007 . It established the Midwestern Greenhouse Gas Reduction Program , which aimed to : establish greenhouse gas reduction targets and time frames consistent with signing states ' targets ; develop a market-based and multi-sector cap-and-trade mechanism to help achieve those reduction targets ; establish a system to enable tracking , management , and crediting for entities that reduce greenhouse gas emissions ; and develop and implement additional steps as needed to achieve the reduction targets , such as a low-carbon fuel standards and regional incentives and funding mechanisms . Through the Midwestern Accord , the governors agreed to establish a Midwestern greenhouse gas reduction program to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in their states , as well as a working group to provide recommendations regarding the implementation of the accord . In June 2009 , the Midwestern Greenhouse Gas Reduction Accord Advisory Group finalized its draft recommendations . In March 2010 the advisory group presented a plan to the MGA that called for implementation beginning in January 2012 . No further action was taken , as leadership in several of the states switched positions on climate policy . In July 2014 , accord member Kansas and observers Indiana , South Dakota , and Ohio joined a lawsuit opposing the EPA Clean Power Plan , federal climate regulations which could be met by implementation of the accord .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Midwestern_Greenhouse_Gas_Reduction_Accord\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 127046\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: U.S. Climate Change Technology Program Content: The United States Climate Change Technology Program or CCTP is a multi-agency planning and coordination entity . Its purpose is to accelerate the development and deployment of technologies that can reduce , avoid , or capture and store greenhouse gas emissions . CCTP was established administratively in 2002 , authorized by the Energy Policy Act of 2005 , and appropriated funds in 2007 . Currently , the Department of Energy is designated as the lead agency .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"U.S._Climate_Change_Technology_Program\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 126960\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_impact_of_aviation\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 126392\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon leakage Content: Carbon leakage occurs when there is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions in one country as a result of an emissions reduction by a second country with a strict climate policy . Carbon leakage may occur for a number of reasons : if the emissions policy of a country raises local costs , then another country with a more relaxed policy may have a trading advantage . If demand for these goods remains the same , production may move offshore to the cheaper country with lower standards , and global emissions will not be reduced . if environmental policies in one country add a premium to certain fuels or commodities , then the demand may decline and their price may fall . Countries that do not place a premium on those items may then take up the demand and use the same supply , negating any benefit . There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term leakage effects . This is important for the problem of climate change . Carbon leakage is one type of spill-over effect . Spill-over effects can be positive or negative ; for example , emission reductions policy might lead to technological developments that aid reductions outside of the policy area . `` Carbon leakage is defined as the increase in emissions outside the countries taking domestic mitigation action divided by the reduction in the emissions of these countries . '' It is expressed as a percentage , and can be greater or less than 100 % . Carbon leakage may occur through changes in trading patterns , and that is sometimes measured as the balance of emissions embodied in trade ( BEET ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_leakage\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 126005\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Boulder Climate Action Plan Content: The Climate Action Plan ( CAP ) is a set of strategies intended to guide community efforts for reducing greenhouse gas emissions . Those strategies have focused on improving energy efficiency and conservation in our homes and businesses -- the source of nearly three-fourths of local emissions . The plan also promotes strategies to reduce emissions from transportation , which account for over 20 percent of our local greenhouse gas sources .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Boulder_Climate_Action_Plan\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 125917\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: AB32 Content: AB32 or variant thereof may mean : AB postcode area , the Aberdeen postcode area Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 , a California law concerning greenhouse gas emission reduction - correctly spelled as AB 32 A Turkish patrol ship of the Türk class\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"AB32\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 125847\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: New South Wales Greenhouse Gas Abatement Scheme Content: The New South Wales Greenhouse Gas Abatement Scheme ( also known as GGAS ) was a mandatory greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme that aimed to lower greenhouse gas emissions in New South Wales , Australia , to 7.27 tonnes of carbon dioxide per capita by the year 2007 , which commenced on 1 January 2003 . The Scheme imposed obligations on NSW electricity retailers and certain other parties , including large electricity users who elected to manage their own benchmark to abate a portion of the greenhouse gas emissions attributable to their sales/consumption of electricity in NSW . They did this by purchasing and acquitting NSW Greenhouse Abatement Certificates ( also known as NGACs ) created by accredited `` Abatement Certificate Providers '' ( ACPs ) . The NSW Minister for Energy , Chris Hartcher , announced closure of the scheme in April 2012 , effective from 30 June 2012 . The Greenhouse Gas Reduction Scheme ( GGAS ) closed on 30 June 2012 . The NSW Government closed GGAS to avoid duplication with the Commonwealth 's carbon price which commenced on 1 July 2012 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"New_South_Wales_Greenhouse_Gas_Abatement_Scheme\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 125672\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Emissions Reduction Currency System Content: Emissions Reduction Currency Systems ( ERCS ) are schemes that provide a positive economic and or social reward for reductions in greenhouse gas emissions , either through distribution or redistribution of national currency or through the publishing of coupons , reward points , local currency , or complementary currency .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Emissions_Reduction_Currency_System\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 124917\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate Content: The Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate , also known as APP , was an international , voluntary , public-private partnership among Australia , Canada , India , Japan , the People 's Republic of China , South Korea , and the United States announced July 28 , 2005 at an Association of South East Asian Nations ( ASEAN ) Regional Forum meeting and launched on January 12 , 2006 at the Partnership 's inaugural Ministerial meeting in Sydney . As of 5 April 2011 , the Partnership formally concluded although a number of individual projects continue . The conclusion of the APP and cancellation of many of its projects attracted almost no media comment . Foreign , Environment and Energy Ministers from partner countries agreed to co-operate on the development and transfer of technology which enables reduction of greenhouse gas emissions that is consistent with and complementary to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change and other relevant international instruments , and is intended to complement but not replace the Kyoto Protocol. , Ministers agreed to a Charter , Communique and Work Plan that `` outline a ground-breaking new model of private-public task forces to address climate change , energy security and air pollution . '' Member countries account for over 50 % of the world 's greenhouse gas emissions , energy consumption , GDP and population . Unlike the Kyoto Protocol ( currently unratified by the United States ) , which imposes mandatory limits on greenhouse gas emissions , the Partnership engages member countries to accelerate the development and deployment of clean energy technologies , with no mandatory enforcement mechanism . This has led to criticism that the Partnership is worthless , by other governments , climate scientists and environmental groups . Proponents , on the other hand , argue that unrestricted economic growth and emission reductions can only be brought about through active engagement by all major polluters , which includes India and China , within the Kyoto Protocol framework neither India nor China are yet required to reduce emissions . Canada became the 7th member of the APP at the Second Ministerial Meeting in New Delhi on October 15 , 2007 . Canada 's Prime Minister Stephen Harper earlier expressed his intention to join the Partnership in August 2007 , despite some domestic opposition .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Asia-Pacific_Partnership_on_Clean_Development_and_Climate\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 124911\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Fran Pavley Content: Frances J. `` Fran '' Pavley ( born November 11 , 1948 ) is an American politician who served two terms in the California State Senate and three terms in the California State Assembly . A Democrat , she last represented the 27th Senate District , which encompasses the Conejo Valley , and portions of the San Fernando and Santa Clarita Valleys . Before the 2010 redistricting , she represented the 23rd Senate District . Before being elected to the State Senate in 2008 , Pavley served in the California State Assembly , representing the 41st Assembly District . She was also the first Mayor of Agoura Hills . She was a middle school teacher for 29 years before serving in elected office . Pavley is widely renowned for her pioneering work on environmental and climate change legislation . She was the author of AB 32 , the Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 , which created a groundbreaking cap-and-trade system to reduce California 's greenhouse gas emissions . In 2016 , she cemented her legacy by authoring and passing SB 32 , which extended California 's emissions reduction goals to 40 percent below 1990 levels by 2030 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Fran_Pavley\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 124869\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Eaarth Content: Eaarth : Making a Life on a Tough New Planet is a book written by Bill McKibben , published by Henry Holt and Company in 2010 . In the opening chapter , McKibben presents an array of facts and statistics about climate change that are already visible , supported by extensive footnotes . In the second and third chapters , McKibben lays out his analysis of how we have arrived at the current situation , and conveys genuine sorrow as he explains how the drive for economic growth based on hydrocarbons since the 1970s has led the planet to the point of breakdown . In a review of the book , British economist Nicholas Stern suggests that there is no doubting McKibben 's sincerity and his ability to communicate the significant risks which humanity faces . According to Stern , his `` overall thesis that we are already seeing widespread effects of climate change is sound and supported by much robust scientific evidence '' . But Stern says McKibben is too pessimistic when it comes to the recent advances in avoiding even bigger changes to the climate by reducing emissions of greenhouse gases .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Eaarth\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 124710\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Campus carbon neutrality Content: All across the world , colleges and universities are looking to a sustainable future by working to become carbon neutral . Universities are taking responsibility for their environmental impact and are working to neutralize those effects . To become carbon neutral , universities are working to reduce their emissions of greenhouse gases , cut their use of energy , use more renewable energy , and emphasize the importance of sustainable energy sources . Universities that have committed to becoming carbon neutral have recognized the threat of global warming and are therefore committing to reverse the trend .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Campus_carbon_neutrality\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 124264\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Low-carbon diet Content: A low-carbon diet refers to making lifestyle choices to reduce the greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGe ) resulting from consumption decisions . It is estimated that the U.S. food system is responsible for at least 20 percent of U.S. greenhouse gases . This estimate may be low , as it counts only direct sources of GHGe . Indirect sources , such as demand for products from other countries , are often not counted . A low-carbon diet minimizes the emissions released from the production , packaging , processing , transport , preparation and waste of food . Major tenets of a low-carbon diet include eating less industrial meat and dairy , eating less industrially produced food in general , eating food grown locally and seasonally , eating less processed and packaged foods and reducing waste from food by proper portion size , recycling or composting .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Low-carbon_diet\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 123573\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Views on the Kyoto Protocol Content: This article is about certain views on the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change . A 2007 study by Gupta et al. assessed the literature on climate change policy which showed no authoritative assessments of the UNFCCC or its Protocol , that assert these agreements have , or will , succeed in fully solving the climate problem . It was assumed that the UNFCCC or its Protocol would not be changed . The Framework Convention and its Protocol , include provisions for future policy actions to be taken . Some environmentalists have supported the Kyoto Protocol because it is `` the only game in town , '' and possibly because they expect that future emission reduction commitments may demand more stringent emission reductions ( Aldy et al. . , 2003 , p. 9 ) . Some environmentalists and scientists have criticized the existing commitments for being too weak ( Grubb , 2000 , p. 5 ) . On the other hand , many economists think that the commitments are stronger than is justified . Particularly in the US , many economists have also been critical of the failure to include quantified commitments for developing countries ( Grubb , 2000 , p. 31 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Views_on_the_Kyoto_Protocol\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 122912\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Decarbonisation measures in proposed UK electricity market reform Content: The United Kingdom is committed to legally binding greenhouse gas emissions reduction targets of 34 % by 2020 and 80 % by 2050 , compared to 1990 levels , as set out in the Climate Change Act 2008 . DECC ( 2008 ) . Climate Change Act . Decarbonisation of electricity generation will form a major part of this reduction and is essential before other sectors of the economy can be successfully decarbonised.DECC ( 2011a ) . Planning Our Electric Future : A White Paper for Secure , Affordable and Low-Carbon Electricity . The Government 's proposals for electricity market reform , published in a White Paper in July 2011 , included three initiatives to encourage decarbonisation of electricity generation in the UK : A Carbon Price Floor to complement the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme ( EU ETS ) ; Feed-in tariffs which will eventually replace the Renewables Obligation ; and an Emissions Performance Standard to restrict future use of the most carbon intensive forms of generation . In implementing these proposals , the Government aims to attract investment in low-carbon generation , deliver security of supply through an appropriate mix of electricity sources and ensure a minimum amount of impact on consumer bills ; all this at a time when security of supply is threatened by scheduled closures of existing plants and both the demand for , and subsequently the price of , electricity is increasing .\",\n \"qid\": \"2751\",\n \"docid\": \"Decarbonisation_measures_in_proposed_UK_electricity_market_reform\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 122896\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":1357,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"However, studies have determined that current technology is sufficient to reduce greenhouse gas emissions the necessary amount, and that we can do so without significant impact on the economy."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .","qid":"2753","docid":"Low-carbon_economy","rank":1,"score":167592},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .","qid":"2753","docid":"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States","rank":2,"score":162167},{"content":"Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .","qid":"2753","docid":"Carbon_diet","rank":3,"score":155738},{"content":"Title: Emissions trading Content: Emissions trading or cap and trade is a government-mandated , market-based approach to controlling pollution by providing economic incentives for achieving reductions in the emissions of pollutants . In contrast to command-and-control environmental regulations such as best available technology ( BAT ) standards and government subsidies , cap and trade ( CAT ) schemes are a type of flexible environmental regulation that allows organizations to decide how best to meet policy targets . Various countries , states and groups of companies have adopted such trading systems , notably for mitigating climate change . A central authority ( usually a governmental body ) allocates or sells a limited number of permits to discharge specific quantities of a specific pollutant per time period . Polluters are required to hold permits in amount equal to their emissions . Polluters that want to increase their emissions must buy permits from others willing to sell them . Financial derivatives of permits can also be traded on secondary markets . In theory , polluters who can reduce emissions most cheaply will do so , achieving the emission reduction at the lowest cost to society . Cap and trade is meant to provide the private sector with the flexibility required to reduce emissions while stimulating technological innovation and economic growth . There are active trading programs in several air pollutants . For greenhouse gases , which cause climate change , permit units are often called carbon credits . The largest greenhouse gases trading program is the European Union Emission Trading Scheme , which trades primarily in European Union Allowances ( EUAs ) ; the Californian scheme trades in California Carbon Allowances , the New Zealand scheme in New Zealand Units and the Australian scheme in Australian Units . The United States has a national market to reduce acid rain and several regional markets in nitrogen oxides .","qid":"2753","docid":"Emissions_trading","rank":4,"score":152265},{"content":"Title: Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation Content: Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation and the role of conservation , sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries ( REDD + ) was first negotiated under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) since 2005 , with the objective of mitigating climate change through reducing net emissions of greenhouse gases through enhanced forest management in developing countries . Most of the key REDD + decisions were completed by 2013 , with the final pieces of the rulebook finished in 2015 . In the last two decades , various studies estimate that land use change , including deforestation and forest degradation , accounts for 12-29 % of global greenhouse gas emissions . For this reason the inclusion of reducing emissions from land use change is considered essential to achieve the objectives of the UNFCCC . During the negotiations for the Kyoto Protocol , and then in particular its Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) , the inclusion of tropical forest management was debated but eventually dropped due to anticipated methodological difficulties in establishing -- in particular -- additionality and leakage ( detrimental effects outside of the project area attributable to project activities ) . What remained on forestry was `` Afforestation and Reforestation '' , sectoral scope 14 of the CDM . Under this sectoral scope areas of land that had no forest cover since 1990 could be replanted with commercial or indigenous tree species . In its first eight years of operation 52 projects had been registered under the `` Afforestation and Reforestation '' scope of the CDM . The cumbersome administrative procedures and corresponding high transaction costs are often blamed for this slow uptake . Beyond the CDM , all developed countries that were parties to the Kyoto Protocol also committed to measuring and reporting on efforts to reduce net greenhouse gas emissions from forests . The United States also measures and reports on the net greenhouse gas sequestration in its forests . In response to what many perceived to be a failure to address a major source of global greenhouse gas emissions , the Coalition for Rainforest Nations ( CfRN ) was established and in 2005 they proposed to the Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC policy approaches and positive incentives for the reduction of emissions of greenhouse gases stemming from tropical deforestation and forest degradation as a climate change mitigation measure .","qid":"2753","docid":"Reducing_emissions_from_deforestation_and_forest_degradation","rank":5,"score":149295},{"content":"Title: Air pollution in Germany Content: Air pollution in Germany has significantly decreased over the past decade . Air pollution occurs when harmful substances are released into the Earth 's atmosphere . These pollutants are released through human activity and natural sources . Germany took interest in reducing its greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions by switching to renewable energy sources . Renewable energy use rose from 6.3 % in 2000 to 34 % in 2016 . Through the transition to renewable energy sources , Germany has become the climate change policy leader and renewable energy leader in the European Union ( EU ) and in the world with ambitious climate change programs . The current goal of the German government was approved on 14 November 2016 in the German Climate Action Plan 2050 , which outlines measures by which Germany can meet its greenhouse gas emissions by 2050 . By 2050 , Germany wants to reduce their GHGs by 80 to 95 % and by 2030 they want to reduce it by 55 % , compared to the EU target of 40 % . In order to achieve these goals , a variety of strategies and policies are used rather than legislation . The four strategies the German government bases air pollution control on are laying down environmental quality standards , emission reduction requirements according to the best available technology , production regulations , and laying down emission ceilings . Through these strategies , policy instruments have been put in place that have contributed to the success of the significant air pollution reduction in Germany . These instruments include the Federal Emission Control Act and Implementing Ordinances , Technical Instructions on Air Quality Control ( TA Luft ) , Amendment to Ordinance on Small Firing Installations , Implementation of the directive on industrial emissions , and Transboundary air pollution control policy . The German Feed-in-Tariff policy introduced in 2000 led to the significant increase in renewable energy use and decreasing air pollution . They have been introduced in Germany to increase the use of renewables , such as wind power , biomass , hydropower , geothermal power , and photovoltaics , thereby reducing GHG emissions causing air pollution and combating climate change . The German government has been an agenda setter in international climate policy negotiations since the late 1980s . However , national and global climate policies have become a top priority since the conservative-social democratic government came into power in 2005 , pushing both European and international climate negotiations . Positive path dependency in Germany 's climate and energy policies has occurred over the past 20 years . There are three main triggers that put Germany on this positive path dependency and what led them to becoming a climate change policy leader . The first being the widespread damages to health , due to smog , and to nature , due to acid rain , caused by air pollution . The second being the shock of the two oil price crises , in 1973 and 1979 , that highlighted the problem of the German economy 's strong dependence on unsure foreign sources . The third being the growing opposition to the country 's growing reliance on nuclear energy . Air pollution began to be seen as a problem in Germany due to these three triggers , causing Germany to put policies into place to control air pollution . This has now developed from controlling air pollution to being a leader in climate change politics . __ TOC __","qid":"2753","docid":"Air_pollution_in_Germany","rank":6,"score":149041},{"content":"Title: Plan Bay Area Content: Plan Bay Area 2040 is a state-mandated law that aims to integrate sustainable strategies to reduce transportation-related pollution and external greenhouse gas emission within the nine-counties of the San Francisco Bay Area . It is also known as the implementation of the Sustainable Communities and Climate Protection Act of 2008 or SB 375 . The plan addresses methods of transportation , land-use , and housing . Over the next 25 years , the Bay Area is expected to grow by an estimated 2 million people and because of the projected growth and the growing economy , the Bay Area must provide more housing and transportation choices that will reduce their carbon footprint . This adopted plan will invest in increasing methods of transportation with the goal of reducing CO2 emissions . To do so , the plan will invest in extending ferry services , freeway express lanes , and developing newer BART Stations to expand travel reach . The goal of this plan is to improve on their earlier efforts of network and growth within the context of finance and environmental responsibility . Like all plans , it is a work in progress that is updated every four years to reflect on new priorities and changes with the goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . The plan was approved on July 18 , 2013 by the Association of Bay Area Governments and by the Metropolitan Transportation Commission . The adoption of the plan by regional planners was covered by the San Francisco Chronicle .","qid":"2753","docid":"Plan_Bay_Area","rank":7,"score":148559},{"content":"Title: Emission Reduction Unit Content: The emission reduction unit ( ERU ) is an emissions unit issued under a Joint Implementation project in terms of the Kyoto Protocol . An ERU represents a reduction of greenhouse gases under the Joint Implementation mechanism , where it represents one tonne of equivalent reduced . To allow comparison between the different effects of gases on the environment , scientists have defined multipliers for gases that compare their greenhouse potency ( global warming potential ) relative to that of carbon dioxide . One example of a Joint Implementation project resulting in an emission reduction unit , is the production of biogases by landfill sites . These gases consist of mainly methane which escapes to the atmosphere if it is not collected . The main reason for dealing with methane is that it has a 100-year global warming potential multiplier of 25 compared to carbon dioxide ( i.e. has 25 times the greenhouse potency ) . Collection of methane is usually accompanied by its combustion . Burning one tonne of methane produces nearly 3 tonnes of , thus reducing its greenhouse effect by ( 25-3 = 22 ) ERU . In December 2012 , ERU prices crashed to a low of 15 euro cents before recovering to 23c after news that EU 's Climate Change Committee was to vote on a ban of ERUs from countries that have not signed up to a second commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol . In January 2013 , Bloomberg reported that emission reduction unit prices declined 89 percent in 2012","qid":"2753","docid":"Emission_Reduction_Unit","rank":8,"score":148413},{"content":"Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .","qid":"2753","docid":"Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact","rank":9,"score":147886},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .","qid":"2753","docid":"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom","rank":10,"score":147734},{"content":"Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .","qid":"2753","docid":"Economics_of_global_warming","rank":11,"score":147562},{"content":"Title: Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Content: The Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme ( or CPRS ) was a cap-and-trade emissions trading scheme for anthropogenic greenhouse gases proposed by the Rudd government , as part of its climate change policy , which had been due to commence in Australia in 2010 . It marked a major change in the energy policy of Australia . The policy began to be formulated in April 2007 , when the federal Labor Party was in Opposition and the six Labor-controlled states commissioned an independent review on energy policy , the Garnaut Climate Change Review , which published a number of reports . After Labor won the 2007 federal election and formed government , it published a Green Paper on climate change for discussion and comment . The Federal Treasury then modelled some of the financial and economic impacts of the proposed CPRS scheme . The Rudd government published a final White Paper on 15 December 2008 , and announced that legislation was intended to take effect in July 2010 ; but the legislation for the CPRS ( aka ETS ) failed to gain the numbers in the Senate and was twice rejected creating a double dissolution election trigger . A bitter political debate within the Coalition Opposition saw Opposition leader Malcolm Turnbull lose the leadership to the anti-CPRS Tony Abbott . The Rudd government did not call an election and in April 2010 , Rudd deferred plans for the CPRS . After the 2010 federal election , the Gillard Government was able to get the Carbon Pricing Mechanism ( CPM ) passed into law as part of the Clean Energy Futures Package ( CEF ) in 2011 , and became effective on 1 July 2012 . However , after the 2013 federal election there was a change in government , and the Abbott Government repealed the CEF package on 17 July 2014 . Due to the great deal of policy uncertainty surrounding the scheme , organizations in Australia responded in a rather informal and tepid manner and largely withheld from making any large-scale investments in emissions reductions technology during the scheme 's operation .","qid":"2753","docid":"Carbon_Pollution_Reduction_Scheme","rank":12,"score":147180},{"content":"Title: Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 Content: The Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 - a bill to amend the Clean Air Act to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide , and for other purposes . It was proposed in the 110th United States Congress by Senators Bernie Sanders ( I-VT ) and Barbara Boxer ( D-CA ) on January 15 , 2007 . It was referred to the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works . The measure was intended to increase performance standards for electricity generation and motor vehicles with the option of an emissions `` cap and trade '' system . The emissions cap would begin in 2010 with the aim of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 15 percent by 2020 and 83 percent by 2050 . The legislation would also provide funding for R&D on geologic sequestration of carbon dioxide , among other projects ; set emissions standards for new vehicles and a renewable fuels requirement for gasoline beginning in 2016 ; establish energy efficiency and renewable portfolio standards beginning in 2008 and low-carbon electric generation standards beginning in 2016 for electric utilities ; and require periodic evaluations by the National Academy of Sciences to determine whether emissions targets are adequate .","qid":"2753","docid":"Global_Warming_Pollution_Reduction_Act_of_2007","rank":13,"score":146663},{"content":"Title: Emissions Reduction Currency System Content: Emissions Reduction Currency Systems ( ERCS ) are schemes that provide a positive economic and or social reward for reductions in greenhouse gas emissions , either through distribution or redistribution of national currency or through the publishing of coupons , reward points , local currency , or complementary currency .","qid":"2753","docid":"Emissions_Reduction_Currency_System","rank":14,"score":144733},{"content":"Title: Mitigation of global warming in Australia Content: Mitigation of global warming involves taking actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to enhance sinks aimed at reducing the extent of global warming . This is in distinction to adaptation to global warming , which involves taking action to minimise the effects of global warming . Scientific consensus on global warming , together with the precautionary principle and the fear of non-linear climate transitions , is leading to increased effort to develop new technologies and sciences and carefully manage others in an attempt to mitigate global warming . Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) for coal-fired power stations has been put forward as a solution to rising greenhouse gas emissions . However , CCS can not deliver in time to avoid dangerous increases in temperatures , as widespread commercial use of CCS is not expected before 2030 . Following the introduction of government mandatory renewable energy targets , more opportunities have opened up for renewable energy technologies such as wind power , photovoltaics , and solar thermal technologies . The deployment of these technologies provides opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gases . A carbon price was introduced on 1 July 2012 by the government of Julia Gillard with the purpose of reducing Australia 's carbon emissions . It requires large businesses ( defined as those with annual carbon dioxide equivalent emissions over 25,000 tonnes annually ) to pay a price for emissions permits . The tax was scrapped by the Abbott government in July 2014 in what was a widely criticised and highly publicised move .","qid":"2753","docid":"Mitigation_of_global_warming_in_Australia","rank":15,"score":144714},{"content":"Title: Intended Nationally Determined Contributions Content: Intended Nationally Determined Contributions ( INDCs ) is a term used under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) for reductions in greenhouse gas emissions that all countries that signed the UNFCCC were asked to publish in the lead up to the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference held in Paris , France in December 2015 . These intended contributions were determined without prejudice to the legal nature of the contributions . The term was intended as a compromise between `` quantified emissions limitation and reduction objective '' ( QUELROs ) and `` nationally appropriate mitigation actions '' ( NAMAs ) that the Kyoto Protocol used to describe the different legal obligations of developed and developing countries . Under the Paris Agreement , adopted in December 2015 , the INDC will become the first Nationally Determined Contribution when a country ratifies the agreement , unless they decide to submit a new NDC at the same time . Once the Paris Agreement is ratified , the NDC will become the first greenhouse gas targets under the UNFCCC that applied equally to both developed and developing countries . On 3 August 2016 China and US ratified 2015 agreement on INDC . Together they both constitute 38 % of total global emission , with China 's alone emitting total of 20 % . India that has a Global share of GHGs emission at 4.1 % of that of world ratified Paris climate agreement on October 2 , 2016 by depositing the Instrument of ratification with the United nations .","qid":"2753","docid":"Intended_Nationally_Determined_Contributions","rank":16,"score":144710},{"content":"Title: ECOCITIES (software) Content: All member states of the European Union are bound to decrease their greenhouse gas emissions . For example , the EU climate and energy package requires member states to improve their energy efficiency by 20 % , increase - renewable energy production by 20 % and reduce their emissions by 20 % . With about 40 % of CO2 emissions heating , cooling and hot water production in buildings is one of the largest greenhouse gas producers . At the same time the building sector has the largest potential for energy savings . In their effort to lead a change towards greater energy efficiency and a reduction of greenhouse gas , many companies , cities and municipalities are in the process of developing low carbon action plans . However , the costs for developing optimal action plans and their continuous monitoring and optimization are very high , thus , often hindered by the tense financial situation , especially of cities and municipalities . With significant economic and environmental downsides ; the consequences are additional costs due to the non-compliance to the national and EU emission goals and untapped energy saving potential . ECOCITIES is an energy optimization system for building portfolios combining and extending the benefits of Energy Management Software ( EMS ) , Computer-aided Facility Management ( CAFM ) software and building portfolio management software . It integrates building administration and monitoring , energy accounting and building portfolio optimization . Thereby , it supports the definition of low carbon action plans in terms of environmental impact ( e.g. , carbon footprint , energy efficiency ) and financial impact ( e.g. , investment costs , running , costs ) . The system considers the following options for each building and the resulting ( inter - ) dependencies : energy-efficient building configurations ( e.g. , the compatibility of building components and its contribution to the energy efficiency level ) , energy used at the production and distribution of building components ( i.e. , gray energy ) , environmental impact ( e.g. , CO2 emissions ) , financial constraints , such as ( governmental ) funding and limited long term loans , legal constraints , e.g. , building codes , national and international standards , energy consumption for the operation of buildings , i.e. , heating , ventilation , and air conditioning ( HVAC ) as well as the electricity demand , energy production , storage and load shifting between buildings in combination with renewable energy production ( solar PV and thermal , Micro combined heat and power ) and conversion . energy flows between a building 's on-site networks ( Heating/Cooling and low voltage networks ) , the micro networks on neighborhood level and the city-wide energy networks ( district heating and district cooling networks , mid-voltage distribution networks ) , local typology ( position of buildings , energy networks ) . ECOCITIES calculates all energy - and cost-efficient development scenarios , visualizes them on the screen and allows decision makers to interactively explore the consequences of their actions ( e.g. , what are the citywide costs and the corresponding CO2 reductions of introducing a neighborhood-scale combined heat and power plant ) . ECOCITIES is an enabler for the realization of energy goals and provides synergies with existing endeavors of achieving national and European energy goals . On an operational level , ECOCITIES supports the following processes : Administration and integrated optimization of the entire building portfolio . Energy accounting and monitoring for all buildings . Identification , evaluation and definition of energy efficiency strategies ( low carbon action plans ) . Continuous monitoring , review and optimization of energy efficiency strategies ( low carbon action plans ) . Ensure the alignment of individual initiatives with the overall energy strategy of the company/city , e.g. , planning the cost - and energy efficient integration of new or refurbished single buildings , groups of buildings or entire neighborhoods into a new or existing energy efficiency strategy . Continuous monitoring of the performance related to the contribution to national and European energy goals .","qid":"2753","docid":"ECOCITIES_(software)","rank":17,"score":144318},{"content":"Title: Decarbonisation measures in proposed UK electricity market reform Content: The United Kingdom is committed to legally binding greenhouse gas emissions reduction targets of 34 % by 2020 and 80 % by 2050 , compared to 1990 levels , as set out in the Climate Change Act 2008 . DECC ( 2008 ) . Climate Change Act . Decarbonisation of electricity generation will form a major part of this reduction and is essential before other sectors of the economy can be successfully decarbonised.DECC ( 2011a ) . Planning Our Electric Future : A White Paper for Secure , Affordable and Low-Carbon Electricity . The Government 's proposals for electricity market reform , published in a White Paper in July 2011 , included three initiatives to encourage decarbonisation of electricity generation in the UK : A Carbon Price Floor to complement the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme ( EU ETS ) ; Feed-in tariffs which will eventually replace the Renewables Obligation ; and an Emissions Performance Standard to restrict future use of the most carbon intensive forms of generation . In implementing these proposals , the Government aims to attract investment in low-carbon generation , deliver security of supply through an appropriate mix of electricity sources and ensure a minimum amount of impact on consumer bills ; all this at a time when security of supply is threatened by scheduled closures of existing plants and both the demand for , and subsequently the price of , electricity is increasing .","qid":"2753","docid":"Decarbonisation_measures_in_proposed_UK_electricity_market_reform","rank":18,"score":143966},{"content":"Title: Environmental impact of transport Content: The environmental impact of transport is significant because it is a major user of energy , and burns most of the world 's petroleum . This creates air pollution , including nitrous oxides and particulates , and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon dioxide , for sector . By subsector , road transport is the largest contributor to global warming . Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced the individual vehicle 's emission ; however , this has been offset by an increase in the number of vehicles , and more use of each vehicle . Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road vehicles considerably have been studied . Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes , causing environmentalists to call for a transition from air and road to rail and human-powered transport , and increase transport electrification and energy efficiency . The transportation sector is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) in the United States . An estimated 30 percent of national GHGs are directly attributable to transportation -- and in some regions , the proportion is even higher . Transportation methods are the greatest contributing source of GHGs in the U.S. , accounting for 47 percent of the net increase in total U.S. emissions since 1990 . Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urban sprawl , which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands . By reducing transportation emissions globally , it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects on Earth 's air quality , acid rain , smog and climate change . The health impact of transport emissions is also of concern . A recent survey of the studies on the effect of traffic emissions on pregnancy outcomes has linked exposure to emissions to adverse effects on gestational duration and possibly also intrauterine growth . As listed above direct impacts such as noise and carbon monoxide emissions create direct and harmful effects on the environment , along with indirect impacts . The indirect impacts are often of higher consequence which leads to the misconception that it 's the opposite since it is frequently understood that initial effects cause the most damage . For example , particulates which are the outcome of incomplete combustion done by an internal combustion engine , are not linked with respiratory and cardiovascular problems since they contribute to other factors not only to that specific condition . Even though the environmental impacts are usually listed individually there are also cumulative impacts . The synergetic consequences of transport activities . They take into account of the varied effects of direct and indirect impacts on an ecosystem . Climate change is the sum total impact of several natural and human-made factors . 15 % of global CO2 emissions are attributed to the transport sector .","qid":"2753","docid":"Environmental_impact_of_transport","rank":19,"score":140742},{"content":"Title: America's Climate Security Act of 2007 Content: The America 's Climate Security Act of 2007 was a global warming bill that was considered by the United States Senate to reduce the amount of greenhouse gases emitted in the United States . Also known as the Lieberman-Warner bill , bill number , the legislation was introduced by Sens. Joseph Lieberman ( I-CT ) and John Warner ( R-VA ) on October 18 , 2007 . The bill was approved by the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works in December 2007 , and was debated in the Senate during the week of June 2 . The bill would create a national cap-and-trade scheme for greenhouse gas emissions , in which polluters would mostly be allocated right-to-emit credits based on how much greenhouse gas they currently emit . The cap would get tighter over time , until by 2050 , emissions would be reduced to 63 % below 2005 levels . Several environmental groups express their encouragement at the progress in legislation on the global warming issue while at the same time expressing disappointment that the bill does n't reduce emissions enough . On June 6 , 2008 , the bill was killed by Senate Republicans over worries that it would damage the economy .","qid":"2753","docid":"America's_Climate_Security_Act_of_2007","rank":20,"score":140631},{"content":"Title: Kyogami Content: Kyogami is a board game based around the issue of climate change and the Kyoto Protocol , which considered reducing greenhouse gas emissions without hindering economic growth . The game was designed to raise awareness of this and most of the game components are made out of recyclable materials . The basic aim of the game is for the players to expand their businesses without increasing emissions , by cleaning up their plants by trading carbon dioxide quotas and using ` flexible mechanisms ' as outlined in the protocol , the winner being the first player to own four factories without chimneys .","qid":"2753","docid":"Kyogami","rank":21,"score":140615},{"content":"Title: California Senate Bill 32 Content: The California Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 : emissions limit , or SB-32 , is a California Senate bill expanding upon AB-32 to reduce greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions . The lead author is Senator Fran Pavley and the principal co-author is Assemblymember Eduardo Garcia . SB-32 was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 , by Governor Edmund Gerald `` Jerry '' Brown Jr. . SB-32 sets into law the mandated reduction target in GHG emissions as written into Executive Order B-30-15 . The Senate bill requires that there be a reduction in GHG emissions to 40 % below the 1990 levels by 2030 . Greenhouse gas emissions include carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , sulfur hexafluoride , hydrofluorocarbons , and perfluorocarbons . The California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) is responsible for ensuring that California meets this goal . The provisions of SB-32 were added to Section 38566 of the Health and Safety Code subsequent to the bill 's approval . The bill goes into effect January 1 , 2017 . SB-32 builds onto Assembly Bill ( AB ) 32 written by Senator Fran Pavley and Assembly Speaker Fabian Nunez passed into law on September 27 , 2006 . AB-32 required California to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by 2020 and SB-32 continues that timeline to reach the targets set in Executive Order B-30-15 . SB-32 provides another intermediate target between the 2020 and 2050 targets set in Executive Order S-3-05 . SB-32 was contingent on the passing of AB-197 , which increases legislative oversight of CARB and is intended to ensure CARB must report to the Legislature . AB-197 also passed and was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 .","qid":"2753","docid":"California_Senate_Bill_32","rank":22,"score":140490},{"content":"Title: Ten Technologies to Fix Energy and Climate Content: Ten Technologies to Fix Energy and Climate ( second edition , 2009 ) or Ten Technologies to Save the Planet ( first edition , 2008 ) is a popular science book by Chris Goodall first published in 2008 and re-issued in 2009 by Profile Books . Its ten chapters each detail a technology that has the potential to reduce Greenhouse Gases while being economically and technologically viable in the present or near future . The book received a positive critical response for the way in which it was written and dealt with the issues surrounding Global Warming .","qid":"2753","docid":"Ten_Technologies_to_Fix_Energy_and_Climate","rank":23,"score":139781},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .","qid":"2753","docid":"Greenhouse_gas","rank":24,"score":139564},{"content":"Title: The 2030 °Challenge Content: The 2030 ° Challenge is an initiative by Edward Mazria and Architecture 2030 asking the global architecture and construction community to adopt a series of greenhouse gas reduction targets for new and renovated buildings . In many developed countries the construction and use of buildings is the leading consumer of energy and producer of greenhouse gas emissions . Stabilizing and reversing emissions in this sector is key to keeping future global warming under one degree celsius ( ° C ) above today 's level , in order to avoid increased global warming , potentially to reach a tipping point .","qid":"2753","docid":"The_2030_°Challenge","rank":25,"score":138450},{"content":"Title: U.S. Climate Change Technology Program Content: The United States Climate Change Technology Program or CCTP is a multi-agency planning and coordination entity . Its purpose is to accelerate the development and deployment of technologies that can reduce , avoid , or capture and store greenhouse gas emissions . CCTP was established administratively in 2002 , authorized by the Energy Policy Act of 2005 , and appropriated funds in 2007 . Currently , the Department of Energy is designated as the lead agency .","qid":"2753","docid":"U.S._Climate_Change_Technology_Program","rank":26,"score":138395},{"content":"Title: Cap and Share Content: Cap and Share was originally developed by Feasta ( the Foundation for the Economics of Sustainability ) and is a regulatory and economic framework for controlling the use of fossil fuels in relation to climate stabilisation . Accepting that climate change is a global problem and that there is a need to cap and reduce greenhouse gas emissions globally , the philosophy of Cap and Share maintains that the earth 's atmosphere is a fundamental common resource . Consequently , it is argued , each individual should get an equal share of the benefits from the limited amount of fossil fuels that will have to be burned and their emissions released into the atmosphere in the period until the atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gases has been stabilised at a safe level .","qid":"2753","docid":"Cap_and_Share","rank":27,"score":136925},{"content":"Title: Beyond Zero Emissions Content: Beyond Zero Emissions ( BZE ) is an Australia-based , not-for-profit climate change solutions think-tank . BZE was founded in 2006 by Matthew Wright and Adrian Whitehead under the guidance of Philip Sutton . The group coordinates research and education into how the Australian economy can rapidly reduce human-caused greenhouse gas emissions to ` zero and below ' by implementing changes to stationary energy , transport , buildings , agricultural activities , industrial processes and fossil fuel export sectors . In 2010 BZE released its first publication , the Zero Carbon Australia Stationary Energy Plan ( Wright , Hearps 2010 ) a research collaboration between Beyond Zero Emissions and the University of Melbourne Energy Research Institute . The aim of the report was to provide a detailed , fully realisable , fully costed 10-year plan to replace all stationary energy needs with 100 % renewable energy sources , using only current proven technologies and engineering . This report addressed the common perception that renewables can not replace fossil fuels , either due to immaturity of the technology or due to cost concerns . The group invited pro-bono contributions from engineers , scientists , and industry specialists to work on this and all subsequent projects , similar to the way open source software is developed . Since 2006 Beyond Zero Emissions has released the following publications : Zero Carbon Australia Stationary Energy Plan ( 2010 ) , Repowering Port Augusta ( 2012 ) , Health and Social Harms of Mining in Local Communities : Spotlight on the Hunter Region report ( 2012 ) . Laggard to Leader : How Australia Can Lead the World to Zero Carbon Prosperity ( 2012 ) Zero Carbon Australia Buildings Plan ( 2013 ) , Zero Carbon Australia High Speed Rail ( 2014 ) Fossil Economy ( 2014 ) , Zero Carbon Australia Land Use - Agriculture and Forestry ( 2014 ) , Carbon Capture and Storage Report ( 2014 ) , Carbon Crisis : Systemic Risk of Carbon Emission Liabilities report ( 2015 ) Zero Carbon Australia Renewable Energy Superpower ( 2015 ) , Zero Carbon Australia Electric Vehicles ( 2016 ) , A full list of Beyond Zero Emissions publications is also available with links to free pdf downloads at the BZE website .","qid":"2753","docid":"Beyond_Zero_Emissions","rank":28,"score":136389},{"content":"Title: Sustainable Communities and Climate Protection Act of 2008 Content: The Sustainable Communities and Climate Protection Act of 2008 , also known as Senate Bill 375 or SB 375 , is a State of California law targeting greenhouse gas emissions from passenger vehicles . The Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 ( AB 32 ) sets goals for the reduction of statewide greenhouse gas emissions . Passenger vehicles are the single largest source of greenhouse gas emissions statewide , accounting for 30 % of total emissions . SB 375 therefore provides key support to achieve the goals of AB 32 . SB 375 instructs the California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) to set regional emissions ' reduction targets from passenger vehicles . The Metropolitan Planning Organization for each region must then develop a `` Sustainable Communities Strategy '' ( SCS ) that integrates transportation , land-use and housing policies to plan for achievement of the emissions target for their region . In a press release the day he signed the bill into law , Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger stated , `` What this will mean is more environmentally-friendly communities , more sustainable developments , less time people spend in their cars , more alternative transportation options and neighborhoods we can safely and proudly pass on to future generations . ''","qid":"2753","docid":"Sustainable_Communities_and_Climate_Protection_Act_of_2008","rank":29,"score":135701},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas inventory Content: Greenhouse gas inventories are a type of emission inventory that are developed for a variety of reasons . Scientists use inventories of natural and anthropogenic ( human-caused ) emissions as tools when developing atmospheric models . Policy makers use inventories to develop strategies and policies for emissions reductions and to track the progress of those policies . And , regulatory agencies and corporations rely on inventories to establish compliance records with allowable emission rates . Businesses , the public , and other interest groups use inventories to better understand the sources and trends in emissions . Unlike some other air emission inventories , greenhouse gas inventories include not only emissions from source categories , but also removals by carbon sinks . These removals are typically referred to as carbon sequestration . Greenhouse gas inventories , typically use Global warming potential ( GWP ) values to combine emissions of various greenhouse gases into a single weighted value of emissions . Some of the key examples of greenhouse gas inventories include : All Annex I countries are required to report annual emissions and sinks of greenhouse gases under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) National governments that are Parties to the UNFCCC and/or the Kyoto Protocol are required to submit annual inventories of all anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions from sources and removals from sinks . The Kyoto Protocol includes additional requirements for national inventory systems , inventory reporting , and annual inventory review for determining compliance with Articles 5 and 8 of the Protocol . Project developers under the Clean Development Mechanism of the Kyoto Protocol prepare inventories as part of their project baselines . Corporation and other entities can prepare greenhouse gas inventories to track progress towards meeting an emission reduction goal . Scientific efforts aimed at understanding detail of total net carbon exchange . Example : Project Vulcan - a comprehensive US inventory of fossil-fuel greenhouse gas emissions .","qid":"2753","docid":"Greenhouse_gas_inventory","rank":30,"score":135187},{"content":"Title: Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative Content: ` The Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI , pronounced `` Reggie '' ) is the first mandatory market based program in the United States to reduce greenhouse gas emissions . RGGI is a cooperative effort among the states of Connecticut , Delaware , Maine , Maryland , Massachusetts , New Hampshire , New York , Rhode Island , and Vermont to cap and reduce CO2 emissions from the power sector . RGGI compliance obligations apply to fossil-fueled power plants 25MW and larger within the nine-state region . RGGI establishes a regional cap on the amount of CO2 pollution that power plants can emit by issuing a limited number of tradable CO2 allowances . Each allowance represents an authorization for a regulated power plant to emit one short ton of CO2 . Individual CO2 budget trading programs in each RGGI state together create a regional market for CO2 allowances . The RGGI states distribute over 90 percent of allowances through quarterly auctions . These allowance auctions generate proceeds , which participating states are able to invest in strategic energy and consumer benefit programs . Programs funded through RGGI have included energy efficiency , clean and renewable energy , greenhouse gas abatement , and direct bill assistance . An initial milestone program 's development occurred in 2005 , when seven states signed a Memorandum of Understanding ( MOU ) announcing an agreement to implement RGGI . The RGGI states then established individual CO2 budget trading programs , based on the RGGI Model Rule . The first pre-compliance RGGI auction took place in September 2008 , and the program became effective on January 1 , 2009 . The RGGI program is currently in its third three-year compliance period , which began January 1 , 2015 .","qid":"2753","docid":"Regional_Greenhouse_Gas_Initiative","rank":31,"score":135097},{"content":"Title: Contraction and Convergence Content: Contraction and Convergence ( C&C ) is a proposed global framework for reducing greenhouse gas emissions to combat climate change . Conceived by the Global Commons Institute -LSB- GCI -RSB- in the early 1990s , the Contraction and Convergence strategy consists of reducing overall emissions of greenhouse gases to a safe level ( contraction ) , resulting from every country bringing its emissions per capita to a level which is equal for all countries ( convergence ) . It is intended to form the basis of an international agreement which will reduce carbon dioxide emissions to avoid dangerous climate change , carbon dioxide being the gas that is primarily responsible for changes in the greenhouse effect on Earth . It is expressed as a simple mathematical formula . This formula can be used as a way for the world to stabilize carbon levels at any level . Advocates of Contraction and Convergence stress that negotiations at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change -LSB- UNFCCC -RSB- are governed sequentially by the ` objective ' of the UNFCCC -LSB- safe and stable GHG concentration in the global atmosphere -RSB- followed by its organising principles -LSB- ` precaution ' and ` equity ' -RSB- . C&C is widely cited and supported .","qid":"2753","docid":"Contraction_and_Convergence","rank":32,"score":134910},{"content":"Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .","qid":"2753","docid":"Effects_of_global_warming","rank":33,"score":133729},{"content":"Title: Carbon governance in England Content: The reduction of carbon emissions , along with other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , has become a vitally important task of international , national and local actors . If we understand governance as the creation of `` conditions for ordered rule and collective action '' then , given the fact that the reduction of carbon emissions will require concerted collective action , it follows that the governance of carbon will be of paramount concern . We have seen numerous international conferences over the past 20 years tasked with finding a way of facilitating this , and while international agreements have been infamously difficult to reach , action at the national level has been much more effective . In the UK , the Climate Change Act 2008 committed the government to meeting significant carbon reduction targets . In England , these carbon emissions are governed using numerous different instruments , which involve a variety of actors . While it has been argued by authors like Rhodes that there has been a `` hollowing out '' of the nation state , and that governments have lost their capabilities to govern to a variety of non-state actors and the European Union , the case of carbon governance in England actually runs counter to this . The government body responsible for the task , the Department of Energy and Climate Change ( DECC ) , is the `` main external dynamic '' behind governing actions in this area , and `` rather than hollowing out ( there has actually been a strengthening of ) central co-ordination '' . The department may rely on other bodies to deliver its desired outcomes , but it is still ultimately responsible for the imposition of the rules and regulations that `` steer ( carbon ) governmental action at the national level '' . It is therefore evident that carbon governance in England is hierarchical in nature , in that `` legislative decisions and executive decisions '' are the main dynamic behind carbon governance action . This does not deny the existence of a network of bodies around DECC who are part of the process , but they are supplementary actors who are steered by central decisions . This article focuses on carbon governance in England as the other countries of the UK ( Scotland , Wales and Northern Ireland ) all have devolved assemblies who are responsible for the governance of carbon emissions in their respective countries .","qid":"2753","docid":"Carbon_governance_in_England","rank":34,"score":133179},{"content":"Title: Carbon emissions reporting Content: Human activities continue to impact Earth 's climate through the emission of greenhouse gases . One of the proposed ways to combat this climate change is through reporting by businesses on the impact of their activities . Large power stations and manufacturing plants are often required to report their emissions to appropriate government entities , for example to the European Union as part of the Emissions Trading System or to the US EPA as part of the Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program . In the United Kingdom , Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra ) has described climate change as the `` greatest environmental challenge facing the world today , '' and it is now a legal requirement for all quoted companies to report their annual greenhouse gas emissions .","qid":"2753","docid":"Carbon_emissions_reporting","rank":35,"score":132740},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas accounting Content: Greenhouse gas accounting describes the way to inventory and audit greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions . A corporate or organisational greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions assessment quantifies the total greenhouse gases produced directly and indirectly from a business or organisation 's activities . Also known as a carbon footprint , it is a business tool that provides information with a basis for understanding and managing climate change impacts . The drivers for corporate GHG accounting include mandatory GHG reporting in directors ' reports , investment due diligence , shareholder and stakeholder communication , staff engagement , green messaging , and tender requirements for business and government contracts . Accounting for greenhouse gas emissions is increasingly seen as a standard requirement for business . For example , in June 2012 , the UK coalition government announced the introduction of mandatory carbon reporting , requiring around 1,100 of the UK 's largest listed companies to report their greenhouse gas emissions every year . Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg confirmed that emission reporting rules would come into effect from April 2013 in his piece for The Guardian . Guidance for accounting for GHG emissions from organizations and emission reduction projects is provided by the World Resources Institute ( WRI ) and World Business Council for Sustainable Development ( WBCSD ) GHG Protocol . For national GHG inventories , guidance is provided by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) methodology reports . The International Organization for Standardization ( ISO ) also provides some general standards for greenhouse gas emissions at organisation level ( ISO 14064 - 1 ) and greenhouse gas emissions at project level ( ISO 14064 - 2 ) . Specifications to validate and verify relevant accountings are documented in ( ISO 14064 - 3 ) .","qid":"2753","docid":"Greenhouse_gas_accounting","rank":36,"score":132426},{"content":"Title: Clean coal technology Content: Clean coal technology is a collection of technologies being developed to attempt to mitigate the environmental impact of coal energy generation and to mitigate climate change . When coal is used as a fuel source , the gaseous emissions generated by the thermal decomposition of the coal include sulphur dioxide ( SO2 ) , nitrogen oxides ( NOx ) , mercury , and other chemical byproducts that vary depending on the type of the coal being used . These emissions have been established to have a negative impact on the environment and human health , contributing to acid rain , lung cancer and cardiovascular disease . As a result , clean coal technologies are being developed to remove or reduce pollutant emissions to the atmosphere . Some of the techniques that would be used to accomplish this include chemically washing minerals and impurities from the coal , gasification ( see also IGCC ) , improved technology for treating flue gases to remove pollutants to increasingly stringent levels and at higher efficiency , carbon capture and storage technologies to capture the carbon dioxide from the flue gas and dewatering lower rank coals ( brown coals ) to improve the calorific value , and thus the efficiency of the conversion into electricity . Clean coal technology usually addresses atmospheric problems resulting from burning coal . Historically , the primary focus was on SO2 and NOx , the most important gases in causation of acid rain , and particulates which cause visible air pollution and deleterious effects on human health . Concerns exist regarding the economic viability of these technologies and the timeframe of delivery , potentially high hidden economic costs in terms of social and environmental damage , and the costs and viability of disposing of removed carbon and other toxic matter .","qid":"2753","docid":"Clean_coal_technology","rank":37,"score":132298},{"content":"Title: Low-carbon diet Content: A low-carbon diet refers to making lifestyle choices to reduce the greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGe ) resulting from consumption decisions . It is estimated that the U.S. food system is responsible for at least 20 percent of U.S. greenhouse gases . This estimate may be low , as it counts only direct sources of GHGe . Indirect sources , such as demand for products from other countries , are often not counted . A low-carbon diet minimizes the emissions released from the production , packaging , processing , transport , preparation and waste of food . Major tenets of a low-carbon diet include eating less industrial meat and dairy , eating less industrially produced food in general , eating food grown locally and seasonally , eating less processed and packaged foods and reducing waste from food by proper portion size , recycling or composting .","qid":"2753","docid":"Low-carbon_diet","rank":38,"score":131930},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Massachusetts Content: Formet Massachusetts Governor Deval Patrick has signed into law three global warming and energy-related bills that will promote advanced biofuels , support the growth of the clean energy technology industry , and cut the emissions of greenhouse gases within the state . The Clean Energy Biofuels Act , signed in late July , exempts cellulosic ethanol from the state 's gasoline tax , but only if the ethanol achieves a 60 % reduction in greenhouse gas emissions relative to gasoline . The act also requires all diesel motor fuels and all No. 2 fuel oil sold for heating to include at least 2 % `` substitute fuel '' by July 2010 , where substitute fuel is defined as a fuel derived from renewable non-food biomass that achieves at least a 50 % reduction in greenhouse gas emissions . The requirement for both motor diesel fuel and heating oil increases by a percentage point per year until 2013 , after which it holds steady 5 % . The act also allows the state to expand the requirement to other forms of fuel oil , and it requires the state to work to establish a low-carbon fuel standard under the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative . In early August of 2008 , Governor Patrick signed two additional bills : the Green Jobs Act and the Global Warming Solutions Act . The Green Jobs Act will support the growth of a clean energy technology industry within the state , backed by $ 68 million in funding over 5 years . The Global Warming Solutions Act requires a reduction of greenhouse gas emissions in the state to 10 % -25 % below 1990 levels by 2020 and to 80 % below 1990 levels by 2050 . Under the act , the Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection will carry the burdens of determining the baseline level of emissions in 1990 and creating a plan to meet the future emissions limits , including the establishment of interim limits for 2030 and 2040","qid":"2753","docid":"Climate_change_in_Massachusetts","rank":39,"score":131896},{"content":"Title: Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 Content: The Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 , or Assembly Bill ( AB ) 32 , is a California State Law that fights global warming by establishing a comprehensive program to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from all sources throughout the state . AB 32 was authored by then-Assembly member Fran Pavley and Assembly Speaker Fabian Nunez ( D-Los Angeles ) and signed into law by Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger on September 27 , 2006 . On June 1 , 2005 , Governor Schwarzenegger signed an executive order known as Executive Order S-3-05 which established greenhouse gas emissions targets for the state . The executive order required the state to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions levels to 2000 levels by 2010 , to 1990 levels by 2020 , and to a level 80 % below 1990 levels by 2050 . However , to implement this measure , the California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) needed authority from the legislature . The California State Legislature passed the Global Warming Solutions Act to address this issue and gave the CARB authority to implement the program . AB 32 requires the California Air Resources Board ( CARB or ARB ) to develop regulations and market mechanisms to reduce California 's greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by the year of 2020 , representing approximately a 30 % reduction statewide , with mandatory caps beginning in 2012 for significant emissions sources . The bill also allows the Governor to suspend the emissions caps for up to a year in case of emergency or significant economic harm . The State of California leads the nation in energy efficiency standards and plays a lead role in environmental protection , but is also the 12th largest emitter of carbon worldwide . Greenhouse gas emissions are defined in the bill to include all of the following : carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , sulfur hexafluoride , hydrofluorocarbons and perfluorocarbons . These are the same greenhouse gases listed in Annex A of the Kyoto Protocol .","qid":"2753","docid":"Global_Warming_Solutions_Act_of_2006","rank":40,"score":131885},{"content":"Title: New South Wales Greenhouse Gas Abatement Scheme Content: The New South Wales Greenhouse Gas Abatement Scheme ( also known as GGAS ) was a mandatory greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme that aimed to lower greenhouse gas emissions in New South Wales , Australia , to 7.27 tonnes of carbon dioxide per capita by the year 2007 , which commenced on 1 January 2003 . The Scheme imposed obligations on NSW electricity retailers and certain other parties , including large electricity users who elected to manage their own benchmark to abate a portion of the greenhouse gas emissions attributable to their sales/consumption of electricity in NSW . They did this by purchasing and acquitting NSW Greenhouse Abatement Certificates ( also known as NGACs ) created by accredited `` Abatement Certificate Providers '' ( ACPs ) . The NSW Minister for Energy , Chris Hartcher , announced closure of the scheme in April 2012 , effective from 30 June 2012 . The Greenhouse Gas Reduction Scheme ( GGAS ) closed on 30 June 2012 . The NSW Government closed GGAS to avoid duplication with the Commonwealth 's carbon price which commenced on 1 July 2012 .","qid":"2753","docid":"New_South_Wales_Greenhouse_Gas_Abatement_Scheme","rank":41,"score":131709},{"content":"Title: Kyoto Protocol Content: The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , based on the fact that ( a ) global warming exists and ( b ) human-made CO2 emissions have caused it . The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto , Japan , on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005 . There are currently 192 parties ( Canada withdrew effective December 2012 ) to the Protocol . The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to `` a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' ( Art. 2 ) . The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities : it puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . The Protocol 's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012 . A second commitment period was agreed on in 2012 , known as the Doha Amendment to the protocol , in which 37 countries have binding targets : Australia , the European Union ( and its 28 member states ) , Belarus , Iceland , Kazakhstan , Liechtenstein , Norway , Switzerland , and Ukraine . Belarus , Kazakhstan and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets . Japan , New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyoto 's first-round but have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period . Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada ( which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012 ) and the United States ( which has not ratified the Protocol ) . As of July 2016 , 66 states have accepted the Doha Amendment , while entry into force requires the acceptances of 144 states . Of the 37 countries with binding commitments , 7 have ratified . Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ends in 2020 . This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the Paris Agreement , which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto protocol .","qid":"2753","docid":"Kyoto_Protocol","rank":42,"score":131494},{"content":"Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .","qid":"2753","docid":"Carbon_tax","rank":43,"score":130991},{"content":"Title: Executive Orders S-3-05 and B-30-15 Content: Executive Orders S-3-05 is an Executive Order of the State of California signed by Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger in June 2005 that set greenhouse gas emissions reduction targets for the State of California and laid out responsibilities among the state agencies for implementing the Executive Order and for reporting on progress toward the targets . Specifically , the Executive Order established these targets : By 2010 , reduce GHG emissions to 2000 levels By 2020 , reduce GHG emissions to 1990 levels By 2050 , reduce GHG emissions to 80 percent below 1990 levels The first and second goals were enshrined into law by the legislation known as AB 32 , or the Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 , which gave the California Air Resources Board broad authority to implement a market-based system ( also known as cap-and-trade ) to achieve these goals . California Executive Order B-30-15 ( April 2015 , signed by Governor Jerry Brown ) added the intermediate target of : By 2030 , reduce GHG emissions to 40 percent below 1990 levels .","qid":"2753","docid":"Executive_Orders_S-3-05_and_B-30-15","rank":44,"score":130661},{"content":"Title: Joint Implementation Content: Joint implementation ( JI ) is one of three flexibility mechanisms set out in the Kyoto Protocol to help countries with binding greenhouse gas emissions targets ( the Annex I countries ) meet their obligations . JI is described in Article 6 of the Kyoto Protocol . Under Article 6 , any Annex I country can invest in an emission reduction project ( referred to as a `` Joint Implementation Project '' ) in any other Annex I country as an alternative to reducing emissions domestically . In this way countries can lower the costs of complying with their Kyoto targets by investing in projects that reduce greenhouse gas emissions in an Annex I country where reducing emissions may be cheaper , and then using the resulting Emission Reduction Units ( ERUs ) towards their commitment goal . A JI project might involve , for example , replacing a coal-fired power plant with a more efficient combined heat and power plant . Most JI projects are expected to take place in the economies in transition ( the EIT Parties ) noted in Annex B of the Kyoto Protocol . Currently Russia and Ukraine are slated to host the greatest number of JI projects . Unlike the case of the Clean Development Mechanism , the JI has caused less concern of spurious emission reductions , as the JI project , in contrast to the CDM project , takes place in a country which has a commitment to reduce emissions under the Kyoto Protocol . The process of receiving credit for JI projects is somewhat complex . Emission reduction projects are awarded credits called Emission Reduction Units ( ERUs ) , which represents an emission reduction equivalent to one tonne of CO2 equivalent . The ERUs come from the host country 's pool of assigned emissions credits , known as Assigned Amount Units , or AAUs . Each Annex I party has a predetermined amount of AAUs , calculated on the basis of its 1990 greenhouse gas emission levels . By requiring JI credits to come from a host country 's pool of AAUs , the Kyoto Protocol ensures that the total amount of emissions credits among Annex I parties does not change for the duration of the Kyoto Protocol 's first commitment period .","qid":"2753","docid":"Joint_Implementation","rank":45,"score":130631},{"content":"Title: Mootral Content: Mootral is the name given to a programme to reduce methane emissions from ruminant animals , chiefly cows and sheep , but also goats . Methane is a major target greenhouse gas and in the 4th protocol report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is recommended to increase from a x23 to x72 multiplier because of the magnitude of its effect relative to carbon dioxide and short longevity in Earth 's atmosphere .","qid":"2753","docid":"Mootral","rank":46,"score":130203},{"content":"Title: Climate Change and Emissions Management Amendment Act Content: __ NOTOC __ The Climate Change and Emissions Management Amendment Act of the Canadian province of Alberta was the first law of its type to impose greenhouse gas cuts on large industrial facilities . Starting from July 1 , 2007 , Alberta facilities that emit more than 100,000 tonnes of greenhouse gases per year will be required to reduce their emissions intensity by 12 percent under the Climate Change and Emissions Management Amendment Act . Companies have three ways to meet their reductions : they can make operating improvements , buy an Alberta-based credit , or contribute to the Climate Change and Emissions Management Fund . The regulations apply to about 100 large facilities which emit more than 100,000 tonnes of greenhouse gases a year . Those facilities account for about 70 per cent of Alberta 's industrial greenhouse gas emissions . The annual cost of compliance is estimated to be $ 177 million - or less than one tenth of one per cent of Alberta 's nominal GDP ( $ 242 billion in 2006 ) .","qid":"2753","docid":"Climate_Change_and_Emissions_Management_Amendment_Act","rank":47,"score":129968},{"content":"Title: Mark Z. Jacobson Content: Mark Zachary Jacobson ( born 1965 ) is professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy Program . Jacobson develops computer models about the effects of different energy technologies and their emissions on air pollution and climate . He has done influential research on the role of aerosols and black carbon on the climate and is regarded as a leading aerosol climate modeler . According to Jacobson , a speedy transition to clean , renewable energy is required to reduce the potential acceleration of global warming , including the disappearance of the Arctic Sea ice . This change will also eliminate 2.5 -- 3 million deaths worldwide each year , related to air pollution , and reduce disruption associated with fossil fuel shortages .","qid":"2753","docid":"Mark_Z._Jacobson","rank":48,"score":128952},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions accounting Content: Greenhouse gas emissions accounting is a method of calculating the amount of greenhouse gases ( GHG ) emitted by a region in a given time-scale . A National Emissions Inventory ( NEI ) measuring a country 's GHG emissions in a year is required by the UNFCCC to provide a benchmark for the country 's emission reductions , and subsequently to evaluate international climate policies such as the Kyoto protocol ( although the original has now expired , extensions have been agreed ) as well as regional climate policies such as the EU Emissions Trading Scheme ( ETS ) . There are two conflicting ways of measuring GHG emissions : production-based ( sometimes referred to as territorial-based ) or consumption-based . Production-based emissions take place `` within national territory and offshore areas over which the country has jurisdiction '' . Consumption-based emissions encompass those emissions from domestic final consumption and those caused by the production of its imports . This means the importing country takes responsibility for emissions related to production of the exporting country 's exports . By these definitions production-based emissions include exports but exclude imports and emissions embodied in international trade , whereas consumption-based emissions refer to the reverse ( Table 1 ) . Which technique is applied by policymakers is fundamental as each can generate a very different NEI . Different NEIs would result in a country 's choosing different optimal mitigation activities , the wrong choice based on wrong information being potentially damaging . The application of production-based emissions accounting is currently favoured in policy terms , although much of the literature favours consumption-based accounting . The former method is criticised in the literature principally for its inability to allocate emissions embodied in international trade/transportation and the potential for carbon leakage .","qid":"2753","docid":"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_accounting","rank":49,"score":128776},{"content":"Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .","qid":"2753","docid":"Environmental_impact_of_aviation","rank":50,"score":128497},{"content":"Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.","qid":"2753","docid":"Media_coverage_of_global_warming","rank":51,"score":128380},{"content":"Title: One-Tonne Challenge Content: The One-Tonne Challenge was a challenge presented by the Government of Canada in March 2004 for Canadians to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions by one tonne each year . The figure represented 20 % of total greenhouse gas output by Canadians at the time and aimed to help the country reach its Kyoto Protocol emission reduction targets . The Liberal Government under Jean Chrétien and Paul Martin approved over $ 45 million to fund the program from 2003 to 2006 . To promote this program , the government placed television and print ads featuring comedian Rick Mercer . In one commercial , he described Canadians as wanting to take the challenge . `` C'mon ... we 're Canadian ... we 're up for a challenge ! '' The government urged Canadians to do such things as : Take public transit more often . Idle vehicles less . Use programmable thermostats . Seal windows with caulking and weather-stripping . Compost organic kitchen waste . Support green energy . Water and energy conservation . Purchase electronics that are labelled with Energy Star logo . Recycling . The program received a lukewarm reception from the public , and has been criticized as ineffective and wasteful . This program was started by the Liberal Party of Canada . However , with the election of Stephen Harper 's Conservative Government in 2006 , the One Tonne Challenge was scrapped .","qid":"2753","docid":"One-Tonne_Challenge","rank":52,"score":128347},{"content":"Title: Carbon monitoring Content: Carbon monitoring refers to tracking how much carbon dioxide or methane is produced by particular activity at a particular point in time . For example , it may refer to tracking methane emissions from agriculture , or carbon dioxide emissions from land use changes , such as deforestation , or from burning fossil fuels , whether in a power plant , automobile , or other device . Because carbon dioxide is the greenhouse gas emitted in the largest quantities , and methane is an even more potent greenhouse gas , monitoring carbon emissions is widely seen as crucial to any effort to reduce emissions and thereby slow climate change . Monitoring carbon emissions is key to the cap-and-trade program currently being used in Europe , as well as the one in California , and will be necessary for any such program in the future , like the Paris Agreement . The lack of reliable sources of consistent data on carbon emissions is a significant barrier to efforts to reduce emissions .","qid":"2753","docid":"Carbon_monitoring","rank":53,"score":128228},{"content":"Title: Green industrial policy Content: Green industrial policy ( GIP ) is strategic government policy that attempts to accelerate the development and growth of green industries to transition towards a low-carbon economy . Natural scientists warn that immediate action must be taken to lower greenhouse gas emissions and mitigate the effects of climate change . Social scientists argue that the mitigation of climate change requires state intervention and governance reform . Thus , governments use GIP to address the economic , political , and environmental issues of climate change . GIP is conducive to sustainable economic , institutional , and technological transformation . It goes beyond the free market economic structure to address market failures and commitment problems that hinder sustainable investment . Effective GIP builds political support for carbon regulation which is necessary to transition towards a low-carbon economy . Several governments use different types of GIP that lead to various outcomes . GIP and industrial policy are similar , although GIP has unique challenges and goals . GIP faces the particular challenge of reconciling economic and environmental issues . It deals with a high uncertainty of green investment profitability . Furthermore , it addresses the reluctance of industry to invest in green development , and it helps current governments influence future climate policy . GIP offers opportunities for energy transition to renewables and a low-carbon economy . A large challenge for climate policy is a lack of industry and public support . GIP creates benefits that attract support for sustainability . It can create strategic niche management and generate a `` green spiral '' , or a process of feedback that combines industrial interests with climate policy . GIP can protect employees in emerging and declining industries , which leads to political support for other climate policy . Carbon pricing , sustainable energy transitions , and decreases in greenhouse gas emissions have higher chances of success as political support increases . GIP faces many risks . Some risks include poor government choices about which industries to support ; political capture of economic policy ; wasted resources ; ineffective action to combat climate change ; poor policy design that lacks policy objectives and exit strategies ; trade disputes ; and coordination failure . Strategic steps can be taken to manage the risks of GIP . Some include public and private sector communication , transparency , and accountability ; policy with clear objectives , evaluation techniques and exit strategies ; policy learning and policy experimentation ; green rent management ; strong institutions ; and a free press . Governments in various countries , states , provinces , territories , and cities use different types of green industrial policy . Distinct policy instruments lead to several outcomes . Examples include sunrise and sunset policies , subsidies , research and development , local content requirements , feed-in tariffs , tax credits , export restrictions , consumer mandates , green public procurement rules , and renewable portfolio standards .","qid":"2753","docid":"Green_industrial_policy","rank":54,"score":128148},{"content":"Title: Chinese national carbon trading scheme Content: The Chinese national carbon trading scheme is a cap and trade system for carbon dioxide emissions set to be implemented in July 2017 . This emission trading scheme ( ETS ) creates a carbon market where emitters can buy and sell emission credits . From this scheme , China can limit emissions , but allow economic freedom for emitters to reduce emissions or purchase emission allowances from other emitters . China is currently the largest emitter of greenhouse gases and many major Chinese cities have severe air pollution . With this plan , China will soon be the largest market in carbon trading . The scheme will limit emissions from six of China 's top carbon dioxide emitting industries , including coal-fired power plants . China was able to gain experience in drafting and implementation of an ETS plan from the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , where China was part of the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) . From this experience with carbon markets , and lengthy discussions with the next largest carbon market , the European Union ( EU ) , as well as analysis of small scale pilot markets in major Chinese cities and provinces , China 's national ETS will be the largest of its kind and will help China achieve its Intended Nationally Determined Contribution ( INDC ) from the Paris Agreement in 2016 .","qid":"2753","docid":"Chinese_national_carbon_trading_scheme","rank":55,"score":127567},{"content":"Title: Fugitive emissions Content: Fugitive emissions are emissions of gases or vapors from pressurized equipment due to leaks and other unintended or irregular releases of gases , mostly from industrial activities . As well as the economic cost of lost commodities , fugitive emissions contribute to air pollution and climate change . A detailed inventory of greenhouse gas emissions from upstream oil and gas activities in Canada for the year 2000 estimated that fugitive equipment leaks had a global warming potential equivalent to the release of 17 million metric tonnes of carbon dioxide , or 12 per cent of all greenhouse gases emitted by the sector . Venting of natural gas , flaring , accidental releases and storage losses accounted for an additional 38 per cent . Fugitive emissions present other risks and hazards . Emissions of volatile organic compounds such as benzene from oil refineries and chemical plants pose a long term health risk to workers and local communities . In situations where large amounts of flammable liquids and gases are contained under pressure , leaks also increase the risk of fire and explosion . Leaks from pressurized process equipment generally occur through valves , pipe connections , mechanical seals , or related equipment . Fugitive emissions also occur at evaporative sources such as waste water treatment ponds and storage tanks . Because of the huge number of potential leak sources at large industrial facilities and the difficulties in detecting and repairing some leaks , fugitive emissions can be a significant proportion of total emissions . Though the quantities of leaked gases may be small , gases that have serious health or environmental impacts can cause a significant problem . To minimize and control leaks at process facilities operators carry out regular leak detection and repair activities . Routine inspections of process equipment with gas detectors can be used to identify leaks and estimate the leak rate in order to decide on appropriate corrective action . Proper routine maintenance of equipment reduces the likelihood of leaks . Because of the technical difficulties and costs of detecting and quantifying actual fugitive emissions at a site or facility , and the variability and intermittent nature of emission flow rates , bottom-up estimates based on standard emission factors are generally used for annual reporting purposes . New technologies are under development that could revolutionize the detection and monitoring of fugitive emissions . One technology , known as differential absorption lidar ( DIAL ) , can be used to remotely measure concentration profiles of hydrocarbons in the atmosphere up to several hundred meters from a facility . DIAL has been used for refinery surveys in Europe for over 15 years . A pilot study carried out in 2005 using DIAL found that actual emissions at a refinery were fifteen times higher than those previously reported using the emission factor approach . The fugitive emissions were equivalent to 0.17 % of the refinery throughput . Portable gas leak imaging cameras are also a new technology that can be used to improve leak detection and repair , leading to reduced fugitive emissions . The cameras use infrared imaging technology to produce video images in which invisible gases escaping from leak sources can be clearly identified .","qid":"2753","docid":"Fugitive_emissions","rank":56,"score":127404},{"content":"Title: Robert O. Mendelsohn Content: Robert O. Mendelsohn ( born 1952 in New York City ) is an American environmental economist . He is currently the Edwin Weyerhaeuser Davis Professor of the School of Forestry and Environmental Studies at Yale University , Professor of Economics in Economics Department at Yale University and Professor in the School of Management at Yale University.Professor Mendelsohn is a major figure in the economics of global warming , being for example a contributor to the first Copenhagen Consensus report . Mendelsohn received a BA in economics from Harvard University in 1973 and obtained his Ph.D. in economics from Yale University in 1978 . Professor Mendelsohn has written over one hundred peer-reviewed articles and edited six books . The focus of his research has been the valuation of the environment . He has developed methods to value natural ecosystems including coral reefs , old-growth forests , non-timber forest products , ecotourism , and outdoor recreation . He has also developed methods to value pollution including emissions of criteria pollutants ( such as particulates and sulfur dioxide ) and hazardous waste sites . His most recent work values the impacts of greenhouse gases , including the effects of climate change on agriculture , forests , water resources , energy , and coasts . This research carefully integrates adaptation into impact assessment and has recently been extended to developing countries around the world . He has also been involved in studies of nonrenewable resources , forest management , and specifically carbon sequestration in forests .","qid":"2753","docid":"Robert_O._Mendelsohn","rank":57,"score":127165},{"content":"Title: Embedded emissions Content: One way of attributing greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions is to measure the embedded emissions of goods that are being consumed ( also referred to as `` embodied emissions '' ) . This is different from the question of to what extent the policies of one country to reduce emissions affect emissions in other countries ( the `` spillover effect '' and `` carbon leakage '' of an emissions reduction policy ) . The UNFCCC measures emissions according to production , rather than consumption ( UK Parliament , 2010 ) . Consequently , embedded emissions on imported goods are attributed to the exporting , rather than the importing , country . The question of whether to measure emissions on production instead of consumption is partly an issue of equity , i.e. , who is responsible for emissions ( Toth et al. , 2001 , p. 670 ) . The 37 Kyoto Protocol Parties , listed in Annex B of the treaty , have agreed to legally binding emission reduction commitments . Under the UNFCCC accounting of emissions , their emission reduction commitments do not include emissions attributable to their imports . In a briefing note , Wang and Watson ( 2007 ) asked the question , `` who owns China 's carbon emissions ? '' In their study , they suggested that nearly a quarter of China 's CO2 emissions might be a result of its production of goods for export , primarily to the USA but also to Europe . Based on this , they suggested that international negotiations based on within country emissions ( i.e. , emissions measured by production ) may be '' -LSB- missing -RSB- the point . '' Recent research confirms that , in 2004 , 23 % of global emissions were embedded in goods traded internationally , mostly flowing from China and other developing countries to the U.S. , Europe and Japan . Research by the Carbon Trust in 2011 revealed that approximately 25 % of all emissions from human activities ` flow ' ( i.e. are imported or exported ) from one country to another . The flow of carbon was found to be roughly 50 % emissions associated with trade in commodities such as steel , cement , and chemicals , and 50 % in semi-finished/finished products such as motor vehicles , clothing or industrial machinery and equipment .","qid":"2753","docid":"Embedded_emissions","rank":58,"score":126175},{"content":"Title: Stratospheric aerosol injection (climate engineering) Content: The ability of stratospheric sulfate aerosols to create a global dimming effect has made them a possible candidate for use in solar radiation management climate engineering projects to limit the effect and impact of climate change due to rising levels of greenhouse gases . Delivery of precursor sulfide gases such as sulfuric acid , hydrogen sulfide or sulfur dioxide by artillery , aircraft and balloons has been proposed . It presently appears that this proposed method could counter most climatic changes , take effect rapidly , have very low direct implementation costs , and be reversible in its direct climatic effects . One study calculated the impact of injecting sulfate particles , or aerosols , every one to four years into the stratosphere in amounts equal to those lofted by the volcanic eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 , but did not address the many technical and political challenges involved in potential solar radiation management efforts . If found to be economically , environmentally and technologically viable , such injections could provide a `` grace period '' of up to 20 years before major cutbacks in greenhouse gas emissions would be required , the study concludes . It has been suggested that the direct delivery of precursors could be achieved using sulfide gases such as dimethyl sulfide , sulfur dioxide , carbonyl sulfide , or hydrogen sulfide . These compounds would be delivered using artillery , aircraft ( such as the high-flying F-15C ) or balloons , and result in the formation of compounds with the sulfate anion SO42 − . According to estimates , `` one kilogram of well placed sulfur in the stratosphere would roughly offset the warming effect of several hundred thousand kilograms of carbon dioxide . ''","qid":"2753","docid":"Stratospheric_aerosol_injection_(climate_engineering)","rank":59,"score":126150},{"content":"Title: Environmental design in rail transportation Content: Environmental design is an emerging topic in railroad technology . Over the past twenty-five years , fuel efficiency in diesel locomotives has increased 85 % , allowing these trains to go farther and move more freight while using less fuel . New low-impact electric and hybrid trains reduce overall carbon emissions . Also , train manufacturers have started utilizing hydrogen technology for propulsion , with carbon emissions only coming from the manufacturing of the hydrogen itself .","qid":"2753","docid":"Environmental_design_in_rail_transportation","rank":60,"score":125416},{"content":"Title: Zero-carbon city Content: A zero-carbon city runs entirely on renewable energy ; it has no carbon footprint and will in this respect not cause harm to the planet . Most cities throughout the world produce energy by burning coal , oil and gas , unintentionally emitting carbon . Almost every activity humans do involves burning one of these fossil fuels . To become a zero carbon city , an established modern city must collectively reduce emissions of greenhouse gases to zero and all practices that emit greenhouse gases must cease . Also , renewable energy must supersede other non-renewable energy sources and become the sole source of energy , so a zero-carbon city is a renewable-energy-economy city . This transition which includes decarbonising electricity ( increasing the importance of the sources of renewable electricity ) and zero-emission transport , is undertaken as a response to climate change . Zero-carbon cities maintain optimal living conditions while eliminating environmental impact . Instead of using established cities , many developers are starting from scratch in order to create a zero-carbon city . This way they can make sure every aspect of a city contributes to it being carbon free .","qid":"2753","docid":"Zero-carbon_city","rank":61,"score":125239},{"content":"Title: Campus carbon neutrality Content: All across the world , colleges and universities are looking to a sustainable future by working to become carbon neutral . Universities are taking responsibility for their environmental impact and are working to neutralize those effects . To become carbon neutral , universities are working to reduce their emissions of greenhouse gases , cut their use of energy , use more renewable energy , and emphasize the importance of sustainable energy sources . Universities that have committed to becoming carbon neutral have recognized the threat of global warming and are therefore committing to reverse the trend .","qid":"2753","docid":"Campus_carbon_neutrality","rank":62,"score":125203},{"content":"Title: Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate Content: The Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate , also known as APP , was an international , voluntary , public-private partnership among Australia , Canada , India , Japan , the People 's Republic of China , South Korea , and the United States announced July 28 , 2005 at an Association of South East Asian Nations ( ASEAN ) Regional Forum meeting and launched on January 12 , 2006 at the Partnership 's inaugural Ministerial meeting in Sydney . As of 5 April 2011 , the Partnership formally concluded although a number of individual projects continue . The conclusion of the APP and cancellation of many of its projects attracted almost no media comment . Foreign , Environment and Energy Ministers from partner countries agreed to co-operate on the development and transfer of technology which enables reduction of greenhouse gas emissions that is consistent with and complementary to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change and other relevant international instruments , and is intended to complement but not replace the Kyoto Protocol. , Ministers agreed to a Charter , Communique and Work Plan that `` outline a ground-breaking new model of private-public task forces to address climate change , energy security and air pollution . '' Member countries account for over 50 % of the world 's greenhouse gas emissions , energy consumption , GDP and population . Unlike the Kyoto Protocol ( currently unratified by the United States ) , which imposes mandatory limits on greenhouse gas emissions , the Partnership engages member countries to accelerate the development and deployment of clean energy technologies , with no mandatory enforcement mechanism . This has led to criticism that the Partnership is worthless , by other governments , climate scientists and environmental groups . Proponents , on the other hand , argue that unrestricted economic growth and emission reductions can only be brought about through active engagement by all major polluters , which includes India and China , within the Kyoto Protocol framework neither India nor China are yet required to reduce emissions . Canada became the 7th member of the APP at the Second Ministerial Meeting in New Delhi on October 15 , 2007 . Canada 's Prime Minister Stephen Harper earlier expressed his intention to join the Partnership in August 2007 , despite some domestic opposition .","qid":"2753","docid":"Asia-Pacific_Partnership_on_Clean_Development_and_Climate","rank":63,"score":124886},{"content":"Title: San Francisco Climate Action Plan Content: The San Francisco Climate Action Plan is a greenhouse gas reduction initiative adopted by the City and County of San Francisco , United States in 2002 . It aims to reduce the city 's greenhouse gas emissions to 20 % below 1990 levels by 2012 .","qid":"2753","docid":"San_Francisco_Climate_Action_Plan","rank":64,"score":124623},{"content":"Title: Carbon finance Content: Carbon finance is a new branch of Environmental finance . Carbon finance explores the financial implications of living in a carbon-constrained world , a world in which emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) carry a price . Financial risks and opportunities impact corporate balance sheets , and market-based instruments are capable of transferring environmental risk and achieving environmental objectives . Issues regarding climate change and GHG emissions must be addressed as part of strategic management decision-making . The general term is applied to investments in GHG emission reduction projects and the creation ( origination ) of financial instruments that are tradeable on the carbon market .","qid":"2753","docid":"Carbon_finance","rank":65,"score":124394},{"content":"Title: List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries ranked by greenhouse-gas emissions per capita in 2000 . It is based on data for carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , perfluorocarbon , hydrofluorocarbon and sulfur hexafluoride emissions compiled by the World Resources Institute ( WRI ) from a variety of sources , including CDIAC and the US Environmental Protection Agency . Bunker-fuel emissions are not included . Two sets of per capita emissions are given , one with an estimate of the effects of land-use change ( for example , cutting down forests ) and one without . The former is based on regional estimates in Houghton ( 2003 ) . Difficulties with determining rates of deforestation and the magnitude of carbon stocks held by the remaining forests and with distributing regional carbon fluxes among individual countries mean that the land-use change components have a large margin of error , perhaps as large as + / -150 % in some cases . They are included here because , although difficult to quantify accurately at a country level , land-use change is a significant contributor to global warming . The WRI estimates that it accounted for almost a fifth of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions in 2000 . For 2005 the data for a large number of countries only includes emissions ( see note 12 . )","qid":"2753","docid":"List_of_countries_by_greenhouse_gas_emissions_per_capita","rank":66,"score":124373},{"content":"Title: Environmental impact of shipping Content: The environmental impact of shipping includes greenhouse gas emissions , acoustic , and oil pollution . The International Maritime Organization ( IMO ) estimates that Carbon dioxide emissions from shipping were equal to 2.2 % of the global human-made emissions in 2012 and expects them to rise by as much as 2 to 3 times by 2050 if no action is taken . The First Intersessional Meeting of the IMO Working Group on Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Ships took place in Oslo , Norway on 23 -- 27 June 2008 . It was tasked with developing the technical basis for the reduction mechanisms that may form part of a future IMO regime to control greenhouse gas emissions from international shipping , and a draft of the actual reduction mechanisms themselves , for further consideration by IMO 's Marine Environment Protection Committee ( MEPC ) .","qid":"2753","docid":"Environmental_impact_of_shipping","rank":67,"score":124026},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse Mafia Content: Greenhouse Mafia is the title of a TV program aired by the ABC on the 13 February 2006 episode of its weekly current affairs program Four Corners . The program says the term greenhouse mafia is the `` in house '' name used by Australia 's carbon lobby for itself . The program featured former Liberal Party member Guy Pearse and Four Corners host Janine Cohen , while others concerned about the influence exerted by the fossil fuel lobby also participated . The report was based on a thesis Pearse wrote at the Australian National University between 1999 and 2005 regarding the response of Australian business to global warming . According to the program , lobby groups representing the coal , car , oil , and aluminium industries have wielded their power to prevent Australia from reducing its greenhouse gas emissions , which were already among the highest per capita in the world in 1990 .","qid":"2753","docid":"Greenhouse_Mafia","rank":68,"score":123967},{"content":"Title: Energy Technologies Institute Content: The Energy Technologies Institute ( ETI ) is an energy research , development and demonstration body established in the United Kingdom in 2007 . The government set up the ETI following an announcement in the 2006 budget speech . The purpose of the ETI is to `` accelerate the development , demonstration and eventual commercial deployment of a focused portfolio of energy technologies , which will increase energy efficiency , reduce greenhouse gas emissions and help achieve energy and climate change goals '' . The institute works with a range of academic and commercial bodies . Deployment of the technologies involved , which are expected to contribute to the reduction of the UK 's carbon emissions , is expected to begin around 2018 . Commentators generally welcomed the new body as likely to make a positive contribution in the efforts to minimise climate change . At the same time , they pointed to the slow pace of government action in promoting energy conservation and implementing existing low-carbon technologies , compared to progress in a number of other European countries .","qid":"2753","docid":"Energy_Technologies_Institute","rank":69,"score":123875},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Grenada Content: The issue of climate change has received significant public and political attention in Grenada . As of 2013 , the mitigation of its effects has been high on the agenda of the Government of Grenada , which seeks to set an example through innovation and green technology . Given its small size , Grenada is not a major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , but does use fossil fuel to generate 90 % of its electricity . The Government of Grenada has set a goal of generating 50 % of its energy from solar and wind power by 2030 , and is taking steps to abolish Grenlec , the state-run electric utility . Because tourism is a mainstay of the economy , there is also interest in exploring the use of seawater for air-conditioning . As of 2013 , Grenada had a US$ 6.9 million pilot project to adapt its irrigation system to climate change and conduct local and regional water planning , funded by the German International Climate Initiative ( IKI ) . Groundwater depletion , lower water tables , disruption of water supply by hurricanes ( such as Hurricane Ivan ) , saltwater intrusion , and rising sea levels pose challenges for providing a consistent water supply for agriculture and tourism . In 2013 , the newspaper The Washington Diplomat profiled Grenada 's ambassador to the United States , Angus Friday , who has served as a `` senior climate policy specialist at the World Bank . '' In his earlier posting as Grenadian Ambassador to the United Nations , `` he frequently advocated for small Caribbean and Pacific island nations threatened by rising ocean levels . ''","qid":"2753","docid":"Climate_change_in_Grenada","rank":70,"score":123761},{"content":"Title: Global Methane Initiative Content: The Global Methane Initiative ( GMI ) is a voluntary , international partnership that brings together national governments , private sector entities , development banks , NGOs and other interested stakeholders in a collaborative effort to reduce methane gas emissions and advance methane recovery and use as a clean energy source . National governments are encouraged to join GMI as Partner Countries , while other non-State organizations may join GMI 's extensive Project Network . As a public-private initiative , GMI creates an international platform to build capacity , development methane abatement strategies , engage in technology transfer , and remove political and economic barriers to project development for emissions reduction . The initiative currently focuses on five sectors , which are known sources of anthropogenic methane emissions : agriculture , coal mining , municipal solid waste , municipal wastewater , and oil and gas systems . Through international cooperation , GMI seeks to reduce global methane emissions , the second largest contributor to atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases , in order to enhance economic growth , promote energy security , improve the environment , and reduce greenhouse gases . Other expected benefits include improving mine safety , reducing waste , and improving local air quality .","qid":"2753","docid":"Global_Methane_Initiative","rank":71,"score":123706},{"content":"Title: Carbon Neutral Cities Alliance Content: The Carbon Neutral Cities Alliance ( CNCA or `` Alliance '' ) is a collaboration of leading global cities working to cut greenhouse gas emissions by 80 % or more by 2050 or sooner ( `` 80x50 '' ) -- the most aggressive greenhouse gas reduction targets undertaken by any cities across the globe . The Alliance aims to address what it will take for leading international cities to achieve these deep emissions reductions and how they can work together to meet their respective goals more efficiently and effectively .","qid":"2753","docid":"Carbon_Neutral_Cities_Alliance","rank":72,"score":123677},{"content":"Title: Midwestern Greenhouse Gas Reduction Accord Content: The Midwestern Greenhouse Gas Reduction Accord ( Midwestern Accord ) is a regional agreement by six governors of states in the US Midwest who are members of the Midwestern Governors Association ( MGA ) , and the premier of one Canadian province , whose purpose is to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to combat climate change . The accord has been inactive since March 2010 , when an advisory group presented a plan for action to the association with a scheduled implementation date of January 2012 . Signatories to the accord are the US states of Minnesota , Wisconsin , Illinois , Iowa , Michigan , Kansas , and the Canadian Province of Manitoba . Observers of the accord are Indiana , Ohio , and South Dakota , as well as the Canadian Province of Ontario . While the Midwest has intensive manufacturing and agriculture sectors , making it the most coal-dependent region in North America , it also has significant renewable energy resources and is particularly vulnerable to the climate change caused by burning coal and other fossil fuels . The Midwestern Accord was the fourth tier of the MGA Energy Security and Climate Stewardship Summit Platform , signed on November 15 , 2007 . It established the Midwestern Greenhouse Gas Reduction Program , which aimed to : establish greenhouse gas reduction targets and time frames consistent with signing states ' targets ; develop a market-based and multi-sector cap-and-trade mechanism to help achieve those reduction targets ; establish a system to enable tracking , management , and crediting for entities that reduce greenhouse gas emissions ; and develop and implement additional steps as needed to achieve the reduction targets , such as a low-carbon fuel standards and regional incentives and funding mechanisms . Through the Midwestern Accord , the governors agreed to establish a Midwestern greenhouse gas reduction program to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in their states , as well as a working group to provide recommendations regarding the implementation of the accord . In June 2009 , the Midwestern Greenhouse Gas Reduction Accord Advisory Group finalized its draft recommendations . In March 2010 the advisory group presented a plan to the MGA that called for implementation beginning in January 2012 . No further action was taken , as leadership in several of the states switched positions on climate policy . In July 2014 , accord member Kansas and observers Indiana , South Dakota , and Ohio joined a lawsuit opposing the EPA Clean Power Plan , federal climate regulations which could be met by implementation of the accord .","qid":"2753","docid":"Midwestern_Greenhouse_Gas_Reduction_Accord","rank":73,"score":123566},{"content":"Title: CarboNZero programme Content: The carboNZero programme and CEMARS programme are the world 's first internationally accredited greenhouse gas ( GHG ) certification schemes under ISO 14065 . They provide tools for organisations , products , services and events to measure and reduce their greenhouse gas emissions ( otherwise known as carbon footprint ) , and optionally offset it . The programmes are owned and operated by Enviro-Mark Solutions Limited , a wholly owned subsidiary of Landcare Research ( 100 % NZ government-owned ) .","qid":"2753","docid":"CarboNZero_programme","rank":74,"score":123508},{"content":"Title: Turning the Corner Plan Content: Turning the Corner Plan is a Canadian climate change action plan introduced by the Harper Conservative Government in April 2007 by then Minister of the Environment John Baird . Turning the Corner has plans set out to reduce Canada 's greenhouse gas emissions by 20 % relative to 2006 levels by 2020 , and reductions of 60 to 70 percent below 2006 levels by 2050 .","qid":"2753","docid":"Turning_the_Corner_Plan","rank":75,"score":123320},{"content":"Title: Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources Content: Measurement of life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions involves calculating the global-warming potential of electrical energy sources through life-cycle assessment of each energy source . The findings are presented in units of global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated by that source . The scale uses the global warming potential unit , the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) , and the unit of electrical energy , the kilowatt hour ( kWh ) . The goal of such assessments is to cover the full life of the source , from material and fuel mining through construction to operation and waste management . In 2014 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change harmonized the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) findings of the major electricity generating sources in use worldwide . This was done by analyzing the findings of hundreds of individual scientific papers assessing each energy source . For all technologies , advances in efficiency , and therefore reductions in e since the time of publication , have not been included . For example , the total life cycle emissions from wind power may have lessened since publication . Similarly , due to the time frame over which the studies were conducted , nuclear Generation II reactor 's e results are presented and not the global warming potential of Generation III reactors , presently under construction in the United States and China . Other limitations of the data include : a ) missing life cycle phases , and , b ) uncertainty as to where to define the cut-off point in the global warming potential of an energy source . The latter is important in assessing a combined electrical grid in the real world , rather than the established practice of simply assessing the energy source in isolation .","qid":"2753","docid":"Life-cycle_greenhouse-gas_emissions_of_energy_sources","rank":76,"score":123025},{"content":"Title: Boulder Climate Action Plan Content: The Climate Action Plan ( CAP ) is a set of strategies intended to guide community efforts for reducing greenhouse gas emissions . Those strategies have focused on improving energy efficiency and conservation in our homes and businesses -- the source of nearly three-fourths of local emissions . The plan also promotes strategies to reduce emissions from transportation , which account for over 20 percent of our local greenhouse gas sources .","qid":"2753","docid":"Boulder_Climate_Action_Plan","rank":77,"score":123012},{"content":"Title: Ecosecurities Content: EcoSecurities is a business that sources and develops carbon credits and carbon offsets from greenhouse gas emission reduction projects throughout the world . The company has offices in Europe , Middle East , Americas and Asia and has a large portfolio of green house gas emission reduction projects covering numerous countries and technologies . EcoSecurities was created in January 1997 , 12 months before the Kyoto conference . After a period of organic growth , the company floated on the Alternative Investment Market of the London Stock Exchange in December 2005 , allowing it to grow its geographic presence by placing over 300 staff in 30 countries . Its portfolio grew to over 150 million CERs - the largest in the world at the time . In June 2007 , the company raised an additional $ 100 million to expand into new markets , with Credit Suisse becoming a major investor . It trades in the international carbon market which was valued at $ 38 billion in the first six months of 2008 . The former President and co-founder of EcoSecurities was Pedro Moura-Costa and the former CEO was Bruce Usher . At the end of 2009 the firm was acquired by JP Morgan and is now an indirect wholly owned subsidiarly of JPMorgan Chase and Co. and can provide its clients with access to the scope of services provided by the bank 's Environmental Markets business in addition to those activities of sourcing and developing greenhouse gas abatement projects outlined above . Following on from acquisition of EcoSecurities the company appointed Paul Mark Kelly as Chief Executive Officer of the company in December 2009 , when the company subsequently delisted from the Alternative Investment Market of the London Stock Exchange .","qid":"2753","docid":"Ecosecurities","rank":78,"score":122844},{"content":"Title: Wildland fire emission Content: Wildland fire and wildland fire atmospheric emissions have been a part of the global biosphere for millennia . The major wildland fire emissions include greenhouse gasses and several criteria pollutants that impact human health and welfare. : Compared to the preindustrial era , wildland land fire in the conterminous U.S. has been reduced 90 percent with proportional reductions in wildland fire emissions . Land use changes ( agriculture and urbanization ) are responsible for roughly 50 percent of this decrease , and land management decisions ( land fragmentation , suppression actions , etc. ) are responsible for the remainder . Anthropogenic activities ( e.g. , industrial production , transportation , agriculture , etc. ) today have more than replaced the lost preindustrial wildland fire atmospheric emissions . The following charts compare preindustrial wildland fire emissions with contemporary emissions .","qid":"2753","docid":"Wildland_fire_emission","rank":79,"score":122765},{"content":"Title: Pastoral Greenhouse Gas Research Consortium Content: __ NOTOC __ The Pastoral Greenhouse Gas Research Consortium ( PGGRC ) carries out research to find methods of reducing greenhouse gas emissions from livestock . The consortium , established in 2004 , has a Memorandum of Understanding with the New Zealand Government . Almost half of the greenhouse gas emissions in New Zealand are due to agriculture and since the New Zealand government has signed and ratified the Kyoto Protocol methods are being sought to seek a reduction of these emissions . In 2003 the Government attempted to impose an Agricultural emissions research levy on farmers to fund research into agricultural emissions reduction but it proved to be unpopular and the proposal was abandoned . The PGGRC is an alternative method of addressing agricultural emissions . An independent review in 2006 found that the PGGRC was producing world-leading research and is excellent value for money .","qid":"2753","docid":"Pastoral_Greenhouse_Gas_Research_Consortium","rank":80,"score":122642},{"content":"Title: New England Governors and Eastern Canadian Premiers Climate Change Action Plan 2001 Content: The New England Governors and Eastern Canadian Premiers ( NEG-ECP ) Climate Change Action Plan 2001 is a resolution adopted on August 28 , 2001 , by the New England Governors and the Eastern Canadian Premiers . The resolution calls for a reduction in greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions to 1990 levels by 2010 , at least 10 % below 1990 levels by 2020 , and a 75-85 % reduction of 2001 levels as a long-term goal . Participating are the six states belonging to New England : Connecticut , Maine , Massachusetts , New Hampshire , Rhode Island , and Vermont ; as well as the Eastern Canadian provinces : New Brunswick , Newfoundland and Labrador , Nova Scotia , Prince Edward Island , and Quebec . In addition , the Northeast States for Coordinated Air Use Management ( NESCAUM ) is building a Regional Greenhouse Gas Registry ( RGGR ) to help track emissions in the region . This effort is similar to that of the California Climate Action Registry .","qid":"2753","docid":"New_England_Governors_and_Eastern_Canadian_Premiers_Climate_Change_Action_Plan_2001","rank":81,"score":122131},{"content":"Title: The Hype about Hydrogen Content: The Hype about Hydrogen : Fact and Fiction in the Race to Save the Climate is a book by Joseph J. Romm , published in 2004 by Island Press and updated in 2005 . The book has been translated into German as Der Wasserstoff-Boom . Romm is an expert on clean energy , advanced vehicles , energy security , and greenhouse gas mitigation . Over 200 publications , including Scientific American , Forbes magazine and The New York Times , have cited this book . The book was named one of the best science and technology books of 2004 by Library Journal . The thrust of the book is that hydrogen is not economically feasible to use for transportation , nor will its use reduce global warming , because of the cost and greenhouse gases generated during production , the low energy content per volume and weight of the container , the cost of the fuel cells , and the cost of the infrastructure . The author argues that a major effort to introduce hydrogen cars before 2030 would actually undermine efforts to reduce emissions of heat-trapping greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide .","qid":"2753","docid":"The_Hype_about_Hydrogen","rank":82,"score":122068},{"content":"Title: Carbon price Content: Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' . Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain . The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions . The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations .","qid":"2753","docid":"Carbon_price","rank":83,"score":121983},{"content":"Title: CERINA-Plan Content: CERINA Plan is the abbreviation for `` CO2 Emissions and Renewable Investment Action Plan '' . It is a CO2 reduction concept developed by the German renewable energy institute IWR . The CERINA Plan proposes a technical investment approach linking a country 's CO2 emissions to its investment in renewable energy technology . Therefore , it is an alternative model to approaches like the Kyoto idea of mere cuts in greenhouse gas emissions . The model is meant to be flexible and to adapt to the special national circumstances of each country .","qid":"2753","docid":"CERINA-Plan","rank":84,"score":121893},{"content":"Title: Climate-friendly gardening Content: Climate-friendly gardening is gardening in ways which reduce emissions of greenhouse gases from gardens and encourage the absorption of carbon dioxide by soils and plants in order to aid the reduction of global warming . To be a climate-friendly gardener means considering both what happens in a garden and the materials brought into it and the impact they have on land use and climate . It can also include garden features or activities in the garden that help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions elsewhere .","qid":"2753","docid":"Climate-friendly_gardening","rank":85,"score":121681},{"content":"Title: Carbon offset Content: A carbon offset is a reduction in emissions of carbon dioxide or greenhouse gases made in order to compensate for or to offset an emission made elsewhere . Carbon offsets are measured in metric tons of carbon dioxide-equivalent ( CO2e ) and may represent six primary categories of greenhouse gases : carbon dioxide , methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFCs ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) , and sulfur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . One carbon offset represents the reduction of one metric ton of carbon dioxide or its equivalent in other greenhouse gases . There are two markets for carbon offsets . In the larger , compliance market , companies , governments , or other entities buy carbon offsets in order to comply with caps on the total amount of carbon dioxide they are allowed to emit . This market exists in order to achieve compliance with obligations of Annex 1 Parties under the Kyoto Protocol , and of liable entities under the EU Emission Trading Scheme . In 2006 , about $ 5.5 billion of carbon offsets were purchased in the compliance market , representing about 1.6 billion metric tons of CO2e reductions . In the much smaller , voluntary market , individuals , companies , or governments purchase carbon offsets to mitigate their own greenhouse gas emissions from transportation , electricity use , and other sources . For example , an individual might purchase carbon offsets to compensate for the greenhouse gas emissions caused by personal air travel . Many companies ( see list ) offer carbon offsets as an up-sell during the sales process so that customers can mitigate the emissions related with their product or service purchase ( such as offsetting emissions related to a vacation flight , car rental , hotel stay , consumer good , etc. ) . In 2008 , about $ 705 million of carbon offsets were purchased in the voluntary market , representing about 123.4 million metric tons of CO2e reductions . Some fuel suppliers in the UK offer fuel which has been carbon offset such as Fuel dyes . Offsets are typically achieved through financial support of projects that reduce the emission of greenhouse gases in the short - or long-term . The most common project type is renewable energy , such as wind farms , biomass energy , or hydroelectric dams . Others include energy efficiency projects , the destruction of industrial pollutants or agricultural byproducts , destruction of landfill methane , and forestry projects . Some of the most popular carbon offset projects from a corporate perspective are energy efficiency and wind turbine projects . Carbon offsetting has gained some appeal and momentum mainly among consumers in western countries who have become aware and concerned about the potentially negative environmental effects of energy-intensive lifestyles and economies . The Kyoto Protocol has sanctioned offsets as a way for governments and private companies to earn carbon credits that can be traded on a marketplace . The protocol established the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) , which validates and measures projects to ensure they produce authentic benefits and are genuinely `` additional '' activities that would not otherwise have been undertaken . Organizations that are unable to meet their emissions quota can offset their emissions by buying CDM-approved Certified Emissions Reductions . Emissions from burning fuel , such as red diesel , has pushed one UK fuel supplier to create a carbon offset fuel named Carbon Offset Red Diesel . Offsets may be cheaper or more convenient alternatives to reducing one 's own fossil-fuel consumption . However , some critics object to carbon offsets , and question the benefits of certain types of offsets . Due diligence is recommended to help businesses in the assessment and identification of `` good quality '' offsets to ensure offsetting provides the desired additional environmental benefits , and to avoid reputational risk associated with poor quality offsets . Offsets are viewed as an important policy tool to maintain stable economies and to improve sustainability . One of the hidden dangers of climate change policy is unequal prices of carbon in the economy , which can cause economic collateral damage if production flows to regions or industries that have a lower price of carbon -- unless carbon can be purchased from that area , which offsets effectively permit , equalizing the price .","qid":"2753","docid":"Carbon_offset","rank":86,"score":121558},{"content":"Title: Co-benefits of climate change mitigation Content: Co-benefits of climate change mitigation as defined in the 4th Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change are the positive benefits related to the reduction of greenhouse gases . Examples of such climate mitigation policies include improved energy efficiency of plants , renewable energy uptake and fuel switching which might enable a range of co-benefits such as air-pollution impacts , technological innovation , energy-supply security through increased energy diversity , reduced fuel cost and employment possibilities .","qid":"2753","docid":"Co-benefits_of_climate_change_mitigation","rank":87,"score":121548},{"content":"Title: Climate change scenario Content: This article is about climate change scenarios . Socioeconomic scenarios are used by analysts to make projections of future greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions and to assess future vulnerability to climate change ( Carter et al. , 2001:151 ) . Producing scenarios requires estimates of future population levels , economic activity , the structure of governance , social values , and patterns of technological change . Economic and energy modelling ( such as via the World3 or the POLES models ) can be used to analyse and quantify the effects of such drivers .","qid":"2753","docid":"Climate_change_scenario","rank":88,"score":121444},{"content":"Title: Margo T. Oge Content: Margo T. Oge ( born 1949 ) is an American engineer and environmental regulator who served as the Director of the Environmental Protection Agency 's Office of Radiation and Indoor Air from 1990 to 1994 and Director of the Office of Transportation and Air Quality from 1994 to 2012 . Beginning in 2009 , Oge lead the EPA team that authored the 2010-2016 and the 2017-2025 Light-Duty Vehicle Greenhouse Gas Emissions Standards . By 2025 , these rules require automakers to half the greenhouse gas emissions of cars and light duty trucks while doubling fuel economy . These rules were the US federal government 's first regulatory actions to reduce greenhouse gases .","qid":"2753","docid":"Margo_T._Oge","rank":89,"score":121163},{"content":"Title: UK Emissions Trading Scheme Content: The UK Emissions Trading Scheme was a voluntary emissions trading system created as a pilot prior to the mandatory European Union Emissions Trading Scheme which it now runs in parallel with . It ran from 2002 and it closed to new entrants in 2009 . Management of the scheme transferred to the Department of Energy and Climate Change in 2008 . At the time , the scheme was a novel economic approach , being the first multi-industry carbon trading system in the world . ( Denmark ran a pilot greenhouse gas trading scheme between 2001 and 2003 but this only involved eight electricity companies ) . It took note of the emerging international consensus on the benefits of carbon trading that were being proposed in the mandatory Kyoto Protocol , which had not been ratified at that time , and allowed government and corporate early movers and to gain experience in the auction process and the trading system that the later schemes have entailed . It ran in parallel to a tax on energy use , the Climate Change Levy , introduced in April 2001 , but companies could get a discount on the tax if they elected to make reductions through participation in the trading scheme . The voluntary trading scheme recruited 34 participants from UK industries and organisations who promised to make reductions in their carbon emissions , this has since expanded to 54 sectors of the UK economy . In return they received a share of a # 215 million `` incentive fund '' from the Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( DEFRA ) . Each agreed to hold sufficient allowances to cover its actual emissions for that year , and participate in a cap and trade system , with an annually reducing cap . Each participant could then decide to take action to manage its emissions to exactly meet its target , or reduce its actual emissions below its target ( thereby releasing allowances that it could sell on , or save for use in future years ) , or buy allowances from other participants to cover any excess . From March 2002 , DEFRA ran an auction of emission allowances to perform allocations to participants , after the start of the mandatory EU scheme .","qid":"2753","docid":"UK_Emissions_Trading_Scheme","rank":90,"score":121032},{"content":"Title: United States federal register of greenhouse gas emissions Content: The United States federal register of greenhouse gas emissions is established by the United States Department of Energy under the Energy Policy Act 1992 . It is administered by the Energy Information Administration through the Voluntary Reporting of Greenhouse Gases Program . Separately , the Environmental Protection Agency in 2009 commenced implementing a mandatory Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program , which applies to facilities that emit 25,000 metric tons or more per year .","qid":"2753","docid":"United_States_federal_register_of_greenhouse_gas_emissions","rank":91,"score":120516},{"content":"Title: C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group Content: The C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group ( C40 ) connects 90 of the world 's greatest cities , representing 650 + million people and one quarter of the global economy . Created and led by cities , C40 is focused on tackling climate change and driving urban action that reduces greenhouse gas emissions and climate risks , while increasing the health , wellbeing and economic opportunities of urban citizens . The current chair of the C40 is Mayor of Paris Anne Hidalgo ; the President of the Board is the 108th Mayor of New York City Michael R. Bloomberg , with Mark Watts serving as C40 Executive Director . All three work closely with the 13-member Steering Committee , the Board of Directors and C40 professional staff . The rotating Steering Committee of C40 mayors provides strategic direction and governance . Current Steering Committee members include : Amman , Boston , Copenhagen , Durban , Hong Kong , Jakarta , London , Los Angeles , Mexico City , Milan , Paris , Seoul , and Tokyo . Working across multiple sectors and initiative areas , C40 convenes networks of cities providing a suite of services in support of their efforts , including : direct technical assistance ; facilitation of peer-to-peer exchange ; and research , knowledge management & communications . C40 is also positioning cities as a leading force for climate action around the world , defining and amplifying their call to national governments for greater support and autonomy in creating a sustainable future . C40 's work is made possible by three strategic funders : Bloomberg Philanthropies , The Children 's Investment Fund Foundation ( CIFF ) , and Realdania .","qid":"2753","docid":"C40_Cities_Climate_Leadership_Group","rank":92,"score":120423},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse debt Content: Greenhouse debt or carbon debt is the measure to which an individual person , incorporated association , business enterprise , government instrumentality or geographic community exceeds its permitted greenhouse footprint and contributes greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming and climate change . The concept makes no sense without a clear numerical value for the permitted greenhouse footprint . It is not clear what this value is . Friends of the Earth and similar organisations put forward the concept to define specifically the environmental harm caused by developed countries ' past and present policies . Some governments , at least the Australian Labor leadership , have a tendency to accept such a line of reasoning . The greenhouse debt assessment thus forms an ecological footprint analysis but can be used separately . Taken conjointly with a ` water debt ' analysis and an ecological impact assessment , greenhouse debt analysis is basic to giving individuals , organisations , governments and communities an understanding of the effects they are having on Gaia , life , and global warming . Ensuring that the greenhouse debt is zero is essential towards achieving ecologically sustainable development or a sustainable retreat . Any greenhouse debt incurred will contribute to making life harder for future generations of humans and non-human lifeforms . There are three possible consequences that occur as a result of a greenhouse debt . Mitigation : finding compensatory ways of reducing the greenhouse debt so its effects are neutralised Adaptation : finding ways of adjusting to the resulting global warming or climate change Suffering : having one 's quality of life reduced as a result of the consequences","qid":"2753","docid":"Greenhouse_debt","rank":93,"score":120400},{"content":"Title: Clean technology Content: Clean technology refers to any process , product , or service that reduces negative environmental impacts through significant energy efficiency improvements , the sustainable use of resources , or environmental protection activities . Clean technology includes a broad range of technology related to recycling , renewable energy ( wind power , solar power , biomass , hydropower , biofuels , etc. ) , information technology , green transportation , electric motors , green chemistry , lighting , Greywater , and more . Environmental finance is a method by which new clean technology projects that have proven that they are `` additional '' or `` beyond business as usual '' can obtain financing through the generation of carbon credits . A project that is developed with concern for climate change mitigation ( such as a Kyoto Clean Development Mechanism project ) is also known as a carbon project . While there is no standard definition of `` clean technology , '' it has been described by Clean Edge , a clean technology research firm , as `` a diverse range of products , services , and processes that harness renewable materials and energy sources , dramatically reduce the use of natural resources , and cut or eliminate emissions and wastes . '' It notes that `` Clean technologies are competitive with , if not superior to , their conventional counterparts . Many also offer significant additional benefits , notably their ability to improve the lives of those in both developed and developing countries '' . Investments in clean technology have grown considerably since coming into the spotlight around 2000 . According to the United Nations Environment Program , wind , solar , and biofuel companies received a record $ 148 billion in new funding in 2007 as rising oil prices and climate change policies encouraged investment in renewable energy . $ 50 billion of that funding went to wind power . Overall , investment in clean-energy and energy-efficiency industries rose 60 percent from 2006 to 2007 . By 2018 it is forecast that the three main clean technology sectors , solar photovoltaics , wind power , and biofuels , will have revenues of $ 325.1 bn .","qid":"2753","docid":"Clean_technology","rank":94,"score":119733},{"content":"Title: American Electric Power Co. v. Connecticut Content: American Electric Power Company v. Connecticut , , was a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court , in an 8 -- 0 decision , held that corporations can not be sued for greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) under federal common law , primarily because the Clean Air Act ( CAA ) delegates the management of carbon dioxide and other GHG emissions to the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) . Brought to court in July 2004 in the Southern District of New York , this was the first global warming case based on a public nuisance claim .","qid":"2753","docid":"American_Electric_Power_Co._v._Connecticut","rank":95,"score":119449},{"content":"Title: Emissions Trading Scheme in South Korea Content: South Korea 's Emissions Trading Scheme ( KETS ) is the second largest in scale after the European Union Emission Trading Scheme and was launched on January 1 , 2015 . South Korea is the second country in Asia to initiate a nation-wide carbon market after Kazakhstan . Complying to the country 's pledge made at the Copenhagen Accord of 2009 , the South Korean government aims to reduce its greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions by 30 % below its business as usual scenario by 2020 . They have officially employed the cap-and-trade system and the operation applies to over 525 companies which are accountable for approximately 68 % of the nation 's GHG output . The operation is divided up into three periods . The first and second phases consist of 3 years each , 2015 to 2017 and 2018 to 2020 . The final phase will spread out over the next 5 years from 2021 to 2025 . The cap-and-trade system is a tool of carbon pricing that has been adapted by several countries to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions through a market mechanism . It entails a market open to the transaction of trade permits , which allow participating businesses or countries to emit a given amount of greenhouse gases . A cap is set by the government which defines the maximum level of total emissions permitted during a certain time period . The South Korean government had set the emissions cap for the first year of implementation ( 2015 ) as 573 MtCO2e . The major objectives of the KETS is to place South Korea at the forefront of the global effort in reducing GHG emissions and to develop its market competitiveness in the clean energy sector . As one of the top 10 largest contributors to global greenhouse gas emissions and a nation with the highest growth rate in GHG emissions , South Korea 's awareness of its carbon footprint has increased over the years . The country grows more vulnerable to climate change as the average temperature has risen by 1.5 degrees Celsius causing frequent natural disasters . Furthermore , the South Korean government aims to cut back its reliance on imported fossil fuel energy which accounts for roughly 97 % of its primary energy consumption . Lastly , by implementing the emissions trading scheme , the government has prospects of developing its green industries and increase its global share of the clean energy market .","qid":"2753","docid":"Emissions_Trading_Scheme_in_South_Korea","rank":96,"score":119187},{"content":"Title: Cool Earth 50 Content: Cool Earth 50 ( also known as Cool Earth ) is a plan developed by Japan to reduce global CO2 emissions 50 % by 2050 , which was discussed at the 34th G8 summit . Cool Earth 50 is planned to be a framework that would continue towards the goals set forth in the Kyoto Protocols . This plan includes three proposals : a long-term strategy , a mid-term strategy and launching a national campaign for achieving the Kyoto Protocol Target . The plan was first proposed on May 24 , 2007 at an international conference called Asian Future and was initiated by Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe . The program 's goal is to reduce current global green house emissions by 50 % by the year 2050 the . The goal of reduction was aimed particular towards the largest green house emitting countries The United States , China , Japan , and India . Also , for the major green house emitters to create a frame work for reduction . Cool Earth aims at reducing green house emissions by improve technology in energy fields . A large goal of Cool Earth is to promote economic prosperity through green technology and to encourage political stability domestically and internationally .","qid":"2753","docid":"Cool_Earth_50","rank":97,"score":119076},{"content":"Title: Electricity Security and Affordability Act Content: The Electricity Security and Affordability Act is a bill that would repeal a pending rule published by the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) on January 8 , 2014 . The proposed rule would establish uniform national limits on greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions from new electricity-generating facilities that use coal or natural gas . The rule also sets new standards of performance for those power plants , including the requirement to install carbon capture and sequestration technology . The bill passed in the United States House of Representatives during the 113th United States Congress .","qid":"2753","docid":"Electricity_Security_and_Affordability_Act","rank":98,"score":119006},{"content":"Title: Clean Development Mechanism Content: The Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) is one of the Flexible Mechanisms defined in the Kyoto Protocol ( IPCC , 2007 ) that provides for emissions reduction projects which generate Certified Emission Reduction units ( CERs ) which may be traded in emissions trading schemes . The CDM , defined in Article 12 of the Protocol , was intended to meet two objectives : ( 1 ) to assist parties not included in Annex I in achieving sustainable development and in contributing to the ultimate objective of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , which is to prevent dangerous climate change ; and ( 2 ) to assist parties included in Annex I in achieving compliance with their quantified emission limitation and reduction commitments ( greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emission caps ) . `` Annex I '' parties are the countries listed in Annex I of the treaty , the industrialized countries . Non-Annex I parties are developing countries . The CDM addresses the second objective by allowing the Annex I countries to meet part of their emission reduction commitments under the Kyoto Protocol by buying Certified Emission Reduction units from CDM emission reduction projects in developing countries ( Carbon Trust , 2009 , p. 14 ) . Both the projects and the issue of CERs units are subject to approval to ensure that these emission reductions are real and `` additional . '' The CDM is supervised by the CDM Executive Board ( CDM EB ) under the guidance of the Conference of the Parties ( COP/MOP ) of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The CDM allows industrialized countries to buy CERs and to invest in emission reductions where it is cheapest globally ( Grubb , 2003 , p. 159 ) . Between 2001 , which was the first year CDM projects could be registered and 7 September 2012 , the CDM issued 1 billion Certified Emission Reduction units . As of 1 June 2013 , 57 % of all CERs had been issued for projects based on destroying either HFC-23 ( 38 % ) or N2O ( 19 % ) . Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) was included in the CDM carbon offsetting scheme in December 2011 . However , a number of weaknesses of the CDM have been identified ( World Bank , 2010 , p. 265-267 ) . Several of these issues were addressed by the new Program of Activities ( PoA ) , which moves to approving ` bundles ' of projects instead of accrediting each project individually . In 2012 , the report Climate Change , Carbon Markets and the CDM : A Call to Action said governments urgently needed to address the future of the CDM . It suggested the CDM was in danger of collapse because of the low price of carbon and the failure of governments to guarantee its existence into the future . Writing on the website of the Climate & Development Knowledge Network , Yolanda Kakabadse , a member of the investigating panel for the report and founder of Fundación Futuro Latinamericano , said a strong CDM is needed to support the political consensus essential for future climate progress . `` Therefore we must do everything in our hands to keep it working , '' she said .","qid":"2753","docid":"Clean_Development_Mechanism","rank":99,"score":118988},{"content":"Title: Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Action Content: Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Action ( NAMA ) refers to a set of policies and actions that countries undertake as part of a commitment to reduce greenhouse gas emissions . The term recognizes that different countries may take different nationally appropriate action on the basis of equity and in accordance with common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities . It also emphasizes financial assistance from developed countries to developing countries to reduce emissions . NAMA was first used in the Bali Action Plan as part of the Bali Road Map agreed at the United Nations Climate Change Conference in Bali in December 2007 , and also formed part of the Copenhagen Accord issued following the United Nations Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen ( COP 15 ) in December 2009 .","qid":"2753","docid":"Nationally_Appropriate_Mitigation_Action","rank":100,"score":118947}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Low-carbon_economy\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 167592\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 162167\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_diet\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 155738\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Emissions trading Content: Emissions trading or cap and trade is a government-mandated , market-based approach to controlling pollution by providing economic incentives for achieving reductions in the emissions of pollutants . In contrast to command-and-control environmental regulations such as best available technology ( BAT ) standards and government subsidies , cap and trade ( CAT ) schemes are a type of flexible environmental regulation that allows organizations to decide how best to meet policy targets . Various countries , states and groups of companies have adopted such trading systems , notably for mitigating climate change . A central authority ( usually a governmental body ) allocates or sells a limited number of permits to discharge specific quantities of a specific pollutant per time period . Polluters are required to hold permits in amount equal to their emissions . Polluters that want to increase their emissions must buy permits from others willing to sell them . Financial derivatives of permits can also be traded on secondary markets . In theory , polluters who can reduce emissions most cheaply will do so , achieving the emission reduction at the lowest cost to society . Cap and trade is meant to provide the private sector with the flexibility required to reduce emissions while stimulating technological innovation and economic growth . There are active trading programs in several air pollutants . For greenhouse gases , which cause climate change , permit units are often called carbon credits . The largest greenhouse gases trading program is the European Union Emission Trading Scheme , which trades primarily in European Union Allowances ( EUAs ) ; the Californian scheme trades in California Carbon Allowances , the New Zealand scheme in New Zealand Units and the Australian scheme in Australian Units . The United States has a national market to reduce acid rain and several regional markets in nitrogen oxides .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Emissions_trading\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 152265\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation Content: Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation and the role of conservation , sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries ( REDD + ) was first negotiated under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) since 2005 , with the objective of mitigating climate change through reducing net emissions of greenhouse gases through enhanced forest management in developing countries . Most of the key REDD + decisions were completed by 2013 , with the final pieces of the rulebook finished in 2015 . In the last two decades , various studies estimate that land use change , including deforestation and forest degradation , accounts for 12-29 % of global greenhouse gas emissions . For this reason the inclusion of reducing emissions from land use change is considered essential to achieve the objectives of the UNFCCC . During the negotiations for the Kyoto Protocol , and then in particular its Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) , the inclusion of tropical forest management was debated but eventually dropped due to anticipated methodological difficulties in establishing -- in particular -- additionality and leakage ( detrimental effects outside of the project area attributable to project activities ) . What remained on forestry was `` Afforestation and Reforestation '' , sectoral scope 14 of the CDM . Under this sectoral scope areas of land that had no forest cover since 1990 could be replanted with commercial or indigenous tree species . In its first eight years of operation 52 projects had been registered under the `` Afforestation and Reforestation '' scope of the CDM . The cumbersome administrative procedures and corresponding high transaction costs are often blamed for this slow uptake . Beyond the CDM , all developed countries that were parties to the Kyoto Protocol also committed to measuring and reporting on efforts to reduce net greenhouse gas emissions from forests . The United States also measures and reports on the net greenhouse gas sequestration in its forests . In response to what many perceived to be a failure to address a major source of global greenhouse gas emissions , the Coalition for Rainforest Nations ( CfRN ) was established and in 2005 they proposed to the Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC policy approaches and positive incentives for the reduction of emissions of greenhouse gases stemming from tropical deforestation and forest degradation as a climate change mitigation measure .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Reducing_emissions_from_deforestation_and_forest_degradation\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 149295\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Air pollution in Germany Content: Air pollution in Germany has significantly decreased over the past decade . Air pollution occurs when harmful substances are released into the Earth 's atmosphere . These pollutants are released through human activity and natural sources . Germany took interest in reducing its greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions by switching to renewable energy sources . Renewable energy use rose from 6.3 % in 2000 to 34 % in 2016 . Through the transition to renewable energy sources , Germany has become the climate change policy leader and renewable energy leader in the European Union ( EU ) and in the world with ambitious climate change programs . The current goal of the German government was approved on 14 November 2016 in the German Climate Action Plan 2050 , which outlines measures by which Germany can meet its greenhouse gas emissions by 2050 . By 2050 , Germany wants to reduce their GHGs by 80 to 95 % and by 2030 they want to reduce it by 55 % , compared to the EU target of 40 % . In order to achieve these goals , a variety of strategies and policies are used rather than legislation . The four strategies the German government bases air pollution control on are laying down environmental quality standards , emission reduction requirements according to the best available technology , production regulations , and laying down emission ceilings . Through these strategies , policy instruments have been put in place that have contributed to the success of the significant air pollution reduction in Germany . These instruments include the Federal Emission Control Act and Implementing Ordinances , Technical Instructions on Air Quality Control ( TA Luft ) , Amendment to Ordinance on Small Firing Installations , Implementation of the directive on industrial emissions , and Transboundary air pollution control policy . The German Feed-in-Tariff policy introduced in 2000 led to the significant increase in renewable energy use and decreasing air pollution . They have been introduced in Germany to increase the use of renewables , such as wind power , biomass , hydropower , geothermal power , and photovoltaics , thereby reducing GHG emissions causing air pollution and combating climate change . The German government has been an agenda setter in international climate policy negotiations since the late 1980s . However , national and global climate policies have become a top priority since the conservative-social democratic government came into power in 2005 , pushing both European and international climate negotiations . Positive path dependency in Germany 's climate and energy policies has occurred over the past 20 years . There are three main triggers that put Germany on this positive path dependency and what led them to becoming a climate change policy leader . The first being the widespread damages to health , due to smog , and to nature , due to acid rain , caused by air pollution . The second being the shock of the two oil price crises , in 1973 and 1979 , that highlighted the problem of the German economy 's strong dependence on unsure foreign sources . The third being the growing opposition to the country 's growing reliance on nuclear energy . Air pollution began to be seen as a problem in Germany due to these three triggers , causing Germany to put policies into place to control air pollution . This has now developed from controlling air pollution to being a leader in climate change politics . __ TOC __\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Air_pollution_in_Germany\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 149041\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Plan Bay Area Content: Plan Bay Area 2040 is a state-mandated law that aims to integrate sustainable strategies to reduce transportation-related pollution and external greenhouse gas emission within the nine-counties of the San Francisco Bay Area . It is also known as the implementation of the Sustainable Communities and Climate Protection Act of 2008 or SB 375 . The plan addresses methods of transportation , land-use , and housing . Over the next 25 years , the Bay Area is expected to grow by an estimated 2 million people and because of the projected growth and the growing economy , the Bay Area must provide more housing and transportation choices that will reduce their carbon footprint . This adopted plan will invest in increasing methods of transportation with the goal of reducing CO2 emissions . To do so , the plan will invest in extending ferry services , freeway express lanes , and developing newer BART Stations to expand travel reach . The goal of this plan is to improve on their earlier efforts of network and growth within the context of finance and environmental responsibility . Like all plans , it is a work in progress that is updated every four years to reflect on new priorities and changes with the goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . The plan was approved on July 18 , 2013 by the Association of Bay Area Governments and by the Metropolitan Transportation Commission . The adoption of the plan by regional planners was covered by the San Francisco Chronicle .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Plan_Bay_Area\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 148559\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Emission Reduction Unit Content: The emission reduction unit ( ERU ) is an emissions unit issued under a Joint Implementation project in terms of the Kyoto Protocol . An ERU represents a reduction of greenhouse gases under the Joint Implementation mechanism , where it represents one tonne of equivalent reduced . To allow comparison between the different effects of gases on the environment , scientists have defined multipliers for gases that compare their greenhouse potency ( global warming potential ) relative to that of carbon dioxide . One example of a Joint Implementation project resulting in an emission reduction unit , is the production of biogases by landfill sites . These gases consist of mainly methane which escapes to the atmosphere if it is not collected . The main reason for dealing with methane is that it has a 100-year global warming potential multiplier of 25 compared to carbon dioxide ( i.e. has 25 times the greenhouse potency ) . Collection of methane is usually accompanied by its combustion . Burning one tonne of methane produces nearly 3 tonnes of , thus reducing its greenhouse effect by ( 25-3 = 22 ) ERU . In December 2012 , ERU prices crashed to a low of 15 euro cents before recovering to 23c after news that EU 's Climate Change Committee was to vote on a ban of ERUs from countries that have not signed up to a second commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol . In January 2013 , Bloomberg reported that emission reduction unit prices declined 89 percent in 2012\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Emission_Reduction_Unit\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 148413\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 147886\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 147734\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Economics_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 147562\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Content: The Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme ( or CPRS ) was a cap-and-trade emissions trading scheme for anthropogenic greenhouse gases proposed by the Rudd government , as part of its climate change policy , which had been due to commence in Australia in 2010 . It marked a major change in the energy policy of Australia . The policy began to be formulated in April 2007 , when the federal Labor Party was in Opposition and the six Labor-controlled states commissioned an independent review on energy policy , the Garnaut Climate Change Review , which published a number of reports . After Labor won the 2007 federal election and formed government , it published a Green Paper on climate change for discussion and comment . The Federal Treasury then modelled some of the financial and economic impacts of the proposed CPRS scheme . The Rudd government published a final White Paper on 15 December 2008 , and announced that legislation was intended to take effect in July 2010 ; but the legislation for the CPRS ( aka ETS ) failed to gain the numbers in the Senate and was twice rejected creating a double dissolution election trigger . A bitter political debate within the Coalition Opposition saw Opposition leader Malcolm Turnbull lose the leadership to the anti-CPRS Tony Abbott . The Rudd government did not call an election and in April 2010 , Rudd deferred plans for the CPRS . After the 2010 federal election , the Gillard Government was able to get the Carbon Pricing Mechanism ( CPM ) passed into law as part of the Clean Energy Futures Package ( CEF ) in 2011 , and became effective on 1 July 2012 . However , after the 2013 federal election there was a change in government , and the Abbott Government repealed the CEF package on 17 July 2014 . Due to the great deal of policy uncertainty surrounding the scheme , organizations in Australia responded in a rather informal and tepid manner and largely withheld from making any large-scale investments in emissions reductions technology during the scheme 's operation .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_Pollution_Reduction_Scheme\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 147180\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 Content: The Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 - a bill to amend the Clean Air Act to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide , and for other purposes . It was proposed in the 110th United States Congress by Senators Bernie Sanders ( I-VT ) and Barbara Boxer ( D-CA ) on January 15 , 2007 . It was referred to the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works . The measure was intended to increase performance standards for electricity generation and motor vehicles with the option of an emissions `` cap and trade '' system . The emissions cap would begin in 2010 with the aim of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 15 percent by 2020 and 83 percent by 2050 . The legislation would also provide funding for R&D on geologic sequestration of carbon dioxide , among other projects ; set emissions standards for new vehicles and a renewable fuels requirement for gasoline beginning in 2016 ; establish energy efficiency and renewable portfolio standards beginning in 2008 and low-carbon electric generation standards beginning in 2016 for electric utilities ; and require periodic evaluations by the National Academy of Sciences to determine whether emissions targets are adequate .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Warming_Pollution_Reduction_Act_of_2007\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 146663\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Emissions Reduction Currency System Content: Emissions Reduction Currency Systems ( ERCS ) are schemes that provide a positive economic and or social reward for reductions in greenhouse gas emissions , either through distribution or redistribution of national currency or through the publishing of coupons , reward points , local currency , or complementary currency .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Emissions_Reduction_Currency_System\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 144733\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mitigation of global warming in Australia Content: Mitigation of global warming involves taking actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to enhance sinks aimed at reducing the extent of global warming . This is in distinction to adaptation to global warming , which involves taking action to minimise the effects of global warming . Scientific consensus on global warming , together with the precautionary principle and the fear of non-linear climate transitions , is leading to increased effort to develop new technologies and sciences and carefully manage others in an attempt to mitigate global warming . Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) for coal-fired power stations has been put forward as a solution to rising greenhouse gas emissions . However , CCS can not deliver in time to avoid dangerous increases in temperatures , as widespread commercial use of CCS is not expected before 2030 . Following the introduction of government mandatory renewable energy targets , more opportunities have opened up for renewable energy technologies such as wind power , photovoltaics , and solar thermal technologies . The deployment of these technologies provides opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gases . A carbon price was introduced on 1 July 2012 by the government of Julia Gillard with the purpose of reducing Australia 's carbon emissions . It requires large businesses ( defined as those with annual carbon dioxide equivalent emissions over 25,000 tonnes annually ) to pay a price for emissions permits . The tax was scrapped by the Abbott government in July 2014 in what was a widely criticised and highly publicised move .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Mitigation_of_global_warming_in_Australia\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 144714\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Intended Nationally Determined Contributions Content: Intended Nationally Determined Contributions ( INDCs ) is a term used under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) for reductions in greenhouse gas emissions that all countries that signed the UNFCCC were asked to publish in the lead up to the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference held in Paris , France in December 2015 . These intended contributions were determined without prejudice to the legal nature of the contributions . The term was intended as a compromise between `` quantified emissions limitation and reduction objective '' ( QUELROs ) and `` nationally appropriate mitigation actions '' ( NAMAs ) that the Kyoto Protocol used to describe the different legal obligations of developed and developing countries . Under the Paris Agreement , adopted in December 2015 , the INDC will become the first Nationally Determined Contribution when a country ratifies the agreement , unless they decide to submit a new NDC at the same time . Once the Paris Agreement is ratified , the NDC will become the first greenhouse gas targets under the UNFCCC that applied equally to both developed and developing countries . On 3 August 2016 China and US ratified 2015 agreement on INDC . Together they both constitute 38 % of total global emission , with China 's alone emitting total of 20 % . India that has a Global share of GHGs emission at 4.1 % of that of world ratified Paris climate agreement on October 2 , 2016 by depositing the Instrument of ratification with the United nations .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Intended_Nationally_Determined_Contributions\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 144710\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: ECOCITIES (software) Content: All member states of the European Union are bound to decrease their greenhouse gas emissions . For example , the EU climate and energy package requires member states to improve their energy efficiency by 20 % , increase - renewable energy production by 20 % and reduce their emissions by 20 % . With about 40 % of CO2 emissions heating , cooling and hot water production in buildings is one of the largest greenhouse gas producers . At the same time the building sector has the largest potential for energy savings . In their effort to lead a change towards greater energy efficiency and a reduction of greenhouse gas , many companies , cities and municipalities are in the process of developing low carbon action plans . However , the costs for developing optimal action plans and their continuous monitoring and optimization are very high , thus , often hindered by the tense financial situation , especially of cities and municipalities . With significant economic and environmental downsides ; the consequences are additional costs due to the non-compliance to the national and EU emission goals and untapped energy saving potential . ECOCITIES is an energy optimization system for building portfolios combining and extending the benefits of Energy Management Software ( EMS ) , Computer-aided Facility Management ( CAFM ) software and building portfolio management software . It integrates building administration and monitoring , energy accounting and building portfolio optimization . Thereby , it supports the definition of low carbon action plans in terms of environmental impact ( e.g. , carbon footprint , energy efficiency ) and financial impact ( e.g. , investment costs , running , costs ) . The system considers the following options for each building and the resulting ( inter - ) dependencies : energy-efficient building configurations ( e.g. , the compatibility of building components and its contribution to the energy efficiency level ) , energy used at the production and distribution of building components ( i.e. , gray energy ) , environmental impact ( e.g. , CO2 emissions ) , financial constraints , such as ( governmental ) funding and limited long term loans , legal constraints , e.g. , building codes , national and international standards , energy consumption for the operation of buildings , i.e. , heating , ventilation , and air conditioning ( HVAC ) as well as the electricity demand , energy production , storage and load shifting between buildings in combination with renewable energy production ( solar PV and thermal , Micro combined heat and power ) and conversion . energy flows between a building 's on-site networks ( Heating/Cooling and low voltage networks ) , the micro networks on neighborhood level and the city-wide energy networks ( district heating and district cooling networks , mid-voltage distribution networks ) , local typology ( position of buildings , energy networks ) . ECOCITIES calculates all energy - and cost-efficient development scenarios , visualizes them on the screen and allows decision makers to interactively explore the consequences of their actions ( e.g. , what are the citywide costs and the corresponding CO2 reductions of introducing a neighborhood-scale combined heat and power plant ) . ECOCITIES is an enabler for the realization of energy goals and provides synergies with existing endeavors of achieving national and European energy goals . On an operational level , ECOCITIES supports the following processes : Administration and integrated optimization of the entire building portfolio . Energy accounting and monitoring for all buildings . Identification , evaluation and definition of energy efficiency strategies ( low carbon action plans ) . Continuous monitoring , review and optimization of energy efficiency strategies ( low carbon action plans ) . Ensure the alignment of individual initiatives with the overall energy strategy of the company/city , e.g. , planning the cost - and energy efficient integration of new or refurbished single buildings , groups of buildings or entire neighborhoods into a new or existing energy efficiency strategy . Continuous monitoring of the performance related to the contribution to national and European energy goals .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"ECOCITIES_(software)\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 144318\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Decarbonisation measures in proposed UK electricity market reform Content: The United Kingdom is committed to legally binding greenhouse gas emissions reduction targets of 34 % by 2020 and 80 % by 2050 , compared to 1990 levels , as set out in the Climate Change Act 2008 . DECC ( 2008 ) . Climate Change Act . Decarbonisation of electricity generation will form a major part of this reduction and is essential before other sectors of the economy can be successfully decarbonised.DECC ( 2011a ) . Planning Our Electric Future : A White Paper for Secure , Affordable and Low-Carbon Electricity . The Government 's proposals for electricity market reform , published in a White Paper in July 2011 , included three initiatives to encourage decarbonisation of electricity generation in the UK : A Carbon Price Floor to complement the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme ( EU ETS ) ; Feed-in tariffs which will eventually replace the Renewables Obligation ; and an Emissions Performance Standard to restrict future use of the most carbon intensive forms of generation . In implementing these proposals , the Government aims to attract investment in low-carbon generation , deliver security of supply through an appropriate mix of electricity sources and ensure a minimum amount of impact on consumer bills ; all this at a time when security of supply is threatened by scheduled closures of existing plants and both the demand for , and subsequently the price of , electricity is increasing .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Decarbonisation_measures_in_proposed_UK_electricity_market_reform\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 143966\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental impact of transport Content: The environmental impact of transport is significant because it is a major user of energy , and burns most of the world 's petroleum . This creates air pollution , including nitrous oxides and particulates , and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon dioxide , for sector . By subsector , road transport is the largest contributor to global warming . Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced the individual vehicle 's emission ; however , this has been offset by an increase in the number of vehicles , and more use of each vehicle . Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road vehicles considerably have been studied . Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes , causing environmentalists to call for a transition from air and road to rail and human-powered transport , and increase transport electrification and energy efficiency . The transportation sector is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) in the United States . An estimated 30 percent of national GHGs are directly attributable to transportation -- and in some regions , the proportion is even higher . Transportation methods are the greatest contributing source of GHGs in the U.S. , accounting for 47 percent of the net increase in total U.S. emissions since 1990 . Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urban sprawl , which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands . By reducing transportation emissions globally , it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects on Earth 's air quality , acid rain , smog and climate change . The health impact of transport emissions is also of concern . A recent survey of the studies on the effect of traffic emissions on pregnancy outcomes has linked exposure to emissions to adverse effects on gestational duration and possibly also intrauterine growth . As listed above direct impacts such as noise and carbon monoxide emissions create direct and harmful effects on the environment , along with indirect impacts . The indirect impacts are often of higher consequence which leads to the misconception that it 's the opposite since it is frequently understood that initial effects cause the most damage . For example , particulates which are the outcome of incomplete combustion done by an internal combustion engine , are not linked with respiratory and cardiovascular problems since they contribute to other factors not only to that specific condition . Even though the environmental impacts are usually listed individually there are also cumulative impacts . The synergetic consequences of transport activities . They take into account of the varied effects of direct and indirect impacts on an ecosystem . Climate change is the sum total impact of several natural and human-made factors . 15 % of global CO2 emissions are attributed to the transport sector .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_impact_of_transport\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 140742\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: America's Climate Security Act of 2007 Content: The America 's Climate Security Act of 2007 was a global warming bill that was considered by the United States Senate to reduce the amount of greenhouse gases emitted in the United States . Also known as the Lieberman-Warner bill , bill number , the legislation was introduced by Sens. Joseph Lieberman ( I-CT ) and John Warner ( R-VA ) on October 18 , 2007 . The bill was approved by the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works in December 2007 , and was debated in the Senate during the week of June 2 . The bill would create a national cap-and-trade scheme for greenhouse gas emissions , in which polluters would mostly be allocated right-to-emit credits based on how much greenhouse gas they currently emit . The cap would get tighter over time , until by 2050 , emissions would be reduced to 63 % below 2005 levels . Several environmental groups express their encouragement at the progress in legislation on the global warming issue while at the same time expressing disappointment that the bill does n't reduce emissions enough . On June 6 , 2008 , the bill was killed by Senate Republicans over worries that it would damage the economy .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"America's_Climate_Security_Act_of_2007\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 140631\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kyogami Content: Kyogami is a board game based around the issue of climate change and the Kyoto Protocol , which considered reducing greenhouse gas emissions without hindering economic growth . The game was designed to raise awareness of this and most of the game components are made out of recyclable materials . The basic aim of the game is for the players to expand their businesses without increasing emissions , by cleaning up their plants by trading carbon dioxide quotas and using ` flexible mechanisms ' as outlined in the protocol , the winner being the first player to own four factories without chimneys .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Kyogami\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 140615\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: California Senate Bill 32 Content: The California Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 : emissions limit , or SB-32 , is a California Senate bill expanding upon AB-32 to reduce greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions . The lead author is Senator Fran Pavley and the principal co-author is Assemblymember Eduardo Garcia . SB-32 was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 , by Governor Edmund Gerald `` Jerry '' Brown Jr. . SB-32 sets into law the mandated reduction target in GHG emissions as written into Executive Order B-30-15 . The Senate bill requires that there be a reduction in GHG emissions to 40 % below the 1990 levels by 2030 . Greenhouse gas emissions include carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , sulfur hexafluoride , hydrofluorocarbons , and perfluorocarbons . The California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) is responsible for ensuring that California meets this goal . The provisions of SB-32 were added to Section 38566 of the Health and Safety Code subsequent to the bill 's approval . The bill goes into effect January 1 , 2017 . SB-32 builds onto Assembly Bill ( AB ) 32 written by Senator Fran Pavley and Assembly Speaker Fabian Nunez passed into law on September 27 , 2006 . AB-32 required California to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by 2020 and SB-32 continues that timeline to reach the targets set in Executive Order B-30-15 . SB-32 provides another intermediate target between the 2020 and 2050 targets set in Executive Order S-3-05 . SB-32 was contingent on the passing of AB-197 , which increases legislative oversight of CARB and is intended to ensure CARB must report to the Legislature . AB-197 also passed and was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"California_Senate_Bill_32\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 140490\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ten Technologies to Fix Energy and Climate Content: Ten Technologies to Fix Energy and Climate ( second edition , 2009 ) or Ten Technologies to Save the Planet ( first edition , 2008 ) is a popular science book by Chris Goodall first published in 2008 and re-issued in 2009 by Profile Books . Its ten chapters each detail a technology that has the potential to reduce Greenhouse Gases while being economically and technologically viable in the present or near future . The book received a positive critical response for the way in which it was written and dealt with the issues surrounding Global Warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Ten_Technologies_to_Fix_Energy_and_Climate\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 139781\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 139564\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The 2030 °Challenge Content: The 2030 ° Challenge is an initiative by Edward Mazria and Architecture 2030 asking the global architecture and construction community to adopt a series of greenhouse gas reduction targets for new and renovated buildings . In many developed countries the construction and use of buildings is the leading consumer of energy and producer of greenhouse gas emissions . Stabilizing and reversing emissions in this sector is key to keeping future global warming under one degree celsius ( ° C ) above today 's level , in order to avoid increased global warming , potentially to reach a tipping point .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"The_2030_°Challenge\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 138450\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: U.S. Climate Change Technology Program Content: The United States Climate Change Technology Program or CCTP is a multi-agency planning and coordination entity . Its purpose is to accelerate the development and deployment of technologies that can reduce , avoid , or capture and store greenhouse gas emissions . CCTP was established administratively in 2002 , authorized by the Energy Policy Act of 2005 , and appropriated funds in 2007 . Currently , the Department of Energy is designated as the lead agency .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"U.S._Climate_Change_Technology_Program\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 138395\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cap and Share Content: Cap and Share was originally developed by Feasta ( the Foundation for the Economics of Sustainability ) and is a regulatory and economic framework for controlling the use of fossil fuels in relation to climate stabilisation . Accepting that climate change is a global problem and that there is a need to cap and reduce greenhouse gas emissions globally , the philosophy of Cap and Share maintains that the earth 's atmosphere is a fundamental common resource . Consequently , it is argued , each individual should get an equal share of the benefits from the limited amount of fossil fuels that will have to be burned and their emissions released into the atmosphere in the period until the atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gases has been stabilised at a safe level .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Cap_and_Share\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 136925\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Beyond Zero Emissions Content: Beyond Zero Emissions ( BZE ) is an Australia-based , not-for-profit climate change solutions think-tank . BZE was founded in 2006 by Matthew Wright and Adrian Whitehead under the guidance of Philip Sutton . The group coordinates research and education into how the Australian economy can rapidly reduce human-caused greenhouse gas emissions to ` zero and below ' by implementing changes to stationary energy , transport , buildings , agricultural activities , industrial processes and fossil fuel export sectors . In 2010 BZE released its first publication , the Zero Carbon Australia Stationary Energy Plan ( Wright , Hearps 2010 ) a research collaboration between Beyond Zero Emissions and the University of Melbourne Energy Research Institute . The aim of the report was to provide a detailed , fully realisable , fully costed 10-year plan to replace all stationary energy needs with 100 % renewable energy sources , using only current proven technologies and engineering . This report addressed the common perception that renewables can not replace fossil fuels , either due to immaturity of the technology or due to cost concerns . The group invited pro-bono contributions from engineers , scientists , and industry specialists to work on this and all subsequent projects , similar to the way open source software is developed . Since 2006 Beyond Zero Emissions has released the following publications : Zero Carbon Australia Stationary Energy Plan ( 2010 ) , Repowering Port Augusta ( 2012 ) , Health and Social Harms of Mining in Local Communities : Spotlight on the Hunter Region report ( 2012 ) . Laggard to Leader : How Australia Can Lead the World to Zero Carbon Prosperity ( 2012 ) Zero Carbon Australia Buildings Plan ( 2013 ) , Zero Carbon Australia High Speed Rail ( 2014 ) Fossil Economy ( 2014 ) , Zero Carbon Australia Land Use - Agriculture and Forestry ( 2014 ) , Carbon Capture and Storage Report ( 2014 ) , Carbon Crisis : Systemic Risk of Carbon Emission Liabilities report ( 2015 ) Zero Carbon Australia Renewable Energy Superpower ( 2015 ) , Zero Carbon Australia Electric Vehicles ( 2016 ) , A full list of Beyond Zero Emissions publications is also available with links to free pdf downloads at the BZE website .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Beyond_Zero_Emissions\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 136389\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sustainable Communities and Climate Protection Act of 2008 Content: The Sustainable Communities and Climate Protection Act of 2008 , also known as Senate Bill 375 or SB 375 , is a State of California law targeting greenhouse gas emissions from passenger vehicles . The Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 ( AB 32 ) sets goals for the reduction of statewide greenhouse gas emissions . Passenger vehicles are the single largest source of greenhouse gas emissions statewide , accounting for 30 % of total emissions . SB 375 therefore provides key support to achieve the goals of AB 32 . SB 375 instructs the California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) to set regional emissions ' reduction targets from passenger vehicles . The Metropolitan Planning Organization for each region must then develop a `` Sustainable Communities Strategy '' ( SCS ) that integrates transportation , land-use and housing policies to plan for achievement of the emissions target for their region . In a press release the day he signed the bill into law , Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger stated , `` What this will mean is more environmentally-friendly communities , more sustainable developments , less time people spend in their cars , more alternative transportation options and neighborhoods we can safely and proudly pass on to future generations . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Sustainable_Communities_and_Climate_Protection_Act_of_2008\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 135701\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas inventory Content: Greenhouse gas inventories are a type of emission inventory that are developed for a variety of reasons . Scientists use inventories of natural and anthropogenic ( human-caused ) emissions as tools when developing atmospheric models . Policy makers use inventories to develop strategies and policies for emissions reductions and to track the progress of those policies . And , regulatory agencies and corporations rely on inventories to establish compliance records with allowable emission rates . Businesses , the public , and other interest groups use inventories to better understand the sources and trends in emissions . Unlike some other air emission inventories , greenhouse gas inventories include not only emissions from source categories , but also removals by carbon sinks . These removals are typically referred to as carbon sequestration . Greenhouse gas inventories , typically use Global warming potential ( GWP ) values to combine emissions of various greenhouse gases into a single weighted value of emissions . Some of the key examples of greenhouse gas inventories include : All Annex I countries are required to report annual emissions and sinks of greenhouse gases under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) National governments that are Parties to the UNFCCC and/or the Kyoto Protocol are required to submit annual inventories of all anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions from sources and removals from sinks . The Kyoto Protocol includes additional requirements for national inventory systems , inventory reporting , and annual inventory review for determining compliance with Articles 5 and 8 of the Protocol . Project developers under the Clean Development Mechanism of the Kyoto Protocol prepare inventories as part of their project baselines . Corporation and other entities can prepare greenhouse gas inventories to track progress towards meeting an emission reduction goal . Scientific efforts aimed at understanding detail of total net carbon exchange . Example : Project Vulcan - a comprehensive US inventory of fossil-fuel greenhouse gas emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas_inventory\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 135187\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative Content: ` The Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI , pronounced `` Reggie '' ) is the first mandatory market based program in the United States to reduce greenhouse gas emissions . RGGI is a cooperative effort among the states of Connecticut , Delaware , Maine , Maryland , Massachusetts , New Hampshire , New York , Rhode Island , and Vermont to cap and reduce CO2 emissions from the power sector . RGGI compliance obligations apply to fossil-fueled power plants 25MW and larger within the nine-state region . RGGI establishes a regional cap on the amount of CO2 pollution that power plants can emit by issuing a limited number of tradable CO2 allowances . Each allowance represents an authorization for a regulated power plant to emit one short ton of CO2 . Individual CO2 budget trading programs in each RGGI state together create a regional market for CO2 allowances . The RGGI states distribute over 90 percent of allowances through quarterly auctions . These allowance auctions generate proceeds , which participating states are able to invest in strategic energy and consumer benefit programs . Programs funded through RGGI have included energy efficiency , clean and renewable energy , greenhouse gas abatement , and direct bill assistance . An initial milestone program 's development occurred in 2005 , when seven states signed a Memorandum of Understanding ( MOU ) announcing an agreement to implement RGGI . The RGGI states then established individual CO2 budget trading programs , based on the RGGI Model Rule . The first pre-compliance RGGI auction took place in September 2008 , and the program became effective on January 1 , 2009 . The RGGI program is currently in its third three-year compliance period , which began January 1 , 2015 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Regional_Greenhouse_Gas_Initiative\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 135097\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Contraction and Convergence Content: Contraction and Convergence ( C&C ) is a proposed global framework for reducing greenhouse gas emissions to combat climate change . Conceived by the Global Commons Institute -LSB- GCI -RSB- in the early 1990s , the Contraction and Convergence strategy consists of reducing overall emissions of greenhouse gases to a safe level ( contraction ) , resulting from every country bringing its emissions per capita to a level which is equal for all countries ( convergence ) . It is intended to form the basis of an international agreement which will reduce carbon dioxide emissions to avoid dangerous climate change , carbon dioxide being the gas that is primarily responsible for changes in the greenhouse effect on Earth . It is expressed as a simple mathematical formula . This formula can be used as a way for the world to stabilize carbon levels at any level . Advocates of Contraction and Convergence stress that negotiations at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change -LSB- UNFCCC -RSB- are governed sequentially by the ` objective ' of the UNFCCC -LSB- safe and stable GHG concentration in the global atmosphere -RSB- followed by its organising principles -LSB- ` precaution ' and ` equity ' -RSB- . C&C is widely cited and supported .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Contraction_and_Convergence\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 134910\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 133729\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon governance in England Content: The reduction of carbon emissions , along with other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , has become a vitally important task of international , national and local actors . If we understand governance as the creation of `` conditions for ordered rule and collective action '' then , given the fact that the reduction of carbon emissions will require concerted collective action , it follows that the governance of carbon will be of paramount concern . We have seen numerous international conferences over the past 20 years tasked with finding a way of facilitating this , and while international agreements have been infamously difficult to reach , action at the national level has been much more effective . In the UK , the Climate Change Act 2008 committed the government to meeting significant carbon reduction targets . In England , these carbon emissions are governed using numerous different instruments , which involve a variety of actors . While it has been argued by authors like Rhodes that there has been a `` hollowing out '' of the nation state , and that governments have lost their capabilities to govern to a variety of non-state actors and the European Union , the case of carbon governance in England actually runs counter to this . The government body responsible for the task , the Department of Energy and Climate Change ( DECC ) , is the `` main external dynamic '' behind governing actions in this area , and `` rather than hollowing out ( there has actually been a strengthening of ) central co-ordination '' . The department may rely on other bodies to deliver its desired outcomes , but it is still ultimately responsible for the imposition of the rules and regulations that `` steer ( carbon ) governmental action at the national level '' . It is therefore evident that carbon governance in England is hierarchical in nature , in that `` legislative decisions and executive decisions '' are the main dynamic behind carbon governance action . This does not deny the existence of a network of bodies around DECC who are part of the process , but they are supplementary actors who are steered by central decisions . This article focuses on carbon governance in England as the other countries of the UK ( Scotland , Wales and Northern Ireland ) all have devolved assemblies who are responsible for the governance of carbon emissions in their respective countries .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_governance_in_England\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 133179\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon emissions reporting Content: Human activities continue to impact Earth 's climate through the emission of greenhouse gases . One of the proposed ways to combat this climate change is through reporting by businesses on the impact of their activities . Large power stations and manufacturing plants are often required to report their emissions to appropriate government entities , for example to the European Union as part of the Emissions Trading System or to the US EPA as part of the Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program . In the United Kingdom , Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra ) has described climate change as the `` greatest environmental challenge facing the world today , '' and it is now a legal requirement for all quoted companies to report their annual greenhouse gas emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_emissions_reporting\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 132740\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas accounting Content: Greenhouse gas accounting describes the way to inventory and audit greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions . A corporate or organisational greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions assessment quantifies the total greenhouse gases produced directly and indirectly from a business or organisation 's activities . Also known as a carbon footprint , it is a business tool that provides information with a basis for understanding and managing climate change impacts . The drivers for corporate GHG accounting include mandatory GHG reporting in directors ' reports , investment due diligence , shareholder and stakeholder communication , staff engagement , green messaging , and tender requirements for business and government contracts . Accounting for greenhouse gas emissions is increasingly seen as a standard requirement for business . For example , in June 2012 , the UK coalition government announced the introduction of mandatory carbon reporting , requiring around 1,100 of the UK 's largest listed companies to report their greenhouse gas emissions every year . Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg confirmed that emission reporting rules would come into effect from April 2013 in his piece for The Guardian . Guidance for accounting for GHG emissions from organizations and emission reduction projects is provided by the World Resources Institute ( WRI ) and World Business Council for Sustainable Development ( WBCSD ) GHG Protocol . For national GHG inventories , guidance is provided by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) methodology reports . The International Organization for Standardization ( ISO ) also provides some general standards for greenhouse gas emissions at organisation level ( ISO 14064 - 1 ) and greenhouse gas emissions at project level ( ISO 14064 - 2 ) . Specifications to validate and verify relevant accountings are documented in ( ISO 14064 - 3 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas_accounting\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 132426\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Clean coal technology Content: Clean coal technology is a collection of technologies being developed to attempt to mitigate the environmental impact of coal energy generation and to mitigate climate change . When coal is used as a fuel source , the gaseous emissions generated by the thermal decomposition of the coal include sulphur dioxide ( SO2 ) , nitrogen oxides ( NOx ) , mercury , and other chemical byproducts that vary depending on the type of the coal being used . These emissions have been established to have a negative impact on the environment and human health , contributing to acid rain , lung cancer and cardiovascular disease . As a result , clean coal technologies are being developed to remove or reduce pollutant emissions to the atmosphere . Some of the techniques that would be used to accomplish this include chemically washing minerals and impurities from the coal , gasification ( see also IGCC ) , improved technology for treating flue gases to remove pollutants to increasingly stringent levels and at higher efficiency , carbon capture and storage technologies to capture the carbon dioxide from the flue gas and dewatering lower rank coals ( brown coals ) to improve the calorific value , and thus the efficiency of the conversion into electricity . Clean coal technology usually addresses atmospheric problems resulting from burning coal . Historically , the primary focus was on SO2 and NOx , the most important gases in causation of acid rain , and particulates which cause visible air pollution and deleterious effects on human health . Concerns exist regarding the economic viability of these technologies and the timeframe of delivery , potentially high hidden economic costs in terms of social and environmental damage , and the costs and viability of disposing of removed carbon and other toxic matter .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Clean_coal_technology\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 132298\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Low-carbon diet Content: A low-carbon diet refers to making lifestyle choices to reduce the greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGe ) resulting from consumption decisions . It is estimated that the U.S. food system is responsible for at least 20 percent of U.S. greenhouse gases . This estimate may be low , as it counts only direct sources of GHGe . Indirect sources , such as demand for products from other countries , are often not counted . A low-carbon diet minimizes the emissions released from the production , packaging , processing , transport , preparation and waste of food . Major tenets of a low-carbon diet include eating less industrial meat and dairy , eating less industrially produced food in general , eating food grown locally and seasonally , eating less processed and packaged foods and reducing waste from food by proper portion size , recycling or composting .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Low-carbon_diet\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 131930\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Massachusetts Content: Formet Massachusetts Governor Deval Patrick has signed into law three global warming and energy-related bills that will promote advanced biofuels , support the growth of the clean energy technology industry , and cut the emissions of greenhouse gases within the state . The Clean Energy Biofuels Act , signed in late July , exempts cellulosic ethanol from the state 's gasoline tax , but only if the ethanol achieves a 60 % reduction in greenhouse gas emissions relative to gasoline . The act also requires all diesel motor fuels and all No. 2 fuel oil sold for heating to include at least 2 % `` substitute fuel '' by July 2010 , where substitute fuel is defined as a fuel derived from renewable non-food biomass that achieves at least a 50 % reduction in greenhouse gas emissions . The requirement for both motor diesel fuel and heating oil increases by a percentage point per year until 2013 , after which it holds steady 5 % . The act also allows the state to expand the requirement to other forms of fuel oil , and it requires the state to work to establish a low-carbon fuel standard under the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative . In early August of 2008 , Governor Patrick signed two additional bills : the Green Jobs Act and the Global Warming Solutions Act . The Green Jobs Act will support the growth of a clean energy technology industry within the state , backed by $ 68 million in funding over 5 years . The Global Warming Solutions Act requires a reduction of greenhouse gas emissions in the state to 10 % -25 % below 1990 levels by 2020 and to 80 % below 1990 levels by 2050 . Under the act , the Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection will carry the burdens of determining the baseline level of emissions in 1990 and creating a plan to meet the future emissions limits , including the establishment of interim limits for 2030 and 2040\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Massachusetts\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 131896\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 Content: The Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 , or Assembly Bill ( AB ) 32 , is a California State Law that fights global warming by establishing a comprehensive program to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from all sources throughout the state . AB 32 was authored by then-Assembly member Fran Pavley and Assembly Speaker Fabian Nunez ( D-Los Angeles ) and signed into law by Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger on September 27 , 2006 . On June 1 , 2005 , Governor Schwarzenegger signed an executive order known as Executive Order S-3-05 which established greenhouse gas emissions targets for the state . The executive order required the state to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions levels to 2000 levels by 2010 , to 1990 levels by 2020 , and to a level 80 % below 1990 levels by 2050 . However , to implement this measure , the California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) needed authority from the legislature . The California State Legislature passed the Global Warming Solutions Act to address this issue and gave the CARB authority to implement the program . AB 32 requires the California Air Resources Board ( CARB or ARB ) to develop regulations and market mechanisms to reduce California 's greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by the year of 2020 , representing approximately a 30 % reduction statewide , with mandatory caps beginning in 2012 for significant emissions sources . The bill also allows the Governor to suspend the emissions caps for up to a year in case of emergency or significant economic harm . The State of California leads the nation in energy efficiency standards and plays a lead role in environmental protection , but is also the 12th largest emitter of carbon worldwide . Greenhouse gas emissions are defined in the bill to include all of the following : carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , sulfur hexafluoride , hydrofluorocarbons and perfluorocarbons . These are the same greenhouse gases listed in Annex A of the Kyoto Protocol .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Warming_Solutions_Act_of_2006\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 131885\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: New South Wales Greenhouse Gas Abatement Scheme Content: The New South Wales Greenhouse Gas Abatement Scheme ( also known as GGAS ) was a mandatory greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme that aimed to lower greenhouse gas emissions in New South Wales , Australia , to 7.27 tonnes of carbon dioxide per capita by the year 2007 , which commenced on 1 January 2003 . The Scheme imposed obligations on NSW electricity retailers and certain other parties , including large electricity users who elected to manage their own benchmark to abate a portion of the greenhouse gas emissions attributable to their sales/consumption of electricity in NSW . They did this by purchasing and acquitting NSW Greenhouse Abatement Certificates ( also known as NGACs ) created by accredited `` Abatement Certificate Providers '' ( ACPs ) . The NSW Minister for Energy , Chris Hartcher , announced closure of the scheme in April 2012 , effective from 30 June 2012 . The Greenhouse Gas Reduction Scheme ( GGAS ) closed on 30 June 2012 . The NSW Government closed GGAS to avoid duplication with the Commonwealth 's carbon price which commenced on 1 July 2012 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"New_South_Wales_Greenhouse_Gas_Abatement_Scheme\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 131709\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kyoto Protocol Content: The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , based on the fact that ( a ) global warming exists and ( b ) human-made CO2 emissions have caused it . The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto , Japan , on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005 . There are currently 192 parties ( Canada withdrew effective December 2012 ) to the Protocol . The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to `` a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' ( Art. 2 ) . The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities : it puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . The Protocol 's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012 . A second commitment period was agreed on in 2012 , known as the Doha Amendment to the protocol , in which 37 countries have binding targets : Australia , the European Union ( and its 28 member states ) , Belarus , Iceland , Kazakhstan , Liechtenstein , Norway , Switzerland , and Ukraine . Belarus , Kazakhstan and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets . Japan , New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyoto 's first-round but have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period . Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada ( which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012 ) and the United States ( which has not ratified the Protocol ) . As of July 2016 , 66 states have accepted the Doha Amendment , while entry into force requires the acceptances of 144 states . Of the 37 countries with binding commitments , 7 have ratified . Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ends in 2020 . This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the Paris Agreement , which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto protocol .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Kyoto_Protocol\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 131494\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_tax\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 130991\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Executive Orders S-3-05 and B-30-15 Content: Executive Orders S-3-05 is an Executive Order of the State of California signed by Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger in June 2005 that set greenhouse gas emissions reduction targets for the State of California and laid out responsibilities among the state agencies for implementing the Executive Order and for reporting on progress toward the targets . Specifically , the Executive Order established these targets : By 2010 , reduce GHG emissions to 2000 levels By 2020 , reduce GHG emissions to 1990 levels By 2050 , reduce GHG emissions to 80 percent below 1990 levels The first and second goals were enshrined into law by the legislation known as AB 32 , or the Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 , which gave the California Air Resources Board broad authority to implement a market-based system ( also known as cap-and-trade ) to achieve these goals . California Executive Order B-30-15 ( April 2015 , signed by Governor Jerry Brown ) added the intermediate target of : By 2030 , reduce GHG emissions to 40 percent below 1990 levels .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Executive_Orders_S-3-05_and_B-30-15\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 130661\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Joint Implementation Content: Joint implementation ( JI ) is one of three flexibility mechanisms set out in the Kyoto Protocol to help countries with binding greenhouse gas emissions targets ( the Annex I countries ) meet their obligations . JI is described in Article 6 of the Kyoto Protocol . Under Article 6 , any Annex I country can invest in an emission reduction project ( referred to as a `` Joint Implementation Project '' ) in any other Annex I country as an alternative to reducing emissions domestically . In this way countries can lower the costs of complying with their Kyoto targets by investing in projects that reduce greenhouse gas emissions in an Annex I country where reducing emissions may be cheaper , and then using the resulting Emission Reduction Units ( ERUs ) towards their commitment goal . A JI project might involve , for example , replacing a coal-fired power plant with a more efficient combined heat and power plant . Most JI projects are expected to take place in the economies in transition ( the EIT Parties ) noted in Annex B of the Kyoto Protocol . Currently Russia and Ukraine are slated to host the greatest number of JI projects . Unlike the case of the Clean Development Mechanism , the JI has caused less concern of spurious emission reductions , as the JI project , in contrast to the CDM project , takes place in a country which has a commitment to reduce emissions under the Kyoto Protocol . The process of receiving credit for JI projects is somewhat complex . Emission reduction projects are awarded credits called Emission Reduction Units ( ERUs ) , which represents an emission reduction equivalent to one tonne of CO2 equivalent . The ERUs come from the host country 's pool of assigned emissions credits , known as Assigned Amount Units , or AAUs . Each Annex I party has a predetermined amount of AAUs , calculated on the basis of its 1990 greenhouse gas emission levels . By requiring JI credits to come from a host country 's pool of AAUs , the Kyoto Protocol ensures that the total amount of emissions credits among Annex I parties does not change for the duration of the Kyoto Protocol 's first commitment period .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Joint_Implementation\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 130631\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mootral Content: Mootral is the name given to a programme to reduce methane emissions from ruminant animals , chiefly cows and sheep , but also goats . Methane is a major target greenhouse gas and in the 4th protocol report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is recommended to increase from a x23 to x72 multiplier because of the magnitude of its effect relative to carbon dioxide and short longevity in Earth 's atmosphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Mootral\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 130203\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Change and Emissions Management Amendment Act Content: __ NOTOC __ The Climate Change and Emissions Management Amendment Act of the Canadian province of Alberta was the first law of its type to impose greenhouse gas cuts on large industrial facilities . Starting from July 1 , 2007 , Alberta facilities that emit more than 100,000 tonnes of greenhouse gases per year will be required to reduce their emissions intensity by 12 percent under the Climate Change and Emissions Management Amendment Act . Companies have three ways to meet their reductions : they can make operating improvements , buy an Alberta-based credit , or contribute to the Climate Change and Emissions Management Fund . The regulations apply to about 100 large facilities which emit more than 100,000 tonnes of greenhouse gases a year . Those facilities account for about 70 per cent of Alberta 's industrial greenhouse gas emissions . The annual cost of compliance is estimated to be $ 177 million - or less than one tenth of one per cent of Alberta 's nominal GDP ( $ 242 billion in 2006 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Change_and_Emissions_Management_Amendment_Act\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 129968\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mark Z. Jacobson Content: Mark Zachary Jacobson ( born 1965 ) is professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy Program . Jacobson develops computer models about the effects of different energy technologies and their emissions on air pollution and climate . He has done influential research on the role of aerosols and black carbon on the climate and is regarded as a leading aerosol climate modeler . According to Jacobson , a speedy transition to clean , renewable energy is required to reduce the potential acceleration of global warming , including the disappearance of the Arctic Sea ice . This change will also eliminate 2.5 -- 3 million deaths worldwide each year , related to air pollution , and reduce disruption associated with fossil fuel shortages .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Mark_Z._Jacobson\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 128952\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions accounting Content: Greenhouse gas emissions accounting is a method of calculating the amount of greenhouse gases ( GHG ) emitted by a region in a given time-scale . A National Emissions Inventory ( NEI ) measuring a country 's GHG emissions in a year is required by the UNFCCC to provide a benchmark for the country 's emission reductions , and subsequently to evaluate international climate policies such as the Kyoto protocol ( although the original has now expired , extensions have been agreed ) as well as regional climate policies such as the EU Emissions Trading Scheme ( ETS ) . There are two conflicting ways of measuring GHG emissions : production-based ( sometimes referred to as territorial-based ) or consumption-based . Production-based emissions take place `` within national territory and offshore areas over which the country has jurisdiction '' . Consumption-based emissions encompass those emissions from domestic final consumption and those caused by the production of its imports . This means the importing country takes responsibility for emissions related to production of the exporting country 's exports . By these definitions production-based emissions include exports but exclude imports and emissions embodied in international trade , whereas consumption-based emissions refer to the reverse ( Table 1 ) . Which technique is applied by policymakers is fundamental as each can generate a very different NEI . Different NEIs would result in a country 's choosing different optimal mitigation activities , the wrong choice based on wrong information being potentially damaging . The application of production-based emissions accounting is currently favoured in policy terms , although much of the literature favours consumption-based accounting . The former method is criticised in the literature principally for its inability to allocate emissions embodied in international trade/transportation and the potential for carbon leakage .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_accounting\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 128776\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_impact_of_aviation\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 128497\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Media_coverage_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 128380\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: One-Tonne Challenge Content: The One-Tonne Challenge was a challenge presented by the Government of Canada in March 2004 for Canadians to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions by one tonne each year . The figure represented 20 % of total greenhouse gas output by Canadians at the time and aimed to help the country reach its Kyoto Protocol emission reduction targets . The Liberal Government under Jean Chrétien and Paul Martin approved over $ 45 million to fund the program from 2003 to 2006 . To promote this program , the government placed television and print ads featuring comedian Rick Mercer . In one commercial , he described Canadians as wanting to take the challenge . `` C'mon ... we 're Canadian ... we 're up for a challenge ! '' The government urged Canadians to do such things as : Take public transit more often . Idle vehicles less . Use programmable thermostats . Seal windows with caulking and weather-stripping . Compost organic kitchen waste . Support green energy . Water and energy conservation . Purchase electronics that are labelled with Energy Star logo . Recycling . The program received a lukewarm reception from the public , and has been criticized as ineffective and wasteful . This program was started by the Liberal Party of Canada . However , with the election of Stephen Harper 's Conservative Government in 2006 , the One Tonne Challenge was scrapped .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"One-Tonne_Challenge\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 128347\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon monitoring Content: Carbon monitoring refers to tracking how much carbon dioxide or methane is produced by particular activity at a particular point in time . For example , it may refer to tracking methane emissions from agriculture , or carbon dioxide emissions from land use changes , such as deforestation , or from burning fossil fuels , whether in a power plant , automobile , or other device . Because carbon dioxide is the greenhouse gas emitted in the largest quantities , and methane is an even more potent greenhouse gas , monitoring carbon emissions is widely seen as crucial to any effort to reduce emissions and thereby slow climate change . Monitoring carbon emissions is key to the cap-and-trade program currently being used in Europe , as well as the one in California , and will be necessary for any such program in the future , like the Paris Agreement . The lack of reliable sources of consistent data on carbon emissions is a significant barrier to efforts to reduce emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_monitoring\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 128228\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Green industrial policy Content: Green industrial policy ( GIP ) is strategic government policy that attempts to accelerate the development and growth of green industries to transition towards a low-carbon economy . Natural scientists warn that immediate action must be taken to lower greenhouse gas emissions and mitigate the effects of climate change . Social scientists argue that the mitigation of climate change requires state intervention and governance reform . Thus , governments use GIP to address the economic , political , and environmental issues of climate change . GIP is conducive to sustainable economic , institutional , and technological transformation . It goes beyond the free market economic structure to address market failures and commitment problems that hinder sustainable investment . Effective GIP builds political support for carbon regulation which is necessary to transition towards a low-carbon economy . Several governments use different types of GIP that lead to various outcomes . GIP and industrial policy are similar , although GIP has unique challenges and goals . GIP faces the particular challenge of reconciling economic and environmental issues . It deals with a high uncertainty of green investment profitability . Furthermore , it addresses the reluctance of industry to invest in green development , and it helps current governments influence future climate policy . GIP offers opportunities for energy transition to renewables and a low-carbon economy . A large challenge for climate policy is a lack of industry and public support . GIP creates benefits that attract support for sustainability . It can create strategic niche management and generate a `` green spiral '' , or a process of feedback that combines industrial interests with climate policy . GIP can protect employees in emerging and declining industries , which leads to political support for other climate policy . Carbon pricing , sustainable energy transitions , and decreases in greenhouse gas emissions have higher chances of success as political support increases . GIP faces many risks . Some risks include poor government choices about which industries to support ; political capture of economic policy ; wasted resources ; ineffective action to combat climate change ; poor policy design that lacks policy objectives and exit strategies ; trade disputes ; and coordination failure . Strategic steps can be taken to manage the risks of GIP . Some include public and private sector communication , transparency , and accountability ; policy with clear objectives , evaluation techniques and exit strategies ; policy learning and policy experimentation ; green rent management ; strong institutions ; and a free press . Governments in various countries , states , provinces , territories , and cities use different types of green industrial policy . Distinct policy instruments lead to several outcomes . Examples include sunrise and sunset policies , subsidies , research and development , local content requirements , feed-in tariffs , tax credits , export restrictions , consumer mandates , green public procurement rules , and renewable portfolio standards .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Green_industrial_policy\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 128148\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Chinese national carbon trading scheme Content: The Chinese national carbon trading scheme is a cap and trade system for carbon dioxide emissions set to be implemented in July 2017 . This emission trading scheme ( ETS ) creates a carbon market where emitters can buy and sell emission credits . From this scheme , China can limit emissions , but allow economic freedom for emitters to reduce emissions or purchase emission allowances from other emitters . China is currently the largest emitter of greenhouse gases and many major Chinese cities have severe air pollution . With this plan , China will soon be the largest market in carbon trading . The scheme will limit emissions from six of China 's top carbon dioxide emitting industries , including coal-fired power plants . China was able to gain experience in drafting and implementation of an ETS plan from the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , where China was part of the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) . From this experience with carbon markets , and lengthy discussions with the next largest carbon market , the European Union ( EU ) , as well as analysis of small scale pilot markets in major Chinese cities and provinces , China 's national ETS will be the largest of its kind and will help China achieve its Intended Nationally Determined Contribution ( INDC ) from the Paris Agreement in 2016 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Chinese_national_carbon_trading_scheme\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 127567\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Fugitive emissions Content: Fugitive emissions are emissions of gases or vapors from pressurized equipment due to leaks and other unintended or irregular releases of gases , mostly from industrial activities . As well as the economic cost of lost commodities , fugitive emissions contribute to air pollution and climate change . A detailed inventory of greenhouse gas emissions from upstream oil and gas activities in Canada for the year 2000 estimated that fugitive equipment leaks had a global warming potential equivalent to the release of 17 million metric tonnes of carbon dioxide , or 12 per cent of all greenhouse gases emitted by the sector . Venting of natural gas , flaring , accidental releases and storage losses accounted for an additional 38 per cent . Fugitive emissions present other risks and hazards . Emissions of volatile organic compounds such as benzene from oil refineries and chemical plants pose a long term health risk to workers and local communities . In situations where large amounts of flammable liquids and gases are contained under pressure , leaks also increase the risk of fire and explosion . Leaks from pressurized process equipment generally occur through valves , pipe connections , mechanical seals , or related equipment . Fugitive emissions also occur at evaporative sources such as waste water treatment ponds and storage tanks . Because of the huge number of potential leak sources at large industrial facilities and the difficulties in detecting and repairing some leaks , fugitive emissions can be a significant proportion of total emissions . Though the quantities of leaked gases may be small , gases that have serious health or environmental impacts can cause a significant problem . To minimize and control leaks at process facilities operators carry out regular leak detection and repair activities . Routine inspections of process equipment with gas detectors can be used to identify leaks and estimate the leak rate in order to decide on appropriate corrective action . Proper routine maintenance of equipment reduces the likelihood of leaks . Because of the technical difficulties and costs of detecting and quantifying actual fugitive emissions at a site or facility , and the variability and intermittent nature of emission flow rates , bottom-up estimates based on standard emission factors are generally used for annual reporting purposes . New technologies are under development that could revolutionize the detection and monitoring of fugitive emissions . One technology , known as differential absorption lidar ( DIAL ) , can be used to remotely measure concentration profiles of hydrocarbons in the atmosphere up to several hundred meters from a facility . DIAL has been used for refinery surveys in Europe for over 15 years . A pilot study carried out in 2005 using DIAL found that actual emissions at a refinery were fifteen times higher than those previously reported using the emission factor approach . The fugitive emissions were equivalent to 0.17 % of the refinery throughput . Portable gas leak imaging cameras are also a new technology that can be used to improve leak detection and repair , leading to reduced fugitive emissions . The cameras use infrared imaging technology to produce video images in which invisible gases escaping from leak sources can be clearly identified .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Fugitive_emissions\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 127404\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Robert O. Mendelsohn Content: Robert O. Mendelsohn ( born 1952 in New York City ) is an American environmental economist . He is currently the Edwin Weyerhaeuser Davis Professor of the School of Forestry and Environmental Studies at Yale University , Professor of Economics in Economics Department at Yale University and Professor in the School of Management at Yale University.Professor Mendelsohn is a major figure in the economics of global warming , being for example a contributor to the first Copenhagen Consensus report . Mendelsohn received a BA in economics from Harvard University in 1973 and obtained his Ph.D. in economics from Yale University in 1978 . Professor Mendelsohn has written over one hundred peer-reviewed articles and edited six books . The focus of his research has been the valuation of the environment . He has developed methods to value natural ecosystems including coral reefs , old-growth forests , non-timber forest products , ecotourism , and outdoor recreation . He has also developed methods to value pollution including emissions of criteria pollutants ( such as particulates and sulfur dioxide ) and hazardous waste sites . His most recent work values the impacts of greenhouse gases , including the effects of climate change on agriculture , forests , water resources , energy , and coasts . This research carefully integrates adaptation into impact assessment and has recently been extended to developing countries around the world . He has also been involved in studies of nonrenewable resources , forest management , and specifically carbon sequestration in forests .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Robert_O._Mendelsohn\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 127165\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Embedded emissions Content: One way of attributing greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions is to measure the embedded emissions of goods that are being consumed ( also referred to as `` embodied emissions '' ) . This is different from the question of to what extent the policies of one country to reduce emissions affect emissions in other countries ( the `` spillover effect '' and `` carbon leakage '' of an emissions reduction policy ) . The UNFCCC measures emissions according to production , rather than consumption ( UK Parliament , 2010 ) . Consequently , embedded emissions on imported goods are attributed to the exporting , rather than the importing , country . The question of whether to measure emissions on production instead of consumption is partly an issue of equity , i.e. , who is responsible for emissions ( Toth et al. , 2001 , p. 670 ) . The 37 Kyoto Protocol Parties , listed in Annex B of the treaty , have agreed to legally binding emission reduction commitments . Under the UNFCCC accounting of emissions , their emission reduction commitments do not include emissions attributable to their imports . In a briefing note , Wang and Watson ( 2007 ) asked the question , `` who owns China 's carbon emissions ? '' In their study , they suggested that nearly a quarter of China 's CO2 emissions might be a result of its production of goods for export , primarily to the USA but also to Europe . Based on this , they suggested that international negotiations based on within country emissions ( i.e. , emissions measured by production ) may be '' -LSB- missing -RSB- the point . '' Recent research confirms that , in 2004 , 23 % of global emissions were embedded in goods traded internationally , mostly flowing from China and other developing countries to the U.S. , Europe and Japan . Research by the Carbon Trust in 2011 revealed that approximately 25 % of all emissions from human activities ` flow ' ( i.e. are imported or exported ) from one country to another . The flow of carbon was found to be roughly 50 % emissions associated with trade in commodities such as steel , cement , and chemicals , and 50 % in semi-finished/finished products such as motor vehicles , clothing or industrial machinery and equipment .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Embedded_emissions\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 126175\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Stratospheric aerosol injection (climate engineering) Content: The ability of stratospheric sulfate aerosols to create a global dimming effect has made them a possible candidate for use in solar radiation management climate engineering projects to limit the effect and impact of climate change due to rising levels of greenhouse gases . Delivery of precursor sulfide gases such as sulfuric acid , hydrogen sulfide or sulfur dioxide by artillery , aircraft and balloons has been proposed . It presently appears that this proposed method could counter most climatic changes , take effect rapidly , have very low direct implementation costs , and be reversible in its direct climatic effects . One study calculated the impact of injecting sulfate particles , or aerosols , every one to four years into the stratosphere in amounts equal to those lofted by the volcanic eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 , but did not address the many technical and political challenges involved in potential solar radiation management efforts . If found to be economically , environmentally and technologically viable , such injections could provide a `` grace period '' of up to 20 years before major cutbacks in greenhouse gas emissions would be required , the study concludes . It has been suggested that the direct delivery of precursors could be achieved using sulfide gases such as dimethyl sulfide , sulfur dioxide , carbonyl sulfide , or hydrogen sulfide . These compounds would be delivered using artillery , aircraft ( such as the high-flying F-15C ) or balloons , and result in the formation of compounds with the sulfate anion SO42 − . According to estimates , `` one kilogram of well placed sulfur in the stratosphere would roughly offset the warming effect of several hundred thousand kilograms of carbon dioxide . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Stratospheric_aerosol_injection_(climate_engineering)\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 126150\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental design in rail transportation Content: Environmental design is an emerging topic in railroad technology . Over the past twenty-five years , fuel efficiency in diesel locomotives has increased 85 % , allowing these trains to go farther and move more freight while using less fuel . New low-impact electric and hybrid trains reduce overall carbon emissions . Also , train manufacturers have started utilizing hydrogen technology for propulsion , with carbon emissions only coming from the manufacturing of the hydrogen itself .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_design_in_rail_transportation\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 125416\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Zero-carbon city Content: A zero-carbon city runs entirely on renewable energy ; it has no carbon footprint and will in this respect not cause harm to the planet . Most cities throughout the world produce energy by burning coal , oil and gas , unintentionally emitting carbon . Almost every activity humans do involves burning one of these fossil fuels . To become a zero carbon city , an established modern city must collectively reduce emissions of greenhouse gases to zero and all practices that emit greenhouse gases must cease . Also , renewable energy must supersede other non-renewable energy sources and become the sole source of energy , so a zero-carbon city is a renewable-energy-economy city . This transition which includes decarbonising electricity ( increasing the importance of the sources of renewable electricity ) and zero-emission transport , is undertaken as a response to climate change . Zero-carbon cities maintain optimal living conditions while eliminating environmental impact . Instead of using established cities , many developers are starting from scratch in order to create a zero-carbon city . This way they can make sure every aspect of a city contributes to it being carbon free .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Zero-carbon_city\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 125239\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Campus carbon neutrality Content: All across the world , colleges and universities are looking to a sustainable future by working to become carbon neutral . Universities are taking responsibility for their environmental impact and are working to neutralize those effects . To become carbon neutral , universities are working to reduce their emissions of greenhouse gases , cut their use of energy , use more renewable energy , and emphasize the importance of sustainable energy sources . Universities that have committed to becoming carbon neutral have recognized the threat of global warming and are therefore committing to reverse the trend .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Campus_carbon_neutrality\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 125203\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate Content: The Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate , also known as APP , was an international , voluntary , public-private partnership among Australia , Canada , India , Japan , the People 's Republic of China , South Korea , and the United States announced July 28 , 2005 at an Association of South East Asian Nations ( ASEAN ) Regional Forum meeting and launched on January 12 , 2006 at the Partnership 's inaugural Ministerial meeting in Sydney . As of 5 April 2011 , the Partnership formally concluded although a number of individual projects continue . The conclusion of the APP and cancellation of many of its projects attracted almost no media comment . Foreign , Environment and Energy Ministers from partner countries agreed to co-operate on the development and transfer of technology which enables reduction of greenhouse gas emissions that is consistent with and complementary to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change and other relevant international instruments , and is intended to complement but not replace the Kyoto Protocol. , Ministers agreed to a Charter , Communique and Work Plan that `` outline a ground-breaking new model of private-public task forces to address climate change , energy security and air pollution . '' Member countries account for over 50 % of the world 's greenhouse gas emissions , energy consumption , GDP and population . Unlike the Kyoto Protocol ( currently unratified by the United States ) , which imposes mandatory limits on greenhouse gas emissions , the Partnership engages member countries to accelerate the development and deployment of clean energy technologies , with no mandatory enforcement mechanism . This has led to criticism that the Partnership is worthless , by other governments , climate scientists and environmental groups . Proponents , on the other hand , argue that unrestricted economic growth and emission reductions can only be brought about through active engagement by all major polluters , which includes India and China , within the Kyoto Protocol framework neither India nor China are yet required to reduce emissions . Canada became the 7th member of the APP at the Second Ministerial Meeting in New Delhi on October 15 , 2007 . Canada 's Prime Minister Stephen Harper earlier expressed his intention to join the Partnership in August 2007 , despite some domestic opposition .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Asia-Pacific_Partnership_on_Clean_Development_and_Climate\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 124886\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: San Francisco Climate Action Plan Content: The San Francisco Climate Action Plan is a greenhouse gas reduction initiative adopted by the City and County of San Francisco , United States in 2002 . It aims to reduce the city 's greenhouse gas emissions to 20 % below 1990 levels by 2012 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"San_Francisco_Climate_Action_Plan\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 124623\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon finance Content: Carbon finance is a new branch of Environmental finance . Carbon finance explores the financial implications of living in a carbon-constrained world , a world in which emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) carry a price . Financial risks and opportunities impact corporate balance sheets , and market-based instruments are capable of transferring environmental risk and achieving environmental objectives . Issues regarding climate change and GHG emissions must be addressed as part of strategic management decision-making . The general term is applied to investments in GHG emission reduction projects and the creation ( origination ) of financial instruments that are tradeable on the carbon market .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_finance\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 124394\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries ranked by greenhouse-gas emissions per capita in 2000 . It is based on data for carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , perfluorocarbon , hydrofluorocarbon and sulfur hexafluoride emissions compiled by the World Resources Institute ( WRI ) from a variety of sources , including CDIAC and the US Environmental Protection Agency . Bunker-fuel emissions are not included . Two sets of per capita emissions are given , one with an estimate of the effects of land-use change ( for example , cutting down forests ) and one without . The former is based on regional estimates in Houghton ( 2003 ) . Difficulties with determining rates of deforestation and the magnitude of carbon stocks held by the remaining forests and with distributing regional carbon fluxes among individual countries mean that the land-use change components have a large margin of error , perhaps as large as + / -150 % in some cases . They are included here because , although difficult to quantify accurately at a country level , land-use change is a significant contributor to global warming . The WRI estimates that it accounted for almost a fifth of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions in 2000 . For 2005 the data for a large number of countries only includes emissions ( see note 12 . )\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_countries_by_greenhouse_gas_emissions_per_capita\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 124373\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental impact of shipping Content: The environmental impact of shipping includes greenhouse gas emissions , acoustic , and oil pollution . The International Maritime Organization ( IMO ) estimates that Carbon dioxide emissions from shipping were equal to 2.2 % of the global human-made emissions in 2012 and expects them to rise by as much as 2 to 3 times by 2050 if no action is taken . The First Intersessional Meeting of the IMO Working Group on Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Ships took place in Oslo , Norway on 23 -- 27 June 2008 . It was tasked with developing the technical basis for the reduction mechanisms that may form part of a future IMO regime to control greenhouse gas emissions from international shipping , and a draft of the actual reduction mechanisms themselves , for further consideration by IMO 's Marine Environment Protection Committee ( MEPC ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_impact_of_shipping\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 124026\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse Mafia Content: Greenhouse Mafia is the title of a TV program aired by the ABC on the 13 February 2006 episode of its weekly current affairs program Four Corners . The program says the term greenhouse mafia is the `` in house '' name used by Australia 's carbon lobby for itself . The program featured former Liberal Party member Guy Pearse and Four Corners host Janine Cohen , while others concerned about the influence exerted by the fossil fuel lobby also participated . The report was based on a thesis Pearse wrote at the Australian National University between 1999 and 2005 regarding the response of Australian business to global warming . According to the program , lobby groups representing the coal , car , oil , and aluminium industries have wielded their power to prevent Australia from reducing its greenhouse gas emissions , which were already among the highest per capita in the world in 1990 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_Mafia\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 123967\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Energy Technologies Institute Content: The Energy Technologies Institute ( ETI ) is an energy research , development and demonstration body established in the United Kingdom in 2007 . The government set up the ETI following an announcement in the 2006 budget speech . The purpose of the ETI is to `` accelerate the development , demonstration and eventual commercial deployment of a focused portfolio of energy technologies , which will increase energy efficiency , reduce greenhouse gas emissions and help achieve energy and climate change goals '' . The institute works with a range of academic and commercial bodies . Deployment of the technologies involved , which are expected to contribute to the reduction of the UK 's carbon emissions , is expected to begin around 2018 . Commentators generally welcomed the new body as likely to make a positive contribution in the efforts to minimise climate change . At the same time , they pointed to the slow pace of government action in promoting energy conservation and implementing existing low-carbon technologies , compared to progress in a number of other European countries .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Energy_Technologies_Institute\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 123875\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Grenada Content: The issue of climate change has received significant public and political attention in Grenada . As of 2013 , the mitigation of its effects has been high on the agenda of the Government of Grenada , which seeks to set an example through innovation and green technology . Given its small size , Grenada is not a major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , but does use fossil fuel to generate 90 % of its electricity . The Government of Grenada has set a goal of generating 50 % of its energy from solar and wind power by 2030 , and is taking steps to abolish Grenlec , the state-run electric utility . Because tourism is a mainstay of the economy , there is also interest in exploring the use of seawater for air-conditioning . As of 2013 , Grenada had a US$ 6.9 million pilot project to adapt its irrigation system to climate change and conduct local and regional water planning , funded by the German International Climate Initiative ( IKI ) . Groundwater depletion , lower water tables , disruption of water supply by hurricanes ( such as Hurricane Ivan ) , saltwater intrusion , and rising sea levels pose challenges for providing a consistent water supply for agriculture and tourism . In 2013 , the newspaper The Washington Diplomat profiled Grenada 's ambassador to the United States , Angus Friday , who has served as a `` senior climate policy specialist at the World Bank . '' In his earlier posting as Grenadian Ambassador to the United Nations , `` he frequently advocated for small Caribbean and Pacific island nations threatened by rising ocean levels . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Grenada\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 123761\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Methane Initiative Content: The Global Methane Initiative ( GMI ) is a voluntary , international partnership that brings together national governments , private sector entities , development banks , NGOs and other interested stakeholders in a collaborative effort to reduce methane gas emissions and advance methane recovery and use as a clean energy source . National governments are encouraged to join GMI as Partner Countries , while other non-State organizations may join GMI 's extensive Project Network . As a public-private initiative , GMI creates an international platform to build capacity , development methane abatement strategies , engage in technology transfer , and remove political and economic barriers to project development for emissions reduction . The initiative currently focuses on five sectors , which are known sources of anthropogenic methane emissions : agriculture , coal mining , municipal solid waste , municipal wastewater , and oil and gas systems . Through international cooperation , GMI seeks to reduce global methane emissions , the second largest contributor to atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases , in order to enhance economic growth , promote energy security , improve the environment , and reduce greenhouse gases . Other expected benefits include improving mine safety , reducing waste , and improving local air quality .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Methane_Initiative\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 123706\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon Neutral Cities Alliance Content: The Carbon Neutral Cities Alliance ( CNCA or `` Alliance '' ) is a collaboration of leading global cities working to cut greenhouse gas emissions by 80 % or more by 2050 or sooner ( `` 80x50 '' ) -- the most aggressive greenhouse gas reduction targets undertaken by any cities across the globe . The Alliance aims to address what it will take for leading international cities to achieve these deep emissions reductions and how they can work together to meet their respective goals more efficiently and effectively .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_Neutral_Cities_Alliance\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 123677\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Midwestern Greenhouse Gas Reduction Accord Content: The Midwestern Greenhouse Gas Reduction Accord ( Midwestern Accord ) is a regional agreement by six governors of states in the US Midwest who are members of the Midwestern Governors Association ( MGA ) , and the premier of one Canadian province , whose purpose is to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to combat climate change . The accord has been inactive since March 2010 , when an advisory group presented a plan for action to the association with a scheduled implementation date of January 2012 . Signatories to the accord are the US states of Minnesota , Wisconsin , Illinois , Iowa , Michigan , Kansas , and the Canadian Province of Manitoba . Observers of the accord are Indiana , Ohio , and South Dakota , as well as the Canadian Province of Ontario . While the Midwest has intensive manufacturing and agriculture sectors , making it the most coal-dependent region in North America , it also has significant renewable energy resources and is particularly vulnerable to the climate change caused by burning coal and other fossil fuels . The Midwestern Accord was the fourth tier of the MGA Energy Security and Climate Stewardship Summit Platform , signed on November 15 , 2007 . It established the Midwestern Greenhouse Gas Reduction Program , which aimed to : establish greenhouse gas reduction targets and time frames consistent with signing states ' targets ; develop a market-based and multi-sector cap-and-trade mechanism to help achieve those reduction targets ; establish a system to enable tracking , management , and crediting for entities that reduce greenhouse gas emissions ; and develop and implement additional steps as needed to achieve the reduction targets , such as a low-carbon fuel standards and regional incentives and funding mechanisms . Through the Midwestern Accord , the governors agreed to establish a Midwestern greenhouse gas reduction program to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in their states , as well as a working group to provide recommendations regarding the implementation of the accord . In June 2009 , the Midwestern Greenhouse Gas Reduction Accord Advisory Group finalized its draft recommendations . In March 2010 the advisory group presented a plan to the MGA that called for implementation beginning in January 2012 . No further action was taken , as leadership in several of the states switched positions on climate policy . In July 2014 , accord member Kansas and observers Indiana , South Dakota , and Ohio joined a lawsuit opposing the EPA Clean Power Plan , federal climate regulations which could be met by implementation of the accord .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Midwestern_Greenhouse_Gas_Reduction_Accord\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 123566\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: CarboNZero programme Content: The carboNZero programme and CEMARS programme are the world 's first internationally accredited greenhouse gas ( GHG ) certification schemes under ISO 14065 . They provide tools for organisations , products , services and events to measure and reduce their greenhouse gas emissions ( otherwise known as carbon footprint ) , and optionally offset it . The programmes are owned and operated by Enviro-Mark Solutions Limited , a wholly owned subsidiary of Landcare Research ( 100 % NZ government-owned ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"CarboNZero_programme\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 123508\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Turning the Corner Plan Content: Turning the Corner Plan is a Canadian climate change action plan introduced by the Harper Conservative Government in April 2007 by then Minister of the Environment John Baird . Turning the Corner has plans set out to reduce Canada 's greenhouse gas emissions by 20 % relative to 2006 levels by 2020 , and reductions of 60 to 70 percent below 2006 levels by 2050 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Turning_the_Corner_Plan\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 123320\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources Content: Measurement of life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions involves calculating the global-warming potential of electrical energy sources through life-cycle assessment of each energy source . The findings are presented in units of global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated by that source . The scale uses the global warming potential unit , the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) , and the unit of electrical energy , the kilowatt hour ( kWh ) . The goal of such assessments is to cover the full life of the source , from material and fuel mining through construction to operation and waste management . In 2014 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change harmonized the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) findings of the major electricity generating sources in use worldwide . This was done by analyzing the findings of hundreds of individual scientific papers assessing each energy source . For all technologies , advances in efficiency , and therefore reductions in e since the time of publication , have not been included . For example , the total life cycle emissions from wind power may have lessened since publication . Similarly , due to the time frame over which the studies were conducted , nuclear Generation II reactor 's e results are presented and not the global warming potential of Generation III reactors , presently under construction in the United States and China . Other limitations of the data include : a ) missing life cycle phases , and , b ) uncertainty as to where to define the cut-off point in the global warming potential of an energy source . The latter is important in assessing a combined electrical grid in the real world , rather than the established practice of simply assessing the energy source in isolation .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Life-cycle_greenhouse-gas_emissions_of_energy_sources\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 123025\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Boulder Climate Action Plan Content: The Climate Action Plan ( CAP ) is a set of strategies intended to guide community efforts for reducing greenhouse gas emissions . Those strategies have focused on improving energy efficiency and conservation in our homes and businesses -- the source of nearly three-fourths of local emissions . The plan also promotes strategies to reduce emissions from transportation , which account for over 20 percent of our local greenhouse gas sources .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Boulder_Climate_Action_Plan\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 123012\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ecosecurities Content: EcoSecurities is a business that sources and develops carbon credits and carbon offsets from greenhouse gas emission reduction projects throughout the world . The company has offices in Europe , Middle East , Americas and Asia and has a large portfolio of green house gas emission reduction projects covering numerous countries and technologies . EcoSecurities was created in January 1997 , 12 months before the Kyoto conference . After a period of organic growth , the company floated on the Alternative Investment Market of the London Stock Exchange in December 2005 , allowing it to grow its geographic presence by placing over 300 staff in 30 countries . Its portfolio grew to over 150 million CERs - the largest in the world at the time . In June 2007 , the company raised an additional $ 100 million to expand into new markets , with Credit Suisse becoming a major investor . It trades in the international carbon market which was valued at $ 38 billion in the first six months of 2008 . The former President and co-founder of EcoSecurities was Pedro Moura-Costa and the former CEO was Bruce Usher . At the end of 2009 the firm was acquired by JP Morgan and is now an indirect wholly owned subsidiarly of JPMorgan Chase and Co. and can provide its clients with access to the scope of services provided by the bank 's Environmental Markets business in addition to those activities of sourcing and developing greenhouse gas abatement projects outlined above . Following on from acquisition of EcoSecurities the company appointed Paul Mark Kelly as Chief Executive Officer of the company in December 2009 , when the company subsequently delisted from the Alternative Investment Market of the London Stock Exchange .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Ecosecurities\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 122844\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wildland fire emission Content: Wildland fire and wildland fire atmospheric emissions have been a part of the global biosphere for millennia . The major wildland fire emissions include greenhouse gasses and several criteria pollutants that impact human health and welfare. : Compared to the preindustrial era , wildland land fire in the conterminous U.S. has been reduced 90 percent with proportional reductions in wildland fire emissions . Land use changes ( agriculture and urbanization ) are responsible for roughly 50 percent of this decrease , and land management decisions ( land fragmentation , suppression actions , etc. ) are responsible for the remainder . Anthropogenic activities ( e.g. , industrial production , transportation , agriculture , etc. ) today have more than replaced the lost preindustrial wildland fire atmospheric emissions . The following charts compare preindustrial wildland fire emissions with contemporary emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Wildland_fire_emission\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 122765\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pastoral Greenhouse Gas Research Consortium Content: __ NOTOC __ The Pastoral Greenhouse Gas Research Consortium ( PGGRC ) carries out research to find methods of reducing greenhouse gas emissions from livestock . The consortium , established in 2004 , has a Memorandum of Understanding with the New Zealand Government . Almost half of the greenhouse gas emissions in New Zealand are due to agriculture and since the New Zealand government has signed and ratified the Kyoto Protocol methods are being sought to seek a reduction of these emissions . In 2003 the Government attempted to impose an Agricultural emissions research levy on farmers to fund research into agricultural emissions reduction but it proved to be unpopular and the proposal was abandoned . The PGGRC is an alternative method of addressing agricultural emissions . An independent review in 2006 found that the PGGRC was producing world-leading research and is excellent value for money .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Pastoral_Greenhouse_Gas_Research_Consortium\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 122642\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: New England Governors and Eastern Canadian Premiers Climate Change Action Plan 2001 Content: The New England Governors and Eastern Canadian Premiers ( NEG-ECP ) Climate Change Action Plan 2001 is a resolution adopted on August 28 , 2001 , by the New England Governors and the Eastern Canadian Premiers . The resolution calls for a reduction in greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions to 1990 levels by 2010 , at least 10 % below 1990 levels by 2020 , and a 75-85 % reduction of 2001 levels as a long-term goal . Participating are the six states belonging to New England : Connecticut , Maine , Massachusetts , New Hampshire , Rhode Island , and Vermont ; as well as the Eastern Canadian provinces : New Brunswick , Newfoundland and Labrador , Nova Scotia , Prince Edward Island , and Quebec . In addition , the Northeast States for Coordinated Air Use Management ( NESCAUM ) is building a Regional Greenhouse Gas Registry ( RGGR ) to help track emissions in the region . This effort is similar to that of the California Climate Action Registry .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"New_England_Governors_and_Eastern_Canadian_Premiers_Climate_Change_Action_Plan_2001\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 122131\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Hype about Hydrogen Content: The Hype about Hydrogen : Fact and Fiction in the Race to Save the Climate is a book by Joseph J. Romm , published in 2004 by Island Press and updated in 2005 . The book has been translated into German as Der Wasserstoff-Boom . Romm is an expert on clean energy , advanced vehicles , energy security , and greenhouse gas mitigation . Over 200 publications , including Scientific American , Forbes magazine and The New York Times , have cited this book . The book was named one of the best science and technology books of 2004 by Library Journal . The thrust of the book is that hydrogen is not economically feasible to use for transportation , nor will its use reduce global warming , because of the cost and greenhouse gases generated during production , the low energy content per volume and weight of the container , the cost of the fuel cells , and the cost of the infrastructure . The author argues that a major effort to introduce hydrogen cars before 2030 would actually undermine efforts to reduce emissions of heat-trapping greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Hype_about_Hydrogen\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 122068\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon price Content: Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' . Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain . The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions . The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_price\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 121983\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: CERINA-Plan Content: CERINA Plan is the abbreviation for `` CO2 Emissions and Renewable Investment Action Plan '' . It is a CO2 reduction concept developed by the German renewable energy institute IWR . The CERINA Plan proposes a technical investment approach linking a country 's CO2 emissions to its investment in renewable energy technology . Therefore , it is an alternative model to approaches like the Kyoto idea of mere cuts in greenhouse gas emissions . The model is meant to be flexible and to adapt to the special national circumstances of each country .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"CERINA-Plan\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 121893\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate-friendly gardening Content: Climate-friendly gardening is gardening in ways which reduce emissions of greenhouse gases from gardens and encourage the absorption of carbon dioxide by soils and plants in order to aid the reduction of global warming . To be a climate-friendly gardener means considering both what happens in a garden and the materials brought into it and the impact they have on land use and climate . It can also include garden features or activities in the garden that help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions elsewhere .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate-friendly_gardening\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 121681\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon offset Content: A carbon offset is a reduction in emissions of carbon dioxide or greenhouse gases made in order to compensate for or to offset an emission made elsewhere . Carbon offsets are measured in metric tons of carbon dioxide-equivalent ( CO2e ) and may represent six primary categories of greenhouse gases : carbon dioxide , methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFCs ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) , and sulfur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . One carbon offset represents the reduction of one metric ton of carbon dioxide or its equivalent in other greenhouse gases . There are two markets for carbon offsets . In the larger , compliance market , companies , governments , or other entities buy carbon offsets in order to comply with caps on the total amount of carbon dioxide they are allowed to emit . This market exists in order to achieve compliance with obligations of Annex 1 Parties under the Kyoto Protocol , and of liable entities under the EU Emission Trading Scheme . In 2006 , about $ 5.5 billion of carbon offsets were purchased in the compliance market , representing about 1.6 billion metric tons of CO2e reductions . In the much smaller , voluntary market , individuals , companies , or governments purchase carbon offsets to mitigate their own greenhouse gas emissions from transportation , electricity use , and other sources . For example , an individual might purchase carbon offsets to compensate for the greenhouse gas emissions caused by personal air travel . Many companies ( see list ) offer carbon offsets as an up-sell during the sales process so that customers can mitigate the emissions related with their product or service purchase ( such as offsetting emissions related to a vacation flight , car rental , hotel stay , consumer good , etc. ) . In 2008 , about $ 705 million of carbon offsets were purchased in the voluntary market , representing about 123.4 million metric tons of CO2e reductions . Some fuel suppliers in the UK offer fuel which has been carbon offset such as Fuel dyes . Offsets are typically achieved through financial support of projects that reduce the emission of greenhouse gases in the short - or long-term . The most common project type is renewable energy , such as wind farms , biomass energy , or hydroelectric dams . Others include energy efficiency projects , the destruction of industrial pollutants or agricultural byproducts , destruction of landfill methane , and forestry projects . Some of the most popular carbon offset projects from a corporate perspective are energy efficiency and wind turbine projects . Carbon offsetting has gained some appeal and momentum mainly among consumers in western countries who have become aware and concerned about the potentially negative environmental effects of energy-intensive lifestyles and economies . The Kyoto Protocol has sanctioned offsets as a way for governments and private companies to earn carbon credits that can be traded on a marketplace . The protocol established the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) , which validates and measures projects to ensure they produce authentic benefits and are genuinely `` additional '' activities that would not otherwise have been undertaken . Organizations that are unable to meet their emissions quota can offset their emissions by buying CDM-approved Certified Emissions Reductions . Emissions from burning fuel , such as red diesel , has pushed one UK fuel supplier to create a carbon offset fuel named Carbon Offset Red Diesel . Offsets may be cheaper or more convenient alternatives to reducing one 's own fossil-fuel consumption . However , some critics object to carbon offsets , and question the benefits of certain types of offsets . Due diligence is recommended to help businesses in the assessment and identification of `` good quality '' offsets to ensure offsetting provides the desired additional environmental benefits , and to avoid reputational risk associated with poor quality offsets . Offsets are viewed as an important policy tool to maintain stable economies and to improve sustainability . One of the hidden dangers of climate change policy is unequal prices of carbon in the economy , which can cause economic collateral damage if production flows to regions or industries that have a lower price of carbon -- unless carbon can be purchased from that area , which offsets effectively permit , equalizing the price .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_offset\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 121558\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Co-benefits of climate change mitigation Content: Co-benefits of climate change mitigation as defined in the 4th Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change are the positive benefits related to the reduction of greenhouse gases . Examples of such climate mitigation policies include improved energy efficiency of plants , renewable energy uptake and fuel switching which might enable a range of co-benefits such as air-pollution impacts , technological innovation , energy-supply security through increased energy diversity , reduced fuel cost and employment possibilities .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Co-benefits_of_climate_change_mitigation\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 121548\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change scenario Content: This article is about climate change scenarios . Socioeconomic scenarios are used by analysts to make projections of future greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions and to assess future vulnerability to climate change ( Carter et al. , 2001:151 ) . Producing scenarios requires estimates of future population levels , economic activity , the structure of governance , social values , and patterns of technological change . Economic and energy modelling ( such as via the World3 or the POLES models ) can be used to analyse and quantify the effects of such drivers .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_scenario\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 121444\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Margo T. Oge Content: Margo T. Oge ( born 1949 ) is an American engineer and environmental regulator who served as the Director of the Environmental Protection Agency 's Office of Radiation and Indoor Air from 1990 to 1994 and Director of the Office of Transportation and Air Quality from 1994 to 2012 . Beginning in 2009 , Oge lead the EPA team that authored the 2010-2016 and the 2017-2025 Light-Duty Vehicle Greenhouse Gas Emissions Standards . By 2025 , these rules require automakers to half the greenhouse gas emissions of cars and light duty trucks while doubling fuel economy . These rules were the US federal government 's first regulatory actions to reduce greenhouse gases .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Margo_T._Oge\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 121163\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: UK Emissions Trading Scheme Content: The UK Emissions Trading Scheme was a voluntary emissions trading system created as a pilot prior to the mandatory European Union Emissions Trading Scheme which it now runs in parallel with . It ran from 2002 and it closed to new entrants in 2009 . Management of the scheme transferred to the Department of Energy and Climate Change in 2008 . At the time , the scheme was a novel economic approach , being the first multi-industry carbon trading system in the world . ( Denmark ran a pilot greenhouse gas trading scheme between 2001 and 2003 but this only involved eight electricity companies ) . It took note of the emerging international consensus on the benefits of carbon trading that were being proposed in the mandatory Kyoto Protocol , which had not been ratified at that time , and allowed government and corporate early movers and to gain experience in the auction process and the trading system that the later schemes have entailed . It ran in parallel to a tax on energy use , the Climate Change Levy , introduced in April 2001 , but companies could get a discount on the tax if they elected to make reductions through participation in the trading scheme . The voluntary trading scheme recruited 34 participants from UK industries and organisations who promised to make reductions in their carbon emissions , this has since expanded to 54 sectors of the UK economy . In return they received a share of a # 215 million `` incentive fund '' from the Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( DEFRA ) . Each agreed to hold sufficient allowances to cover its actual emissions for that year , and participate in a cap and trade system , with an annually reducing cap . Each participant could then decide to take action to manage its emissions to exactly meet its target , or reduce its actual emissions below its target ( thereby releasing allowances that it could sell on , or save for use in future years ) , or buy allowances from other participants to cover any excess . From March 2002 , DEFRA ran an auction of emission allowances to perform allocations to participants , after the start of the mandatory EU scheme .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"UK_Emissions_Trading_Scheme\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 121032\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: United States federal register of greenhouse gas emissions Content: The United States federal register of greenhouse gas emissions is established by the United States Department of Energy under the Energy Policy Act 1992 . It is administered by the Energy Information Administration through the Voluntary Reporting of Greenhouse Gases Program . Separately , the Environmental Protection Agency in 2009 commenced implementing a mandatory Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program , which applies to facilities that emit 25,000 metric tons or more per year .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"United_States_federal_register_of_greenhouse_gas_emissions\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 120516\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group Content: The C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group ( C40 ) connects 90 of the world 's greatest cities , representing 650 + million people and one quarter of the global economy . Created and led by cities , C40 is focused on tackling climate change and driving urban action that reduces greenhouse gas emissions and climate risks , while increasing the health , wellbeing and economic opportunities of urban citizens . The current chair of the C40 is Mayor of Paris Anne Hidalgo ; the President of the Board is the 108th Mayor of New York City Michael R. Bloomberg , with Mark Watts serving as C40 Executive Director . All three work closely with the 13-member Steering Committee , the Board of Directors and C40 professional staff . The rotating Steering Committee of C40 mayors provides strategic direction and governance . Current Steering Committee members include : Amman , Boston , Copenhagen , Durban , Hong Kong , Jakarta , London , Los Angeles , Mexico City , Milan , Paris , Seoul , and Tokyo . Working across multiple sectors and initiative areas , C40 convenes networks of cities providing a suite of services in support of their efforts , including : direct technical assistance ; facilitation of peer-to-peer exchange ; and research , knowledge management & communications . C40 is also positioning cities as a leading force for climate action around the world , defining and amplifying their call to national governments for greater support and autonomy in creating a sustainable future . C40 's work is made possible by three strategic funders : Bloomberg Philanthropies , The Children 's Investment Fund Foundation ( CIFF ) , and Realdania .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"C40_Cities_Climate_Leadership_Group\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 120423\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse debt Content: Greenhouse debt or carbon debt is the measure to which an individual person , incorporated association , business enterprise , government instrumentality or geographic community exceeds its permitted greenhouse footprint and contributes greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming and climate change . The concept makes no sense without a clear numerical value for the permitted greenhouse footprint . It is not clear what this value is . Friends of the Earth and similar organisations put forward the concept to define specifically the environmental harm caused by developed countries ' past and present policies . Some governments , at least the Australian Labor leadership , have a tendency to accept such a line of reasoning . The greenhouse debt assessment thus forms an ecological footprint analysis but can be used separately . Taken conjointly with a ` water debt ' analysis and an ecological impact assessment , greenhouse debt analysis is basic to giving individuals , organisations , governments and communities an understanding of the effects they are having on Gaia , life , and global warming . Ensuring that the greenhouse debt is zero is essential towards achieving ecologically sustainable development or a sustainable retreat . Any greenhouse debt incurred will contribute to making life harder for future generations of humans and non-human lifeforms . There are three possible consequences that occur as a result of a greenhouse debt . Mitigation : finding compensatory ways of reducing the greenhouse debt so its effects are neutralised Adaptation : finding ways of adjusting to the resulting global warming or climate change Suffering : having one 's quality of life reduced as a result of the consequences\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_debt\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 120400\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Clean technology Content: Clean technology refers to any process , product , or service that reduces negative environmental impacts through significant energy efficiency improvements , the sustainable use of resources , or environmental protection activities . Clean technology includes a broad range of technology related to recycling , renewable energy ( wind power , solar power , biomass , hydropower , biofuels , etc. ) , information technology , green transportation , electric motors , green chemistry , lighting , Greywater , and more . Environmental finance is a method by which new clean technology projects that have proven that they are `` additional '' or `` beyond business as usual '' can obtain financing through the generation of carbon credits . A project that is developed with concern for climate change mitigation ( such as a Kyoto Clean Development Mechanism project ) is also known as a carbon project . While there is no standard definition of `` clean technology , '' it has been described by Clean Edge , a clean technology research firm , as `` a diverse range of products , services , and processes that harness renewable materials and energy sources , dramatically reduce the use of natural resources , and cut or eliminate emissions and wastes . '' It notes that `` Clean technologies are competitive with , if not superior to , their conventional counterparts . Many also offer significant additional benefits , notably their ability to improve the lives of those in both developed and developing countries '' . Investments in clean technology have grown considerably since coming into the spotlight around 2000 . According to the United Nations Environment Program , wind , solar , and biofuel companies received a record $ 148 billion in new funding in 2007 as rising oil prices and climate change policies encouraged investment in renewable energy . $ 50 billion of that funding went to wind power . Overall , investment in clean-energy and energy-efficiency industries rose 60 percent from 2006 to 2007 . By 2018 it is forecast that the three main clean technology sectors , solar photovoltaics , wind power , and biofuels , will have revenues of $ 325.1 bn .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Clean_technology\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 119733\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: American Electric Power Co. v. Connecticut Content: American Electric Power Company v. Connecticut , , was a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court , in an 8 -- 0 decision , held that corporations can not be sued for greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) under federal common law , primarily because the Clean Air Act ( CAA ) delegates the management of carbon dioxide and other GHG emissions to the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) . Brought to court in July 2004 in the Southern District of New York , this was the first global warming case based on a public nuisance claim .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"American_Electric_Power_Co._v._Connecticut\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 119449\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Emissions Trading Scheme in South Korea Content: South Korea 's Emissions Trading Scheme ( KETS ) is the second largest in scale after the European Union Emission Trading Scheme and was launched on January 1 , 2015 . South Korea is the second country in Asia to initiate a nation-wide carbon market after Kazakhstan . Complying to the country 's pledge made at the Copenhagen Accord of 2009 , the South Korean government aims to reduce its greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions by 30 % below its business as usual scenario by 2020 . They have officially employed the cap-and-trade system and the operation applies to over 525 companies which are accountable for approximately 68 % of the nation 's GHG output . The operation is divided up into three periods . The first and second phases consist of 3 years each , 2015 to 2017 and 2018 to 2020 . The final phase will spread out over the next 5 years from 2021 to 2025 . The cap-and-trade system is a tool of carbon pricing that has been adapted by several countries to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions through a market mechanism . It entails a market open to the transaction of trade permits , which allow participating businesses or countries to emit a given amount of greenhouse gases . A cap is set by the government which defines the maximum level of total emissions permitted during a certain time period . The South Korean government had set the emissions cap for the first year of implementation ( 2015 ) as 573 MtCO2e . The major objectives of the KETS is to place South Korea at the forefront of the global effort in reducing GHG emissions and to develop its market competitiveness in the clean energy sector . As one of the top 10 largest contributors to global greenhouse gas emissions and a nation with the highest growth rate in GHG emissions , South Korea 's awareness of its carbon footprint has increased over the years . The country grows more vulnerable to climate change as the average temperature has risen by 1.5 degrees Celsius causing frequent natural disasters . Furthermore , the South Korean government aims to cut back its reliance on imported fossil fuel energy which accounts for roughly 97 % of its primary energy consumption . Lastly , by implementing the emissions trading scheme , the government has prospects of developing its green industries and increase its global share of the clean energy market .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Emissions_Trading_Scheme_in_South_Korea\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 119187\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cool Earth 50 Content: Cool Earth 50 ( also known as Cool Earth ) is a plan developed by Japan to reduce global CO2 emissions 50 % by 2050 , which was discussed at the 34th G8 summit . Cool Earth 50 is planned to be a framework that would continue towards the goals set forth in the Kyoto Protocols . This plan includes three proposals : a long-term strategy , a mid-term strategy and launching a national campaign for achieving the Kyoto Protocol Target . The plan was first proposed on May 24 , 2007 at an international conference called Asian Future and was initiated by Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe . The program 's goal is to reduce current global green house emissions by 50 % by the year 2050 the . The goal of reduction was aimed particular towards the largest green house emitting countries The United States , China , Japan , and India . Also , for the major green house emitters to create a frame work for reduction . Cool Earth aims at reducing green house emissions by improve technology in energy fields . A large goal of Cool Earth is to promote economic prosperity through green technology and to encourage political stability domestically and internationally .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Cool_Earth_50\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 119076\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Electricity Security and Affordability Act Content: The Electricity Security and Affordability Act is a bill that would repeal a pending rule published by the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) on January 8 , 2014 . The proposed rule would establish uniform national limits on greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions from new electricity-generating facilities that use coal or natural gas . The rule also sets new standards of performance for those power plants , including the requirement to install carbon capture and sequestration technology . The bill passed in the United States House of Representatives during the 113th United States Congress .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Electricity_Security_and_Affordability_Act\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 119006\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Clean Development Mechanism Content: The Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) is one of the Flexible Mechanisms defined in the Kyoto Protocol ( IPCC , 2007 ) that provides for emissions reduction projects which generate Certified Emission Reduction units ( CERs ) which may be traded in emissions trading schemes . The CDM , defined in Article 12 of the Protocol , was intended to meet two objectives : ( 1 ) to assist parties not included in Annex I in achieving sustainable development and in contributing to the ultimate objective of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , which is to prevent dangerous climate change ; and ( 2 ) to assist parties included in Annex I in achieving compliance with their quantified emission limitation and reduction commitments ( greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emission caps ) . `` Annex I '' parties are the countries listed in Annex I of the treaty , the industrialized countries . Non-Annex I parties are developing countries . The CDM addresses the second objective by allowing the Annex I countries to meet part of their emission reduction commitments under the Kyoto Protocol by buying Certified Emission Reduction units from CDM emission reduction projects in developing countries ( Carbon Trust , 2009 , p. 14 ) . Both the projects and the issue of CERs units are subject to approval to ensure that these emission reductions are real and `` additional . '' The CDM is supervised by the CDM Executive Board ( CDM EB ) under the guidance of the Conference of the Parties ( COP/MOP ) of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The CDM allows industrialized countries to buy CERs and to invest in emission reductions where it is cheapest globally ( Grubb , 2003 , p. 159 ) . Between 2001 , which was the first year CDM projects could be registered and 7 September 2012 , the CDM issued 1 billion Certified Emission Reduction units . As of 1 June 2013 , 57 % of all CERs had been issued for projects based on destroying either HFC-23 ( 38 % ) or N2O ( 19 % ) . Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) was included in the CDM carbon offsetting scheme in December 2011 . However , a number of weaknesses of the CDM have been identified ( World Bank , 2010 , p. 265-267 ) . Several of these issues were addressed by the new Program of Activities ( PoA ) , which moves to approving ` bundles ' of projects instead of accrediting each project individually . In 2012 , the report Climate Change , Carbon Markets and the CDM : A Call to Action said governments urgently needed to address the future of the CDM . It suggested the CDM was in danger of collapse because of the low price of carbon and the failure of governments to guarantee its existence into the future . Writing on the website of the Climate & Development Knowledge Network , Yolanda Kakabadse , a member of the investigating panel for the report and founder of Fundación Futuro Latinamericano , said a strong CDM is needed to support the political consensus essential for future climate progress . `` Therefore we must do everything in our hands to keep it working , '' she said .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Clean_Development_Mechanism\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 118988\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Action Content: Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Action ( NAMA ) refers to a set of policies and actions that countries undertake as part of a commitment to reduce greenhouse gas emissions . The term recognizes that different countries may take different nationally appropriate action on the basis of equity and in accordance with common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities . It also emphasizes financial assistance from developed countries to developing countries to reduce emissions . NAMA was first used in the Bali Action Plan as part of the Bali Road Map agreed at the United Nations Climate Change Conference in Bali in December 2007 , and also formed part of the Copenhagen Accord issued following the United Nations Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen ( COP 15 ) in December 2009 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2753\",\n \"docid\": \"Nationally_Appropriate_Mitigation_Action\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 118947\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":1358,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"\"There are many urgent priorities that need the attention of Congress, and it is not for me as an invited guest in your country to say what they are."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Congressional Hispanic Conference Content: The Congressional Hispanic Conference ( CHC ) is a Republican Party-controlled caucus in the United States Congress . Currently with 13 members , the CHC was formed in 2003 , with the stated goal of promoting policy outcomes of importance to Americans of Hispanic or Latino and Portuguese descent . These priorities included support of the following : then-President George W. Bush and American troops in the war against terrorism ; the Free Trade Agreement of the Americas ( FTAA ) ; tax relief to families and the over two million Hispanic - and Portuguese-owned small businesses ; support for faith based initiatives ; and , educational choice for all . The impetus behind the Conference 's creation was the debate surrounding the nomination of conservative lawyer Miguel Estrada to the DC Circuit Court of Appeals . The Congressional Hispanic Conference should not be confused with the older Congressional Hispanic Caucus , which is another congressional organization populated by Democratic congress members .","qid":"2754","docid":"Congressional_Hispanic_Conference","rank":1,"score":88486},{"content":"Title: People's Congress Party Content: The People 's Congress Party is a political party in Solomon Islands . It was founded by outgoing deputy Prime Minister Fred Fono during the campaign for the 2010 general election . Upon first announcing the priorities of the party , Fono stated its focus would be on `` anti-corruption measures , such as reforming the controversial rural constituency development funds , and on creating jobs for Solomon Islanders '' . During the campaign , he said that it would `` treat infrastructure as its priority '' , such as the development of roads in the country . He pointed to his own Central Kwara'ae constituency , arguing that he had achieved an improvement in water supplies and health care services . The party would also `` create incentives to stimulate economic activities in the rural areas '' , with an aim to `` double the export of cocoa , copra , fish and sawn timber '' . On the debate over the possibility of creating reserved seats for women in Parliament , he stated that they were unnecessary , and that parties should , instead , field women candidates so as to bring them into the political mainstream ; he pointed out that his party would be fielding six women candidates in the election . However , he said he would support a maximum of four reserved seats , if women standing against men were unsuccessful in the 2010 election .","qid":"2754","docid":"People's_Congress_Party","rank":2,"score":88247},{"content":"Title: United States congressional committee Content: A congressional committee is a legislative sub-organization in the United States Congress that handles a specific duty ( rather than the general duties of Congress ) . Committee membership enables members to develop specialized knowledge of the matters under their jurisdiction . As `` little legislatures '' , the committees monitor ongoing governmental operations , identify issues suitable for legislative review , gather and evaluate information , and recommend courses of action to their parent body . Woodrow Wilson once wrote , `` it is not far from the truth to say that Congress in session is Congress on public exhibition , whilst Congress in its committee rooms is Congress at work . '' It is neither expected nor possible that a member of Congress be an expert on all matters and subject areas that come before Congress . Congressional committees provide valuable informational services to Congress by investigating and reporting about specialized subjects . Congress divides its legislative , oversight , and internal administrative tasks among approximately 200 committees and subcommittees . Within assigned areas , these functional subunits gather information ; compare and evaluate legislative alternatives ; identify policy problems and propose solutions ; select , determine , and report measures for full chamber consideration ; monitor executive branch performance ( oversight ) ; and investigate allegations of wrongdoing . While this investigatory function is important , procedures such as the House discharge petition process ( the process of bringing a bill onto the floor without a committee report or mandatory consent from its leadership ) are so difficult to implement that committee jurisdiction over particular subject matter of bills has expanded into semi-autonomous power . Of the 73 discharge petitions submitted to the full House from 1995 through 2007 , only one was successful in securing a definitive yea-or-nay vote for a bill . The growing autonomy of committees has fragmented the power of each congressional chamber as a unit . This dispersion of power has possibly weakened the legislative branch relative to the other two branches of the federal government , the executive branch and the judiciary branch . In his often cited article History of the House of Representatives , written in 1961 , American scholar George B. Galloway ( 1898 -- 1967 ) wrote : `` In practice , Congress functions not as a unified institution , but as a collection of semi-autonomous committees that seldom act in unison . '' Galloway went on to cite committee autonomy as a factor interfering with the adoption of a coherent legislative program . Such autonomy remains a characteristic feature of the committee system in Congress today .","qid":"2754","docid":"United_States_congressional_committee","rank":3,"score":78877},{"content":"Title: Priorities USA Action Content: Priorities USA Action is the largest Democratic Party super PAC . Founded in 2011 , it supported Barack Obama 's 2012 re-election campaign . It was the primary super PAC supporting Hillary Clinton 's 2016 presidential campaign . It focused mainly on high-dollar donors . As of September 2016 , it had amassed $ 132 million in support of Clinton . The top six donors to the super PAC have given $ 43.5 million , which is a third of the money collected by Priorities USA Action in the 2016 election cycle . The super PAC raised $ 21.7 million in August 2016 , marking its largest monthly fundraising haul .","qid":"2754","docid":"Priorities_USA_Action","rank":4,"score":77756},{"content":"Title: State of the Union Content: The State of the Union address is a speech presented by the President of the United States to a joint session of the United States Congress , except in the first year of a new president 's term . The address not only reports on the condition of the nation but also allows the President to outline his legislative agenda ( for which he needs the cooperation of Congress ) and national priorities . The address fulfills rules in Article II , Section 3 of the U.S. Constitution , requiring the President to periodically give Congress information on the `` state of the union '' and recommend any measures that he believes are necessary and expedient . During most of the country 's first century , the President primarily only submitted a written report to Congress . With the advent of radio and television , the address is now broadcast live across the country on most networks .","qid":"2754","docid":"State_of_the_Union","rank":5,"score":77205},{"content":"Title: Necessity and Urgency Decree Content: A Necessity and Urgency Decree ( Spanish : Decreto de necesidad y urgencia , also known as DNU ) is a special kind of order issued by the President of Argentina . Unlike regular decrees , which are used in Argentina for rulemaking , a DNU has the force of law . Once the President promulgates a DNU , it comes into force almost immediately ; afterwards , the National Congress must examine the decree to determine whether it will be allowed to remain in force or not .","qid":"2754","docid":"Necessity_and_Urgency_Decree","rank":6,"score":75182},{"content":"Title: Bureau of Legislative Affairs Content: The Bureau of Legislative Affairs is the office of the United States Department of State that coordinates legislative activity for the Department of State and advises the Secretary , the Deputy , as well as the Under Secretaries and Assistant Secretaries on legislative strategy . The Bureau facilitates effective communication between State Department officials and the Members of Congress and their staffs . The Bureau works closely with authorizing , appropriations , and oversight committees of the House and Senate , as well as with individual Members that have an interest in State Department or foreign policy issues . The Bureau manages Department testimony before House and Senate hearings , organizes Member and staff briefings , and facilitates Congressional travel to overseas posts for Members and staff throughout the year . The Bureau reviews proposed legislation and coordinates Statements of Administration Policy on legislation affecting the conduct of U.S. foreign policy . The Bureau staff advises individual Bureaus of the Department on legislative and outreach strategies and coordinates those strategies with the Secretary 's priorities . The Secretary of State is the principal Congressional Relations Officer of the Department . The Bureau supports the Secretary by ensuring that the administration 's foreign policy priorities are reflected throughout the legislative process . The Bureau coordinates the annual testimony provided by the Secretary to Congressional committees with jurisdiction over State programs to explain Department priorities and budget requirements . The bureau succeeds in its overall mission by seeking passage of relevant foreign policy legislation and appropriations , obtaining advice and consent to treaties , as well as confirmation of the President 's Departmental and Ambassadorial nominees by the Senate . The Assistant Secretary advises the Secretary of State on legislative matters , directs the Bureau of Legislative Affairs , and acts as the Department 's principal liaison with the Congress .","qid":"2754","docid":"Bureau_of_Legislative_Affairs","rank":7,"score":74743},{"content":"Title: Gang of Four (Australian Labor Party) Content: The Strategic Priorities Budget Committee ( SPBC ) , better known as the Gang of Four , was a political strategic grouping within the Australian Labor Party , comprising then-Prime Minister Kevin Rudd , his deputy Julia Gillard , Treasurer Wayne Swan and Finance Minister Lindsay Tanner . This name refers to the tightly held concentration of political power between the group throughout the First Rudd Government ( 2007 -- 10 ) , which deliberated on various political issues concerning the Global Financial Crisis to the Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme .","qid":"2754","docid":"Gang_of_Four_(Australian_Labor_Party)","rank":8,"score":74681},{"content":"Title: Congressional Caucus on International Exchange and Study Content: The Congressional International Exchange and Study Caucus is a caucus of the United States Congress that aims to raise awareness of the importance and benefits of international exchange and study abroad programs , which enable international citizens to have meaningful exchange experiences in the United States , and Americans to have such beneficial experiences in other countries . It 's co-chaired in the 114th Congress by Representatives Steve Pearce of New Mexico and Jim Himes of Connecticut .","qid":"2754","docid":"Congressional_Caucus_on_International_Exchange_and_Study","rank":9,"score":74598},{"content":"Title: Congressional Institute Content: Founded in 1987 , the Congressional Institute is a not-for-profit corporation dedicated to helping Members of Congress better serve their constituents and helping their constituents better understand the operations of the national legislature . The Institute sponsors major conferences as well as a number of smaller gatherings for the benefit of Members of the U.S. Congress . All events are devoted to an examination of important policy issues and strategic planning . The Institute also conducts important research projects consistent with its mission and develops resources such as the House Floor Procedures Manual and sponsors Oxford-style bipartisan Congressional debates .","qid":"2754","docid":"Congressional_Institute","rank":10,"score":74315},{"content":"Title: Priorities and Planning Committee Content: The Priorities and Planning Committee is a key organ of the Cabinet of Canada . Usually chaired by the Prime Minister of Canada , this committee sets and guides the agenda of the government and in some cases acts for the whole cabinet . As of March 31 , 2014 , the members of the committee are Stephen Harper ( chair ) , Joe Oliver ( vice-chair ) , Bernard Valcourt , Rob Nicholson , Peter MacKay , Rona Ambrose , Diane Finley , John Baird , Tony Clement , Jason Kenney , Gerry Ritz , Christian Paradis , James Moore , Denis Lebel , Ed Fast , and Shelly Glover . As of June 4 , 2013 , the members of the committee were Stephen Harper ( chair ) , Senator Marjory LeBreton ( vice-chair ) , Peter MacKay , Vic Toews , Diane Finley , John Baird , Tony Clement , Jim Flaherty , Jason Kenney , Christian Paradis , James Moore , Denis Lebel , and Ed Fast . As of October 30 , 2008 , the members of the committee were Stephen Harper ( chair ) , Lawrence Cannon ( vice-chair ) , Marjory LeBreton , Chuck Strahl , Peter MacKay , Stockwell Day , Vic Toews , Jim Prentice , John Baird , Tony Clement , Jim Flaherty , Josée Verner , and Christian Paradis . Most provinces and territories of Canada have a similar body within their cabinets . Category : Government of Canada","qid":"2754","docid":"Priorities_and_Planning_Committee","rank":11,"score":74167},{"content":"Title: Prioritization Content: Prioritization is the activity that arranges items or activities in order of importance relative to each other . In the context of medical evaluation it is the establishment of the importance or the urgency of actions that will that are necessary to preserve the welfare of client or patient . In the clinical context , establishing priorities aids in the rationale and justification for the use of limited resources . Priority setting is influenced by time , money , and expertise . A risk priority number assessment is one way to establish priorities that may be difficult to establish in a health care setting . Software has been designed to assist professionals in establishing priorities in a specific business setting .","qid":"2754","docid":"Prioritization","rank":12,"score":73619},{"content":"Title: Scientific priority Content: In science , priority is the credit given to the individual or group of individuals who first made the discovery or propose the theory . Fame and honours usually go to the first person or group to publish a new finding , even if several researchers arrived at the same conclusion independently and at the same time . Thus between two or more independent discoverers , the first to make formal publication is the legitimate winner . Hence , the tradition is often referred to as the priority rule , the procedure of which is nicely summed up in a phrase `` publish or perish '' , because there are no second prizes . In a way , the race to be first inspires risk-taking that can lead to scientific breakthroughs which is beneficial to the society ( such as discovery of malaria transmission , DNA , HIV , etc. ) ; on the other hand , it can create an unhealthy competition , thus , becoming detrimental to scientific progress .","qid":"2754","docid":"Scientific_priority","rank":13,"score":72323},{"content":"Title: Congressional Country Club Content: Congressional Country Club is a country club and golf course in Bethesda , Maryland , USA . Congressional opened in 1924 and its Blue Course has hosted five major championships , including three U.S. Opens and a PGA Championship . Founding life members include William H. Taft , Woodrow Wilson , Warren G. Harding , Calvin Coolidge and Herbert Hoover . It is a biennial stop on the PGA Tour , with the Quicken Loans National ( formerly known as the AT&T National ) hosted by Tiger Woods until 2020 . Previously , Congressional hosted the former Kemper Open until its move to nearby TPC at Avenel in 1987 . Congressional hosted its third U.S. Open in 2011 . Tournament winners at Congressional have included Rory McIlroy , Ken Venturi , Ernie Els , Justin Rose and Tiger Woods , among many others .","qid":"2754","docid":"Congressional_Country_Club","rank":14,"score":71678},{"content":"Title: Priority Development Assistance Fund Content: The Priority Development Assistance Fund ( PDAF ) is a discretionary fund in the Philippines available to members of Congress . Originally established as the Countrywide Development Fund ( CDF ) in 1990 , it is designed to allow legislators to fund small-scale infrastructure or community projects which fell outside the scope of the national infrastructure program , which was often restricted to large infrastructure items . The PDAF is commonly called the `` pork barrel '' , and has been the subject of much public criticism following exposés on abuses perpetuated by members of Congress on use of the fund in 1996 and 2013 .","qid":"2754","docid":"Priority_Development_Assistance_Fund","rank":15,"score":71478},{"content":"Title: Congress (disambiguation) Content: Congress is a formal meeting of the representatives of different nations , constituent states , independent organizations ( such as trade unions ) , or groups . Congress may also refer to : Various national legislatures : Argentine National Congress National Congress of Chile National People 's Congress , People 's Republic of China Congress of the Dominican Republic Congress of Guatemala National Congress of Honduras General National Congress , Libya , 2012 -- 2014 Congress of the Union , Mexico Congress of the Federated States of Micronesia Palau National Congress Congress of Paraguay Congress of the Republic of Peru Congress of the Philippines Congress of the Republic of Texas , 1836 -- 1848 United States Congress , the national legislature of the United States Indian Congress , 1898 , the largest gathering of American Indian tribes of its kind to that date Indian National Congress , commonly known as Congress , the older of the two major political parties in India Congress Poland , created in 1815 by the Congress of Vienna , a personal union of the Russian parcel of Poland with the Russian Empire The Congress ( 1988 film ) , a 1988 documentary film directed by Ken Burns The Congress ( 2013 film ) , a 2013 action/animation film Congress , Ohio , a village Congress Avenue in Austin , Texas `` Congress '' , an instrumental track on Casualties of Retail , the 2005 album by Enter the Haggis","qid":"2754","docid":"Congress_(disambiguation)","rank":16,"score":71026},{"content":"Title: Intelligence Community Whistleblower Protection Act Content: The Intelligence Community Whistleblower Protection Act of 1998 , amending the Central Intelligence Agency Act of 1949 and the Inspector General Act of 1978 , sets forth a procedure for employees and contractors of specified federal intelligence agencies to report complaints or information to Congress about serious problems involving intelligence activities . Under the provisions of section 8H applicable to the FBI , an FBI employee or contractor who intends to report to Congress a complaint or information of `` urgent concern '' involving an intelligence activity may report the complaint or information to the DOJ Office of the Inspector General . Within a 14-day period , the OIG must determine `` whether the complaint or information appears credible , '' and upon finding the information to be credible , thereafter transfer the information to the Attorney General who then submits the information to the House and Senate Intelligence Committees . If the OIG does not deem the complaint or information to be credible or does not transmit the information to the Attorney General , the employee may provide the information directly to the House and Senate Intelligence Committees . However , the employee must first inform the OIG of his or her intention to contact the intelligence committees directly and must follow the procedures specified in the Act . The Act defines `` urgent concern '' as a `` serious or flagrant problem , abuse , violation of law or Executive order , or deficiency relating to the funding , administration , or operations of an intelligence activity involving classified information , but does not include differences of opinions concerning public policy matters '' ; a false statement to Congress ; and taking or threatening to take certain personnel actions in retaliation for making the report to Congress . ICWPA does n't prohibit employment-related retaliation and it provides no mechanism , such as access to a court or administrative body , for challenging retaliation that may occur as a result of having made a disclosure . In 2006 Thomas Gimble , Acting Inspector General , Department of Defense , stated before the House Committee on Government Reform that the ICWPA is a ` misnomer ' and that more properly the Act protects the communication of classified information to Congress . According to Michael German with the Brennan Center for Justice , the ICWPA , `` provides a right to report internally but no remedy when that right is infringed , which means that there is no right at all . '' According to the Office of the Director of National Intelligence , from 1999-2009 , 10 complaints/disclosures were filed under this law , four of which were found to be credible by the relevant Inspector General . In three of these ten cases the whistleblower claimed that s/he was retaliated against : two CIA cases and one DOJ case . Subsequent investigations by the CIA and DOJ failed to find evidence of retaliation in any of these cases . Additional protections for national security whistleblowers are provided through Presidential Policy Directive 19 and the Intelligence Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2014 . For more information about whistleblowers protections that apply to the intelligence community see the `` national security protections '' subheading under Whistleblower protection in the United States .","qid":"2754","docid":"Intelligence_Community_Whistleblower_Protection_Act","rank":17,"score":70892},{"content":"Title: Latin American and Caribbean Congress in Solidarity with Puerto Rico's Independence Content: The Latin American and Caribbean Congress in Solidarity with the Independence of Puerto Rico consisted in an international summit held in Panama City , Panama . More than two-hundred delegates hailing from twenty-two different countries in North and South America met on November 18 -- 19 , 2006 to discuss the issue of Puerto Rican sovereignty and proposed independence . The congress was organized and sponsored by Panama 's President Martín Torrijos 's governmental Revolutionary Democratic Party ( PRD ) and the Puerto Rican Independence Party ( PIP ) . In the words of President Torrijos , `` Puerto Rico is to this day the only Latin American nation remaining under a colonial regime . From the perspective of Latin Americans , assisting in the effort to mend that anomaly is a matter of principles , a continental priority '' . Torrijos stated that Latin Americans can not continue being indifferent to said reality . Moreover , the aforementioned dignitary claimed that it is the duty of all Latin Americans to take part actively in its adequate solution . Rubén Berríos , President of the Puerto Rican Independence Party ( PIP ) , informed of a plan to create committees of solidarity with Puerto Rico throughout the dozens of countries of the region , which are spread throughout two continents ( North America and South America , as well as in the Caribbean Basin region ) , Spain , France , Portugal , San Marino , the Philippines and Syria . The congress ' participants included fifteen incumbent-governmental parties that , together with dozens of other Latin American political parties , unanimously approved a proclamation calling for the United States to immediately respect Puerto Rico 's right to independence and unabridged sovereignty . This proclamation quickly became known as the Panama Proclamation in international circles . Also present to support Puerto Rico 's independence were Raúl Alfonsín , ex-President of Argentina ; Tomás Borge of Nicaragua ; and , Ricardo Alarcón of Cuba .","qid":"2754","docid":"Latin_American_and_Caribbean_Congress_in_Solidarity_with_Puerto_Rico's_Independence","rank":18,"score":70684},{"content":"Title: 2015 State of the Union Address Content: The 2015 State of the Union Address was given by the 44th United States President , Barack Obama , on January 20 , 2015 , in the chamber of the United States House of Representatives . Following recent tradition , Speaker of the House John Boehner sent a letter on December 19 , 2014 , formally inviting President Obama to speak ( despite a proposal from some conservatives that House Republicans withhold the invitation in retaliation for Obama 's executive actions on immigration reform ) . It was addressed to the 114th United States Congress . The State of the Union Address was broadcast on various television and radio stations and webcast from the White House . Webcasts were also provided by other sponsors , including a webcast from the U.S. Republican Party . The President addressed controversial economic issues in the U.S. , arguing in support of expanding access to community college in the context of American higher education as well as in support of increased taxes on financial institutions . In terms of U.S. foreign policy , he expressed his belief in American exceptionalism and defended what he saw as an assertive foreign agenda in which the country is `` upholding the principle that bigger nations ca n't bully the small . ''","qid":"2754","docid":"2015_State_of_the_Union_Address","rank":19,"score":70666},{"content":"Title: Congress Content: A congress is a formal meeting of the representatives of different nations , constituent states , independent organizations ( such as trade unions ) , or groups . The term was chosen for the Continental Congress to emphasize the status of each colony represented there as a self-governing unit . Subsequent to the use of congress by the U.S. legislature , the term has been adopted by many states within unions , and by unitary nation-states in the Americas , to refer to their legislatures .","qid":"2754","docid":"Congress","rank":20,"score":70665},{"content":"Title: United States Congress Content: The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States consisting of two chambers : the Senate and the House of Representatives . The Congress meets in the Capitol in Washington , D.C. Both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election , though vacancies in the Senate may be filled by a gubernatorial appointment . Members are usually affiliated to the Republican Party or to the Democratic Party , and only rarely to a third party or as independents . Congress has 535 voting members : 435 Representatives and 100 Senators . The House of Representatives has six non-voting members in addition to its 435 voting members . These members can , however , sit on congressional committees and introduce legislation . These members represent Washington , D.C. , Puerto Rico , American Samoa , Guam , the Northern Mariana Islands and the U.S. Virgin Islands . The members of the House of Representatives serve two-year terms representing the people of a single constituency , known as a `` district '' . Congressional districts are apportioned to states by population using the United States Census results , provided that each state has at least one congressional representative . Each state , regardless of population or size , has two senators . Currently , there are 100 senators representing the 50 states . Each senator is elected at-large in their state for a six-year term , with terms staggered , so every two years approximately one-third of the Senate is up for election .","qid":"2754","docid":"United_States_Congress","rank":21,"score":70416},{"content":"Title: Priorities (album) Content: Priorities is the debut studio album by English four-piece alternative rock band Don Broco . It was released in the United Kingdom on 13 August 2012 . The album has peaked to number 25 on the UK Albums Chart . The album includes the singles `` Priorities '' , `` Hold On '' , and `` Whole Truth '' . After its release the band was nominated for `` Best New Rock Artist '' in the iTunes UK Best of 2012 .","qid":"2754","docid":"Priorities_(album)","rank":22,"score":70384},{"content":"Title: Center on Budget and Policy Priorities Content: The Center on Budget and Policy Priorities ( CBPP ) is an American think tank that analyzes the impact of federal and state government budget policies from a progressive perspective . A 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) nonprofit organization , the Center 's stated mission is to `` conduct research and analysis to help shape public debates over proposed budget and tax policies and to help ensure that policymakers consider the needs of low-income families and individuals in these debates . '' CBPP was founded in 1981 by Robert Greenstein , a former political appointee in the Jimmy Carter administration . Greenstein founded the organization , which is based in Washington , D.C. , to provide an alternative perspective on the social policy initiatives of the Ronald Reagan administration .","qid":"2754","docid":"Center_on_Budget_and_Policy_Priorities","rank":23,"score":69935},{"content":"Title: Tuesday's Guest Content: Tuesday 's Guest ( French : L'invité du mardi ) is a 1950 French drama film directed by Jacques Deval and starring Bernard Blier , Michel Auclair and Madeleine Robinson . It was adapted by Deval from his own play . The film 's sets were designed by the art director Robert Clavel .","qid":"2754","docid":"Tuesday's_Guest","rank":24,"score":69805},{"content":"Title: Priority Content: Priority may refer to : Prioritization , the action that arranges items or activities in order of importance Priority date , a concept of establishing waiting times in the immigration process by United States Department of State Priority level , the priority of emergency communications Priority right , a time-limited right , triggered by the first filing of an application for a patent Priority signs , a traffic sign that specifies which route has the right of way Scientific priority , the priority of scientific ideas Priority of the scientific names of organisms , including : In botanical nomenclature In zoological nomenclature Principle of Priority , the principle that the oldest available name for a biological taxon is the valid one Subordination ( finance ) , the order of priorities in claims for ownership or interest in various assets A tag or attribute of a requirement in software or systems engineering In IUPAC organic nomenclature , each functional group is given a priority number As a proper name : Priority Records , a record label started in 1985 and acquired by Capitol Records Priorities , the debut album by Bedfordshire-based rock band Don Broco `` Priority '' , a song by Jolin Tsai from the 2004 album Castle","qid":"2754","docid":"Priority","rank":25,"score":69692},{"content":"Title: Party caucuses and conferences in the United States Congress Content: Members of each major party in the United States Congress meet regularly in closed sessions known as party conferences ( Republicans ) or party caucuses ( Democrats ) . Participants set legislative agendas , select committee members and chairs , and hold elections to choose various Floor leaders . This process takes place for both the Senate and the House of Representatives . The Republican Conference Chairman or Democratic Caucus Chairman is the third ranking position in each chamber 's party leadership , after the Majority/Minority Leader and the Majority/Minority Whip , and before the Campaign Committee Chairman ( Democratic Senatorial Campaign Committee , National Republican Congressional Committee , National Republican Senatorial Committee , Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee ) . In the House of Representatives , if the party has a majority and controls the Speaker 's chair , then the Conference/Caucus Chair ranks fourth . Category : Legislative branch of the United States government","qid":"2754","docid":"Party_caucuses_and_conferences_in_the_United_States_Congress","rank":26,"score":69325},{"content":"Title: Congress Working Committee Content: The Congress Working Committee ( CWC ) is the executive committee of the Indian National Congress . It typically consists of fifteen members elected from the All India Congress Committee . It is headed by the Working President . The Working Committee has had different levels of in the party at different times . In the period prior to independence in 1947 , the Working Committee was the centre of power , and the Working President was frequently more active than the Congress President . In the period after 1967 , when the Congress Party split for the first time ( between factions loyal to Indira Gandhi and those led by the Syndicate of regional bosses including Kamaraj , Prafulla Chandra Sen , Ajoy Mukherjee , and Morarji Desai ) , the power of the Working Committee declined ; but Indira Gandhi 's triumph in 1971 led to a re-centralisation of power away from the states and the All-India Congress Committee and caused the Working Committee in Delhi to once again be the paramount decision-making body of the party . The centralised nature of Congress decision making has since caused observers in the states to informally describe instructions from Delhi as coming from the `` High Command '' .","qid":"2754","docid":"Congress_Working_Committee","rank":27,"score":69291},{"content":"Title: Congressional Caucus for Women's Issues Content: The Congressional Caucus for Women 's Issues is a bipartisan membership organization within the House of Representatives committed to advancing women 's interests in Congress . It was founded by fifteen Congresswomen on April 19 , 1977 , and was originally known as the Congresswomen 's Caucus . Its founding co-chairs were Reps. Elizabeth Holtzman , a New York Democrat , and Margaret Heckler , a Massachusetts Republican . In 1981 , men were invited to join and the name of the organization was therefore changed to the Congressional Caucus for Women 's Issues . However , in January 1995 , the U.S. House of Representatives voted to eliminate funding for offices and staff of caucus organizations on Capitol Hill ; therefore , the Congresswomen reorganized themselves into a Members ' organization . It is still called the Congressional Caucus for Women 's Issues , but men no longer belong to it . Today its membership consists of all women in the U.S. House of Representatives . Electoral participation data indicates that for more than 50 years , women have been voting in larger numbers than men . The CCWI was intended to address descriptive representation . With such few women in Congress , the legislative agenda was not representative of the wants and needs of female constituents . It was also a concern that the female representatives faced issues that would n't be addressed by the party organizations already established within Congress . In 1990 , the Congressional Caucus for Women 's Issues inspired a House resolution to honor long-time Caucus Secretary Lindy Boggs by naming the room the caucus met in the Corrine `` Lindy '' Boggs Congressional Women 's Reading Room , which it is known as today . It had previously been known as the Congresswomen 's Reading Room .","qid":"2754","docid":"Congressional_Caucus_for_Women's_Issues","rank":28,"score":69109},{"content":"Title: Congress (solitaire) Content: Congress is a solitaire card game using two decks of 52 playing cards each . It is a simple but strategic game which requires skill and careful choosing for it to be completed successfully .","qid":"2754","docid":"Congress_(solitaire)","rank":29,"score":69062},{"content":"Title: Joint Action Committee for Political Affairs Content: Joint Action Committee for Political Affairs ( JACPAC ) is a national political action committee that contributes to candidates for the US Congress who support a strong US-Israel relationship , reproductive choice , and separation of religion and state . Describing itself as the pro-Israel PAC with a domestic conscience , JACPAC has made it a point to show Congress that the Jewish community is more than a single-issue community ; its priorities include but are not limited to the US-Israel Relationship . JACPAC funds its support for Congressional campaigns through annual memberships and through bundling of member donations to candidates . All donations are hand-delivered by JACPAC members . Although JACPAC describes itself as bipartisan , the majority of its support goes to Democrats .","qid":"2754","docid":"Joint_Action_Committee_for_Political_Affairs","rank":30,"score":68949},{"content":"Title: Congressional caucus Content: A congressional caucus is a group of members of the United States Congress that meets to pursue common legislative objectives . Formally , caucuses are formed as congressional member organizations ( CMOs ) through the United States House of Representatives and the United States Senate and governed under the rules of these chambers . In addition to the term caucus , they are sometimes called conferences ( especially Republican ones ) , coalitions , study groups , task forces , or working groups . Many other countries use the term `` parliamentary group '' ; for example , the UK Parliament has many all-party parliamentary groups .","qid":"2754","docid":"Congressional_caucus","rank":31,"score":68939},{"content":"Title: Center for Public Policy Priorities Content: The Center for Public Policy Priorities ( CPPP ) is an Austin-based , nonpartisan , nonprofit policy institute committed to improving public policies to better the economic and social conditions of low - and moderate-income Texans .","qid":"2754","docid":"Center_for_Public_Policy_Priorities","rank":32,"score":68685},{"content":"Title: James A. Guest Content: James Alfred ( Jim ) Guest ( born December 25 , 1940 ) is an American lawyer , consumer advocate , and politician . From 2001 to 2014 , Guest was the president and chief executive officer of Consumer Reports , a position he was appointed to after serving as Chairman of the Board of the Consumers Union from 1976 to 1994 , with 21 of those 22 years as chair . Guest , a Democrat , unsuccessfully ran for the U.S. Senate in 1982 and the U.S. House of Representatives in 1988 .","qid":"2754","docid":"James_A._Guest","rank":33,"score":68385},{"content":"Title: Indian National Congress (Organisation) Content: The Indian National Congress ( Organisation ) or Congress ( O ) was a political party in India formed when the Congress party split following the expulsion of Indira Gandhi . On 12 November 1969 Indira Gandhi ( the then Prime Minister of India ) was expelled from the Congress party for violating the party discipline . The party finally split with Indira Gandhi setting up a rival organization , which came to be known as Congress ( R ) . In the All India Congress Committee , 446 of its 705 members walked over to Indira 's side . The Indian National Congress ( Organisation ) was also occasionally informally referred to as the Syndicate and the Indira faction by `` Indicate '' . Kamaraj and later Morarji Desai were the leaders of the INC ( O ) . The split can in some ways be seen as a left-wing/right-wing division . Indira wanted to use a populist agenda in order to mobilize popular support for the party . The regional party elites , who formed the INC ( O ) , stood for a more right-wing agenda , and distrusted Soviet help . At the 1971 general election , the INC ( O ) won about 10 % of the vote and 16 Lok Sabha seats , against 44 % of the vote and 352 seats for Indira 's Congress . In March 1977 , the party fought the post-Emergency election under the banner of Janata Morcha . The alliance inflicted crushing defeat for Indira 's Congress Party . Nevertheless , the total vote share of Congress ( O ) in 1977 was almost halved from 1971 and they lost three seats . . Later the same year , INC ( O ) formally merged with the Bharatiya Lok Dal , Bharatiya Jan Sangh , Socialist Party of India , Swatantra Party and others to form the Janata Party . Congress ( O ) 's leader Morarji Desai served as Prime Minister of India of the Janata government from 1977 to 1979 .","qid":"2754","docid":"Indian_National_Congress_(Organisation)","rank":34,"score":68209},{"content":"Title: Model Congress Content: Model Congress gives students a chance to engage in a role-playing simulation of the United States Congress . Such events are hosted by the Congress itself , Rutgers University , American International College , Columbia University , Princeton University , the University of Pennsylvania , Yale , The College of William and Mary , Harvard and Northgate High school ( Walnut Creek , CA ) . These simulations range in complexity from the government-sponsored Model United States House of Representatives , hosted on Capitol Hill and featuring six Congressional committees to Harvard 's simulation featuring both the House and Senate , various committees therein , the Supreme Court , and offshoots in San Francisco , Europe and Asia . North Carolina has a program similar to Model Congress called North Carolina Youth Legislative Assembly , and Arkansas has one called the Arkansas Student Congress on Human Relations . The mock assembly models the North Carolina General Assembly and Arkansas General Assembly but also uses parliamentary procedure based on Robert 's Rules of Order . Awards are available for outstanding delegates , both in committee and in full session . Often , debaters call winning the highest award in a committee or full session `` gaveling '' , and some exceptionally skilled debaters may `` double gavel '' , or win the top award in both committee and full sessions . American International College 's Model Congress Program is the longest-running program of its kind in the United States . The University of Pennsylvania hosted an intercollegiate Model Congress conference on November 6 -- 7 , 2010 . Yale University soon followed with a conference on April 23 , 2011 . The circuit is gradually expanding . World Youth Model Congress , organized by college and high school students from South Korea , is the first of its kind to be held in North-East Asia .","qid":"2754","docid":"Model_Congress","rank":35,"score":68110},{"content":"Title: Congress Plaza Hotel Content: The Congress Plaza Hotel is located on South Michigan Avenue across from Grant Park in Chicago at 520 South Michigan Avenue . After opening for business in 1893 , for the World 's Columbian Exposition , the hotel underwent two major expansions and renovations ; it now features 871 guest rooms and suites . Its 11 story edifice was originally designed by architect Clinton J. Warren as an annex to the Auditorium Theater across the street . The two buildings were linked by a marble-lined underground passage called Peacock Alley . In 1902 and then in 1907 , the firm of Holabird & Roche oversaw the design and construction of two additions , bringing the total complex up to 1 million square feet . In June , 1912 , Theodore Roosevelt stayed at the Congress Plaza when the 1912 Republican National Convention was held in Chicago . Roosevelt , who at that time was seeking the Republican nomination for President , spoke from the balcony of his room at the hotel to a crowd assembled across the street in Grant Park . In October 1916 , US President Woodrow Wilson passed the hotel as part of his visit to the city . Over a hundred protestors from the National Women 's Party demonstrated in favor of women 's suffrage with a silent protest . Holding banners such as `` Wilson is Against Women , '' the demonstrators were attacked by a mob and their banners destroyed while police looked on and , in some cases , laughed , according to newspaper reports . In 1940 , Louis Grell ( 1887-1960 ) , a Chicago-based artist , was commissioned to paint thirteen murals for the lunettes that are an architectural feature surrounding the grand lobby . The murals were various popular scenes around Chicago at the time . Under the Albert Pick Jr ownership in 1952 , Grell was again commissioned to paint the same architectural lunettes , this time Grell incorporated Chicago figures into the scenes depicting important trades significant to Chicago 's growth and symbolism . Lady Liberty was found in one mural holding the Chicago River `` Y '' on her lap . Additionally , in 1955 Pick commissioned Grell once again , during one of the many renovations , to paint three walls for the newly decorated Pompeian Room which also had a magnificent Louis Comfort Tiffany glass fountain in the center of the vast room . Today glass covers the thirteen lunettes where the murals could be hiding . Grell also painted a large white Peacock that was mounted above the bar next to Peacock Alley . Each wall had a main central Greek/Roman mural , however , Grell decorated the entire wall with various patterns of flora and custom design . Taos Society of Artists painter , E. Martin Hennings painted the ceiling murals inside the Florentine Room around 1918 . The hotel closed for a period in World War II and was used as a training school by the U.S. Army Air Forces . It reopened for civilian use in time for the summer political conventions of 1944 . At this time , John J. Mack was president of the Michigan-Congress Hotel Corporation . Events that have been held at the hotel include the 1963 Prohibition Party National Convention August 23 , 1963 . The hotel is not affiliated with any national chain . It is owned by a Syrian national , Albert Nasser Shayo , who purchased the property in 1987 . On 15 June 2003 , about 130 members of UNITE HERE Local 1 went on strike to protest a proposed seven percent wage cut . On 16 June 2007 , Barack Obama , then running for the presidency , briefly stood by the picket line and promised to return as president , but he did not . The strike , one of the world 's longest , ended May 30 , 2013 after nearly 10 years . No concessions were given by management .","qid":"2754","docid":"Congress_Plaza_Hotel","rank":36,"score":68045},{"content":"Title: United States congressional conference committee Content: A conference committee is a committee of the United States Congress appointed by the House of Representatives and Senate to resolve disagreements on a particular bill . A conference committee is usually composed of senior Members of the standing committees of each House that originally considered the legislation .","qid":"2754","docid":"United_States_congressional_conference_committee","rank":37,"score":67935},{"content":"Title: List of Lenny Skutniks Content: `` Lenny Skutniks '' are notable people who are invited to sit in the gallery at a State of the Union address or other joint meeting of the United States Congress . Lenny Skutnik was the first such guest , who was celebrated for his act of heroism following the crash of Air Florida Flight 90 on January 13 , 1982 . Skutnik dove into the icy Potomac River , saving the life of a passenger . For this act he was commended by U.S. President Ronald Reagan during the annual State of the Union speech held later that month . Since then , the term `` Lenny Skutniks '' has been used to refer to individuals invited to sit in the gallery , and often cited by the President , during the speech . President Reagan 's invitation , and the reference to Skutnik 's heroism within his speech , may have been an attempt to include a human interest story within the speech . The practice fell out of favor during the presidency of George H. W. Bush . Bill Clinton restored the practice upon assuming the Presidency which has continued under George W. Bush and Barack Obama .","qid":"2754","docid":"List_of_Lenny_Skutniks","rank":38,"score":67873},{"content":"Title: Congressional nominating caucus Content: The Congressional nominating caucus is the name for informal meetings in which American congressmen would agree on who to nominate for the Presidency and Vice Presidency from their political party .","qid":"2754","docid":"Congressional_nominating_caucus","rank":39,"score":67771},{"content":"Title: Indian National Congress Content: The Indian National Congress ( INC , often called Congress ) is a broad-based political party in India . Founded in 1885 , the Congress led India to independence from Great Britain , and powerfully influenced other anti-colonial nationalist movements in the British Empire . After India 's independence in 1947 , the Congress formed the government at center in most instances , and also many regional state governments . The Congress is a secular , left-of-centre , party . Although it did not fare well in the last general elections in India in 2014 , it remains one of two major , nationwide , political parties in India , along with the right-wing , Hindu nationalist , Bhartiya Janata Party ( BJP ) . The Congress was the first modern nationalist movement to emerge in the British Empire in Asia and Africa . It was founded in Bombay in late December 1885 , during the British Raj in India . Its principal founders were , Allan Octavian Hume ( a former administrator of Etawah district , North-Western Provinces , and pioneering ornithologist of India ) , as well as William Wedderburn , Pherozeshah Mehta , Dadabhai Naoroji , Dinshaw Wacha , and others . From the late 19th-century , and especially after 1920 , under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi , Congress became the principal leader of the Indian independence movement , with over 15 million members and over 70 million participants . After independence in 1947 , Congress became India 's dominant political party ; , in the 15 general elections since independence , it has won an outright majority on six occasions and has led the ruling coalition a further four times , heading the central government for 49 years . There have been seven Congress Prime Ministers , the first being Jawaharlal Nehru ( 1947 -- 64 ) , and the most recent Manmohan Singh ( 2004 -- 14 ) . The party 's social liberal platform is generally considered to be on the centre-left of Indian politics . From 2004 to 2014 , the Congress-led United Progressive Alliance , a coalition of several regional parties , formed the Indian government and was headed by Prime Minister Manmohan Singh . As of March 2017 , the party is in power in five states : Punjab , Himachal Pradesh , Karnataka , Meghalaya and Mizoram . In Bihar , it is a part of the ruling coalition . The Congress has previously directly ruled Andhra Pradesh , Tamil Nadu , Gujarat , Madhya Pradesh , Rajasthan , Uttar Pradesh and Goa . In the 2014 general election , the Congress had its poorest post-independence general election performance , winning only 44 seats of the 543-member house . The Congress ' social policy is based upon the Gandhian principle of Sarvodaya -- the lifting up of all sections of society -- which involves the improvement of the lives of economically underprivileged and socially marginalised people . The party primarily endorses social liberalism -- seeking to balance individual liberty and social justice , and secularism -- asserting the right to be free from religious rule and teachings .","qid":"2754","docid":"Indian_National_Congress","rank":40,"score":67617},{"content":"Title: Congress core group Content: The Congress core group also known as Congress core committee is a group of people in the Indian National Congress . It is chaired by the Congress president , Sonia Gandhi . The group meets every week to take stock of the situation and decide on important issues .","qid":"2754","docid":"Congress_core_group","rank":41,"score":67587},{"content":"Title: 2009 National People's Congress Content: The 2nd Plenary Session of the 11th National People 's Congress is the annual meeting of the highest legislative body of the People 's Republic of China , which was held in March 2009 at the Great Hall of the People in Beijing . The event began on March 5 and lasted until March 13 . The Congress was followed closely because of the possible impact any policy changes would have on the Chinese and world economy . Major issues discussed at the Congress include the global financial crisis , industrial revitalization , curbing unemployment , and social welfare . Highlights of the Congress included Premier Wen Jiabao 's expression of confidence in the growth of China 's economy in 2009 , conciliatory remarks towards Taiwan from Beijing , NPC Chairman Wu Bangguo 's reiteration that China will not adopt Western-style democracy , and Wen 's expressed doubts about U.S. treasury securities . The main issues raised by delegates included a strategy to adopt to face the current economic slowdown , the ways to continue to improve population 's life standards ( jobs , health ) , and continue efforts against corruption .","qid":"2754","docid":"2009_National_People's_Congress","rank":42,"score":67561},{"content":"Title: Democratic Caucus of the United States House of Representatives Content: The House Democratic Caucus nominates and elects the Democratic Party leadership in the United States House of Representatives . The group is composed of all Democratic Representatives in the House . In its roles as a party conference , the caucus writes and enforces rules of conduct and discipline for its members , approves committee assignments , and serves as the primary forum for development of party policy and legislative priorities . It hosts weekly meetings for these purposes and to communicate the party 's message to members . At the Organizational Meeting on November 18 , 2008 , of the Democratic Caucus for the 111th Congress , Representative John B. Larson ( D-Connecticut ) was elected Caucus Chairman by acclamation . The election was presided over by the outgoing chairman of the Democratic Caucus for the 110th Congress , former Representative Rahm Emanuel ( D-Illinois ) . Rep. Larson officially assumed the position of chairman on the first day of the 111th Congress , January 3 , 2009 . After his election as chairman at the Organizational Meeting on November 18 , Chairman Larson presided over the election of Rep. Xavier Becerra ( D-California ) , who defeated Representative Marcy Kaptur of Ohio by a vote count of 175 to 67 . Rep. Becerra likewise assumed his vice-chairmanship on January 3 . The forerunner of the House Democratic Caucus , the Democratic-Republican caucus , was established on April 2 , 1796 , to stop a treaty with Great Britain which unfairly treated American sailors . For many years , through 1820 , it nominated presidential candidates ( before the era of national nominating conventions ) . Since 2003 , the House Democratic Leader has been Rep. Nancy Pelosi of California ( the first female Speaker of the House in U.S. history ) .","qid":"2754","docid":"Democratic_Caucus_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives","rank":43,"score":67506},{"content":"Title: Conditional adjournment Content: In the United States , conditional adjournment refers to the authority given to the Speaker of the House of Representatives and the president pro tempore or the Majority Leader of the Senate , when Congress is in recess for more than three days , to reconvene Congress at a date earlier than scheduled to address a time-critical issue or emergency . This authority is defined in the concurrent resolution authorizing the conditional adjournment .","qid":"2754","docid":"Conditional_adjournment","rank":44,"score":67504},{"content":"Title: The Congressional Effect Content: The Congressional effect is a stock market phenomenon where stock prices tend to show a correlation in performance and volatility to the operating schedules of the US Congress . The phenomenon was coined as `` The Congressional effect '' by Eric T. Singer , a New York based finance professional and mutual fund manager . Singer found that in aggregate , the S&P 500 Index performs better on days both houses of Congress are out of session versus days when both houses of Congress are in session . There is also a decrease in volatility as measured by standard deviation . Congressional effect management found that the S&P 500 Index had a daily annualized price appreciation of 0.31 % on days Congress was In session from January 1 , 1965 to December 31 , 2008 . Over that same time span there was a 16.15 % annualized price gain on trading days Congress was Out of session . From January 1 , 2008 to December 31 , 2008 Congressional Effect Management shows an acceleration of the Congressional effect . Over the aforementioned span in session days saw an annualized price decrease of − 12.45 % while out of session days saw an annualized increase of 8.81 % . The effect was first reported on in Barrons on March 2 , 1992 by Singer and entitled `` Legislator , Go Home ! -- How Congress Can Help the Stock Market '' .","qid":"2754","docid":"The_Congressional_Effect","rank":45,"score":67437},{"content":"Title: Robert Greenstein Content: Robert Greenstein is founder and President of the Center on Budget and Policy Priorities ( CBPP ) , a Washington , D.C. think tank that focuses on federal and state fiscal policy and public programs that affect low and moderate-income families and individuals .","qid":"2754","docid":"Robert_Greenstein","rank":46,"score":67159},{"content":"Title: Congressional oversight Content: Congressional oversight is oversight by the United States Congress over the Executive Branch , including the numerous U.S. federal agencies . Congressional oversight includes the review , monitoring , and supervision of federal agencies , programs , activities , and policy implementation . Congress exercises this power largely through its congressional committee system . However , oversight , which dates to the earliest days of the Republic , also occurs in a wide variety of congressional activities and contexts . These include authorization , appropriations , investigative , and legislative hearings by standing committees ; specialized investigations by select committees ; and reviews and studies by congressional support agencies and staff . Congress 's oversight authority derives from its `` implied '' powers in the Constitution , public laws , and House and Senate rules . It is an integral part of the American system of checks and balances .","qid":"2754","docid":"Congressional_oversight","rank":47,"score":67118},{"content":"Title: Change Congress Content: Change Congress is an American organization that aims to end perceived corruption in the United States Congress by reducing what it considers the distorted influence of money in that legislative body . Founded by Lawrence Lessig and Joe Trippi , Change Congress aims to organize citizens to push candidates to make commitments on the following issues : take no money from lobbyists or PACs , vote to end earmarks , support publicly financed campaigns , and support reform to increase congressional transparency . Since January 9 , 2009 , Change Congress has been focusing its efforts on promoting citizen-funded elections , mainly through its Donor Strike campaign and support for the Fair Elections Now Act .","qid":"2754","docid":"Change_Congress","rank":48,"score":66823},{"content":"Title: National Republican Congressional Committee Content: The National Republican Congressional Committee ( NRCC ) is the Republican Hill committee which works to elect Republicans to the United States House of Representatives . The NRCC was formed in 1866 , when the Republican caucuses of the House and Senate formed a `` Congressional Committee '' . It supports the election of Republicans to the House through direct financial contributions to candidates and Republican Party organizations ; technical and research assistance to Republican candidates and Party organizations ; voter registration , education and turnout programs ; and other Party-building activities . It is a registered 527 group . The NRCC is always chaired by a Republican member of the House , who may serve up to two consecutive terms . The current chair is Rep. Steve Stivers of Ohio . Former chairmen include Rep. Guy Vander Jagt ( 1975 -- 1992 ) , Rep. Bill Paxon ( 1993 -- 1996 ) , Rep. John Linder ( 1997 -- 1998 ) , Rep. Tom Davis ( 1999 -- 2002 ) , Rep. Tom Reynolds ( 2003 -- 2006 ) , Rep. Tom Cole ( 2007 -- 2008 ) , and Rep. Pete Sessions ( 2009-2012 ) . It is governed by an Executive Committee of 11 members , which includes the party 's Leader in the House ex officio , and other members elected by the Republican Conference following a House election .","qid":"2754","docid":"National_Republican_Congressional_Committee","rank":49,"score":66763},{"content":"Title: Congress (Secular) Content: Congress ( Secular ) , is a political party in Kerala , India , formed after the split in Nationalist Congress Party in Kerala . It was led by Kadannappally Ramachandran . It had one MLA Kadannappally Ramachandran from Kannur district . Currently it has very small number of members .","qid":"2754","docid":"Congress_(Secular)","rank":50,"score":66546},{"content":"Title: Joint session of the United States Congress Content: A Joint session of the United States Congress is a gathering together of the two chambers of the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States : the Senate and the House of Representatives . Joint sessions are held on special occasions , such as : when the President delivers a State of the Union Address ; when they gather to count and certify the votes of the Electoral College ( United States ) following a presidential election ; or when they convene on the occasion of a presidential inauguration . Joint sessions and meetings are traditionally presided over by the Speaker of the House and take place at the House chamber . However , the Constitution requires the Vice President ( as President of the Senate ) to preside over the counting of electoral votes .","qid":"2754","docid":"Joint_session_of_the_United_States_Congress","rank":51,"score":66519},{"content":"Title: The Congress (2013 film) Content: The Congress ( Hebrew : כנס העתידנים ) is a 2013 French-Israeli live-action/animation science fiction drama film written and directed by Ari Folman . The film premiered at the 2013 Cannes Film Festival on 15 May 2013 . Independent film distributor Drafthouse Films announced , along with Films We Like In Toronto , their co-acquisition of the North American rights to the film and a US theatrical and VOD/digital release planned for 2014 .","qid":"2754","docid":"The_Congress_(2013_film)","rank":52,"score":66517},{"content":"Title: United States congressional hearing Content: Congressional hearings are the principal formal method by which committees collect and analyze information in the early stages of legislative policymaking . Whether confirmation hearings -- a procedure unique to the Senate -- legislative , oversight , investigative , or a combination of these , all hearings share common elements of preparation and conduct . Hearings usually include oral testimony from witnesses and questioning of the witnesses by members of Congress . George B. Galloway termed congressional hearings a goldmine of information for all the public problems of the United States . A leading authority on U.S. government publications has referred to the published hearings as `` the most important publications originating within Congress . '' The Senate Library in a similar vein noted `` Hearings are among the most important publications originating in Congress . '' Hearings were not published generally until the latter part of the 19th century , except some early hearings ( generally of special investigative committees ) were published in the series that are part of the Serial Set . Published hearings did not become available for purchase from the United States Government Printing Office until 1924 and were not distributed to depository libraries until 1938 . Unlike the documents and reports that are compiled in the Serial Set `` hearings do not constitute a real series '' although in the modern era a trend toward uniformity of numbering has resulted in all Senate hearings and prints for each Congressional Session ( commencing with the 98th Congress in 1983 ) being assigned a unique numerical designation ( in the style of what one scholar dubbed a `` combination code '' ) published on the cover and title page ( e.g. S. HRG . 110-113 ; S. PRT . 110-13 ) . A growing number of House Committees are assigning numerical or alphabetical designations for their publications ( e.g. 110-35 , 110-AA ) . The Law Library of Congress in a collaborative pilot project with Google is undertaking the digitizing of the Library 's entire collection of printed hearings ( constituting approximately 75,000 volumes ) . As of 2010 three collections ( on the decennial Census , FOIA and Immigration ) have been selectively compiled as a test . It is hoped the project will eventually provide full-text access of the entire collection which will be posted online by Google and the Library . ProQuest offers subscriptions to a database of digitized hearings ( published and unpublished ) covering 1824 to the present .","qid":"2754","docid":"United_States_congressional_hearing","rank":53,"score":66487},{"content":"Title: Brand New Congress Content: Brand New Congress is an American political action committee formed by former staffers and supporters of the 2016 Bernie Sanders presidential campaign to elect hundreds of new Congressional representatives in line with the campaign 's political platform .","qid":"2754","docid":"Brand_New_Congress","rank":54,"score":66437},{"content":"Title: Closed session of the United States Congress Content: In the Congress of the United States , a closed session ( formally a session with closed doors ) is a parliamentary procedure for the Senate or the House of Representatives to discuss matters requiring secrecy . The discussions which take place in a closed session are subject to confidentiality rules and are similar to an executive session , which itself can be open or closed . An executive session is for business which includes the President of the United States .","qid":"2754","docid":"Closed_session_of_the_United_States_Congress","rank":55,"score":66322},{"content":"Title: Congressional Caucus on Global Road Safety Content: Congressional Caucus on Global Road Safety is a congressional caucus that aims to increase awareness of road safety issues within the House of Representatives . The caucus holds educational briefings to increase knowledge of the pressing matters of road safety , including the effects of international road safety on American travelers . It also works to pass related legislation through Congress .","qid":"2754","docid":"Congressional_Caucus_on_Global_Road_Safety","rank":56,"score":66089},{"content":"Title: Congressional Debate Content: Congressional Debate ( also known as Student Congress , Legislative Debate ) is a form of interscholastic high school debate in the United States . The National Speech and Debate Association ( NSDA ) , National Catholic Forensic League ( NCFL ) , many state associations and national invitational tournaments offer Congressional Debate as an event . Each organization and tournament offers its own rules , although the National Forensic League has championed standardization since 2007 , when it began to ask its districts to use one of a number of procedures for qualification to its National Tournament . The Pakistan Student Congress event is a conference , and not interscholastic competition . In Congressional Debate , high school students emulate members of the United States Congress by debating bills and resolutions . Before the event , each school submits mock legislation to each tournament . After the legislation has been compiled , it is distributed to each participating team . Each team attempts to research as many topics as possible , with the goal of being able to speak on both sides of every legislation .","qid":"2754","docid":"Congressional_Debate","rank":57,"score":65933},{"content":"Title: Congress (A) Content: Congress ( A ) was a political party founded by A. K. Antony when he split from the Indian National Congress ( Urs ) a splinter group of the Indian National Congress . The party was primarily active in Kerala . The party merged with the Congress ( I ) in 1982 .","qid":"2754","docid":"Congress_(A)","rank":58,"score":65883},{"content":"Title: 6th United States Congress Content: The Sixth United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government , consisting of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives . It met at Congress Hall in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania and in Washington , D.C. from March 4 , 1799 , to March 4 , 1801 , during the last two years of John Adams 's presidency . It was the last Congress of the 18th century and the first to convene in the 19th . The apportionment of seats in House of Representatives was based on the First Census of the United States in 1790 . Both chambers had a Federalist majority . This was the last Congress in which the Federalist Party controlled the presidency or either chamber of Congress .","qid":"2754","docid":"6th_United_States_Congress","rank":59,"score":65819},{"content":"Title: Parliamentary delegation Content: A parliamentary delegation ( or congressional delegation , also CODEL or codel , in the United States ) is an official visit abroad by a member or members of a legislature . To schedule a parliamentary delegation , a member must apply to the relevant committee chair , who will contact the appropriate agency to request funds and support for the trip . Various parliaments and legislatures maintain formal or informal groupings , such as congressional caucuses and all-party parliamentary groups , which maintain regular delegations to and from select countries ; the European Parliament also maintains a formal delegation system for regular meetings with national and multinational parliaments . Parliamentary delegations are formed for purposes of solidarity , negotiations , research , and investigation , but they are sometimes a source of controversy and criticism , when seen as junkets .","qid":"2754","docid":"Parliamentary_delegation","rank":60,"score":65807},{"content":"Title: Presidents of the United States and control of Congress Content: The degree to which the President of the United States 's political party has control over the House of Representatives and Senate often determines his political strength - such as the ability to pass sponsored legislation , ratify treaties , and have Cabinet members and judges approved .","qid":"2754","docid":"Presidents_of_the_United_States_and_control_of_Congress","rank":61,"score":65780},{"content":"Title: Congressional Record Content: The Congressional Record is the official record of the proceedings and debates of the United States Congress , published by the United States Government Publishing Office and issued when Congress is in session . Indexes are issued approximately every two weeks . At the end of a session of Congress , the daily editions are compiled in bound volumes constituting the permanent edition . Statutory authorization for the Congressional Record is found in Chapter 9 of Title 44 of the United States Code .","qid":"2754","docid":"Congressional_Record","rank":62,"score":65777},{"content":"Title: 33rd United States Congress Content: The Thirty-third United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government , consisting of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives . It met in Washington , D.C. from March 4 , 1853 , to March 4 , 1855 , during the first two years of the administration of U.S. President Franklin Pierce . During this session , the Kansas-Nebraska Act was passed , an act that soon led to the creation of the Republican Party . The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Seventh Census of the United States in 1850 . Both chambers had a Democratic majority .","qid":"2754","docid":"33rd_United_States_Congress","rank":63,"score":65688},{"content":"Title: Tamil Nadu Congress Committee Content: Tamil Nadu Pradesh Congress Committee ( TNCC ) is the wing of Indian National Congress serving in Tamil Nadu . The Current President is Su . Thirunavukkarasar . Social policy of the TNCC is officially based upon the Gandhian principle of Sarvodaya ( upliftment of all sections of the society ) . In particular TNCC emphasises upon policies to improve the lives of the economically underprivileged and socially unprivileged sections of society . The party primarily endorses social liberalism ( seeks to balance individual liberty and social justice ) .","qid":"2754","docid":"Tamil_Nadu_Congress_Committee","rank":64,"score":65676},{"content":"Title: 12th United States Congress Content: The Twelfth United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government , consisting of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives . It met in Washington , D.C. from March 4 , 1811 , to March 4 , 1813 , during the third and fourth years of James Madison 's presidency . The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Second Census of the United States in 1800 . Both chambers had a Democratic-Republican majority .","qid":"2754","docid":"12th_United_States_Congress","rank":65,"score":65662},{"content":"Title: Structure of the United States Congress Content: The structure of the United States Congress with a separate House and Senate is complex with numerous committees handling a disparate array of topics presided over by elected officers . Some committees manage other committees . Congresspersons have various privileges to help the presidents serve the national interest and are paid a salary and have pensions . Congress formed a Library of Congress to help assist investigations and developed a Government Accountability Office to help it analyze complex and varied federal expenditures .","qid":"2754","docid":"Structure_of_the_United_States_Congress","rank":66,"score":65484},{"content":"Title: Caucuses of the United States Congress Content: A congressional caucus is a group of members of the United States Congress that meets to pursue common legislative objectives . Formally , caucuses are formed as congressional member organizations through the United States House of Representatives and governed under the rules of that chamber . Caucuses are informal in the Senate , and unlike their House counterparts , Senate groups receive neither official recognition nor funding from the chamber . In addition to the term caucus , they are sometimes called coalitions , study groups , task forces , or working groups . This is a list of congressional caucuses of the United States Congress , as listed by the U.S. House Committee on House Administration . For caucus membership , see the articles at Caucuses of the United States Congress by term .","qid":"2754","docid":"Caucuses_of_the_United_States_Congress","rank":67,"score":65443},{"content":"Title: Congressional Research Service Content: The Congressional Research Service ( CRS ) , known as Congress 's think tank , is a public policy research arm of the United States Congress . As a legislative branch agency within the Library of Congress , CRS works primarily and directly for Members of Congress , their Committees and staff on a confidential , nonpartisan basis . Its staff of approximately 600 employees includes lawyers , economists , reference librarians , and social , natural , and physical scientists . In fiscal year 2016 , CRS was appropriated a budget of roughly $ 106.9 million by Congress . CRS is joined by two major congressional support agencies . The Congressional Budget Office provides Congress with budget-related information , reports on fiscal , budgetary , and programmatic issues , and analyses of budget policy options , costs , and effects . The Government Accountability Office assists Congress in reviewing and monitoring the activities of government by conducting independent audits , investigations , and evaluations of federal programs . Collectively , the three agencies employ more than 4,000 people . CRS reports are widely regarded as in depth , accurate , objective , and timely , but as a matter of policy they are not made available to members of the public by CRS , except in certain circumstances . There have been numerous attempts to pass legislation requiring all reports to be made available online , most recently in 2017 , but none have been enacted . Instead , the public must request individual reports from their Senators and Representatives in Congress , purchase them from private vendors , or search for them in various web archives of previously released documents .","qid":"2754","docid":"Congressional_Research_Service","rank":68,"score":65424},{"content":"Title: Senate Report 93-549 Content: Senate Report 93-549 was a document issued by the `` Special Committee on the Termination of the National Emergency '' of the 93rd Congress ( hence the `` 93 '' in the name ) ( 1973 to 1975 ) . Its purpose was to discuss and address the 40-year-long national emergency that had been in effect in the United States since 1933 . During the continued emergency , Congress voted to transfer powers from itself to the President . The debate to end long-running states of National Emergency was ended in 1976 with the National Emergencies Act ( 50 U.S.C. 1601 -- 1651 ) , which rescinded the president 's authority under the prior emergencies and established an expiration period ( subject to annual presidential renewal ) on future declared emergencies .","qid":"2754","docid":"Senate_Report_93-549","rank":69,"score":65412},{"content":"Title: 110th United States Congress Content: The One Hundred Tenth United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government , between January 3 , 2007 , and January 3 , 2009 , during the last two years of the second term of President George W. Bush . It was composed of the Senate and the House of Representatives . The apportionment of seats in the House was based on the 2000 U.S. census . The Democratic Party controlled a majority in both chambers for the first time since the end of the 103rd Congress in 1995 . Although the Democrats held fewer than 50 Senate seats , they had an operational majority because the two independent senators caucused with the Democrats for organizational purposes . No Democratic-held seats had fallen to the Republican Party in the 2006 elections . Democrat Nancy Pelosi became the first woman Speaker of the House . The House also received the first Muslim ( Keith Ellison ) and Buddhist ( Hank Johnson and Mazie Hirono ) members of Congress .","qid":"2754","docid":"110th_United_States_Congress","rank":70,"score":65347},{"content":"Title: The Congress (short story) Content: The Congress ( original Spanish title : `` El Congreso '' ) is a 1971 short story by Argentine writer Jorge Luis Borges . The story is on an utopic universal congress and is seen by critics as a political essay . It was first published in the short story collection The Book of Sand , with Borges claiming it to be `` perhaps the most ambitious of the tales in this book . '' In Milan , Franco María Ricci published the story in a deluxe edition with the letters made of gold . The Congress was Borges ' favourite of his stories , or one of his favourites :","qid":"2754","docid":"The_Congress_(short_story)","rank":71,"score":65303},{"content":"Title: 54th United States Congress Content: The Fifty-fourth United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government , consisting of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives . It met in Washington , D.C. from March 4 , 1895 to March 4 , 1897 , during the last two years of Grover Cleveland 's presidency . The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Eleventh Census of the United States in 1890 . The House had a Republican majority , and the Republicans were the largest party in the Senate .","qid":"2754","docid":"54th_United_States_Congress","rank":72,"score":65285},{"content":"Title: 103rd United States Congress Content: The One Hundred Third United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government , composed of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives . It met in Washington , D.C. from January 3 , 1993 , to January 3 , 1995 , during the first two years of Bill Clinton 's presidency . The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Twenty-first Census of the United States in 1990 . Both chambers had a Democratic majority . This is the last Congress which the Democratic Party had both house majorities in the 20th Century .","qid":"2754","docid":"103rd_United_States_Congress","rank":73,"score":65262},{"content":"Title: 14th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) Content: The 14th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party ( Bolsheviks ) was held during 18 -- 31 December 1925 in Moscow . The congress elected the 14th Central Committee . The agenda of the congress included : the political report of the Central Committee , delivered by Josef Stalin ; the organizational report of the Central Committee , read by Vyacheslav Molotov ; the report of the Auditing Commission , given by Dmitry Kursky ; the report of the Central Control Commission , presented by Valerian Kuybyshev ; the report of the RCP ( B ) delegation in the Executive Committee of the Comintern , read by Grigory Zinoviev Moreover , Mikhail Tomsky gave an account of the work of the trade unions , Nikolai Bukharin reported on the efforts of the Komsomol , and A. A. Andreev discussed changes of the party rules . In another session the congress heard Georgy Chicherin 's report on the international situation and Soviet foreign policy . This congress was marked by the struggle between Joseph Stalin and Leon Trotsky for control of the Russian Communist Party ( Bolsheviks ) .","qid":"2754","docid":"14th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)","rank":74,"score":65262},{"content":"Title: 114th United States Congress Content: The One Hundred-Fourteenth United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government , composed of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives . It met in Washington , D.C. from January 3 , 2015 , to January 3 , 2017 , during the final two full years of Barack Obama 's presidency . The 2014 elections gave the Republicans control of the Senate ( and control of both houses of Congress ) for the first time since the 109th Congress . With 247 seats in the House of Representatives and 54 seats in the Senate , this Congress began with the largest Republican majority since the 71st Congress of 1929 -- 1931 .","qid":"2754","docid":"114th_United_States_Congress","rank":75,"score":65221},{"content":"Title: 115th United States Congress Content: The One Hundred Fifteenth United States Congress is the current meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government , composed of the U.S. Senate and the U.S. House of Representatives . It meets in Washington , D.C. from January 3 , 2017 , to January 3 , 2019 , during the final weeks of the Obama presidency and the first two years of the Trump presidency . The November 2016 elections maintained Republican control of both the House and Senate .","qid":"2754","docid":"115th_United_States_Congress","rank":76,"score":65220},{"content":"Title: Digital Collections Selection Criteria Content: Digital Collections Selection Criteria are applied by organisations ( typically libraries ) creating a digital library which of their existing holdings and forthcoming acquisitions to digitize for inclusion . A strategy with defined selection priorities for digitization is critical , and should consider both preservation and access . factors to consider are : the value of materials ; the condition of materials ; use of materials ; and material characteristics ensuring a high level of success . For the Library of Congress , items of national interest were prime candidates both to improve access and reduce wear and tear on the physical copies . In the early discussions about digitization of library materials the selection decisions were often proposed based on a desire for better access to that item 's content , and not on the condition or value of the original item . In 2001 , Paula De Stefano wrote that a use-based group of criteria was promising , as it is `` fundamental to collection development and is the common thread in all selection decisions '' . In practice , however , her study showed that most digital projects focused on special collections , which are generally not the most popular items in the overall collection . The persistent risk of disappearing `` last copies '' . and the declines seen in the condition of national treasures , as exemplified by the 2005 Heritage Health Index Report on the State of America 's Collections provide the rationale for establishing priorities and balancing access with preservation needs . The transient nature of electronic information can contribute to a phenomenon called `` memory loss . '' This is a result of data extinctions as technologies become obsolete . There is also a drift away from original bibliographic contexts as time passes . A 1998 Council on Library and Information Sources white paper identified the following comprehensive considerations for selection : assessment of the intellectual and physical nature of the source materials ; the number and location of current and potential users ; the current and potential nature of use ; the format and nature of the proposed digital product and how it will be described , delivered , and archived ; how the proposed product relates to other digitization efforts ; and projections of costs in relation to benefits .","qid":"2754","docid":"Digital_Collections_Selection_Criteria","rank":77,"score":65175},{"content":"Title: National Priorities Project Content: For Russian government economic program , see National Priority Projects National Priorities Project ( NPP ) is an American non-governmental organization based in Northampton , MA that aims to help citizens shape the federal budget by arming them with information they can use and understand . In 2014 , the organization was nominated for a Nobel Peace Prize for their research on U.S. military spending .","qid":"2754","docid":"National_Priorities_Project","rank":78,"score":65172},{"content":"Title: 20th United States Congress Content: The Twentieth United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government , consisting of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives . It met in Washington , D.C. from March 4 , 1827 , to March 4 , 1829 , during the third and fourth years of John Quincy Adams 's presidency . The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Fourth Census of the United States in 1820 . Both chambers had a Jacksonian majority .","qid":"2754","docid":"20th_United_States_Congress","rank":79,"score":65148},{"content":"Title: 51st United States Congress Content: The Fifty-first United States Congress , referred to by some critics as the Billion Dollar Congress , was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government , consisting of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives . It met in Washington , D.C. , from March 4 , 1889 , to March 4 , 1891 , during the first two years of the administration of U.S. President Benjamin Harrison . The apportionment of seats in this House of Representatives was based on the Tenth Census of the United States in 1880 . Both chambers had a Republican majority . This marked the first time since the 43rd United States Congress that both chambers were controlled by the president 's party .","qid":"2754","docid":"51st_United_States_Congress","rank":80,"score":65135},{"content":"Title: Congress for Democracy Content: The Congress for Democracy ( CFD ) was an Indian political party founded in 1977 by Jagjivan Ram . It was formed after Jagjivan Ram left the Indian National Congress of Indira Gandhi and denounced her rule during the Indian Emergency . The party contested the Indian general election , 1977 with the Janata alliance and later merged with it .","qid":"2754","docid":"Congress_for_Democracy","rank":81,"score":65091},{"content":"Title: United States Congressional staff edits to Wikipedia Content: Some edits to the online encyclopedia Wikipedia by staff of the United States Congress have created controversy , notably in early to mid-2006 . Several such instances , such as those involving Marty Meehan , Norm Coleman , Conrad Burns , and Joe Biden , received significant media attention . Others , such as those involving Gil Gutknecht , were reported but received less widespread coverage . Biographical information on various politicians was edited by their own staff to remove undesirable information ( including pejorative statements quoted , or broken campaign promises ) , add favorable information or `` glowing '' tributes , add negative information to opponents ' biographies , or replace the article in part or whole by staff-authored biographies .","qid":"2754","docid":"United_States_Congressional_staff_edits_to_Wikipedia","rank":82,"score":65071},{"content":"Title: Congressional Club Content: The Congressional Club ( founded in 1908 ) , is an historic residence , located at 2001 New Hampshire Avenue , Northwest , Washington , D.C. , in the U Street Corridor neighborhood . The organization it hosts , which is the official club of Congressional spouses , was created in May 1908 with the Sixtieth Congress passage of HR22029 . The Congressional Club is the only club in the world to be incorporated by an act of Congress . Since 1912 , the club has hosted a luncheon honoring the First Lady of the United States . It is the largest annual event sponsored by the Club .","qid":"2754","docid":"Congressional_Club","rank":83,"score":65027},{"content":"Title: Congressional Digest Content: The Congressional Digest , published by Congressional Digest Corporation , is a scholarly independent monthly publication with offices in Washington , DC . Congressional Digest was founded in 1921 by suffragette Alice Gram Robinson with the goal of presenting , in her words , `` an impartial view of controversial issues . '' Each issue focuses on one specific topic before Congress and includes primary source research material without editorial bias in a PRO & CON format . A major source of inspiration for the publication 's format was the 1920 ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution , granting women the right to vote . Robinson believed that the best way to prevent newly franchised voters from being unduly swayed or intimidated by the actions or rhetoric of Congress was to provide them with side-by-side arguments on pending legislation . Since 1921 , Congressional Digest has been an independent publication featuring controversies facing Congress and the Supreme Court . Not an official organ , nor is it controlled by any party , interest , class or sect . Congressional Digest has continued for three generations and is now led by Robinson 's granddaughter , Page Robinson . The publication has stayed true to its original concept , presenting excerpted verbatim statements from current congressional debates in a pro-and-con format , along with digested government material to put the controversy in historical and legislative context . Congressional Digest Corporation publishes two additional publications : Supreme Court Debates , started in 1997 , and International Debates , published from 2003-2013 . All three are available online ; Congressional Digest is also available in print . The publications ' subscribers include high school and university libraries , debate organizations , and other groups and individuals interested in current events .","qid":"2754","docid":"Congressional_Digest","rank":84,"score":64944},{"content":"Title: Attending Physician of the United States Congress Content: The Attending Physician of the United States Congress is the physician responsible for the medical welfare of the members of the United States Congress ( the 435 Representatives , five delegates , Resident Commissioner of Puerto Rico , and 100 Senators ) and the nine justices of the Supreme Court of the United States . The Attending Physician is also tasked with emergency care for thousands of staff , security personnel and dignitaries , and implementation of the environmental health , public health , and occupational health programs of the Capitol Hill region ( which includes the Capitol , the congressional office buildings , and the Supreme Court building ) . The Attending Physician is instrumental in security planning and works with the Architect of the Capitol , Senate Sergeant at Arms , House Sergeant at Arms , United States Capitol Police , and other congressional officials to ensure medical support during contingency operations .","qid":"2754","docid":"Attending_Physician_of_the_United_States_Congress","rank":85,"score":64893},{"content":"Title: 4th United States Congress Content: The Fourth United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government , consisting of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives . It met at Congress Hall in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania from March 4 , 1795 to March 4 , 1797 , during the last two years of George Washington 's Presidency . The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the First Census of the United States in 1790 . The Senate had a Federalist majority , and the House had a Democratic-Republican majority .","qid":"2754","docid":"4th_United_States_Congress","rank":86,"score":64872},{"content":"Title: 98th United States Congress Content: The Ninety-eighth United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government , composed of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives . It met in Washington , D.C. from January 3 , 1983 to January 3 , 1985 , during the third and fourth years of Ronald Reagan 's Presidency . The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Twentieth Census of the United States in 1980 . The Republicans controlled the Senate , while the Democrats controlled the House of Representatives .","qid":"2754","docid":"98th_United_States_Congress","rank":87,"score":64849},{"content":"Title: Anil Shastri Content: Anil Kumar Shastri is an Indian politician and a senior leader of the Indian National Congress . He is known for his outspoken views . Presently , he is Special Invitee to the Congress Working Committee and Chairman of the Hindi Department in All India Congress Committee . He was elected to the ninth Lok Sabha from Varanasi in 1989 and was a Minister in the Ministry of Finance , Govt . of India .","qid":"2754","docid":"Anil_Shastri","rank":88,"score":64828},{"content":"Title: 6th Congress of the Communist Party of Cuba Content: The 6th Congress of the Communist Party of Cuba , the governing political party of Cuba , took place on April 16 -- 19 , 2011 , in Havana at the . The main focus of the congress was to introduce economic , social , and political reforms in order to modernize the country 's socialist system . The Congress also elected Raúl Castro as First Secretary , the position vacant since Fidel Castro 's stepping down in 2006 .","qid":"2754","docid":"6th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_Cuba","rank":89,"score":64789},{"content":"Title: Priority Matrix Content: Priority Matrix is a time management software application that is supported on a number of platforms , including Microsoft Windows , Mac OS X , Android , and iOS . It is based on the Eisenhower Method of arranging tasks by urgency and importance in a 2x2 matrix . Priority Matrix offers a cloud-based synchronization of data , allowing for data management across multiple devices . The application is also loosely based on David Allen 's Getting Things Done methodology of improving productivity .","qid":"2754","docid":"Priority_Matrix","rank":90,"score":64782},{"content":"Title: 34th United States Congress Content: The Thirty-fourth United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government , consisting of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives . It met in Washington , D.C. from March 4 , 1855 , to March 4 , 1857 , during the last two years of Franklin Pierce 's presidency . The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Seventh Census of the United States in 1850 . The Whig Party , one of the two major parties of the era , had largely collapsed , although many former Whigs ran as Republicans or as members of the `` Opposition Party . '' The Senate had a Democratic majority , and the House was controlled by a coalition of Representatives led by Nathaniel P. Banks , a member of the American Party .","qid":"2754","docid":"34th_United_States_Congress","rank":91,"score":64739},{"content":"Title: 11th United States Congress Content: The Eleventh United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government , consisting of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives . It met in Washington , D.C. from March 4 , 1809 to March 4 , 1811 , during the first two years of James Madison 's presidency . The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Second Census of the United States in 1800 . Both chambers had a Democratic-Republican majority .","qid":"2754","docid":"11th_United_States_Congress","rank":92,"score":64694},{"content":"Title: 19th United States Congress Content: The Nineteenth United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government , consisting of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives . It met in Washington , D.C. from March 4 , 1825 , to March 4 , 1827 , during the first two years of the administration of U.S. President John Quincy Adams . The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Fourth Census of the United States in 1820 . The Senate had a majority of Jackson Men , while the House had an Anti-Jackson ( pro-Adams ) majority .","qid":"2754","docid":"19th_United_States_Congress","rank":93,"score":64685},{"content":"Title: 14th United States Congress Content: The Fourteenth United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government , consisting of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives . It met in the Old Brick Capitol in Washington , D.C. from March 4 , 1815 , to March 4 , 1817 , during the seventh and eighth years of James Madison 's presidency . The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Third Census of the United States in 1810 . Both chambers had a Democratic-Republican majority .","qid":"2754","docid":"14th_United_States_Congress","rank":94,"score":64599},{"content":"Title: Congressional charter Content: A congressional charter is a law passed by the United States Congress that states the mission , authority , and activities of a group . Congress issued federal charters from 1791 until 1992 under Title 36 of the United States Code . The relationship between Congress and the organization is largely a symbolic honorific giving the organization the aura of being `` officially '' sanctioned by the U.S. government . However , Congress does not oversee or supervise organizations with the charter ( other than receiving a yearly financial statement ) .","qid":"2754","docid":"Congressional_charter","rank":95,"score":64598},{"content":"Title: Congress of the Peoples of the East Content: The Congress of the Peoples of the East was a multinational conference held in September 1920 by the Communist International in Baku , Azerbaijan ( then part of Soviet Russia ) . The congress was attended by nearly 1,900 delegates from across Asia and Europe and marked a commitment by the Comintern to support revolutionary nationalist movements in the colonial `` East '' in addition to the traditional radical labor movement of Europe , North America , and Australasia . Although attended by delegates representing more than two dozen ethnic entities of the Middle and Far East , the Baku Congress was dominated by the lengthy speeches of leaders from the Russian Communist Party ( RCP ) , including : Grigory Zinoviev , Karl Radek , Mikhail Pavlovich , and Anatoly Skachko . Non-RCP delegates delivering major reports included Hungarian revolutionary Béla Kun and Turkish feminist Naciye Hanim . Soviet decision makers recognized that revolutionary activity along the Soviet Union 's southern border would draw the attention of capitalist powers and invite them to intervene . It was this understanding which prompted the Russian representation at the Baku Congress to reject the arguments of the national communists as impractical and counterproductive to the revolution in general , without elaborating their fear that the safety of Russia lay in the balance . And it was this understanding , coupled with the Russian Bolsheviks ' displeasure at seeing another revolutionary center proposed in their own revolutionary empire , that galvanized them into action against the national communists . The gathering adopted a formal `` Manifesto of the Peoples of the East '' as well as an `` Appeal to the Workers of Europe , America , and Japan . '' While an executive body was elected to carry on Comintern work in the Middle and Far East , the long-term effect of the Congress was ultimately symbolic rather than practical , serving as a marker of Comintern commitment to the revolutionary anti-colonial movements of the east but forging few lasting ties .","qid":"2754","docid":"Congress_of_the_Peoples_of_the_East","rank":96,"score":64571},{"content":"Title: 99th United States Congress Content: The Ninety-ninth United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government , composed of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives . It met in Washington , D.C. from January 3 , 1985 to January 3 , 1987 , during the fifth and sixth years of Ronald Reagan 's presidency . The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Twentieth Census of the United States in 1980 . The Republicans maintained control of the Senate , while the Democrats maintained control of the House of Representatives .","qid":"2754","docid":"99th_United_States_Congress","rank":97,"score":64500},{"content":"Title: 9th United States Congress Content: The Ninth United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government , consisting of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives . It met in Washington , D.C. from March 4 , 1805 to March 4 , 1807 , during the fifth and sixth years of Thomas Jefferson 's presidency . The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Second Census of the United States in 1800 . Both chambers had a Democratic-Republican majority .","qid":"2754","docid":"9th_United_States_Congress","rank":98,"score":64476},{"content":"Title: 18th United States Congress Content: The Eighteenth United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government , consisting of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives . It met in Washington , D.C. from March 4 , 1823 , to March 4 , 1825 , during the seventh and eighth years of James Monroe 's presidency . The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Fourth Census of the United States in 1820 . Both chambers had a Democratic-Republican majority .","qid":"2754","docid":"18th_United_States_Congress","rank":99,"score":64458},{"content":"Title: 31st United States Congress Content: The Thirty-first United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government , consisting of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives . It met in Washington , D.C. from March 4 , 1849 , to March 4 , 1851 , during the 16 months of the Zachary Taylor presidency and the first eight months of Millard Fillmore 's . The apportionment of seats in this House of Representatives was based on the Sixth Census of the United States in 1840 . The Senate had a Democratic majority , while there was a Democratic plurality in the House .","qid":"2754","docid":"31st_United_States_Congress","rank":100,"score":64443}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Congressional Hispanic Conference Content: The Congressional Hispanic Conference ( CHC ) is a Republican Party-controlled caucus in the United States Congress . Currently with 13 members , the CHC was formed in 2003 , with the stated goal of promoting policy outcomes of importance to Americans of Hispanic or Latino and Portuguese descent . These priorities included support of the following : then-President George W. Bush and American troops in the war against terrorism ; the Free Trade Agreement of the Americas ( FTAA ) ; tax relief to families and the over two million Hispanic - and Portuguese-owned small businesses ; support for faith based initiatives ; and , educational choice for all . The impetus behind the Conference 's creation was the debate surrounding the nomination of conservative lawyer Miguel Estrada to the DC Circuit Court of Appeals . The Congressional Hispanic Conference should not be confused with the older Congressional Hispanic Caucus , which is another congressional organization populated by Democratic congress members .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"Congressional_Hispanic_Conference\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 88486\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: People's Congress Party Content: The People 's Congress Party is a political party in Solomon Islands . It was founded by outgoing deputy Prime Minister Fred Fono during the campaign for the 2010 general election . Upon first announcing the priorities of the party , Fono stated its focus would be on `` anti-corruption measures , such as reforming the controversial rural constituency development funds , and on creating jobs for Solomon Islanders '' . During the campaign , he said that it would `` treat infrastructure as its priority '' , such as the development of roads in the country . He pointed to his own Central Kwara'ae constituency , arguing that he had achieved an improvement in water supplies and health care services . The party would also `` create incentives to stimulate economic activities in the rural areas '' , with an aim to `` double the export of cocoa , copra , fish and sawn timber '' . On the debate over the possibility of creating reserved seats for women in Parliament , he stated that they were unnecessary , and that parties should , instead , field women candidates so as to bring them into the political mainstream ; he pointed out that his party would be fielding six women candidates in the election . However , he said he would support a maximum of four reserved seats , if women standing against men were unsuccessful in the 2010 election .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"People's_Congress_Party\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 88247\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: United States congressional committee Content: A congressional committee is a legislative sub-organization in the United States Congress that handles a specific duty ( rather than the general duties of Congress ) . Committee membership enables members to develop specialized knowledge of the matters under their jurisdiction . As `` little legislatures '' , the committees monitor ongoing governmental operations , identify issues suitable for legislative review , gather and evaluate information , and recommend courses of action to their parent body . Woodrow Wilson once wrote , `` it is not far from the truth to say that Congress in session is Congress on public exhibition , whilst Congress in its committee rooms is Congress at work . '' It is neither expected nor possible that a member of Congress be an expert on all matters and subject areas that come before Congress . Congressional committees provide valuable informational services to Congress by investigating and reporting about specialized subjects . Congress divides its legislative , oversight , and internal administrative tasks among approximately 200 committees and subcommittees . Within assigned areas , these functional subunits gather information ; compare and evaluate legislative alternatives ; identify policy problems and propose solutions ; select , determine , and report measures for full chamber consideration ; monitor executive branch performance ( oversight ) ; and investigate allegations of wrongdoing . While this investigatory function is important , procedures such as the House discharge petition process ( the process of bringing a bill onto the floor without a committee report or mandatory consent from its leadership ) are so difficult to implement that committee jurisdiction over particular subject matter of bills has expanded into semi-autonomous power . Of the 73 discharge petitions submitted to the full House from 1995 through 2007 , only one was successful in securing a definitive yea-or-nay vote for a bill . The growing autonomy of committees has fragmented the power of each congressional chamber as a unit . This dispersion of power has possibly weakened the legislative branch relative to the other two branches of the federal government , the executive branch and the judiciary branch . In his often cited article History of the House of Representatives , written in 1961 , American scholar George B. Galloway ( 1898 -- 1967 ) wrote : `` In practice , Congress functions not as a unified institution , but as a collection of semi-autonomous committees that seldom act in unison . '' Galloway went on to cite committee autonomy as a factor interfering with the adoption of a coherent legislative program . Such autonomy remains a characteristic feature of the committee system in Congress today .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"United_States_congressional_committee\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 78877\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Priorities USA Action Content: Priorities USA Action is the largest Democratic Party super PAC . Founded in 2011 , it supported Barack Obama 's 2012 re-election campaign . It was the primary super PAC supporting Hillary Clinton 's 2016 presidential campaign . It focused mainly on high-dollar donors . As of September 2016 , it had amassed $ 132 million in support of Clinton . The top six donors to the super PAC have given $ 43.5 million , which is a third of the money collected by Priorities USA Action in the 2016 election cycle . The super PAC raised $ 21.7 million in August 2016 , marking its largest monthly fundraising haul .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"Priorities_USA_Action\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 77756\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: State of the Union Content: The State of the Union address is a speech presented by the President of the United States to a joint session of the United States Congress , except in the first year of a new president 's term . The address not only reports on the condition of the nation but also allows the President to outline his legislative agenda ( for which he needs the cooperation of Congress ) and national priorities . The address fulfills rules in Article II , Section 3 of the U.S. Constitution , requiring the President to periodically give Congress information on the `` state of the union '' and recommend any measures that he believes are necessary and expedient . During most of the country 's first century , the President primarily only submitted a written report to Congress . With the advent of radio and television , the address is now broadcast live across the country on most networks .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"State_of_the_Union\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 77205\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Necessity and Urgency Decree Content: A Necessity and Urgency Decree ( Spanish : Decreto de necesidad y urgencia , also known as DNU ) is a special kind of order issued by the President of Argentina . Unlike regular decrees , which are used in Argentina for rulemaking , a DNU has the force of law . Once the President promulgates a DNU , it comes into force almost immediately ; afterwards , the National Congress must examine the decree to determine whether it will be allowed to remain in force or not .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"Necessity_and_Urgency_Decree\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 75182\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bureau of Legislative Affairs Content: The Bureau of Legislative Affairs is the office of the United States Department of State that coordinates legislative activity for the Department of State and advises the Secretary , the Deputy , as well as the Under Secretaries and Assistant Secretaries on legislative strategy . The Bureau facilitates effective communication between State Department officials and the Members of Congress and their staffs . The Bureau works closely with authorizing , appropriations , and oversight committees of the House and Senate , as well as with individual Members that have an interest in State Department or foreign policy issues . The Bureau manages Department testimony before House and Senate hearings , organizes Member and staff briefings , and facilitates Congressional travel to overseas posts for Members and staff throughout the year . The Bureau reviews proposed legislation and coordinates Statements of Administration Policy on legislation affecting the conduct of U.S. foreign policy . The Bureau staff advises individual Bureaus of the Department on legislative and outreach strategies and coordinates those strategies with the Secretary 's priorities . The Secretary of State is the principal Congressional Relations Officer of the Department . The Bureau supports the Secretary by ensuring that the administration 's foreign policy priorities are reflected throughout the legislative process . The Bureau coordinates the annual testimony provided by the Secretary to Congressional committees with jurisdiction over State programs to explain Department priorities and budget requirements . The bureau succeeds in its overall mission by seeking passage of relevant foreign policy legislation and appropriations , obtaining advice and consent to treaties , as well as confirmation of the President 's Departmental and Ambassadorial nominees by the Senate . The Assistant Secretary advises the Secretary of State on legislative matters , directs the Bureau of Legislative Affairs , and acts as the Department 's principal liaison with the Congress .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"Bureau_of_Legislative_Affairs\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 74743\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Gang of Four (Australian Labor Party) Content: The Strategic Priorities Budget Committee ( SPBC ) , better known as the Gang of Four , was a political strategic grouping within the Australian Labor Party , comprising then-Prime Minister Kevin Rudd , his deputy Julia Gillard , Treasurer Wayne Swan and Finance Minister Lindsay Tanner . This name refers to the tightly held concentration of political power between the group throughout the First Rudd Government ( 2007 -- 10 ) , which deliberated on various political issues concerning the Global Financial Crisis to the Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"Gang_of_Four_(Australian_Labor_Party)\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 74681\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Congressional Caucus on International Exchange and Study Content: The Congressional International Exchange and Study Caucus is a caucus of the United States Congress that aims to raise awareness of the importance and benefits of international exchange and study abroad programs , which enable international citizens to have meaningful exchange experiences in the United States , and Americans to have such beneficial experiences in other countries . It 's co-chaired in the 114th Congress by Representatives Steve Pearce of New Mexico and Jim Himes of Connecticut .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"Congressional_Caucus_on_International_Exchange_and_Study\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 74598\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Congressional Institute Content: Founded in 1987 , the Congressional Institute is a not-for-profit corporation dedicated to helping Members of Congress better serve their constituents and helping their constituents better understand the operations of the national legislature . The Institute sponsors major conferences as well as a number of smaller gatherings for the benefit of Members of the U.S. Congress . All events are devoted to an examination of important policy issues and strategic planning . The Institute also conducts important research projects consistent with its mission and develops resources such as the House Floor Procedures Manual and sponsors Oxford-style bipartisan Congressional debates .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"Congressional_Institute\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 74315\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Priorities and Planning Committee Content: The Priorities and Planning Committee is a key organ of the Cabinet of Canada . Usually chaired by the Prime Minister of Canada , this committee sets and guides the agenda of the government and in some cases acts for the whole cabinet . As of March 31 , 2014 , the members of the committee are Stephen Harper ( chair ) , Joe Oliver ( vice-chair ) , Bernard Valcourt , Rob Nicholson , Peter MacKay , Rona Ambrose , Diane Finley , John Baird , Tony Clement , Jason Kenney , Gerry Ritz , Christian Paradis , James Moore , Denis Lebel , Ed Fast , and Shelly Glover . As of June 4 , 2013 , the members of the committee were Stephen Harper ( chair ) , Senator Marjory LeBreton ( vice-chair ) , Peter MacKay , Vic Toews , Diane Finley , John Baird , Tony Clement , Jim Flaherty , Jason Kenney , Christian Paradis , James Moore , Denis Lebel , and Ed Fast . As of October 30 , 2008 , the members of the committee were Stephen Harper ( chair ) , Lawrence Cannon ( vice-chair ) , Marjory LeBreton , Chuck Strahl , Peter MacKay , Stockwell Day , Vic Toews , Jim Prentice , John Baird , Tony Clement , Jim Flaherty , Josée Verner , and Christian Paradis . Most provinces and territories of Canada have a similar body within their cabinets . Category : Government of Canada\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"Priorities_and_Planning_Committee\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 74167\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Prioritization Content: Prioritization is the activity that arranges items or activities in order of importance relative to each other . In the context of medical evaluation it is the establishment of the importance or the urgency of actions that will that are necessary to preserve the welfare of client or patient . In the clinical context , establishing priorities aids in the rationale and justification for the use of limited resources . Priority setting is influenced by time , money , and expertise . A risk priority number assessment is one way to establish priorities that may be difficult to establish in a health care setting . Software has been designed to assist professionals in establishing priorities in a specific business setting .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"Prioritization\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 73619\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Scientific priority Content: In science , priority is the credit given to the individual or group of individuals who first made the discovery or propose the theory . Fame and honours usually go to the first person or group to publish a new finding , even if several researchers arrived at the same conclusion independently and at the same time . Thus between two or more independent discoverers , the first to make formal publication is the legitimate winner . Hence , the tradition is often referred to as the priority rule , the procedure of which is nicely summed up in a phrase `` publish or perish '' , because there are no second prizes . In a way , the race to be first inspires risk-taking that can lead to scientific breakthroughs which is beneficial to the society ( such as discovery of malaria transmission , DNA , HIV , etc. ) ; on the other hand , it can create an unhealthy competition , thus , becoming detrimental to scientific progress .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"Scientific_priority\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 72323\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Congressional Country Club Content: Congressional Country Club is a country club and golf course in Bethesda , Maryland , USA . Congressional opened in 1924 and its Blue Course has hosted five major championships , including three U.S. Opens and a PGA Championship . Founding life members include William H. Taft , Woodrow Wilson , Warren G. Harding , Calvin Coolidge and Herbert Hoover . It is a biennial stop on the PGA Tour , with the Quicken Loans National ( formerly known as the AT&T National ) hosted by Tiger Woods until 2020 . Previously , Congressional hosted the former Kemper Open until its move to nearby TPC at Avenel in 1987 . Congressional hosted its third U.S. Open in 2011 . Tournament winners at Congressional have included Rory McIlroy , Ken Venturi , Ernie Els , Justin Rose and Tiger Woods , among many others .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"Congressional_Country_Club\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 71678\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Priority Development Assistance Fund Content: The Priority Development Assistance Fund ( PDAF ) is a discretionary fund in the Philippines available to members of Congress . Originally established as the Countrywide Development Fund ( CDF ) in 1990 , it is designed to allow legislators to fund small-scale infrastructure or community projects which fell outside the scope of the national infrastructure program , which was often restricted to large infrastructure items . The PDAF is commonly called the `` pork barrel '' , and has been the subject of much public criticism following exposés on abuses perpetuated by members of Congress on use of the fund in 1996 and 2013 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"Priority_Development_Assistance_Fund\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 71478\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Congress (disambiguation) Content: Congress is a formal meeting of the representatives of different nations , constituent states , independent organizations ( such as trade unions ) , or groups . Congress may also refer to : Various national legislatures : Argentine National Congress National Congress of Chile National People 's Congress , People 's Republic of China Congress of the Dominican Republic Congress of Guatemala National Congress of Honduras General National Congress , Libya , 2012 -- 2014 Congress of the Union , Mexico Congress of the Federated States of Micronesia Palau National Congress Congress of Paraguay Congress of the Republic of Peru Congress of the Philippines Congress of the Republic of Texas , 1836 -- 1848 United States Congress , the national legislature of the United States Indian Congress , 1898 , the largest gathering of American Indian tribes of its kind to that date Indian National Congress , commonly known as Congress , the older of the two major political parties in India Congress Poland , created in 1815 by the Congress of Vienna , a personal union of the Russian parcel of Poland with the Russian Empire The Congress ( 1988 film ) , a 1988 documentary film directed by Ken Burns The Congress ( 2013 film ) , a 2013 action/animation film Congress , Ohio , a village Congress Avenue in Austin , Texas `` Congress '' , an instrumental track on Casualties of Retail , the 2005 album by Enter the Haggis\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"Congress_(disambiguation)\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 71026\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Intelligence Community Whistleblower Protection Act Content: The Intelligence Community Whistleblower Protection Act of 1998 , amending the Central Intelligence Agency Act of 1949 and the Inspector General Act of 1978 , sets forth a procedure for employees and contractors of specified federal intelligence agencies to report complaints or information to Congress about serious problems involving intelligence activities . Under the provisions of section 8H applicable to the FBI , an FBI employee or contractor who intends to report to Congress a complaint or information of `` urgent concern '' involving an intelligence activity may report the complaint or information to the DOJ Office of the Inspector General . Within a 14-day period , the OIG must determine `` whether the complaint or information appears credible , '' and upon finding the information to be credible , thereafter transfer the information to the Attorney General who then submits the information to the House and Senate Intelligence Committees . If the OIG does not deem the complaint or information to be credible or does not transmit the information to the Attorney General , the employee may provide the information directly to the House and Senate Intelligence Committees . However , the employee must first inform the OIG of his or her intention to contact the intelligence committees directly and must follow the procedures specified in the Act . The Act defines `` urgent concern '' as a `` serious or flagrant problem , abuse , violation of law or Executive order , or deficiency relating to the funding , administration , or operations of an intelligence activity involving classified information , but does not include differences of opinions concerning public policy matters '' ; a false statement to Congress ; and taking or threatening to take certain personnel actions in retaliation for making the report to Congress . ICWPA does n't prohibit employment-related retaliation and it provides no mechanism , such as access to a court or administrative body , for challenging retaliation that may occur as a result of having made a disclosure . In 2006 Thomas Gimble , Acting Inspector General , Department of Defense , stated before the House Committee on Government Reform that the ICWPA is a ` misnomer ' and that more properly the Act protects the communication of classified information to Congress . According to Michael German with the Brennan Center for Justice , the ICWPA , `` provides a right to report internally but no remedy when that right is infringed , which means that there is no right at all . '' According to the Office of the Director of National Intelligence , from 1999-2009 , 10 complaints/disclosures were filed under this law , four of which were found to be credible by the relevant Inspector General . In three of these ten cases the whistleblower claimed that s/he was retaliated against : two CIA cases and one DOJ case . Subsequent investigations by the CIA and DOJ failed to find evidence of retaliation in any of these cases . Additional protections for national security whistleblowers are provided through Presidential Policy Directive 19 and the Intelligence Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2014 . For more information about whistleblowers protections that apply to the intelligence community see the `` national security protections '' subheading under Whistleblower protection in the United States .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"Intelligence_Community_Whistleblower_Protection_Act\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 70892\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Latin American and Caribbean Congress in Solidarity with Puerto Rico's Independence Content: The Latin American and Caribbean Congress in Solidarity with the Independence of Puerto Rico consisted in an international summit held in Panama City , Panama . More than two-hundred delegates hailing from twenty-two different countries in North and South America met on November 18 -- 19 , 2006 to discuss the issue of Puerto Rican sovereignty and proposed independence . The congress was organized and sponsored by Panama 's President Martín Torrijos 's governmental Revolutionary Democratic Party ( PRD ) and the Puerto Rican Independence Party ( PIP ) . In the words of President Torrijos , `` Puerto Rico is to this day the only Latin American nation remaining under a colonial regime . From the perspective of Latin Americans , assisting in the effort to mend that anomaly is a matter of principles , a continental priority '' . Torrijos stated that Latin Americans can not continue being indifferent to said reality . Moreover , the aforementioned dignitary claimed that it is the duty of all Latin Americans to take part actively in its adequate solution . Rubén Berríos , President of the Puerto Rican Independence Party ( PIP ) , informed of a plan to create committees of solidarity with Puerto Rico throughout the dozens of countries of the region , which are spread throughout two continents ( North America and South America , as well as in the Caribbean Basin region ) , Spain , France , Portugal , San Marino , the Philippines and Syria . The congress ' participants included fifteen incumbent-governmental parties that , together with dozens of other Latin American political parties , unanimously approved a proclamation calling for the United States to immediately respect Puerto Rico 's right to independence and unabridged sovereignty . This proclamation quickly became known as the Panama Proclamation in international circles . Also present to support Puerto Rico 's independence were Raúl Alfonsín , ex-President of Argentina ; Tomás Borge of Nicaragua ; and , Ricardo Alarcón of Cuba .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"Latin_American_and_Caribbean_Congress_in_Solidarity_with_Puerto_Rico's_Independence\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 70684\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2015 State of the Union Address Content: The 2015 State of the Union Address was given by the 44th United States President , Barack Obama , on January 20 , 2015 , in the chamber of the United States House of Representatives . Following recent tradition , Speaker of the House John Boehner sent a letter on December 19 , 2014 , formally inviting President Obama to speak ( despite a proposal from some conservatives that House Republicans withhold the invitation in retaliation for Obama 's executive actions on immigration reform ) . It was addressed to the 114th United States Congress . The State of the Union Address was broadcast on various television and radio stations and webcast from the White House . Webcasts were also provided by other sponsors , including a webcast from the U.S. Republican Party . The President addressed controversial economic issues in the U.S. , arguing in support of expanding access to community college in the context of American higher education as well as in support of increased taxes on financial institutions . In terms of U.S. foreign policy , he expressed his belief in American exceptionalism and defended what he saw as an assertive foreign agenda in which the country is `` upholding the principle that bigger nations ca n't bully the small . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"2015_State_of_the_Union_Address\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 70666\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Congress Content: A congress is a formal meeting of the representatives of different nations , constituent states , independent organizations ( such as trade unions ) , or groups . The term was chosen for the Continental Congress to emphasize the status of each colony represented there as a self-governing unit . Subsequent to the use of congress by the U.S. legislature , the term has been adopted by many states within unions , and by unitary nation-states in the Americas , to refer to their legislatures .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"Congress\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 70665\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: United States Congress Content: The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States consisting of two chambers : the Senate and the House of Representatives . The Congress meets in the Capitol in Washington , D.C. Both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election , though vacancies in the Senate may be filled by a gubernatorial appointment . Members are usually affiliated to the Republican Party or to the Democratic Party , and only rarely to a third party or as independents . Congress has 535 voting members : 435 Representatives and 100 Senators . The House of Representatives has six non-voting members in addition to its 435 voting members . These members can , however , sit on congressional committees and introduce legislation . These members represent Washington , D.C. , Puerto Rico , American Samoa , Guam , the Northern Mariana Islands and the U.S. Virgin Islands . The members of the House of Representatives serve two-year terms representing the people of a single constituency , known as a `` district '' . Congressional districts are apportioned to states by population using the United States Census results , provided that each state has at least one congressional representative . Each state , regardless of population or size , has two senators . Currently , there are 100 senators representing the 50 states . Each senator is elected at-large in their state for a six-year term , with terms staggered , so every two years approximately one-third of the Senate is up for election .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"United_States_Congress\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 70416\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Priorities (album) Content: Priorities is the debut studio album by English four-piece alternative rock band Don Broco . It was released in the United Kingdom on 13 August 2012 . The album has peaked to number 25 on the UK Albums Chart . The album includes the singles `` Priorities '' , `` Hold On '' , and `` Whole Truth '' . After its release the band was nominated for `` Best New Rock Artist '' in the iTunes UK Best of 2012 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"Priorities_(album)\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 70384\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Center on Budget and Policy Priorities Content: The Center on Budget and Policy Priorities ( CBPP ) is an American think tank that analyzes the impact of federal and state government budget policies from a progressive perspective . A 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) nonprofit organization , the Center 's stated mission is to `` conduct research and analysis to help shape public debates over proposed budget and tax policies and to help ensure that policymakers consider the needs of low-income families and individuals in these debates . '' CBPP was founded in 1981 by Robert Greenstein , a former political appointee in the Jimmy Carter administration . Greenstein founded the organization , which is based in Washington , D.C. , to provide an alternative perspective on the social policy initiatives of the Ronald Reagan administration .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"Center_on_Budget_and_Policy_Priorities\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 69935\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tuesday's Guest Content: Tuesday 's Guest ( French : L'invité du mardi ) is a 1950 French drama film directed by Jacques Deval and starring Bernard Blier , Michel Auclair and Madeleine Robinson . It was adapted by Deval from his own play . The film 's sets were designed by the art director Robert Clavel .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"Tuesday's_Guest\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 69805\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Priority Content: Priority may refer to : Prioritization , the action that arranges items or activities in order of importance Priority date , a concept of establishing waiting times in the immigration process by United States Department of State Priority level , the priority of emergency communications Priority right , a time-limited right , triggered by the first filing of an application for a patent Priority signs , a traffic sign that specifies which route has the right of way Scientific priority , the priority of scientific ideas Priority of the scientific names of organisms , including : In botanical nomenclature In zoological nomenclature Principle of Priority , the principle that the oldest available name for a biological taxon is the valid one Subordination ( finance ) , the order of priorities in claims for ownership or interest in various assets A tag or attribute of a requirement in software or systems engineering In IUPAC organic nomenclature , each functional group is given a priority number As a proper name : Priority Records , a record label started in 1985 and acquired by Capitol Records Priorities , the debut album by Bedfordshire-based rock band Don Broco `` Priority '' , a song by Jolin Tsai from the 2004 album Castle\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"Priority\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 69692\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Party caucuses and conferences in the United States Congress Content: Members of each major party in the United States Congress meet regularly in closed sessions known as party conferences ( Republicans ) or party caucuses ( Democrats ) . Participants set legislative agendas , select committee members and chairs , and hold elections to choose various Floor leaders . This process takes place for both the Senate and the House of Representatives . The Republican Conference Chairman or Democratic Caucus Chairman is the third ranking position in each chamber 's party leadership , after the Majority/Minority Leader and the Majority/Minority Whip , and before the Campaign Committee Chairman ( Democratic Senatorial Campaign Committee , National Republican Congressional Committee , National Republican Senatorial Committee , Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee ) . In the House of Representatives , if the party has a majority and controls the Speaker 's chair , then the Conference/Caucus Chair ranks fourth . Category : Legislative branch of the United States government\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"Party_caucuses_and_conferences_in_the_United_States_Congress\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 69325\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Congress Working Committee Content: The Congress Working Committee ( CWC ) is the executive committee of the Indian National Congress . It typically consists of fifteen members elected from the All India Congress Committee . It is headed by the Working President . The Working Committee has had different levels of in the party at different times . In the period prior to independence in 1947 , the Working Committee was the centre of power , and the Working President was frequently more active than the Congress President . In the period after 1967 , when the Congress Party split for the first time ( between factions loyal to Indira Gandhi and those led by the Syndicate of regional bosses including Kamaraj , Prafulla Chandra Sen , Ajoy Mukherjee , and Morarji Desai ) , the power of the Working Committee declined ; but Indira Gandhi 's triumph in 1971 led to a re-centralisation of power away from the states and the All-India Congress Committee and caused the Working Committee in Delhi to once again be the paramount decision-making body of the party . The centralised nature of Congress decision making has since caused observers in the states to informally describe instructions from Delhi as coming from the `` High Command '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"Congress_Working_Committee\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 69291\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Congressional Caucus for Women's Issues Content: The Congressional Caucus for Women 's Issues is a bipartisan membership organization within the House of Representatives committed to advancing women 's interests in Congress . It was founded by fifteen Congresswomen on April 19 , 1977 , and was originally known as the Congresswomen 's Caucus . Its founding co-chairs were Reps. Elizabeth Holtzman , a New York Democrat , and Margaret Heckler , a Massachusetts Republican . In 1981 , men were invited to join and the name of the organization was therefore changed to the Congressional Caucus for Women 's Issues . However , in January 1995 , the U.S. House of Representatives voted to eliminate funding for offices and staff of caucus organizations on Capitol Hill ; therefore , the Congresswomen reorganized themselves into a Members ' organization . It is still called the Congressional Caucus for Women 's Issues , but men no longer belong to it . Today its membership consists of all women in the U.S. House of Representatives . Electoral participation data indicates that for more than 50 years , women have been voting in larger numbers than men . The CCWI was intended to address descriptive representation . With such few women in Congress , the legislative agenda was not representative of the wants and needs of female constituents . It was also a concern that the female representatives faced issues that would n't be addressed by the party organizations already established within Congress . In 1990 , the Congressional Caucus for Women 's Issues inspired a House resolution to honor long-time Caucus Secretary Lindy Boggs by naming the room the caucus met in the Corrine `` Lindy '' Boggs Congressional Women 's Reading Room , which it is known as today . It had previously been known as the Congresswomen 's Reading Room .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"Congressional_Caucus_for_Women's_Issues\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 69109\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Congress (solitaire) Content: Congress is a solitaire card game using two decks of 52 playing cards each . It is a simple but strategic game which requires skill and careful choosing for it to be completed successfully .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"Congress_(solitaire)\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 69062\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Joint Action Committee for Political Affairs Content: Joint Action Committee for Political Affairs ( JACPAC ) is a national political action committee that contributes to candidates for the US Congress who support a strong US-Israel relationship , reproductive choice , and separation of religion and state . Describing itself as the pro-Israel PAC with a domestic conscience , JACPAC has made it a point to show Congress that the Jewish community is more than a single-issue community ; its priorities include but are not limited to the US-Israel Relationship . JACPAC funds its support for Congressional campaigns through annual memberships and through bundling of member donations to candidates . All donations are hand-delivered by JACPAC members . Although JACPAC describes itself as bipartisan , the majority of its support goes to Democrats .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"Joint_Action_Committee_for_Political_Affairs\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 68949\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Congressional caucus Content: A congressional caucus is a group of members of the United States Congress that meets to pursue common legislative objectives . Formally , caucuses are formed as congressional member organizations ( CMOs ) through the United States House of Representatives and the United States Senate and governed under the rules of these chambers . In addition to the term caucus , they are sometimes called conferences ( especially Republican ones ) , coalitions , study groups , task forces , or working groups . Many other countries use the term `` parliamentary group '' ; for example , the UK Parliament has many all-party parliamentary groups .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"Congressional_caucus\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 68939\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Center for Public Policy Priorities Content: The Center for Public Policy Priorities ( CPPP ) is an Austin-based , nonpartisan , nonprofit policy institute committed to improving public policies to better the economic and social conditions of low - and moderate-income Texans .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"Center_for_Public_Policy_Priorities\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 68685\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: James A. Guest Content: James Alfred ( Jim ) Guest ( born December 25 , 1940 ) is an American lawyer , consumer advocate , and politician . From 2001 to 2014 , Guest was the president and chief executive officer of Consumer Reports , a position he was appointed to after serving as Chairman of the Board of the Consumers Union from 1976 to 1994 , with 21 of those 22 years as chair . Guest , a Democrat , unsuccessfully ran for the U.S. Senate in 1982 and the U.S. House of Representatives in 1988 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"James_A._Guest\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 68385\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Indian National Congress (Organisation) Content: The Indian National Congress ( Organisation ) or Congress ( O ) was a political party in India formed when the Congress party split following the expulsion of Indira Gandhi . On 12 November 1969 Indira Gandhi ( the then Prime Minister of India ) was expelled from the Congress party for violating the party discipline . The party finally split with Indira Gandhi setting up a rival organization , which came to be known as Congress ( R ) . In the All India Congress Committee , 446 of its 705 members walked over to Indira 's side . The Indian National Congress ( Organisation ) was also occasionally informally referred to as the Syndicate and the Indira faction by `` Indicate '' . Kamaraj and later Morarji Desai were the leaders of the INC ( O ) . The split can in some ways be seen as a left-wing/right-wing division . Indira wanted to use a populist agenda in order to mobilize popular support for the party . The regional party elites , who formed the INC ( O ) , stood for a more right-wing agenda , and distrusted Soviet help . At the 1971 general election , the INC ( O ) won about 10 % of the vote and 16 Lok Sabha seats , against 44 % of the vote and 352 seats for Indira 's Congress . In March 1977 , the party fought the post-Emergency election under the banner of Janata Morcha . The alliance inflicted crushing defeat for Indira 's Congress Party . Nevertheless , the total vote share of Congress ( O ) in 1977 was almost halved from 1971 and they lost three seats . . Later the same year , INC ( O ) formally merged with the Bharatiya Lok Dal , Bharatiya Jan Sangh , Socialist Party of India , Swatantra Party and others to form the Janata Party . Congress ( O ) 's leader Morarji Desai served as Prime Minister of India of the Janata government from 1977 to 1979 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"Indian_National_Congress_(Organisation)\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 68209\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Model Congress Content: Model Congress gives students a chance to engage in a role-playing simulation of the United States Congress . Such events are hosted by the Congress itself , Rutgers University , American International College , Columbia University , Princeton University , the University of Pennsylvania , Yale , The College of William and Mary , Harvard and Northgate High school ( Walnut Creek , CA ) . These simulations range in complexity from the government-sponsored Model United States House of Representatives , hosted on Capitol Hill and featuring six Congressional committees to Harvard 's simulation featuring both the House and Senate , various committees therein , the Supreme Court , and offshoots in San Francisco , Europe and Asia . North Carolina has a program similar to Model Congress called North Carolina Youth Legislative Assembly , and Arkansas has one called the Arkansas Student Congress on Human Relations . The mock assembly models the North Carolina General Assembly and Arkansas General Assembly but also uses parliamentary procedure based on Robert 's Rules of Order . Awards are available for outstanding delegates , both in committee and in full session . Often , debaters call winning the highest award in a committee or full session `` gaveling '' , and some exceptionally skilled debaters may `` double gavel '' , or win the top award in both committee and full sessions . American International College 's Model Congress Program is the longest-running program of its kind in the United States . The University of Pennsylvania hosted an intercollegiate Model Congress conference on November 6 -- 7 , 2010 . Yale University soon followed with a conference on April 23 , 2011 . The circuit is gradually expanding . World Youth Model Congress , organized by college and high school students from South Korea , is the first of its kind to be held in North-East Asia .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"Model_Congress\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 68110\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Congress Plaza Hotel Content: The Congress Plaza Hotel is located on South Michigan Avenue across from Grant Park in Chicago at 520 South Michigan Avenue . After opening for business in 1893 , for the World 's Columbian Exposition , the hotel underwent two major expansions and renovations ; it now features 871 guest rooms and suites . Its 11 story edifice was originally designed by architect Clinton J. Warren as an annex to the Auditorium Theater across the street . The two buildings were linked by a marble-lined underground passage called Peacock Alley . In 1902 and then in 1907 , the firm of Holabird & Roche oversaw the design and construction of two additions , bringing the total complex up to 1 million square feet . In June , 1912 , Theodore Roosevelt stayed at the Congress Plaza when the 1912 Republican National Convention was held in Chicago . Roosevelt , who at that time was seeking the Republican nomination for President , spoke from the balcony of his room at the hotel to a crowd assembled across the street in Grant Park . In October 1916 , US President Woodrow Wilson passed the hotel as part of his visit to the city . Over a hundred protestors from the National Women 's Party demonstrated in favor of women 's suffrage with a silent protest . Holding banners such as `` Wilson is Against Women , '' the demonstrators were attacked by a mob and their banners destroyed while police looked on and , in some cases , laughed , according to newspaper reports . In 1940 , Louis Grell ( 1887-1960 ) , a Chicago-based artist , was commissioned to paint thirteen murals for the lunettes that are an architectural feature surrounding the grand lobby . The murals were various popular scenes around Chicago at the time . Under the Albert Pick Jr ownership in 1952 , Grell was again commissioned to paint the same architectural lunettes , this time Grell incorporated Chicago figures into the scenes depicting important trades significant to Chicago 's growth and symbolism . Lady Liberty was found in one mural holding the Chicago River `` Y '' on her lap . Additionally , in 1955 Pick commissioned Grell once again , during one of the many renovations , to paint three walls for the newly decorated Pompeian Room which also had a magnificent Louis Comfort Tiffany glass fountain in the center of the vast room . Today glass covers the thirteen lunettes where the murals could be hiding . Grell also painted a large white Peacock that was mounted above the bar next to Peacock Alley . Each wall had a main central Greek/Roman mural , however , Grell decorated the entire wall with various patterns of flora and custom design . Taos Society of Artists painter , E. Martin Hennings painted the ceiling murals inside the Florentine Room around 1918 . The hotel closed for a period in World War II and was used as a training school by the U.S. Army Air Forces . It reopened for civilian use in time for the summer political conventions of 1944 . At this time , John J. Mack was president of the Michigan-Congress Hotel Corporation . Events that have been held at the hotel include the 1963 Prohibition Party National Convention August 23 , 1963 . The hotel is not affiliated with any national chain . It is owned by a Syrian national , Albert Nasser Shayo , who purchased the property in 1987 . On 15 June 2003 , about 130 members of UNITE HERE Local 1 went on strike to protest a proposed seven percent wage cut . On 16 June 2007 , Barack Obama , then running for the presidency , briefly stood by the picket line and promised to return as president , but he did not . The strike , one of the world 's longest , ended May 30 , 2013 after nearly 10 years . No concessions were given by management .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"Congress_Plaza_Hotel\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 68045\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: United States congressional conference committee Content: A conference committee is a committee of the United States Congress appointed by the House of Representatives and Senate to resolve disagreements on a particular bill . A conference committee is usually composed of senior Members of the standing committees of each House that originally considered the legislation .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"United_States_congressional_conference_committee\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 67935\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of Lenny Skutniks Content: `` Lenny Skutniks '' are notable people who are invited to sit in the gallery at a State of the Union address or other joint meeting of the United States Congress . Lenny Skutnik was the first such guest , who was celebrated for his act of heroism following the crash of Air Florida Flight 90 on January 13 , 1982 . Skutnik dove into the icy Potomac River , saving the life of a passenger . For this act he was commended by U.S. President Ronald Reagan during the annual State of the Union speech held later that month . Since then , the term `` Lenny Skutniks '' has been used to refer to individuals invited to sit in the gallery , and often cited by the President , during the speech . President Reagan 's invitation , and the reference to Skutnik 's heroism within his speech , may have been an attempt to include a human interest story within the speech . The practice fell out of favor during the presidency of George H. W. Bush . Bill Clinton restored the practice upon assuming the Presidency which has continued under George W. Bush and Barack Obama .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_Lenny_Skutniks\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 67873\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Congressional nominating caucus Content: The Congressional nominating caucus is the name for informal meetings in which American congressmen would agree on who to nominate for the Presidency and Vice Presidency from their political party .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"Congressional_nominating_caucus\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 67771\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Indian National Congress Content: The Indian National Congress ( INC , often called Congress ) is a broad-based political party in India . Founded in 1885 , the Congress led India to independence from Great Britain , and powerfully influenced other anti-colonial nationalist movements in the British Empire . After India 's independence in 1947 , the Congress formed the government at center in most instances , and also many regional state governments . The Congress is a secular , left-of-centre , party . Although it did not fare well in the last general elections in India in 2014 , it remains one of two major , nationwide , political parties in India , along with the right-wing , Hindu nationalist , Bhartiya Janata Party ( BJP ) . The Congress was the first modern nationalist movement to emerge in the British Empire in Asia and Africa . It was founded in Bombay in late December 1885 , during the British Raj in India . Its principal founders were , Allan Octavian Hume ( a former administrator of Etawah district , North-Western Provinces , and pioneering ornithologist of India ) , as well as William Wedderburn , Pherozeshah Mehta , Dadabhai Naoroji , Dinshaw Wacha , and others . From the late 19th-century , and especially after 1920 , under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi , Congress became the principal leader of the Indian independence movement , with over 15 million members and over 70 million participants . After independence in 1947 , Congress became India 's dominant political party ; , in the 15 general elections since independence , it has won an outright majority on six occasions and has led the ruling coalition a further four times , heading the central government for 49 years . There have been seven Congress Prime Ministers , the first being Jawaharlal Nehru ( 1947 -- 64 ) , and the most recent Manmohan Singh ( 2004 -- 14 ) . The party 's social liberal platform is generally considered to be on the centre-left of Indian politics . From 2004 to 2014 , the Congress-led United Progressive Alliance , a coalition of several regional parties , formed the Indian government and was headed by Prime Minister Manmohan Singh . As of March 2017 , the party is in power in five states : Punjab , Himachal Pradesh , Karnataka , Meghalaya and Mizoram . In Bihar , it is a part of the ruling coalition . The Congress has previously directly ruled Andhra Pradesh , Tamil Nadu , Gujarat , Madhya Pradesh , Rajasthan , Uttar Pradesh and Goa . In the 2014 general election , the Congress had its poorest post-independence general election performance , winning only 44 seats of the 543-member house . The Congress ' social policy is based upon the Gandhian principle of Sarvodaya -- the lifting up of all sections of society -- which involves the improvement of the lives of economically underprivileged and socially marginalised people . The party primarily endorses social liberalism -- seeking to balance individual liberty and social justice , and secularism -- asserting the right to be free from religious rule and teachings .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"Indian_National_Congress\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 67617\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Congress core group Content: The Congress core group also known as Congress core committee is a group of people in the Indian National Congress . It is chaired by the Congress president , Sonia Gandhi . The group meets every week to take stock of the situation and decide on important issues .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"Congress_core_group\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 67587\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2009 National People's Congress Content: The 2nd Plenary Session of the 11th National People 's Congress is the annual meeting of the highest legislative body of the People 's Republic of China , which was held in March 2009 at the Great Hall of the People in Beijing . The event began on March 5 and lasted until March 13 . The Congress was followed closely because of the possible impact any policy changes would have on the Chinese and world economy . Major issues discussed at the Congress include the global financial crisis , industrial revitalization , curbing unemployment , and social welfare . Highlights of the Congress included Premier Wen Jiabao 's expression of confidence in the growth of China 's economy in 2009 , conciliatory remarks towards Taiwan from Beijing , NPC Chairman Wu Bangguo 's reiteration that China will not adopt Western-style democracy , and Wen 's expressed doubts about U.S. treasury securities . The main issues raised by delegates included a strategy to adopt to face the current economic slowdown , the ways to continue to improve population 's life standards ( jobs , health ) , and continue efforts against corruption .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"2009_National_People's_Congress\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 67561\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Democratic Caucus of the United States House of Representatives Content: The House Democratic Caucus nominates and elects the Democratic Party leadership in the United States House of Representatives . The group is composed of all Democratic Representatives in the House . In its roles as a party conference , the caucus writes and enforces rules of conduct and discipline for its members , approves committee assignments , and serves as the primary forum for development of party policy and legislative priorities . It hosts weekly meetings for these purposes and to communicate the party 's message to members . At the Organizational Meeting on November 18 , 2008 , of the Democratic Caucus for the 111th Congress , Representative John B. Larson ( D-Connecticut ) was elected Caucus Chairman by acclamation . The election was presided over by the outgoing chairman of the Democratic Caucus for the 110th Congress , former Representative Rahm Emanuel ( D-Illinois ) . Rep. Larson officially assumed the position of chairman on the first day of the 111th Congress , January 3 , 2009 . After his election as chairman at the Organizational Meeting on November 18 , Chairman Larson presided over the election of Rep. Xavier Becerra ( D-California ) , who defeated Representative Marcy Kaptur of Ohio by a vote count of 175 to 67 . Rep. Becerra likewise assumed his vice-chairmanship on January 3 . The forerunner of the House Democratic Caucus , the Democratic-Republican caucus , was established on April 2 , 1796 , to stop a treaty with Great Britain which unfairly treated American sailors . For many years , through 1820 , it nominated presidential candidates ( before the era of national nominating conventions ) . Since 2003 , the House Democratic Leader has been Rep. Nancy Pelosi of California ( the first female Speaker of the House in U.S. history ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"Democratic_Caucus_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 67506\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Conditional adjournment Content: In the United States , conditional adjournment refers to the authority given to the Speaker of the House of Representatives and the president pro tempore or the Majority Leader of the Senate , when Congress is in recess for more than three days , to reconvene Congress at a date earlier than scheduled to address a time-critical issue or emergency . This authority is defined in the concurrent resolution authorizing the conditional adjournment .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"Conditional_adjournment\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 67504\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Congressional Effect Content: The Congressional effect is a stock market phenomenon where stock prices tend to show a correlation in performance and volatility to the operating schedules of the US Congress . The phenomenon was coined as `` The Congressional effect '' by Eric T. Singer , a New York based finance professional and mutual fund manager . Singer found that in aggregate , the S&P 500 Index performs better on days both houses of Congress are out of session versus days when both houses of Congress are in session . There is also a decrease in volatility as measured by standard deviation . Congressional effect management found that the S&P 500 Index had a daily annualized price appreciation of 0.31 % on days Congress was In session from January 1 , 1965 to December 31 , 2008 . Over that same time span there was a 16.15 % annualized price gain on trading days Congress was Out of session . From January 1 , 2008 to December 31 , 2008 Congressional Effect Management shows an acceleration of the Congressional effect . Over the aforementioned span in session days saw an annualized price decrease of − 12.45 % while out of session days saw an annualized increase of 8.81 % . The effect was first reported on in Barrons on March 2 , 1992 by Singer and entitled `` Legislator , Go Home ! -- How Congress Can Help the Stock Market '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Congressional_Effect\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 67437\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Robert Greenstein Content: Robert Greenstein is founder and President of the Center on Budget and Policy Priorities ( CBPP ) , a Washington , D.C. think tank that focuses on federal and state fiscal policy and public programs that affect low and moderate-income families and individuals .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"Robert_Greenstein\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 67159\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Congressional oversight Content: Congressional oversight is oversight by the United States Congress over the Executive Branch , including the numerous U.S. federal agencies . Congressional oversight includes the review , monitoring , and supervision of federal agencies , programs , activities , and policy implementation . Congress exercises this power largely through its congressional committee system . However , oversight , which dates to the earliest days of the Republic , also occurs in a wide variety of congressional activities and contexts . These include authorization , appropriations , investigative , and legislative hearings by standing committees ; specialized investigations by select committees ; and reviews and studies by congressional support agencies and staff . Congress 's oversight authority derives from its `` implied '' powers in the Constitution , public laws , and House and Senate rules . It is an integral part of the American system of checks and balances .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"Congressional_oversight\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 67118\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Change Congress Content: Change Congress is an American organization that aims to end perceived corruption in the United States Congress by reducing what it considers the distorted influence of money in that legislative body . Founded by Lawrence Lessig and Joe Trippi , Change Congress aims to organize citizens to push candidates to make commitments on the following issues : take no money from lobbyists or PACs , vote to end earmarks , support publicly financed campaigns , and support reform to increase congressional transparency . Since January 9 , 2009 , Change Congress has been focusing its efforts on promoting citizen-funded elections , mainly through its Donor Strike campaign and support for the Fair Elections Now Act .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"Change_Congress\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 66823\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: National Republican Congressional Committee Content: The National Republican Congressional Committee ( NRCC ) is the Republican Hill committee which works to elect Republicans to the United States House of Representatives . The NRCC was formed in 1866 , when the Republican caucuses of the House and Senate formed a `` Congressional Committee '' . It supports the election of Republicans to the House through direct financial contributions to candidates and Republican Party organizations ; technical and research assistance to Republican candidates and Party organizations ; voter registration , education and turnout programs ; and other Party-building activities . It is a registered 527 group . The NRCC is always chaired by a Republican member of the House , who may serve up to two consecutive terms . The current chair is Rep. Steve Stivers of Ohio . Former chairmen include Rep. Guy Vander Jagt ( 1975 -- 1992 ) , Rep. Bill Paxon ( 1993 -- 1996 ) , Rep. John Linder ( 1997 -- 1998 ) , Rep. Tom Davis ( 1999 -- 2002 ) , Rep. Tom Reynolds ( 2003 -- 2006 ) , Rep. Tom Cole ( 2007 -- 2008 ) , and Rep. Pete Sessions ( 2009-2012 ) . It is governed by an Executive Committee of 11 members , which includes the party 's Leader in the House ex officio , and other members elected by the Republican Conference following a House election .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"National_Republican_Congressional_Committee\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 66763\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Congress (Secular) Content: Congress ( Secular ) , is a political party in Kerala , India , formed after the split in Nationalist Congress Party in Kerala . It was led by Kadannappally Ramachandran . It had one MLA Kadannappally Ramachandran from Kannur district . Currently it has very small number of members .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"Congress_(Secular)\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 66546\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Joint session of the United States Congress Content: A Joint session of the United States Congress is a gathering together of the two chambers of the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States : the Senate and the House of Representatives . Joint sessions are held on special occasions , such as : when the President delivers a State of the Union Address ; when they gather to count and certify the votes of the Electoral College ( United States ) following a presidential election ; or when they convene on the occasion of a presidential inauguration . Joint sessions and meetings are traditionally presided over by the Speaker of the House and take place at the House chamber . However , the Constitution requires the Vice President ( as President of the Senate ) to preside over the counting of electoral votes .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"Joint_session_of_the_United_States_Congress\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 66519\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Congress (2013 film) Content: The Congress ( Hebrew : כנס העתידנים ) is a 2013 French-Israeli live-action/animation science fiction drama film written and directed by Ari Folman . The film premiered at the 2013 Cannes Film Festival on 15 May 2013 . Independent film distributor Drafthouse Films announced , along with Films We Like In Toronto , their co-acquisition of the North American rights to the film and a US theatrical and VOD/digital release planned for 2014 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Congress_(2013_film)\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 66517\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: United States congressional hearing Content: Congressional hearings are the principal formal method by which committees collect and analyze information in the early stages of legislative policymaking . Whether confirmation hearings -- a procedure unique to the Senate -- legislative , oversight , investigative , or a combination of these , all hearings share common elements of preparation and conduct . Hearings usually include oral testimony from witnesses and questioning of the witnesses by members of Congress . George B. Galloway termed congressional hearings a goldmine of information for all the public problems of the United States . A leading authority on U.S. government publications has referred to the published hearings as `` the most important publications originating within Congress . '' The Senate Library in a similar vein noted `` Hearings are among the most important publications originating in Congress . '' Hearings were not published generally until the latter part of the 19th century , except some early hearings ( generally of special investigative committees ) were published in the series that are part of the Serial Set . Published hearings did not become available for purchase from the United States Government Printing Office until 1924 and were not distributed to depository libraries until 1938 . Unlike the documents and reports that are compiled in the Serial Set `` hearings do not constitute a real series '' although in the modern era a trend toward uniformity of numbering has resulted in all Senate hearings and prints for each Congressional Session ( commencing with the 98th Congress in 1983 ) being assigned a unique numerical designation ( in the style of what one scholar dubbed a `` combination code '' ) published on the cover and title page ( e.g. S. HRG . 110-113 ; S. PRT . 110-13 ) . A growing number of House Committees are assigning numerical or alphabetical designations for their publications ( e.g. 110-35 , 110-AA ) . The Law Library of Congress in a collaborative pilot project with Google is undertaking the digitizing of the Library 's entire collection of printed hearings ( constituting approximately 75,000 volumes ) . As of 2010 three collections ( on the decennial Census , FOIA and Immigration ) have been selectively compiled as a test . It is hoped the project will eventually provide full-text access of the entire collection which will be posted online by Google and the Library . ProQuest offers subscriptions to a database of digitized hearings ( published and unpublished ) covering 1824 to the present .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"United_States_congressional_hearing\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 66487\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Brand New Congress Content: Brand New Congress is an American political action committee formed by former staffers and supporters of the 2016 Bernie Sanders presidential campaign to elect hundreds of new Congressional representatives in line with the campaign 's political platform .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"Brand_New_Congress\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 66437\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Closed session of the United States Congress Content: In the Congress of the United States , a closed session ( formally a session with closed doors ) is a parliamentary procedure for the Senate or the House of Representatives to discuss matters requiring secrecy . The discussions which take place in a closed session are subject to confidentiality rules and are similar to an executive session , which itself can be open or closed . An executive session is for business which includes the President of the United States .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"Closed_session_of_the_United_States_Congress\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 66322\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Congressional Caucus on Global Road Safety Content: Congressional Caucus on Global Road Safety is a congressional caucus that aims to increase awareness of road safety issues within the House of Representatives . The caucus holds educational briefings to increase knowledge of the pressing matters of road safety , including the effects of international road safety on American travelers . It also works to pass related legislation through Congress .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"Congressional_Caucus_on_Global_Road_Safety\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 66089\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Congressional Debate Content: Congressional Debate ( also known as Student Congress , Legislative Debate ) is a form of interscholastic high school debate in the United States . The National Speech and Debate Association ( NSDA ) , National Catholic Forensic League ( NCFL ) , many state associations and national invitational tournaments offer Congressional Debate as an event . Each organization and tournament offers its own rules , although the National Forensic League has championed standardization since 2007 , when it began to ask its districts to use one of a number of procedures for qualification to its National Tournament . The Pakistan Student Congress event is a conference , and not interscholastic competition . In Congressional Debate , high school students emulate members of the United States Congress by debating bills and resolutions . Before the event , each school submits mock legislation to each tournament . After the legislation has been compiled , it is distributed to each participating team . Each team attempts to research as many topics as possible , with the goal of being able to speak on both sides of every legislation .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"Congressional_Debate\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 65933\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Congress (A) Content: Congress ( A ) was a political party founded by A. K. Antony when he split from the Indian National Congress ( Urs ) a splinter group of the Indian National Congress . The party was primarily active in Kerala . The party merged with the Congress ( I ) in 1982 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"Congress_(A)\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 65883\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 6th United States Congress Content: The Sixth United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government , consisting of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives . It met at Congress Hall in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania and in Washington , D.C. from March 4 , 1799 , to March 4 , 1801 , during the last two years of John Adams 's presidency . It was the last Congress of the 18th century and the first to convene in the 19th . The apportionment of seats in House of Representatives was based on the First Census of the United States in 1790 . Both chambers had a Federalist majority . This was the last Congress in which the Federalist Party controlled the presidency or either chamber of Congress .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"6th_United_States_Congress\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 65819\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Parliamentary delegation Content: A parliamentary delegation ( or congressional delegation , also CODEL or codel , in the United States ) is an official visit abroad by a member or members of a legislature . To schedule a parliamentary delegation , a member must apply to the relevant committee chair , who will contact the appropriate agency to request funds and support for the trip . Various parliaments and legislatures maintain formal or informal groupings , such as congressional caucuses and all-party parliamentary groups , which maintain regular delegations to and from select countries ; the European Parliament also maintains a formal delegation system for regular meetings with national and multinational parliaments . Parliamentary delegations are formed for purposes of solidarity , negotiations , research , and investigation , but they are sometimes a source of controversy and criticism , when seen as junkets .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"Parliamentary_delegation\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 65807\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Presidents of the United States and control of Congress Content: The degree to which the President of the United States 's political party has control over the House of Representatives and Senate often determines his political strength - such as the ability to pass sponsored legislation , ratify treaties , and have Cabinet members and judges approved .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"Presidents_of_the_United_States_and_control_of_Congress\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 65780\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Congressional Record Content: The Congressional Record is the official record of the proceedings and debates of the United States Congress , published by the United States Government Publishing Office and issued when Congress is in session . Indexes are issued approximately every two weeks . At the end of a session of Congress , the daily editions are compiled in bound volumes constituting the permanent edition . Statutory authorization for the Congressional Record is found in Chapter 9 of Title 44 of the United States Code .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"Congressional_Record\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 65777\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 33rd United States Congress Content: The Thirty-third United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government , consisting of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives . It met in Washington , D.C. from March 4 , 1853 , to March 4 , 1855 , during the first two years of the administration of U.S. President Franklin Pierce . During this session , the Kansas-Nebraska Act was passed , an act that soon led to the creation of the Republican Party . The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Seventh Census of the United States in 1850 . Both chambers had a Democratic majority .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"33rd_United_States_Congress\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 65688\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tamil Nadu Congress Committee Content: Tamil Nadu Pradesh Congress Committee ( TNCC ) is the wing of Indian National Congress serving in Tamil Nadu . The Current President is Su . Thirunavukkarasar . Social policy of the TNCC is officially based upon the Gandhian principle of Sarvodaya ( upliftment of all sections of the society ) . In particular TNCC emphasises upon policies to improve the lives of the economically underprivileged and socially unprivileged sections of society . The party primarily endorses social liberalism ( seeks to balance individual liberty and social justice ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"Tamil_Nadu_Congress_Committee\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 65676\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 12th United States Congress Content: The Twelfth United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government , consisting of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives . It met in Washington , D.C. from March 4 , 1811 , to March 4 , 1813 , during the third and fourth years of James Madison 's presidency . The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Second Census of the United States in 1800 . Both chambers had a Democratic-Republican majority .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"12th_United_States_Congress\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 65662\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Structure of the United States Congress Content: The structure of the United States Congress with a separate House and Senate is complex with numerous committees handling a disparate array of topics presided over by elected officers . Some committees manage other committees . Congresspersons have various privileges to help the presidents serve the national interest and are paid a salary and have pensions . Congress formed a Library of Congress to help assist investigations and developed a Government Accountability Office to help it analyze complex and varied federal expenditures .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"Structure_of_the_United_States_Congress\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 65484\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Caucuses of the United States Congress Content: A congressional caucus is a group of members of the United States Congress that meets to pursue common legislative objectives . Formally , caucuses are formed as congressional member organizations through the United States House of Representatives and governed under the rules of that chamber . Caucuses are informal in the Senate , and unlike their House counterparts , Senate groups receive neither official recognition nor funding from the chamber . In addition to the term caucus , they are sometimes called coalitions , study groups , task forces , or working groups . This is a list of congressional caucuses of the United States Congress , as listed by the U.S. House Committee on House Administration . For caucus membership , see the articles at Caucuses of the United States Congress by term .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"Caucuses_of_the_United_States_Congress\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 65443\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Congressional Research Service Content: The Congressional Research Service ( CRS ) , known as Congress 's think tank , is a public policy research arm of the United States Congress . As a legislative branch agency within the Library of Congress , CRS works primarily and directly for Members of Congress , their Committees and staff on a confidential , nonpartisan basis . Its staff of approximately 600 employees includes lawyers , economists , reference librarians , and social , natural , and physical scientists . In fiscal year 2016 , CRS was appropriated a budget of roughly $ 106.9 million by Congress . CRS is joined by two major congressional support agencies . The Congressional Budget Office provides Congress with budget-related information , reports on fiscal , budgetary , and programmatic issues , and analyses of budget policy options , costs , and effects . The Government Accountability Office assists Congress in reviewing and monitoring the activities of government by conducting independent audits , investigations , and evaluations of federal programs . Collectively , the three agencies employ more than 4,000 people . CRS reports are widely regarded as in depth , accurate , objective , and timely , but as a matter of policy they are not made available to members of the public by CRS , except in certain circumstances . There have been numerous attempts to pass legislation requiring all reports to be made available online , most recently in 2017 , but none have been enacted . Instead , the public must request individual reports from their Senators and Representatives in Congress , purchase them from private vendors , or search for them in various web archives of previously released documents .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"Congressional_Research_Service\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 65424\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Senate Report 93-549 Content: Senate Report 93-549 was a document issued by the `` Special Committee on the Termination of the National Emergency '' of the 93rd Congress ( hence the `` 93 '' in the name ) ( 1973 to 1975 ) . Its purpose was to discuss and address the 40-year-long national emergency that had been in effect in the United States since 1933 . During the continued emergency , Congress voted to transfer powers from itself to the President . The debate to end long-running states of National Emergency was ended in 1976 with the National Emergencies Act ( 50 U.S.C. 1601 -- 1651 ) , which rescinded the president 's authority under the prior emergencies and established an expiration period ( subject to annual presidential renewal ) on future declared emergencies .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"Senate_Report_93-549\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 65412\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 110th United States Congress Content: The One Hundred Tenth United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government , between January 3 , 2007 , and January 3 , 2009 , during the last two years of the second term of President George W. Bush . It was composed of the Senate and the House of Representatives . The apportionment of seats in the House was based on the 2000 U.S. census . The Democratic Party controlled a majority in both chambers for the first time since the end of the 103rd Congress in 1995 . Although the Democrats held fewer than 50 Senate seats , they had an operational majority because the two independent senators caucused with the Democrats for organizational purposes . No Democratic-held seats had fallen to the Republican Party in the 2006 elections . Democrat Nancy Pelosi became the first woman Speaker of the House . The House also received the first Muslim ( Keith Ellison ) and Buddhist ( Hank Johnson and Mazie Hirono ) members of Congress .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"110th_United_States_Congress\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 65347\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Congress (short story) Content: The Congress ( original Spanish title : `` El Congreso '' ) is a 1971 short story by Argentine writer Jorge Luis Borges . The story is on an utopic universal congress and is seen by critics as a political essay . It was first published in the short story collection The Book of Sand , with Borges claiming it to be `` perhaps the most ambitious of the tales in this book . '' In Milan , Franco María Ricci published the story in a deluxe edition with the letters made of gold . The Congress was Borges ' favourite of his stories , or one of his favourites :\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Congress_(short_story)\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 65303\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 54th United States Congress Content: The Fifty-fourth United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government , consisting of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives . It met in Washington , D.C. from March 4 , 1895 to March 4 , 1897 , during the last two years of Grover Cleveland 's presidency . The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Eleventh Census of the United States in 1890 . The House had a Republican majority , and the Republicans were the largest party in the Senate .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"54th_United_States_Congress\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 65285\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 103rd United States Congress Content: The One Hundred Third United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government , composed of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives . It met in Washington , D.C. from January 3 , 1993 , to January 3 , 1995 , during the first two years of Bill Clinton 's presidency . The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Twenty-first Census of the United States in 1990 . Both chambers had a Democratic majority . This is the last Congress which the Democratic Party had both house majorities in the 20th Century .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"103rd_United_States_Congress\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 65262\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 14th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) Content: The 14th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party ( Bolsheviks ) was held during 18 -- 31 December 1925 in Moscow . The congress elected the 14th Central Committee . The agenda of the congress included : the political report of the Central Committee , delivered by Josef Stalin ; the organizational report of the Central Committee , read by Vyacheslav Molotov ; the report of the Auditing Commission , given by Dmitry Kursky ; the report of the Central Control Commission , presented by Valerian Kuybyshev ; the report of the RCP ( B ) delegation in the Executive Committee of the Comintern , read by Grigory Zinoviev Moreover , Mikhail Tomsky gave an account of the work of the trade unions , Nikolai Bukharin reported on the efforts of the Komsomol , and A. A. Andreev discussed changes of the party rules . In another session the congress heard Georgy Chicherin 's report on the international situation and Soviet foreign policy . This congress was marked by the struggle between Joseph Stalin and Leon Trotsky for control of the Russian Communist Party ( Bolsheviks ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"14th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 65262\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 114th United States Congress Content: The One Hundred-Fourteenth United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government , composed of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives . It met in Washington , D.C. from January 3 , 2015 , to January 3 , 2017 , during the final two full years of Barack Obama 's presidency . The 2014 elections gave the Republicans control of the Senate ( and control of both houses of Congress ) for the first time since the 109th Congress . With 247 seats in the House of Representatives and 54 seats in the Senate , this Congress began with the largest Republican majority since the 71st Congress of 1929 -- 1931 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"114th_United_States_Congress\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 65221\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 115th United States Congress Content: The One Hundred Fifteenth United States Congress is the current meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government , composed of the U.S. Senate and the U.S. House of Representatives . It meets in Washington , D.C. from January 3 , 2017 , to January 3 , 2019 , during the final weeks of the Obama presidency and the first two years of the Trump presidency . The November 2016 elections maintained Republican control of both the House and Senate .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"115th_United_States_Congress\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 65220\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Digital Collections Selection Criteria Content: Digital Collections Selection Criteria are applied by organisations ( typically libraries ) creating a digital library which of their existing holdings and forthcoming acquisitions to digitize for inclusion . A strategy with defined selection priorities for digitization is critical , and should consider both preservation and access . factors to consider are : the value of materials ; the condition of materials ; use of materials ; and material characteristics ensuring a high level of success . For the Library of Congress , items of national interest were prime candidates both to improve access and reduce wear and tear on the physical copies . In the early discussions about digitization of library materials the selection decisions were often proposed based on a desire for better access to that item 's content , and not on the condition or value of the original item . In 2001 , Paula De Stefano wrote that a use-based group of criteria was promising , as it is `` fundamental to collection development and is the common thread in all selection decisions '' . In practice , however , her study showed that most digital projects focused on special collections , which are generally not the most popular items in the overall collection . The persistent risk of disappearing `` last copies '' . and the declines seen in the condition of national treasures , as exemplified by the 2005 Heritage Health Index Report on the State of America 's Collections provide the rationale for establishing priorities and balancing access with preservation needs . The transient nature of electronic information can contribute to a phenomenon called `` memory loss . '' This is a result of data extinctions as technologies become obsolete . There is also a drift away from original bibliographic contexts as time passes . A 1998 Council on Library and Information Sources white paper identified the following comprehensive considerations for selection : assessment of the intellectual and physical nature of the source materials ; the number and location of current and potential users ; the current and potential nature of use ; the format and nature of the proposed digital product and how it will be described , delivered , and archived ; how the proposed product relates to other digitization efforts ; and projections of costs in relation to benefits .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"Digital_Collections_Selection_Criteria\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 65175\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: National Priorities Project Content: For Russian government economic program , see National Priority Projects National Priorities Project ( NPP ) is an American non-governmental organization based in Northampton , MA that aims to help citizens shape the federal budget by arming them with information they can use and understand . In 2014 , the organization was nominated for a Nobel Peace Prize for their research on U.S. military spending .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"National_Priorities_Project\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 65172\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 20th United States Congress Content: The Twentieth United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government , consisting of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives . It met in Washington , D.C. from March 4 , 1827 , to March 4 , 1829 , during the third and fourth years of John Quincy Adams 's presidency . The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Fourth Census of the United States in 1820 . Both chambers had a Jacksonian majority .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"20th_United_States_Congress\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 65148\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 51st United States Congress Content: The Fifty-first United States Congress , referred to by some critics as the Billion Dollar Congress , was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government , consisting of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives . It met in Washington , D.C. , from March 4 , 1889 , to March 4 , 1891 , during the first two years of the administration of U.S. President Benjamin Harrison . The apportionment of seats in this House of Representatives was based on the Tenth Census of the United States in 1880 . Both chambers had a Republican majority . This marked the first time since the 43rd United States Congress that both chambers were controlled by the president 's party .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"51st_United_States_Congress\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 65135\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Congress for Democracy Content: The Congress for Democracy ( CFD ) was an Indian political party founded in 1977 by Jagjivan Ram . It was formed after Jagjivan Ram left the Indian National Congress of Indira Gandhi and denounced her rule during the Indian Emergency . The party contested the Indian general election , 1977 with the Janata alliance and later merged with it .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"Congress_for_Democracy\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 65091\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: United States Congressional staff edits to Wikipedia Content: Some edits to the online encyclopedia Wikipedia by staff of the United States Congress have created controversy , notably in early to mid-2006 . Several such instances , such as those involving Marty Meehan , Norm Coleman , Conrad Burns , and Joe Biden , received significant media attention . Others , such as those involving Gil Gutknecht , were reported but received less widespread coverage . Biographical information on various politicians was edited by their own staff to remove undesirable information ( including pejorative statements quoted , or broken campaign promises ) , add favorable information or `` glowing '' tributes , add negative information to opponents ' biographies , or replace the article in part or whole by staff-authored biographies .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"United_States_Congressional_staff_edits_to_Wikipedia\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 65071\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Congressional Club Content: The Congressional Club ( founded in 1908 ) , is an historic residence , located at 2001 New Hampshire Avenue , Northwest , Washington , D.C. , in the U Street Corridor neighborhood . The organization it hosts , which is the official club of Congressional spouses , was created in May 1908 with the Sixtieth Congress passage of HR22029 . The Congressional Club is the only club in the world to be incorporated by an act of Congress . Since 1912 , the club has hosted a luncheon honoring the First Lady of the United States . It is the largest annual event sponsored by the Club .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"Congressional_Club\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 65027\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Congressional Digest Content: The Congressional Digest , published by Congressional Digest Corporation , is a scholarly independent monthly publication with offices in Washington , DC . Congressional Digest was founded in 1921 by suffragette Alice Gram Robinson with the goal of presenting , in her words , `` an impartial view of controversial issues . '' Each issue focuses on one specific topic before Congress and includes primary source research material without editorial bias in a PRO & CON format . A major source of inspiration for the publication 's format was the 1920 ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution , granting women the right to vote . Robinson believed that the best way to prevent newly franchised voters from being unduly swayed or intimidated by the actions or rhetoric of Congress was to provide them with side-by-side arguments on pending legislation . Since 1921 , Congressional Digest has been an independent publication featuring controversies facing Congress and the Supreme Court . Not an official organ , nor is it controlled by any party , interest , class or sect . Congressional Digest has continued for three generations and is now led by Robinson 's granddaughter , Page Robinson . The publication has stayed true to its original concept , presenting excerpted verbatim statements from current congressional debates in a pro-and-con format , along with digested government material to put the controversy in historical and legislative context . Congressional Digest Corporation publishes two additional publications : Supreme Court Debates , started in 1997 , and International Debates , published from 2003-2013 . All three are available online ; Congressional Digest is also available in print . The publications ' subscribers include high school and university libraries , debate organizations , and other groups and individuals interested in current events .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"Congressional_Digest\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 64944\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Attending Physician of the United States Congress Content: The Attending Physician of the United States Congress is the physician responsible for the medical welfare of the members of the United States Congress ( the 435 Representatives , five delegates , Resident Commissioner of Puerto Rico , and 100 Senators ) and the nine justices of the Supreme Court of the United States . The Attending Physician is also tasked with emergency care for thousands of staff , security personnel and dignitaries , and implementation of the environmental health , public health , and occupational health programs of the Capitol Hill region ( which includes the Capitol , the congressional office buildings , and the Supreme Court building ) . The Attending Physician is instrumental in security planning and works with the Architect of the Capitol , Senate Sergeant at Arms , House Sergeant at Arms , United States Capitol Police , and other congressional officials to ensure medical support during contingency operations .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"Attending_Physician_of_the_United_States_Congress\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 64893\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 4th United States Congress Content: The Fourth United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government , consisting of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives . It met at Congress Hall in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania from March 4 , 1795 to March 4 , 1797 , during the last two years of George Washington 's Presidency . The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the First Census of the United States in 1790 . The Senate had a Federalist majority , and the House had a Democratic-Republican majority .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"4th_United_States_Congress\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 64872\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 98th United States Congress Content: The Ninety-eighth United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government , composed of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives . It met in Washington , D.C. from January 3 , 1983 to January 3 , 1985 , during the third and fourth years of Ronald Reagan 's Presidency . The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Twentieth Census of the United States in 1980 . The Republicans controlled the Senate , while the Democrats controlled the House of Representatives .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"98th_United_States_Congress\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 64849\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Anil Shastri Content: Anil Kumar Shastri is an Indian politician and a senior leader of the Indian National Congress . He is known for his outspoken views . Presently , he is Special Invitee to the Congress Working Committee and Chairman of the Hindi Department in All India Congress Committee . He was elected to the ninth Lok Sabha from Varanasi in 1989 and was a Minister in the Ministry of Finance , Govt . of India .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"Anil_Shastri\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 64828\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 6th Congress of the Communist Party of Cuba Content: The 6th Congress of the Communist Party of Cuba , the governing political party of Cuba , took place on April 16 -- 19 , 2011 , in Havana at the . The main focus of the congress was to introduce economic , social , and political reforms in order to modernize the country 's socialist system . The Congress also elected Raúl Castro as First Secretary , the position vacant since Fidel Castro 's stepping down in 2006 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"6th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_Cuba\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 64789\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Priority Matrix Content: Priority Matrix is a time management software application that is supported on a number of platforms , including Microsoft Windows , Mac OS X , Android , and iOS . It is based on the Eisenhower Method of arranging tasks by urgency and importance in a 2x2 matrix . Priority Matrix offers a cloud-based synchronization of data , allowing for data management across multiple devices . The application is also loosely based on David Allen 's Getting Things Done methodology of improving productivity .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"Priority_Matrix\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 64782\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 34th United States Congress Content: The Thirty-fourth United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government , consisting of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives . It met in Washington , D.C. from March 4 , 1855 , to March 4 , 1857 , during the last two years of Franklin Pierce 's presidency . The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Seventh Census of the United States in 1850 . The Whig Party , one of the two major parties of the era , had largely collapsed , although many former Whigs ran as Republicans or as members of the `` Opposition Party . '' The Senate had a Democratic majority , and the House was controlled by a coalition of Representatives led by Nathaniel P. Banks , a member of the American Party .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"34th_United_States_Congress\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 64739\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 11th United States Congress Content: The Eleventh United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government , consisting of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives . It met in Washington , D.C. from March 4 , 1809 to March 4 , 1811 , during the first two years of James Madison 's presidency . The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Second Census of the United States in 1800 . Both chambers had a Democratic-Republican majority .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"11th_United_States_Congress\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 64694\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 19th United States Congress Content: The Nineteenth United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government , consisting of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives . It met in Washington , D.C. from March 4 , 1825 , to March 4 , 1827 , during the first two years of the administration of U.S. President John Quincy Adams . The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Fourth Census of the United States in 1820 . The Senate had a majority of Jackson Men , while the House had an Anti-Jackson ( pro-Adams ) majority .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"19th_United_States_Congress\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 64685\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 14th United States Congress Content: The Fourteenth United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government , consisting of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives . It met in the Old Brick Capitol in Washington , D.C. from March 4 , 1815 , to March 4 , 1817 , during the seventh and eighth years of James Madison 's presidency . The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Third Census of the United States in 1810 . Both chambers had a Democratic-Republican majority .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"14th_United_States_Congress\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 64599\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Congressional charter Content: A congressional charter is a law passed by the United States Congress that states the mission , authority , and activities of a group . Congress issued federal charters from 1791 until 1992 under Title 36 of the United States Code . The relationship between Congress and the organization is largely a symbolic honorific giving the organization the aura of being `` officially '' sanctioned by the U.S. government . However , Congress does not oversee or supervise organizations with the charter ( other than receiving a yearly financial statement ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"Congressional_charter\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 64598\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Congress of the Peoples of the East Content: The Congress of the Peoples of the East was a multinational conference held in September 1920 by the Communist International in Baku , Azerbaijan ( then part of Soviet Russia ) . The congress was attended by nearly 1,900 delegates from across Asia and Europe and marked a commitment by the Comintern to support revolutionary nationalist movements in the colonial `` East '' in addition to the traditional radical labor movement of Europe , North America , and Australasia . Although attended by delegates representing more than two dozen ethnic entities of the Middle and Far East , the Baku Congress was dominated by the lengthy speeches of leaders from the Russian Communist Party ( RCP ) , including : Grigory Zinoviev , Karl Radek , Mikhail Pavlovich , and Anatoly Skachko . Non-RCP delegates delivering major reports included Hungarian revolutionary Béla Kun and Turkish feminist Naciye Hanim . Soviet decision makers recognized that revolutionary activity along the Soviet Union 's southern border would draw the attention of capitalist powers and invite them to intervene . It was this understanding which prompted the Russian representation at the Baku Congress to reject the arguments of the national communists as impractical and counterproductive to the revolution in general , without elaborating their fear that the safety of Russia lay in the balance . And it was this understanding , coupled with the Russian Bolsheviks ' displeasure at seeing another revolutionary center proposed in their own revolutionary empire , that galvanized them into action against the national communists . The gathering adopted a formal `` Manifesto of the Peoples of the East '' as well as an `` Appeal to the Workers of Europe , America , and Japan . '' While an executive body was elected to carry on Comintern work in the Middle and Far East , the long-term effect of the Congress was ultimately symbolic rather than practical , serving as a marker of Comintern commitment to the revolutionary anti-colonial movements of the east but forging few lasting ties .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"Congress_of_the_Peoples_of_the_East\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 64571\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 99th United States Congress Content: The Ninety-ninth United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government , composed of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives . It met in Washington , D.C. from January 3 , 1985 to January 3 , 1987 , during the fifth and sixth years of Ronald Reagan 's presidency . The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Twentieth Census of the United States in 1980 . The Republicans maintained control of the Senate , while the Democrats maintained control of the House of Representatives .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"99th_United_States_Congress\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 64500\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 9th United States Congress Content: The Ninth United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government , consisting of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives . It met in Washington , D.C. from March 4 , 1805 to March 4 , 1807 , during the fifth and sixth years of Thomas Jefferson 's presidency . The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Second Census of the United States in 1800 . Both chambers had a Democratic-Republican majority .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"9th_United_States_Congress\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 64476\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 18th United States Congress Content: The Eighteenth United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government , consisting of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives . It met in Washington , D.C. from March 4 , 1823 , to March 4 , 1825 , during the seventh and eighth years of James Monroe 's presidency . The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Fourth Census of the United States in 1820 . Both chambers had a Democratic-Republican majority .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"18th_United_States_Congress\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 64458\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 31st United States Congress Content: The Thirty-first United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government , consisting of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives . It met in Washington , D.C. from March 4 , 1849 , to March 4 , 1851 , during the 16 months of the Zachary Taylor presidency and the first eight months of Millard Fillmore 's . The apportionment of seats in this House of Representatives was based on the Sixth Census of the United States in 1840 . The Senate had a Democratic majority , while there was a Democratic plurality in the House .\",\n \"qid\": \"2754\",\n \"docid\": \"31st_United_States_Congress\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 64443\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":1359,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"Global warming is an increasingly urgent problem."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .","qid":"2755","docid":"Economics_of_global_warming","rank":1,"score":110790},{"content":"Title: Global warming taxes Content:","qid":"2755","docid":"Global_warming_taxes","rank":2,"score":106452},{"content":"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .","qid":"2755","docid":"Global_warming","rank":3,"score":106143},{"content":"Title: Global warming (disambiguation) Content: Global warming is one of the common names for the current change in Earth 's climate . Global warming may also refer to : Global Warming ( Pitbull album ) , a 2011 music album by Pitbull Global Warming ( Sonny Rollins album ) , a 1998 music album by Sonny Rollins Global warming game , several games based on the concept Not to be confused with the Global warming controversy , which refers to the public debate over scientific conclusions on climate change .","qid":"2755","docid":"Global_warming_(disambiguation)","rank":4,"score":105964},{"content":"Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .","qid":"2755","docid":"Global_warming_controversy","rank":5,"score":102617},{"content":"Title: World wide views Content: The World Wide Views projects were started in 2009 by the Danish Board of Technology Foundation to involve citizens in global environmental policy making through deliberation and voting . Recent decades have shown a growing need for global solutions to global problems . As cross-border environmental challenges have grown in scale , the nations of the world have turned to international organisations in search of a common platform in which to address these problems . One such platform has been the United Nations ( UN ) , institutionalized in the Conventions on Global Warming and on Biodiversity , more specifically the Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) & the Convention on Biological Diversity ( CBD ) . One of the challenges presented by these international platforms has been , and is , how to involve the citizens of the world in decisions and policies resulting from the Conference of Parties ( COP ) meetings held regularly and involving political leaders and heads of state of the participating UN member states . As environmental hazards and changes affect us all without regards to our nationality , citizen participation in global policy making is crucial both to every one of us as citizens , and to the nations of the world gathering at COP 's in order to find and commit to sustainable and reasonable solutions . With its extensive experience in involving citizens in citizen deliberation on a broad range of issues , the Danish Board of Technology Foundation ( DBT ) has started the World Wide Views projects , organising partner organisations from all over the world in a World Wide Views Alliance with the main purpose of involving citizens in global environmental policy making through deliberation and voting . The aim is to provide ordinary citizens of the world with a direct link to political decision makers , while providing the decision makers with an informed insight into the needs and views of the citizens they are representing , as well as creating public awareness of environmental hazards and challenges .","qid":"2755","docid":"World_wide_views","rank":6,"score":102405},{"content":"Title: Global warming in Turkey Content:","qid":"2755","docid":"Global_warming_in_Turkey","rank":7,"score":99399},{"content":"Title: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates Content: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) are cause by the exploitation of natural resources , rapid population growth , and high energy demand . The continuing temperature rise caused by global warming contributes to UAE 's water scarcity , drought , rising sea level and aridity . The countryside of the UAE , characterized with its great arid land , infrequent precipitation , and high temperatures are already facing long-term aridity . This precondition is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change and contributes to worsening water scarcity , quality , and water contamination . The United Arab Emirates are located in the Middle East between Oman and Saudi Arabia , adjoining the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf . In the last years , the impact of global warming on the UAE has intensified the already existing environmental issues , including water scarcity and limited agricultural land . The United Arab Emirates are a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , listed as having the 29th highest carbon dioxide emissions . Since the boom of the oil-industry occurred in the early 21st century , the population and its consumption of energy have sharply increased . The UAE contains the world 's seventh largest natural resource of oil and seventeenth-largest natural gas reserve . This possession of a high amount of valuable natural resources , pushed the UAE to the position of the ninth wealthiest country in the world by 2016 GDP per capita . These financial resources support their adaptation capacity to `` climate change-induced challenges '' . Currently , they are investing in increasing air conditioning infrastructure , rainwater drainage systems , constructing flood barriers and new desalination plants . In June 2016 Abu Dhabi announced a project for an enhanced rainwater drainage system due to unnaturally occurring thunderstorms in March 2016 which caused 860 damages on properties and flooding . Also the three main characteristics of UAE 's politics contribute to the recent natural unsustainability : First , the Emirates feature components of a Rentier state . It is governed by an authoritarian political system and finally both facts cause critical natural resource-related trades . In particular , UAE as a rentier state means that the federalization gains external rent from foreign individuals , companies and governments . A rentier state 's economy is predominated by the dependency on external rents . Oil revenues also count as external rent .","qid":"2755","docid":"Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates","rank":8,"score":98550},{"content":"Title: Global warming in Russia Content: Global warming in Russia describes the global warming related issues in Russia . This includes climate politics , contribution to global warming and the influence of global warming on Russia . In 2009 Russia was ready to reduce emissions 20 -- 25 % from its 1990 emission levels by the year 2020 .","qid":"2755","docid":"Global_warming_in_Russia","rank":9,"score":97529},{"content":"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.","qid":"2755","docid":"Climate_change_in_the_United_States","rank":10,"score":97347},{"content":"Title: Politics of global warming Content: The complex politics of global warming results from numerous cofactors arising from the global economy 's interdependence on carbon dioxide emitting hydrocarbon energy sources and because carbon dioxide is directly implicated in global warming -- making global warming a non-traditional environmental challenge .","qid":"2755","docid":"Politics_of_global_warming","rank":11,"score":96803},{"content":"Title: Global warming game Content: A global warming game , also known as a climate game or a climate change game , is a type of serious game . As a serious game , it attempts to simulate and explore real life issues to educate players through an interactive experience . The issues particular to a global warming video game are usually energy efficiency and the implementation of green technology as ways to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and thus counteract global warming . Global warming games also include more traditional board games , video games , as well as other varieties .","qid":"2755","docid":"Global_warming_game","rank":12,"score":96513},{"content":"Title: Global Warming (Sonny Rollins album) Content: Global Warming is an album by jazz saxophonist Sonny Rollins , released on the Milestone label in 1998 , featuring performances by Rollins with Stephen Scott , Bob Cranshaw , Idris Muhammad , Clifton Anderson , Victor See Yuen and Perry Wilson .","qid":"2755","docid":"Global_Warming_(Sonny_Rollins_album)","rank":13,"score":96165},{"content":"Title: Global Warming Policy Foundation Content: The Global Warming Policy Foundation ( GWPF ) is a think tank in the United Kingdom , whose stated aims are to challenge `` extremely damaging and harmful policies '' envisaged by governments to mitigate anthropogenic global warming . It promotes climate change denial . In 2014 , when the Charity Commission ruled that the GWPF had breached rules on impartiality , a non-charitable organisation called the `` Global Warming Policy Forum '' or `` GWPF '' was created as a wholly owned subsidiary , to do lobbying that a charity could not . The GWPF website carries an array of articles `` sceptical '' of scientific findings of anthropogenic global warming and its impacts .","qid":"2755","docid":"Global_Warming_Policy_Foundation","rank":14,"score":95750},{"content":"Title: An Appeal to Reason Content: An Appeal to Reason : A Cool Look at Global Warming is a 2008 book by Nigel Lawson . In it , Lawson argues that global warming is happening , but that the science is far from settled . He opposes the scientific consensus as summarized by the IPCC . He also argues that warming will bring both benefits and negative consequences , and that the impact of these changes will be relatively moderate rather than apocalyptic . He criticizes politicians and scientists who predict catastrophe unless urgent action is taken , and he calls for gradual adaptation instead . The book has been criticized by some climatologists , including IPCC authors Jean Palutikof and Robert Watson .","qid":"2755","docid":"An_Appeal_to_Reason","rank":15,"score":95700},{"content":"Title: Global Warming (Pitbull album) Content: Global Warming is the seventh studio album recorded by American rapper Pitbull . It was released on November 16 , 2012 . A teaser to accompany the release of Global Warming was first released onto Pitbull 's official Facebook and YouTube channel on September 17 , 2012 .","qid":"2755","docid":"Global_Warming_(Pitbull_album)","rank":16,"score":95033},{"content":"Title: Climate Code Red Content: Climate Code Red : The Case for Emergency Action is a 2008 book which presents scientific evidence that the global warming crisis is worse than official reports and national governments have so far indicated . The book argues that we are facing a `` sustainability emergency '' that requires a clear break from business-as-usual politics . The authors explain that emergency action to address climate change is not so much a radical idea as an indispensable course we must embark upon . Climate Code Red draws heavily on the work of a large number of climate scientists , including James E. Hansen . The key themes of Climate Code Red are : `` Our goal is a safe-climate future -- we have no right to bargain away species or human lives . '' `` We are facing rapid warming impacts : the danger is immediate , not just in the future . '' `` For a safe climate future , we must take action now to stop emissions and to cool the earth . '' `` Plan a large-scale transition to a post-carbon economy and society . '' `` Recognise a climate and sustainability emergency , because we need to move at a pace far beyond business and politics as usual '' . Co-author David Spratt is a Melbourne businessman , climate-policy analyst , and co-founder of the Carbon Equity network . Co-author Philip Sutton is convener of the Greenleap Strategic Institute and Assistant Convenor of the Climate Emergency Network . The book was launched by the Governor of Victoria , Professor David de Kretser in Parliament House in Melbourne , Victoria , on July 17 , 2008 .","qid":"2755","docid":"Climate_Code_Red","rank":17,"score":94853},{"content":"Title: Ozone depletion and climate change Content: Ozone depletion and climate change , or Ozone hole and global warming in more popular terms , are environmental challenges whose connections have been explored and which have been compared and contrasted , for example in terms of global regulation , in various studies and books . There is widespread scientific interest in better regulation of climate change , ozone depletion and air pollution , as in general the human relationship with the biosphere is deemed of major historiographical and political significance . Already by 1994 the legal debates about respective regulation regimes on climate change , ozone depletion and air pollution were being dubbed `` monumental '' and a combined synopsis provided . There are some parallels between atmospheric chemistry and anthropogenic emissions in the discussions which have taken place and the regulatory attempts which have been made . Most important is that the gases causing both problems have long lifetimes after emission to the atmosphere , thus causing problems which are difficult to reverse . However , the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and the Montreal Protocol that amended it are seen as success stories , while the Kyoto Protocol on anthropogenic climate change has largely failed . Currently efforts are being undertaken to assess the reasons and to use synergies , for example with regard to data reporting and policy design and further exchanging of information . While the general public tends to see global warming as a subset of ozone depletion , in fact ozone and chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons ( CFCs ) and other halocarbons , which are held responsible for ozone depletion , are important greenhouse gasses . Furthermore , natural levels of ozone in both the stratosphere and troposphere have a warming effect .","qid":"2755","docid":"Ozone_depletion_and_climate_change","rank":18,"score":94215},{"content":"Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .","qid":"2755","docid":"Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans","rank":19,"score":94057},{"content":"Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .","qid":"2755","docid":"Global_cooling","rank":20,"score":93718},{"content":"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .","qid":"2755","docid":"Regional_effects_of_global_warming","rank":21,"score":93267},{"content":"Title: Leipzig Declaration Content: The Leipzig Declaration on Global Climate Change is a statement made in 1995 , seeking to refute the claim there is a scientific consensus on the global warming issue . It was issued in an updated form in 1997 and revised again in 2005 , claiming to have been signed by 80 scientists and 25 television news meteorologists while the posting of 33 additional signatories was pending verification that those 33 additional scientists still agreed with the statement . All versions of the declaration , which opposes the global warming hypothesis and the Kyoto Protocol , were penned by Fred Singer 's Science and Environmental Policy Project ( SEPP ) . The first declaration was based on a November 9 -- 10 , 1995 conference , organized by Helmut Metzner in Leipzig , Germany . The second declaration was additionally based on a successor conference in Bonn , Germany on November 10 -- 11 , 1997 . The conferences were cosponsored by SEPP and the European Academy for Environmental Affairs and titled International Symposium on the Greenhouse Controversy .","qid":"2755","docid":"Leipzig_Declaration","rank":22,"score":93168},{"content":"Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .","qid":"2755","docid":"Effects_of_global_warming","rank":23,"score":93155},{"content":"Title: Ross Gelbspan Content: Ross Gelbspan is a writer and environmentalist . He has written two books relating to global warming : The Heat Is On ( 1997 ) and Boiling Point ( 2004 ) . The Heat Is On received national attention when President Bill Clinton told the press he was reading it . Boiling Point was the subject of the lead review in the Sunday New York Times Book Review . That review was written by former Vice President Al Gore . Gelbspan maintains the website heatisonline.org , which he updates on a daily basis . Prior to his involvement in the climate issue , Gelbspan worked as an editor and reporter at a number of newspapers , including The Philadelphia Bulletin , The Washington Post and the Boston Globe . At the Globe , he conceived , directed and edited a series of articles that won a Pulitzer Prize in 1984 . Since becoming involved in the climate issue , Gelbspan has delivered a number of lectures , radio and television interviews and has published multiple articles on the subject . He is a regular contributor on DeSmogBlog . He has published op-ed articles in a number of major newspapers -- as well as articles in a number of other outlets including Harper 's , The Atlantic Monthly , The American Prospect , Sierra Magazine , The Nation , and many others . He has spoken in venues that include the World Economic Forum and the Boston Social Forum . His media interviews include , among others , appearances on Nightline , All Things Considered , Talk of the Nation , World News Tonight and other outlets .","qid":"2755","docid":"Ross_Gelbspan","rank":24,"score":91952},{"content":"Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .","qid":"2755","docid":"Global_warming_potential","rank":25,"score":91484},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Europe Content: Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe . According to international climate experts global temperature rise should not exceed 2 ° C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of the climate change . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . It is estimated that from the now living persons alive are 70 % in the year 2050 . Emission reduction means development and implementation of new energy technology solutions . Some people consider that the technology revolution has already started in Europe since the markets of the renewable technology have annually grown . European Union climate chief is Connie Hedegaard since 10 February 2010 .","qid":"2755","docid":"Climate_change_in_Europe","rank":26,"score":91127},{"content":"Title: Peter Taylor (environmentalist) Content: Peter Taylor ( b. 24 Jan 1948 ) is a UK environmentalist with a long track record of public activism and scholarship on issues ranging from nuclear safety , ocean pollution , biodiversity strategies , renewable energy and climate change . His recent work on global warming has been questioned by environmentalists . His 2009 book Chill : a reassessment of global warming theory argued that most of the recent documented warming is caused by peaking natural cycles , that there is also a potential for global cooling and that adaptation not mitigation should be a priority . His views received widespread coverage in the media -- with front page on the Daily Express , and articles in the online versions of The Mail , The Times and an Al Jazeera video .","qid":"2755","docid":"Peter_Taylor_(environmentalist)","rank":27,"score":91043},{"content":"Title: Global Day of Action Content: Global Day of Action is a direct action protest format . Environmentalism initiatives begun to use it in 2005 in connection with Global Climate Campaign . They aimed to focus world attention on the anthropogenic effect that humans are having on global warming . Its main objective is to spearhead demands that elected representatives of their respective governments honor commitments set forth by the Kyoto Protocol , by conducting in unison peaceful demonstrations around the world . The demonstration , or rallies , are intended to coincide with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , a meeting of world leaders from 189 nations , that meet annually to discuss climate change .","qid":"2755","docid":"Global_Day_of_Action","rank":28,"score":91016},{"content":"Title: The Discovery of Global Warming Content: The Discovery of Global Warming is a book by the physicist and historian Spencer R. Weart published in 2003 ; revised and updated edition , 2008 . It traces the history of scientific discoveries that led to the current scientific opinion on climate change . It has been translated into Spanish , Japanese , Italian , Arabic , Chinese and Korean .","qid":"2755","docid":"The_Discovery_of_Global_Warming","rank":29,"score":90999},{"content":"Title: Effects of global warming on South Asia Content:","qid":"2755","docid":"Effects_of_global_warming_on_South_Asia","rank":30,"score":90046},{"content":"Title: The Real Global Warming Disaster Content: The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .","qid":"2755","docid":"The_Real_Global_Warming_Disaster","rank":31,"score":89523},{"content":"Title: Effects of global warming on human health Content: The effects of global warming include effects on human health . The observed and projected increased frequency and severity of climate related impacts will further exacerbate the effects on human health . This article describes some of those effects on individuals and populations .","qid":"2755","docid":"Effects_of_global_warming_on_human_health","rank":32,"score":89362},{"content":"Title: Global issue Content: Informally , a global issue describes any social , economic , political or environmental problem that affects the global community , possibly in a catastrophic way . Solution to global issues requires cooperation among nations . In their book Global Issues , Hite and Seitz emphasize that global issues are qualitatively different from international affairs and that the former arise from growing international interdependencies which makes the issues themselves interdependent .","qid":"2755","docid":"Global_issue","rank":33,"score":88965},{"content":"Title: United Nations Ocean Conference Content: The 2017 United Nations Ocean Conference was a United Nations conference that took place on June 5th-9th 2017 which sought to mobilize action for the conservation and sustainable use of the oceans, seas and marine resources.The Earth's waters are said to be \"under threat as never before\", with pollution, overfishing, and the effects of climate change severely damaging the health of our oceans. For instance as oceans are warming and becoming more acidic, biodiversity is becoming reduced and changing currents will cause more frequent storms and droughts. Every year around 8 million metric tons of plastic waste leak into the ocean and make it into the circular ocean currents. This causes contamination of sediments at the sea-bottom and causes plastic waste to be embedded in the aquatic food chain. It could lead to oceans containing more plastics than fish by 2050 if nothing is done. Key habitats such as coral reefs are at risk and noise pollution are a threat to whales, dolphins, and other species. Furthermore almost 90 percent of fish stocks are overfished or fully exploited which cost more than $80 billion a year in lost revenues.UN Secretary-General António Guterres stated that decisive, coordinated global action can solve the problems created by Humanity. Peter Thomson, President of the UN General Assembly, highlighted the conference's significance, saying \"if we want a secure future for our species on this planet, we have to act now on the health of the ocean and on climate change\".The conference sought to find ways and urge for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 14. Its theme is \"Our oceans, our future: partnering for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 14\". It also asked governments, UN bodies, and civil society groups to make voluntary commitments for action to improve the health of the oceans with over 1,000 commitments − such as on managing protected areas − being made.","qid":"2755","docid":"United_Nations_Ocean_Conference","rank":34,"score":88595},{"content":"Title: Climate Challenge Content: Climate Challenge is a Flash-based global warming game produced by the BBC and developed by Red Redemption . Players manage the economy and resources of the ` European Nations ' as its president , while reducing emissions of to combat climate change and managing crises . Climate Challenge is an environmental serious game , designed to give players an understanding of the science behind climate change , as well as the options available to policy makers and the difficulties in their implementation .","qid":"2755","docid":"Climate_Challenge","rank":35,"score":88558},{"content":"Title: World Wide Views on Global Warming Content: World Wide Views on Global Warming : A global project initiated by The Danish Board of Technology on the occasion of the United Nations Climate Change Conference ( COP15 ) held in Copenhagen December 2009 . World Wide Views on Global Warming ( or just WWViews ) was an international citizens involvement project based on methods developed by The Danish Board of Technology for the purpose of involving citizens in the political decision-making processes .","qid":"2755","docid":"World_Wide_Views_on_Global_Warming","rank":36,"score":88444},{"content":"Title: Taken by Storm Content: Taken By Storm : The Troubled Science , Policy and Politics of Global Warming is a 2002 book about the global warming controversy by Christopher Essex and Ross McKitrick . The authors argue that politicians and others claim far more certainty than is justified by the science . The authors also argue that public policy discussions have abandoned science and resorted to ad hominem attacks . Taken by Storm was one of two runners up for the 2002 Donner Prize for the best book on Canadian public policy .","qid":"2755","docid":"Taken_by_Storm","rank":37,"score":87673},{"content":"Title: Global Change Research Act of 1990 Content: The Global Change Research Act 1990 is a United States law requiring research into global warming and related issues . It requires a report to Congress every four years on the environmental , economic , health and safety consequences of climate change . According to a summary by the Congressional Research Service , the Act : `` Directs the President , through the Federal Coordinating Council on Science , Engineering , and Technology ( Council ) , to establish the Committee on Earth and Environmental Sciences to carry out Council functions under specified provisions of the National Science and Technology Policy , Organization , and Priorities Act of 1976 relating to global change research , to increase the effectiveness and productivity of Federal global change research efforts . Directs the President to establish an interagency United States Global Change Research Program to improve understanding of global change . Requires the Chairman of the Council , through the Committee , to develop a National Global Change Research Plan for implementation of the Program . Sets forth required Plan contents and research elements , including that the Plan provide recommendations for collaboration within the Federal Government and among nations . Requires the Chairman to enter into an agreement with the National Research Council to : ( 1 ) evaluate the scientific content of the Plan ; and ( 2 ) provide information and advice and recommended priorities for future global change research . Requires the Committee to provide general guidance each year to each Federal agency or department participating in the Program with respect to preparation of requests for appropriations related to the Program . Requires the Council , at least every four years , through the Committee , to submit to the President and the Congress an assessment regarding the findings of the Program and associated uncertainties , the effects of global change , and current and major long-term trends in global change . Requires that the research findings of the Committee and of Federal agencies and departments be made available to the Environmental Protection Agency and all Federal agencies and departments . Title II : International Cooperation in Global Change Research - International Cooperation in Global Change Research Act of 1990 - Declares that the President should direct the Secretary of State to initiate discussions with other nations on : ( 1 ) international agreements to coordinate global change research ; and ( 2 ) an international research protocol for cooperation on the development of energy technologies which have minimally adverse effects on the environment . Directs the President to establish an Office of Global Change Research Information to disseminate to foreign governments and their citizens , businesses , and institutions scientific research useful in preventing , mitigating , or adapting to the effects of global change . Title III : Growth Decision Aid - Directs the Secretary of Commerce to : ( 1 ) conduct a study on the implications of growth and development on urban , suburban , and rural communities ; and ( 2 ) based on the study , produce a decision aid to assist State and local authorities in planning and managing growth and development while preserving community character . '' Following the publication of the first National Climate Assessment Report there were accusations that information was being suppressed , leading to complacency around public works , such as New Orleans flood defences . Greenpeace , the Center for Biological Diversity and Friends of the Earth challenged the delay in federal district court on August 21 , 2007 . A judge ruled that an updated national assessment must be produced by May 31 , 2008 .","qid":"2755","docid":"Global_Change_Research_Act_of_1990","rank":38,"score":87622},{"content":"Title: Chris Spence (journalist) Content: Chris Spence ( born June 1970 ) is an award winning New Zealand journalist and former political advisor on environmental issues and foreign affairs . He currently has 20 years ' experience working internationally and in the United States on sustainable development , conservation , climate change , and health policy . In 2005 , Chris published Global Warming : Personal Solutions for a Healthy Planet ( ISBN 1403966982 ) , which offers a description of the climate change problem and a practical guide to the solutions .","qid":"2755","docid":"Chris_Spence_(journalist)","rank":39,"score":87616},{"content":"Title: Global Warming: What You Need to Know Content: Global Warming What You Need to Know is a 2006 global warming ( climate change ) documentary , directed by Nicolas Brown , starring Tom Brokaw , James Hansen , Michael Oppenheimer , and Mark Serreze . The film focuses on impacts from climate change , and Tom Brokaw interviews scientists . The documentary premiered on Discovery Channel , 16 July 2006 .","qid":"2755","docid":"Global_Warming:_What_You_Need_to_Know","rank":40,"score":87389},{"content":"Title: Heaven and Earth (book) Content: Heaven and Earth : Global Warming -- The Missing Science is a popular science book published in 2009 and written by Australian geologist , professor of mining geology at Adelaide University , and mining company director Ian Plimer . It disputes the scientific consensus on climate change , including the view that global warming is `` very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic ( man-made ) greenhouse gas concentrations '' and asserts that the debate is being driven by what the author regards as irrational and unscientific elements . The book received what The Age newspaper called `` glowing endorsements '' from the conservative press . The Australian said it gave `` all the scientific ammunition climate change skeptics could want . '' Other reviewers criticised the book as unscientific , inaccurate , based on obsolete research , and internally inconsistent . Ideas in it have been described as `` so wrong as to be laughable '' . Heaven and Earth was a bestseller in Australia when published in May 2009 , and is in its seventh printing , according to the publisher . The book has also been published in the United States and the United Kingdom .","qid":"2755","docid":"Heaven_and_Earth_(book)","rank":41,"score":87217},{"content":"Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.","qid":"2755","docid":"Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C","rank":42,"score":87144},{"content":"Title: Adaptation to global warming in Australia Content:","qid":"2755","docid":"Adaptation_to_global_warming_in_Australia","rank":43,"score":87013},{"content":"Title: Cool It: The Skeptical Environmentalist's Guide to Global Warming Content: Cool It : The Skeptical Environmentalist 's Guide to Global Warming is a book by the Danish statistician and political scientist Bjørn Lomborg . The book is a sequel to The Skeptical Environmentalist ( first published in Danish in 1998 ) , which in English translation brought the author to world attention . Lomborg argues that many of the elaborate and expensive actions being considered to stop global warming will cost hundreds of billions of dollars without the same return on investment , often are based on emotional rather than strictly scientific assumptions , and may have very little impact on the world 's temperature for centuries . Lomborg concludes that a limited carbon tax is needed in the First World as well as subsidies from the First World to the Third World to help fight ongoing humanitarian crises .","qid":"2755","docid":"Cool_It:_The_Skeptical_Environmentalist's_Guide_to_Global_Warming","rank":44,"score":86729},{"content":"Title: Environmental issue Content: Environmental issues are harmful trouble effects of human activity on the biophysical environment . Environmental protection is a practice of protecting the natural environment on individual , organizational or governmental levels , for the benefit of both the environment and humans . Environmentalism , a social and environmental movement , addresses environmental issues through advocacy , education and activism . The carbon dioxide equivalent of greenhouse gases ( GHG ) in the atmosphere has already exceeded 400 parts per million ( NOAA ) ( with total `` long-term '' GHG exceeding 455 parts per million ) . ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Report ) This level is considered a tipping point . `` The amount of greenhouse gas in the atmosphere is already above the threshold that can potentially cause dangerous climate change . We are already at risk of many areas of pollution ... It 's not next year or next decade , it 's now . '' Report from the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs ( OCHA ) : Environment destruction caused by humans is a global problem , and this is a problem that is on going every day . By year 2050 , the global human population is expected to grow by 2 billion people , thereby reaching a level of 9.6 billion people ( Living Blue Planet 24 ) . The human effects on Earth can be seen in many different ways . A main one is the temperature rise , and according to the report '' Our Changing Climate '' , the global warming that has been going on for the past 50 years is primarily due to human activities ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) . Since 1895 , the U.S. average temperature has increased from 1.3 ° F to 1.9 ° F , with most of the increase taken place since around year 1970 ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) .","qid":"2755","docid":"Environmental_issue","rank":45,"score":86369},{"content":"Title: Effects of global warming on oceans Content: Global warming can affect sea levels , coastlines , ocean acidification , ocean currents , seawater , sea surface temperatures , tides , the sea floor , weather , and trigger several changes in ocean bio-geochemistry ; all of these affect the functioning of a society .","qid":"2755","docid":"Effects_of_global_warming_on_oceans","rank":46,"score":86141},{"content":"Title: Global Challenge Award Content: The Global Challenge Award is an online science and engineering design program for pre-college school students ( e.g. middle school through high school ) from all over the world . It is an initiative that started with a partnership with the University of Vermont in collaboration with the National Science Foundation , currently funded by the MacArthur Foundation Digital Media and Learning program as well as other foundations and corporations , wherein students have the opportunity to form teams with international counterparts and work towards a solution to mitigate global warming and help envision the future of renewable energy . The program is an online educational environment that uses game based learning , simulation and Web-based science resources in a global competition . It relies on the personal initiative and creativity of students working in diverse teams . The access to the project via the Web makes it possible for students , parents , homeschooling families , teachers and interested global community members to get involved to help young people with their creative ideas for innovation in new forms of energy , conservation and increased productivity .","qid":"2755","docid":"Global_Challenge_Award","rank":47,"score":85871},{"content":"Title: The Great Global Warming Swindle Content: The Great Global Warming Swindle is a polemical documentary film that suggests that the scientific opinion on climate change is influenced by funding and political factors , and questions whether scientific consensus on global warming exists . The program was formally criticised by Ofcom , the UK broadcasting regulatory agency , which upheld complaints of misrepresentation made by David King . The film , made by British television producer Martin Durkin , presents scientists , economists , politicians , writers , and others who dispute the scientific consensus regarding anthropogenic global warming . The programme 's publicity materials assert that man-made global warming is `` a lie '' and `` the biggest scam of modern times . '' Its original working title was `` Apocalypse my arse '' , but the title The Great Global Warming Swindle was later adopted as an allusion to the 1980 mockumentary The Great Rock 'n' Roll Swindle about British punk band the Sex Pistols . The UK 's Channel 4 premiered the documentary on 8 March 2007 . The channel described the film as `` a polemic that drew together the well-documented views of a number of respected scientists to reach the same conclusions . This is a controversial film but we feel that it is important that all sides of the debate are aired . '' According to Hamish Mykura , Channel 4 's head of documentaries , the film was commissioned `` to present the viewpoint of the small minority of scientists who do not believe global warming is caused by anthropogenic production of carbon dioxide . '' Although the documentary was welcomed by global warming sceptics , it was criticised by scientific organisations and individual scientists ( including one of the scientists interviewed in the film and one whose research was used to support the film 's claims ) . The film 's critics argued that it had misused and fabricated data , relied on out-of-date research , employed misleading arguments , and misrepresented the position of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Later broadcasts corrected three errors in the original film .","qid":"2755","docid":"The_Great_Global_Warming_Swindle","rank":48,"score":85710},{"content":"Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.","qid":"2755","docid":"Media_coverage_of_global_warming","rank":49,"score":85700},{"content":"Title: Effects of global warming on Sri Lanka Content: Sri Lanka is an equatorial island of 65,610 km2 which hosts many diverse endemic species , and is considered to be a biodiversity hotspot . It has 400 bird species , 26 are endemic , and 105 amphibian species , 85 % are endemic . Sri Lanka also has a declining marine ecosystem , with ongoing threats to the coastal coral reef environments . If climate change proceeds unchecked , Sri Lanka will undergo widespread effects , such as climate variability and sea-level rise , which will directly affect the overall abundance and security of endemic species . Local and global policy changes are crucial in reducing CO2 emissions so islands located near the equator will not be as drastically affected .","qid":"2755","docid":"Effects_of_global_warming_on_Sri_Lanka","rank":50,"score":85600},{"content":"Title: Global Climate Network Content: The Global Climate Network ( GCN ) is an alliance of influential think tanks and research institutes in different countries that collaborate on research into climate change policy and whose stated aim is to help address the political blockages to ambitious action to tackle global warming . The Network has members in nine countries worldwide , including the USA , China , India , UK , Australia , Brazil , Norway , South Africa and Nigeria . Its Secretariat is housed at the Institute for Public Policy Research in London , UK . GCN members are engaged jointly in a programme of research projects , the results of which each member feeds into policy making at the domestic and international levels . Collectively , members of the Global Climate Network are committed to a vision of a prosperous and secure world in which greenhouse gas emissions have been reduced to a level that is no longer harmful to the climate system . Working together , the Network construct a narrative for action on climate change that is concerned with human and economic progress as well as environmental wellbeing . The Network 's patrons are Dr Rajendra Pachauri , chair of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and director-general of the Energy and Resources Institute in India ; John Podesta , former Chief of Staff to President Bill Clinton and director of Center for American Progress , and Lord Christopher Patten of Barnes , former European Commissioner for External Affairs .","qid":"2755","docid":"Global_Climate_Network","rank":51,"score":85576},{"content":"Title: Global warming conspiracy theory Content: A global warming conspiracy theory invokes claims that scientific consensus on global warming is based on conspiracies to produce false data or suppress dissent . It is one of a number of tactics used in climate change denial to legitimize political controversy disputing this consensus . Global warming conspiracy theorists typically allege that , through worldwide acts of professional and criminal misconduct , the science behind global warming has been invented or distorted for ideological or financial reasons , or both .","qid":"2755","docid":"Global_warming_conspiracy_theory","rank":52,"score":85542},{"content":"Title: Global Climate Coalition Content: The Global Climate Coalition ( GCC ) ( 1989 -- 2001 ) was an international lobbyist group of businesses that opposed action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and challenged the science behind global warming . The GCC was the largest industry group active in climate policy and the most prominent industry advocate in international climate negotiations . The GCC was involved in opposition to the Kyoto Protocol , and played a role in blocking ratification by the United States . The coalition promoted the views of climate skeptics . The GCC dissolved in 2001 after membership declined in the face of improved understanding of the role of greenhouse gases in climate change and of public criticism .","qid":"2755","docid":"Global_Climate_Coalition","rank":53,"score":85420},{"content":"Title: GEO-2000 Content: GEO-2000 is the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) Global Environment Outlook 2000 . The UNEP launched the Global Environment Outlook in 1995 to assess environmental issues and to have them published . The first report was published in 1999 . As well as some of the more well known issues the report identified new threats such as : nitrogen 's harmful impact on ecosystems increased severity of natural disasters species invasion as a result of globalization increased environmental pressures caused by urbanization decline in the quality of governance in some countries new wars which impact on both the immediate environment and neighbouring states the impact of refugees on the natural environment","qid":"2755","docid":"GEO-2000","rank":54,"score":85406},{"content":"Title: The Coming Global Superstorm Content: The Coming Global Superstorm ( ISBN 0-671-04190-8 ) is a 1999 book by Art Bell and Whitley Strieber , which warns that global warming might produce sudden and catastrophic climatic effects . First , the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic drift would generate a cordon of warm water around the North Pole , which in turn , holds in a frozen mass of Arctic air . Second , if the North Atlantic drift were to shut down , that barrier would fail , releasing a flood of frozen air into the Northern Hemisphere , causing a sudden and drastic temperature shift . The book discusses a possible cause of the failure of the Gulf Stream : the melting of the polar ice caps could drastically affect the salinity of the North Atlantic drift by dumping a large quantity of freshwater into the world 's oceans . Bell and Strieber explain the possibility that such current destabilizations have occurred before , as well as seemingly impossible engineering feats by the ancients . Among their examples is the island city of Nan Madol . The book claims that its construction , with exacting tolerances and extremely heavy basalt materials , necessitates a high degree of technical competency . Since no such society exists in the modern record or even , in legend , the society must have been destroyed by dramatic means . While other explanations beside a global meteorological event are possible , a correlating evidence set is presented in the woolly mammoth . Strieber and Bell assert that since mammoths have been found preserved with food still in their mouths and undigested in their stomachs , these animals must have been killed quickly , in otherwise normal conditions . They were preserved so well by quick freezing , which is taken as evidence of a rapid onset of a global blizzard or similar event . Interspersed with the analytical parts of the book are a series of interlinked short fictional scenarios , written in italics , describing what might transpire today if a destabilization of the North Atlantic Current were to occur . The fictional accounts of `` current events '' as the meteorological situation deteriorates provided background and inspiration for the 2004 science fiction film The Day After Tomorrow . Indeed , some events from the book are portrayed in the film with little modification .","qid":"2755","docid":"The_Coming_Global_Superstorm","rank":55,"score":85392},{"content":"Title: Global Warming: The Signs and The Science Content: Global Warming : The Signs and The Science is a 2005 documentary film on global warming made by ETV , the PBS affiliate in South Carolina , and hosted by Alanis Morissette . The documentary examines the science behind global warming and pulls together segments filmed in the United States , Asia and South America and shows how people in these different locales are responding in different ways to the challenges of global warming to show some of the ways that the world can respond .","qid":"2755","docid":"Global_Warming:_The_Signs_and_The_Science","rank":56,"score":85104},{"content":"Title: Hell and High Water (book) Content: Hell and High Water : Global Warming -- the Solution and the Politics -- and What We Should Do is a book by author , scientist , and former U.S. Department of Energy official Joseph J. Romm , published December 26 , 2006 . The author is `` one of the world 's leading experts on clean energy , advanced vehicles , energy security , and greenhouse gas mitigation . '' The book warns of dire consequences to the U.S. and the world if wide-scale environmental changes are not enacted by the U.S. government within the next decade . It reviews the evidence that the current initial global warming changes will lead to accelerated warming . According to Romm , the oceans , soils , Arctic permafrost , and rainforests may become sources of greenhouse gas emissions . The book claims that , without serious government action within the next ten years , sea levels will rise high enough to submerge numerous coastal communities and inland areas on both U.S. coasts and around the world by the year 2100 . In April 2008 , TIME magazine wrote that `` On -LSB- Romm 's -RSB- blog and in his most recent book , Hell and High Water , you can find some of the most cogent , memorable , and deployable arguments for immediate and overwhelming action to confront global warming . '' Romm was interviewed on Fox News on January 31 , 2007 about the book and the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report climate report .","qid":"2755","docid":"Hell_and_High_Water_(book)","rank":57,"score":85099},{"content":"Title: Climate Vulnerable Forum Content: The Climate Vulnerable Forum ( CVF ) is a global partnership of countries that are disproportionately affected by the consequences of global warming . The forum addresses the negative effects of global warming as a result of heightened socioeconomic and environmental vulnerabilities . These countries actively seek a firm and urgent resolution to the current intensification of climate change , domestically and internationally . The CVF was formed to increase the accountability of industrialized nations for the consequences of global climate change . It also aims to exert additional pressure for action to tackle the challenge , which includes local action by countries considered susceptible . Political leaders involved in this partnership are `` using their status as those most vulnerable to climate change to punch far above their weight at the negotiating table '' . The governments which founded the CVF agree to national commitments to pursue low-carbon development and carbon neutrality . Ethiopia became the first African Chair of the Climate Vulnerable Forum during the CVF High-Level Climate Policy Forum held in the Senate of the Philippines on 15 August 2016 . The Philippines was the Chair of the Climate Vulnerable Forum during the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Paris ( COP21 ) and oversaw the adoption of the body 's Manila-Paris Declaration at the Third High-Level Meeting of the Forum on 30 November 2015 . The Manila-Paris Declaration articulated the common concerns and commitments of vulnerable countries and urged the strengthening of the UNFCCC goal of limiting warming to below 1.5 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels . During this meeting the membership of the Climate Vulnerable Forum expanded to include 23 new members . In 2015 , the twenty member countries in a forum chaired by the Philippines launched the official bloc of the forum , the ` V20 ' or ` Vulnerable Twenty ' , consisting of the top 20 nations from all over the world that are most affected by the catastrophes rooted from climate change . The members of the bloc are Afghanistan , Bangladesh , Barbados , Bhutan , Costa Rica , Ethiopia , Ghana , Kenya , Kiribati , Madagascar , Maldives , Nepal , Philippines , Rwanda , Saint Lucia , Tanzania , Timor-Leste , Tuvalu , Vanuatu and Vietnam . During the 2nd V20 Ministerial Dialogue in April 2016 in Washington DC , the V20 recognized the 23 new members that joined the CVF in 2015 as incoming members in the V20 initiative . These countries are currently and diversely affected by various climate change problems such as super storms , storm surges , tsunamis , droughts , famine due to climate factors , food shortage as by-product of climate change , power cutting , flash floods , mud slides , desertification , heatwaves , reduction of fresh water sources , and other effects of climate change . Climate change is globally believed and scientifically proven to have incurred from the economic activities of developed and developing nations and regions such as China , the United States , and Europe .","qid":"2755","docid":"Climate_Vulnerable_Forum","rank":58,"score":84503},{"content":"Title: How Global Warming Works Content: How Global Warming Works is a website developed by Michael Ranney , a professor of cognitive psychology at the University of California , Berkeley in Berkeley , California , United States . The stated goal of the website is to educate the public on the mechanisms of global warming , which was motivated by research Ranney and colleagues conducted on attitudes towards and understanding of global warming .","qid":"2755","docid":"How_Global_Warming_Works","rank":59,"score":84490},{"content":"Title: Fate of the World Content: Fate of the World is a 2011 global warming game developed and published by Red Redemption . It features several scenarios , based on actual scientific research , in which the player is put in charge of a fictional international organization managing social , technological and environmental policies . The goals of the scenarios range from improving living conditions in Africa , to preventing catastrophic climate change , to exacerbating it . It is quickly followed by an expansion pack called Fate of the World : Tipping Point , released in late 2011 . The climate prediction models for the game are the work of Myles Allen , the head of the Climate Dynamics group at the University of Oxford .","qid":"2755","docid":"Fate_of_the_World","rank":60,"score":84188},{"content":"Title: Global warming hiatus Content: A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .","qid":"2755","docid":"Global_warming_hiatus","rank":61,"score":83790},{"content":"Title: Solar Energy Perspectives Content: Solar Energy Perspectives is a 2011 book by the International Energy Agency . Solar energy technologies come in various forms -- solar heating , solar photovoltaics , solar thermal electricity -- and can make considerable contributions to solving some of the most urgent problems the world now faces : The development of affordable , inexhaustible and clean solar energy technologies will have huge longer-term benefits . It will increase countries ' energy security through reliance on an indigenous , inexhaustible and mostly import-independent resource , enhance sustainability , reduce pollution , lower the costs of mitigating climate change , and keep fossil fuel prices lower than otherwise . These advantages are global . Hence the additional costs of the incentives for early deployment should be considered learning investments ; they must be wisely spent and need to be widely shared . Solar Energy Perspectives builds upon past analyses of solar energy deployment contained in the World Energy Outlook , Energy Technology Perspectives and several IEA Technology Roadmaps . It aims at `` offering an updated picture of current technology trends and markets , as well as new analyses on how solar energy technologies for electricity , heat and fuels can be used in the various energy consuming sectors , now and in the future '' .","qid":"2755","docid":"Solar_Energy_Perspectives","rank":62,"score":83776},{"content":"Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .","qid":"2755","docid":"Climate_change_in_the_Arctic","rank":63,"score":83720},{"content":"Title: Global Catastrophic Risks (book) Content: Global Catastrophic Risks ( 2011 ) is a non-fiction book edited by philosopher Nick Bostrom and astronomer Milan M. Ćirković . The book is about issues such as asteroid impacts , gamma-ray bursts , Earth-based natural catastrophes , nuclear war , terrorism , global warming , biological weapons , totalitarianism , advanced nanotechnology , artificial general intelligence , and social collapse . The book also addresses overarching issues such as policy responses and methods for predicting and managing catastrophes .","qid":"2755","docid":"Global_Catastrophic_Risks_(book)","rank":64,"score":83611},{"content":"Title: Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 Content: The Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 , or Assembly Bill ( AB ) 32 , is a California State Law that fights global warming by establishing a comprehensive program to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from all sources throughout the state . AB 32 was authored by then-Assembly member Fran Pavley and Assembly Speaker Fabian Nunez ( D-Los Angeles ) and signed into law by Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger on September 27 , 2006 . On June 1 , 2005 , Governor Schwarzenegger signed an executive order known as Executive Order S-3-05 which established greenhouse gas emissions targets for the state . The executive order required the state to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions levels to 2000 levels by 2010 , to 1990 levels by 2020 , and to a level 80 % below 1990 levels by 2050 . However , to implement this measure , the California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) needed authority from the legislature . The California State Legislature passed the Global Warming Solutions Act to address this issue and gave the CARB authority to implement the program . AB 32 requires the California Air Resources Board ( CARB or ARB ) to develop regulations and market mechanisms to reduce California 's greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by the year of 2020 , representing approximately a 30 % reduction statewide , with mandatory caps beginning in 2012 for significant emissions sources . The bill also allows the Governor to suspend the emissions caps for up to a year in case of emergency or significant economic harm . The State of California leads the nation in energy efficiency standards and plays a lead role in environmental protection , but is also the 12th largest emitter of carbon worldwide . Greenhouse gas emissions are defined in the bill to include all of the following : carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , sulfur hexafluoride , hydrofluorocarbons and perfluorocarbons . These are the same greenhouse gases listed in Annex A of the Kyoto Protocol .","qid":"2755","docid":"Global_Warming_Solutions_Act_of_2006","rank":65,"score":83569},{"content":"Title: Extinction risk from global warming Content: The extinction risk of global warming is the risk of species becoming extinct due to the effects of global warming .","qid":"2755","docid":"Extinction_risk_from_global_warming","rank":66,"score":83553},{"content":"Title: The Great Warming Content: The Great Warming is a 2006 documentary film directed by Michael Taylor . The film was hosted by Alanis Morissette and Keanu Reeves and even before its November 3 , 2006 première helped establish an alliance between Democrats and Evangelicals trying to shake the administration out of its inertia on Climate change mitigation . It is also the anchor for a broad , pro-active coalition ranging from Friends of the Earth to Union of Concerned Scientists to Churches of Christ . Theatre giant Regal Cinemas released the film in its top 50 markets on the weekend of November 4 to November 5 , 2006 , which makes the launch three times larger than for any other film of its kind , and highlights the growing currency of the global warming issues in the mainstream.A special program was developed for faith communities , and the film was distributed to over 500 churches , synagogues and mosques across the US . Featuring elements of the 2005 Public Broadcasting Service special Global Warming : the Signs and the Science , The Great Warming ( produced by the same team ) , it talks to key researchers and reports on social justice and day-to-day impacts as well as emission statistics . It 's also populated with everyday people from all over the United States and the planet who are feeling the brunt of global warming , and/or finding innovative ways to tackle it . While making the movie , producer Karen Coshof was determined not to lose sight of her most important advocate , the person on the street , to make the issue of global warming resonate in every household around the globe . Every person should `` feel empowered to act . '' In media interviews , Coshof explained that the film attracted an unprecedented coalition of leaders in science , religion , business , environmental activism and education . They have built bridges over historic gaps to support the message of this film to believe in the individual and collective moral responsibility to reverse the growing threats to the environment , and to the health and quality of life . The effort goes beyond the documentary : with a release timed just before the United States House elections , 2006 , the website featured a Questions for Candidates link where voters could send a questionnaire on energy , environment , and taxation to their federal and state candidates . The campaign also includes a Call to Action signed by leaders from every arena of public life , and which can be signed online by anyone who chooses . Advance DVD screenings at schools , churches , and town halls across the country have already mobilized thousands of people to change personal habits and demand action , and coalition members are working to track the effort .","qid":"2755","docid":"The_Great_Warming","rank":67,"score":83445},{"content":"Title: Global Warming Tour Content: The Global Warming Tour was a concert tour by American hard rock band Aerosmith that included 67 concert performances across North America , Oceania , Asia and Latin America . Prior to the first leg of the tour , the band played a private event for Walmart shareholders . The first leg of the tour included 23 performances and lasted from late May through early August 2012 . The second leg included 14 performances in November and December 2012 . Before the second leg of the tour , the band performed a brief set at the iHeartRadio Music Festival in mid September . Also prior to the second leg , to promote the release of their new album in early November , the band made three special nationally-televised performances in New York City and also did a special performance in front of their old Boston apartment . The performances on the first two legs of the tour were held primarily in indoor arenas , with a couple outdoor shows and a few festival dates on the first leg , including three festivals in eastern Canada and Milwaukee 's Summerfest . The third leg of the tour ran from late April to mid May 2013 and saw Aerosmith playing their first shows in Australia since 1990 , as well as their first-ever shows in New Zealand and the Philippines . On May 30 , the band performed as part of the `` Boston Strong '' charity concert for victims of the Boston Marathon bombings . In July 2013 , the band played at the Greenbrier Classic in West Virginia and at Foxwoods Resort Casino in Connecticut . In August 2013 , the band performed four concerts in Japan , but their first-ever shows in China and Taiwan were cancelled due to poor ticket sales . The band also performed in August at the Harley-Davidson 110th anniversary concert series in Milwaukee . Concerts were planned for Latin America in September and October , including their first-ever shows in Uruguay , Guatemala and El Salvador . Cheap Trick was the opening act for all dates in the first two legs except for a few festival shows . The Dead Dasies , a supergroup featuring Jon Stevens and Richard Fortus , were the opening act for the Australia/New Zealand leg . The tour is in promotion of Aerosmith 's new album Music from Another Dimension ! , released on November 6 , 2012 . In addition to many of their biggest hits and a few choice album cuts , the band has so far performed four new songs from Music from Another Dimension on this tour , three of them regularly ( `` Oh Yeah '' , `` Legendary Child '' , and `` Lover Alot '' ) , with the potential for more songs to be played in the 2013 leg . During the South America leg , specifically in Argentina and Brazil , Aerosmith toured with Whitesnake , including performances at the Personal Fest in Buenos Aires and at the Monsters of Rock in São Paulo . On May 5 , 2013 , the band announced they had cancelled their first-ever show in Jakarta due to safety concerns . In 2014 , Aerosmith played 17 concerts across Europe from May 14 to July 2 . A new tour , the Let Rock Rule Tour , was scheduled to follow in July , August , and September 2014 that saw Aerosmith play several dates in North America . This tour featured Slash ( with Myles Kennedy and the Conspirators ) as the opening act . Full details of the tour were announced on April 8 , 2014 . On May 14 , 2014 , the band announced that they had cancelled their concert in Istanbul after Turkey declared a three-day mourning for the victims of Soma mine disaster . July 2 , 2014 concert in Kiev was cancelled due to civil unrest in Ukraine .","qid":"2755","docid":"Global_Warming_Tour","rank":68,"score":83156},{"content":"Title: Climate justice Content: Climate justice is a term used for framing global warming as an ethical and political issue , rather than one that is purely environmental or physical in nature . This is done by relating the effects of climate change to concepts of justice , particularly environmental justice and social justice and by examining issues such as equality , human rights , collective rights , and the historical responsibilities for climate change . A fundamental proposition of climate justice is that those who are least responsible for climate change suffer its gravest consequences . Occasionally , the term is also used to mean actual legal action on climate change issues .","qid":"2755","docid":"Climate_justice","rank":69,"score":83038},{"content":"Title: Reasons for concern Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has organized many of the risks of climate change into five `` reasons for concern . '' The reasons for concern show that these risks increase with increases in the Earth 's global mean temperature ( i.e. , global warming ) . The IPCC 's five reasons for concern are : threats to endangered species and unique systems , damages from extreme climate events , effects that fall most heavily on developing countries and the poor within countries , global aggregate impacts ( i.e. , various measurements of total social , economic and ecological impacts ) , and large-scale high-impact events . The five reasons for concern are described in more detail below . The following descriptions are based on information from the IPCC 's Third ( TAR ) and Fourth Assessment Reports ( AR4 ) , published in 2001 and 2007 , respectively .","qid":"2755","docid":"Reasons_for_concern","rank":70,"score":82990},{"content":"Title: Global catastrophic risk Content: A global catastrophic risk is a hypothetical future event that has the potential to damage human well-being on a global scale . Some events could cripple or destroy modern civilization . Any event that could cause human extinction is known as an existential risk . Potential global catastrophic risks include anthropogenic risks ( technology risks , governance risks ) and natural or external risks . Examples of technology risks are hostile artificial intelligence , biotechnology risks , or nanotechnology weapons . Insufficient global governance creates risks in the social and political domain ( potentially leading to a global war with or without a nuclear holocaust , bioterrorism using genetically modified organisms , cyberterrorism destroying critical infrastructures like the electrical grid , or the failure to manage a natural pandemic ) as well as problems and risks in the domain of earth system governance ( with risks resulting from global warming , environmental degradation , mineral resource exhaustion , fossil energy exhaustion , or famine as a result of non-equitable resource distribution , human overpopulation , crop failures and non-sustainable agriculture ) . Examples for non-anthropogenic risks are an asteroid impact event , a supervolcanic eruption , a lethal gamma-ray burst , a geomagnetic storm destroying all electronic equipment , natural long-term climate change , or extraterrestrial life impacting life on Earth .","qid":"2755","docid":"Global_catastrophic_risk","rank":71,"score":82988},{"content":"Title: Unstoppable Global Warming: Every 1,500 Years Content: Unstoppable Global Warming : Every 1,500 Years is a book about climate change , written by Siegfried Fred Singer and Dennis T. Avery , which asserts that natural changes , and not CO2 emissions , are the cause of Global Warming . Published by Rowman & Littlefield in 2006 , the book sold well and was reprinted in an updated edition in 2007 . The title refers to the hypothesis of 1,500-year climate cycles in the Holocene first postulated by Gerard C. Bond , mainly based on petrologic tracers of drift ice in the North Atlantic .","qid":"2755","docid":"Unstoppable_Global_Warming:_Every_1,500_Years","rank":72,"score":82602},{"content":"Title: Global cooling (disambiguation) Content: Global cooling was a 1970s conjecture about global climate change . Global cooling may also refer to : In general , one of the means by which Earth can undergo climate change Climate change denial , including contrarian views about global warming in the 20th and 21st centuries Cooling periods on the multimillion-year scale in the geologic temperature record Geophysical global cooling , a conjecture about the formation of natural features that was made obsolete by the theory of plate tectonics Little Ice Age , a period from the 16th to 19th centuries characterized by cooling and coincident with below average sunspots frequency","qid":"2755","docid":"Global_cooling_(disambiguation)","rank":73,"score":82577},{"content":"Title: Climate change in popular culture Content: The issue of climate change and global warming , their possible effects , and related human-environment interaction have entered popular culture since the late 20th century . Science historian Naomi Oreskes has noted , `` There 's a huge disconnect between what professional scientists have studied and learned in the last 30 years , and what is out there in the popular culture . '' An academic study contrasts the relatively rapid acceptance of ozone depletion as reflected in popular culture with the much slower acceptance of the scientific consensus on global warming .","qid":"2755","docid":"Climate_change_in_popular_culture","rank":74,"score":82418},{"content":"Title: Climate Change: Global Risks, Challenges and Decisions Content: Climate Change : Global Risks , Challenges and Decisions was a conference on Climate Change held at the Bella Center by the University of Copenhagen . The event was organised with the assistance of other universities in the International Alliance of Research Universities . The stated aim of the conference was to provide `` a summary of existing scientific knowledge two years after the last IPCC report . '' The conference took place on 10 -- 12 March 2009 .","qid":"2755","docid":"Climate_Change:_Global_Risks,_Challenges_and_Decisions","rank":75,"score":82410},{"content":"Title: Hurricane Katrina and global warming Content: The tremendous destruction caused by recent Atlantic Ocean tropical cyclones , such as Hurricanes Katrina , Wilma , and Sandy caused a substantial upsurge in interest in the subject of global warming by news media and the wider public , and concerns that global climatic change may have played a significant role in those events . Time Magazine , for example , published an article titled , `` Is Global Warming Fueling Katrina ? '' -- however , the article itself addressed hurricanes in general , rather than Katrina specifically , and was inconclusive . Shortly after the hurricane , former Boston Globe reporter Ross Gelbspan wrote an op-ed piece for the Globe titled , `` Katrina 's Real Name '' , declaring that the hurricane 's `` real name is global warming . '' Gelbspan went on to assert : `` Although Katrina began as a relatively small hurricane that glanced off south Florida , it was supercharged with extraordinary intensity by the relatively blistering sea surface temperatures in the Gulf of Mexico . '' Gelbspan did not single out Katrina from other recent storms in that regard ; in the article he went on to attribute other major weather events over the preceding year to global warming , including a blizzard in Los Angeles , high winds in Scandinavia , wildfires in Spain , and a drought centered in Missouri . Britain 's then deputy prime minister , John Prescott , has linked Katrina with global warming , and statements made shortly after the hurricane by Germany 's environment minister , Jürgen Trittin , indicate he believes that global warming is responsible for an increase in the frequency of destructive natural events . Kerry Emanuel had recently published a paper in the journal Nature that found a good correlation between hurricane intensity and sea surface temperatures . Some journalists have claimed Emanuel 's paper concludes that the recent increase in intense Atlantic storms is due to global warming , but Emanuel stated that `` it would be absurd to attribute the Katrina disaster to global warming '' . The Internet blog RealClimate has written that `` there is no way to prove that Katrina either was , or was not , affected by global warming '' .","qid":"2755","docid":"Hurricane_Katrina_and_global_warming","rank":76,"score":82304},{"content":"Title: Effects of global warming on Australia Content: Predictions measuring the effects of global warming on Australia assert that global warming will negatively impact the continent 's environment , economy , and communities . Australia has been designated as one of the countries most vulnerable to climate change , according to the Stern Review and others , due partially to the importance of its agricultural sector and the prominence of its coast . Australia is vulnerable to the effects of global warming projected for the next 50 to 100 years because of its extensive arid and semi-arid areas , an already warm climate , high annual rainfall variability , and existing pressures on water supply . The continent 's high fire risk increases this susceptibility to change in temperature and climate . Additionally , Australia 's population is highly concentrated in coastal areas , and its important tourism industry depends on the health of the Great Barrier Reef and other fragile ecosystems . The impacts of climate change in Australia will be complex and to some degree uncertain , but increased foresight may enable the country to safeguard its future through planned mitigation and adaptation . Mitigation may reduce the ultimate extent of climate change and its impacts , but requires global solutions and cooperation , while adaptation can be performed at national and local levels .","qid":"2755","docid":"Effects_of_global_warming_on_Australia","rank":77,"score":82196},{"content":"Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .","qid":"2755","docid":"List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming","rank":78,"score":82018},{"content":"Title: Climate change denial Content: Climate change denial , or global warming denial , is part of the global warming controversy . It involves denial , dismissal , unwarranted doubt or contrarian views which strongly depart from the scientific opinion on climate change , including the extent to which it is caused by humans , its impacts on nature and human society , or the potential of adaptation to global warming by human actions . Some deniers do endorse the term , but others often prefer the term climate change skepticism , although this is a misnomer for those who deny anthropogenic global warming . In effect , the two terms form a continuous , overlapping range of views , and generally have the same characteristics : both reject , to a greater or lesser extent , mainstream scientific opinion on climate change . Climate change denial can also be implicit , when individuals or social groups accept the science but fail to come to terms with it or to translate their acceptance into action . Several social science studies have analyzed these positions as forms of denialism . Campaigning to undermine public trust in climate science has been described as a `` denial machine '' of industrial , political and ideological interests , supported by conservative media and skeptical bloggers in manufacturing uncertainty about global warming . In the public debate , phrases such as climate skepticism have frequently been used with the same meaning as climate denialism . The labels are contested : those actively challenging climate science commonly describe themselves as `` skeptics '' , but many do not comply with common standards of scientific skepticism and , regardless of evidence , persistently deny the validity of human caused global warming . Although scientific opinion on climate change is that human activity is extremely likely to be the primary driver of climate change , the politics of global warming have been affected by climate change denial , hindering efforts to prevent climate change and adapt to the warming climate . Those promoting denial commonly use rhetorical tactics to give the appearance of a scientific controversy where there is none . Of the world 's countries , the climate change denial industry is most powerful in the United States . Since January 2015 , the United States Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works has been chaired by oil lobbyist and climate change denier Jim Inhofe . Inhofe is notorious for having called climate change `` the greatest hoax ever perpetrated against the American people '' and for having claimed to have debunked the alleged hoax in February 2015 when he brought a snowball with him in the Senate chamber and tossed it across the floor . Organised campaigning to undermine public trust in climate science is associated with conservative economic policies and backed by industrial interests opposed to the regulation of emissions . Climate change denial has been associated with the fossil fuels lobby , the Koch brothers , industry advocates and libertarian think tanks , often in the United States . More than 90 % of papers sceptical on climate change originate from right-wing think tanks . The total annual income of these climate change counter-movement-organizations is roughly $ 900 million . Between 2002 and 2010 , nearly $ 120 million ( # 77 million ) was anonymously donated via the Donors Trust and Donors Capital Fund to more than 100 organisations seeking to undermine the public perception of the science on climate change . In 2013 the Center for Media and Democracy reported that the State Policy Network ( SPN ) , an umbrella group of 64 U.S. think tanks , had been lobbying on behalf of major corporations and conservative donors to oppose climate change regulation . Since the late 1970s , oil companies have published research broadly in line with the standard views on global warming . Despite this , oil companies organized a climate change denial campaign to disseminate public disinformation for several decades , a strategy that has been compared to the organized denial of the hazards of tobacco smoking by tobacco companies .","qid":"2755","docid":"Climate_change_denial","rank":79,"score":81902},{"content":"Title: An Inconvenient Truth (book) Content: An Inconvenient Truth : The Planetary Emergency of Global Warming and What We Can Do About It is a 2006 book by Al Gore released in conjunction with the film An Inconvenient Truth . It is published by Rodale Press in Emmaus , Pennsylvania , in the United States . Based on Gore 's lecture tour on the topic of global warming this book elaborates upon points offered in the film . The publisher of the text states that the book , `` brings together leading-edge research from top scientists around the world ; photographs , charts , and other illustrations ; and personal anecdotes and observations to document the fast pace and wide scope of global warming . '' Michiko Kakutani argues in the New York Times that the book 's `` roots as a slide show are very much in evidence . It does not pretend to grapple with climate change with the sort of minute detail and analysis '' given by other books on the topic `` and yet as a user-friendly introduction to global warming and a succinct summary of many of the central arguments laid out in those other volumes , `` An Inconvenient Truth '' is lucid , harrowing and bluntly effective . '' In a section called `` The Politicization of Global Warming '' , Al Gore said this statement : As for why so many people still resist what the facts clearly show , I think , in part , the reason is that the truth about the climate crisis is an inconvenient one that means we are going to have to change the way we live our lives . A highlighted statement separated from the main writing in that section was : The truth about the climate crisis is an inconvenient one that means we are going to have to change the way we live our lives . In 2009 , the audiobook version , narrated by Beau Bridges , Cynthia Nixon , and Blair Underwood , won the Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album .","qid":"2755","docid":"An_Inconvenient_Truth_(book)","rank":80,"score":81718},{"content":"Title: World Climate Conference Content: The World Climate Conferences are a series of international meetings , organized by the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) , about global climate issues principally global warming in addition to climate research and forecasting .","qid":"2755","docid":"World_Climate_Conference","rank":81,"score":81302},{"content":"Title: Five Ways to Save the World Content: Five Ways to Save the World is a British documentary film on environmental issues related to climate change , released in 2006 . The film was made by Karen O'Connor , for the big screen and was shot in the English language to reach an international audience . It includes interviews with five environmental scientists and experts including Paul Crutzen , James Roger Angel , John Latham , Ian Jones , and Klaus Lackner . The `` five ways '' proposed are geoengineering techniques : space lenses in orbit , to diffract sunlight away from the earth cloud seeding with seawater to increase albedo sulfur launched into the stratosphere to increase albedo ocean fertilization with iron or urea ( nitrogen fertilizer ) artificial trees ( see carbon capture and sequestration ) Since the first three methods do not remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , they would only reduce global warming but not ocean acidification . Since the last two methods would remove carbon dioxide , they could in theory reduce both global warming and ocean acidification .","qid":"2755","docid":"Five_Ways_to_Save_the_World","rank":82,"score":81249},{"content":"Title: Planet Relief Content: Planet Relief was a proposed BBC television special dealing with the issue of global warming , originally scheduled for broadcast in January 2008 . The programme , which had been in development for 18 months , was meant to be similar to previous BBC programmes such as Comic Relief and Sport Relief . However , it was cancelled before it was broadcast , allegedly because the BBC was concerned that it would be `` biased '' towards promoting responses based on acceptance of mainstream climate change science .","qid":"2755","docid":"Planet_Relief","rank":83,"score":81245},{"content":"Title: Climate change policy of the United States Content: Global climate change was first addressed in United States policy beginning in the early 1960s . The Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) defines climate change as `` any significant change in the measures of climate lasting for an extended period of time . '' Essentially , climate change includes major changes in temperature , precipitation , or wind patterns , as well as other effects , that occur over several decades or longer . Climate change policy in the US has transformed rapidly over the past twenty years and is being developed at both the state and federal level . The politics of global warming and climate change have polarized certain political parties and other organizations . This article focuses on climate change policy within the United States , as well as exploring the positions of various parties and the influences on policy making and environmental justice repercussions .","qid":"2755","docid":"Climate_change_policy_of_the_United_States","rank":84,"score":80579},{"content":"Title: 100% renewable energy Content: The endeavor to use 100 % renewable energy for electricity , heating and cooling , and transport is motivated by global warming , pollution and other environmental issues , as well as economic and energy security concerns . Shifting the total global primary energy supply to renewable sources requires a transition of the energy system . In 2013 the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change said that there are few fundamental technological limits to integrating a portfolio of renewable energy technologies to meet most of total global energy demand . Renewable energy use has grown much faster than even advocates anticipated . In 2014 , renewable sources such as wind , geothermal , solar , biomass , and burnt waste provided 19 % of the total energy consumed worldwide , with roughly half of that coming from traditional use of biomass . The most important sector is electricity with a renewable share of 22.8 % , most of it coming from hydropower with a share of 16.6 % , followed by wind with 3.1 % . There are many places around the world with grids that are run almost exclusively on renewable energy . At the national level , at least 30 nations already have renewable energy contributing more than 20 % of the energy supply . Professors S. Pacala and Robert H. Socolow of Princeton University have developed a series of `` Climate stabilization wedges '' that can allow us to maintain our quality of life while avoiding catastrophic climate change , and `` renewable energy sources , '' in aggregate , constitute the largest number of their `` wedges . '' Mark Z. Jacobson , professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy program , says that producing all new energy with wind power , solar power , and hydropower by 2030 is feasible , and that existing energy supply arrangements could be replaced by 2050 . Barriers to implementing the renewable energy plan are seen to be `` primarily social and political , not technological or economic '' . Jacobson says that energy costs today with a wind , solar , and water system should be similar to today 's energy costs from other optimally cost-effective strategies . The main obstacle against this scenario is the lack of political will . Similarly , in the United States , the independent National Research Council has noted that `` sufficient domestic renewable resources exist to allow renewable electricity to play a significant role in future electricity generation and thus help confront issues related to climate change , energy security , and the escalation of energy costs ... Renewable energy is an attractive option because renewable resources available in the United States , taken collectively , can supply significantly greater amounts of electricity than the total current or projected domestic demand . '' The main barriers to the widespread implementation of large-scale renewable energy and low-carbon energy strategies are political rather than technological . According to the 2013 Post Carbon Pathways report , which reviewed many international studies , the key roadblocks are : climate change denial , the fossil fuels lobby , political inaction , unsustainable energy consumption , outdated energy infrastructure , and financial constraints .","qid":"2755","docid":"100%_renewable_energy","rank":85,"score":80378},{"content":"Title: DeSmogBlog Content: The DeSmogBlog , founded in January 2006 , is a blog that focuses on topics related to global warming . The site describes itself as `` the world 's number one source for accurate , fact based information regarding Global Warming misinformation campaigns . '' DeSmogBlog opposes what it describes as `` a well-funded and highly organized public relations campaign '' that it says is `` poisoning '' the climate change debate . Since its inception , the site has received several mentions in the media regarding its involvement in global warming issues . The site was co-founded by James Hoggan , president of a public relations firm based in Vancouver , British Columbia , Canada . The website was recognized in December 2007 with an award by a trade organization for its standards and content .","qid":"2755","docid":"DeSmogBlog","rank":86,"score":79760},{"content":"Title: List of Australian environmental books Content: This is a list of Australian environmental books : Global Spin : The Corporate Assault on Environmentalism ( 1997 ) , by Sharon Beder Human Ecology , Human Economy : Ideas for an Ecologically Sustainable Future ( 1997 ) , edited by Mark Diesendorf and Clive Hamilton Running from the Storm : The Development of Climate Change Policy in Australia ( 2001 ) , by Clive Hamilton A Big Fix : Radical Solutions for Australia 's Environmental Crisis ( 2005 ) , by Ian Lowe Living in the Hothouse : How Global Warming Affects Australia ( 2005 ) , by Ian Lowe The Weather Makers ( 2005 ) , by Tim Flannery Environmental Principles and Policies ( 2006 ) , by Sharon Beder Patriots : Defending Australia 's Natural Heritage ( 2006 ) , by William J Lines Chasing Kangaroos ( 2007 ) , by Tim Flannery Greenhouse Solutions with Sustainable Energy ( 2007 ) , by Mark Diesendorf High and Dry : John Howard , Climate Change and the Selling of Australia 's Future ( 2007 ) , by Guy Pearse The 3rd Degree : Frontline in Australia 's Climate War ( 2007 ) , by Murray Hogarth Maralinga : Australia 's Nuclear Waste Cover-up ( 2007 ) , by Alan Parkinson Reaction Time : Climate Change and the Nuclear Option ( 2007 ) , by Ian Lowe Scorcher : The Dirty Politics of Climate Change ( 2007 ) , by Clive Hamilton Climate Code Red : The Case for Emergency Action ( 2008 ) , by David Spratt and Philip Sutton Now or Never : A Sustainable Future for Australia ? ( 2008 ) , by Tim Flannery Quarry Vision : Coal , Climate Change and the End of the Resources Boom ( 2009 ) , by Guy Pearse Requiem for a Species ( 2010 ) , by Clive Hamilton","qid":"2755","docid":"List_of_Australian_environmental_books","rank":87,"score":79715},{"content":"Title: Global warming in Tuvalu Content: Global warming is a concern in Tuvalu since the average height of the islands is less than 2 m above sea level , with the highest point of Niulakita being about 4.6 m above sea level . Tuvalu could be one of the first nations to experience the effects of sea level rise . Not only could parts of the island be flooded but the rising saltwater table could also destroy deep rooted food crops such as coconut , pulaka , and taro .","qid":"2755","docid":"Global_warming_in_Tuvalu","rank":88,"score":79480},{"content":"Title: The Amazonia Conference Content: The Amazonia Conference is a global warming activist organization with a particular focus on education of the public . The Conference was established in April 1990 , when governments of the world were discussing the dangers of global warming at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 . The Conference is an educational organisation with the aim of educating people about the realities of the endangered environment and the inevitable catastrophic consequences if no proactive and preventive steps are taken . The project has reached many institutions and organisations all over the world , spreading the message Education for Preservation . The organisation has given birth to other initiatives , such as The Amazonia Society , the Amazonia Seminar , the Amazonia Experience , and the Amazonia Files . The Amazonia Conference is an educational organisation which , unlike other environmental organisations , focuses in education instead of radical campaigning . This does not mean that the organisation does not campaign . The organisation believes that it is effectively easier to ` form the minds of the young instead of attempting to amend adult ones . ' Therefore , by educating the young , next generations will be equipped with environmentally aware citizens . The project also has a special division which visits companies and other organisations to educate their employees or members , on the current environmental issues which our planet is suffering due to human activities . The Amazonia Conference is considered to be the biggest educational project in Portugal ( Diario de Noticias , 2000 ) , and has recently received the British Airways Best Environmental Project Award 2004 .","qid":"2755","docid":"The_Amazonia_Conference","rank":89,"score":79440},{"content":"Title: GWPP Content: The initials GWPP could indicate : the Global Water Policy Project , a fresh-water conservation project headed by Sandra Postel . the Global Warming Petition Project ( AKA the Oregon Petition ) , a project devoted to discrediting global climate change ( or its previous label global warming ) , under the auspices of the non-profit organization called the Oregon Institute of Science and Medicine .","qid":"2755","docid":"GWPP","rank":90,"score":79395},{"content":"Title: The End of Nature Content: The End of Nature is a book written by Bill McKibben , published by Anchor in 1989 . It has been called the first book on global warming written for a general audience . McKibben had thought that simply stating the problem would provoke people to action .","qid":"2755","docid":"The_End_of_Nature","rank":91,"score":79395},{"content":"Title: GWP Content: GWP can stand for : Global-warming potential , a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere Global Water Partnership , an international network offering practical advice for sustainably managing water resources Gross world product , the combined GNP of all countries in the world Gross Written Premiums , a measure of revenues for insurance businesses Guild Wars Prophecies , an MMORPG Guinea-Bissau peso , the currency code for Guinea-Bissau 's peso from 1975 to 1997 Gigawatt-peak , a measure in gigawatts of the nominal power of a photovoltaic solar energy device under laboratory illumination conditions","qid":"2755","docid":"GWP","rank":92,"score":79316},{"content":"Title: Global climate regime Content: A global climate regime is a global framework that aims at regulating the interaction of human activity with the global climate system , to mitigate global climate change .","qid":"2755","docid":"Global_climate_regime","rank":93,"score":79266},{"content":"Title: America's Climate Security Act of 2007 Content: The America 's Climate Security Act of 2007 was a global warming bill that was considered by the United States Senate to reduce the amount of greenhouse gases emitted in the United States . Also known as the Lieberman-Warner bill , bill number , the legislation was introduced by Sens. Joseph Lieberman ( I-CT ) and John Warner ( R-VA ) on October 18 , 2007 . The bill was approved by the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works in December 2007 , and was debated in the Senate during the week of June 2 . The bill would create a national cap-and-trade scheme for greenhouse gas emissions , in which polluters would mostly be allocated right-to-emit credits based on how much greenhouse gas they currently emit . The cap would get tighter over time , until by 2050 , emissions would be reduced to 63 % below 2005 levels . Several environmental groups express their encouragement at the progress in legislation on the global warming issue while at the same time expressing disappointment that the bill does n't reduce emissions enough . On June 6 , 2008 , the bill was killed by Senate Republicans over worries that it would damage the economy .","qid":"2755","docid":"America's_Climate_Security_Act_of_2007","rank":94,"score":79064},{"content":"Title: Surviving the Century Content: Surviving the Century : Facing Climate Chaos and Other Global Challenges , edited by Herbert Girardet , is the first major book from the World Future Council , published by Earthscan in 2007 . Eight main issues relating to the politics of climate change are covered in the book : countering climate chaos , renewable energy policy , creating sustainable cities , local farming systems , rainforests and climate change , cradle to cradle production systems , an alternative vision for trade and creating a living democracy .","qid":"2755","docid":"Surviving_the_Century","rank":95,"score":79037},{"content":"Title: Economic impacts of climate change Content: This article describes the economic impacts of climate change . Given the inherent nature of economic forecasting , which involves significant degrees of uncertainty , estimates of the results of global warming over the 21st century have varied widely . Many analyses , such as that of the Stern Review presented to the British Government , have predicted reductions by several percent of world gross domestic product due to climate related costs such as dealing with increased extreme weather events and stresses to low-lying areas due to sea level rises . Other studies by independent economists looking at the effects of climate change have found more ambiguous results around the range of net-neutral changes when all aspects of the issue are evaluated , though the issue remains intensely debated .","qid":"2755","docid":"Economic_impacts_of_climate_change","rank":96,"score":78958},{"content":"Title: Long-term effects of global warming Content: See also Effects of global warming . The focus of this article is on the effects beyond 2100 . There are expected to be various long-term effects of global warming . Most discussion and research , including that by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports , concentrates on the effects of global warming up to 2100 , with only an outline of the effects beyond this .","qid":"2755","docid":"Long-term_effects_of_global_warming","rank":97,"score":78851},{"content":"Title: Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 Content: The Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 - a bill to amend the Clean Air Act to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide , and for other purposes . It was proposed in the 110th United States Congress by Senators Bernie Sanders ( I-VT ) and Barbara Boxer ( D-CA ) on January 15 , 2007 . It was referred to the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works . The measure was intended to increase performance standards for electricity generation and motor vehicles with the option of an emissions `` cap and trade '' system . The emissions cap would begin in 2010 with the aim of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 15 percent by 2020 and 83 percent by 2050 . The legislation would also provide funding for R&D on geologic sequestration of carbon dioxide , among other projects ; set emissions standards for new vehicles and a renewable fuels requirement for gasoline beginning in 2016 ; establish energy efficiency and renewable portfolio standards beginning in 2008 and low-carbon electric generation standards beginning in 2016 for electric utilities ; and require periodic evaluations by the National Academy of Sciences to determine whether emissions targets are adequate .","qid":"2755","docid":"Global_Warming_Pollution_Reduction_Act_of_2007","rank":98,"score":78799},{"content":"Title: Ross McKitrick Content: Ross McKitrick is a Canadian economist specializing in environmental economics and policy analysis . He is a professor of economics at the University of Guelph , and a senior fellow of the Fraser Institute . He is a member of the academic advisory boards of the John Deutsch Institute , the Global Warming Policy Foundation , and the Cornwall Alliance for the Stewardship of Creation . He has authored works about climate change issues , including co-authoring the book Taken By Storm : The Troubled Science , Policy and Politics of Global Warming in 2003 . McKitrick produced a series of videos and articles for the Friends of Science in which he argued that there is a `` pause '' in global warming that reveals flaws in current climate change models . The Friends of Science argue that the sun -- not human emissions of GHG -- is the main driver of climate change .","qid":"2755","docid":"Ross_McKitrick","rank":99,"score":78578},{"content":"Title: Climate change and potatoes Content: Global warming is predicted to have significant effects on global potato production . Like many crops , potatoes are likely to be affected by changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide , temperature and precipitation , as well as interactions between these factors . As well as affecting potatoes directly , climate change will also affect the distributions and populations of many potato diseases and pests . Potato is one of the world 's most important food crops . Potato production must be adapted to climate change to avoid reductions in crop yields .","qid":"2755","docid":"Climate_change_and_potatoes","rank":100,"score":78475}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Economics_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 110790\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming taxes Content:\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_taxes\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 106452\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 106143\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming (disambiguation) Content: Global warming is one of the common names for the current change in Earth 's climate . Global warming may also refer to : Global Warming ( Pitbull album ) , a 2011 music album by Pitbull Global Warming ( Sonny Rollins album ) , a 1998 music album by Sonny Rollins Global warming game , several games based on the concept Not to be confused with the Global warming controversy , which refers to the public debate over scientific conclusions on climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_(disambiguation)\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 105964\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_controversy\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 102617\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: World wide views Content: The World Wide Views projects were started in 2009 by the Danish Board of Technology Foundation to involve citizens in global environmental policy making through deliberation and voting . Recent decades have shown a growing need for global solutions to global problems . As cross-border environmental challenges have grown in scale , the nations of the world have turned to international organisations in search of a common platform in which to address these problems . One such platform has been the United Nations ( UN ) , institutionalized in the Conventions on Global Warming and on Biodiversity , more specifically the Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) & the Convention on Biological Diversity ( CBD ) . One of the challenges presented by these international platforms has been , and is , how to involve the citizens of the world in decisions and policies resulting from the Conference of Parties ( COP ) meetings held regularly and involving political leaders and heads of state of the participating UN member states . As environmental hazards and changes affect us all without regards to our nationality , citizen participation in global policy making is crucial both to every one of us as citizens , and to the nations of the world gathering at COP 's in order to find and commit to sustainable and reasonable solutions . With its extensive experience in involving citizens in citizen deliberation on a broad range of issues , the Danish Board of Technology Foundation ( DBT ) has started the World Wide Views projects , organising partner organisations from all over the world in a World Wide Views Alliance with the main purpose of involving citizens in global environmental policy making through deliberation and voting . The aim is to provide ordinary citizens of the world with a direct link to political decision makers , while providing the decision makers with an informed insight into the needs and views of the citizens they are representing , as well as creating public awareness of environmental hazards and challenges .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"World_wide_views\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 102405\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming in Turkey Content:\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_in_Turkey\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 99399\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates Content: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) are cause by the exploitation of natural resources , rapid population growth , and high energy demand . The continuing temperature rise caused by global warming contributes to UAE 's water scarcity , drought , rising sea level and aridity . The countryside of the UAE , characterized with its great arid land , infrequent precipitation , and high temperatures are already facing long-term aridity . This precondition is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change and contributes to worsening water scarcity , quality , and water contamination . The United Arab Emirates are located in the Middle East between Oman and Saudi Arabia , adjoining the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf . In the last years , the impact of global warming on the UAE has intensified the already existing environmental issues , including water scarcity and limited agricultural land . The United Arab Emirates are a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , listed as having the 29th highest carbon dioxide emissions . Since the boom of the oil-industry occurred in the early 21st century , the population and its consumption of energy have sharply increased . The UAE contains the world 's seventh largest natural resource of oil and seventeenth-largest natural gas reserve . This possession of a high amount of valuable natural resources , pushed the UAE to the position of the ninth wealthiest country in the world by 2016 GDP per capita . These financial resources support their adaptation capacity to `` climate change-induced challenges '' . Currently , they are investing in increasing air conditioning infrastructure , rainwater drainage systems , constructing flood barriers and new desalination plants . In June 2016 Abu Dhabi announced a project for an enhanced rainwater drainage system due to unnaturally occurring thunderstorms in March 2016 which caused 860 damages on properties and flooding . Also the three main characteristics of UAE 's politics contribute to the recent natural unsustainability : First , the Emirates feature components of a Rentier state . It is governed by an authoritarian political system and finally both facts cause critical natural resource-related trades . In particular , UAE as a rentier state means that the federalization gains external rent from foreign individuals , companies and governments . A rentier state 's economy is predominated by the dependency on external rents . Oil revenues also count as external rent .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 98550\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming in Russia Content: Global warming in Russia describes the global warming related issues in Russia . This includes climate politics , contribution to global warming and the influence of global warming on Russia . In 2009 Russia was ready to reduce emissions 20 -- 25 % from its 1990 emission levels by the year 2020 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_in_Russia\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 97529\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 97347\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Politics of global warming Content: The complex politics of global warming results from numerous cofactors arising from the global economy 's interdependence on carbon dioxide emitting hydrocarbon energy sources and because carbon dioxide is directly implicated in global warming -- making global warming a non-traditional environmental challenge .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Politics_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 96803\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming game Content: A global warming game , also known as a climate game or a climate change game , is a type of serious game . As a serious game , it attempts to simulate and explore real life issues to educate players through an interactive experience . The issues particular to a global warming video game are usually energy efficiency and the implementation of green technology as ways to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and thus counteract global warming . Global warming games also include more traditional board games , video games , as well as other varieties .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_game\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 96513\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Warming (Sonny Rollins album) Content: Global Warming is an album by jazz saxophonist Sonny Rollins , released on the Milestone label in 1998 , featuring performances by Rollins with Stephen Scott , Bob Cranshaw , Idris Muhammad , Clifton Anderson , Victor See Yuen and Perry Wilson .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Warming_(Sonny_Rollins_album)\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 96165\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Warming Policy Foundation Content: The Global Warming Policy Foundation ( GWPF ) is a think tank in the United Kingdom , whose stated aims are to challenge `` extremely damaging and harmful policies '' envisaged by governments to mitigate anthropogenic global warming . It promotes climate change denial . In 2014 , when the Charity Commission ruled that the GWPF had breached rules on impartiality , a non-charitable organisation called the `` Global Warming Policy Forum '' or `` GWPF '' was created as a wholly owned subsidiary , to do lobbying that a charity could not . The GWPF website carries an array of articles `` sceptical '' of scientific findings of anthropogenic global warming and its impacts .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Warming_Policy_Foundation\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 95750\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: An Appeal to Reason Content: An Appeal to Reason : A Cool Look at Global Warming is a 2008 book by Nigel Lawson . In it , Lawson argues that global warming is happening , but that the science is far from settled . He opposes the scientific consensus as summarized by the IPCC . He also argues that warming will bring both benefits and negative consequences , and that the impact of these changes will be relatively moderate rather than apocalyptic . He criticizes politicians and scientists who predict catastrophe unless urgent action is taken , and he calls for gradual adaptation instead . The book has been criticized by some climatologists , including IPCC authors Jean Palutikof and Robert Watson .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"An_Appeal_to_Reason\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 95700\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Warming (Pitbull album) Content: Global Warming is the seventh studio album recorded by American rapper Pitbull . It was released on November 16 , 2012 . A teaser to accompany the release of Global Warming was first released onto Pitbull 's official Facebook and YouTube channel on September 17 , 2012 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Warming_(Pitbull_album)\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 95033\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Code Red Content: Climate Code Red : The Case for Emergency Action is a 2008 book which presents scientific evidence that the global warming crisis is worse than official reports and national governments have so far indicated . The book argues that we are facing a `` sustainability emergency '' that requires a clear break from business-as-usual politics . The authors explain that emergency action to address climate change is not so much a radical idea as an indispensable course we must embark upon . Climate Code Red draws heavily on the work of a large number of climate scientists , including James E. Hansen . The key themes of Climate Code Red are : `` Our goal is a safe-climate future -- we have no right to bargain away species or human lives . '' `` We are facing rapid warming impacts : the danger is immediate , not just in the future . '' `` For a safe climate future , we must take action now to stop emissions and to cool the earth . '' `` Plan a large-scale transition to a post-carbon economy and society . '' `` Recognise a climate and sustainability emergency , because we need to move at a pace far beyond business and politics as usual '' . Co-author David Spratt is a Melbourne businessman , climate-policy analyst , and co-founder of the Carbon Equity network . Co-author Philip Sutton is convener of the Greenleap Strategic Institute and Assistant Convenor of the Climate Emergency Network . The book was launched by the Governor of Victoria , Professor David de Kretser in Parliament House in Melbourne , Victoria , on July 17 , 2008 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Code_Red\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 94853\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ozone depletion and climate change Content: Ozone depletion and climate change , or Ozone hole and global warming in more popular terms , are environmental challenges whose connections have been explored and which have been compared and contrasted , for example in terms of global regulation , in various studies and books . There is widespread scientific interest in better regulation of climate change , ozone depletion and air pollution , as in general the human relationship with the biosphere is deemed of major historiographical and political significance . Already by 1994 the legal debates about respective regulation regimes on climate change , ozone depletion and air pollution were being dubbed `` monumental '' and a combined synopsis provided . There are some parallels between atmospheric chemistry and anthropogenic emissions in the discussions which have taken place and the regulatory attempts which have been made . Most important is that the gases causing both problems have long lifetimes after emission to the atmosphere , thus causing problems which are difficult to reverse . However , the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and the Montreal Protocol that amended it are seen as success stories , while the Kyoto Protocol on anthropogenic climate change has largely failed . Currently efforts are being undertaken to assess the reasons and to use synergies , for example with regard to data reporting and policy design and further exchanging of information . While the general public tends to see global warming as a subset of ozone depletion , in fact ozone and chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons ( CFCs ) and other halocarbons , which are held responsible for ozone depletion , are important greenhouse gasses . Furthermore , natural levels of ozone in both the stratosphere and troposphere have a warming effect .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Ozone_depletion_and_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 94215\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 94057\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_cooling\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 93718\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Regional_effects_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 93267\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Leipzig Declaration Content: The Leipzig Declaration on Global Climate Change is a statement made in 1995 , seeking to refute the claim there is a scientific consensus on the global warming issue . It was issued in an updated form in 1997 and revised again in 2005 , claiming to have been signed by 80 scientists and 25 television news meteorologists while the posting of 33 additional signatories was pending verification that those 33 additional scientists still agreed with the statement . All versions of the declaration , which opposes the global warming hypothesis and the Kyoto Protocol , were penned by Fred Singer 's Science and Environmental Policy Project ( SEPP ) . The first declaration was based on a November 9 -- 10 , 1995 conference , organized by Helmut Metzner in Leipzig , Germany . The second declaration was additionally based on a successor conference in Bonn , Germany on November 10 -- 11 , 1997 . The conferences were cosponsored by SEPP and the European Academy for Environmental Affairs and titled International Symposium on the Greenhouse Controversy .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Leipzig_Declaration\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 93168\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 93155\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ross Gelbspan Content: Ross Gelbspan is a writer and environmentalist . He has written two books relating to global warming : The Heat Is On ( 1997 ) and Boiling Point ( 2004 ) . The Heat Is On received national attention when President Bill Clinton told the press he was reading it . Boiling Point was the subject of the lead review in the Sunday New York Times Book Review . That review was written by former Vice President Al Gore . Gelbspan maintains the website heatisonline.org , which he updates on a daily basis . Prior to his involvement in the climate issue , Gelbspan worked as an editor and reporter at a number of newspapers , including The Philadelphia Bulletin , The Washington Post and the Boston Globe . At the Globe , he conceived , directed and edited a series of articles that won a Pulitzer Prize in 1984 . Since becoming involved in the climate issue , Gelbspan has delivered a number of lectures , radio and television interviews and has published multiple articles on the subject . He is a regular contributor on DeSmogBlog . He has published op-ed articles in a number of major newspapers -- as well as articles in a number of other outlets including Harper 's , The Atlantic Monthly , The American Prospect , Sierra Magazine , The Nation , and many others . He has spoken in venues that include the World Economic Forum and the Boston Social Forum . His media interviews include , among others , appearances on Nightline , All Things Considered , Talk of the Nation , World News Tonight and other outlets .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Ross_Gelbspan\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 91952\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_potential\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 91484\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Europe Content: Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe . According to international climate experts global temperature rise should not exceed 2 ° C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of the climate change . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . It is estimated that from the now living persons alive are 70 % in the year 2050 . Emission reduction means development and implementation of new energy technology solutions . Some people consider that the technology revolution has already started in Europe since the markets of the renewable technology have annually grown . European Union climate chief is Connie Hedegaard since 10 February 2010 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Europe\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 91127\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Peter Taylor (environmentalist) Content: Peter Taylor ( b. 24 Jan 1948 ) is a UK environmentalist with a long track record of public activism and scholarship on issues ranging from nuclear safety , ocean pollution , biodiversity strategies , renewable energy and climate change . His recent work on global warming has been questioned by environmentalists . His 2009 book Chill : a reassessment of global warming theory argued that most of the recent documented warming is caused by peaking natural cycles , that there is also a potential for global cooling and that adaptation not mitigation should be a priority . His views received widespread coverage in the media -- with front page on the Daily Express , and articles in the online versions of The Mail , The Times and an Al Jazeera video .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Peter_Taylor_(environmentalist)\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 91043\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Day of Action Content: Global Day of Action is a direct action protest format . Environmentalism initiatives begun to use it in 2005 in connection with Global Climate Campaign . They aimed to focus world attention on the anthropogenic effect that humans are having on global warming . Its main objective is to spearhead demands that elected representatives of their respective governments honor commitments set forth by the Kyoto Protocol , by conducting in unison peaceful demonstrations around the world . The demonstration , or rallies , are intended to coincide with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , a meeting of world leaders from 189 nations , that meet annually to discuss climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Day_of_Action\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 91016\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Discovery of Global Warming Content: The Discovery of Global Warming is a book by the physicist and historian Spencer R. Weart published in 2003 ; revised and updated edition , 2008 . It traces the history of scientific discoveries that led to the current scientific opinion on climate change . It has been translated into Spanish , Japanese , Italian , Arabic , Chinese and Korean .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Discovery_of_Global_Warming\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 90999\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of global warming on South Asia Content:\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_global_warming_on_South_Asia\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 90046\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Real Global Warming Disaster Content: The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Real_Global_Warming_Disaster\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 89523\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of global warming on human health Content: The effects of global warming include effects on human health . The observed and projected increased frequency and severity of climate related impacts will further exacerbate the effects on human health . This article describes some of those effects on individuals and populations .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_global_warming_on_human_health\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 89362\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global issue Content: Informally , a global issue describes any social , economic , political or environmental problem that affects the global community , possibly in a catastrophic way . Solution to global issues requires cooperation among nations . In their book Global Issues , Hite and Seitz emphasize that global issues are qualitatively different from international affairs and that the former arise from growing international interdependencies which makes the issues themselves interdependent .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_issue\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 88965\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: United Nations Ocean Conference Content: The 2017 United Nations Ocean Conference was a United Nations conference that took place on June 5th-9th 2017 which sought to mobilize action for the conservation and sustainable use of the oceans, seas and marine resources.The Earth's waters are said to be \\\"under threat as never before\\\", with pollution, overfishing, and the effects of climate change severely damaging the health of our oceans. For instance as oceans are warming and becoming more acidic, biodiversity is becoming reduced and changing currents will cause more frequent storms and droughts. Every year around 8 million metric tons of plastic waste leak into the ocean and make it into the circular ocean currents. This causes contamination of sediments at the sea-bottom and causes plastic waste to be embedded in the aquatic food chain. It could lead to oceans containing more plastics than fish by 2050 if nothing is done. Key habitats such as coral reefs are at risk and noise pollution are a threat to whales, dolphins, and other species. Furthermore almost 90 percent of fish stocks are overfished or fully exploited which cost more than $80 billion a year in lost revenues.UN Secretary-General António Guterres stated that decisive, coordinated global action can solve the problems created by Humanity. Peter Thomson, President of the UN General Assembly, highlighted the conference's significance, saying \\\"if we want a secure future for our species on this planet, we have to act now on the health of the ocean and on climate change\\\".The conference sought to find ways and urge for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 14. Its theme is \\\"Our oceans, our future: partnering for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 14\\\". It also asked governments, UN bodies, and civil society groups to make voluntary commitments for action to improve the health of the oceans with over 1,000 commitments − such as on managing protected areas − being made.\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"United_Nations_Ocean_Conference\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 88595\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Challenge Content: Climate Challenge is a Flash-based global warming game produced by the BBC and developed by Red Redemption . Players manage the economy and resources of the ` European Nations ' as its president , while reducing emissions of to combat climate change and managing crises . Climate Challenge is an environmental serious game , designed to give players an understanding of the science behind climate change , as well as the options available to policy makers and the difficulties in their implementation .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Challenge\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 88558\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: World Wide Views on Global Warming Content: World Wide Views on Global Warming : A global project initiated by The Danish Board of Technology on the occasion of the United Nations Climate Change Conference ( COP15 ) held in Copenhagen December 2009 . World Wide Views on Global Warming ( or just WWViews ) was an international citizens involvement project based on methods developed by The Danish Board of Technology for the purpose of involving citizens in the political decision-making processes .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"World_Wide_Views_on_Global_Warming\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 88444\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Taken by Storm Content: Taken By Storm : The Troubled Science , Policy and Politics of Global Warming is a 2002 book about the global warming controversy by Christopher Essex and Ross McKitrick . The authors argue that politicians and others claim far more certainty than is justified by the science . The authors also argue that public policy discussions have abandoned science and resorted to ad hominem attacks . Taken by Storm was one of two runners up for the 2002 Donner Prize for the best book on Canadian public policy .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Taken_by_Storm\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 87673\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Change Research Act of 1990 Content: The Global Change Research Act 1990 is a United States law requiring research into global warming and related issues . It requires a report to Congress every four years on the environmental , economic , health and safety consequences of climate change . According to a summary by the Congressional Research Service , the Act : `` Directs the President , through the Federal Coordinating Council on Science , Engineering , and Technology ( Council ) , to establish the Committee on Earth and Environmental Sciences to carry out Council functions under specified provisions of the National Science and Technology Policy , Organization , and Priorities Act of 1976 relating to global change research , to increase the effectiveness and productivity of Federal global change research efforts . Directs the President to establish an interagency United States Global Change Research Program to improve understanding of global change . Requires the Chairman of the Council , through the Committee , to develop a National Global Change Research Plan for implementation of the Program . Sets forth required Plan contents and research elements , including that the Plan provide recommendations for collaboration within the Federal Government and among nations . Requires the Chairman to enter into an agreement with the National Research Council to : ( 1 ) evaluate the scientific content of the Plan ; and ( 2 ) provide information and advice and recommended priorities for future global change research . Requires the Committee to provide general guidance each year to each Federal agency or department participating in the Program with respect to preparation of requests for appropriations related to the Program . Requires the Council , at least every four years , through the Committee , to submit to the President and the Congress an assessment regarding the findings of the Program and associated uncertainties , the effects of global change , and current and major long-term trends in global change . Requires that the research findings of the Committee and of Federal agencies and departments be made available to the Environmental Protection Agency and all Federal agencies and departments . Title II : International Cooperation in Global Change Research - International Cooperation in Global Change Research Act of 1990 - Declares that the President should direct the Secretary of State to initiate discussions with other nations on : ( 1 ) international agreements to coordinate global change research ; and ( 2 ) an international research protocol for cooperation on the development of energy technologies which have minimally adverse effects on the environment . Directs the President to establish an Office of Global Change Research Information to disseminate to foreign governments and their citizens , businesses , and institutions scientific research useful in preventing , mitigating , or adapting to the effects of global change . Title III : Growth Decision Aid - Directs the Secretary of Commerce to : ( 1 ) conduct a study on the implications of growth and development on urban , suburban , and rural communities ; and ( 2 ) based on the study , produce a decision aid to assist State and local authorities in planning and managing growth and development while preserving community character . '' Following the publication of the first National Climate Assessment Report there were accusations that information was being suppressed , leading to complacency around public works , such as New Orleans flood defences . Greenpeace , the Center for Biological Diversity and Friends of the Earth challenged the delay in federal district court on August 21 , 2007 . A judge ruled that an updated national assessment must be produced by May 31 , 2008 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Change_Research_Act_of_1990\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 87622\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Chris Spence (journalist) Content: Chris Spence ( born June 1970 ) is an award winning New Zealand journalist and former political advisor on environmental issues and foreign affairs . He currently has 20 years ' experience working internationally and in the United States on sustainable development , conservation , climate change , and health policy . In 2005 , Chris published Global Warming : Personal Solutions for a Healthy Planet ( ISBN 1403966982 ) , which offers a description of the climate change problem and a practical guide to the solutions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Chris_Spence_(journalist)\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 87616\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Warming: What You Need to Know Content: Global Warming What You Need to Know is a 2006 global warming ( climate change ) documentary , directed by Nicolas Brown , starring Tom Brokaw , James Hansen , Michael Oppenheimer , and Mark Serreze . The film focuses on impacts from climate change , and Tom Brokaw interviews scientists . The documentary premiered on Discovery Channel , 16 July 2006 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Warming:_What_You_Need_to_Know\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 87389\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Heaven and Earth (book) Content: Heaven and Earth : Global Warming -- The Missing Science is a popular science book published in 2009 and written by Australian geologist , professor of mining geology at Adelaide University , and mining company director Ian Plimer . It disputes the scientific consensus on climate change , including the view that global warming is `` very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic ( man-made ) greenhouse gas concentrations '' and asserts that the debate is being driven by what the author regards as irrational and unscientific elements . The book received what The Age newspaper called `` glowing endorsements '' from the conservative press . The Australian said it gave `` all the scientific ammunition climate change skeptics could want . '' Other reviewers criticised the book as unscientific , inaccurate , based on obsolete research , and internally inconsistent . Ideas in it have been described as `` so wrong as to be laughable '' . Heaven and Earth was a bestseller in Australia when published in May 2009 , and is in its seventh printing , according to the publisher . The book has also been published in the United States and the United Kingdom .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Heaven_and_Earth_(book)\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 87217\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \\\"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\\\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \\\"deep emissions reductions\\\" and \\\"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\\\" Furthermore, the report finds that \\\"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\\\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \\\"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\\\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 87144\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Adaptation to global warming in Australia Content:\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Adaptation_to_global_warming_in_Australia\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 87013\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cool It: The Skeptical Environmentalist's Guide to Global Warming Content: Cool It : The Skeptical Environmentalist 's Guide to Global Warming is a book by the Danish statistician and political scientist Bjørn Lomborg . The book is a sequel to The Skeptical Environmentalist ( first published in Danish in 1998 ) , which in English translation brought the author to world attention . Lomborg argues that many of the elaborate and expensive actions being considered to stop global warming will cost hundreds of billions of dollars without the same return on investment , often are based on emotional rather than strictly scientific assumptions , and may have very little impact on the world 's temperature for centuries . Lomborg concludes that a limited carbon tax is needed in the First World as well as subsidies from the First World to the Third World to help fight ongoing humanitarian crises .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Cool_It:_The_Skeptical_Environmentalist's_Guide_to_Global_Warming\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 86729\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental issue Content: Environmental issues are harmful trouble effects of human activity on the biophysical environment . Environmental protection is a practice of protecting the natural environment on individual , organizational or governmental levels , for the benefit of both the environment and humans . Environmentalism , a social and environmental movement , addresses environmental issues through advocacy , education and activism . The carbon dioxide equivalent of greenhouse gases ( GHG ) in the atmosphere has already exceeded 400 parts per million ( NOAA ) ( with total `` long-term '' GHG exceeding 455 parts per million ) . ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Report ) This level is considered a tipping point . `` The amount of greenhouse gas in the atmosphere is already above the threshold that can potentially cause dangerous climate change . We are already at risk of many areas of pollution ... It 's not next year or next decade , it 's now . '' Report from the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs ( OCHA ) : Environment destruction caused by humans is a global problem , and this is a problem that is on going every day . By year 2050 , the global human population is expected to grow by 2 billion people , thereby reaching a level of 9.6 billion people ( Living Blue Planet 24 ) . The human effects on Earth can be seen in many different ways . A main one is the temperature rise , and according to the report '' Our Changing Climate '' , the global warming that has been going on for the past 50 years is primarily due to human activities ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) . Since 1895 , the U.S. average temperature has increased from 1.3 ° F to 1.9 ° F , with most of the increase taken place since around year 1970 ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_issue\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 86369\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of global warming on oceans Content: Global warming can affect sea levels , coastlines , ocean acidification , ocean currents , seawater , sea surface temperatures , tides , the sea floor , weather , and trigger several changes in ocean bio-geochemistry ; all of these affect the functioning of a society .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_global_warming_on_oceans\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 86141\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Challenge Award Content: The Global Challenge Award is an online science and engineering design program for pre-college school students ( e.g. middle school through high school ) from all over the world . It is an initiative that started with a partnership with the University of Vermont in collaboration with the National Science Foundation , currently funded by the MacArthur Foundation Digital Media and Learning program as well as other foundations and corporations , wherein students have the opportunity to form teams with international counterparts and work towards a solution to mitigate global warming and help envision the future of renewable energy . The program is an online educational environment that uses game based learning , simulation and Web-based science resources in a global competition . It relies on the personal initiative and creativity of students working in diverse teams . The access to the project via the Web makes it possible for students , parents , homeschooling families , teachers and interested global community members to get involved to help young people with their creative ideas for innovation in new forms of energy , conservation and increased productivity .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Challenge_Award\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 85871\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Great Global Warming Swindle Content: The Great Global Warming Swindle is a polemical documentary film that suggests that the scientific opinion on climate change is influenced by funding and political factors , and questions whether scientific consensus on global warming exists . The program was formally criticised by Ofcom , the UK broadcasting regulatory agency , which upheld complaints of misrepresentation made by David King . The film , made by British television producer Martin Durkin , presents scientists , economists , politicians , writers , and others who dispute the scientific consensus regarding anthropogenic global warming . The programme 's publicity materials assert that man-made global warming is `` a lie '' and `` the biggest scam of modern times . '' Its original working title was `` Apocalypse my arse '' , but the title The Great Global Warming Swindle was later adopted as an allusion to the 1980 mockumentary The Great Rock 'n' Roll Swindle about British punk band the Sex Pistols . The UK 's Channel 4 premiered the documentary on 8 March 2007 . The channel described the film as `` a polemic that drew together the well-documented views of a number of respected scientists to reach the same conclusions . This is a controversial film but we feel that it is important that all sides of the debate are aired . '' According to Hamish Mykura , Channel 4 's head of documentaries , the film was commissioned `` to present the viewpoint of the small minority of scientists who do not believe global warming is caused by anthropogenic production of carbon dioxide . '' Although the documentary was welcomed by global warming sceptics , it was criticised by scientific organisations and individual scientists ( including one of the scientists interviewed in the film and one whose research was used to support the film 's claims ) . The film 's critics argued that it had misused and fabricated data , relied on out-of-date research , employed misleading arguments , and misrepresented the position of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Later broadcasts corrected three errors in the original film .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Great_Global_Warming_Swindle\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 85710\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Media_coverage_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 85700\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of global warming on Sri Lanka Content: Sri Lanka is an equatorial island of 65,610 km2 which hosts many diverse endemic species , and is considered to be a biodiversity hotspot . It has 400 bird species , 26 are endemic , and 105 amphibian species , 85 % are endemic . Sri Lanka also has a declining marine ecosystem , with ongoing threats to the coastal coral reef environments . If climate change proceeds unchecked , Sri Lanka will undergo widespread effects , such as climate variability and sea-level rise , which will directly affect the overall abundance and security of endemic species . Local and global policy changes are crucial in reducing CO2 emissions so islands located near the equator will not be as drastically affected .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_global_warming_on_Sri_Lanka\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 85600\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Climate Network Content: The Global Climate Network ( GCN ) is an alliance of influential think tanks and research institutes in different countries that collaborate on research into climate change policy and whose stated aim is to help address the political blockages to ambitious action to tackle global warming . The Network has members in nine countries worldwide , including the USA , China , India , UK , Australia , Brazil , Norway , South Africa and Nigeria . Its Secretariat is housed at the Institute for Public Policy Research in London , UK . GCN members are engaged jointly in a programme of research projects , the results of which each member feeds into policy making at the domestic and international levels . Collectively , members of the Global Climate Network are committed to a vision of a prosperous and secure world in which greenhouse gas emissions have been reduced to a level that is no longer harmful to the climate system . Working together , the Network construct a narrative for action on climate change that is concerned with human and economic progress as well as environmental wellbeing . The Network 's patrons are Dr Rajendra Pachauri , chair of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and director-general of the Energy and Resources Institute in India ; John Podesta , former Chief of Staff to President Bill Clinton and director of Center for American Progress , and Lord Christopher Patten of Barnes , former European Commissioner for External Affairs .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Climate_Network\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 85576\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming conspiracy theory Content: A global warming conspiracy theory invokes claims that scientific consensus on global warming is based on conspiracies to produce false data or suppress dissent . It is one of a number of tactics used in climate change denial to legitimize political controversy disputing this consensus . Global warming conspiracy theorists typically allege that , through worldwide acts of professional and criminal misconduct , the science behind global warming has been invented or distorted for ideological or financial reasons , or both .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_conspiracy_theory\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 85542\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Climate Coalition Content: The Global Climate Coalition ( GCC ) ( 1989 -- 2001 ) was an international lobbyist group of businesses that opposed action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and challenged the science behind global warming . The GCC was the largest industry group active in climate policy and the most prominent industry advocate in international climate negotiations . The GCC was involved in opposition to the Kyoto Protocol , and played a role in blocking ratification by the United States . The coalition promoted the views of climate skeptics . The GCC dissolved in 2001 after membership declined in the face of improved understanding of the role of greenhouse gases in climate change and of public criticism .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Climate_Coalition\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 85420\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: GEO-2000 Content: GEO-2000 is the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) Global Environment Outlook 2000 . The UNEP launched the Global Environment Outlook in 1995 to assess environmental issues and to have them published . The first report was published in 1999 . As well as some of the more well known issues the report identified new threats such as : nitrogen 's harmful impact on ecosystems increased severity of natural disasters species invasion as a result of globalization increased environmental pressures caused by urbanization decline in the quality of governance in some countries new wars which impact on both the immediate environment and neighbouring states the impact of refugees on the natural environment\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"GEO-2000\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 85406\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Coming Global Superstorm Content: The Coming Global Superstorm ( ISBN 0-671-04190-8 ) is a 1999 book by Art Bell and Whitley Strieber , which warns that global warming might produce sudden and catastrophic climatic effects . First , the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic drift would generate a cordon of warm water around the North Pole , which in turn , holds in a frozen mass of Arctic air . Second , if the North Atlantic drift were to shut down , that barrier would fail , releasing a flood of frozen air into the Northern Hemisphere , causing a sudden and drastic temperature shift . The book discusses a possible cause of the failure of the Gulf Stream : the melting of the polar ice caps could drastically affect the salinity of the North Atlantic drift by dumping a large quantity of freshwater into the world 's oceans . Bell and Strieber explain the possibility that such current destabilizations have occurred before , as well as seemingly impossible engineering feats by the ancients . Among their examples is the island city of Nan Madol . The book claims that its construction , with exacting tolerances and extremely heavy basalt materials , necessitates a high degree of technical competency . Since no such society exists in the modern record or even , in legend , the society must have been destroyed by dramatic means . While other explanations beside a global meteorological event are possible , a correlating evidence set is presented in the woolly mammoth . Strieber and Bell assert that since mammoths have been found preserved with food still in their mouths and undigested in their stomachs , these animals must have been killed quickly , in otherwise normal conditions . They were preserved so well by quick freezing , which is taken as evidence of a rapid onset of a global blizzard or similar event . Interspersed with the analytical parts of the book are a series of interlinked short fictional scenarios , written in italics , describing what might transpire today if a destabilization of the North Atlantic Current were to occur . The fictional accounts of `` current events '' as the meteorological situation deteriorates provided background and inspiration for the 2004 science fiction film The Day After Tomorrow . Indeed , some events from the book are portrayed in the film with little modification .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Coming_Global_Superstorm\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 85392\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Warming: The Signs and The Science Content: Global Warming : The Signs and The Science is a 2005 documentary film on global warming made by ETV , the PBS affiliate in South Carolina , and hosted by Alanis Morissette . The documentary examines the science behind global warming and pulls together segments filmed in the United States , Asia and South America and shows how people in these different locales are responding in different ways to the challenges of global warming to show some of the ways that the world can respond .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Warming:_The_Signs_and_The_Science\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 85104\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hell and High Water (book) Content: Hell and High Water : Global Warming -- the Solution and the Politics -- and What We Should Do is a book by author , scientist , and former U.S. Department of Energy official Joseph J. Romm , published December 26 , 2006 . The author is `` one of the world 's leading experts on clean energy , advanced vehicles , energy security , and greenhouse gas mitigation . '' The book warns of dire consequences to the U.S. and the world if wide-scale environmental changes are not enacted by the U.S. government within the next decade . It reviews the evidence that the current initial global warming changes will lead to accelerated warming . According to Romm , the oceans , soils , Arctic permafrost , and rainforests may become sources of greenhouse gas emissions . The book claims that , without serious government action within the next ten years , sea levels will rise high enough to submerge numerous coastal communities and inland areas on both U.S. coasts and around the world by the year 2100 . In April 2008 , TIME magazine wrote that `` On -LSB- Romm 's -RSB- blog and in his most recent book , Hell and High Water , you can find some of the most cogent , memorable , and deployable arguments for immediate and overwhelming action to confront global warming . '' Romm was interviewed on Fox News on January 31 , 2007 about the book and the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report climate report .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Hell_and_High_Water_(book)\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 85099\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Vulnerable Forum Content: The Climate Vulnerable Forum ( CVF ) is a global partnership of countries that are disproportionately affected by the consequences of global warming . The forum addresses the negative effects of global warming as a result of heightened socioeconomic and environmental vulnerabilities . These countries actively seek a firm and urgent resolution to the current intensification of climate change , domestically and internationally . The CVF was formed to increase the accountability of industrialized nations for the consequences of global climate change . It also aims to exert additional pressure for action to tackle the challenge , which includes local action by countries considered susceptible . Political leaders involved in this partnership are `` using their status as those most vulnerable to climate change to punch far above their weight at the negotiating table '' . The governments which founded the CVF agree to national commitments to pursue low-carbon development and carbon neutrality . Ethiopia became the first African Chair of the Climate Vulnerable Forum during the CVF High-Level Climate Policy Forum held in the Senate of the Philippines on 15 August 2016 . The Philippines was the Chair of the Climate Vulnerable Forum during the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Paris ( COP21 ) and oversaw the adoption of the body 's Manila-Paris Declaration at the Third High-Level Meeting of the Forum on 30 November 2015 . The Manila-Paris Declaration articulated the common concerns and commitments of vulnerable countries and urged the strengthening of the UNFCCC goal of limiting warming to below 1.5 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels . During this meeting the membership of the Climate Vulnerable Forum expanded to include 23 new members . In 2015 , the twenty member countries in a forum chaired by the Philippines launched the official bloc of the forum , the ` V20 ' or ` Vulnerable Twenty ' , consisting of the top 20 nations from all over the world that are most affected by the catastrophes rooted from climate change . The members of the bloc are Afghanistan , Bangladesh , Barbados , Bhutan , Costa Rica , Ethiopia , Ghana , Kenya , Kiribati , Madagascar , Maldives , Nepal , Philippines , Rwanda , Saint Lucia , Tanzania , Timor-Leste , Tuvalu , Vanuatu and Vietnam . During the 2nd V20 Ministerial Dialogue in April 2016 in Washington DC , the V20 recognized the 23 new members that joined the CVF in 2015 as incoming members in the V20 initiative . These countries are currently and diversely affected by various climate change problems such as super storms , storm surges , tsunamis , droughts , famine due to climate factors , food shortage as by-product of climate change , power cutting , flash floods , mud slides , desertification , heatwaves , reduction of fresh water sources , and other effects of climate change . Climate change is globally believed and scientifically proven to have incurred from the economic activities of developed and developing nations and regions such as China , the United States , and Europe .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Vulnerable_Forum\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 84503\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: How Global Warming Works Content: How Global Warming Works is a website developed by Michael Ranney , a professor of cognitive psychology at the University of California , Berkeley in Berkeley , California , United States . The stated goal of the website is to educate the public on the mechanisms of global warming , which was motivated by research Ranney and colleagues conducted on attitudes towards and understanding of global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"How_Global_Warming_Works\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 84490\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Fate of the World Content: Fate of the World is a 2011 global warming game developed and published by Red Redemption . It features several scenarios , based on actual scientific research , in which the player is put in charge of a fictional international organization managing social , technological and environmental policies . The goals of the scenarios range from improving living conditions in Africa , to preventing catastrophic climate change , to exacerbating it . It is quickly followed by an expansion pack called Fate of the World : Tipping Point , released in late 2011 . The climate prediction models for the game are the work of Myles Allen , the head of the Climate Dynamics group at the University of Oxford .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Fate_of_the_World\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 84188\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming hiatus Content: A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_hiatus\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 83790\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Solar Energy Perspectives Content: Solar Energy Perspectives is a 2011 book by the International Energy Agency . Solar energy technologies come in various forms -- solar heating , solar photovoltaics , solar thermal electricity -- and can make considerable contributions to solving some of the most urgent problems the world now faces : The development of affordable , inexhaustible and clean solar energy technologies will have huge longer-term benefits . It will increase countries ' energy security through reliance on an indigenous , inexhaustible and mostly import-independent resource , enhance sustainability , reduce pollution , lower the costs of mitigating climate change , and keep fossil fuel prices lower than otherwise . These advantages are global . Hence the additional costs of the incentives for early deployment should be considered learning investments ; they must be wisely spent and need to be widely shared . Solar Energy Perspectives builds upon past analyses of solar energy deployment contained in the World Energy Outlook , Energy Technology Perspectives and several IEA Technology Roadmaps . It aims at `` offering an updated picture of current technology trends and markets , as well as new analyses on how solar energy technologies for electricity , heat and fuels can be used in the various energy consuming sectors , now and in the future '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Solar_Energy_Perspectives\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 83776\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_the_Arctic\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 83720\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Catastrophic Risks (book) Content: Global Catastrophic Risks ( 2011 ) is a non-fiction book edited by philosopher Nick Bostrom and astronomer Milan M. Ćirković . The book is about issues such as asteroid impacts , gamma-ray bursts , Earth-based natural catastrophes , nuclear war , terrorism , global warming , biological weapons , totalitarianism , advanced nanotechnology , artificial general intelligence , and social collapse . The book also addresses overarching issues such as policy responses and methods for predicting and managing catastrophes .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Catastrophic_Risks_(book)\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 83611\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 Content: The Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 , or Assembly Bill ( AB ) 32 , is a California State Law that fights global warming by establishing a comprehensive program to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from all sources throughout the state . AB 32 was authored by then-Assembly member Fran Pavley and Assembly Speaker Fabian Nunez ( D-Los Angeles ) and signed into law by Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger on September 27 , 2006 . On June 1 , 2005 , Governor Schwarzenegger signed an executive order known as Executive Order S-3-05 which established greenhouse gas emissions targets for the state . The executive order required the state to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions levels to 2000 levels by 2010 , to 1990 levels by 2020 , and to a level 80 % below 1990 levels by 2050 . However , to implement this measure , the California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) needed authority from the legislature . The California State Legislature passed the Global Warming Solutions Act to address this issue and gave the CARB authority to implement the program . AB 32 requires the California Air Resources Board ( CARB or ARB ) to develop regulations and market mechanisms to reduce California 's greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by the year of 2020 , representing approximately a 30 % reduction statewide , with mandatory caps beginning in 2012 for significant emissions sources . The bill also allows the Governor to suspend the emissions caps for up to a year in case of emergency or significant economic harm . The State of California leads the nation in energy efficiency standards and plays a lead role in environmental protection , but is also the 12th largest emitter of carbon worldwide . Greenhouse gas emissions are defined in the bill to include all of the following : carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , sulfur hexafluoride , hydrofluorocarbons and perfluorocarbons . These are the same greenhouse gases listed in Annex A of the Kyoto Protocol .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Warming_Solutions_Act_of_2006\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 83569\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Extinction risk from global warming Content: The extinction risk of global warming is the risk of species becoming extinct due to the effects of global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Extinction_risk_from_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 83553\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Great Warming Content: The Great Warming is a 2006 documentary film directed by Michael Taylor . The film was hosted by Alanis Morissette and Keanu Reeves and even before its November 3 , 2006 première helped establish an alliance between Democrats and Evangelicals trying to shake the administration out of its inertia on Climate change mitigation . It is also the anchor for a broad , pro-active coalition ranging from Friends of the Earth to Union of Concerned Scientists to Churches of Christ . Theatre giant Regal Cinemas released the film in its top 50 markets on the weekend of November 4 to November 5 , 2006 , which makes the launch three times larger than for any other film of its kind , and highlights the growing currency of the global warming issues in the mainstream.A special program was developed for faith communities , and the film was distributed to over 500 churches , synagogues and mosques across the US . Featuring elements of the 2005 Public Broadcasting Service special Global Warming : the Signs and the Science , The Great Warming ( produced by the same team ) , it talks to key researchers and reports on social justice and day-to-day impacts as well as emission statistics . It 's also populated with everyday people from all over the United States and the planet who are feeling the brunt of global warming , and/or finding innovative ways to tackle it . While making the movie , producer Karen Coshof was determined not to lose sight of her most important advocate , the person on the street , to make the issue of global warming resonate in every household around the globe . Every person should `` feel empowered to act . '' In media interviews , Coshof explained that the film attracted an unprecedented coalition of leaders in science , religion , business , environmental activism and education . They have built bridges over historic gaps to support the message of this film to believe in the individual and collective moral responsibility to reverse the growing threats to the environment , and to the health and quality of life . The effort goes beyond the documentary : with a release timed just before the United States House elections , 2006 , the website featured a Questions for Candidates link where voters could send a questionnaire on energy , environment , and taxation to their federal and state candidates . The campaign also includes a Call to Action signed by leaders from every arena of public life , and which can be signed online by anyone who chooses . Advance DVD screenings at schools , churches , and town halls across the country have already mobilized thousands of people to change personal habits and demand action , and coalition members are working to track the effort .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Great_Warming\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 83445\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Warming Tour Content: The Global Warming Tour was a concert tour by American hard rock band Aerosmith that included 67 concert performances across North America , Oceania , Asia and Latin America . Prior to the first leg of the tour , the band played a private event for Walmart shareholders . The first leg of the tour included 23 performances and lasted from late May through early August 2012 . The second leg included 14 performances in November and December 2012 . Before the second leg of the tour , the band performed a brief set at the iHeartRadio Music Festival in mid September . Also prior to the second leg , to promote the release of their new album in early November , the band made three special nationally-televised performances in New York City and also did a special performance in front of their old Boston apartment . The performances on the first two legs of the tour were held primarily in indoor arenas , with a couple outdoor shows and a few festival dates on the first leg , including three festivals in eastern Canada and Milwaukee 's Summerfest . The third leg of the tour ran from late April to mid May 2013 and saw Aerosmith playing their first shows in Australia since 1990 , as well as their first-ever shows in New Zealand and the Philippines . On May 30 , the band performed as part of the `` Boston Strong '' charity concert for victims of the Boston Marathon bombings . In July 2013 , the band played at the Greenbrier Classic in West Virginia and at Foxwoods Resort Casino in Connecticut . In August 2013 , the band performed four concerts in Japan , but their first-ever shows in China and Taiwan were cancelled due to poor ticket sales . The band also performed in August at the Harley-Davidson 110th anniversary concert series in Milwaukee . Concerts were planned for Latin America in September and October , including their first-ever shows in Uruguay , Guatemala and El Salvador . Cheap Trick was the opening act for all dates in the first two legs except for a few festival shows . The Dead Dasies , a supergroup featuring Jon Stevens and Richard Fortus , were the opening act for the Australia/New Zealand leg . The tour is in promotion of Aerosmith 's new album Music from Another Dimension ! , released on November 6 , 2012 . In addition to many of their biggest hits and a few choice album cuts , the band has so far performed four new songs from Music from Another Dimension on this tour , three of them regularly ( `` Oh Yeah '' , `` Legendary Child '' , and `` Lover Alot '' ) , with the potential for more songs to be played in the 2013 leg . During the South America leg , specifically in Argentina and Brazil , Aerosmith toured with Whitesnake , including performances at the Personal Fest in Buenos Aires and at the Monsters of Rock in São Paulo . On May 5 , 2013 , the band announced they had cancelled their first-ever show in Jakarta due to safety concerns . In 2014 , Aerosmith played 17 concerts across Europe from May 14 to July 2 . A new tour , the Let Rock Rule Tour , was scheduled to follow in July , August , and September 2014 that saw Aerosmith play several dates in North America . This tour featured Slash ( with Myles Kennedy and the Conspirators ) as the opening act . Full details of the tour were announced on April 8 , 2014 . On May 14 , 2014 , the band announced that they had cancelled their concert in Istanbul after Turkey declared a three-day mourning for the victims of Soma mine disaster . July 2 , 2014 concert in Kiev was cancelled due to civil unrest in Ukraine .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Warming_Tour\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 83156\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate justice Content: Climate justice is a term used for framing global warming as an ethical and political issue , rather than one that is purely environmental or physical in nature . This is done by relating the effects of climate change to concepts of justice , particularly environmental justice and social justice and by examining issues such as equality , human rights , collective rights , and the historical responsibilities for climate change . A fundamental proposition of climate justice is that those who are least responsible for climate change suffer its gravest consequences . Occasionally , the term is also used to mean actual legal action on climate change issues .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_justice\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 83038\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Reasons for concern Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has organized many of the risks of climate change into five `` reasons for concern . '' The reasons for concern show that these risks increase with increases in the Earth 's global mean temperature ( i.e. , global warming ) . The IPCC 's five reasons for concern are : threats to endangered species and unique systems , damages from extreme climate events , effects that fall most heavily on developing countries and the poor within countries , global aggregate impacts ( i.e. , various measurements of total social , economic and ecological impacts ) , and large-scale high-impact events . The five reasons for concern are described in more detail below . The following descriptions are based on information from the IPCC 's Third ( TAR ) and Fourth Assessment Reports ( AR4 ) , published in 2001 and 2007 , respectively .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Reasons_for_concern\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 82990\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global catastrophic risk Content: A global catastrophic risk is a hypothetical future event that has the potential to damage human well-being on a global scale . Some events could cripple or destroy modern civilization . Any event that could cause human extinction is known as an existential risk . Potential global catastrophic risks include anthropogenic risks ( technology risks , governance risks ) and natural or external risks . Examples of technology risks are hostile artificial intelligence , biotechnology risks , or nanotechnology weapons . Insufficient global governance creates risks in the social and political domain ( potentially leading to a global war with or without a nuclear holocaust , bioterrorism using genetically modified organisms , cyberterrorism destroying critical infrastructures like the electrical grid , or the failure to manage a natural pandemic ) as well as problems and risks in the domain of earth system governance ( with risks resulting from global warming , environmental degradation , mineral resource exhaustion , fossil energy exhaustion , or famine as a result of non-equitable resource distribution , human overpopulation , crop failures and non-sustainable agriculture ) . Examples for non-anthropogenic risks are an asteroid impact event , a supervolcanic eruption , a lethal gamma-ray burst , a geomagnetic storm destroying all electronic equipment , natural long-term climate change , or extraterrestrial life impacting life on Earth .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_catastrophic_risk\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 82988\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Unstoppable Global Warming: Every 1,500 Years Content: Unstoppable Global Warming : Every 1,500 Years is a book about climate change , written by Siegfried Fred Singer and Dennis T. Avery , which asserts that natural changes , and not CO2 emissions , are the cause of Global Warming . Published by Rowman & Littlefield in 2006 , the book sold well and was reprinted in an updated edition in 2007 . The title refers to the hypothesis of 1,500-year climate cycles in the Holocene first postulated by Gerard C. Bond , mainly based on petrologic tracers of drift ice in the North Atlantic .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Unstoppable_Global_Warming:_Every_1,500_Years\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 82602\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global cooling (disambiguation) Content: Global cooling was a 1970s conjecture about global climate change . Global cooling may also refer to : In general , one of the means by which Earth can undergo climate change Climate change denial , including contrarian views about global warming in the 20th and 21st centuries Cooling periods on the multimillion-year scale in the geologic temperature record Geophysical global cooling , a conjecture about the formation of natural features that was made obsolete by the theory of plate tectonics Little Ice Age , a period from the 16th to 19th centuries characterized by cooling and coincident with below average sunspots frequency\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_cooling_(disambiguation)\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 82577\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in popular culture Content: The issue of climate change and global warming , their possible effects , and related human-environment interaction have entered popular culture since the late 20th century . Science historian Naomi Oreskes has noted , `` There 's a huge disconnect between what professional scientists have studied and learned in the last 30 years , and what is out there in the popular culture . '' An academic study contrasts the relatively rapid acceptance of ozone depletion as reflected in popular culture with the much slower acceptance of the scientific consensus on global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_popular_culture\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 82418\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Change: Global Risks, Challenges and Decisions Content: Climate Change : Global Risks , Challenges and Decisions was a conference on Climate Change held at the Bella Center by the University of Copenhagen . The event was organised with the assistance of other universities in the International Alliance of Research Universities . The stated aim of the conference was to provide `` a summary of existing scientific knowledge two years after the last IPCC report . '' The conference took place on 10 -- 12 March 2009 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Change:_Global_Risks,_Challenges_and_Decisions\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 82410\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hurricane Katrina and global warming Content: The tremendous destruction caused by recent Atlantic Ocean tropical cyclones , such as Hurricanes Katrina , Wilma , and Sandy caused a substantial upsurge in interest in the subject of global warming by news media and the wider public , and concerns that global climatic change may have played a significant role in those events . Time Magazine , for example , published an article titled , `` Is Global Warming Fueling Katrina ? '' -- however , the article itself addressed hurricanes in general , rather than Katrina specifically , and was inconclusive . Shortly after the hurricane , former Boston Globe reporter Ross Gelbspan wrote an op-ed piece for the Globe titled , `` Katrina 's Real Name '' , declaring that the hurricane 's `` real name is global warming . '' Gelbspan went on to assert : `` Although Katrina began as a relatively small hurricane that glanced off south Florida , it was supercharged with extraordinary intensity by the relatively blistering sea surface temperatures in the Gulf of Mexico . '' Gelbspan did not single out Katrina from other recent storms in that regard ; in the article he went on to attribute other major weather events over the preceding year to global warming , including a blizzard in Los Angeles , high winds in Scandinavia , wildfires in Spain , and a drought centered in Missouri . Britain 's then deputy prime minister , John Prescott , has linked Katrina with global warming , and statements made shortly after the hurricane by Germany 's environment minister , Jürgen Trittin , indicate he believes that global warming is responsible for an increase in the frequency of destructive natural events . Kerry Emanuel had recently published a paper in the journal Nature that found a good correlation between hurricane intensity and sea surface temperatures . Some journalists have claimed Emanuel 's paper concludes that the recent increase in intense Atlantic storms is due to global warming , but Emanuel stated that `` it would be absurd to attribute the Katrina disaster to global warming '' . The Internet blog RealClimate has written that `` there is no way to prove that Katrina either was , or was not , affected by global warming '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Hurricane_Katrina_and_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 82304\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of global warming on Australia Content: Predictions measuring the effects of global warming on Australia assert that global warming will negatively impact the continent 's environment , economy , and communities . Australia has been designated as one of the countries most vulnerable to climate change , according to the Stern Review and others , due partially to the importance of its agricultural sector and the prominence of its coast . Australia is vulnerable to the effects of global warming projected for the next 50 to 100 years because of its extensive arid and semi-arid areas , an already warm climate , high annual rainfall variability , and existing pressures on water supply . The continent 's high fire risk increases this susceptibility to change in temperature and climate . Additionally , Australia 's population is highly concentrated in coastal areas , and its important tourism industry depends on the health of the Great Barrier Reef and other fragile ecosystems . The impacts of climate change in Australia will be complex and to some degree uncertain , but increased foresight may enable the country to safeguard its future through planned mitigation and adaptation . Mitigation may reduce the ultimate extent of climate change and its impacts , but requires global solutions and cooperation , while adaptation can be performed at national and local levels .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_global_warming_on_Australia\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 82196\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 82018\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change denial Content: Climate change denial , or global warming denial , is part of the global warming controversy . It involves denial , dismissal , unwarranted doubt or contrarian views which strongly depart from the scientific opinion on climate change , including the extent to which it is caused by humans , its impacts on nature and human society , or the potential of adaptation to global warming by human actions . Some deniers do endorse the term , but others often prefer the term climate change skepticism , although this is a misnomer for those who deny anthropogenic global warming . In effect , the two terms form a continuous , overlapping range of views , and generally have the same characteristics : both reject , to a greater or lesser extent , mainstream scientific opinion on climate change . Climate change denial can also be implicit , when individuals or social groups accept the science but fail to come to terms with it or to translate their acceptance into action . Several social science studies have analyzed these positions as forms of denialism . Campaigning to undermine public trust in climate science has been described as a `` denial machine '' of industrial , political and ideological interests , supported by conservative media and skeptical bloggers in manufacturing uncertainty about global warming . In the public debate , phrases such as climate skepticism have frequently been used with the same meaning as climate denialism . The labels are contested : those actively challenging climate science commonly describe themselves as `` skeptics '' , but many do not comply with common standards of scientific skepticism and , regardless of evidence , persistently deny the validity of human caused global warming . Although scientific opinion on climate change is that human activity is extremely likely to be the primary driver of climate change , the politics of global warming have been affected by climate change denial , hindering efforts to prevent climate change and adapt to the warming climate . Those promoting denial commonly use rhetorical tactics to give the appearance of a scientific controversy where there is none . Of the world 's countries , the climate change denial industry is most powerful in the United States . Since January 2015 , the United States Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works has been chaired by oil lobbyist and climate change denier Jim Inhofe . Inhofe is notorious for having called climate change `` the greatest hoax ever perpetrated against the American people '' and for having claimed to have debunked the alleged hoax in February 2015 when he brought a snowball with him in the Senate chamber and tossed it across the floor . Organised campaigning to undermine public trust in climate science is associated with conservative economic policies and backed by industrial interests opposed to the regulation of emissions . Climate change denial has been associated with the fossil fuels lobby , the Koch brothers , industry advocates and libertarian think tanks , often in the United States . More than 90 % of papers sceptical on climate change originate from right-wing think tanks . The total annual income of these climate change counter-movement-organizations is roughly $ 900 million . Between 2002 and 2010 , nearly $ 120 million ( # 77 million ) was anonymously donated via the Donors Trust and Donors Capital Fund to more than 100 organisations seeking to undermine the public perception of the science on climate change . In 2013 the Center for Media and Democracy reported that the State Policy Network ( SPN ) , an umbrella group of 64 U.S. think tanks , had been lobbying on behalf of major corporations and conservative donors to oppose climate change regulation . Since the late 1970s , oil companies have published research broadly in line with the standard views on global warming . Despite this , oil companies organized a climate change denial campaign to disseminate public disinformation for several decades , a strategy that has been compared to the organized denial of the hazards of tobacco smoking by tobacco companies .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_denial\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 81902\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: An Inconvenient Truth (book) Content: An Inconvenient Truth : The Planetary Emergency of Global Warming and What We Can Do About It is a 2006 book by Al Gore released in conjunction with the film An Inconvenient Truth . It is published by Rodale Press in Emmaus , Pennsylvania , in the United States . Based on Gore 's lecture tour on the topic of global warming this book elaborates upon points offered in the film . The publisher of the text states that the book , `` brings together leading-edge research from top scientists around the world ; photographs , charts , and other illustrations ; and personal anecdotes and observations to document the fast pace and wide scope of global warming . '' Michiko Kakutani argues in the New York Times that the book 's `` roots as a slide show are very much in evidence . It does not pretend to grapple with climate change with the sort of minute detail and analysis '' given by other books on the topic `` and yet as a user-friendly introduction to global warming and a succinct summary of many of the central arguments laid out in those other volumes , `` An Inconvenient Truth '' is lucid , harrowing and bluntly effective . '' In a section called `` The Politicization of Global Warming '' , Al Gore said this statement : As for why so many people still resist what the facts clearly show , I think , in part , the reason is that the truth about the climate crisis is an inconvenient one that means we are going to have to change the way we live our lives . A highlighted statement separated from the main writing in that section was : The truth about the climate crisis is an inconvenient one that means we are going to have to change the way we live our lives . In 2009 , the audiobook version , narrated by Beau Bridges , Cynthia Nixon , and Blair Underwood , won the Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"An_Inconvenient_Truth_(book)\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 81718\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: World Climate Conference Content: The World Climate Conferences are a series of international meetings , organized by the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) , about global climate issues principally global warming in addition to climate research and forecasting .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"World_Climate_Conference\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 81302\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Five Ways to Save the World Content: Five Ways to Save the World is a British documentary film on environmental issues related to climate change , released in 2006 . The film was made by Karen O'Connor , for the big screen and was shot in the English language to reach an international audience . It includes interviews with five environmental scientists and experts including Paul Crutzen , James Roger Angel , John Latham , Ian Jones , and Klaus Lackner . The `` five ways '' proposed are geoengineering techniques : space lenses in orbit , to diffract sunlight away from the earth cloud seeding with seawater to increase albedo sulfur launched into the stratosphere to increase albedo ocean fertilization with iron or urea ( nitrogen fertilizer ) artificial trees ( see carbon capture and sequestration ) Since the first three methods do not remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , they would only reduce global warming but not ocean acidification . Since the last two methods would remove carbon dioxide , they could in theory reduce both global warming and ocean acidification .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Five_Ways_to_Save_the_World\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 81249\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Planet Relief Content: Planet Relief was a proposed BBC television special dealing with the issue of global warming , originally scheduled for broadcast in January 2008 . The programme , which had been in development for 18 months , was meant to be similar to previous BBC programmes such as Comic Relief and Sport Relief . However , it was cancelled before it was broadcast , allegedly because the BBC was concerned that it would be `` biased '' towards promoting responses based on acceptance of mainstream climate change science .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Planet_Relief\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 81245\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change policy of the United States Content: Global climate change was first addressed in United States policy beginning in the early 1960s . The Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) defines climate change as `` any significant change in the measures of climate lasting for an extended period of time . '' Essentially , climate change includes major changes in temperature , precipitation , or wind patterns , as well as other effects , that occur over several decades or longer . Climate change policy in the US has transformed rapidly over the past twenty years and is being developed at both the state and federal level . The politics of global warming and climate change have polarized certain political parties and other organizations . This article focuses on climate change policy within the United States , as well as exploring the positions of various parties and the influences on policy making and environmental justice repercussions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_policy_of_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 80579\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 100% renewable energy Content: The endeavor to use 100 % renewable energy for electricity , heating and cooling , and transport is motivated by global warming , pollution and other environmental issues , as well as economic and energy security concerns . Shifting the total global primary energy supply to renewable sources requires a transition of the energy system . In 2013 the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change said that there are few fundamental technological limits to integrating a portfolio of renewable energy technologies to meet most of total global energy demand . Renewable energy use has grown much faster than even advocates anticipated . In 2014 , renewable sources such as wind , geothermal , solar , biomass , and burnt waste provided 19 % of the total energy consumed worldwide , with roughly half of that coming from traditional use of biomass . The most important sector is electricity with a renewable share of 22.8 % , most of it coming from hydropower with a share of 16.6 % , followed by wind with 3.1 % . There are many places around the world with grids that are run almost exclusively on renewable energy . At the national level , at least 30 nations already have renewable energy contributing more than 20 % of the energy supply . Professors S. Pacala and Robert H. Socolow of Princeton University have developed a series of `` Climate stabilization wedges '' that can allow us to maintain our quality of life while avoiding catastrophic climate change , and `` renewable energy sources , '' in aggregate , constitute the largest number of their `` wedges . '' Mark Z. Jacobson , professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy program , says that producing all new energy with wind power , solar power , and hydropower by 2030 is feasible , and that existing energy supply arrangements could be replaced by 2050 . Barriers to implementing the renewable energy plan are seen to be `` primarily social and political , not technological or economic '' . Jacobson says that energy costs today with a wind , solar , and water system should be similar to today 's energy costs from other optimally cost-effective strategies . The main obstacle against this scenario is the lack of political will . Similarly , in the United States , the independent National Research Council has noted that `` sufficient domestic renewable resources exist to allow renewable electricity to play a significant role in future electricity generation and thus help confront issues related to climate change , energy security , and the escalation of energy costs ... Renewable energy is an attractive option because renewable resources available in the United States , taken collectively , can supply significantly greater amounts of electricity than the total current or projected domestic demand . '' The main barriers to the widespread implementation of large-scale renewable energy and low-carbon energy strategies are political rather than technological . According to the 2013 Post Carbon Pathways report , which reviewed many international studies , the key roadblocks are : climate change denial , the fossil fuels lobby , political inaction , unsustainable energy consumption , outdated energy infrastructure , and financial constraints .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"100%_renewable_energy\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 80378\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: DeSmogBlog Content: The DeSmogBlog , founded in January 2006 , is a blog that focuses on topics related to global warming . The site describes itself as `` the world 's number one source for accurate , fact based information regarding Global Warming misinformation campaigns . '' DeSmogBlog opposes what it describes as `` a well-funded and highly organized public relations campaign '' that it says is `` poisoning '' the climate change debate . Since its inception , the site has received several mentions in the media regarding its involvement in global warming issues . The site was co-founded by James Hoggan , president of a public relations firm based in Vancouver , British Columbia , Canada . The website was recognized in December 2007 with an award by a trade organization for its standards and content .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"DeSmogBlog\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 79760\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of Australian environmental books Content: This is a list of Australian environmental books : Global Spin : The Corporate Assault on Environmentalism ( 1997 ) , by Sharon Beder Human Ecology , Human Economy : Ideas for an Ecologically Sustainable Future ( 1997 ) , edited by Mark Diesendorf and Clive Hamilton Running from the Storm : The Development of Climate Change Policy in Australia ( 2001 ) , by Clive Hamilton A Big Fix : Radical Solutions for Australia 's Environmental Crisis ( 2005 ) , by Ian Lowe Living in the Hothouse : How Global Warming Affects Australia ( 2005 ) , by Ian Lowe The Weather Makers ( 2005 ) , by Tim Flannery Environmental Principles and Policies ( 2006 ) , by Sharon Beder Patriots : Defending Australia 's Natural Heritage ( 2006 ) , by William J Lines Chasing Kangaroos ( 2007 ) , by Tim Flannery Greenhouse Solutions with Sustainable Energy ( 2007 ) , by Mark Diesendorf High and Dry : John Howard , Climate Change and the Selling of Australia 's Future ( 2007 ) , by Guy Pearse The 3rd Degree : Frontline in Australia 's Climate War ( 2007 ) , by Murray Hogarth Maralinga : Australia 's Nuclear Waste Cover-up ( 2007 ) , by Alan Parkinson Reaction Time : Climate Change and the Nuclear Option ( 2007 ) , by Ian Lowe Scorcher : The Dirty Politics of Climate Change ( 2007 ) , by Clive Hamilton Climate Code Red : The Case for Emergency Action ( 2008 ) , by David Spratt and Philip Sutton Now or Never : A Sustainable Future for Australia ? ( 2008 ) , by Tim Flannery Quarry Vision : Coal , Climate Change and the End of the Resources Boom ( 2009 ) , by Guy Pearse Requiem for a Species ( 2010 ) , by Clive Hamilton\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_Australian_environmental_books\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 79715\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming in Tuvalu Content: Global warming is a concern in Tuvalu since the average height of the islands is less than 2 m above sea level , with the highest point of Niulakita being about 4.6 m above sea level . Tuvalu could be one of the first nations to experience the effects of sea level rise . Not only could parts of the island be flooded but the rising saltwater table could also destroy deep rooted food crops such as coconut , pulaka , and taro .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_in_Tuvalu\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 79480\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Amazonia Conference Content: The Amazonia Conference is a global warming activist organization with a particular focus on education of the public . The Conference was established in April 1990 , when governments of the world were discussing the dangers of global warming at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 . The Conference is an educational organisation with the aim of educating people about the realities of the endangered environment and the inevitable catastrophic consequences if no proactive and preventive steps are taken . The project has reached many institutions and organisations all over the world , spreading the message Education for Preservation . The organisation has given birth to other initiatives , such as The Amazonia Society , the Amazonia Seminar , the Amazonia Experience , and the Amazonia Files . The Amazonia Conference is an educational organisation which , unlike other environmental organisations , focuses in education instead of radical campaigning . This does not mean that the organisation does not campaign . The organisation believes that it is effectively easier to ` form the minds of the young instead of attempting to amend adult ones . ' Therefore , by educating the young , next generations will be equipped with environmentally aware citizens . The project also has a special division which visits companies and other organisations to educate their employees or members , on the current environmental issues which our planet is suffering due to human activities . The Amazonia Conference is considered to be the biggest educational project in Portugal ( Diario de Noticias , 2000 ) , and has recently received the British Airways Best Environmental Project Award 2004 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Amazonia_Conference\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 79440\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: GWPP Content: The initials GWPP could indicate : the Global Water Policy Project , a fresh-water conservation project headed by Sandra Postel . the Global Warming Petition Project ( AKA the Oregon Petition ) , a project devoted to discrediting global climate change ( or its previous label global warming ) , under the auspices of the non-profit organization called the Oregon Institute of Science and Medicine .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"GWPP\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 79395\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The End of Nature Content: The End of Nature is a book written by Bill McKibben , published by Anchor in 1989 . It has been called the first book on global warming written for a general audience . McKibben had thought that simply stating the problem would provoke people to action .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"The_End_of_Nature\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 79395\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: GWP Content: GWP can stand for : Global-warming potential , a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere Global Water Partnership , an international network offering practical advice for sustainably managing water resources Gross world product , the combined GNP of all countries in the world Gross Written Premiums , a measure of revenues for insurance businesses Guild Wars Prophecies , an MMORPG Guinea-Bissau peso , the currency code for Guinea-Bissau 's peso from 1975 to 1997 Gigawatt-peak , a measure in gigawatts of the nominal power of a photovoltaic solar energy device under laboratory illumination conditions\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"GWP\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 79316\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global climate regime Content: A global climate regime is a global framework that aims at regulating the interaction of human activity with the global climate system , to mitigate global climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_climate_regime\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 79266\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: America's Climate Security Act of 2007 Content: The America 's Climate Security Act of 2007 was a global warming bill that was considered by the United States Senate to reduce the amount of greenhouse gases emitted in the United States . Also known as the Lieberman-Warner bill , bill number , the legislation was introduced by Sens. Joseph Lieberman ( I-CT ) and John Warner ( R-VA ) on October 18 , 2007 . The bill was approved by the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works in December 2007 , and was debated in the Senate during the week of June 2 . The bill would create a national cap-and-trade scheme for greenhouse gas emissions , in which polluters would mostly be allocated right-to-emit credits based on how much greenhouse gas they currently emit . The cap would get tighter over time , until by 2050 , emissions would be reduced to 63 % below 2005 levels . Several environmental groups express their encouragement at the progress in legislation on the global warming issue while at the same time expressing disappointment that the bill does n't reduce emissions enough . On June 6 , 2008 , the bill was killed by Senate Republicans over worries that it would damage the economy .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"America's_Climate_Security_Act_of_2007\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 79064\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Surviving the Century Content: Surviving the Century : Facing Climate Chaos and Other Global Challenges , edited by Herbert Girardet , is the first major book from the World Future Council , published by Earthscan in 2007 . Eight main issues relating to the politics of climate change are covered in the book : countering climate chaos , renewable energy policy , creating sustainable cities , local farming systems , rainforests and climate change , cradle to cradle production systems , an alternative vision for trade and creating a living democracy .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Surviving_the_Century\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 79037\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Economic impacts of climate change Content: This article describes the economic impacts of climate change . Given the inherent nature of economic forecasting , which involves significant degrees of uncertainty , estimates of the results of global warming over the 21st century have varied widely . Many analyses , such as that of the Stern Review presented to the British Government , have predicted reductions by several percent of world gross domestic product due to climate related costs such as dealing with increased extreme weather events and stresses to low-lying areas due to sea level rises . Other studies by independent economists looking at the effects of climate change have found more ambiguous results around the range of net-neutral changes when all aspects of the issue are evaluated , though the issue remains intensely debated .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Economic_impacts_of_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 78958\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Long-term effects of global warming Content: See also Effects of global warming . The focus of this article is on the effects beyond 2100 . There are expected to be various long-term effects of global warming . Most discussion and research , including that by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports , concentrates on the effects of global warming up to 2100 , with only an outline of the effects beyond this .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Long-term_effects_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 78851\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 Content: The Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 - a bill to amend the Clean Air Act to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide , and for other purposes . It was proposed in the 110th United States Congress by Senators Bernie Sanders ( I-VT ) and Barbara Boxer ( D-CA ) on January 15 , 2007 . It was referred to the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works . The measure was intended to increase performance standards for electricity generation and motor vehicles with the option of an emissions `` cap and trade '' system . The emissions cap would begin in 2010 with the aim of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 15 percent by 2020 and 83 percent by 2050 . The legislation would also provide funding for R&D on geologic sequestration of carbon dioxide , among other projects ; set emissions standards for new vehicles and a renewable fuels requirement for gasoline beginning in 2016 ; establish energy efficiency and renewable portfolio standards beginning in 2008 and low-carbon electric generation standards beginning in 2016 for electric utilities ; and require periodic evaluations by the National Academy of Sciences to determine whether emissions targets are adequate .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Warming_Pollution_Reduction_Act_of_2007\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 78799\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ross McKitrick Content: Ross McKitrick is a Canadian economist specializing in environmental economics and policy analysis . He is a professor of economics at the University of Guelph , and a senior fellow of the Fraser Institute . He is a member of the academic advisory boards of the John Deutsch Institute , the Global Warming Policy Foundation , and the Cornwall Alliance for the Stewardship of Creation . He has authored works about climate change issues , including co-authoring the book Taken By Storm : The Troubled Science , Policy and Politics of Global Warming in 2003 . McKitrick produced a series of videos and articles for the Friends of Science in which he argued that there is a `` pause '' in global warming that reveals flaws in current climate change models . The Friends of Science argue that the sun -- not human emissions of GHG -- is the main driver of climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Ross_McKitrick\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 78578\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change and potatoes Content: Global warming is predicted to have significant effects on global potato production . Like many crops , potatoes are likely to be affected by changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide , temperature and precipitation , as well as interactions between these factors . As well as affecting potatoes directly , climate change will also affect the distributions and populations of many potato diseases and pests . Potato is one of the world 's most important food crops . Potato production must be adapted to climate change to avoid reductions in crop yields .\",\n \"qid\": \"2755\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_and_potatoes\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 78475\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":1360,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"One more decade of business as usual will make this impossible."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Deep Earth Carbon Degassing Project Content: Deep Earth Carbon Degassing ( DECADE ) project is an initiative to unite scientists around the world to make tangible advances towards quantifying the amount of carbon outgassed from the Earth 's deep interior ( core , mantle , crust ) into the surface environment ( e.g. biosphere , hydrosphere , cryosphere , atmosphere ) through naturally occurring processes . DECADE is an initiative within the Deep Carbon Observatory ( DCO ) . Volcanoes are the main pathway in which deeply-sourced volatiles , including carbon , are transferred from the Earth 's interior to the surface environment . An additional , though less well understood pathway includes along faults and fractures within the Earth 's crust , often referred to as tectonic degassing . When the DCO was first formed in 2009 estimates of global carbon flux from volcanic regions ranged from 65 to 540 Mt/yr , and constraints on global tectonic degassing were virtually unknown . The order of magnitude uncertainty in current volcanic/tectonic carbon outgassing makes answering fundamental questions about the global carbon budget virtually impossible . In particular , one fundamental unknown is if carbon transferred to the Earth 's interior via subduction is efficiently recycled back to the Earth 's mantle lithosphere , crust and surface environment through volcanic and tectonic degassing , or if significant quantities of carbon are being subducted into the deep mantle . Because significant quantities of mantle carbon are also released through Mid-Ocean Ridge volcanism , if carbon inputs and outputs at subduction zone settings are in balance , then the net effect will be an imbalance in the global carbon budget , with carbon being preferentially removed from the Earth 's deep interior and redistributed to more shallow reservoirs including the mantle lithosphere , crust , hydrosphere and atmosphere . The implications of this may mean that carbon concentrations in the surface environment are increasing over Earth 's history , which has significant implications for climate change . Findings from the DECADE project will increase our understanding of the way carbon cycles through deep Earth , and patterns in volcanic emissions data could potentially alert scientists to an impending eruption .","qid":"2762","docid":"Deep_Earth_Carbon_Degassing_Project","rank":1,"score":87663},{"content":"Title: Decade (log scale) Content: One decade is a factor of 10 difference between two numbers ( an order of magnitude difference ) measured on a logarithmic scale . Along with the octave , it is a logarithmic unit used to describe frequency bands or frequency ratios . It is especially useful when referring to frequencies and when describing frequency response of electronic systems , such as audio amplifiers and filters .","qid":"2762","docid":"Decade_(log_scale)","rank":2,"score":84952},{"content":"Title: Decade (solitaire) Content: Decade or Ten-Twenty-Thirty is a Patience game played with a traditional 52-card deck . It is akin to another solitaire game called Accordion . Like Accordion , it is traditionally played with the cards in a line ; however due its minimal use of space , it can also be played in one hand by placing the deck face-down in the hand , and placing the line in a stack on top of the deck , with the discard pile face up on the bottom ( as seen in the images below ) .","qid":"2762","docid":"Decade_(solitaire)","rank":3,"score":83393},{"content":"Title: Decade (disambiguation) Content: A decade is a set of ten or an interval of length ten . The most common use is to refer to a period of ten years . Decade , Decad , or Decades may also refer to :","qid":"2762","docid":"Decade_(disambiguation)","rank":4,"score":82036},{"content":"Title: Decade Content: A decade is a period of ten years . The word is derived ( via French and Latin ) from the δεκάς ( -LSB- ðɛk ' ɑːs -RSB- , transliteration = dekas ) , which means a group of ten . Other words for spans of years also come from Latin : biennium ( 2 years ) , triennium ( 3 years ) , quadrennium ( 4 years ) , lustrum ( 5 years ) , century ( 100 years ) , millennium ( 1000 years ) .","qid":"2762","docid":"Decade","rank":5,"score":82022},{"content":"Title: Decades (TV network) Content: Decades is an American digital broadcast television network that is owned as a joint venture between the CBS Television Stations subsidiary of CBS Corporation and Weigel Broadcasting . The network , which is primarily carried on the digital subchannels of television stations , mainly airs classic television sitcoms and drama series from the 1950s through the 2000s , feature films from the same period , along with historical news and documentary programming . Through its ownership by Weigel , Decades is a sister network to MeTV , which focuses on classic television series from the 1950s to the 1990s and carries some programming from Decades corporate cousin CBS Television Distribution . As the network has access to theatrical films and television series remastered for high definition and widescreen presentation , the network is carried in 480i widescreen .","qid":"2762","docid":"Decades_(TV_network)","rank":6,"score":81190},{"content":"Title: 100s (decade) Content:","qid":"2762","docid":"100s_(decade)","rank":7,"score":80796},{"content":"Title: The Next Decade Content: `` The Next Decade '' is the thirty-fifth single by Japanese musical artist Gackt , released on August 11 , 2009 .","qid":"2762","docid":"The_Next_Decade","rank":8,"score":80257},{"content":"Title: The Next Decade (book) Content: The Next Decade is a 2010 book by George Friedman , who addresses the United States ' relationships with other countries and the state of the world in general throughout the 2010s . The book also discusses the paradox of `` the empire and the republic '' , and addresses some demographic , technological , and economic issues , primarily those that will affect the 2010s . The main theme of the book is how the American administrations of the 2010s will need to create regional power balances , some of which have been disturbed . Friedman conceptualizes America 's successful management of world affairs not by directly enforcing countries , but by creating competing relationships , which offset one another , in the world 's different regions . For example , in the past , Iraq balanced Iran , and currently Japan balances China . Friedman asserts this is the decade where the US as a power must mature to manage its power and balance as an unintended empire and republic .","qid":"2762","docid":"The_Next_Decade_(book)","rank":9,"score":80177},{"content":"Title: Decade (The Veer Union album) Content: Decade is the fourth studio album by alternative rock band The Veer Union . It was released on January 29 , 2016 . It is their first album in almost four years , and the first to feature an all new lineup outside of frontman and band co-founder Crispin Earl .","qid":"2762","docid":"Decade_(The_Veer_Union_album)","rank":10,"score":79956},{"content":"Title: Decade box Content: In prototyping of electronic circuits , a decade box is a type of test equipment that can be used to substitute the interchanging of different values of certain passive components with a single variable output . Decade boxes are made for resistance , capacitance , and inductance , the values of which can be increased incrementally by way of switching the points of contact for the input and output throughout a series of the respective components . The interface for these devices will usually consist of dials or adjustable tape counters , and are operated in-circuit and without any external power source .","qid":"2762","docid":"Decade_box","rank":11,"score":79806},{"content":"Title: The Decade (EP) Content: The Decade is the second EP by American post-hardcore band Alesana . It was released in April 2014 , and the release used a different stylization of lyrics compared to their past releases . This album was made to celebrate the 10 years as a band . This is Alesana 's first and only release with Artery Recordings .","qid":"2762","docid":"The_Decade_(EP)","rank":12,"score":79598},{"content":"Title: Chapter One... A Decade Content: Chapter One ... A Decade is the second greatest hits album by Contemporary Christian group 4Him . It was released on Benson Records . in 2001 .","qid":"2762","docid":"Chapter_One..._A_Decade","rank":13,"score":78614},{"content":"Title: 200s (decade) Content:","qid":"2762","docid":"200s_(decade)","rank":14,"score":78325},{"content":"Title: Decade (play) Content: Decade is a 2011 play by Tony Kushner , John Logan and Paul Laverty commemorating the tenth anniversary of the September 11 attacks . Its structure is drawn from the work of the choreographer Pina Bausch and it involves a cast of 12 . It premièred in St Katharine Docks ( the site of London 's World Trade Centre ) and was performed from 1 September to 15 October 2011 , in a production starring Lia Williams and directed by Rupert Goold .","qid":"2762","docid":"Decade_(play)","rank":15,"score":78271},{"content":"Title: Decade (Neil Young album) Content: Decade is a compilation by Neil Young , originally released in 1977 as a triple album , now available on two compact discs . It contains 35 of Young 's songs recorded between 1966 and 1976 , among them five tracks that had been unreleased up to that point . It peaked at No. 43 on the Billboard Top Pop Albums chart , and was certified platinum by the RIAA in 1986 .","qid":"2762","docid":"Decade_(Neil_Young_album)","rank":16,"score":77886},{"content":"Title: Decade (Live at the El Mocambo) Content: Decade ( Live at the El Mocambo ) is the first live album from the Ontario rock band Silverstein , released on June 8 , 2010 on Victory .","qid":"2762","docid":"Decade_(Live_at_the_El_Mocambo)","rank":17,"score":76814},{"content":"Title: Lakland Decade Content: The Lakland Decade is a dual-pickup , solid-body electric bass guitar made by Chicago-based Lakland Musical Instruments . Released in 2004 to celebrate the company 's 10th anniversary , the U.S.-made Decade is available in a variety of configurations . The mid-priced Skyline series is constructed of a mahogany body , maple neck , and rosewood fingerboard and equipped with Lakland 's Chi-Sonic pickups .","qid":"2762","docid":"Lakland_Decade","rank":18,"score":76178},{"content":"Title: The Decade Content: The Decade was a villainous professional wrestling stable in Ring of Honor , last consisting of B.J. Whitmer and Colby Corino . The name `` Decade '' was chosen because all three original members of the stable ( Whitmer , Jimmy Jacobs , and Roderick Strong ) had been associated with Ring of Honor for ten years when the group was formed .","qid":"2762","docid":"The_Decade","rank":19,"score":75546},{"content":"Title: Decade One Content: Decade One is a compilation album by Babyland , released in 2001 by Dependent Records . As the title suggest , the album compiles tracks drawn from the band 's first ten years of recording .","qid":"2762","docid":"Decade_One","rank":20,"score":75219},{"content":"Title: Business as Usual (EPMD album) Content: Business as Usual is the third album from Hip Hop duo EPMD , released December 18 , 1990 and their first on leading rap label Def Jam as a result of being signed over ( along with Nice & Smooth ) from their former label , Fresh Records . This album was also the first release by Def Jam as an imprint under its new Rush Associated Labels subsidiary , which allowed founder Russell Simmons more control and more ownership over its material , as the masters for proper Def Jam releases at that time were primarily owned by Sony Music 's Columbia Records . Business as Usual was not as acclaimed as their first two albums , but was not considered to be a failure either . One notable aspect here was the debut of future Hip Hop star Redman , who appears on the tracks `` Hardcore '' and `` Brothers on My Jock '' . Three singles were released from the album , `` Gold Digger '' , `` Rampage ( Slow Down , Baby ) '' featuring LL Cool J and `` Give the People '' . In 1998 , the album was selected as one of The Source 's 100 Best Rap Albums . The album was certified Gold by the RIAA on May 7 , 1991 .","qid":"2762","docid":"Business_as_Usual_(EPMD_album)","rank":21,"score":75160},{"content":"Title: Lost Decade (Japan) Content: The is a period of economic stagnation in Japan following the Japanese asset price bubble 's collapse in late 1991 and early 1992 . The term originally referred to the years from 1991 to 2000 , but recently the decade from 2001 to 2010 is often included , so that the whole period is referred to as the Lost Score or the Lost 20 Years ( 失われた二十年 , Ushinawareta Nijūnen ) . Broadly impacting the entire Japanese economy , over the period of 1995 to 2007 , GDP fell from $ 5.33 to $ 4.36 trillion in nominal terms , real wages fell around 5 % , while the country experienced a stagnant price level . While there is some debate on the extent and measurement of Japan 's setbacks , the economic effect of the Lost Decade is well established and Japanese policymakers continue to grapple with its consequences . It took longer to recover from the impact of these events because the conditions imposed by the new environment were not favorable to the Japanese management style at that time .","qid":"2762","docid":"Lost_Decade_(Japan)","rank":22,"score":74931},{"content":"Title: The Transition Decade Content: The Transition Decade is a non-partisan shared campaign which is coordinated by an alliance of Australian community , social , and environmental groups , non-profits and NGO 's . The initiative forms a unified plan to campaign , lobby and work to restore safe climate conditions and a sustainable future . The initiative emerged from the Victorian sustainability movement and expanded to encompass the rest of Australia . Organisations and community groups involved include ; Friends of the Earth , Beyond Zero Emissions , Climate Emergency Network , Sustainable Living Foundation , Transition Network , Australian Youth Climate Coalition , Yarra Climate Action Now , Darebin Climate Action Now , Climate Action Moreland , Sustainable Living Tasmania , Environment Victoria , Alternative Technology Association and 100 % Renewable campaign . A number of organisations have been advocating for and working in a ten-year time frame , the Transition Decade initiative integrates this work to strengthen resources and to connect movements that are influencing policy and local action .","qid":"2762","docid":"The_Transition_Decade","rank":23,"score":74857},{"content":"Title: Team of the century Content: In team sport , team of the century and team of the decade are hypothetical best teams over a given time period . For the century team , it can be either 100 years , or for a century ( always the 20th ) . Similarly the team of the decade can be for 10 years or a decade ( for example the 1980s ) . Teams of the decade and century are selected for both leagues and clubs and sometimes selected for other reasons , such as to honour the contribution of a particular ethnic group . Teams of the 20th century in particular have been controversial due to their loose criteria and the systemic bias toward current players , given that the performance of players before the advent of broadcasting of matches can not be reviewed and relies on hearsay and archival records . The Team of the Century concept used extensively in the sport of Australian rules football , where , since the mid-1990s , leagues ( such as the VFL/AFL or SANFL ) , as well as football clubs , have named their best team ( see Football ( Australian rules ) positions ) . Teams of the decades followed . One of the most famous examples of the team of the century concept was in 1996 , when the AFL Team of the Century was named on 2 September 1996 , during the League 's centenary season . An example from Ireland was when in 1984 the GAA selected their Football Team of the Century and Hurling Team of the Century to celebrate the first 100 years of the GAA . The term was used again in 2011 when the Team of Century from the Sigerson Cup was chosen .","qid":"2762","docid":"Team_of_the_century","rank":24,"score":74466},{"content":"Title: Business as Usual (Men at Work album) Content: Business as Usual is the debut album of Australian new wave band Men at Work , which was released in November 1981 in Australia , and April 1982 in the United States . It spent nine weeks at the top of the Australian Kent Music Report Albums Chart from December 1981 through to March 1982 . The Australian version had a black and white cover design ; overseas releases had a similar design , but in a black and yellow colour scheme . Business as Usual was one of the most successful albums internationally by an Australian group . It spent an unprecedented 15 weeks at No. 1 on the US Billboard 200 from late 1982 to early 1983 ; and five weeks at No. 1 in the United Kingdom Albums Chart in early 1983 . Business as Usual was also one of the highest selling Australian albums in the early 1980s , with 6 million copies sold in the US , and 15 million sold worldwide . Surprisingly , the disc also made it to # 31 on Billboard 's Black Albums chart . The first single from the album , `` Who Can It Be Now ? '' , was released in Australia in June 1981 , prior to the recording of the rest of the album . It reached No. 2 on the Australian Kent Music Report Singles Chart in August that year . The second single , `` Down Under '' , which was issued in October peaked at No. 1 for six weeks . A third single , `` Be Good Johnny '' , appeared in April the following year and reached No. 8 . In February 2010 a Federal Court judge in Sydney found that the flute riff from `` Down Under '' had been plagiarised from the Australian song `` Kookaburra Sits in the Old Gum Tree '' , written in 1934 by Marion Sinclair . The Federal Court determined that the copyright was still current ( Sinclair died in 1988 ) and had been assigned to Larrikin Music . The judge found that `` a substantial amount of the original song '' had been reproduced in `` Down Under '' . Larrikin Music had suggested 60 % of the royalties would be appropriate compensation , but the court decreed they shall receive only 5 % , and only on mechanical rights for the song since 2002 , and on future profits . In October 2010 , Business as Usual was listed in the book , 100 Best Australian Albums .","qid":"2762","docid":"Business_as_Usual_(Men_at_Work_album)","rank":25,"score":74437},{"content":"Title: 500s (decade) Content:","qid":"2762","docid":"500s_(decade)","rank":26,"score":74219},{"content":"Title: Cosmological decade Content: A cosmological decade ( CÐ ) is a division of the lifetime of the cosmos . The divisions are logarithmic in size , with base 10 . Each successive cosmological decade represents a ten-fold increase in the total age of the universe .","qid":"2762","docid":"Cosmological_decade","rank":27,"score":73731},{"content":"Title: HMS Decade (1798) Content: HMS Decade was a 36-gun fifth-rate frigate of the Royal Navy . She was formerly the French Galathée-class frigate Décade , which the British had captured in 1798 . She served with the British during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars , and was sold out of the service in 1811 .","qid":"2762","docid":"HMS_Decade_(1798)","rank":28,"score":73478},{"content":"Title: The First Decade (album) Content: The First Decade is a compilation album by the Canadian rock band April Wine , released in 1989 . It contains four previously unreleased tracks .","qid":"2762","docid":"The_First_Decade_(album)","rank":29,"score":73264},{"content":"Title: 100s BC (decade) Content:","qid":"2762","docid":"100s_BC_(decade)","rank":30,"score":73164},{"content":"Title: Business as usual (policy) Content: Business as usual was a policy followed by the British government , under Prime Minister H. H. Asquith , during the early years of the First World War . Its fundamental belief was that in order to maintain a stable and functioning country , it was necessary to continue society in the same manner as before the war ; in other words , that civilians should think of the war as `` business as usual '' . The underlying assumption was that a morale-eroding change in behaviour equated to a victory for the enemy . The term itself is attributed to Winston Churchill , then a prominent `` New Liberal '' . It is unclear whether Asquith , with whom the policy is also associated , himself supported it , or whether he merely felt obliged to . Certainly , he described it as `` a detestable doctrine '' in his memoirs .","qid":"2762","docid":"Business_as_usual_(policy)","rank":31,"score":73120},{"content":"Title: 300s (decade) Content:","qid":"2762","docid":"300s_(decade)","rank":32,"score":73058},{"content":"Title: International Decade for People of African Descent Content: The International Decade for People of African Descent , 2015 -- 2024 , was proclaimed by the UN General Assembly in a Resolution ( 68/237 ) adopted on 23 December 2013 . The theme of the International Decade is `` People of African descent : recognition , justice and development '' .","qid":"2762","docid":"International_Decade_for_People_of_African_Descent","rank":33,"score":73035},{"content":"Title: 400s (decade) Content:","qid":"2762","docid":"400s_(decade)","rank":34,"score":72556},{"content":"Title: Decade Volcanoes Content: The Decade Volcanoes are 16 volcanoes identified by the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth 's Interior ( IAVCEI ) as being worthy of particular study in light of their history of large , destructive eruptions and proximity to populated areas . The Decade Volcanoes project encourages studies and public-awareness activities at these volcanoes , with the aim of achieving a better understanding of the volcanoes and the dangers they present , and thus being able to reduce the severity of natural disasters . They are named Decade Volcanoes because the project was initiated as part of the United Nations -- sponsored International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction , in the 1990s . A volcano may be designated a Decade Volcano if it exhibits more than one volcanic hazard ( people living near the Decade Volcanoes may experience tephra fall , pyroclastic flows , lava flows , lahars , volcanic edifice instability and lava dome collapse ) ; shows recent geological activity ; is located in a populated area ( eruptions at any of the Decade Volcanoes may threaten tens or hundreds of thousands of people , and therefore mitigating eruption hazards at these volcanoes is crucial ) ; is politically and physically accessible for study ; and there is local support for the work .","qid":"2762","docid":"Decade_Volcanoes","rank":35,"score":72520},{"content":"Title: United Nations Decade on Biodiversity Content: The United Nations General Assembly declared 2011 -- 20 the United Nations Decade on Biodiversity ( Resolution 65/161 ) . The UN Decade on Biodiversity serves to support and promote implementation of the objectives of the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity and the Aichi Biodiversity Targets , with the goal of significantly reducing biodiversity loss .","qid":"2762","docid":"United_Nations_Decade_on_Biodiversity","rank":36,"score":72032},{"content":"Title: 2000s (decade) Content: The 2000s ( pronounced `` two-thousands '' or `` twenty-hundreds '' ) was a decade of the Gregorian calendar that began on January 1 , 2000 , and ended on December 31 , 2009 . The growth of the Internet contributed to globalization during the decade , which allowed faster communication among people around the world . The economic growth of the 2000s had considerable social , environmental and mass extinction consequences , raised demand for diminishing energy resources , and was still vulnerable , as demonstrated by the financial crisis of 2007 -- 08 .","qid":"2762","docid":"2000s_(decade)","rank":37,"score":71985},{"content":"Title: Impossible.com Content: Impossible is an altruism-based social network which invites people to give their services and skills away to help others . The online venture was described by Vanity Fair magazine as a `` commerce-free online community '' . Created by Lily Cole , the site allows users to post something they would like to do or need so that others can grant their wish , creating a culture of giving . As of May 2013 , Cole presented the app 's beta in conjunction and with the support of Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales at a special event at Cambridge University . The site has since been launched in the UK and US . It is the first Yunus social business in the UK .","qid":"2762","docid":"Impossible.com","rank":38,"score":71946},{"content":"Title: 900s (decade) Content:","qid":"2762","docid":"900s_(decade)","rank":39,"score":71884},{"content":"Title: 800s (decade) Content:","qid":"2762","docid":"800s_(decade)","rank":40,"score":71736},{"content":"Title: The First Decade (poem) Content: The First Decade ( Decennale primo ) is a 1506 poem by Italian writer Niccolò Machiavelli .","qid":"2762","docid":"The_First_Decade_(poem)","rank":41,"score":71672},{"content":"Title: International Decade for the Promotion of a Culture of Peace and Non-Violence for the Children of the World Content: The United Nations General Assembly proclaimed the first decade of the 21st century and the third millennium , the years 2001 to 2010 , as the International Decade for the Promotion of a Culture of Peace and Non-Violence for the Children of the World . This followed resolutions about the International Year for the Culture of Peace and the International Day of Peace . The action plan for the Decade proposes eight spheres of activities in which to work for the promotion of the Culture of Peace : To reinforce a culture of peace through education To promote economically and socially sustainable development To promote the respect of all human rights To ensure the equality between women and men To support democratic participation To develop comprehension , tolerance and solidarity To support participative communication and the freedom of movement of information and knowledge To promote international peace and safety On 29 November 2000 , the General Assembly decided to entrust UNESCO with the coordination `` of the activities of the organizations of the United Nations system to promote a culture of peace , as well as liaison with other organizations concerned in this matter . '' . In 2009 , the United Nations General Assembly , in a resolution on the International Decade for the Promotion of a Culture of Peace and Non-violence for the Children of the World , endorsed the ongoing work of the Culture of Peace News Network as an important part of the ongoing commitment of the UN to a culture of peace .","qid":"2762","docid":"International_Decade_for_the_Promotion_of_a_Culture_of_Peace_and_Non-Violence_for_the_Children_of_the_World","rank":42,"score":71080},{"content":"Title: Business as usual (business) Content: Business as usual ( BAU ) - the normal execution of standard functional operations within an organization - forms a possible contrast to projects or programmes which might introduce change . BAU may also stand in contradistinction to external events which may have the effect of unsettling or distracting those inside an organisation .","qid":"2762","docid":"Business_as_usual_(business)","rank":43,"score":70987},{"content":"Title: 10 years Content: 10 Years or Ten Years may refer to : Decade , a period of ten years","qid":"2762","docid":"10_years","rank":44,"score":70967},{"content":"Title: International Coalition for the Decade Content: On 10 November 1998 , the United Nations General Assembly proclaimed the first decade of the 21st century and the third millennium , the years 2001 to 2010 , as the International Decade for the Promotion of a Culture of Peace and Non-Violence for the Children of the World . Since 2001 , some national NGOs coalitions promoting the Decade have been established in several countries , including Austria , France , Italy and the Netherlands . These national coalitions along with international organizations decided to found the International Coalition for the Decade for the Culture of Peace and Nonviolence in June 2003 . Its office is based in Paris and its president is Christian Renoux ( France ) .","qid":"2762","docid":"International_Coalition_for_the_Decade","rank":45,"score":70467},{"content":"Title: Business as Usual (Haystak & Jelly Roll album) Content: Business As Usual is the second full-length collaboration album released by Haystak & JellyRoll on November 19 , 2013 . The collaboration album peaked at 11 on the Billboard Top Heatseakers Albums chart . `` Business As Usual '' - 3:26 `` All Over The Road ft. Charlie P '' - 4:21 `` Money '' - 3:14 `` Boyfriend '' - 3:29 `` Independent Legend '' - 3:12 `` Keep It Gangsta '' - 3:20 `` Winners ft. Robin Raynelle '' - 3:51 `` Please God '' - 2:36 `` Hello ft. Big Snap '' - 4:02 `` We Do n't '' - 3:25 `` Bad Guy ft. Squints '' - 3:33 `` Part Girl ft. Big Snap , Zodiak Black & Charlie P '' - 5:01 `` Over Here '' - 3:37 `` Early Days '' - 2:45 `` Life ft. Ryan Terrel '' - 4:10 `` Safely Say '' - 3:23 `` Every Now and Then '' - 3:27 `` Locked And Loaded '' - 3:42","qid":"2762","docid":"Business_as_Usual_(Haystak_&_Jelly_Roll_album)","rank":46,"score":70385},{"content":"Title: 600s (decade) Content:","qid":"2762","docid":"600s_(decade)","rank":47,"score":70054},{"content":"Title: List of decades Content: This is a list of decades from the beginning of the 18th century BC to the end of the 21st century AD , including links to corresponding articles with more information about them . During the 20th century , it became common to consider individual decades as historical entities in themselves . Particular trends , styles , and attitudes would be associated with and regarded as defining particular decades ( which became known as `` The Twenties '' , `` The Sixties '' , and so on ) . Category : Year lists Category : Historical timelines","qid":"2762","docid":"List_of_decades","rank":48,"score":69868},{"content":"Title: International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction Content: The United Nations General Assembly designated the 1990s as the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction ( IDNDR ) . Its basic objective was to decrease the loss of life , property destruction and social and economic disruption caused by natural disasters , such as earthquakes , tsunamis , floods , landslides , volcanic eruptions , droughts , locust infestations , and other disasters of natural origin . An International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction , beginning on 1 January 1990 , was launched by the United Nations , following the adoption of Resolution 44/236 ( 22 December 1989 ) . The decade was intended to reduce , through concerted international action , especially in developing countries , loss of life , property damage and social and economic disruption caused by natural disasters . To support the activities of the decade , a Secretariat was established at the United Nations Office in Geneva , in close association with UNDRO .","qid":"2762","docid":"International_Decade_for_Natural_Disaster_Reduction","rank":49,"score":69084},{"content":"Title: The First Decade (1983–1993) Content: The First Decade ( 1983 -- 1993 ) is a compilation album from Christian recording artist Michael W. Smith . This album also features two new songs `` Do You Dream of Me ? '' and `` Kentucky Rose '' . A follow-up compilation album , The Second Decade ( 1993 -- 2003 ) , was released ten years later , picking up where The First Decade left off .","qid":"2762","docid":"The_First_Decade_(1983–1993)","rank":50,"score":69054},{"content":"Title: 700s (decade) Content:","qid":"2762","docid":"700s_(decade)","rank":51,"score":68989},{"content":"Title: Decade of Behavior Content: The Decade of Behavior is the American Psychological Association 's nickname for the 2000s . The name represents a public education campaign to bring attention to the importance of behavioral and social research . The initiative has been endorsed by more than 70 professional associations across a variety of disciplines . The campaign was first championed in 1998 by Richard C. McCarty , then-Executive Director of Science of the APA . It is the successor to the 1990s ' `` Decade of the Brain '' .","qid":"2762","docid":"Decade_of_Behavior","rank":52,"score":68903},{"content":"Title: 200s BC (decade) Content:","qid":"2762","docid":"200s_BC_(decade)","rank":53,"score":68622},{"content":"Title: 1200s (decade) Content:","qid":"2762","docid":"1200s_(decade)","rank":54,"score":68526},{"content":"Title: Business as usual Content: Business as usual may refer to : Business as usual ( business ) , the normal execution of operations within an organization Business as usual ( policy ) , policy of the British government in World War I In film , television and theatre Business as Usual ( film ) , a 1987 British drama `` Business as Usual '' ( Star Trek : Deep Space Nine ) , television series episode `` Business as Usual '' , television series episode of Flashpoint Business as Usual ( musical ) , a West End musical of 1914 In music Business as Usual ( EPMD album ) Business as Usual ( Men at Work album ) Business as Usual , album by Boo-Yaa T.R.I.B.E. Business as Usual , album by Da Brakes Business as Usual , album by Secret Affair Business as Usual , album by Robin McAuley `` Business as Usual '' , song by The Eagles from Long Road out of Eden `` Business as Usual '' , song by Little Feat from Let It Roll `` Business as Usual '' , song by Staggered Crossing from Last Summer When We Were Famous","qid":"2762","docid":"Business_as_usual","rank":55,"score":68500},{"content":"Title: 800s BC (decade) Content:","qid":"2762","docid":"800s_BC_(decade)","rank":56,"score":68354},{"content":"Title: 1000s BC (decade) Content:","qid":"2762","docid":"1000s_BC_(decade)","rank":57,"score":68170},{"content":"Title: The Impossible Years Content: The Impossible Years is a 1965 comedy play and a 1968 movie , based on the play . The play was written by Robert Fisher and Arthur Marx , son of famed comedian Groucho Marx . After two previews , the Broadway production , directed by Arthur Storch , opened on October 13 , 1965 at the Playhouse Theatre , where it ran for 670 performances . The original cast included Alan King , Sudie Bond , Bert Convy , Neva Small , and Scott Glenn . Sam Levene and Ed McMahon succeeded King later in the run .","qid":"2762","docid":"The_Impossible_Years","rank":58,"score":68098},{"content":"Title: Ominous Decade Content: The Ominous Decade ( Castilian : Década Ominosa ) is a traditional term for the last ten years of the reign of King Ferdinand VII of Spain , dating from the abolition of the Spanish Constitution of 1812 , on 1 October 1823 , to his death on 29 September 1833 .","qid":"2762","docid":"Ominous_Decade","rank":59,"score":67941},{"content":"Title: Decadence (band) Content: Decadence is a melodic thrash metal band from Stockholm , Sweden , formed in November 2003 .","qid":"2762","docid":"Decadence_(band)","rank":60,"score":67681},{"content":"Title: 500s BC (decade) Content:","qid":"2762","docid":"500s_BC_(decade)","rank":61,"score":67620},{"content":"Title: Impossible Foods Content: Impossible Foods Inc. is a company that develops plant-based meat and dairy products made without animals . Headquartered in Redwood City , California , the company aims to give people the taste and nutritional benefits of meat without the negative health and environmental impacts of livestock products . The company researches animal products at the molecular level , then selects specific proteins and nutrients from plants to recreate the experience of meats and dairy products from animals .","qid":"2762","docid":"Impossible_Foods","rank":62,"score":67579},{"content":"Title: The Impossible Game Content: The Impossible Game is a 2009 one-button platformer game developed by Grip Games and published by FlukeDude .","qid":"2762","docid":"The_Impossible_Game","rank":63,"score":67520},{"content":"Title: La Decadència Content: The early modern period ( late 15th or 16th-18th centuries ) in Catalan literature and historiography , while extremely productive for Castilian writers of the Siglo de Oro , has been termed La Decadència ( -LSB- ɫə ðəkəˈðɛnsiə -RSB- , -LSB- la ðekaˈðɛnsia -RSB- ; `` The Decadence '' ) , an era of decadence in Catalan literature and history , generally thought to be caused by a general falling into disuse of the vernacular language in cultural contexts and lack of patronage among the nobility , even in lands of the Crown of Aragon . This decadence is thought to accompany the general Castilianization of Spain and overall neglect for the Crown of Aragon 's institutions after the dynastic union of the crowns of Castile and Aragon that resulted from the marriage of Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile , a union finalized in 1474 . This is , however , a Romantic view made popular by writers and thinkers of the national awakening period known as Renaixença , in the 19th century . This presumed state of decadence is being contested with the appearance of recent cultural and literary studies showing there were indeed works of note in the period .","qid":"2762","docid":"La_Decadència","rank":64,"score":67398},{"content":"Title: Business as Usual (film) Content: Business as Usual is a 1987 drama film written and directed by Lezli-An Barrett . It stars Glenda Jackson and John Thaw .","qid":"2762","docid":"Business_as_Usual_(film)","rank":65,"score":67348},{"content":"Title: Infamous Decade Content: The Infamous Decade ( in Spanish , Década Infame ) in Argentina is the name given to the period of time that began in 1930 with the coup d'état against President Hipólito Yrigoyen by José Félix Uriburu and resulted in the rising to power of Juan Perón after the Military coup of 1943 . This decade was marked by significant rural exodus , many small rural landowners being ruined by the Great Depression , which in turn pushed the country towards import substitution industrialization . The poor economic results of the policy and popular discontent led to another coup in 1943 , the `` Revolution of ' 43 '' , by the Grupo de Oficiales Unidos ( GOU ) , the nationalist faction of the Armed Forces , against acting president Ramón Castillo , putting an end to the Infamous Decade .","qid":"2762","docid":"Infamous_Decade","rank":66,"score":67151},{"content":"Title: Decade of Decadence (Impaled Nazarene album) Content: Decade Of Decadence is a compilation album by Finnish extreme metal band Impaled Nazarene , and it was released in year 2000 , declaring band 's 10-year career . It features songs from the band 's early material .","qid":"2762","docid":"Decade_of_Decadence_(Impaled_Nazarene_album)","rank":67,"score":66723},{"content":"Title: Decadence Content: The word decadence , which at first meant simply `` decline '' in an abstract sense , is now most often used to refer to a perceived decay in standards , morals , dignity , religious faith , or skill at governing among the members of the elite of a very large social structure , such as an empire or nation state . By extension , it may refer to a decline in art , literature , science , technology , and work ethics , or ( very loosely ) to self-indulgent behaviour . Usage of the term frequently implies moral censure , or an acceptance of the idea , met with throughout the world since ancient times , that such declines are objectively observable and that they inevitably precede the destruction of the society in question ; for this reason , modern historians use it with caution . The word originated in Medieval Latin ( dēcadentia ) , appeared in 16th-century French , and entered English soon afterwards . It bore the neutral meaning of decay , decrease , or decline until the late 19th century , when the influence of new theories of social degeneration contributed to its modern meaning . In literature , the Decadent movement -- late nineteenth century fin de siècle writers who were associated with Symbolism or the Aesthetic movement -- was first given its name by hostile critics . Later it was triumphantly adopted by some of the writers themselves . The Decadents praised artifice over nature and sophistication over simplicity , defying contemporary discourses of decline by embracing subjects and styles that their critics considered morbid and over-refined . Some of these writers were influenced by the tradition of the Gothic novel and by the poetry and fiction of Edgar Allan Poe .","qid":"2762","docid":"Decadence","rank":68,"score":66593},{"content":"Title: 2040s Content: The 2040s is a decade of the Gregorian calendar that will begin on January 1 , 2040 and will end on December 31 , 2049 .","qid":"2762","docid":"2040s","rank":69,"score":66339},{"content":"Title: Decadent Action Content: Decadent Action was a mock `` consumer terrorist group '' and `` High Street anarchist-guerrilla organisation '' ( or culture jammers ) which argued that only a credit collapse through excessive consumer spending could bring about the end of capitalism . It argued that bringing about excessive inflation through unrestrained consumer spending was the sole lever which could precipitate the economic collapse upon which any revolutionary action is predicated . Therefore it promoted the idea of irresponsible credit and excessive spending on hedonistic pursuits to achieve its goals . Its manifesto was first published in The Idler magazine and then Stewart Home 's Mind Invaders : A Reader in Psychic Warfare , Cultural Sabotage And Semiotic Terrorism ( 1997 ) . The group was notable for organising the first Phone-in Sick Day , which saw thousands of British Airways and Irish Garda call in sick to work .","qid":"2762","docid":"Decadent_Action","rank":70,"score":66099},{"content":"Title: 2080s Content: The 2080s is a decade of the Gregorian calendar that will begin on January 1 , 2080 and will end on December 31 , 2089 .","qid":"2762","docid":"2080s","rank":71,"score":66040},{"content":"Title: List of Billboard Hot 100 chart achievements by decade Content: This is a listing of Billboard Hot 100 chart achievements by decade . A decade for these achievements is defined as ten-year periods from years ending in ' 0 ' through years ending in ' 9 ' . Since the Hot 100 was first published in Billboard magazine in the issue dated August 4 , 1958 , the first decade of chart achievements ranges from that first issue through the last issue of 1969 .","qid":"2762","docid":"List_of_Billboard_Hot_100_chart_achievements_by_decade","rank":72,"score":66032},{"content":"Title: A Decade Content: A Decade is Canadian alternative rock band Our Lady Peace 's first compilation album , released on November 21 , 2006 , in Canada , and November 28 , 2006 , in the United States . Included on the album are top tracks `` Where Are You '' , `` Clumsy '' , `` In Repair '' , `` Somewhere Out There '' , `` Innocent '' , `` Thief '' , `` Naveed '' , `` Starseed '' and `` 4 A.M. '' . Also included are the two unreleased songs `` Kiss on the Mouth '' and `` Better Than Here '' . The Canadian release of the album includes a bonus DVD containing a feature length concert/documentary directed by Rafael Ouellet and produced by Robi Levy featuring interviews with the current band members , behind the scenes footage , and performances of the songs `` Picture '' , `` Thief '' , `` Innocent '' , `` Where Are You '' , `` Wipe That Smile Off Your Face '' , and `` Clumsy '' shot on November 6 , 2005 , at Massey Hall in Toronto . It also includes a photo gallery , and discography with lyrics . `` 4am '' and `` One Man Army '' have been remixed from their original album versions . `` In Repair '' and `` Life '' appear with narration from Ray Kurzweil 's book The Age of Spiritual Machines , which inspired the album Spiritual Machines , on which the two song were featured . The narration on `` Life '' was not issued on Spiritual Machines . The first single from the album was `` Kiss on the Mouth '' , released in Canada in September 2006 . The band has stated that this will be the last album featuring Saul Fox on the cover . Previously , Fox was seen on the covers of Our Lady Peace 's first four albums .","qid":"2762","docid":"A_Decade","rank":73,"score":65930},{"content":"Title: International Drinking Water Decade, 1981–90 Content: The International Drinking Water Decade or International Decade of Water or International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade , now known as The First Water Decade was the ten-year period 1981 - 1990 designated by the United Nations to bring attention and support for clean water and sanitation worldwide .","qid":"2762","docid":"International_Drinking_Water_Decade,_1981–90","rank":74,"score":65794},{"content":"Title: 1100s (decade) Content:","qid":"2762","docid":"1100s_(decade)","rank":75,"score":65756},{"content":"Title: Decadence (TV series) Content: Decadence : The Meaninglessness of Modern Life is a six-part television documentary series commissioned by SBS Independent and produced by Fork Films . The series is hosted by Pria Viswalingam , who is best known for his work on the travel show A Fork in the Road . Decadence was originally broadcast on the Special Broadcasting Service ( SBS ) of Australia in 2006 in the form of six , thirty-minute-long episodes ( including advertisements ) . It was re-screened again in 2007 as part of the SBS season on globalisation . The series examined the decadence and meaninglessness of modern , western life . It is also posed the question : ` If we live in such a great and prosperous world , and we are living longer , better , and healthier than before , why are we so unhappy ? ' There were interviews with prominent experts and leaders in their fields throughout the series including John Tirman , Avner Offer , Susan Greenfield , Phillip Knightley , Kishore Mahbubani , Noam Chomsky , and John Spong .","qid":"2762","docid":"Decadence_(TV_series)","rank":76,"score":65618},{"content":"Title: The Red Decade Content: The Red Decade is a term coined by journalist and historian Eugene Lyons to describe a period in American history in the 1930s characterized by a widespread infatuation with communism in general and Stalinism in particular . Lyons believed this idolization of Joseph Stalin and exultation of Bolshevik achievements to have reached its high point in 1938 , running deepest amongst liberals , intellectuals , and journalists and even some government and federal officials . Lyons argues that American intellectuals gave the then-Stalinist Soviet Union ( and by extension , Stalinism ) a certain international goodwill and respectability that it did not deserve .","qid":"2762","docid":"The_Red_Decade","rank":77,"score":65486},{"content":"Title: Business as Usual (Star Trek: Deep Space Nine) Content: __ NOTOC __ `` Business as Usual '' is the 116th episode of the television series Star Trek : Deep Space Nine , the 18th episode of the fifth season . It aired in 1997 . Despondent over his mounting financial woes , Quark allows his cousin Gaila to talk him into joining the arms sales business .","qid":"2762","docid":"Business_as_Usual_(Star_Trek:_Deep_Space_Nine)","rank":78,"score":65426},{"content":"Title: 2060s Content: The 2060s is a decade of the Gregorian calendar that will begin on January 1 , 2060 , and will end on December 31 , 2069 .","qid":"2762","docid":"2060s","rank":79,"score":65413},{"content":"Title: 1500s (decade) Content:","qid":"2762","docid":"1500s_(decade)","rank":80,"score":65262},{"content":"Title: Decade of Action for Road Safety 2011–2020 Content: The Decade of Action for Road Safety 2011 -- 2020 was officially proclaimed by the United Nations General Assembly in March 2010 . Its goal is to stabilize and reduce the forecast level of road traffic deaths around the world . It is estimated that 5 millions lives could be saved on the world 's roads during the Decade . According to the Global status report on road safety , road traffic crashes take the lives of nearly 1.3 million people every year , and injure 20 -- 50 million more . More than 90 % of road traffic deaths and injuries occur in low-income and middle-income countries , which have only 48 % of the world 's registered vehicles . If no action is taken , road traffic crashes are predicted to result in the deaths of around 1.9 million people annually by 2020 . Global activities related to the Decade are coordinated by the United Nations Road Safety Collaboration . Grover , fictional character from the television show Sesame Street was named a Global Ambassador by the WHO .","qid":"2762","docid":"Decade_of_Action_for_Road_Safety_2011–2020","rank":81,"score":65243},{"content":"Title: The First Decade Content: The First Decade may refer to : The First Decade ( album ) , an album by April Wine The First Decade ( poem ) , a poem by Niccolò Machiavelli Command & Conquer : The First Decade , a Command & Conquer compilation The First Decade ( 1983 -- 1993 ) , an album by Michael W. Smith","qid":"2762","docid":"The_First_Decade","rank":82,"score":65122},{"content":"Title: 2070s Content: The 2070s is a decade of the Gregorian calendar that will begin on January 1 , 2070 and will end on December 31 , 2079 .","qid":"2762","docid":"2070s","rank":83,"score":65119},{"content":"Title: Physics of the Future Content: Physics of the Future : How Science Will Shape Human Destiny and Our Daily Lives by the Year 2100 is a 2011 book by theoretical physicist Michio Kaku , author of Hyperspace and Physics of the Impossible . In it Kaku speculates about possible future technological development over the next 100 years . He interviews notable scientists about their fields of research and lays out his vision of coming developments in medicine , computing , artificial intelligence , nanotechnology , and energy production . The book was on the New York Times Bestseller List for five weeks . Kaku writes how he hopes his predictions for 2100 will be as successful as science fiction writer Jules Verne 's 1863 novel Paris in the Twentieth Century . Kaku contrasts Verne 's foresight against U.S. Postmaster General John Wanamaker , who in 1893 predicted that mail would still be delivered by stagecoach and horseback in 100 years ' time , and IBM chairman Thomas J. Watson , who in 1943 is alleged to have said `` I think there is a world market for maybe five computers . '' Kaku points to this long history of failed predictions against progress to underscore his notion `` that it is very dangerous to bet against the future '' .","qid":"2762","docid":"Physics_of_the_Future","rank":84,"score":64877},{"content":"Title: 1600s (decade) Content:","qid":"2762","docid":"1600s_(decade)","rank":85,"score":64728},{"content":"Title: 900s BC (decade) Content:","qid":"2762","docid":"900s_BC_(decade)","rank":86,"score":64564},{"content":"Title: 1300s (decade) Content:","qid":"2762","docid":"1300s_(decade)","rank":87,"score":64498},{"content":"Title: Design of a Decade: 1986–1996 (video) Content: Design of a Decade : 1986 -- 1996 is a video compilation released by American R&B / pop singer Janet Jackson .","qid":"2762","docid":"Design_of_a_Decade:_1986–1996_(video)","rank":88,"score":64496},{"content":"Title: Decadence (film) Content: Decadence is a 1994 British film starring Joan Collins and Steven Berkoff , written and directed by Berkoff and based on his play of the same name . It was filmed entirely in Luxembourg and featured , as guest stars , Christopher Biggins , Marc Sinden and Michael Winner .","qid":"2762","docid":"Decadence_(film)","rank":89,"score":64468},{"content":"Title: Decade: Greatest Hits Content: Decade -- Greatest Hits is a greatest hits album by Duran Duran , released on 15 November 1989 ( see 1989 in music ) . The remix single `` Burning the Ground '' was released to radio to promote this album . It was created by producer John Jones by mixing snippets of the band 's biggest hits from the previous decade into a new piece of music . However , the track was not included on the Decade album itself . The tracks `` My Own Way '' and `` New Moon on Monday '' were also not included , even though both were Top 20 hits in the UK . Decade 's track listing included various hits from all of Duran Duran 's albums and presented them in mixes that were popular and mainstream among the public . Hence , it includes the Nile Rodgers edit of `` The Reflex '' and the radio edits of `` Notorious '' and `` Skin Trade . ''","qid":"2762","docid":"Decade:_Greatest_Hits","rank":90,"score":64456},{"content":"Title: Decade: Ten Years of Fierce Panda Content: Decade : Ten Years of Fierce Panda ( released 1 March 2004 ) is a compilation album released by Fierce Panda Records . The album celebrates the label 's tenth anniversary , and features some of their best-known artists .","qid":"2762","docid":"Decade:_Ten_Years_of_Fierce_Panda","rank":91,"score":64149},{"content":"Title: Kamen Rider Decade Content: is the title of the first of the 2009 editions of the long-running Kamen Rider Series of tokusatsu dramas . Decade , as its title suggests , is the tenth of the Heisei Rider Series , having begun with Kamen Rider Kuuga in 2000 . It began broadcast the week following the finale of Kamen Rider Kiva and is featured in Super Hero Time alongside the 2009 edition of the Super Sentai Series , Samurai Sentai Shinkenger . The series ties in with the arcade game Kamen Rider Battle : Ganbaride , with Kamen Riders Decade and Diend using cards resembling those used in the game to transform and access various weapons . Inspiration for this series was very likely to have been the fact that Toei had successfully ensured that the Kamen Rider series lasted a whole decade ( 2000-2009 ) without the show going into a period of hiatus which had always occurred since the franchise began in the 1970s . The series ' English dub aired on October 20 , 2012 , 5:30 p.m. at Singapore 's Okto Channel , Mediacorp .","qid":"2762","docid":"Kamen_Rider_Decade","rank":92,"score":64129},{"content":"Title: 2050s Content: The 2050s is a decade of the Gregorian calendar that will begin on January 1 , 2050 and will end on December 31 , 2059 .","qid":"2762","docid":"2050s","rank":93,"score":64106},{"content":"Title: 2090s Content: The 2090s is a decade of the Gregorian calendar that will begin on January 1 , 2090 and will end on December 31 , 2099 .","qid":"2762","docid":"2090s","rank":94,"score":63899},{"content":"Title: 2030s Content: The 2030s ( pronounced `` twenty-thirties '' ) is a decade of the Gregorian calendar that will begin on January 1 , 2030 and will end on December 31 , 2039 .","qid":"2762","docid":"2030s","rank":95,"score":63861},{"content":"Title: The Third Decade Content: The Third Decade is a 1984 album by the Art Ensemble of Chicago released on the ECM label . It features performances by Lester Bowie , Joseph Jarman , Roscoe Mitchell , Malachi Favors Maghostut and Don Moye .","qid":"2762","docid":"The_Third_Decade","rank":96,"score":63816},{"content":"Title: Impossible Project Content: The Impossible Project ( stylized as IMꟼOSSIBLE ) is a Dutch photography company and manufacturer founded in 2008 by Dr. Florian Kaps , André Bosman and Marwan Saba . It manufactures instant film for select Polaroid instant cameras as well as its own instant camera , the I-1 .","qid":"2762","docid":"Impossible_Project","rank":97,"score":63810},{"content":"Title: 1900s (decade) Content: The 1900s ( pronounced `` nineteen-hundreds '' ) was a decade of the Gregorian calendar that began on January 1 , 1900 , and ended on December 31 , 1909 . The term `` nineteen-hundreds '' can also equally be used for the years 1900 -- 1999 ( see 1900s ) . The Edwardian era ( 1901 -- 1910 ) covers a similar span of time .","qid":"2762","docid":"1900s_(decade)","rank":98,"score":63720},{"content":"Title: Decade of the Mind Content: The Decade of the Mind Project is an international initiative to advance scientific understanding of how the mind and complex behaviors are related to the activity of human brains . The problem of explaining the mind is so complex as to require `` big science '' to make real progress . The effort stemmed from concerns in the scientific community that mind research ( as opposed to simply brain research ) had received inadequate support relative to its importance in human lives . The Project began with a conference of leading US scientists at George Mason University in May 2007 which led to The Decade of the Mind Manifesto , published as a letter to the editor in Science . The Manifesto called for a new $ 4B US investment in research across the many disciplines of mind research over the decade from 2012 to 2022 . Since the May 2007 meeting , the Decade of the Mind Project has held several other conferences across the United States and is now being internationalized with a conference in Berlin , Germany , in September 2009 and a conference planned for Singapore in October 2010 .","qid":"2762","docid":"Decade_of_the_Mind","rank":99,"score":63707},{"content":"Title: Formula 1 Decade Content: Formula 1 Decade was a show on Speed Channel . First airing on May 11 , 2003 the show takes a look at Formula One Grand Prix events that were run 10 years prior to the present season . A one-hour show , the announcers , SPEED 's Formula One commentary team , Bob Varsha , Steve Matchett , and David Hobbs , perform a mixture of a commentary as if the race is taking place right now along with reminiscing about rules changes and also Matchett 's then role with Michael Schumacher 's team . In 2003 , when the show looked back at the 1993 season , dominated by Alain Prost , Varsha was the show 's host , while Hobbs and Matchett looked at videotape of the races , and reminisced . That changed in 2004 , when Matchett began introducing the race that would be seen on an episode and wrapping up each show , while Varsha joined Matchett and Hobbs to do commentary . Speed Channel picked up the rights to broadcast the years-old races in their three-year agreement with FOM in 2003 . It was included in their contract that allowed them to continue broadcasting live Formula One races , though it cost extra money , as the Formula One archives are rarely opened to any network . On April 2 , 2004 the show had the daunting task of airing the 1994 San Marino Grand Prix , and showing the crash that claimed the life of 3-time World Drivers ' Champion , and 41-time Grand Prix race winner Ayrton Senna in that event . Matchett , a mechanic for Benetton-Ford that weekend , made these remarks at the beginning of the broadcast : `` Welcome to F1 Decade , Speed Channel 's retrospective of the 1994 Formula 1 World Championship . We have reached round three-the San Marino Grand Prix . The constant , metronomic beat of the clock has led us , inescapably , to Imola , and when the date 1994 and the name of Imola are brought together , they combine to form nothing but black , somber memories . The events of that race weekend , from the morning of April 28 , when the teams first assembled at the track , until the evening of Sunday , May 1 , rest amongst motor racing 's darkest times . It was a weekend of tragedy , despair , and death . 10 years on , it may be that some viewers would prefer not to watch the coverage of these events , and if you feel in any way unsure , then I urge you to switch off your TV now . We can not shy away from the fact that three very serious accidents happened . * The events of Imola are a part of the sport 's history . The aftermath of that horrible weekend would forever change the way Grand Prix cars are built , and forever change the way the races themselves are conducted . We at Speed Channel feel it is only proper that the 1994 San Marino Grand Prix is correctly documented , and that , in our opinion , must include correct coverage of Ayrton Senna 's fatal accident . '' - There had already been two serious accidents in the days before Senna 's - one on April 29 during Friday practice , that nearly killed Rubens Barrichello , and one on April 30 during Saturday qualifying that killed Roland Ratzenberger . The show returned in 2005 , taking a look back at the 1995 season , when Michael Schumacher took his second straight World Drivers ' Championship . F1 Decade was not renewed for 2006 ; if it had been , it would have looked back at Damon Hill 's championship season in 1996 .","qid":"2762","docid":"Formula_1_Decade","rank":100,"score":63676}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Deep Earth Carbon Degassing Project Content: Deep Earth Carbon Degassing ( DECADE ) project is an initiative to unite scientists around the world to make tangible advances towards quantifying the amount of carbon outgassed from the Earth 's deep interior ( core , mantle , crust ) into the surface environment ( e.g. biosphere , hydrosphere , cryosphere , atmosphere ) through naturally occurring processes . DECADE is an initiative within the Deep Carbon Observatory ( DCO ) . Volcanoes are the main pathway in which deeply-sourced volatiles , including carbon , are transferred from the Earth 's interior to the surface environment . An additional , though less well understood pathway includes along faults and fractures within the Earth 's crust , often referred to as tectonic degassing . When the DCO was first formed in 2009 estimates of global carbon flux from volcanic regions ranged from 65 to 540 Mt/yr , and constraints on global tectonic degassing were virtually unknown . The order of magnitude uncertainty in current volcanic/tectonic carbon outgassing makes answering fundamental questions about the global carbon budget virtually impossible . In particular , one fundamental unknown is if carbon transferred to the Earth 's interior via subduction is efficiently recycled back to the Earth 's mantle lithosphere , crust and surface environment through volcanic and tectonic degassing , or if significant quantities of carbon are being subducted into the deep mantle . Because significant quantities of mantle carbon are also released through Mid-Ocean Ridge volcanism , if carbon inputs and outputs at subduction zone settings are in balance , then the net effect will be an imbalance in the global carbon budget , with carbon being preferentially removed from the Earth 's deep interior and redistributed to more shallow reservoirs including the mantle lithosphere , crust , hydrosphere and atmosphere . The implications of this may mean that carbon concentrations in the surface environment are increasing over Earth 's history , which has significant implications for climate change . Findings from the DECADE project will increase our understanding of the way carbon cycles through deep Earth , and patterns in volcanic emissions data could potentially alert scientists to an impending eruption .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"Deep_Earth_Carbon_Degassing_Project\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 87663\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Decade (log scale) Content: One decade is a factor of 10 difference between two numbers ( an order of magnitude difference ) measured on a logarithmic scale . Along with the octave , it is a logarithmic unit used to describe frequency bands or frequency ratios . It is especially useful when referring to frequencies and when describing frequency response of electronic systems , such as audio amplifiers and filters .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"Decade_(log_scale)\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 84952\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Decade (solitaire) Content: Decade or Ten-Twenty-Thirty is a Patience game played with a traditional 52-card deck . It is akin to another solitaire game called Accordion . Like Accordion , it is traditionally played with the cards in a line ; however due its minimal use of space , it can also be played in one hand by placing the deck face-down in the hand , and placing the line in a stack on top of the deck , with the discard pile face up on the bottom ( as seen in the images below ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"Decade_(solitaire)\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 83393\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Decade (disambiguation) Content: A decade is a set of ten or an interval of length ten . The most common use is to refer to a period of ten years . Decade , Decad , or Decades may also refer to :\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"Decade_(disambiguation)\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 82036\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Decade Content: A decade is a period of ten years . The word is derived ( via French and Latin ) from the δεκάς ( -LSB- ðɛk ' ɑːs -RSB- , transliteration = dekas ) , which means a group of ten . Other words for spans of years also come from Latin : biennium ( 2 years ) , triennium ( 3 years ) , quadrennium ( 4 years ) , lustrum ( 5 years ) , century ( 100 years ) , millennium ( 1000 years ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"Decade\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 82022\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Decades (TV network) Content: Decades is an American digital broadcast television network that is owned as a joint venture between the CBS Television Stations subsidiary of CBS Corporation and Weigel Broadcasting . The network , which is primarily carried on the digital subchannels of television stations , mainly airs classic television sitcoms and drama series from the 1950s through the 2000s , feature films from the same period , along with historical news and documentary programming . Through its ownership by Weigel , Decades is a sister network to MeTV , which focuses on classic television series from the 1950s to the 1990s and carries some programming from Decades corporate cousin CBS Television Distribution . As the network has access to theatrical films and television series remastered for high definition and widescreen presentation , the network is carried in 480i widescreen .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"Decades_(TV_network)\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 81190\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 100s (decade) Content:\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"100s_(decade)\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 80796\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Next Decade Content: `` The Next Decade '' is the thirty-fifth single by Japanese musical artist Gackt , released on August 11 , 2009 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Next_Decade\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 80257\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Next Decade (book) Content: The Next Decade is a 2010 book by George Friedman , who addresses the United States ' relationships with other countries and the state of the world in general throughout the 2010s . The book also discusses the paradox of `` the empire and the republic '' , and addresses some demographic , technological , and economic issues , primarily those that will affect the 2010s . The main theme of the book is how the American administrations of the 2010s will need to create regional power balances , some of which have been disturbed . Friedman conceptualizes America 's successful management of world affairs not by directly enforcing countries , but by creating competing relationships , which offset one another , in the world 's different regions . For example , in the past , Iraq balanced Iran , and currently Japan balances China . Friedman asserts this is the decade where the US as a power must mature to manage its power and balance as an unintended empire and republic .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Next_Decade_(book)\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 80177\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Decade (The Veer Union album) Content: Decade is the fourth studio album by alternative rock band The Veer Union . It was released on January 29 , 2016 . It is their first album in almost four years , and the first to feature an all new lineup outside of frontman and band co-founder Crispin Earl .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"Decade_(The_Veer_Union_album)\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 79956\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Decade box Content: In prototyping of electronic circuits , a decade box is a type of test equipment that can be used to substitute the interchanging of different values of certain passive components with a single variable output . Decade boxes are made for resistance , capacitance , and inductance , the values of which can be increased incrementally by way of switching the points of contact for the input and output throughout a series of the respective components . The interface for these devices will usually consist of dials or adjustable tape counters , and are operated in-circuit and without any external power source .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"Decade_box\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 79806\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Decade (EP) Content: The Decade is the second EP by American post-hardcore band Alesana . It was released in April 2014 , and the release used a different stylization of lyrics compared to their past releases . This album was made to celebrate the 10 years as a band . This is Alesana 's first and only release with Artery Recordings .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Decade_(EP)\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 79598\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Chapter One... A Decade Content: Chapter One ... A Decade is the second greatest hits album by Contemporary Christian group 4Him . It was released on Benson Records . in 2001 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"Chapter_One..._A_Decade\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 78614\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 200s (decade) Content:\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"200s_(decade)\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 78325\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Decade (play) Content: Decade is a 2011 play by Tony Kushner , John Logan and Paul Laverty commemorating the tenth anniversary of the September 11 attacks . Its structure is drawn from the work of the choreographer Pina Bausch and it involves a cast of 12 . It premièred in St Katharine Docks ( the site of London 's World Trade Centre ) and was performed from 1 September to 15 October 2011 , in a production starring Lia Williams and directed by Rupert Goold .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"Decade_(play)\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 78271\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Decade (Neil Young album) Content: Decade is a compilation by Neil Young , originally released in 1977 as a triple album , now available on two compact discs . It contains 35 of Young 's songs recorded between 1966 and 1976 , among them five tracks that had been unreleased up to that point . It peaked at No. 43 on the Billboard Top Pop Albums chart , and was certified platinum by the RIAA in 1986 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"Decade_(Neil_Young_album)\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 77886\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Decade (Live at the El Mocambo) Content: Decade ( Live at the El Mocambo ) is the first live album from the Ontario rock band Silverstein , released on June 8 , 2010 on Victory .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"Decade_(Live_at_the_El_Mocambo)\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 76814\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Lakland Decade Content: The Lakland Decade is a dual-pickup , solid-body electric bass guitar made by Chicago-based Lakland Musical Instruments . Released in 2004 to celebrate the company 's 10th anniversary , the U.S.-made Decade is available in a variety of configurations . The mid-priced Skyline series is constructed of a mahogany body , maple neck , and rosewood fingerboard and equipped with Lakland 's Chi-Sonic pickups .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"Lakland_Decade\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 76178\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Decade Content: The Decade was a villainous professional wrestling stable in Ring of Honor , last consisting of B.J. Whitmer and Colby Corino . The name `` Decade '' was chosen because all three original members of the stable ( Whitmer , Jimmy Jacobs , and Roderick Strong ) had been associated with Ring of Honor for ten years when the group was formed .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Decade\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 75546\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Decade One Content: Decade One is a compilation album by Babyland , released in 2001 by Dependent Records . As the title suggest , the album compiles tracks drawn from the band 's first ten years of recording .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"Decade_One\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 75219\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Business as Usual (EPMD album) Content: Business as Usual is the third album from Hip Hop duo EPMD , released December 18 , 1990 and their first on leading rap label Def Jam as a result of being signed over ( along with Nice & Smooth ) from their former label , Fresh Records . This album was also the first release by Def Jam as an imprint under its new Rush Associated Labels subsidiary , which allowed founder Russell Simmons more control and more ownership over its material , as the masters for proper Def Jam releases at that time were primarily owned by Sony Music 's Columbia Records . Business as Usual was not as acclaimed as their first two albums , but was not considered to be a failure either . One notable aspect here was the debut of future Hip Hop star Redman , who appears on the tracks `` Hardcore '' and `` Brothers on My Jock '' . Three singles were released from the album , `` Gold Digger '' , `` Rampage ( Slow Down , Baby ) '' featuring LL Cool J and `` Give the People '' . In 1998 , the album was selected as one of The Source 's 100 Best Rap Albums . The album was certified Gold by the RIAA on May 7 , 1991 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"Business_as_Usual_(EPMD_album)\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 75160\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Lost Decade (Japan) Content: The is a period of economic stagnation in Japan following the Japanese asset price bubble 's collapse in late 1991 and early 1992 . The term originally referred to the years from 1991 to 2000 , but recently the decade from 2001 to 2010 is often included , so that the whole period is referred to as the Lost Score or the Lost 20 Years ( 失われた二十年 , Ushinawareta Nijūnen ) . Broadly impacting the entire Japanese economy , over the period of 1995 to 2007 , GDP fell from $ 5.33 to $ 4.36 trillion in nominal terms , real wages fell around 5 % , while the country experienced a stagnant price level . While there is some debate on the extent and measurement of Japan 's setbacks , the economic effect of the Lost Decade is well established and Japanese policymakers continue to grapple with its consequences . It took longer to recover from the impact of these events because the conditions imposed by the new environment were not favorable to the Japanese management style at that time .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"Lost_Decade_(Japan)\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 74931\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Transition Decade Content: The Transition Decade is a non-partisan shared campaign which is coordinated by an alliance of Australian community , social , and environmental groups , non-profits and NGO 's . The initiative forms a unified plan to campaign , lobby and work to restore safe climate conditions and a sustainable future . The initiative emerged from the Victorian sustainability movement and expanded to encompass the rest of Australia . Organisations and community groups involved include ; Friends of the Earth , Beyond Zero Emissions , Climate Emergency Network , Sustainable Living Foundation , Transition Network , Australian Youth Climate Coalition , Yarra Climate Action Now , Darebin Climate Action Now , Climate Action Moreland , Sustainable Living Tasmania , Environment Victoria , Alternative Technology Association and 100 % Renewable campaign . A number of organisations have been advocating for and working in a ten-year time frame , the Transition Decade initiative integrates this work to strengthen resources and to connect movements that are influencing policy and local action .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Transition_Decade\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 74857\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Team of the century Content: In team sport , team of the century and team of the decade are hypothetical best teams over a given time period . For the century team , it can be either 100 years , or for a century ( always the 20th ) . Similarly the team of the decade can be for 10 years or a decade ( for example the 1980s ) . Teams of the decade and century are selected for both leagues and clubs and sometimes selected for other reasons , such as to honour the contribution of a particular ethnic group . Teams of the 20th century in particular have been controversial due to their loose criteria and the systemic bias toward current players , given that the performance of players before the advent of broadcasting of matches can not be reviewed and relies on hearsay and archival records . The Team of the Century concept used extensively in the sport of Australian rules football , where , since the mid-1990s , leagues ( such as the VFL/AFL or SANFL ) , as well as football clubs , have named their best team ( see Football ( Australian rules ) positions ) . Teams of the decades followed . One of the most famous examples of the team of the century concept was in 1996 , when the AFL Team of the Century was named on 2 September 1996 , during the League 's centenary season . An example from Ireland was when in 1984 the GAA selected their Football Team of the Century and Hurling Team of the Century to celebrate the first 100 years of the GAA . The term was used again in 2011 when the Team of Century from the Sigerson Cup was chosen .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"Team_of_the_century\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 74466\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Business as Usual (Men at Work album) Content: Business as Usual is the debut album of Australian new wave band Men at Work , which was released in November 1981 in Australia , and April 1982 in the United States . It spent nine weeks at the top of the Australian Kent Music Report Albums Chart from December 1981 through to March 1982 . The Australian version had a black and white cover design ; overseas releases had a similar design , but in a black and yellow colour scheme . Business as Usual was one of the most successful albums internationally by an Australian group . It spent an unprecedented 15 weeks at No. 1 on the US Billboard 200 from late 1982 to early 1983 ; and five weeks at No. 1 in the United Kingdom Albums Chart in early 1983 . Business as Usual was also one of the highest selling Australian albums in the early 1980s , with 6 million copies sold in the US , and 15 million sold worldwide . Surprisingly , the disc also made it to # 31 on Billboard 's Black Albums chart . The first single from the album , `` Who Can It Be Now ? '' , was released in Australia in June 1981 , prior to the recording of the rest of the album . It reached No. 2 on the Australian Kent Music Report Singles Chart in August that year . The second single , `` Down Under '' , which was issued in October peaked at No. 1 for six weeks . A third single , `` Be Good Johnny '' , appeared in April the following year and reached No. 8 . In February 2010 a Federal Court judge in Sydney found that the flute riff from `` Down Under '' had been plagiarised from the Australian song `` Kookaburra Sits in the Old Gum Tree '' , written in 1934 by Marion Sinclair . The Federal Court determined that the copyright was still current ( Sinclair died in 1988 ) and had been assigned to Larrikin Music . The judge found that `` a substantial amount of the original song '' had been reproduced in `` Down Under '' . Larrikin Music had suggested 60 % of the royalties would be appropriate compensation , but the court decreed they shall receive only 5 % , and only on mechanical rights for the song since 2002 , and on future profits . In October 2010 , Business as Usual was listed in the book , 100 Best Australian Albums .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"Business_as_Usual_(Men_at_Work_album)\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 74437\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 500s (decade) Content:\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"500s_(decade)\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 74219\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cosmological decade Content: A cosmological decade ( CÐ ) is a division of the lifetime of the cosmos . The divisions are logarithmic in size , with base 10 . Each successive cosmological decade represents a ten-fold increase in the total age of the universe .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"Cosmological_decade\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 73731\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: HMS Decade (1798) Content: HMS Decade was a 36-gun fifth-rate frigate of the Royal Navy . She was formerly the French Galathée-class frigate Décade , which the British had captured in 1798 . She served with the British during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars , and was sold out of the service in 1811 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"HMS_Decade_(1798)\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 73478\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The First Decade (album) Content: The First Decade is a compilation album by the Canadian rock band April Wine , released in 1989 . It contains four previously unreleased tracks .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"The_First_Decade_(album)\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 73264\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 100s BC (decade) Content:\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"100s_BC_(decade)\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 73164\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Business as usual (policy) Content: Business as usual was a policy followed by the British government , under Prime Minister H. H. Asquith , during the early years of the First World War . Its fundamental belief was that in order to maintain a stable and functioning country , it was necessary to continue society in the same manner as before the war ; in other words , that civilians should think of the war as `` business as usual '' . The underlying assumption was that a morale-eroding change in behaviour equated to a victory for the enemy . The term itself is attributed to Winston Churchill , then a prominent `` New Liberal '' . It is unclear whether Asquith , with whom the policy is also associated , himself supported it , or whether he merely felt obliged to . Certainly , he described it as `` a detestable doctrine '' in his memoirs .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"Business_as_usual_(policy)\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 73120\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 300s (decade) Content:\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"300s_(decade)\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 73058\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: International Decade for People of African Descent Content: The International Decade for People of African Descent , 2015 -- 2024 , was proclaimed by the UN General Assembly in a Resolution ( 68/237 ) adopted on 23 December 2013 . The theme of the International Decade is `` People of African descent : recognition , justice and development '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"International_Decade_for_People_of_African_Descent\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 73035\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 400s (decade) Content:\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"400s_(decade)\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 72556\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Decade Volcanoes Content: The Decade Volcanoes are 16 volcanoes identified by the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth 's Interior ( IAVCEI ) as being worthy of particular study in light of their history of large , destructive eruptions and proximity to populated areas . The Decade Volcanoes project encourages studies and public-awareness activities at these volcanoes , with the aim of achieving a better understanding of the volcanoes and the dangers they present , and thus being able to reduce the severity of natural disasters . They are named Decade Volcanoes because the project was initiated as part of the United Nations -- sponsored International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction , in the 1990s . A volcano may be designated a Decade Volcano if it exhibits more than one volcanic hazard ( people living near the Decade Volcanoes may experience tephra fall , pyroclastic flows , lava flows , lahars , volcanic edifice instability and lava dome collapse ) ; shows recent geological activity ; is located in a populated area ( eruptions at any of the Decade Volcanoes may threaten tens or hundreds of thousands of people , and therefore mitigating eruption hazards at these volcanoes is crucial ) ; is politically and physically accessible for study ; and there is local support for the work .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"Decade_Volcanoes\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 72520\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: United Nations Decade on Biodiversity Content: The United Nations General Assembly declared 2011 -- 20 the United Nations Decade on Biodiversity ( Resolution 65/161 ) . The UN Decade on Biodiversity serves to support and promote implementation of the objectives of the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity and the Aichi Biodiversity Targets , with the goal of significantly reducing biodiversity loss .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"United_Nations_Decade_on_Biodiversity\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 72032\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2000s (decade) Content: The 2000s ( pronounced `` two-thousands '' or `` twenty-hundreds '' ) was a decade of the Gregorian calendar that began on January 1 , 2000 , and ended on December 31 , 2009 . The growth of the Internet contributed to globalization during the decade , which allowed faster communication among people around the world . The economic growth of the 2000s had considerable social , environmental and mass extinction consequences , raised demand for diminishing energy resources , and was still vulnerable , as demonstrated by the financial crisis of 2007 -- 08 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"2000s_(decade)\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 71985\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Impossible.com Content: Impossible is an altruism-based social network which invites people to give their services and skills away to help others . The online venture was described by Vanity Fair magazine as a `` commerce-free online community '' . Created by Lily Cole , the site allows users to post something they would like to do or need so that others can grant their wish , creating a culture of giving . As of May 2013 , Cole presented the app 's beta in conjunction and with the support of Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales at a special event at Cambridge University . The site has since been launched in the UK and US . It is the first Yunus social business in the UK .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"Impossible.com\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 71946\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 900s (decade) Content:\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"900s_(decade)\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 71884\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 800s (decade) Content:\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"800s_(decade)\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 71736\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The First Decade (poem) Content: The First Decade ( Decennale primo ) is a 1506 poem by Italian writer Niccolò Machiavelli .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"The_First_Decade_(poem)\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 71672\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: International Decade for the Promotion of a Culture of Peace and Non-Violence for the Children of the World Content: The United Nations General Assembly proclaimed the first decade of the 21st century and the third millennium , the years 2001 to 2010 , as the International Decade for the Promotion of a Culture of Peace and Non-Violence for the Children of the World . This followed resolutions about the International Year for the Culture of Peace and the International Day of Peace . The action plan for the Decade proposes eight spheres of activities in which to work for the promotion of the Culture of Peace : To reinforce a culture of peace through education To promote economically and socially sustainable development To promote the respect of all human rights To ensure the equality between women and men To support democratic participation To develop comprehension , tolerance and solidarity To support participative communication and the freedom of movement of information and knowledge To promote international peace and safety On 29 November 2000 , the General Assembly decided to entrust UNESCO with the coordination `` of the activities of the organizations of the United Nations system to promote a culture of peace , as well as liaison with other organizations concerned in this matter . '' . In 2009 , the United Nations General Assembly , in a resolution on the International Decade for the Promotion of a Culture of Peace and Non-violence for the Children of the World , endorsed the ongoing work of the Culture of Peace News Network as an important part of the ongoing commitment of the UN to a culture of peace .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"International_Decade_for_the_Promotion_of_a_Culture_of_Peace_and_Non-Violence_for_the_Children_of_the_World\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 71080\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Business as usual (business) Content: Business as usual ( BAU ) - the normal execution of standard functional operations within an organization - forms a possible contrast to projects or programmes which might introduce change . BAU may also stand in contradistinction to external events which may have the effect of unsettling or distracting those inside an organisation .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"Business_as_usual_(business)\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 70987\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 10 years Content: 10 Years or Ten Years may refer to : Decade , a period of ten years\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"10_years\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 70967\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: International Coalition for the Decade Content: On 10 November 1998 , the United Nations General Assembly proclaimed the first decade of the 21st century and the third millennium , the years 2001 to 2010 , as the International Decade for the Promotion of a Culture of Peace and Non-Violence for the Children of the World . Since 2001 , some national NGOs coalitions promoting the Decade have been established in several countries , including Austria , France , Italy and the Netherlands . These national coalitions along with international organizations decided to found the International Coalition for the Decade for the Culture of Peace and Nonviolence in June 2003 . Its office is based in Paris and its president is Christian Renoux ( France ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"International_Coalition_for_the_Decade\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 70467\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Business as Usual (Haystak & Jelly Roll album) Content: Business As Usual is the second full-length collaboration album released by Haystak & JellyRoll on November 19 , 2013 . The collaboration album peaked at 11 on the Billboard Top Heatseakers Albums chart . `` Business As Usual '' - 3:26 `` All Over The Road ft. Charlie P '' - 4:21 `` Money '' - 3:14 `` Boyfriend '' - 3:29 `` Independent Legend '' - 3:12 `` Keep It Gangsta '' - 3:20 `` Winners ft. Robin Raynelle '' - 3:51 `` Please God '' - 2:36 `` Hello ft. Big Snap '' - 4:02 `` We Do n't '' - 3:25 `` Bad Guy ft. Squints '' - 3:33 `` Part Girl ft. Big Snap , Zodiak Black & Charlie P '' - 5:01 `` Over Here '' - 3:37 `` Early Days '' - 2:45 `` Life ft. Ryan Terrel '' - 4:10 `` Safely Say '' - 3:23 `` Every Now and Then '' - 3:27 `` Locked And Loaded '' - 3:42\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"Business_as_Usual_(Haystak_&_Jelly_Roll_album)\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 70385\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 600s (decade) Content:\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"600s_(decade)\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 70054\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of decades Content: This is a list of decades from the beginning of the 18th century BC to the end of the 21st century AD , including links to corresponding articles with more information about them . During the 20th century , it became common to consider individual decades as historical entities in themselves . Particular trends , styles , and attitudes would be associated with and regarded as defining particular decades ( which became known as `` The Twenties '' , `` The Sixties '' , and so on ) . Category : Year lists Category : Historical timelines\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_decades\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 69868\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction Content: The United Nations General Assembly designated the 1990s as the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction ( IDNDR ) . Its basic objective was to decrease the loss of life , property destruction and social and economic disruption caused by natural disasters , such as earthquakes , tsunamis , floods , landslides , volcanic eruptions , droughts , locust infestations , and other disasters of natural origin . An International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction , beginning on 1 January 1990 , was launched by the United Nations , following the adoption of Resolution 44/236 ( 22 December 1989 ) . The decade was intended to reduce , through concerted international action , especially in developing countries , loss of life , property damage and social and economic disruption caused by natural disasters . To support the activities of the decade , a Secretariat was established at the United Nations Office in Geneva , in close association with UNDRO .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"International_Decade_for_Natural_Disaster_Reduction\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 69084\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The First Decade (1983–1993) Content: The First Decade ( 1983 -- 1993 ) is a compilation album from Christian recording artist Michael W. Smith . This album also features two new songs `` Do You Dream of Me ? '' and `` Kentucky Rose '' . A follow-up compilation album , The Second Decade ( 1993 -- 2003 ) , was released ten years later , picking up where The First Decade left off .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"The_First_Decade_(1983–1993)\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 69054\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 700s (decade) Content:\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"700s_(decade)\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 68989\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Decade of Behavior Content: The Decade of Behavior is the American Psychological Association 's nickname for the 2000s . The name represents a public education campaign to bring attention to the importance of behavioral and social research . The initiative has been endorsed by more than 70 professional associations across a variety of disciplines . The campaign was first championed in 1998 by Richard C. McCarty , then-Executive Director of Science of the APA . It is the successor to the 1990s ' `` Decade of the Brain '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"Decade_of_Behavior\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 68903\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 200s BC (decade) Content:\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"200s_BC_(decade)\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 68622\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1200s (decade) Content:\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"1200s_(decade)\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 68526\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Business as usual Content: Business as usual may refer to : Business as usual ( business ) , the normal execution of operations within an organization Business as usual ( policy ) , policy of the British government in World War I In film , television and theatre Business as Usual ( film ) , a 1987 British drama `` Business as Usual '' ( Star Trek : Deep Space Nine ) , television series episode `` Business as Usual '' , television series episode of Flashpoint Business as Usual ( musical ) , a West End musical of 1914 In music Business as Usual ( EPMD album ) Business as Usual ( Men at Work album ) Business as Usual , album by Boo-Yaa T.R.I.B.E. Business as Usual , album by Da Brakes Business as Usual , album by Secret Affair Business as Usual , album by Robin McAuley `` Business as Usual '' , song by The Eagles from Long Road out of Eden `` Business as Usual '' , song by Little Feat from Let It Roll `` Business as Usual '' , song by Staggered Crossing from Last Summer When We Were Famous\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"Business_as_usual\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 68500\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 800s BC (decade) Content:\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"800s_BC_(decade)\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 68354\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1000s BC (decade) Content:\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"1000s_BC_(decade)\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 68170\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Impossible Years Content: The Impossible Years is a 1965 comedy play and a 1968 movie , based on the play . The play was written by Robert Fisher and Arthur Marx , son of famed comedian Groucho Marx . After two previews , the Broadway production , directed by Arthur Storch , opened on October 13 , 1965 at the Playhouse Theatre , where it ran for 670 performances . The original cast included Alan King , Sudie Bond , Bert Convy , Neva Small , and Scott Glenn . Sam Levene and Ed McMahon succeeded King later in the run .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Impossible_Years\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 68098\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ominous Decade Content: The Ominous Decade ( Castilian : Década Ominosa ) is a traditional term for the last ten years of the reign of King Ferdinand VII of Spain , dating from the abolition of the Spanish Constitution of 1812 , on 1 October 1823 , to his death on 29 September 1833 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"Ominous_Decade\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 67941\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Decadence (band) Content: Decadence is a melodic thrash metal band from Stockholm , Sweden , formed in November 2003 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"Decadence_(band)\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 67681\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 500s BC (decade) Content:\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"500s_BC_(decade)\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 67620\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Impossible Foods Content: Impossible Foods Inc. is a company that develops plant-based meat and dairy products made without animals . Headquartered in Redwood City , California , the company aims to give people the taste and nutritional benefits of meat without the negative health and environmental impacts of livestock products . The company researches animal products at the molecular level , then selects specific proteins and nutrients from plants to recreate the experience of meats and dairy products from animals .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"Impossible_Foods\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 67579\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Impossible Game Content: The Impossible Game is a 2009 one-button platformer game developed by Grip Games and published by FlukeDude .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Impossible_Game\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 67520\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: La Decadència Content: The early modern period ( late 15th or 16th-18th centuries ) in Catalan literature and historiography , while extremely productive for Castilian writers of the Siglo de Oro , has been termed La Decadència ( -LSB- ɫə ðəkəˈðɛnsiə -RSB- , -LSB- la ðekaˈðɛnsia -RSB- ; `` The Decadence '' ) , an era of decadence in Catalan literature and history , generally thought to be caused by a general falling into disuse of the vernacular language in cultural contexts and lack of patronage among the nobility , even in lands of the Crown of Aragon . This decadence is thought to accompany the general Castilianization of Spain and overall neglect for the Crown of Aragon 's institutions after the dynastic union of the crowns of Castile and Aragon that resulted from the marriage of Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile , a union finalized in 1474 . This is , however , a Romantic view made popular by writers and thinkers of the national awakening period known as Renaixença , in the 19th century . This presumed state of decadence is being contested with the appearance of recent cultural and literary studies showing there were indeed works of note in the period .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"La_Decadència\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 67398\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Business as Usual (film) Content: Business as Usual is a 1987 drama film written and directed by Lezli-An Barrett . It stars Glenda Jackson and John Thaw .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"Business_as_Usual_(film)\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 67348\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Infamous Decade Content: The Infamous Decade ( in Spanish , Década Infame ) in Argentina is the name given to the period of time that began in 1930 with the coup d'état against President Hipólito Yrigoyen by José Félix Uriburu and resulted in the rising to power of Juan Perón after the Military coup of 1943 . This decade was marked by significant rural exodus , many small rural landowners being ruined by the Great Depression , which in turn pushed the country towards import substitution industrialization . The poor economic results of the policy and popular discontent led to another coup in 1943 , the `` Revolution of ' 43 '' , by the Grupo de Oficiales Unidos ( GOU ) , the nationalist faction of the Armed Forces , against acting president Ramón Castillo , putting an end to the Infamous Decade .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"Infamous_Decade\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 67151\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Decade of Decadence (Impaled Nazarene album) Content: Decade Of Decadence is a compilation album by Finnish extreme metal band Impaled Nazarene , and it was released in year 2000 , declaring band 's 10-year career . It features songs from the band 's early material .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"Decade_of_Decadence_(Impaled_Nazarene_album)\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 66723\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Decadence Content: The word decadence , which at first meant simply `` decline '' in an abstract sense , is now most often used to refer to a perceived decay in standards , morals , dignity , religious faith , or skill at governing among the members of the elite of a very large social structure , such as an empire or nation state . By extension , it may refer to a decline in art , literature , science , technology , and work ethics , or ( very loosely ) to self-indulgent behaviour . Usage of the term frequently implies moral censure , or an acceptance of the idea , met with throughout the world since ancient times , that such declines are objectively observable and that they inevitably precede the destruction of the society in question ; for this reason , modern historians use it with caution . The word originated in Medieval Latin ( dēcadentia ) , appeared in 16th-century French , and entered English soon afterwards . It bore the neutral meaning of decay , decrease , or decline until the late 19th century , when the influence of new theories of social degeneration contributed to its modern meaning . In literature , the Decadent movement -- late nineteenth century fin de siècle writers who were associated with Symbolism or the Aesthetic movement -- was first given its name by hostile critics . Later it was triumphantly adopted by some of the writers themselves . The Decadents praised artifice over nature and sophistication over simplicity , defying contemporary discourses of decline by embracing subjects and styles that their critics considered morbid and over-refined . Some of these writers were influenced by the tradition of the Gothic novel and by the poetry and fiction of Edgar Allan Poe .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"Decadence\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 66593\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2040s Content: The 2040s is a decade of the Gregorian calendar that will begin on January 1 , 2040 and will end on December 31 , 2049 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"2040s\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 66339\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Decadent Action Content: Decadent Action was a mock `` consumer terrorist group '' and `` High Street anarchist-guerrilla organisation '' ( or culture jammers ) which argued that only a credit collapse through excessive consumer spending could bring about the end of capitalism . It argued that bringing about excessive inflation through unrestrained consumer spending was the sole lever which could precipitate the economic collapse upon which any revolutionary action is predicated . Therefore it promoted the idea of irresponsible credit and excessive spending on hedonistic pursuits to achieve its goals . Its manifesto was first published in The Idler magazine and then Stewart Home 's Mind Invaders : A Reader in Psychic Warfare , Cultural Sabotage And Semiotic Terrorism ( 1997 ) . The group was notable for organising the first Phone-in Sick Day , which saw thousands of British Airways and Irish Garda call in sick to work .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"Decadent_Action\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 66099\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2080s Content: The 2080s is a decade of the Gregorian calendar that will begin on January 1 , 2080 and will end on December 31 , 2089 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"2080s\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 66040\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of Billboard Hot 100 chart achievements by decade Content: This is a listing of Billboard Hot 100 chart achievements by decade . A decade for these achievements is defined as ten-year periods from years ending in ' 0 ' through years ending in ' 9 ' . Since the Hot 100 was first published in Billboard magazine in the issue dated August 4 , 1958 , the first decade of chart achievements ranges from that first issue through the last issue of 1969 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_Billboard_Hot_100_chart_achievements_by_decade\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 66032\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: A Decade Content: A Decade is Canadian alternative rock band Our Lady Peace 's first compilation album , released on November 21 , 2006 , in Canada , and November 28 , 2006 , in the United States . Included on the album are top tracks `` Where Are You '' , `` Clumsy '' , `` In Repair '' , `` Somewhere Out There '' , `` Innocent '' , `` Thief '' , `` Naveed '' , `` Starseed '' and `` 4 A.M. '' . Also included are the two unreleased songs `` Kiss on the Mouth '' and `` Better Than Here '' . The Canadian release of the album includes a bonus DVD containing a feature length concert/documentary directed by Rafael Ouellet and produced by Robi Levy featuring interviews with the current band members , behind the scenes footage , and performances of the songs `` Picture '' , `` Thief '' , `` Innocent '' , `` Where Are You '' , `` Wipe That Smile Off Your Face '' , and `` Clumsy '' shot on November 6 , 2005 , at Massey Hall in Toronto . It also includes a photo gallery , and discography with lyrics . `` 4am '' and `` One Man Army '' have been remixed from their original album versions . `` In Repair '' and `` Life '' appear with narration from Ray Kurzweil 's book The Age of Spiritual Machines , which inspired the album Spiritual Machines , on which the two song were featured . The narration on `` Life '' was not issued on Spiritual Machines . The first single from the album was `` Kiss on the Mouth '' , released in Canada in September 2006 . The band has stated that this will be the last album featuring Saul Fox on the cover . Previously , Fox was seen on the covers of Our Lady Peace 's first four albums .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"A_Decade\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 65930\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: International Drinking Water Decade, 1981–90 Content: The International Drinking Water Decade or International Decade of Water or International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade , now known as The First Water Decade was the ten-year period 1981 - 1990 designated by the United Nations to bring attention and support for clean water and sanitation worldwide .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"International_Drinking_Water_Decade,_1981–90\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 65794\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1100s (decade) Content:\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"1100s_(decade)\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 65756\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Decadence (TV series) Content: Decadence : The Meaninglessness of Modern Life is a six-part television documentary series commissioned by SBS Independent and produced by Fork Films . The series is hosted by Pria Viswalingam , who is best known for his work on the travel show A Fork in the Road . Decadence was originally broadcast on the Special Broadcasting Service ( SBS ) of Australia in 2006 in the form of six , thirty-minute-long episodes ( including advertisements ) . It was re-screened again in 2007 as part of the SBS season on globalisation . The series examined the decadence and meaninglessness of modern , western life . It is also posed the question : ` If we live in such a great and prosperous world , and we are living longer , better , and healthier than before , why are we so unhappy ? ' There were interviews with prominent experts and leaders in their fields throughout the series including John Tirman , Avner Offer , Susan Greenfield , Phillip Knightley , Kishore Mahbubani , Noam Chomsky , and John Spong .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"Decadence_(TV_series)\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 65618\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Red Decade Content: The Red Decade is a term coined by journalist and historian Eugene Lyons to describe a period in American history in the 1930s characterized by a widespread infatuation with communism in general and Stalinism in particular . Lyons believed this idolization of Joseph Stalin and exultation of Bolshevik achievements to have reached its high point in 1938 , running deepest amongst liberals , intellectuals , and journalists and even some government and federal officials . Lyons argues that American intellectuals gave the then-Stalinist Soviet Union ( and by extension , Stalinism ) a certain international goodwill and respectability that it did not deserve .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Red_Decade\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 65486\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Business as Usual (Star Trek: Deep Space Nine) Content: __ NOTOC __ `` Business as Usual '' is the 116th episode of the television series Star Trek : Deep Space Nine , the 18th episode of the fifth season . It aired in 1997 . Despondent over his mounting financial woes , Quark allows his cousin Gaila to talk him into joining the arms sales business .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"Business_as_Usual_(Star_Trek:_Deep_Space_Nine)\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 65426\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2060s Content: The 2060s is a decade of the Gregorian calendar that will begin on January 1 , 2060 , and will end on December 31 , 2069 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"2060s\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 65413\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1500s (decade) Content:\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"1500s_(decade)\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 65262\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Decade of Action for Road Safety 2011–2020 Content: The Decade of Action for Road Safety 2011 -- 2020 was officially proclaimed by the United Nations General Assembly in March 2010 . Its goal is to stabilize and reduce the forecast level of road traffic deaths around the world . It is estimated that 5 millions lives could be saved on the world 's roads during the Decade . According to the Global status report on road safety , road traffic crashes take the lives of nearly 1.3 million people every year , and injure 20 -- 50 million more . More than 90 % of road traffic deaths and injuries occur in low-income and middle-income countries , which have only 48 % of the world 's registered vehicles . If no action is taken , road traffic crashes are predicted to result in the deaths of around 1.9 million people annually by 2020 . Global activities related to the Decade are coordinated by the United Nations Road Safety Collaboration . Grover , fictional character from the television show Sesame Street was named a Global Ambassador by the WHO .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"Decade_of_Action_for_Road_Safety_2011–2020\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 65243\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The First Decade Content: The First Decade may refer to : The First Decade ( album ) , an album by April Wine The First Decade ( poem ) , a poem by Niccolò Machiavelli Command & Conquer : The First Decade , a Command & Conquer compilation The First Decade ( 1983 -- 1993 ) , an album by Michael W. Smith\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"The_First_Decade\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 65122\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2070s Content: The 2070s is a decade of the Gregorian calendar that will begin on January 1 , 2070 and will end on December 31 , 2079 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"2070s\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 65119\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Physics of the Future Content: Physics of the Future : How Science Will Shape Human Destiny and Our Daily Lives by the Year 2100 is a 2011 book by theoretical physicist Michio Kaku , author of Hyperspace and Physics of the Impossible . In it Kaku speculates about possible future technological development over the next 100 years . He interviews notable scientists about their fields of research and lays out his vision of coming developments in medicine , computing , artificial intelligence , nanotechnology , and energy production . The book was on the New York Times Bestseller List for five weeks . Kaku writes how he hopes his predictions for 2100 will be as successful as science fiction writer Jules Verne 's 1863 novel Paris in the Twentieth Century . Kaku contrasts Verne 's foresight against U.S. Postmaster General John Wanamaker , who in 1893 predicted that mail would still be delivered by stagecoach and horseback in 100 years ' time , and IBM chairman Thomas J. Watson , who in 1943 is alleged to have said `` I think there is a world market for maybe five computers . '' Kaku points to this long history of failed predictions against progress to underscore his notion `` that it is very dangerous to bet against the future '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"Physics_of_the_Future\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 64877\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1600s (decade) Content:\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"1600s_(decade)\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 64728\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 900s BC (decade) Content:\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"900s_BC_(decade)\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 64564\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1300s (decade) Content:\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"1300s_(decade)\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 64498\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Design of a Decade: 1986–1996 (video) Content: Design of a Decade : 1986 -- 1996 is a video compilation released by American R&B / pop singer Janet Jackson .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"Design_of_a_Decade:_1986–1996_(video)\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 64496\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Decadence (film) Content: Decadence is a 1994 British film starring Joan Collins and Steven Berkoff , written and directed by Berkoff and based on his play of the same name . It was filmed entirely in Luxembourg and featured , as guest stars , Christopher Biggins , Marc Sinden and Michael Winner .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"Decadence_(film)\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 64468\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Decade: Greatest Hits Content: Decade -- Greatest Hits is a greatest hits album by Duran Duran , released on 15 November 1989 ( see 1989 in music ) . The remix single `` Burning the Ground '' was released to radio to promote this album . It was created by producer John Jones by mixing snippets of the band 's biggest hits from the previous decade into a new piece of music . However , the track was not included on the Decade album itself . The tracks `` My Own Way '' and `` New Moon on Monday '' were also not included , even though both were Top 20 hits in the UK . Decade 's track listing included various hits from all of Duran Duran 's albums and presented them in mixes that were popular and mainstream among the public . Hence , it includes the Nile Rodgers edit of `` The Reflex '' and the radio edits of `` Notorious '' and `` Skin Trade . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"Decade:_Greatest_Hits\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 64456\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Decade: Ten Years of Fierce Panda Content: Decade : Ten Years of Fierce Panda ( released 1 March 2004 ) is a compilation album released by Fierce Panda Records . The album celebrates the label 's tenth anniversary , and features some of their best-known artists .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"Decade:_Ten_Years_of_Fierce_Panda\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 64149\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kamen Rider Decade Content: is the title of the first of the 2009 editions of the long-running Kamen Rider Series of tokusatsu dramas . Decade , as its title suggests , is the tenth of the Heisei Rider Series , having begun with Kamen Rider Kuuga in 2000 . It began broadcast the week following the finale of Kamen Rider Kiva and is featured in Super Hero Time alongside the 2009 edition of the Super Sentai Series , Samurai Sentai Shinkenger . The series ties in with the arcade game Kamen Rider Battle : Ganbaride , with Kamen Riders Decade and Diend using cards resembling those used in the game to transform and access various weapons . Inspiration for this series was very likely to have been the fact that Toei had successfully ensured that the Kamen Rider series lasted a whole decade ( 2000-2009 ) without the show going into a period of hiatus which had always occurred since the franchise began in the 1970s . The series ' English dub aired on October 20 , 2012 , 5:30 p.m. at Singapore 's Okto Channel , Mediacorp .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"Kamen_Rider_Decade\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 64129\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2050s Content: The 2050s is a decade of the Gregorian calendar that will begin on January 1 , 2050 and will end on December 31 , 2059 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"2050s\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 64106\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2090s Content: The 2090s is a decade of the Gregorian calendar that will begin on January 1 , 2090 and will end on December 31 , 2099 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"2090s\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 63899\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2030s Content: The 2030s ( pronounced `` twenty-thirties '' ) is a decade of the Gregorian calendar that will begin on January 1 , 2030 and will end on December 31 , 2039 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"2030s\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 63861\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Third Decade Content: The Third Decade is a 1984 album by the Art Ensemble of Chicago released on the ECM label . It features performances by Lester Bowie , Joseph Jarman , Roscoe Mitchell , Malachi Favors Maghostut and Don Moye .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Third_Decade\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 63816\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Impossible Project Content: The Impossible Project ( stylized as IMꟼOSSIBLE ) is a Dutch photography company and manufacturer founded in 2008 by Dr. Florian Kaps , André Bosman and Marwan Saba . It manufactures instant film for select Polaroid instant cameras as well as its own instant camera , the I-1 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"Impossible_Project\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 63810\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1900s (decade) Content: The 1900s ( pronounced `` nineteen-hundreds '' ) was a decade of the Gregorian calendar that began on January 1 , 1900 , and ended on December 31 , 1909 . The term `` nineteen-hundreds '' can also equally be used for the years 1900 -- 1999 ( see 1900s ) . The Edwardian era ( 1901 -- 1910 ) covers a similar span of time .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"1900s_(decade)\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 63720\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Decade of the Mind Content: The Decade of the Mind Project is an international initiative to advance scientific understanding of how the mind and complex behaviors are related to the activity of human brains . The problem of explaining the mind is so complex as to require `` big science '' to make real progress . The effort stemmed from concerns in the scientific community that mind research ( as opposed to simply brain research ) had received inadequate support relative to its importance in human lives . The Project began with a conference of leading US scientists at George Mason University in May 2007 which led to The Decade of the Mind Manifesto , published as a letter to the editor in Science . The Manifesto called for a new $ 4B US investment in research across the many disciplines of mind research over the decade from 2012 to 2022 . Since the May 2007 meeting , the Decade of the Mind Project has held several other conferences across the United States and is now being internationalized with a conference in Berlin , Germany , in September 2009 and a conference planned for Singapore in October 2010 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"Decade_of_the_Mind\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 63707\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Formula 1 Decade Content: Formula 1 Decade was a show on Speed Channel . First airing on May 11 , 2003 the show takes a look at Formula One Grand Prix events that were run 10 years prior to the present season . A one-hour show , the announcers , SPEED 's Formula One commentary team , Bob Varsha , Steve Matchett , and David Hobbs , perform a mixture of a commentary as if the race is taking place right now along with reminiscing about rules changes and also Matchett 's then role with Michael Schumacher 's team . In 2003 , when the show looked back at the 1993 season , dominated by Alain Prost , Varsha was the show 's host , while Hobbs and Matchett looked at videotape of the races , and reminisced . That changed in 2004 , when Matchett began introducing the race that would be seen on an episode and wrapping up each show , while Varsha joined Matchett and Hobbs to do commentary . Speed Channel picked up the rights to broadcast the years-old races in their three-year agreement with FOM in 2003 . It was included in their contract that allowed them to continue broadcasting live Formula One races , though it cost extra money , as the Formula One archives are rarely opened to any network . On April 2 , 2004 the show had the daunting task of airing the 1994 San Marino Grand Prix , and showing the crash that claimed the life of 3-time World Drivers ' Champion , and 41-time Grand Prix race winner Ayrton Senna in that event . Matchett , a mechanic for Benetton-Ford that weekend , made these remarks at the beginning of the broadcast : `` Welcome to F1 Decade , Speed Channel 's retrospective of the 1994 Formula 1 World Championship . We have reached round three-the San Marino Grand Prix . The constant , metronomic beat of the clock has led us , inescapably , to Imola , and when the date 1994 and the name of Imola are brought together , they combine to form nothing but black , somber memories . The events of that race weekend , from the morning of April 28 , when the teams first assembled at the track , until the evening of Sunday , May 1 , rest amongst motor racing 's darkest times . It was a weekend of tragedy , despair , and death . 10 years on , it may be that some viewers would prefer not to watch the coverage of these events , and if you feel in any way unsure , then I urge you to switch off your TV now . We can not shy away from the fact that three very serious accidents happened . * The events of Imola are a part of the sport 's history . The aftermath of that horrible weekend would forever change the way Grand Prix cars are built , and forever change the way the races themselves are conducted . We at Speed Channel feel it is only proper that the 1994 San Marino Grand Prix is correctly documented , and that , in our opinion , must include correct coverage of Ayrton Senna 's fatal accident . '' - There had already been two serious accidents in the days before Senna 's - one on April 29 during Friday practice , that nearly killed Rubens Barrichello , and one on April 30 during Saturday qualifying that killed Roland Ratzenberger . The show returned in 2005 , taking a look back at the 1995 season , when Michael Schumacher took his second straight World Drivers ' Championship . F1 Decade was not renewed for 2006 ; if it had been , it would have looked back at Damon Hill 's championship season in 1996 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2762\",\n \"docid\": \"Formula_1_Decade\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 63676\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":1361,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"The long term trend from albedo is of cooling."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Ice-albedo feedback Content: Ice-albedo feedback ( or snow-albedo feedback ) is a positive feedback climate process where a change in the area of snow-covered land , ice caps , glaciers or sea ice alters the albedo . This change in albedo acts to reinforce the initial alteration in ice area . Cooling tends to increase ice cover and hence the albedo , reducing the amount of solar energy absorbed and leading to more cooling . Conversely , warming tends to decrease ice cover and hence the albedo , increasing the amount of solar energy absorbed , leading to more warming . The effect also applies on the small scale to snow-covered surfaces . A small amount of snow melt exposes darker ground which absorbs more radiation , leading to more snowmelt . The effect has mostly been discussed in terms of the recent trend of declining Arctic sea ice . Internal feedback processes may also potentially occur , as land ice melts and causes eustatic sea level rise , and also potentially induces earthquakes as a result of isostatic rebound , which further acts to disrupt glaciers , ice shelves , etc. .","qid":"2763","docid":"Ice-albedo_feedback","rank":1,"score":134298},{"content":"Title: Volcanic winter Content: A volcanic winter is a reduction in global temperatures caused by volcanic ash and droplets of sulfuric acid and water obscuring the Sun and raising Earth 's albedo ( increasing the reflection of solar radiation ) after a large particularly explosive volcanic eruption . Long-term cooling effects are primarily dependent upon injection of sulfur gasses into the stratosphere where they undergo a series of reactions to create sulfuric acid which can nucleate and form aerosols . Volcanic stratospheric aerosols cool the surface by reflecting solar radiation and warm the stratosphere by absorbing terrestrial radiation . The volcanic aerosols , resulting from the 1991 Pinatubo eruption and others , have been shown to contribute to anthropogenic ozone depletion . The variations in atmospheric warming and cooling results in changes in tropospheric and stratospheric circulation .","qid":"2763","docid":"Volcanic_winter","rank":2,"score":126984},{"content":"Title: Bond albedo Content: The Bond albedo , named after the American astronomer George Phillips Bond ( 1825 -- 1865 ) , who originally proposed it , is the fraction of power in the total electromagnetic radiation incident on an astronomical body that is scattered back out into space . Because the Bond albedo accounts for all of the light scattered from a body at all wavelengths and all phase angles , it is a necessary quantity for determining how much energy a body absorbs . This , in turn , is crucial for determining the equilibrium temperature of a body . Because bodies in the outer Solar System are always observed at very low phase angles from the Earth , the only reliable data for measuring their Bond albedo comes from spacecraft .","qid":"2763","docid":"Bond_albedo","rank":3,"score":106852},{"content":"Title: Albedo Content: Albedo ( -LSB- ælˈbiːdoʊ -RSB- ) is a measure for reflectance or optical brightness ( Latin albedo , Arabic albayad , `` whiteness '' ) . It is dimensionless and measured on a scale from zero ( corresponding to a black body that absorbs all incident radiation ) to one ( corresponding to a white body that reflects all incident radiation ) . Surface albedo is defined as the ratio of radiation reflected to the radiation incident on a surface . The proportion reflected is not only determined by properties of the surface itself , but also by the spectral and angular distribution of solar radiation reaching the Earth 's surface . These factors vary with atmospheric composition , geographic location and time ( see Position of the Sun ) . While bi-hemispherical reflectance is calculated for a single angle of incidence ( i.e. , for a given position of the sun ) , albedo is the directional integration of reflectance over all solar angles in a given period . The temporal resolution may range from seconds ( as obtained from flux measurements ) to daily , seasonal or annual averages . Unless given for a specific wavelength ( spectral albedo ) , albedo refers to the entire spectrum of solar radiation . Due to measurement constraints , it is often given for the spectrum in which most solar energy reaches the surface ( approximately between 0.3 and 3 μm ) . This spectrum includes visible light ( 0.39-0 .7 μm ) , which explains why surfaces with a low albedo appear dark ( e.g. , trees absorb most radiation ) , whereas surfaces with a high albedo appear bright ( e.g. , snow reflects most radiation ) . Albedo is an important concept in climatology , astronomy , and environmental management ( e.g. , as part of the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design ( LEED ) program for sustainable rating of buildings ) . The average albedo of the Earth at the top of the atmosphere , its planetary albedo , is 30 to 35 % because of cloud cover , but widely varies locally across the surface because of different geological and environmental features . The term albedo was introduced into optics by Johann Heinrich Lambert in his 1760 work Photometria .","qid":"2763","docid":"Albedo","rank":4,"score":105589},{"content":"Title: Albedo feature Content: An albedo feature is a large area on the surface of a planet ( or other solar system body ) which shows a contrast in brightness or darkness ( albedo ) with adjacent areas . Historically , albedo features were the very first ( and usually only ) features to be seen and named on Mars and Mercury . Early classical maps ( such as those of Schiaparelli and Antoniadi ) showed only albedo features , and it was not until the arrival of space probes that other surface features such as craters could be seen . On bodies other than Mars and Mercury , an albedo feature is sometimes called a regio . On bodies with a very thick atmosphere like Venus or Titan , permanent albedo features can not be seen using ordinary optical telescopes because the surface is not visible , and only clouds and other transient atmospheric phenomena are seen . The Cassini -- Huygens probe has observed multiple albedo features on Titan since its arrival in Saturn 's orbit in 2004 . The very first albedo feature ever seen on another planet was Syrtis Major Planum on Mars in the 17th century . Today , thanks to space probes , very high-resolution images of surface features on Mars and Mercury are available , and the classical nomenclature based on albedo features has fallen somewhat into disuse . It is however still used for Earth-based observing of Mars by amateur astronomers . However , for some Solar System bodies ( such as Pluto prior to the New Horizons mission ) , the best available images show only albedo features . These images were usually taken by the Hubble Space Telescope or by ground-based telescopes using adaptive optics . Cydonia Mensae on Mars is an example of an albedo feature .","qid":"2763","docid":"Albedo_feature","rank":5,"score":104282},{"content":"Title: Geometric albedo Content: In astronomy , the geometric albedo of a celestial body is the ratio of its actual brightness as seen from the light source ( i.e. at zero phase angle ) to that of an idealized flat , fully reflecting , diffusively scattering ( Lambertian ) disk with the same cross-section . ( This phase angle refers to the direction of the light paths and is not a phase angle in its normal meaning in optics or electronics . ) Diffuse scattering implies that radiation is reflected isotropically with no memory of the location of the incident light source . Zero phase angle corresponds to looking along the direction of illumination . For Earth-bound observers this occurs when the body in question is at opposition and on the ecliptic . The visual geometric albedo refers to the geometric albedo quantity when accounting for only electromagnetic radiation in the visible spectrum .","qid":"2763","docid":"Geometric_albedo","rank":6,"score":102598},{"content":"Title: Twomey effect Content: The Twomey effect describes how cloud condensation nuclei ( CCN ) , possibly from anthropogenic pollution , may increase the amount of solar radiation reflected by clouds . This is an indirect effect . Aerosol particles can act as CCN 's creating more droplets which have a smaller size distribution . The reduction in size distribution increases the Optical depth of the cloud . This increases the cloud albedo as clouds appear whiter and larger , leading to a cooling of between -0.3 and -1.8 Wm − 2 . For example , on satellite imagery we observe trails of white clouds from ships crossing the oceans due to this effect .","qid":"2763","docid":"Twomey_effect","rank":7,"score":102591},{"content":"Title: Albedo (alchemy) Content: In alchemy , albedo is one of the four major stages of the magnum opus ; along with nigredo , citrinitas and rubedo . It is a Latinicized term meaning `` whiteness '' . Following the chaos or massa confusa of the nigredo stage , the alchemist undertakes a purification in albedo , which is literally referred to as ablutio -- the washing away of impurities . In this process , the subject is divided into two opposing principles to be later coagulated to form a unity of opposites or coincidentia oppositorum during rubedo . Titus Burckhardt interprets the albedo as the end of the lesser work , corresponding to a spiritualization of the body . The goal of this portion of the process is to regain the original purity and receptivity of the soul . Psychologist Carl Jung equated the albedo with unconscious contrasexual soul images ; the anima in men and animus in women . It is a phase where insight into shadow projections are realized , and inflated ego and unneeded conceptualizations are removed from the psyche .","qid":"2763","docid":"Albedo_(alchemy)","rank":8,"score":101624},{"content":"Title: Cloud albedo Content:","qid":"2763","docid":"Cloud_albedo","rank":9,"score":100152},{"content":"Title: Albedo (disambiguation) Content: Albedo is a measure of reflectivity . Albedo may also refer to : ALBEDO Telecom , a telecom company Albedo ( alchemy ) , a stage of alchemical progression Albedo ( Ben 10 ) , a character in the television series Ben 10 : Alien Force Albedo Anthropomorphics , a comic book anthology Albedo ( role-playing game ) , derived from the comics Albedo , the mesocarp of a fruit Albedo , a character in the video game series Xenosaga Albedo 0.39 , a 1976 album by the artist Vangelis Albedo One '' , an Irish horror , fantasy and science fiction magazine founded in 1993","qid":"2763","docid":"Albedo_(disambiguation)","rank":10,"score":97850},{"content":"Title: Single-scattering albedo Content: Single-scattering albedo is the ratio of scattering efficiency to total extinction efficiency ( which is also termed `` attenuance '' , a sum of scattering and absorption ) . Most often it is defined for small-particle scattering of electromagnetic waves . Single-scattering albedo is unitless , and a value of unity implies that all particle extinction is due to scattering ; conversely , a single-scattering albedo of zero implies that all extinction is due to absorption . For spherical particles one can calculate single-scattering albedo from Mie theory and knowledge of bulk properties of material such as refractive index . For non-spherical particles one could use discrete dipole approximation or other methods of computational electromagnetics . The albedo of particles of shapes which are easily parameterized in non-standard co-ordinate systems may be determined through solutions of Maxwell 's equation analogues in such coordinate systems . Scattering albedo equations have yet to be determined in elliptical , torroidal , conical and many others . Derivation and solutions to such equations is a field of ongoing research .","qid":"2763","docid":"Single-scattering_albedo","rank":11,"score":97636},{"content":"Title: Albedo 0.39 Content: Albedo 0.39 is a studio album by the Greek electronic composer Vangelis , released in 1976 . It was the second album produced by Vangelis in Nemo Studios , London , which was his creative base until the late 1980s . It contrasts with his previous album , Heaven and Hell , which was classically inspired and choral , while Albedo 0.39 has blues and jazz overtones . It was his first Top 20 UK album .","qid":"2763","docid":"Albedo_0.39","rank":12,"score":95710},{"content":"Title: Albedo Anthropomorphics Content: Albedo Anthropomorphics , or Albedo for short , was a furry comic book anthology series which was credited with starting the furry comic book subgenre that featured sophisticated stories with funny animals primarily intended for an adult audience . The first issue of Albedo was published in 1983 ; the most recent issue was published in 2005 . Albedo was started by Steve Gallacci , who produced its main feature , Erma Felna : EDF -- a sophisticated science fiction military series set in a sector of space populated by sapient and predominantly humanoid versions of mammal and avian species . The focus of the series is Erma Felna , a young feline officer who eventually plays a central role in the complex political conflicts that consume her universe . Gallacci was a technical illustrator for the United States Air Force and one feature of Albedo is well thought-out and illustrated vehicles . His experience also shows in the realistic treatment of military life and operations . The series was used as inspiration for the Albedo role-playing game , which has had three editions and multiple supplements .","qid":"2763","docid":"Albedo_Anthropomorphics","rank":13,"score":95452},{"content":"Title: ALBEDO Telecom Content: ALBEDO Telecom is a company that designs and manufactures products for the telecom industry including testers , synchronization nodes and networking devices . Typical users are R&D laboratories , Mobile and Telecom operators to verify and install the infrastructures that support any kind of applications based on voice , video and data . It is headquartered in Barcelona , Spain in the European Union .","qid":"2763","docid":"ALBEDO_Telecom","rank":14,"score":94134},{"content":"Title: Albedo (role-playing game) Content: Albedo is a role-playing game based on Steve Gallacci 's Erma Felna : EDF and Birthright storylines from the comic anthologies Albedo Anthropomorphics and Critters .","qid":"2763","docid":"Albedo_(role-playing_game)","rank":15,"score":93944},{"content":"Title: Albedo One Content: Albedo One is an Irish horror , fantasy and science fiction magazine founded in 1993 and currently published by Albedo One Productions .","qid":"2763","docid":"Albedo_One","rank":16,"score":93344},{"content":"Title: Hurricane dynamics and cloud microphysics Content: Tropical convective clouds play an important part in the Earth 's climate system . Convection and release of latent heat transports energy from the surface into the upper atmosphere . Clouds have a higher albedo than the underlying ocean , which causes more incoming solar radiation to be reflected back to space . Since the tops of tropical systems are much cooler than the surface of the Earth , the presence of high convective clouds cools the climate system . The most recognizable cloud system in the tropics is the hurricane . In addition to the important climatic effects of tropical weather systems , hurricanes possess enough energy to cause massive death and destruction . Therefore , their accurate prediction is of utmost importance . Cloud microphysics describe the structure and properties of clouds on the microscopic scale .","qid":"2763","docid":"Hurricane_dynamics_and_cloud_microphysics","rank":17,"score":92719},{"content":"Title: 925 Alphonsina Content: 925 Alphonsina , provisional designation 1920 GM , is a large , stony asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt , about 58 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by Spanish astronomer of Catalan origin , Josep Comas i Solà , at the Fabra Observatory in Barcelona , on 13 January 1920 . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.5 -- 2.9 AU once every 4 years and 5 months ( 1,622 days ) . Its orbit is tilted by 21 degrees to the plane of the ecliptic and shows an eccentricity of 0.08 . A large number of photometric light-curve analysis rendered a well-defined , concurring rotation period of 7.9 hours for the body . According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite , IRAS , the Japanese Akari satellite , and the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid 's albedo is in the range of 0.20 -- 0.28 . In addition , the body 's albedo has been inferred by using the technique of stellar occultation in 2003 . The measurement also gave a diameter of 59.2 kilometers . The minor planet was named in honor of the Iberian Kings , Alfonso X ( 1221 -- 1284 ) and Alfonso XIII ( 1886 -- 1941 ) , King of Castile and Spain , respectively . The original citation mentions , that the 13th century king inspired the field of astronomy in the Middle Ages , and , that the latter king was a great enthusiast of the scientific development in Spain . It also mentions that the King of Spain approved the naming of the asteroid .","qid":"2763","docid":"925_Alphonsina","rank":18,"score":89382},{"content":"Title: Umov effect Content: The Umov effect , also known as Umov 's law , is a relationship between the albedo of an astronomical object , and the degree of polarization of light reflecting off it . The effect was discovered by the Russian physicist Nikolay Umov in 1905 , and can be observed for celestial objects such as the surface of the Moon and the asteroids . The degree of linear polarization of light P is defined by where and are the intensities of light in the directions perpendicular and parallel to the plane of a polarizer aligned in the plane of reflection . Values of P are zero for unpolarized light , and ± 1 for linearly polarized light . Umov 's law states where α is the albedo of the object . Thus , highly reflective objects tend to reflect mostly unpolarized light , and dimly reflective objects tend to reflect polarized light . The law is only valid for large phase angles ( angles between the incident light and the reflected light ) .","qid":"2763","docid":"Umov_effect","rank":19,"score":89351},{"content":"Title: Marine cloud brightening Content: Marine cloud brightening is a proposed solar radiation management climate engineering technique that would make clouds brighter , reflecting a small fraction of incoming sunlight back into space in order to offset anthropogenic global warming . Along with stratospheric aerosol injection , it is one of the two solar radiation management methods that may most feasibly have a substantial climate impact . The intention is that increasing the Earth 's albedo , in combination with greenhouse gas emissions reduction , carbon dioxide removal , and adaptation , would reduce climate change and its risks to people and the environment . If implemented , the cooling effect is expected to be felt rapidly and to be reversible on fairly short time scales . However , technical barriers remain to large-scale marine cloud brightening . There are also risks with such modification of complex climate systems .","qid":"2763","docid":"Marine_cloud_brightening","rank":20,"score":87931},{"content":"Title: (148209) 2000 CR105 Content: , also written as ( 148209 ) 2000 CR105 , is the tenth-most-distant known object in the Solar System . Considered a detached object , it orbits the Sun in a highly eccentric orbit every 3305 years at an average distance of 222 astronomical units ( AU ) . Mike Brown 's website lists it as a possible dwarf planet with a diameter of 328 km based on an assumed albedo of 0.04 . The albedo is expected to be low because the object has a blue ( neutral ) color . However , if the albedo is higher , the object could easily be half that size . and Sedna differ from scattered-disc objects in that they are not within the gravitational influence of the planet Neptune even at their perihelion distances ( closest approaches to the Sun ) . It is something of a mystery as to how these objects came to be in their current , far-flung orbits . Several hypotheses have been put forward : They were pulled from their original positions by a passing star . They were pulled from their original positions by a very distant , and as-yet-undiscovered ( albeit unlikely ) , giant planet . They were pulled from their original positions by an undiscovered companion star orbiting the Sun . They were captured from another planetary system during a close encounter early in the Sun 's history . According to Kenyon and Bromley , there is a 15 % probability that a star like the Sun had an early close encounter and a 1 % probability that outer planetary exchanges would have happened . is estimated to be 2 -- 3 times more likely to be a captured planetary object than Sedna . is the first object discovered in the Solar System to have a semi-major axis exceeding 150 AU , a perihelion beyond Neptune , and an argument of perihelion of 340 ± 55 ° . It is one of five objects known with a semi-major axis greater than 100 AU and perihelion beyond 42 AU . It may be influenced by Planet Nine .","qid":"2763","docid":"(148209)_2000_CR105","rank":21,"score":86316},{"content":"Title: Antarctica cooling controversy Content: An apparent contradiction in the observed cooling behavior of Antarctica between 1966 and 2000 became part of the public debate in the global warming controversy , particularly between advocacy groups of both sides in the public arena including politicians , as well as the popular media . In his novel State of Fear , Michael Crichton asserted that the Antarctic data contradict global warming . The few scientists who have commented on the supposed controversy state that there is no contradiction , while the author of the paper whose work inspired Crichton 's remarks has said that Crichton `` misused '' his results . There is no similar controversy within the scientific community , as the small observed changes in Antarctica are consistent with the small changes predicted by climate models , and because the overall trend since comprehensive observations began is now known to be one of warming . At the South Pole , where some of the strongest cooling trends were observed between the 1950s and 1990s , the mean trend is flat from 1957 through 2013 .","qid":"2763","docid":"Antarctica_cooling_controversy","rank":22,"score":85224},{"content":"Title: Ray system Content: A ray system comprises radial streaks of fine ejecta thrown out during the formation of an impact crater , looking somewhat like many thin spokes coming from the hub of a wheel . The rays may extend for lengths up to several times the diameter of their originating crater , and are often accompanied by small secondary craters formed by larger chunks of ejecta . Ray systems have been identified on the Moon , Earth ( Kamil Crater ) , Mercury , and some moons of the outer planets . Originally it was thought that they existed only on planets or moons lacking an atmosphere , but more recently they have been identified on Mars in infrared images taken from orbit by 2001 Mars Odysseys thermal imager . Rays appear at visible , and in some cases infrared wavelengths , when ejecta are made of material with different reflectivity ( i.e. , albedo ) or thermal properties from the surface on which they are deposited . Typically , visible rays have a higher albedo than the surrounding surface . More rarely an impact will excavate low albedo material , for example basaltic-lava deposits on the lunar maria . Thermal rays , as seen on Mars , are especially apparent at night when slopes and shadows do not influence the infrared energy emitted by the Martian surface . The layering of rays across other surface features can be useful as an indicator of the relative age of the impact crater , because over time various processes obliterate the rays . On non-atmosphered bodies such as the Moon , space weathering from exposure to cosmic rays and micrometeorites causes a steady reduction of the differential between the ejecta 's albedo and that of the underlying material . Micrometeorites in particular produce a glassy melt in the regolith that lowers the albedo . Rays can also become covered by lava flows , or by other impact craters or ejecta .","qid":"2763","docid":"Ray_system","rank":23,"score":84266},{"content":"Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .","qid":"2763","docid":"Global_cooling","rank":24,"score":84205},{"content":"Title: Steve Gallacci Content: Steven A. Gallacci ( born 1955 ) is best known for creating and publishing Albedo Anthropomorphics , a black and white alternative comic containing anthropomorphic funny animal characters , which has been considered a major factor in the origins of furry fandom . Gallacci spent six years in the US Air Force as a graphics specialist , including a tour of duty in Germany . After leaving the military , Gallacci started Albedo under his own Thoughts & Images imprint . First published in 1983 , Albedo '' 's last issue was published in 2005 under the Shanda Fantasy Arts imprint . Among some of the story lines that have appeared in Albedo are Gallacci 's own `` Erma Felna : EDF '' , a military sci-fi epic featuring some elements of political intrigue , and Stan Sakai 's Usagi Yojimbo , which first appeared in the infamously rare Albedo # 2 . Gallacci also worked on Fusion , a SF adventure comic from Eclipse Comics similar to the TV show Firefly , though pre-dating it by nearly twenty years . Lela Dowling co-authored the artwork and Steve Barnes drafted the first issues , though Gallacci would write most of the later ones with Lex Nakashima . He also created `` Birthright '' , an indirect sequel to Erma Felna , serialized in the Fantagraphics title `` Critters '' . The first three issues of Donna Barr 's `` the Desert Peach '' and a single issue of his own fantasy adventure `` Zell , Sworddancer '' with art assistance by Steve Adams , was also published under his Thoughts & Images imprint . Thoughts & Images also published the first edition of Albedo RPG , written by Craig Hilton and Paul Kidd , and based on the Erma Felna storyline from Albedo '' . Additional editions and supplements were published by Chessex in the early 1990s . An all-new version of an Albedo RPG has been published by Sanguin . Galacci provided art for episodes of Elin Winkler 's `` Tales of the Fehnnik '' , published by Radio Comix , and short bits for Ken Fletcher 's `` Spontoon '' fanzine . He has also done Science Fiction art and illustration since the late 1970s , as well as straight technical/commercial illustration . He occasionally produces silver bullets for his Argent Small Arms line of replica firearms . More recently , he has been creating masters for after-market scale model aircraft detail/correction/conversion sets . Gallacci lives in Seattle with his two dogs . His wife of twenty-two years , the long time SF and media fan Beverley Clark , died 16 September 2007 .","qid":"2763","docid":"Steve_Gallacci","rank":25,"score":83682},{"content":"Title: Hapke parameters Content: The Hapke parameters are a set of parameters for an empirical model that is commonly used to describe the directional reflectance properties of the airless regolith surfaces of bodies in the solar system . The model has been developed by astronomer Bruce Hapke at the University of Pittsburgh . The parameters are : -- Single scattering albedo . This is the ratio of scattering efficiency to total light extinction ( which includes also absorption ) , for small-particle scattering of light . That is , , where is the scattering coefficient , and is the absorption coefficient -- The width of the opposition surge . or -- The strength of the opposition surge . or g -- The particle phase function parameter , also called the asymmetry factor . -- The effective surface tilt , also called the macroscopic roughness angle . The Hapke parameters can be used to derive other albedo and scattering properties such as the geometric albedo , the phase integral , and the Bond albedo .","qid":"2763","docid":"Hapke_parameters","rank":26,"score":83587},{"content":"Title: Wabedo, Minnesota Content: Wabedo is an unincorporated community in Wabedo Township , Cass County , Minnesota , United States , near Longville . It is along Cass County Road 54 near the junction with County Road 120 .","qid":"2763","docid":"Wabedo,_Minnesota","rank":27,"score":83578},{"content":"Title: Neoglaciation Content: The neoglaciation ( `` renewed glaciation '' ) describes the documented cooling trend in the Earth 's climate during the Holocene , following the retreat of the Wisconsin glaciation , the most recent glacial period . Neoglaciation has followed the hypsithermal or Holocene Climatic Optimum , the warmest point in the Earth 's climate during the current interglacial stage . The neoglaciation has no well-marked universal beginning : local conditions and ecological inertia affected the onset of detectably cooler ( and wetter ) conditions . Driven inexorably by the Milankovitch cycle , cooler summers in higher latitudes of North America , which would cease to completely melt the annual snowfall , were masked at first by the presence of the slowly disappearing continental ice sheets , which persisted long after the astronomically calculated moment of maximum summer warmth : `` the neoglaciation can be said to have begun when the cooling caught up with the warming '' , remarked E. C. Pielou . With the close of the `` Little Ice Age '' ( mid-14th to late 19th centuries ) , neoglaciation appears to have been stalled in the late 20th century , assumed to be caused by anthropogenic global warming . Whether it has been temporarily or semi-permanently stalled , neoglaciation has been marked by a retreat from the warm conditions of the Climatic Optimum and the advance or reformation of glaciers that had not existed since the last ice age . In the mountains of western North America , montane glaciers that had completely melted reformed shortly before 5000 BP . The most severe part of the best documented neoglacial period , especially in Europe and the North Atlantic , is termed the `` Little Ice Age '' . In North America , neoglaciation had ecological effects in the spread of muskeg on flat , poorly drained land , such as the bed of recently drained Lake Agassiz and in the Hudson Bay lowlands , in the retreat of grassland before an advancing forest border in the Great Plains , and in shifting ranges of forest trees and diagnostic plant species ( identified through palynology ) . The view that neoglaciation is ending in present times , is assumed by those who identify the most recent climate changes and global warming as the onset of a new period in Earth history , speculatively calling it the `` Early anthropocene '' , as a coming geological age dominated by the effects of Homo sapiens .","qid":"2763","docid":"Neoglaciation","rank":28,"score":83576},{"content":"Title: List of albedo features on Mercury Content: This is a list of the albedo features of the planet Mercury as seen by early telescopic observation . Early telescopic observations of Mercury were based on the assumption that Mercury keeps one of its faces permanently turned toward the Sun , through the mechanism of tidal locking . Although this is not true ( Mercury rotates three times on its axis for every two revolutions around the Sun ) , when it is positioned for best viewing from Earth , the amount by which its visible face has rotated from its previous best viewing position is fairly small . A map of Mercury made in the 1910s by astronomer Eugène Michel Antoniadi shows the following albedo features , localized by a grid in which 0 ° longitude is the ( assumed ) subsolar meridian . No certain connection has been made between these features and the topographic features viewed on Mercury by the Mariner 10 spacecraft . Mariner 10 , however , imaged less than half of Mercury 's surface . The names are drawn from Greek mythology , and often allude to myths about Hermes , the Greek equivalent of the Roman god Mercury .","qid":"2763","docid":"List_of_albedo_features_on_Mercury","rank":29,"score":83116},{"content":"Title: Tartarus Montes Content: The Tartarus Montes are a mountain range on the planet Mars , stretching over 1070 km and located around the coordinates 15.46 º N , 167.54 º E , between Orcus Patera and the Elysium volcanic region . Albedo was first identified from the contrast of bright and dark signals photographed by Eugène Antoniadi .","qid":"2763","docid":"Tartarus_Montes","rank":30,"score":82766},{"content":"Title: 1169 Alwine Content: 1169 Alwine , provisional designation , is an asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 8 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 30 August 1930 , by German and Italian astronomers Max Wolf and Mario Ferrero at Heidelberg Observatory in southwest Germany . Alwine orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.0 -- 2.7 AU once every 3 years and 6 months ( 1,290 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.15 and an inclination of 4 ° with respect to the ecliptic . As no precoveries were taken , and no prior identifications were made , Alwines observation arc begins with its official discovery observation at Heidelberg in 1930 . According to the survey carried out by NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , Alwine measures 7.89 kilometers in diameter , and its surface has an albedo of 0.179 . Based on a generic magnitude-to-diameter conversion , its diameter is between 7 and 17 kilometers for an absolute magnitude of 12.8 and an albedo in the range of 0.05 to 0.25 . As of 2017 , no rotational lightcurves have been obtained . The body 's rotation period , pole and shape remain unknown . This minor planet is named after a common German female name . Any reference of this name to a person or occurrence is unknown .","qid":"2763","docid":"1169_Alwine","rank":31,"score":82276},{"content":"Title: Classical albedo features on Mars Content: The classical albedo features of Mars are the light and dark features that can be seen on the planet Mars through an Earth-based telescope . Before the age of space probes , several astronomers created maps of Mars on which they gave names to the features they could see . The most popular system of nomenclature was devised by Giovanni Schiaparelli , who used names from classical antiquity . Today , the improved understanding of Mars enabled by space probes has rendered many of the classical names obsolete for the purposes of cartography ; however , some of the old names are still used to describe geographical features on the planet .","qid":"2763","docid":"Classical_albedo_features_on_Mars","rank":32,"score":82171},{"content":"Title: Citrinitas Content: Citrinitas , sometimes referred to as xanthosis , is a term given by alchemists to `` yellowness . '' It was one of the four major stages of the alchemical magnum opus , and literally referred to `` transmutation of silver into gold '' or `` yellowing of the lunar consciousness . '' In alchemical philosophy , citrinitas stood for the dawning of the `` solar light '' inherent in one 's being , and that the reflective `` lunar or soul light '' was no longer necessary . The other three alchemical stages were nigredo ( blackness ) , albedo ( whiteness ) , and rubedo ( redness ) . Psychologist Carl Jung is credited with interpreting the alchemical process as analogous to modern-day psychoanalysis . In the Jungian archetypal schema , nigredo is the Shadow ; albedo refers to the anima and animus ( contrasexual soul images ) ; citrinitas is the wise old man ( or woman ) archetype ; and rubedo is the Self archetype which has achieved wholeness .","qid":"2763","docid":"Citrinitas","rank":33,"score":80527},{"content":"Title: Comet nucleus Content: The nucleus is the solid , central part of a comet , popularly termed a dirty snowball or an icy dirtball . A cometary nucleus is composed of rock , dust , and frozen gases . When heated by the Sun , the gases sublimate and produce an atmosphere surrounding the nucleus known as the coma . The force exerted on the coma by the Sun 's radiation pressure and solar wind cause an enormous tail to form , which points away from the Sun . A typical comet nucleus has an albedo of 0.04 . This is blacker than coal , and may be caused by a covering of dust . Results from the Rosetta and Philae spacecraft show that the nucleus of 67P/Churyumov -- Gerasimenko has no magnetic field , which suggests that magnetism may not have played a role in the early formation of planetesimals . Further , the ALICE spectrograph on Rosetta determined that electrons ( within 1 km above the comet nucleus ) produced from photoionization of water molecules by solar radiation , and not photons from the Sun as thought earlier , are responsible for the degradation of water and carbon dioxide molecules released from the comet nucleus into its coma . On 30 July 2015 , scientists reported that the Philae spacecraft , that landed on comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko in November 2014 , detected at least 16 organic compounds , of which four ( including acetamide , acetone , methyl isocyanate and propionaldehyde ) were detected for the first time on a comet .","qid":"2763","docid":"Comet_nucleus","rank":34,"score":80244},{"content":"Title: 1394 Algoa Content: 1394 Algoa , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 14 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 12 June 1936 , by English-born South-African astronomer Cyril Jackson at Union Observatory in Johannesburg , South Africa . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.3 -- 2.6 AU once every 3 years and 10 months ( 1,391 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.08 and an inclination of 3 ° with respect to the ecliptic . Prior to its discovery observation in 1936 , Algoa was identified as and at Lowell Observatory and Uccle Observatory , respectively . These observations , however , remained unused to extend the body 's observation arc . In 2012 , two rotational light-curves of Algoa were obtained at the U.S. Etscorn Observatory , New Mexico , and at the Riverland Dingo Observatory , Australia . They gave a well-defined , concurring rotation period of 2.768 hours with a brightness variation of 0.20 and 0.21 magnitude , respectively . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for stony asteroids of 0.20 , and calculates a diameter of 14.2 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 11.6 . The minor planet is named after the historical Algoa Bay , located approximately 700 kilometers east of the Cape of Good Hope , South Africa . Naming citation was published before November 1977 .","qid":"2763","docid":"1394_Algoa","rank":35,"score":79928},{"content":"Title: 11824 Alpaidze Content: 11824 Alpaidze , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid from the middle region of the asteroid belt , approximately 5 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 16 September 1982 , by Russian astronomer Lyudmila Chernykh at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory , Nauchnyj , on the Crimean peninsula . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.8 -- 3.4 AU once every 4 years and 3 months ( 1,563 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.31 and an inclination of 2 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was obtained at Palomar Observatory in 1978 . However , the observation was not used to extend the asteroid 's observation arc . Two rotational light-curves of this asteroid were obtained from photometric observations made at the U.S. Palomar Transient Factory , California , in September 2009 . The fragmentary light-curves gave a rotation period of and hours with a brightness amplitude of 0.05 and 0.06 in magnitude , respectively . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.10 , untypically low for a stony asteroid , and calculates a diameter of 4.8 kilometers , based on an absolute magnitude of 14.7 . The minor planet is named after Georgian-born Soviet Lieutenant General Galaktion Alpaidze ( 1916 -- 2006 ) , Hero of the Soviet Union and laureate of the USSR State Prize . He was the head of the Plesetsk Cosmodrome in the 1960s and 1970s , where space crafts were tested . During his supervision , the Cosmodrome became the world 's most active launch site in the world . Naming citation was published on 2 April 2007 .","qid":"2763","docid":"11824_Alpaidze","rank":36,"score":78719},{"content":"Title: Dynamic Albedo of Neutrons Content: The Dynamic Albedo of Neutrons ( DAN ) instrument is an experiment mounted on the Mars Science Laboratory Curiosity rover . It is a pulsed sealed-tube neutron source and detector used to measure hydrogen or ice and water at or near the Martian surface . DAN was provided by the Russian Federal Space Agency , funded by Russia and is under the leadership of Principal Investigator Igor Mitrofanov . On August 18 , 2012 ( sol ) , DAN was turned on , marking the success of a Russian-American collaboration on the surface of Mars and the first working Russian science instrument on the Martian surface since Mars 3 stopped transmitting over forty years ago . The instrument is designed to detect subsurface water . On March 18 , 2013 ( sol ) , NASA reported evidence of mineral hydration , likely hydrated calcium sulfate , in several rock samples including the broken fragments of `` Tintina '' rock and `` Sutton Inlier '' rock as well as in veins and nodules in other rocks like `` Knorr '' rock and `` Wernicke '' rock . Analysis using the rover 's DAN instrument provided evidence of subsurface water , amounting to as much as 4 % water content , down to a depth of 60 cm , in the rover 's traverse from the Bradbury Landing site to the Yellowknife Bay area in the Glenelg terrain . On August 19 , 2015 , NASA scientists reported that the DAN instrument on Curiosity detected an unusual hydrogen-rich area , at `` Marias Pass , '' on Mars . The hydrogen found seemed related to water or hydroxyl ions in rocks within three feet beneath the rover , according to the scientists .","qid":"2763","docid":"Dynamic_Albedo_of_Neutrons","rank":37,"score":78090},{"content":"Title: Claritas Fossae Content: Claritas Fossae is a group of troughs in the Phoenicis Lacus and Thaumasia quadrangles of Mars , located at 31.5 S and 104.1 W . The structure is 2,050.0 km long and was named after a classical albedo feature name . Long narrow depressions on Mars are called fossae . This term is derived from Latin ; therefore fossa is singular and fossae is plural . Troughs form when the crust is stretched until it breaks . The stretching can be due to the large weight of a nearby volcano . Fossae/pit craters are common near volcanoes in the Tharsis and Elysium regions . A trough often has two breaks with a middle section moving down , leaving steep cliffs along the sides ; such a trough is called a graben .","qid":"2763","docid":"Claritas_Fossae","rank":38,"score":77742},{"content":"Title: 7959 Alysecherri Content: 7959 Alysecherri , provisional designation , is a bright , stony Hungaria asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 3 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 2 August 1994 , by American astronomer Carl Hergenrother at the U.S. Steward Observatory Catalina Station on Mt Bigelow near Tucson , Arizona . The E-type asteroid is a member of the Hungaria family , which form the innermost dense concentration of asteroids in the Solar System . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.8 -- 2.1 AU once every 2 years and 9 months ( 989 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.09 and an inclination of 19 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at Palomar Observatory in 1951 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 43 years prior to its discovery . A rotational light-curve for this asteroid was obtained from photometric observations made by American astronomer Brian Warner at the U.S. Palmer Divide Observatory , Colorado , in July 2013 . It gave a rotation period of hours with a brightness amplitude of 0.13 in magnitude . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.30 and calculates a diameter of 3.05 kilometers . The minor planet is named after the maiden name of the discovering astronomer 's wife , Alyse Cherri Smith . Naming citation was published on 13 November 2008 .","qid":"2763","docid":"7959_Alysecherri","rank":39,"score":77681},{"content":"Title: Wabedo Lake Content: Wabedo Lake is a lake in Cass County , Minnesota , in the United States . Wabedo Lake was named for a Ojibwe warrior killed by Sioux . The Wabedo Lake is 1,185 acres in size and it is approximately 95 feet deep at its deepest point . Wabedo Lake is located 4 1/2 miles south of Longville off of Highway 54 . Anglers , a person who fishes with a rod and line , can anticipate to catch 15 different types of fish . These 15 different fish species are : Black Bullhead , Black Crappie , Bluegill , Brown Bullhead , Largemouth Bass , Muskellunge ( Muskie ) , Northern Pike , Pumpkinseed , Rock Bass , Smallmouth Bass , Walleye , White Sucker , Yellow Bullhead and Yellow Perch .","qid":"2763","docid":"Wabedo_Lake","rank":40,"score":77626},{"content":"Title: Hockey stick graph Content: Hockey stick graphs present the global or hemispherical mean temperature record of the past 500 to 2000 years as shown by quantitative climate reconstructions based on climate proxy records . These reconstructions have consistently shown a slow long term cooling trend changing into relatively rapid warming in the 20th century , with the instrumental temperature record by 2000 exceeding earlier temperatures . The term `` hockey stick graph '' was coined by the climatologist Jerry Mahlman , to describe the pattern shown by the ( MBH99 ) reconstruction , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat with a downward trend to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' followed by a sharp , steady increase corresponding to the `` blade '' portion . The reconstructions have featured in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports as evidence of global warming . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . Paleoclimatology dates back to the 19th century , and the concept of examining varves in lake beds and tree rings to track local climatic changes was suggested in the 1930s . In the 1960s , Hubert Lamb generalised from historical documents and temperature records of central England to propose a Medieval Warm Period from around 900 to 1300 , followed by Little Ice Age . This was the basis of a `` schematic diagram '' featured in the IPCC First Assessment Report of 1990 beside cautions that the medieval warming might not have been global . The use of indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed , and by the late 1990s a number of competing teams of climatologists found indications that recent warming was exceptional . introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large scale reconstructions . Their study was featured in the IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . In 1998 Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 with shading emphasising that uncertainties ( to two standard error limits ) were much greater in earlier centuries . independently produced a CPS reconstruction extending back for a thousand years , and ( MBH99 ) used the MBH98 methodology to extend their study back to 1000 . A version of the MBH99 graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , which also drew on Jones et al. 1998 and three other reconstructions to support the conclusion that , in the Northern Hemisphere , the 1990s was likely to have been the warmest decade and 1998 the warmest year during the past 1,000 years . The graph became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th century warmth was exceptional . In 2003 , as lobbying over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol intensified , a paper claiming greater medieval warmth was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy . Later in 2003 , Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick published disputing the data used in MBH98 paper . In 2004 Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal components analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . Their analysis was subsequently disputed by published papers including and which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . Political disputes led to the formation of a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council , their North Report in 2006 supported Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , support the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Further reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .","qid":"2763","docid":"Hockey_stick_graph","rank":41,"score":77269},{"content":"Title: Starlight Content: Starlight is the light emitted by stars . It typically refers to visible electromagnetic radiation from stars other than the Sun observable from Earth during the night time although a component of starlight is observable from the Earth during the daytime . Sunlight is the term used for the Sun 's starlight observed during daytime . During nighttime , albedo describes solar reflections from other Solar System objects including moonlight . Observation and measurement of starlight through telescopes is the basis for many fields of astronomy , including photometry and stellar spectroscopy . Hipparchus did not have a telescope or any instrument that could measure apparent brightness accurately , so he simply made estimates with his eyes . He sorted the stars into six brightness categories , which he called magnitudes . He referred to the brightest stars in his catalog as first-magnitudes stars , which were the brightest stars and those so faint he could barely see them were sixth-magnitude stars . Starlight is also a notable part of personal experience and human culture , impacting a diverse range of pursuits including poetry , astronomy , and military strategy . The United States Army spent millions of dollars in the 1950s and onward to develop a starlight scope , that could amplify starlight , moonlight filtered by clouds , and the fluorescence of rotting vegetation about 50,000 times to allow a person to see in the night . In contrast to previously developed active infrared system such as sniperscope , it was a passive device and did not require additional light emission to see . The average color of starlight in the observable universe is a shade of yellowish-white that has been given the name Cosmic Latte . Starlight spectroscopy , examination of the stellar spectra , was pioneered by Joseph Fraunhofer in 1814 . Starlight can be understood to be composed of three main spectra types , continuous spectrum , emission spectrum , and absorption spectrum . One of the oldest stars yet identified ( oldest not most distant in this case ) was identified in 2014 , the star SMSS J031300 .362670839.3 was determined to be 6000 light years away but date to 13.8 billion years ago . The starlight shining on Earth would include this star . In the field of photography , there is a specialty of night-time photography especially when subjects are lit primarily by starlight . -LSB- https://books.google.com/books?id=Z7QNrgEACAAJ&dq=starlight+photography&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjivLqj7r3RAhWF5SYKHelUDJsQ6AEIGjAA Directly taking images of night sky is also a part of astrophotography . Starlight astrophotography can also be used for the pursuit of science and/or leisure . Starlight photography can be important for observing nocturnal animals . In many cases starlight photography may also overlap with a need to understand the impact of moonlight .","qid":"2763","docid":"Starlight","rank":42,"score":76356},{"content":"Title: Cooling (disambiguation) Content: Cooling is the transfer of thermal energy via thermal radiation , heat conduction or convection . Cooling may also refer to : Cooling ( surname ) , any of several people `` Cooling '' , a song written and performed by Tori Amos on her 1999 album To Venus and Back A Cantonese food classification Cooling , Kent , a village in Kent , England","qid":"2763","docid":"Cooling_(disambiguation)","rank":43,"score":76324},{"content":"Title: Peter Thejll Content: Peter Andreas Thejll ( born 1956 ) is a Danish astrophysicist and climate researcher . His research in solar variation helped provide evidence of the greenhouse effect on the Earth 's climate in the late 20th century . In particular , his study with Knud Lassen on Northern Hemisphere land air temperature showed that the rise of 0.4 degrees Celsius since 1980 could not be accounted for by the solar cycle . Climatologists have pointed to this finding as an `` actual piece of evidence for greenhouse warming '' . Thejll received his undergraduate education at the University of Copenhagen . He received an M.S. in physics and a Ph.D. in astrophysics from the University of Delaware . Thejll was a Carlsberg Fellow at the Niels Bohr Institute and worked at the Nordic Institute for Theoretical Physics . Thejll currently is a senior scientist at the Danish Meteorological Institute in Copenhagen . He is currently involved in the creation of a global automatic system to observe the Earth 's reflectivity - albedo - using observations of the earthshine on the Moon . Such data can be used for climate change studies and calibration of satellite data as the measurements deliver independent data on the albedo . A telescope is now installed on Hawaii at the Mauna Loa Observatory . The Swedish research agency VINNOVA is funding this project .","qid":"2763","docid":"Peter_Thejll","rank":44,"score":76188},{"content":"Title: C/2001 OG108 Content: C/2001 OG108 ( LONEOS ) is a Halley-type comet with an orbital period of 48.51 years . It was discovered on 28 July 2001 by the LONEOS telescope at Lowell Observatory . Observations taken in January and February 2002 showed that the `` asteroid '' had developed a small amount of cometary activity as it approached perihelion . It was subsequently reclassified as a comet . The comet came to perihelion ( closest approach to the Sun ) on 15 March 2002 . The next perihelion passage is calculated to be on 6 June 2050 . The comet has a rotational period of 2.38 ± 0.02 days ( 57.12 hr ) . In 2003 , the comet was estimated to have a mean absolute V magnitude ( H ) of 13.05 ± 0.10 , with an albedo of 0.03 , giving an effective radius of 8.9 ± 0.7 km . Using data from Fernandez ( 2004 -- 2005 ) JPL lists the comet with an albedo of 0.05 and a diameter of 13.6 ± 1.0 km . This comet probably represents the transition between typical Halley-family/long-period comets and extinct comets . Damocloids have been studied as possible extinct cometary candidates due to the similarity of their orbital parameters with those of Halley-family comets .","qid":"2763","docid":"C/2001_OG108","rank":45,"score":75932},{"content":"Title: Arctic geoengineering Content: Temperatures in the Arctic region have tended to increase more rapidly than the global average . Projections of sea ice loss that are adjusted to take account of recent rapid Arctic shrinkage suggest that the Arctic will likely be free of summer sea ice sometime between 2059 and 2078 . Various climate engineering schemes have been suggested to reduce the chance of significant and irreversible effects such as Arctic methane release . Several climate engineering proposals have been made which are specific to the Arctic . They are usually hydrological in nature , and principally centre upon measures to prevent Arctic ice loss . In addition , other solar radiation management climate engineering techniques , such as stratospheric sulfate aerosols have been proposed . These would cool the Arctic by adjusting the albedo of the atmosphere .","qid":"2763","docid":"Arctic_geoengineering","rank":46,"score":75455},{"content":"Title: Sinus Meridiani Content: Sinus Meridiani is a feature name for an albedo feature on Mars stretching east-west just south of that planet 's equator . It was named by the French astronomer Camille Flammarion in the late 1870s . It has a diameter of 1622 km , and its center is located at 7.12 S and 4 E.","qid":"2763","docid":"Sinus_Meridiani","rank":47,"score":75100},{"content":"Title: Cooling flow Content: A cooling flow occurs according to the theory that the intracluster medium ( ICM ) in the centres of galaxy clusters should be rapidly cooling at the rate of tens to thousands of solar masses per year . This should happen as the ICM ( a plasma ) is quickly losing its energy by the emission of X-rays . The X-ray brightness of the ICM is proportional to the square of its density , which rises steeply towards the centres of many clusters . Also the temperature falls to typically a third or a half of the temperature in the outskirts of the cluster . The typical -LSB- predicted -RSB- timescale for the ICM to cool is relatively short , less than a billion years . As material in the centre of the cluster cools out , the pressure of the overlying ICM should cause more material to flow inwards ( the cooling flow ) . In a steady state , the rate of mass deposition , i.e. the rate at which the plasma cools , is given by where L is the bolometric ( i.e. over the entire spectrum ) luminosity of the cooling region , T is its temperature , k is the Boltzmann constant and μm is the mean molecular mass .","qid":"2763","docid":"Cooling_flow","rank":48,"score":75009},{"content":"Title: Outgoing longwave radiation Content: Outgoing Longwave Radiation ( OLR ) is the energy radiating from the Earth as infrared radiation at low energy to Space . OLR is electromagnetic radiation emitted from Earth and its atmosphere out to space in the form of thermal radiation . The flux of energy transported by outgoing longwave radiation is measured in W/m ² . Over 99 % of outgoing longwave radiation has wavelengths between 4 µm and 100 µm , in the thermal infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum . Contributions with wavelengths larger than 40 µm are small , therefore often only wavelengths up to 50 µm are considered . In the wavelength range between 4 µm and 10 µm the spectrum of outgoing longwave radiation overlaps that of solar radiation , and for various applications different cut-off wavelengths between the two may be chosen . Radiative cooling by outgoing longwave radiation is the primary way the Earth System loses energy . The balance between this loss and the energy gained by radiative heating from incoming solar shortwave radiation determines global heating or cooling of the Earth system ( Energy budget of Earth 's climate ) . Local differences between radiative heating and cooling provide the energy that drives atmospheric dynamics .","qid":"2763","docid":"Outgoing_longwave_radiation","rank":49,"score":74571},{"content":"Title: Cooling center Content: A cooling center is a air-conditioned public space set up by local authorities to temporarily deal with the health effects of a heat wave . Cooling centers are meant to prevent hyperthermia caused by heat , humidity , and poor air quality . Cooling centers provide shade , water , and restrooms ; medical attention and referrals to social services may also be offered . Their services are aimed at the homeless , at-risk populations such as the elderly , and those without air conditioning . As the danger of heat waves has risen in the public consciousness , cooling centers are increasingly used in cities such as New York City , Chicago , Boston , and Toronto , as well as less urban population areas . Cooling centers may also be used in places like Seattle where home air conditioning is rare but summer can bring temperatures exceeding 90 F for several days . They are usually sited at multiple locations throughout a municipality , such as public libraries , community centers , senior centers , and police stations . Another health measure sometimes taken during heat waves is to extend operational hours at public beaches and swimming pools .","qid":"2763","docid":"Cooling_center","rank":50,"score":73968},{"content":"Title: Cooling curve Content: A cooling curve is a line graph that represents the change of phase of matter , typically from a gas to a solid or a liquid to a solid . The independent variable ( X-axis ) is time and the dependent variable ( Y-axis ) is temperature . Below is an example of a cooling curve used in castings . The initial point of the graph is the starting temperature of the matter , here noted as the `` pouring temperature '' . When the phase change occurs there is a `` thermal arrest '' , that is the temperature stays constant . This is because the matter has more internal energy as a liquid or gas than in the state that it is cooling to . The amount of energy required for a phase change is known as latent heat . The `` cooling rate '' is the slope of the cooling curve at any point .","qid":"2763","docid":"Cooling_curve","rank":51,"score":73350},{"content":"Title: Wibjörn Karlén Content: Wibjörn Karlén ( born 26 August 1937 in Kristine , Kopparberg County , Sweden ) , Ph.D. , is a professor emeritus of physical geography and quaternary geology at Stockholm University , Sweden . In an article which describes Karlén as a paleoclimatologist , he is quoted as saying : `` One of the big problems with trying to determine long-term temperature changes , is that weather records only go back to about 1860 . By relying on statistical reconstruction of the last 1000 years , using only the temperature patterns of the last 140 years instead of actual temperature readings , the IPCC report and Summary missed both a major cooling period as well as a significant warming trend during that millennium . '' Karlén has also criticized the mainstream media for `` spreading the exaggerated views of a human impact on climate . '' He was also named in a 2007 minority report of the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee as one of 400 `` prominent scientists '' who were said to dispute global warming . In 2010 , he predicted that natural climate changes , caused to a large degree by the sun 's activity , would more likely make the climate colder than warmer in the next decades . He is a contributing author to the Fraser Institute 2007 Independent Summary for Policymakers . Karlén is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences .","qid":"2763","docid":"Wibjörn_Karlén","rank":52,"score":73277},{"content":"Title: K-type asteroid Content: K-type asteroids are relatively uncommon asteroids with a moderately reddish spectrum shortwards of 0.75 μm , and a slight bluish trend longwards of this . They have a low albedo . Their spectrum resembles that of CV and CO meteorites . These asteroids were described as `` featureless '' S-types in the Tholen classification . The K-type was proposed by J. F. Bell and colleagues in 1988 for bodies having a particularly shallow 1 μm absorption feature , and lacking the 2 μm absorption . These were found during studies of the Eos family of asteroids .","qid":"2763","docid":"K-type_asteroid","rank":53,"score":73154},{"content":"Title: Amenthes Fossae Content: The Amenthes Fossae are a system of troughs in the Amenthes quadrangle of Mars centered at 9.07 ° N and 102.68 ° E . They are 850 km across and were named after a classical albedo feature . The classical albedo feature name was based on the Egyptian name for a place where souls of the dead go ( Amenthes or Duat ) . The name Amenthes Fossae was approved in 1976 .","qid":"2763","docid":"Amenthes_Fossae","rank":54,"score":72934},{"content":"Title: Albiorix (moon) Content: Albiorix ( -LSB- ˌælbiˈɒrᵻks -RSB- ) is a prograde irregular satellite of Saturn . It was discovered by Holman and colleagues in 2000 , and given the temporary designation S/2000 S 11 . Albiorix is the largest member of the Gallic group of irregular satellites . It was named in August 2003 for Albiorix , `` a Gallic giant who was considered to be the king of the world . '' The name is known from an inscription found near the French town of Sablet which identifies him with the Roman god Mars ( an interpretatio romana ) . Albiorix orbits Saturn at a distance of about 16 million km and its diameter is estimated at 32 kilometers , assuming an albedo of 0.04 . The rotation period was measured by the ISS camera of the Cassini spacecraft to 13 hours and 19 minutes . The diagram illustrates the Albiorigian orbit in relation to other prograde irregular satellites of Saturn . The eccentricity of the orbits is represented by the yellow segments extending from the pericentre to the apocentre . Given the similarity of the orbital elements and the homogeneity of the physical characteristics with other members of the Gallic group , it was suggested that these satellites could have a common origin in the break-up of a larger moon . Varying colours revealed recently suggest a possibility of a large crater , leading to an alternative hypothesis that Erriapus and Tarvos could be fragments of Albiorix following a near-break-up collision with another body .","qid":"2763","docid":"Albiorix_(moon)","rank":55,"score":72799},{"content":"Title: Bi-hemispherical reflectance Content: Bi-hemispherical reflectance is the reflectance of a surface under diffuse illumination ( with no direct component ) . Bi-hemispherical reflectance is an important part of the Bidirectional reflectance distribution function over all viewing and illumination directions of a hemisphere . It is sometimes called `` white-sky albedo '' .","qid":"2763","docid":"Bi-hemispherical_reflectance","rank":56,"score":72790},{"content":"Title: 6470 Aldrin Content: 6470 Aldrin , provisional designation , is a stony Flora asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 3 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by Czech astronomer Antonín Mrkos at Kleť Observatory on 14 September 1982 . The S-type asteroid is a member of the Flora family , one of the largest groups of stony asteroids in the main-belt . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.9 -- 2.6 AU once every 3 years and 5 months ( 1,253 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.15 and an inclination of 3 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The asteroid 's observation arc begins in 1982 , as no precoveries had been taken prior to its discovery . A rotational light-curve of this asteroid was obtained from photometric observations made at the U.S. Palomar Transient Factory in September 2013 . The light-curve gave a rotation period of hours with a brightness variation of 0.82 in magnitude . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.24 -- which derives from 8 Flora , the largest member and namesake of this orbital family -- and calculates a diameter of 3.0 kilometers , based on an absolute magnitude of 14.78 . The minor planet was named for American astronaut Buzz Aldrin ( b. 1930 ) , on the occasion of the 30th anniversary of the Apollo 11 mission . He was one of the first two humans to land on the Moon , and the second person to walk on it , following Neil Armstrong , after whom the asteroid 6469 Armstrong is named . Its name was suggested by Czech astronomers Jana Tichá , Miloš Tichý and Zdeněk Moravec , who observed the asteroid during its 1995-opposition , shortly before being numbered . Naming citation was published on 4 May 1999 .","qid":"2763","docid":"6470_Aldrin","rank":57,"score":72719},{"content":"Title: Coolhunting Content: Coolhunting is a neologism coined in the early 1990s referring to a new kind of marketing professionals who make observations and predictions in changes of new or existing `` cool '' cultural fads and trends . Coolhunting is also referred to as `` trend spotting , '' and is a subset of trend analysis . Coolhunters resemble the intuitive fashion magazine editors of the 1960s such as Nancy White ( Harper 's Bazaar 1958 -- 1971 ) . Coolhunters operate mostly in the world of street fashion and design , but their work also blurs into that of futurists such as Faith Popcorn .","qid":"2763","docid":"Coolhunting","rank":58,"score":72567},{"content":"Title: 84882 Table Mountain Content: 84882 Table Mountain , provisional designation , is a bright asteroid from the middle region of the asteroid belt , approximately 5 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 1 February 2003 , by American astronomer James Whitney Young at the U.S. Table Mountain Observatory near Wrightwood , California . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.9 -- 3.4 AU once every 4 years and 3 months ( 1,566 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.29 and an inclination of 14 ° with respect to the ecliptic . It was first identified as at Lincoln Laboratory 's Experimental Test Site in 1997 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 6 years prior to its discovery observation . As of 2016 , the asteroid 's composition , rotation period and shape remain unknown . According to the survey carried out by the NEOWISE mission of NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , the asteroid measures 3.0 kilometers in diameter and its surface has a high albedo of 0.306 . Based on an assumed albedo in the range of 0.05 -- 0.25 and an absolute magnitude of 14.7 , the asteroid 's generic diameter measures would be between 3 and 7 kilometers , as the higher the body 's reflectivity ( albedo ) , the smaller is its diameter at a constant absolute magnitude ( brightness ) . The minor planet was named for the Table Mountain Observatory , the discoverer 's workplace , currently a NASA facility operated by the California Institute of Technology 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory , which began operation as a Smithsonian Institution site in 1924 to study the solar constant . In the late 1950s , the site was used to test the first solar panels and is now dedicated to optical astronomy and to study Earth 's atmosphere . Citation was published on 28 October 2004 .","qid":"2763","docid":"84882_Table_Mountain","rank":59,"score":72094},{"content":"Title: Directional-hemispherical reflectance Content: Directional-hemispherical reflectance is the reflectance of a surface under direct illumination ( with no diffuse component ) . Directional-hemispherical reflectance is the integral of the BRDF over all viewing directions . It is sometimes called `` black-sky albedo '' . See also : Bi-hemispherical reflectance Category : Electromagnetic radiation Category : Climatology","qid":"2763","docid":"Directional-hemispherical_reflectance","rank":60,"score":71826},{"content":"Title: 10P/Tempel Content: 10P/Tempel , also known as Tempel 2 , is a periodic Jupiter-family comet in the Solar System . It was discovered in 1873 and has an orbital period of 5.3 years . The comet nucleus is estimated to be 10.6 kilometers in diameter with a low albedo of 0.022 . The nucleus is dark because hydrocarbons on the surface have been converted to a dark , tarry like substance by solar ultraviolet radiation . During the 2010 apparition the comet brightened to about apparent magnitude 8 . It next comes to perihelion ( closest approach to the Sun ) on 14 November 2015 when it should brighten to around magnitude 11 . The most favorable apparition of 10P/Tempel 2 was in 1925 when it came within 0.35 AU of Earth with an apparent magnitude of 6.5 . On August 3 , 2026 , comet Tempel 2 is expected to have another close pass within about 0.41 AU of Earth .","qid":"2763","docid":"10P/Tempel","rank":61,"score":71730},{"content":"Title: Lebedodes ianrobertsoni Content: Lebedodes ianrobertsoni is a moth in the Cossidae family . It is found in Tanzania , where it has been recorded from the central subregion of the Eastern Arc Mountains probably extending further east into the drier coastal forests . The length of the forewings is about 9 mm . The forewings are pale orange-yellow with buckthorn brown transverse lines and striae . The hindwings are ivory yellow , but ecru-olive with a narrow line along the termen .","qid":"2763","docid":"Lebedodes_ianrobertsoni","rank":62,"score":71475},{"content":"Title: Montes Alpes Content: Montes Alpes is a mountain range in the northern part of the Moon 's near side . It was named after the Alps in Europe ; the name was confirmed by the International Astronomical Union in 1935 . It lies between the selenographic coordinates latitudes 52.81 ° N and 42.04 ° N , and longitudes 5.6 ° W and 3.22 ° E . The range thus crosses the lunar prime meridian , and is partially illuminated and partially in shadow during first and last quarters . The center of the range is at 48.36 ° N , 0.58 ° W , and has a diameter of 334 km . This range forms the northeastern border of the Mare Imbrium lunar mare . To the west of the range is the level and nearly featureless mare , while on the eastern face is a more rugged continental area with a higher albedo . The range begins about one crater diameter northwest of the crater Cassini , at the Promontorium Agassiz , then stretches about 280 kilometres to the northwest and continues in intermittent fashion and the mountains proper end shy of one crater length from the eastern rim of the dark-floored crater Plato . The system of rilles named Rimae Plato may be found in between the eastern edge of Plato and the western edge of the Alpes mountains . The peaks of the Alpes range in height from 1,800 m to 2,400 m. The Alpes range was part of the middle ring of the multi-ringed Imbrium Basin . The other mountain ranges around the Imbrium Basin ( Montes Caucasus , Montes Apenninus , and Montes Carpatus ) were part of the outer ring . The Alpes , being part of the middle ring , thus have a shorter radius to the center of Imbrium than the other ranges of the basin . The northwestern third of the range is separated from the remainder of the mountains by the Vallis Alpes , a wide rift valley that extends from a narrow cleft in the Montes Alpes to the northeast , reaching the edge of the Mare Frigoris . The total length of this formation is about 166 km , and it reaches a maximum width of 10 km . Running down the center of this valley is a narrow cleft which is not observable through smaller telescopes . Sunrise and sunset in this area occur before the respective lunar quarters . About one-third the length of the range from the southeast is Mons Blanc , a peak rising to a height of 3.6 km . This compares to a typical height of peaks in this range of 1.8 to 2.4 km . Midway between Mons Blanc and Promontorium Agassiz is Promontorium Deville . To the southwest of Promontorium Agassiz is the isolated Mons Piton , a peak rising to a height of 2.3 km . Blanc , Piton , and the Montes Teneriffe make up part of the inner ring of the Imbrium Basin .","qid":"2763","docid":"Montes_Alpes","rank":63,"score":71172},{"content":"Title: Tractus Fossae Content: The Tractus Fossae are a set of troughs in the Tharsis quadrangle of Mars , located at 26 ° north latitude and 101.4 ° west longitude . They are 390 km long and are named after a classical albedo feature name . The term `` fossae '' is used to indicate large troughs when using geographical terminology related to Mars . Troughs , sometimes also called grabens , form when the crust is stretched until it breaks , which forms two breaks with a middle section moving down , leaving steep cliffs along the sides . Sometimes , a line of pits form as materials collapse into a void that forms from the stretching .","qid":"2763","docid":"Tractus_Fossae","rank":64,"score":71115},{"content":"Title: Iris hypothesis Content: The iris hypothesis is a hypothesis proposed by Richard Lindzen et al. in 2001 that suggested increased sea surface temperature in the tropics would result in reduced cirrus clouds and thus more infrared radiation leakage from Earth 's atmosphere . His study of observed changes in cloud coverage and modeled effects on infrared radiation released to space as a result supported the hypothesis . This suggested infrared radiation leakage was hypothesized to be a negative feedback in which an initial warming would result in an overall cooling of the surface . The consensus view is that increased sea surface temperature would result in increased cirrus clouds and reduced infrared radiation leakage and therefore a positive feedback . Other scientists subsequently tested the hypothesis . Some concluded that there was no evidence supporting the hypothesis . Others found evidence suggesting that increased sea surface temperature in the tropics did indeed reduce cirrus clouds but found that the effect was nonetheless a positive feedback rather than the negative feedback that Lindzen had hypothesized . A later 2007 study conducted by Roy Spencer et al. using updated satellite data potentially supported the iris hypothesis . In 2011 , Lindzen published a rebuttal to the main criticisms . In 2015 a paper was published which again suggested the possibility of an `` Iris Effect '' . It also proposed what it called a `` plausible physical mechanism for an iris effect . ''","qid":"2763","docid":"Iris_hypothesis","rank":65,"score":71050},{"content":"Title: Cerberus (Martian albedo feature) Content: Cerberus is a large `` dark spot '' ( an albedo feature ) located on Mars and named after the mythical dog Cerberus . The arcuate markings in the upper right are in the Amazonis plains and may be sand drifts . The Elysium volcano , a yellow area north of Cerberus , has several channels radiating from its flanks . The three bright spots , upper left , are volcanoes partially veiled by thin clouds . High resolution images show the bulk of the Cerberus Plains is covered by platy-ridged and inflated lavas , which are interpreted as insulated sheet flows . Eastern Cerberus Plains lavas originate at Cerberus Fossae fissures and shields . Some flows extend for 2000 km through Marte Valles into Amazonis Planitia . Athabasca Valles are both incised into pristine lavas and embayed by pristine lavas , indicating that Athabascan fluvial events were contemporaneous with volcanic eruptions . Deposits of the Medusae Fossae Formation lie both over and under lavas , suggesting the deposition of the Medusae Fossae Formation was contemporaneous with volcanism . Statistics of small craters indicate lavas in the Western Cerberus Plains may be less than a million years old , but the model isochrons may be unreliable if the small crater population is dominated by secondary craters . Images showing no large craters with diameters 500 m superimposed on Western Cerberus Plains lavas indicate the same surface is younger than 49 Ma .","qid":"2763","docid":"Cerberus_(Martian_albedo_feature)","rank":66,"score":70807},{"content":"Title: 113390 Helvetia Content: 113390 Helvetia , provisional designation , is an asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 2.2 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 29 September 2002 , by Swiss astronomer Markus Griesser at the Eschenberg Observatory in Winterthur , near Zürich , Switzerland . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.8 -- 2.8 AU once every 3 years and 6 months ( 1,276 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.20 and an inclination of 7 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at Palomar Observatory in 1960 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 42 years prior to its discovery . As of 2016 , the asteroid 's shape , composition and rotation period remain unknown . Based on its absolute magnitude of 15.6 , its diameter lies between 2 and 4 kilometers , assuming an albedo in the range of 0.05 to 0.25 . According to the survey carried out by the NEOWISE mission of NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , the asteroid measures 2.2 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.231 , which is typical for stony asteroids . The minor planet was named in February 2006 and bears the name for Switzerland ( Confoederatio Helvetica ) , where the asteroid was discovered . Helvetia is also an allegorical figure and symbol for the nation . Each Swiss stamp carries her name , and her figure appears on most Swiss coins . Naming citation was published on 19 February 2006 .","qid":"2763","docid":"113390_Helvetia","rank":67,"score":70797},{"content":"Title: 30564 Olomouc Content: 30564 Olomouc ( -LSB- ˈolomoʊ̯ts -RSB- ) provisionally designated , is an asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt . It was discovered by Czech astronomer Petr Pravec on July 28 , 2001 at Ondřejov Observatory and was named after Olomouc , a city in central Moravia , the Czech Republic , where the discoverer lived . The citation accompanying the suggestion of the name and published in the Minor Planet Circular on 6 January 2003 said : `` The city of Olomouc is the center of Hanakia in the heart of Moravia . The seat of Catholic bishops since 1063 and Moravian primates since 1777 , it has been home to a university since 1573 , now called Palacký University . '' The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.2 -- 3.0 AU once every 4 years and 2 months ( 1,529 days ) . Its orbit shows an eccentricity of 0.14 and an inclination of 4 degrees from the plane of the ecliptic . Little is known about the asteroids size , chemical and mineralogical composition , albedo and rotation , despite having a well-observed orbit with the lowest possible uncertainty ( i.e. a condition code of 0 ) and an observation arc that spans over a period of more than 20 years . On the basis of its absolute magnitude in the visible light spectrum and supposed albedo ( which usually varies from 0.05 to 0.25 for the main-belt asteroids ) its diameter could be anywhere between 3 and 6 kilometers . Since asteroids in the inner main-belt are typically of a silicaceous rather than of a carbonaceous composition , with albedos around 0.20 , the body 's diameter might be on the lower end of NASA 's published conversion table , as the higher the reflectivity ( albedo ) , the smaller the body 's diameter for the given absolute magnitude of 15.0 .","qid":"2763","docid":"30564_Olomouc","rank":68,"score":70759},{"content":"Title: Cooling Content: Cooling is the transfer of thermal energy via thermal radiation , heat conduction or convection . Examples include :","qid":"2763","docid":"Cooling","rank":69,"score":70519},{"content":"Title: Sympathetic cooling Content: Sympathetic cooling is a process in which particles of one type cool particles of another type . Typically , atomic ions that can be directly laser cooled are used to cool nearby ions or atoms , by way of their mutual Coulomb interaction . This technique allows cooling of ions and atoms that ca n't be cooled directly by laser cooling . This includes most molecular ion species , especially large organic molecules . However , sympathetic cooling is most efficient when the mass/charge ratios of the sympathetic - and laser-cooled ions are similar . The cooling of neutral atoms in this manner was first demonstrated by Christopher Myatt et al. in 1997 . Here , a technique with electric and magnetic fields were used , where atoms with spin in one direction were more weakly confined than those with spin in the opposite direction . The weakly confined atoms with a high kinetic energy were allowed to more easily escape , lowering the total kinetic energy , resulting in a cooling of the strongly confined atoms . Myatt et al. also showed the utility of their version of sympathetic cooling for the creation of Bose -- Einstein condensates","qid":"2763","docid":"Sympathetic_cooling","rank":70,"score":70386},{"content":"Title: HD 73256 b Content: HD 73256 b is an 1.87 MJ hot Jupiter orbiting at 0.037 AU taking 2.55 days to orbit around HD 73256 . Assuming the planet is perfectly grey with no greenhouse or tidal effects , and a Bond albedo of 0.1 , the temperature would be about 1300 K . This is close to 51 Pegasi b ; between the predicted temperatures of HD 189733 b and HD 209458 b ( 1180-1392K ) , before they were measured . It is a candidate for `` near-infrared characterisation with the VLTI Spectro-Imager '' .","qid":"2763","docid":"HD_73256_b","rank":71,"score":70234},{"content":"Title: List of areas of chaos terrain on Mars Content: This is a list of areas of chaos terrain officially named by the International Astronomical Union on the planet Mars . Chaos terrain ( or chaotic terrain ) is an astrogeological term used to denote planetary surface areas where features such as ridges , cracks , and plains appear jumbled and enmeshed with one another . Coordinates are in planetocentric latitude with east longitude . Areas of chaos terrain are usually named after a nearby albedo feature as in line with the IAU 's rules on planetary nomenclature . Such an albedo feature must feature on the maps of Mars made by either Giovanni Schiaparelli or Eugène Michel Antoniadi and are listed at Classical albedo features on Mars .","qid":"2763","docid":"List_of_areas_of_chaos_terrain_on_Mars","rank":72,"score":70064},{"content":"Title: 2661 Bydžovský Content: 2661 Bydžovský , provisional designation , is an asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt , approximately 30 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 23 March 1982 , by Czech astronomer Zdeňka Vávrová at the South Bohemian Kleť Observatory in the Czech Republic . Bydžovský orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.7 -- 3.3 AU once every 5 years and 3 months ( 1,923 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.09 and an inclination of 10 ° with respect to the ecliptic . It was first identified as at Heidelberg Observatory in 1950 , extending the body 's observation arc by 32 years prior to its discovery . As of 2016 , Bydžovskýs size , albedo , composition and rotation period remain unknown . Based on its absolute magnitude of 11.4 , its diameter is estimated to measure between 13 and 32 kilometers , assuming an albedo in the range of 0.05 to 0.25 . Since most asteroids in the outer main-belt are of a carbonaceous rather than of a silicaceous composition , with low albedos , typically closer to 0.05 than to 0.25 , the asteroid 's diameter might be on the upper end of NASA 's published conversion table , as the lower the reflectivity ( albedo ) , the larger the body 's diameter for a given absolute magnitude . The minor planet was named in honour of mathematician Bohumil Bydžovský ( 1880 -- 1969 ) , chancellor of the Charles University in Prague . He was born in southern Bohemia and became the most eminent citizen of the Czech town Veselí on the Lužnice river , after which the minor planets 2321 Lužnice and 2599 Veselí were named , respectively . Naming citation was published on 6 February 1993 .","qid":"2763","docid":"2661_Bydžovský","rank":73,"score":70027},{"content":"Title: Radiative cooling Content: Radiative cooling is the process by which a body loses heat by thermal radiation .","qid":"2763","docid":"Radiative_cooling","rank":74,"score":69926},{"content":"Title: 645 Agrippina Content: 645 Agrippina , provisional designation 1907 AG , is a stony asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt , roughly 30 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by American astronomer reverend Joel Metcalf at Taunton , Massachusetts , USA , on 13 September 1907 . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.7 -- 3.7 AU once every 5 years and 9 months ( 2,103 days ) . Its orbit shows an eccentricity of 0.15 and is tilted by 7 degrees to the plane of the ecliptic . A photometric light-curve analysis from the 1980s and a provisional observation in 2004 rendered a rotation period of 32.6 and 34.4 hours , respectively . According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite , IRAS , the Japanese Akari satellite , and the U.S.Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid has a dissimilar albedo in the range of 0.14 to 0.23 , which leads to a varying estimate for its diameter from 28 to 36 kilometers . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link publishes an albedo of 0.23 from an alternative result of the Supplemental IRAS Minor Planet Survey ( SIMPS ) and derives a slightly lower diameter of 27.9 kilometers . The minor planet was named for two women of ancient Roman history . Agrippina the Elder ( 14 BCE -- 33 ) was the daughter of the Roman statesman Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa , the wife of Germanicus and the mother of the Emperor Caligula . Her daughter , Agrippina the Younger ( 15 -- 59 AD ) was the mother of Emperor Nero . The naming might be influenced by the two letters of the provisional designation 1907 AG . In the Dictionary of Minor Planet Names , Lutz Schmadel supposes that the name originated from a list of female names from mythology and history , compiled by the Astronomisches Rechen-Institut ( ARI ) in 1913 . The ARI then sent this list to a number of astronomers with the request to name their discoveries in order to avoid confusion , as the number of unnamed minor planet up to number 700 had grown significantly at the time .","qid":"2763","docid":"645_Agrippina","rank":75,"score":69900},{"content":"Title: (42301) 2001 UR163 Content: , also written as ( 42301 ) 2001 UR163 , is likely a dwarf planet that resides in the scattered disc . It was discovered on October 21 , 2001 by the Deep Ecliptic Survey ( DES ) program at Kitt Peak . Light-curve-amplitude analysis shows only small deviations , suggesting that is a spheroid with small albedo spots . Michael Brown 's website lists it as a highly likely dwarf planet , but the diameter of the object has never been measured . has the reddest color index of any object in the Solar System . On October 31 , 2002 , the 3.6-meter Canada -- France -- Hawaii Telescope observed set a record red reading of B − R = 2.28 . This makes even redder than Pholus , , Sedna and comet C/2001 T4 . Reddening of the spectrum is caused by cosmic irradiation by ultraviolet radiation and charged particles . Becoming bluer in the spectrum is caused by impact collisions exposing the interior of an object . In the visible spectrum , would appear orange-brown , depending on its albedo . It came to perihelion around 1937 . In 2006 , it moved beyond 50 AU from the Sun . It is currently 51.9 AU from the Sun .","qid":"2763","docid":"(42301)_2001_UR163","rank":76,"score":69572},{"content":"Title: Peel (fruit) Content: Peel , also known as rind or skin , is the outer protective layer of a fruit or vegetable which can be peeled off . The rind is usually the botanical exocarp , but the term exocarp also includes the hard cases of nuts , which are not named peels since they are not peeled off by hand or peeler , but rather shells because of their hardness . A fruit with a thick peel , such as a citrus fruit , is called a hesperidium . In hesperidiums , the inner layer ( also called albedo or , among non-botanists , pith ) is peeled off together with the outer layer ( called flavedo ) , and together they are called the peel . The flavedo and albedo , respectively , are the exocarp and the mesocarp . The juicy layer inside the peel ( containing the seeds ) is the endocarp .","qid":"2763","docid":"Peel_(fruit)","rank":77,"score":69515},{"content":"Title: Ronaldo Alves Content: Ronaldo Luiz Alves ( born July 9 , 1989 in Bebedouro ) , known as Ronaldo Alves , is a Brazilian footballer who plays for Náutico , as a central defender .","qid":"2763","docid":"Ronaldo_Alves","rank":78,"score":69379},{"content":"Title: Cooling, Kent Content: Cooling is a village and civil parish on the Hoo Peninsula , overlooking the North Kent Marshes , 6 miles north northwest of Rochester , England . According to the 2001 census the parish had a population of 209 , which increased to 216 at the 2011 Census . Cooling was recorded in the Domesday Book when it was held by Bishop Odo of Bayeux ( half-brother of William the Conqueror ) . The most notable surviving feature of the village is Cooling Castle , built on the edge of the marshes during the 12th century to defend the neighbouring port of Cliffe from the threat of French raiders .","qid":"2763","docid":"Cooling,_Kent","rank":79,"score":69297},{"content":"Title: Quaternary glaciation Content: The Quaternary glaciation , also known as the Pleistocene glaciation or the current ice age , is a series of glacial events separated by interglacial events during the Quaternary period from 2.58 Ma ( million years ago ) to present . During this period , ice sheets expanded , notably from out of Antarctica and Greenland , and fluctuating ice sheets occurred elsewhere ( for example , the Laurentide ice sheet ) . The major effects of the ice age are erosion and deposition of material over large parts of the continents , modification of river systems , creation of millions of lakes , changes in sea level , development of pluvial lakes far from the ice margins , isostatic adjustment of the crust , and abnormal winds . It affected oceans , flooding , and biological communities . The ice sheets themselves , by raising the albedo , affect a major feedback on climate cooling .","qid":"2763","docid":"Quaternary_glaciation","rank":80,"score":69254},{"content":"Title: MaryAnne Tebedo Content: MaryAnne Geivett Tebedo ( born October 30 , 1936 in Denver , Colorado ) was a Colorado State Senator from Colorado Springs . From 1982 through 1988 Tebedo served as a Republican in the Colorado House of Representatives , and was elected to the Colorado State Senate in 1988 . Tebedo completed her legislative career on December 31 , 2001 pursuant to term limits . Tebedo chaired two Senate committees , the Local Government Committee and the State , Military and Veterans Affairs Committee , and served on eight legislative committees . Legislation she sponsored dealt with early education through college , transportation , energy and mining , local government affairs , National Guard , state finance , constitution and elections , large and small business and labor affairs , and the environment . Colorado Springs Gazette columnist Ralph Routon wrote a series of columns supporting the idea of placing all of Colorado on year-round daylight saving time in order to save state residents the `` aggravation of resetting their clocks every six months . '' The idea gathered noticeable popular support within Colorado Springs , and attention of the state 's larger newspapers , but when then state Senator MaryAnne Tebedo attempted to present the idea to the state legislature , her research uncovered Federal laws forbidding the state-initiated extension of daylight saving time . Still determined to relieve Coloradans of the need to change their clocks , Tebedo introduced the only bill legally permitted to her : a proposal to exempt the state of Colorado from DST . The bill failed to escape committee during the 2000 legislative session . MaryAnne is the mother of Kevin Tebedo , a former Executive Director of the organization Colorado for Family Values .","qid":"2763","docid":"MaryAnne_Tebedo","rank":81,"score":69230},{"content":"Title: 1684 Iguassú Content: 1684 Iguassú , provisional designation , is a carbonaceous asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt , approximately 30.5 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 23 August 1951 , by Argentine astronomer Miguel Itzigsohn at the La Plata Astronomical Observatory , located in the city of La Plata , Argentina . The C-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.7 -- 3.5 AU once every 5 years and 5 months ( 1,991 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.12 and an inclination of 4 ° with respect to the ecliptic . In January 2014 , two rotational light-curves of Iguassú were obtained at the Palomar Transient Factory in California . They gave a rotation period of 9.14 and 9.23 hours , respectively , both with a brightness change of in magnitude . According to the survey carried out by NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , Iguassú measures between 30.21 and 31.38 kilometers in diameter , and its surface has an albedo between 0.08 and 0.093 . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for carbonaceous asteroids of 0.057 and calculates a diameter of 30.62 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 11.3 . This minor planet is named for the large Iguazu Falls , a 60 meters high and 1 kilometer wide waterfall , which river of the same name marks part of the boundary between Argentina and Brazil . As a curiosity , the spelling of the minor planet 's name ( Iguassú ) neither concurs with the Spanish `` Iguazú '' nor with the Portuguese `` Iguaçu '' . It is rather similar to `` Yguasu '' , used in the native Guarani language , from which the waterfall 's name originates . Naming citation was published on 8 April 1982 .","qid":"2763","docid":"1684_Iguassú","rank":82,"score":69060},{"content":"Title: 4082 Swann Content: 4082 Swann , provisional designation , is a carbonaceous asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 10 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by American astronomer Carolyn Shoemaker at Palomar Observatory on 27 September 1984 . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.8 -- 3.0 AU once every 3 years and 8 months ( 1,349 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.26 and an inclination of 10 ° with respect to the ecliptic . First identified as `` 1947 UF '' at the Finnish Turku Observatory in 1947 , the asteroid 's observation arc was extended by 37 years prior to its discovery . The C-type asteroid is classified as a Ch-subtype in the SMASS taxonomy . According to the surveys carried out by the Japanese Akari satellite and NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid measures 9.5 and 11.1 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.029 and 0.101 , respectively . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link , however , assumes a standard albedo for stony asteroids of 0.20 and derives a much smaller diameter of 5.85 kilometers , based on an absolute magnitude of 13.46 . In July 2006 , a rotational light-curve for this asteroid was obtained from photometric observations by Petr Pravec at the Ondřejov Observatory in the Czech Republic . It gave a rotation period of hours with a brightness variation of 0.67 magnitude . A second light-curve obtained by Jean-Gabriel Bosch in September 2006 , gave a period of hours and an amplitude of 0.35 magnitude . The minor planet was named after American geologist Gordon A. Swann ( b. 1931 ) . He served as the principal investigator of the `` Apollo Lunar Geologic Experiment '' conducted at the lunar landing sites of Apollo 14 and Apollo 15 . Naming citation was published on 12 December 1989 .","qid":"2763","docid":"4082_Swann","rank":83,"score":68938},{"content":"Title: Radiant cooling Content: A radiant cooling system refers to a temperature-controlled surface that cools indoor temperatures by the removing sensible heat and where more than half of heat transfer occurs through thermal radiation . Heat will flow from objects , occupants , equipment and lights in a space to a cooled surface as long as their temperatures are warmer than that of the cooled surface and they are within the line of sight of the cooled surface . The process of radiant exchange has a negligible effect on air temperature , but through the process of convection , the air temperature will be lowered when air comes in contact with the cooled surface . Radiant cooling systems use the opposite effect of radiant heating systems , which rely on the process of heat flow from a heated surface to objects and occupants .","qid":"2763","docid":"Radiant_cooling","rank":84,"score":68717},{"content":"Title: 341 California Content: 341 California is an asteroid belonging to the Flora family in the Main Belt , that has an unusually high albedo . It was discovered by Max Wolf on 25 September 1892 in Heidelberg .","qid":"2763","docid":"341_California","rank":85,"score":68663},{"content":"Title: Arbedo-Castione Content: Arbedo-Castione is a municipality in the district of Bellinzona in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland .","qid":"2763","docid":"Arbedo-Castione","rank":86,"score":68559},{"content":"Title: Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 Content: Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 ( ETM-2 ) , also called H-1 or the Elmo ( Eocene Layer of Mysterious Origin ) event , was a transient period of global warming that occurred approximately 53.7 million years ago ( Ma ) . It appears to be the second major hyperthermal that punctuated the long-term warming trend from the Late Paleocene through the early Eocene ( 58 to 50 Ma ) . The hyperthermals were geologically brief time intervals ( < 200,000 years ) of global warming and massive carbon input . The most extreme and best-studied event , the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM or ETM-1 ) , occurred about 1.8 million years before ETM-2 , at approximately 55.5 Ma . Other hyperthermals likely followed ETM-2 at nominally 53.6 Ma ( H-2 ) , 53.3 ( I-1 ) , 53.2 ( I-2 ) and 52.8 Ma ( informally called K , X or ETM-3 ) . The number , nomenclature , absolute ages and relative global impact of the Eocene hyperthermals are the source of much current research . In any case , the hyperthermals appear to have ushered in the Early Eocene Climatic Optimum , the warmest interval of the Cenozoic Era . They also definitely precede the Azolla event at about 49 Ma . ETM-2 is clearly recognized in sediment sequences by analyzing the stable carbon isotope composition of carbon-bearing material . The 13C/12C ratio of calcium carbonate or organic matter drops significantly across the event . This is similar to what happens when one examines sediment across the PETM , although the magnitude of the negative carbon isotope excursion is not as large . The timing of Earth system perturbations during ETM-2 and the PETM also appear different . Specifically , the onset of ETM-2 may have been longer ( perhaps 30,000 years ) while the recovery seems to have been shorter ( perhaps < 50,000 years ) . ( Note , however , that the timing of short-term carbon cycle perturbations during both events remains difficult to constrain ) . A thin clay-rich horizon marks ETM-2 in marine sediment from widely separated locations . In sections recovered from the deep-sea ( for example those recovered by Ocean Drilling Program Leg 208 on Walvis Ridge ) , this layer is caused by dissolution of calcium carbonate . However , in sections deposited along continental margins ( for example those now exposed along the Clarence River , New Zealand ) , the clay-rich horizon represents dilution by excess accumulation of terrestrial material entering into the ocean . Similar changes in sediment accumulation are found across the PETM . In sediment from Lomonosov Ridge in the Arctic Ocean , intervals across both ETM-2 and the PETM shows signs of higher temperature , lower salinity and lower dissolved oxygen . The PETM and ETM-2 are thought to have a similar generic origin , although this idea is at the edge of current research . During both events , a tremendous amount of 13C-depleted carbon rapidly entered the ocean and atmosphere . This decreased the 13C/12C ratio of carbon-bearing sedimentary components , and dissolved carbonate in the deep ocean . Somehow the carbon input was coupled to an increase in Earth surface temperature and a greater seasonality in precipitation , which explains the excess terrestrial sediment discharge along continental margins . Possible explanations for changes during ETM-2 are the same as those for the PETM , and are discussed under the latter entry . The H-2 event appears to be a `` minor '' hyperthermal that follows ETM-2 ( H-1 ) by about 100,000 years . This has led to speculation that the two events are somehow coupled and paced by changes in orbital eccentricity . As in the case of the PETM , reversible dwarfing of mammals has been noted during the ETM-2 .","qid":"2763","docid":"Eocene_Thermal_Maximum_2","rank":87,"score":68536},{"content":"Title: 11441 Anadiego Content: 11441 Anadiego , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid from the middle region of the asteroid belt , approximately 7 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 31 December 1975 , by Argentine astronomer Mario R. Cesco at the El Leoncito Complex in western Argentina . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.9 -- 3.2 AU once every 4 years and 1 month ( 1,497 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.26 and an inclination of 12 ° with respect to the ecliptic . As no precoveries were taken , the asteroid 's observation arc starts with its discovery observation in 1975 . A rotational light-curve was obtained for this asteroid by astronomer Kevin Hills at the Australian Riverland Dingo Observatory in February 2013 . It gave a rotation period of hours with a brightness variation of 0.11 magnitude . According to the surveys carried out by NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid measures 6.8 and 7.3 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.287 and 0.254 , respectively . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a lower standard albedo for stony asteroids of 0.20 , and , correspondingly calculates a larger diameter of 8.2 kilometers , based on an absolute magnitude of 12.8 . The minor planet was named in memory of Ana Teresa Diego ( 1954 -- 1976 ) , an astronomy student at La Plata Astronomical Observatory and political activist who was kidnapped and disappeared in September 1976 by unidentified persons believed working for the military junta then ruling Argentina . Naming citation was published 10 December 2011 .","qid":"2763","docid":"11441_Anadiego","rank":88,"score":68534},{"content":"Title: Global cooling (disambiguation) Content: Global cooling was a 1970s conjecture about global climate change . Global cooling may also refer to : In general , one of the means by which Earth can undergo climate change Climate change denial , including contrarian views about global warming in the 20th and 21st centuries Cooling periods on the multimillion-year scale in the geologic temperature record Geophysical global cooling , a conjecture about the formation of natural features that was made obsolete by the theory of plate tectonics Little Ice Age , a period from the 16th to 19th centuries characterized by cooling and coincident with below average sunspots frequency","qid":"2763","docid":"Global_cooling_(disambiguation)","rank":89,"score":68519},{"content":"Title: Dilmun (Titan) Content: Dilmun is a region of high albedo on Titan , Saturn 's natural satellite .","qid":"2763","docid":"Dilmun_(Titan)","rank":90,"score":68450},{"content":"Title: Minnaert function Content: The Minnaert function is a photometric function used to interpret astronomical observations and remote sensing data for the Earth . It was named after the astronomer Marcel Minnaert . This function expresses the radiance factor ( RADF ) as a function the phase angle , the photometric latitude and the photometric longitude . where is the Minnaert albedo , is an empirical parameter , is the scattered radiance in the direction , is the incident radiance , and The phase angle is the angle between the light source and the observer with the object as the center . The assumptions made are : the surface is illuminated by a distant point source . the surface is isotropic and flat . Minnaert 's contribution is the introduction of the parameter , having a value between 0 and 1 , originally for a better interpretation of observations of the Moon . In remote sensing the use of this function is referred to as Minnaert topographic correction , a necessity when interpreting images of rough terrain .","qid":"2763","docid":"Minnaert_function","rank":91,"score":68365},{"content":"Title: 28P/Neujmin Content: 28P/Neujmin , also known as Neujmin 1 , is a large periodic comet in the Solar System . With a perihelion distance ( closest approach to the Sun ) of 1.5 AU , this comet does not make close approaches to the Earth . The comet nucleus is estimated to be 21.4 kilometers in diameter with a low albedo of 0.025 . Since 28P has such a large nucleus , it will become brighter than the 20th magnitude in early 2019 , roughly 2 years before coming to perihelion . When it comes to opposition in May 2020 , when it is still 3.5 AU from the Sun , it will likely have an apparent magnitude around 16.9 . But during the 2021 perihelion passage the comet will be on the opposite side of the Sun as the Earth . The comet is not known for bright outbursts of activity .","qid":"2763","docid":"28P/Neujmin","rank":92,"score":68341},{"content":"Title: 78816 Caripito Content: 78816 Caripito , provisional designation , is an asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt , approximately 5 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 4 August 2003 , by American amateur astronomer and professor of geophysics , Joseph Dellinger , at the U.S. Needville Observatory , Texas . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.4 -- 3.8 AU once every 5 years and 7 months ( 2,033 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.23 and an inclination of 6 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at Palomar 's Digitized Sky Survey in 1953 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 50 years prior to its discovery . As of 2016 , the Caripitos composition and albedo , as well as its rotation period and shape remain unknown . According to the survey carried out by NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid measures 5.3 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.052 . This low albedo is typical for asteroids in the outer main-belt , which are mostly of a carbonaceous rather than of a silicaceous composition . Based on an absolute magnitude of 15.4 , and assuming an albedo of 0.05 , the asteroid 's generic diameter measures between 2 and 5 kilometers . This minor planet is named for the Venezuelan town of Caripito in the northeastern Monagas State . It was the place where the parents of the discoverer , Thomas Baynes Dellinger ( b. 1926 ) and María de la Garza Cantú ( b. 1928 ) , met in 1949 . At the time , the town was a base camp for the country 's rich Quiriquire oil field . Naming citation was published on 18 September 2005 .","qid":"2763","docid":"78816_Caripito","rank":93,"score":68335},{"content":"Title: Lunar swirls Content: Lunar swirls are enigmatic features found across the Moon 's surface , which are characterized by having a high albedo , appearing optically immature ( i.e. having the optical characteristics of a relatively young regolith ) , and ( often ) having a sinuous shape . Their curvilinear shape is often accentuated by low albedo regions that wind between the bright swirls . They appear to overlay the lunar surface , superposed on top of craters and ejecta deposits , but impart no observable topography . Swirls have been identified on the lunar maria and highlands - they are not associated with a specific lithologic composition . Swirls on the maria are characterized by strong albedo contrasts and complex , sinuous morphology , whereas those on highland terrain appear less prominent and exhibit simpler shapes , such as single loops or diffuse bright spots .","qid":"2763","docid":"Lunar_swirls","rank":94,"score":68321},{"content":"Title: 3181 Ahnert Content: 3181 Ahnert , provisional designation , is a stony Flora asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , about 8 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by German astronomer Freimut Börngen at the Karl Schwarzschild Observatory in Tautenburg , eastern Germany , on 8 March 1964 . The S-type asteroid is a member of the Flora family , one of the largest groups of stony asteroids in the main-belt . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.1 -- 2.4 AU once every 3 years and 4 months ( 1,215 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.07 and an inclination of 4 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was obtained at Lowell Observatory in 1931 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 33 years prior to its discovery . According to the surveys carried out by NASA 's space-based Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid measures between 8.0 and 8.6 kilometers and its surface has an albedo between 0.19 and 0.26 . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an intermediate albedo of 0.24 -- derived from 8 Flora , the largest member and namesake of this orbital family -- and calculates a diameter of 8.2 kilometers . As of 2016 , the asteroid 's rotation period and shape still remain unknown . The minor planet was named after German astronomer Paul Ahnert ( 1897 -- 1989 ) , author of the annual calendar of astronomical events ( Kalender für Sternfreunde ) and a renowned astronomer among professionals and amateurs . His fields of research included the physics of the Solar System and periods of variable stars at the Sonneberg Observatory . ( The minor planet 1039 Sonneberga is named after this observatory . ) Publisher of several books on performing astronomical observations , he also popularized the subject of astronomy to the general public . Naming citation was published on 2 July 1985 .","qid":"2763","docid":"3181_Ahnert","rank":95,"score":68319},{"content":"Title: Kepler-22b Content: Kepler-22b , also known by its Kepler object of interest designation KOI-087 .01 , is an extrasolar planet orbiting within the empirical habitable zone of the Sun-like star Kepler-22 . It is located about 600 ly from Earth in the constellation of Cygnus . It was discovered by NASA 's Kepler Space Telescope in December 2011 and was the first known transiting planet to orbit within the habitable zone of a Sun-like star . Kepler-22 is too dim to be seen with the naked eye . Kepler-22b 's size is roughly twice that of Earth . Its mass and surface composition are unknown . An Earth-like composition for the planet has been ruled out . It is likely to have a volatile-rich composition with a liquid or gaseous outer shell . The only parameters of the planet 's orbit that are currently available are its orbital period , which is about , and its inclination , which is approximately 90 ° . Evidence suggests that the planet has a moderate surface temperature , assuming that the surface is not subject to extreme greenhouse heating . In the absence of an atmosphere , its equilibrium temperature ( assuming an Earth-like albedo ) would be approximately 262 K. The planet 's first transit was observed on 12 May 2009 . Confirmation of the existence of Kepler-22b was announced on 5 December 2011 .","qid":"2763","docid":"Kepler-22b","rank":96,"score":68264},{"content":"Title: 15017 Cuppy Content: 15017 Cuppy , provisional designation , is a small asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 2 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by the U.S. Lowell Observatory Near-Earth-Object Search ( LONEOS ) at its Anderson Mesa Station , Arizona , on 22 September 1998 . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.0 -- 2.7 AU once every 3 years and 7 months ( 1,296 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.16 and an inclination of 6 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at Palomar Observatory in 1991 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 7 years prior to its discovery . As of 2016 , its effective size , composition and albedo , as well as its rotation period and shape remain unknown . According to the survey carried out by NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid measures 1.8 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.50 . Based on an absolute magnitude of 15.6 , the asteroid is calculated to measure between 2 and 5 kilometers in diameter , assuming an albedo in the range of 0.05 to 0.25 . In September 2003 , the minor planet was named in memory of American literary critic and humorist , Will Cuppy ( 1884 -- 1949 ) . He is known for his satirical books The Decline and Fall of Practically Everybody , How to Attract the Wombat , How to Become Extinct and How to Tell Your Friends from the Apes . The name was proposed by M. Walter . Naming citation was published on 10 September 2003 .","qid":"2763","docid":"15017_Cuppy","rank":97,"score":68215},{"content":"Title: Algorithmic cooling Content: Algorithmic cooling is an algorithmic method for transferring heat ( or entropy ) from some qubits to others or outside the system and into the environment , which results in a cooling effect . This method uses regular quantum operations on ensembles of qubits , and it can be shown that it can succeed beyond Shannon 's bound on data compression . The phenomenon is a result of the connection between thermodynamics and information theory . The cooling itself is done in an algorithmic manner using ordinary quantum operations . The input is a set of qubits , and the output is a subset of qubits cooled to a desired threshold determined by the user . This cooling effect may have usages in initializing cold ( highly pure ) qubits for quantum computation and in increasing polarization of certain spins in nuclear magnetic resonance . Therefore , it can be used in the initializing process taking place before a regular quantum computation .","qid":"2763","docid":"Algorithmic_cooling","rank":98,"score":68195},{"content":"Title: Phlegra Montes Content: The Phlegra Montes are a system of mountains in the Cebrenia quadrangle of Mars , located at 40.4 degrees north latitude and 163.71 degrees east longitude . They are 1,350 km across and were named after a classical albedo feature name . They form a complex system of isolated hills , ridges and small basins , and it was suggested they have endogenic tectonic origin .","qid":"2763","docid":"Phlegra_Montes","rank":99,"score":68193},{"content":"Title: Sulci Gordii Content: Sulci Gordii in the feature in the Tharsis quadrangle of Mars . Sulci is a term used for subparallel furrows and ridges . It is located at 18.9 ° north latitude and 125.5 ° west longitude . It is 400 km long and was named after a classical albedo feature name .","qid":"2763","docid":"Sulci_Gordii","rank":100,"score":68185}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ice-albedo feedback Content: Ice-albedo feedback ( or snow-albedo feedback ) is a positive feedback climate process where a change in the area of snow-covered land , ice caps , glaciers or sea ice alters the albedo . This change in albedo acts to reinforce the initial alteration in ice area . Cooling tends to increase ice cover and hence the albedo , reducing the amount of solar energy absorbed and leading to more cooling . Conversely , warming tends to decrease ice cover and hence the albedo , increasing the amount of solar energy absorbed , leading to more warming . The effect also applies on the small scale to snow-covered surfaces . A small amount of snow melt exposes darker ground which absorbs more radiation , leading to more snowmelt . The effect has mostly been discussed in terms of the recent trend of declining Arctic sea ice . Internal feedback processes may also potentially occur , as land ice melts and causes eustatic sea level rise , and also potentially induces earthquakes as a result of isostatic rebound , which further acts to disrupt glaciers , ice shelves , etc. .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Ice-albedo_feedback\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 134298\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Volcanic winter Content: A volcanic winter is a reduction in global temperatures caused by volcanic ash and droplets of sulfuric acid and water obscuring the Sun and raising Earth 's albedo ( increasing the reflection of solar radiation ) after a large particularly explosive volcanic eruption . Long-term cooling effects are primarily dependent upon injection of sulfur gasses into the stratosphere where they undergo a series of reactions to create sulfuric acid which can nucleate and form aerosols . Volcanic stratospheric aerosols cool the surface by reflecting solar radiation and warm the stratosphere by absorbing terrestrial radiation . The volcanic aerosols , resulting from the 1991 Pinatubo eruption and others , have been shown to contribute to anthropogenic ozone depletion . The variations in atmospheric warming and cooling results in changes in tropospheric and stratospheric circulation .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Volcanic_winter\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 126984\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bond albedo Content: The Bond albedo , named after the American astronomer George Phillips Bond ( 1825 -- 1865 ) , who originally proposed it , is the fraction of power in the total electromagnetic radiation incident on an astronomical body that is scattered back out into space . Because the Bond albedo accounts for all of the light scattered from a body at all wavelengths and all phase angles , it is a necessary quantity for determining how much energy a body absorbs . This , in turn , is crucial for determining the equilibrium temperature of a body . Because bodies in the outer Solar System are always observed at very low phase angles from the Earth , the only reliable data for measuring their Bond albedo comes from spacecraft .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Bond_albedo\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 106852\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Albedo Content: Albedo ( -LSB- ælˈbiːdoʊ -RSB- ) is a measure for reflectance or optical brightness ( Latin albedo , Arabic albayad , `` whiteness '' ) . It is dimensionless and measured on a scale from zero ( corresponding to a black body that absorbs all incident radiation ) to one ( corresponding to a white body that reflects all incident radiation ) . Surface albedo is defined as the ratio of radiation reflected to the radiation incident on a surface . The proportion reflected is not only determined by properties of the surface itself , but also by the spectral and angular distribution of solar radiation reaching the Earth 's surface . These factors vary with atmospheric composition , geographic location and time ( see Position of the Sun ) . While bi-hemispherical reflectance is calculated for a single angle of incidence ( i.e. , for a given position of the sun ) , albedo is the directional integration of reflectance over all solar angles in a given period . The temporal resolution may range from seconds ( as obtained from flux measurements ) to daily , seasonal or annual averages . Unless given for a specific wavelength ( spectral albedo ) , albedo refers to the entire spectrum of solar radiation . Due to measurement constraints , it is often given for the spectrum in which most solar energy reaches the surface ( approximately between 0.3 and 3 μm ) . This spectrum includes visible light ( 0.39-0 .7 μm ) , which explains why surfaces with a low albedo appear dark ( e.g. , trees absorb most radiation ) , whereas surfaces with a high albedo appear bright ( e.g. , snow reflects most radiation ) . Albedo is an important concept in climatology , astronomy , and environmental management ( e.g. , as part of the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design ( LEED ) program for sustainable rating of buildings ) . The average albedo of the Earth at the top of the atmosphere , its planetary albedo , is 30 to 35 % because of cloud cover , but widely varies locally across the surface because of different geological and environmental features . The term albedo was introduced into optics by Johann Heinrich Lambert in his 1760 work Photometria .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Albedo\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 105589\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Albedo feature Content: An albedo feature is a large area on the surface of a planet ( or other solar system body ) which shows a contrast in brightness or darkness ( albedo ) with adjacent areas . Historically , albedo features were the very first ( and usually only ) features to be seen and named on Mars and Mercury . Early classical maps ( such as those of Schiaparelli and Antoniadi ) showed only albedo features , and it was not until the arrival of space probes that other surface features such as craters could be seen . On bodies other than Mars and Mercury , an albedo feature is sometimes called a regio . On bodies with a very thick atmosphere like Venus or Titan , permanent albedo features can not be seen using ordinary optical telescopes because the surface is not visible , and only clouds and other transient atmospheric phenomena are seen . The Cassini -- Huygens probe has observed multiple albedo features on Titan since its arrival in Saturn 's orbit in 2004 . The very first albedo feature ever seen on another planet was Syrtis Major Planum on Mars in the 17th century . Today , thanks to space probes , very high-resolution images of surface features on Mars and Mercury are available , and the classical nomenclature based on albedo features has fallen somewhat into disuse . It is however still used for Earth-based observing of Mars by amateur astronomers . However , for some Solar System bodies ( such as Pluto prior to the New Horizons mission ) , the best available images show only albedo features . These images were usually taken by the Hubble Space Telescope or by ground-based telescopes using adaptive optics . Cydonia Mensae on Mars is an example of an albedo feature .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Albedo_feature\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 104282\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Geometric albedo Content: In astronomy , the geometric albedo of a celestial body is the ratio of its actual brightness as seen from the light source ( i.e. at zero phase angle ) to that of an idealized flat , fully reflecting , diffusively scattering ( Lambertian ) disk with the same cross-section . ( This phase angle refers to the direction of the light paths and is not a phase angle in its normal meaning in optics or electronics . ) Diffuse scattering implies that radiation is reflected isotropically with no memory of the location of the incident light source . Zero phase angle corresponds to looking along the direction of illumination . For Earth-bound observers this occurs when the body in question is at opposition and on the ecliptic . The visual geometric albedo refers to the geometric albedo quantity when accounting for only electromagnetic radiation in the visible spectrum .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Geometric_albedo\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 102598\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Twomey effect Content: The Twomey effect describes how cloud condensation nuclei ( CCN ) , possibly from anthropogenic pollution , may increase the amount of solar radiation reflected by clouds . This is an indirect effect . Aerosol particles can act as CCN 's creating more droplets which have a smaller size distribution . The reduction in size distribution increases the Optical depth of the cloud . This increases the cloud albedo as clouds appear whiter and larger , leading to a cooling of between -0.3 and -1.8 Wm − 2 . For example , on satellite imagery we observe trails of white clouds from ships crossing the oceans due to this effect .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Twomey_effect\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 102591\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Albedo (alchemy) Content: In alchemy , albedo is one of the four major stages of the magnum opus ; along with nigredo , citrinitas and rubedo . It is a Latinicized term meaning `` whiteness '' . Following the chaos or massa confusa of the nigredo stage , the alchemist undertakes a purification in albedo , which is literally referred to as ablutio -- the washing away of impurities . In this process , the subject is divided into two opposing principles to be later coagulated to form a unity of opposites or coincidentia oppositorum during rubedo . Titus Burckhardt interprets the albedo as the end of the lesser work , corresponding to a spiritualization of the body . The goal of this portion of the process is to regain the original purity and receptivity of the soul . Psychologist Carl Jung equated the albedo with unconscious contrasexual soul images ; the anima in men and animus in women . It is a phase where insight into shadow projections are realized , and inflated ego and unneeded conceptualizations are removed from the psyche .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Albedo_(alchemy)\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 101624\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cloud albedo Content:\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Cloud_albedo\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 100152\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Albedo (disambiguation) Content: Albedo is a measure of reflectivity . Albedo may also refer to : ALBEDO Telecom , a telecom company Albedo ( alchemy ) , a stage of alchemical progression Albedo ( Ben 10 ) , a character in the television series Ben 10 : Alien Force Albedo Anthropomorphics , a comic book anthology Albedo ( role-playing game ) , derived from the comics Albedo , the mesocarp of a fruit Albedo , a character in the video game series Xenosaga Albedo 0.39 , a 1976 album by the artist Vangelis Albedo One '' , an Irish horror , fantasy and science fiction magazine founded in 1993\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Albedo_(disambiguation)\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 97850\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Single-scattering albedo Content: Single-scattering albedo is the ratio of scattering efficiency to total extinction efficiency ( which is also termed `` attenuance '' , a sum of scattering and absorption ) . Most often it is defined for small-particle scattering of electromagnetic waves . Single-scattering albedo is unitless , and a value of unity implies that all particle extinction is due to scattering ; conversely , a single-scattering albedo of zero implies that all extinction is due to absorption . For spherical particles one can calculate single-scattering albedo from Mie theory and knowledge of bulk properties of material such as refractive index . For non-spherical particles one could use discrete dipole approximation or other methods of computational electromagnetics . The albedo of particles of shapes which are easily parameterized in non-standard co-ordinate systems may be determined through solutions of Maxwell 's equation analogues in such coordinate systems . Scattering albedo equations have yet to be determined in elliptical , torroidal , conical and many others . Derivation and solutions to such equations is a field of ongoing research .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Single-scattering_albedo\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 97636\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Albedo 0.39 Content: Albedo 0.39 is a studio album by the Greek electronic composer Vangelis , released in 1976 . It was the second album produced by Vangelis in Nemo Studios , London , which was his creative base until the late 1980s . It contrasts with his previous album , Heaven and Hell , which was classically inspired and choral , while Albedo 0.39 has blues and jazz overtones . It was his first Top 20 UK album .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Albedo_0.39\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 95710\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Albedo Anthropomorphics Content: Albedo Anthropomorphics , or Albedo for short , was a furry comic book anthology series which was credited with starting the furry comic book subgenre that featured sophisticated stories with funny animals primarily intended for an adult audience . The first issue of Albedo was published in 1983 ; the most recent issue was published in 2005 . Albedo was started by Steve Gallacci , who produced its main feature , Erma Felna : EDF -- a sophisticated science fiction military series set in a sector of space populated by sapient and predominantly humanoid versions of mammal and avian species . The focus of the series is Erma Felna , a young feline officer who eventually plays a central role in the complex political conflicts that consume her universe . Gallacci was a technical illustrator for the United States Air Force and one feature of Albedo is well thought-out and illustrated vehicles . His experience also shows in the realistic treatment of military life and operations . The series was used as inspiration for the Albedo role-playing game , which has had three editions and multiple supplements .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Albedo_Anthropomorphics\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 95452\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: ALBEDO Telecom Content: ALBEDO Telecom is a company that designs and manufactures products for the telecom industry including testers , synchronization nodes and networking devices . Typical users are R&D laboratories , Mobile and Telecom operators to verify and install the infrastructures that support any kind of applications based on voice , video and data . It is headquartered in Barcelona , Spain in the European Union .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"ALBEDO_Telecom\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 94134\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Albedo (role-playing game) Content: Albedo is a role-playing game based on Steve Gallacci 's Erma Felna : EDF and Birthright storylines from the comic anthologies Albedo Anthropomorphics and Critters .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Albedo_(role-playing_game)\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 93944\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Albedo One Content: Albedo One is an Irish horror , fantasy and science fiction magazine founded in 1993 and currently published by Albedo One Productions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Albedo_One\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 93344\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hurricane dynamics and cloud microphysics Content: Tropical convective clouds play an important part in the Earth 's climate system . Convection and release of latent heat transports energy from the surface into the upper atmosphere . Clouds have a higher albedo than the underlying ocean , which causes more incoming solar radiation to be reflected back to space . Since the tops of tropical systems are much cooler than the surface of the Earth , the presence of high convective clouds cools the climate system . The most recognizable cloud system in the tropics is the hurricane . In addition to the important climatic effects of tropical weather systems , hurricanes possess enough energy to cause massive death and destruction . Therefore , their accurate prediction is of utmost importance . Cloud microphysics describe the structure and properties of clouds on the microscopic scale .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Hurricane_dynamics_and_cloud_microphysics\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 92719\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 925 Alphonsina Content: 925 Alphonsina , provisional designation 1920 GM , is a large , stony asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt , about 58 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by Spanish astronomer of Catalan origin , Josep Comas i Solà , at the Fabra Observatory in Barcelona , on 13 January 1920 . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.5 -- 2.9 AU once every 4 years and 5 months ( 1,622 days ) . Its orbit is tilted by 21 degrees to the plane of the ecliptic and shows an eccentricity of 0.08 . A large number of photometric light-curve analysis rendered a well-defined , concurring rotation period of 7.9 hours for the body . According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite , IRAS , the Japanese Akari satellite , and the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid 's albedo is in the range of 0.20 -- 0.28 . In addition , the body 's albedo has been inferred by using the technique of stellar occultation in 2003 . The measurement also gave a diameter of 59.2 kilometers . The minor planet was named in honor of the Iberian Kings , Alfonso X ( 1221 -- 1284 ) and Alfonso XIII ( 1886 -- 1941 ) , King of Castile and Spain , respectively . The original citation mentions , that the 13th century king inspired the field of astronomy in the Middle Ages , and , that the latter king was a great enthusiast of the scientific development in Spain . It also mentions that the King of Spain approved the naming of the asteroid .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"925_Alphonsina\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 89382\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Umov effect Content: The Umov effect , also known as Umov 's law , is a relationship between the albedo of an astronomical object , and the degree of polarization of light reflecting off it . The effect was discovered by the Russian physicist Nikolay Umov in 1905 , and can be observed for celestial objects such as the surface of the Moon and the asteroids . The degree of linear polarization of light P is defined by where and are the intensities of light in the directions perpendicular and parallel to the plane of a polarizer aligned in the plane of reflection . Values of P are zero for unpolarized light , and ± 1 for linearly polarized light . Umov 's law states where α is the albedo of the object . Thus , highly reflective objects tend to reflect mostly unpolarized light , and dimly reflective objects tend to reflect polarized light . The law is only valid for large phase angles ( angles between the incident light and the reflected light ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Umov_effect\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 89351\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Marine cloud brightening Content: Marine cloud brightening is a proposed solar radiation management climate engineering technique that would make clouds brighter , reflecting a small fraction of incoming sunlight back into space in order to offset anthropogenic global warming . Along with stratospheric aerosol injection , it is one of the two solar radiation management methods that may most feasibly have a substantial climate impact . The intention is that increasing the Earth 's albedo , in combination with greenhouse gas emissions reduction , carbon dioxide removal , and adaptation , would reduce climate change and its risks to people and the environment . If implemented , the cooling effect is expected to be felt rapidly and to be reversible on fairly short time scales . However , technical barriers remain to large-scale marine cloud brightening . There are also risks with such modification of complex climate systems .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Marine_cloud_brightening\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 87931\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: (148209) 2000 CR105 Content: , also written as ( 148209 ) 2000 CR105 , is the tenth-most-distant known object in the Solar System . Considered a detached object , it orbits the Sun in a highly eccentric orbit every 3305 years at an average distance of 222 astronomical units ( AU ) . Mike Brown 's website lists it as a possible dwarf planet with a diameter of 328 km based on an assumed albedo of 0.04 . The albedo is expected to be low because the object has a blue ( neutral ) color . However , if the albedo is higher , the object could easily be half that size . and Sedna differ from scattered-disc objects in that they are not within the gravitational influence of the planet Neptune even at their perihelion distances ( closest approaches to the Sun ) . It is something of a mystery as to how these objects came to be in their current , far-flung orbits . Several hypotheses have been put forward : They were pulled from their original positions by a passing star . They were pulled from their original positions by a very distant , and as-yet-undiscovered ( albeit unlikely ) , giant planet . They were pulled from their original positions by an undiscovered companion star orbiting the Sun . They were captured from another planetary system during a close encounter early in the Sun 's history . According to Kenyon and Bromley , there is a 15 % probability that a star like the Sun had an early close encounter and a 1 % probability that outer planetary exchanges would have happened . is estimated to be 2 -- 3 times more likely to be a captured planetary object than Sedna . is the first object discovered in the Solar System to have a semi-major axis exceeding 150 AU , a perihelion beyond Neptune , and an argument of perihelion of 340 ± 55 ° . It is one of five objects known with a semi-major axis greater than 100 AU and perihelion beyond 42 AU . It may be influenced by Planet Nine .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"(148209)_2000_CR105\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 86316\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Antarctica cooling controversy Content: An apparent contradiction in the observed cooling behavior of Antarctica between 1966 and 2000 became part of the public debate in the global warming controversy , particularly between advocacy groups of both sides in the public arena including politicians , as well as the popular media . In his novel State of Fear , Michael Crichton asserted that the Antarctic data contradict global warming . The few scientists who have commented on the supposed controversy state that there is no contradiction , while the author of the paper whose work inspired Crichton 's remarks has said that Crichton `` misused '' his results . There is no similar controversy within the scientific community , as the small observed changes in Antarctica are consistent with the small changes predicted by climate models , and because the overall trend since comprehensive observations began is now known to be one of warming . At the South Pole , where some of the strongest cooling trends were observed between the 1950s and 1990s , the mean trend is flat from 1957 through 2013 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Antarctica_cooling_controversy\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 85224\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ray system Content: A ray system comprises radial streaks of fine ejecta thrown out during the formation of an impact crater , looking somewhat like many thin spokes coming from the hub of a wheel . The rays may extend for lengths up to several times the diameter of their originating crater , and are often accompanied by small secondary craters formed by larger chunks of ejecta . Ray systems have been identified on the Moon , Earth ( Kamil Crater ) , Mercury , and some moons of the outer planets . Originally it was thought that they existed only on planets or moons lacking an atmosphere , but more recently they have been identified on Mars in infrared images taken from orbit by 2001 Mars Odysseys thermal imager . Rays appear at visible , and in some cases infrared wavelengths , when ejecta are made of material with different reflectivity ( i.e. , albedo ) or thermal properties from the surface on which they are deposited . Typically , visible rays have a higher albedo than the surrounding surface . More rarely an impact will excavate low albedo material , for example basaltic-lava deposits on the lunar maria . Thermal rays , as seen on Mars , are especially apparent at night when slopes and shadows do not influence the infrared energy emitted by the Martian surface . The layering of rays across other surface features can be useful as an indicator of the relative age of the impact crater , because over time various processes obliterate the rays . On non-atmosphered bodies such as the Moon , space weathering from exposure to cosmic rays and micrometeorites causes a steady reduction of the differential between the ejecta 's albedo and that of the underlying material . Micrometeorites in particular produce a glassy melt in the regolith that lowers the albedo . Rays can also become covered by lava flows , or by other impact craters or ejecta .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Ray_system\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 84266\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_cooling\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 84205\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Steve Gallacci Content: Steven A. Gallacci ( born 1955 ) is best known for creating and publishing Albedo Anthropomorphics , a black and white alternative comic containing anthropomorphic funny animal characters , which has been considered a major factor in the origins of furry fandom . Gallacci spent six years in the US Air Force as a graphics specialist , including a tour of duty in Germany . After leaving the military , Gallacci started Albedo under his own Thoughts & Images imprint . First published in 1983 , Albedo '' 's last issue was published in 2005 under the Shanda Fantasy Arts imprint . Among some of the story lines that have appeared in Albedo are Gallacci 's own `` Erma Felna : EDF '' , a military sci-fi epic featuring some elements of political intrigue , and Stan Sakai 's Usagi Yojimbo , which first appeared in the infamously rare Albedo # 2 . Gallacci also worked on Fusion , a SF adventure comic from Eclipse Comics similar to the TV show Firefly , though pre-dating it by nearly twenty years . Lela Dowling co-authored the artwork and Steve Barnes drafted the first issues , though Gallacci would write most of the later ones with Lex Nakashima . He also created `` Birthright '' , an indirect sequel to Erma Felna , serialized in the Fantagraphics title `` Critters '' . The first three issues of Donna Barr 's `` the Desert Peach '' and a single issue of his own fantasy adventure `` Zell , Sworddancer '' with art assistance by Steve Adams , was also published under his Thoughts & Images imprint . Thoughts & Images also published the first edition of Albedo RPG , written by Craig Hilton and Paul Kidd , and based on the Erma Felna storyline from Albedo '' . Additional editions and supplements were published by Chessex in the early 1990s . An all-new version of an Albedo RPG has been published by Sanguin . Galacci provided art for episodes of Elin Winkler 's `` Tales of the Fehnnik '' , published by Radio Comix , and short bits for Ken Fletcher 's `` Spontoon '' fanzine . He has also done Science Fiction art and illustration since the late 1970s , as well as straight technical/commercial illustration . He occasionally produces silver bullets for his Argent Small Arms line of replica firearms . More recently , he has been creating masters for after-market scale model aircraft detail/correction/conversion sets . Gallacci lives in Seattle with his two dogs . His wife of twenty-two years , the long time SF and media fan Beverley Clark , died 16 September 2007 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Steve_Gallacci\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 83682\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hapke parameters Content: The Hapke parameters are a set of parameters for an empirical model that is commonly used to describe the directional reflectance properties of the airless regolith surfaces of bodies in the solar system . The model has been developed by astronomer Bruce Hapke at the University of Pittsburgh . The parameters are : -- Single scattering albedo . This is the ratio of scattering efficiency to total light extinction ( which includes also absorption ) , for small-particle scattering of light . That is , , where is the scattering coefficient , and is the absorption coefficient -- The width of the opposition surge . or -- The strength of the opposition surge . or g -- The particle phase function parameter , also called the asymmetry factor . -- The effective surface tilt , also called the macroscopic roughness angle . The Hapke parameters can be used to derive other albedo and scattering properties such as the geometric albedo , the phase integral , and the Bond albedo .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Hapke_parameters\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 83587\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wabedo, Minnesota Content: Wabedo is an unincorporated community in Wabedo Township , Cass County , Minnesota , United States , near Longville . It is along Cass County Road 54 near the junction with County Road 120 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Wabedo,_Minnesota\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 83578\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Neoglaciation Content: The neoglaciation ( `` renewed glaciation '' ) describes the documented cooling trend in the Earth 's climate during the Holocene , following the retreat of the Wisconsin glaciation , the most recent glacial period . Neoglaciation has followed the hypsithermal or Holocene Climatic Optimum , the warmest point in the Earth 's climate during the current interglacial stage . The neoglaciation has no well-marked universal beginning : local conditions and ecological inertia affected the onset of detectably cooler ( and wetter ) conditions . Driven inexorably by the Milankovitch cycle , cooler summers in higher latitudes of North America , which would cease to completely melt the annual snowfall , were masked at first by the presence of the slowly disappearing continental ice sheets , which persisted long after the astronomically calculated moment of maximum summer warmth : `` the neoglaciation can be said to have begun when the cooling caught up with the warming '' , remarked E. C. Pielou . With the close of the `` Little Ice Age '' ( mid-14th to late 19th centuries ) , neoglaciation appears to have been stalled in the late 20th century , assumed to be caused by anthropogenic global warming . Whether it has been temporarily or semi-permanently stalled , neoglaciation has been marked by a retreat from the warm conditions of the Climatic Optimum and the advance or reformation of glaciers that had not existed since the last ice age . In the mountains of western North America , montane glaciers that had completely melted reformed shortly before 5000 BP . The most severe part of the best documented neoglacial period , especially in Europe and the North Atlantic , is termed the `` Little Ice Age '' . In North America , neoglaciation had ecological effects in the spread of muskeg on flat , poorly drained land , such as the bed of recently drained Lake Agassiz and in the Hudson Bay lowlands , in the retreat of grassland before an advancing forest border in the Great Plains , and in shifting ranges of forest trees and diagnostic plant species ( identified through palynology ) . The view that neoglaciation is ending in present times , is assumed by those who identify the most recent climate changes and global warming as the onset of a new period in Earth history , speculatively calling it the `` Early anthropocene '' , as a coming geological age dominated by the effects of Homo sapiens .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Neoglaciation\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 83576\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of albedo features on Mercury Content: This is a list of the albedo features of the planet Mercury as seen by early telescopic observation . Early telescopic observations of Mercury were based on the assumption that Mercury keeps one of its faces permanently turned toward the Sun , through the mechanism of tidal locking . Although this is not true ( Mercury rotates three times on its axis for every two revolutions around the Sun ) , when it is positioned for best viewing from Earth , the amount by which its visible face has rotated from its previous best viewing position is fairly small . A map of Mercury made in the 1910s by astronomer Eugène Michel Antoniadi shows the following albedo features , localized by a grid in which 0 ° longitude is the ( assumed ) subsolar meridian . No certain connection has been made between these features and the topographic features viewed on Mercury by the Mariner 10 spacecraft . Mariner 10 , however , imaged less than half of Mercury 's surface . The names are drawn from Greek mythology , and often allude to myths about Hermes , the Greek equivalent of the Roman god Mercury .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_albedo_features_on_Mercury\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 83116\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tartarus Montes Content: The Tartarus Montes are a mountain range on the planet Mars , stretching over 1070 km and located around the coordinates 15.46 º N , 167.54 º E , between Orcus Patera and the Elysium volcanic region . Albedo was first identified from the contrast of bright and dark signals photographed by Eugène Antoniadi .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Tartarus_Montes\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 82766\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1169 Alwine Content: 1169 Alwine , provisional designation , is an asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 8 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 30 August 1930 , by German and Italian astronomers Max Wolf and Mario Ferrero at Heidelberg Observatory in southwest Germany . Alwine orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.0 -- 2.7 AU once every 3 years and 6 months ( 1,290 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.15 and an inclination of 4 ° with respect to the ecliptic . As no precoveries were taken , and no prior identifications were made , Alwines observation arc begins with its official discovery observation at Heidelberg in 1930 . According to the survey carried out by NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , Alwine measures 7.89 kilometers in diameter , and its surface has an albedo of 0.179 . Based on a generic magnitude-to-diameter conversion , its diameter is between 7 and 17 kilometers for an absolute magnitude of 12.8 and an albedo in the range of 0.05 to 0.25 . As of 2017 , no rotational lightcurves have been obtained . The body 's rotation period , pole and shape remain unknown . This minor planet is named after a common German female name . Any reference of this name to a person or occurrence is unknown .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"1169_Alwine\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 82276\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Classical albedo features on Mars Content: The classical albedo features of Mars are the light and dark features that can be seen on the planet Mars through an Earth-based telescope . Before the age of space probes , several astronomers created maps of Mars on which they gave names to the features they could see . The most popular system of nomenclature was devised by Giovanni Schiaparelli , who used names from classical antiquity . Today , the improved understanding of Mars enabled by space probes has rendered many of the classical names obsolete for the purposes of cartography ; however , some of the old names are still used to describe geographical features on the planet .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Classical_albedo_features_on_Mars\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 82171\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Citrinitas Content: Citrinitas , sometimes referred to as xanthosis , is a term given by alchemists to `` yellowness . '' It was one of the four major stages of the alchemical magnum opus , and literally referred to `` transmutation of silver into gold '' or `` yellowing of the lunar consciousness . '' In alchemical philosophy , citrinitas stood for the dawning of the `` solar light '' inherent in one 's being , and that the reflective `` lunar or soul light '' was no longer necessary . The other three alchemical stages were nigredo ( blackness ) , albedo ( whiteness ) , and rubedo ( redness ) . Psychologist Carl Jung is credited with interpreting the alchemical process as analogous to modern-day psychoanalysis . In the Jungian archetypal schema , nigredo is the Shadow ; albedo refers to the anima and animus ( contrasexual soul images ) ; citrinitas is the wise old man ( or woman ) archetype ; and rubedo is the Self archetype which has achieved wholeness .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Citrinitas\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 80527\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Comet nucleus Content: The nucleus is the solid , central part of a comet , popularly termed a dirty snowball or an icy dirtball . A cometary nucleus is composed of rock , dust , and frozen gases . When heated by the Sun , the gases sublimate and produce an atmosphere surrounding the nucleus known as the coma . The force exerted on the coma by the Sun 's radiation pressure and solar wind cause an enormous tail to form , which points away from the Sun . A typical comet nucleus has an albedo of 0.04 . This is blacker than coal , and may be caused by a covering of dust . Results from the Rosetta and Philae spacecraft show that the nucleus of 67P/Churyumov -- Gerasimenko has no magnetic field , which suggests that magnetism may not have played a role in the early formation of planetesimals . Further , the ALICE spectrograph on Rosetta determined that electrons ( within 1 km above the comet nucleus ) produced from photoionization of water molecules by solar radiation , and not photons from the Sun as thought earlier , are responsible for the degradation of water and carbon dioxide molecules released from the comet nucleus into its coma . On 30 July 2015 , scientists reported that the Philae spacecraft , that landed on comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko in November 2014 , detected at least 16 organic compounds , of which four ( including acetamide , acetone , methyl isocyanate and propionaldehyde ) were detected for the first time on a comet .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Comet_nucleus\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 80244\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1394 Algoa Content: 1394 Algoa , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 14 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 12 June 1936 , by English-born South-African astronomer Cyril Jackson at Union Observatory in Johannesburg , South Africa . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.3 -- 2.6 AU once every 3 years and 10 months ( 1,391 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.08 and an inclination of 3 ° with respect to the ecliptic . Prior to its discovery observation in 1936 , Algoa was identified as and at Lowell Observatory and Uccle Observatory , respectively . These observations , however , remained unused to extend the body 's observation arc . In 2012 , two rotational light-curves of Algoa were obtained at the U.S. Etscorn Observatory , New Mexico , and at the Riverland Dingo Observatory , Australia . They gave a well-defined , concurring rotation period of 2.768 hours with a brightness variation of 0.20 and 0.21 magnitude , respectively . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for stony asteroids of 0.20 , and calculates a diameter of 14.2 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 11.6 . The minor planet is named after the historical Algoa Bay , located approximately 700 kilometers east of the Cape of Good Hope , South Africa . Naming citation was published before November 1977 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"1394_Algoa\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 79928\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 11824 Alpaidze Content: 11824 Alpaidze , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid from the middle region of the asteroid belt , approximately 5 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 16 September 1982 , by Russian astronomer Lyudmila Chernykh at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory , Nauchnyj , on the Crimean peninsula . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.8 -- 3.4 AU once every 4 years and 3 months ( 1,563 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.31 and an inclination of 2 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was obtained at Palomar Observatory in 1978 . However , the observation was not used to extend the asteroid 's observation arc . Two rotational light-curves of this asteroid were obtained from photometric observations made at the U.S. Palomar Transient Factory , California , in September 2009 . The fragmentary light-curves gave a rotation period of and hours with a brightness amplitude of 0.05 and 0.06 in magnitude , respectively . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.10 , untypically low for a stony asteroid , and calculates a diameter of 4.8 kilometers , based on an absolute magnitude of 14.7 . The minor planet is named after Georgian-born Soviet Lieutenant General Galaktion Alpaidze ( 1916 -- 2006 ) , Hero of the Soviet Union and laureate of the USSR State Prize . He was the head of the Plesetsk Cosmodrome in the 1960s and 1970s , where space crafts were tested . During his supervision , the Cosmodrome became the world 's most active launch site in the world . Naming citation was published on 2 April 2007 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"11824_Alpaidze\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 78719\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Dynamic Albedo of Neutrons Content: The Dynamic Albedo of Neutrons ( DAN ) instrument is an experiment mounted on the Mars Science Laboratory Curiosity rover . It is a pulsed sealed-tube neutron source and detector used to measure hydrogen or ice and water at or near the Martian surface . DAN was provided by the Russian Federal Space Agency , funded by Russia and is under the leadership of Principal Investigator Igor Mitrofanov . On August 18 , 2012 ( sol ) , DAN was turned on , marking the success of a Russian-American collaboration on the surface of Mars and the first working Russian science instrument on the Martian surface since Mars 3 stopped transmitting over forty years ago . The instrument is designed to detect subsurface water . On March 18 , 2013 ( sol ) , NASA reported evidence of mineral hydration , likely hydrated calcium sulfate , in several rock samples including the broken fragments of `` Tintina '' rock and `` Sutton Inlier '' rock as well as in veins and nodules in other rocks like `` Knorr '' rock and `` Wernicke '' rock . Analysis using the rover 's DAN instrument provided evidence of subsurface water , amounting to as much as 4 % water content , down to a depth of 60 cm , in the rover 's traverse from the Bradbury Landing site to the Yellowknife Bay area in the Glenelg terrain . On August 19 , 2015 , NASA scientists reported that the DAN instrument on Curiosity detected an unusual hydrogen-rich area , at `` Marias Pass , '' on Mars . The hydrogen found seemed related to water or hydroxyl ions in rocks within three feet beneath the rover , according to the scientists .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Dynamic_Albedo_of_Neutrons\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 78090\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Claritas Fossae Content: Claritas Fossae is a group of troughs in the Phoenicis Lacus and Thaumasia quadrangles of Mars , located at 31.5 S and 104.1 W . The structure is 2,050.0 km long and was named after a classical albedo feature name . Long narrow depressions on Mars are called fossae . This term is derived from Latin ; therefore fossa is singular and fossae is plural . Troughs form when the crust is stretched until it breaks . The stretching can be due to the large weight of a nearby volcano . Fossae/pit craters are common near volcanoes in the Tharsis and Elysium regions . A trough often has two breaks with a middle section moving down , leaving steep cliffs along the sides ; such a trough is called a graben .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Claritas_Fossae\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 77742\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 7959 Alysecherri Content: 7959 Alysecherri , provisional designation , is a bright , stony Hungaria asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 3 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 2 August 1994 , by American astronomer Carl Hergenrother at the U.S. Steward Observatory Catalina Station on Mt Bigelow near Tucson , Arizona . The E-type asteroid is a member of the Hungaria family , which form the innermost dense concentration of asteroids in the Solar System . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.8 -- 2.1 AU once every 2 years and 9 months ( 989 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.09 and an inclination of 19 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at Palomar Observatory in 1951 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 43 years prior to its discovery . A rotational light-curve for this asteroid was obtained from photometric observations made by American astronomer Brian Warner at the U.S. Palmer Divide Observatory , Colorado , in July 2013 . It gave a rotation period of hours with a brightness amplitude of 0.13 in magnitude . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.30 and calculates a diameter of 3.05 kilometers . The minor planet is named after the maiden name of the discovering astronomer 's wife , Alyse Cherri Smith . Naming citation was published on 13 November 2008 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"7959_Alysecherri\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 77681\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wabedo Lake Content: Wabedo Lake is a lake in Cass County , Minnesota , in the United States . Wabedo Lake was named for a Ojibwe warrior killed by Sioux . The Wabedo Lake is 1,185 acres in size and it is approximately 95 feet deep at its deepest point . Wabedo Lake is located 4 1/2 miles south of Longville off of Highway 54 . Anglers , a person who fishes with a rod and line , can anticipate to catch 15 different types of fish . These 15 different fish species are : Black Bullhead , Black Crappie , Bluegill , Brown Bullhead , Largemouth Bass , Muskellunge ( Muskie ) , Northern Pike , Pumpkinseed , Rock Bass , Smallmouth Bass , Walleye , White Sucker , Yellow Bullhead and Yellow Perch .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Wabedo_Lake\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 77626\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hockey stick graph Content: Hockey stick graphs present the global or hemispherical mean temperature record of the past 500 to 2000 years as shown by quantitative climate reconstructions based on climate proxy records . These reconstructions have consistently shown a slow long term cooling trend changing into relatively rapid warming in the 20th century , with the instrumental temperature record by 2000 exceeding earlier temperatures . The term `` hockey stick graph '' was coined by the climatologist Jerry Mahlman , to describe the pattern shown by the ( MBH99 ) reconstruction , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat with a downward trend to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' followed by a sharp , steady increase corresponding to the `` blade '' portion . The reconstructions have featured in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports as evidence of global warming . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . Paleoclimatology dates back to the 19th century , and the concept of examining varves in lake beds and tree rings to track local climatic changes was suggested in the 1930s . In the 1960s , Hubert Lamb generalised from historical documents and temperature records of central England to propose a Medieval Warm Period from around 900 to 1300 , followed by Little Ice Age . This was the basis of a `` schematic diagram '' featured in the IPCC First Assessment Report of 1990 beside cautions that the medieval warming might not have been global . The use of indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed , and by the late 1990s a number of competing teams of climatologists found indications that recent warming was exceptional . introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large scale reconstructions . Their study was featured in the IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . In 1998 Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 with shading emphasising that uncertainties ( to two standard error limits ) were much greater in earlier centuries . independently produced a CPS reconstruction extending back for a thousand years , and ( MBH99 ) used the MBH98 methodology to extend their study back to 1000 . A version of the MBH99 graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , which also drew on Jones et al. 1998 and three other reconstructions to support the conclusion that , in the Northern Hemisphere , the 1990s was likely to have been the warmest decade and 1998 the warmest year during the past 1,000 years . The graph became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th century warmth was exceptional . In 2003 , as lobbying over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol intensified , a paper claiming greater medieval warmth was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy . Later in 2003 , Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick published disputing the data used in MBH98 paper . In 2004 Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal components analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . Their analysis was subsequently disputed by published papers including and which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . Political disputes led to the formation of a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council , their North Report in 2006 supported Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , support the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Further reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Hockey_stick_graph\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 77269\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Starlight Content: Starlight is the light emitted by stars . It typically refers to visible electromagnetic radiation from stars other than the Sun observable from Earth during the night time although a component of starlight is observable from the Earth during the daytime . Sunlight is the term used for the Sun 's starlight observed during daytime . During nighttime , albedo describes solar reflections from other Solar System objects including moonlight . Observation and measurement of starlight through telescopes is the basis for many fields of astronomy , including photometry and stellar spectroscopy . Hipparchus did not have a telescope or any instrument that could measure apparent brightness accurately , so he simply made estimates with his eyes . He sorted the stars into six brightness categories , which he called magnitudes . He referred to the brightest stars in his catalog as first-magnitudes stars , which were the brightest stars and those so faint he could barely see them were sixth-magnitude stars . Starlight is also a notable part of personal experience and human culture , impacting a diverse range of pursuits including poetry , astronomy , and military strategy . The United States Army spent millions of dollars in the 1950s and onward to develop a starlight scope , that could amplify starlight , moonlight filtered by clouds , and the fluorescence of rotting vegetation about 50,000 times to allow a person to see in the night . In contrast to previously developed active infrared system such as sniperscope , it was a passive device and did not require additional light emission to see . The average color of starlight in the observable universe is a shade of yellowish-white that has been given the name Cosmic Latte . Starlight spectroscopy , examination of the stellar spectra , was pioneered by Joseph Fraunhofer in 1814 . Starlight can be understood to be composed of three main spectra types , continuous spectrum , emission spectrum , and absorption spectrum . One of the oldest stars yet identified ( oldest not most distant in this case ) was identified in 2014 , the star SMSS J031300 .362670839.3 was determined to be 6000 light years away but date to 13.8 billion years ago . The starlight shining on Earth would include this star . In the field of photography , there is a specialty of night-time photography especially when subjects are lit primarily by starlight . -LSB- https://books.google.com/books?id=Z7QNrgEACAAJ&dq=starlight+photography&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjivLqj7r3RAhWF5SYKHelUDJsQ6AEIGjAA Directly taking images of night sky is also a part of astrophotography . Starlight astrophotography can also be used for the pursuit of science and/or leisure . Starlight photography can be important for observing nocturnal animals . In many cases starlight photography may also overlap with a need to understand the impact of moonlight .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Starlight\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 76356\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cooling (disambiguation) Content: Cooling is the transfer of thermal energy via thermal radiation , heat conduction or convection . Cooling may also refer to : Cooling ( surname ) , any of several people `` Cooling '' , a song written and performed by Tori Amos on her 1999 album To Venus and Back A Cantonese food classification Cooling , Kent , a village in Kent , England\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Cooling_(disambiguation)\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 76324\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Peter Thejll Content: Peter Andreas Thejll ( born 1956 ) is a Danish astrophysicist and climate researcher . His research in solar variation helped provide evidence of the greenhouse effect on the Earth 's climate in the late 20th century . In particular , his study with Knud Lassen on Northern Hemisphere land air temperature showed that the rise of 0.4 degrees Celsius since 1980 could not be accounted for by the solar cycle . Climatologists have pointed to this finding as an `` actual piece of evidence for greenhouse warming '' . Thejll received his undergraduate education at the University of Copenhagen . He received an M.S. in physics and a Ph.D. in astrophysics from the University of Delaware . Thejll was a Carlsberg Fellow at the Niels Bohr Institute and worked at the Nordic Institute for Theoretical Physics . Thejll currently is a senior scientist at the Danish Meteorological Institute in Copenhagen . He is currently involved in the creation of a global automatic system to observe the Earth 's reflectivity - albedo - using observations of the earthshine on the Moon . Such data can be used for climate change studies and calibration of satellite data as the measurements deliver independent data on the albedo . A telescope is now installed on Hawaii at the Mauna Loa Observatory . The Swedish research agency VINNOVA is funding this project .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Peter_Thejll\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 76188\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: C/2001 OG108 Content: C/2001 OG108 ( LONEOS ) is a Halley-type comet with an orbital period of 48.51 years . It was discovered on 28 July 2001 by the LONEOS telescope at Lowell Observatory . Observations taken in January and February 2002 showed that the `` asteroid '' had developed a small amount of cometary activity as it approached perihelion . It was subsequently reclassified as a comet . The comet came to perihelion ( closest approach to the Sun ) on 15 March 2002 . The next perihelion passage is calculated to be on 6 June 2050 . The comet has a rotational period of 2.38 ± 0.02 days ( 57.12 hr ) . In 2003 , the comet was estimated to have a mean absolute V magnitude ( H ) of 13.05 ± 0.10 , with an albedo of 0.03 , giving an effective radius of 8.9 ± 0.7 km . Using data from Fernandez ( 2004 -- 2005 ) JPL lists the comet with an albedo of 0.05 and a diameter of 13.6 ± 1.0 km . This comet probably represents the transition between typical Halley-family/long-period comets and extinct comets . Damocloids have been studied as possible extinct cometary candidates due to the similarity of their orbital parameters with those of Halley-family comets .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"C/2001_OG108\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 75932\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Arctic geoengineering Content: Temperatures in the Arctic region have tended to increase more rapidly than the global average . Projections of sea ice loss that are adjusted to take account of recent rapid Arctic shrinkage suggest that the Arctic will likely be free of summer sea ice sometime between 2059 and 2078 . Various climate engineering schemes have been suggested to reduce the chance of significant and irreversible effects such as Arctic methane release . Several climate engineering proposals have been made which are specific to the Arctic . They are usually hydrological in nature , and principally centre upon measures to prevent Arctic ice loss . In addition , other solar radiation management climate engineering techniques , such as stratospheric sulfate aerosols have been proposed . These would cool the Arctic by adjusting the albedo of the atmosphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Arctic_geoengineering\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 75455\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sinus Meridiani Content: Sinus Meridiani is a feature name for an albedo feature on Mars stretching east-west just south of that planet 's equator . It was named by the French astronomer Camille Flammarion in the late 1870s . It has a diameter of 1622 km , and its center is located at 7.12 S and 4 E.\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Sinus_Meridiani\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 75100\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cooling flow Content: A cooling flow occurs according to the theory that the intracluster medium ( ICM ) in the centres of galaxy clusters should be rapidly cooling at the rate of tens to thousands of solar masses per year . This should happen as the ICM ( a plasma ) is quickly losing its energy by the emission of X-rays . The X-ray brightness of the ICM is proportional to the square of its density , which rises steeply towards the centres of many clusters . Also the temperature falls to typically a third or a half of the temperature in the outskirts of the cluster . The typical -LSB- predicted -RSB- timescale for the ICM to cool is relatively short , less than a billion years . As material in the centre of the cluster cools out , the pressure of the overlying ICM should cause more material to flow inwards ( the cooling flow ) . In a steady state , the rate of mass deposition , i.e. the rate at which the plasma cools , is given by where L is the bolometric ( i.e. over the entire spectrum ) luminosity of the cooling region , T is its temperature , k is the Boltzmann constant and μm is the mean molecular mass .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Cooling_flow\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 75009\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Outgoing longwave radiation Content: Outgoing Longwave Radiation ( OLR ) is the energy radiating from the Earth as infrared radiation at low energy to Space . OLR is electromagnetic radiation emitted from Earth and its atmosphere out to space in the form of thermal radiation . The flux of energy transported by outgoing longwave radiation is measured in W/m ² . Over 99 % of outgoing longwave radiation has wavelengths between 4 µm and 100 µm , in the thermal infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum . Contributions with wavelengths larger than 40 µm are small , therefore often only wavelengths up to 50 µm are considered . In the wavelength range between 4 µm and 10 µm the spectrum of outgoing longwave radiation overlaps that of solar radiation , and for various applications different cut-off wavelengths between the two may be chosen . Radiative cooling by outgoing longwave radiation is the primary way the Earth System loses energy . The balance between this loss and the energy gained by radiative heating from incoming solar shortwave radiation determines global heating or cooling of the Earth system ( Energy budget of Earth 's climate ) . Local differences between radiative heating and cooling provide the energy that drives atmospheric dynamics .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Outgoing_longwave_radiation\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 74571\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cooling center Content: A cooling center is a air-conditioned public space set up by local authorities to temporarily deal with the health effects of a heat wave . Cooling centers are meant to prevent hyperthermia caused by heat , humidity , and poor air quality . Cooling centers provide shade , water , and restrooms ; medical attention and referrals to social services may also be offered . Their services are aimed at the homeless , at-risk populations such as the elderly , and those without air conditioning . As the danger of heat waves has risen in the public consciousness , cooling centers are increasingly used in cities such as New York City , Chicago , Boston , and Toronto , as well as less urban population areas . Cooling centers may also be used in places like Seattle where home air conditioning is rare but summer can bring temperatures exceeding 90 F for several days . They are usually sited at multiple locations throughout a municipality , such as public libraries , community centers , senior centers , and police stations . Another health measure sometimes taken during heat waves is to extend operational hours at public beaches and swimming pools .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Cooling_center\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 73968\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cooling curve Content: A cooling curve is a line graph that represents the change of phase of matter , typically from a gas to a solid or a liquid to a solid . The independent variable ( X-axis ) is time and the dependent variable ( Y-axis ) is temperature . Below is an example of a cooling curve used in castings . The initial point of the graph is the starting temperature of the matter , here noted as the `` pouring temperature '' . When the phase change occurs there is a `` thermal arrest '' , that is the temperature stays constant . This is because the matter has more internal energy as a liquid or gas than in the state that it is cooling to . The amount of energy required for a phase change is known as latent heat . The `` cooling rate '' is the slope of the cooling curve at any point .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Cooling_curve\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 73350\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wibjörn Karlén Content: Wibjörn Karlén ( born 26 August 1937 in Kristine , Kopparberg County , Sweden ) , Ph.D. , is a professor emeritus of physical geography and quaternary geology at Stockholm University , Sweden . In an article which describes Karlén as a paleoclimatologist , he is quoted as saying : `` One of the big problems with trying to determine long-term temperature changes , is that weather records only go back to about 1860 . By relying on statistical reconstruction of the last 1000 years , using only the temperature patterns of the last 140 years instead of actual temperature readings , the IPCC report and Summary missed both a major cooling period as well as a significant warming trend during that millennium . '' Karlén has also criticized the mainstream media for `` spreading the exaggerated views of a human impact on climate . '' He was also named in a 2007 minority report of the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee as one of 400 `` prominent scientists '' who were said to dispute global warming . In 2010 , he predicted that natural climate changes , caused to a large degree by the sun 's activity , would more likely make the climate colder than warmer in the next decades . He is a contributing author to the Fraser Institute 2007 Independent Summary for Policymakers . Karlén is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Wibjörn_Karlén\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 73277\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: K-type asteroid Content: K-type asteroids are relatively uncommon asteroids with a moderately reddish spectrum shortwards of 0.75 μm , and a slight bluish trend longwards of this . They have a low albedo . Their spectrum resembles that of CV and CO meteorites . These asteroids were described as `` featureless '' S-types in the Tholen classification . The K-type was proposed by J. F. Bell and colleagues in 1988 for bodies having a particularly shallow 1 μm absorption feature , and lacking the 2 μm absorption . These were found during studies of the Eos family of asteroids .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"K-type_asteroid\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 73154\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Amenthes Fossae Content: The Amenthes Fossae are a system of troughs in the Amenthes quadrangle of Mars centered at 9.07 ° N and 102.68 ° E . They are 850 km across and were named after a classical albedo feature . The classical albedo feature name was based on the Egyptian name for a place where souls of the dead go ( Amenthes or Duat ) . The name Amenthes Fossae was approved in 1976 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Amenthes_Fossae\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 72934\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Albiorix (moon) Content: Albiorix ( -LSB- ˌælbiˈɒrᵻks -RSB- ) is a prograde irregular satellite of Saturn . It was discovered by Holman and colleagues in 2000 , and given the temporary designation S/2000 S 11 . Albiorix is the largest member of the Gallic group of irregular satellites . It was named in August 2003 for Albiorix , `` a Gallic giant who was considered to be the king of the world . '' The name is known from an inscription found near the French town of Sablet which identifies him with the Roman god Mars ( an interpretatio romana ) . Albiorix orbits Saturn at a distance of about 16 million km and its diameter is estimated at 32 kilometers , assuming an albedo of 0.04 . The rotation period was measured by the ISS camera of the Cassini spacecraft to 13 hours and 19 minutes . The diagram illustrates the Albiorigian orbit in relation to other prograde irregular satellites of Saturn . The eccentricity of the orbits is represented by the yellow segments extending from the pericentre to the apocentre . Given the similarity of the orbital elements and the homogeneity of the physical characteristics with other members of the Gallic group , it was suggested that these satellites could have a common origin in the break-up of a larger moon . Varying colours revealed recently suggest a possibility of a large crater , leading to an alternative hypothesis that Erriapus and Tarvos could be fragments of Albiorix following a near-break-up collision with another body .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Albiorix_(moon)\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 72799\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bi-hemispherical reflectance Content: Bi-hemispherical reflectance is the reflectance of a surface under diffuse illumination ( with no direct component ) . Bi-hemispherical reflectance is an important part of the Bidirectional reflectance distribution function over all viewing and illumination directions of a hemisphere . It is sometimes called `` white-sky albedo '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Bi-hemispherical_reflectance\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 72790\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 6470 Aldrin Content: 6470 Aldrin , provisional designation , is a stony Flora asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 3 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by Czech astronomer Antonín Mrkos at Kleť Observatory on 14 September 1982 . The S-type asteroid is a member of the Flora family , one of the largest groups of stony asteroids in the main-belt . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.9 -- 2.6 AU once every 3 years and 5 months ( 1,253 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.15 and an inclination of 3 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The asteroid 's observation arc begins in 1982 , as no precoveries had been taken prior to its discovery . A rotational light-curve of this asteroid was obtained from photometric observations made at the U.S. Palomar Transient Factory in September 2013 . The light-curve gave a rotation period of hours with a brightness variation of 0.82 in magnitude . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.24 -- which derives from 8 Flora , the largest member and namesake of this orbital family -- and calculates a diameter of 3.0 kilometers , based on an absolute magnitude of 14.78 . The minor planet was named for American astronaut Buzz Aldrin ( b. 1930 ) , on the occasion of the 30th anniversary of the Apollo 11 mission . He was one of the first two humans to land on the Moon , and the second person to walk on it , following Neil Armstrong , after whom the asteroid 6469 Armstrong is named . Its name was suggested by Czech astronomers Jana Tichá , Miloš Tichý and Zdeněk Moravec , who observed the asteroid during its 1995-opposition , shortly before being numbered . Naming citation was published on 4 May 1999 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"6470_Aldrin\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 72719\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coolhunting Content: Coolhunting is a neologism coined in the early 1990s referring to a new kind of marketing professionals who make observations and predictions in changes of new or existing `` cool '' cultural fads and trends . Coolhunting is also referred to as `` trend spotting , '' and is a subset of trend analysis . Coolhunters resemble the intuitive fashion magazine editors of the 1960s such as Nancy White ( Harper 's Bazaar 1958 -- 1971 ) . Coolhunters operate mostly in the world of street fashion and design , but their work also blurs into that of futurists such as Faith Popcorn .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Coolhunting\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 72567\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 84882 Table Mountain Content: 84882 Table Mountain , provisional designation , is a bright asteroid from the middle region of the asteroid belt , approximately 5 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 1 February 2003 , by American astronomer James Whitney Young at the U.S. Table Mountain Observatory near Wrightwood , California . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.9 -- 3.4 AU once every 4 years and 3 months ( 1,566 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.29 and an inclination of 14 ° with respect to the ecliptic . It was first identified as at Lincoln Laboratory 's Experimental Test Site in 1997 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 6 years prior to its discovery observation . As of 2016 , the asteroid 's composition , rotation period and shape remain unknown . According to the survey carried out by the NEOWISE mission of NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , the asteroid measures 3.0 kilometers in diameter and its surface has a high albedo of 0.306 . Based on an assumed albedo in the range of 0.05 -- 0.25 and an absolute magnitude of 14.7 , the asteroid 's generic diameter measures would be between 3 and 7 kilometers , as the higher the body 's reflectivity ( albedo ) , the smaller is its diameter at a constant absolute magnitude ( brightness ) . The minor planet was named for the Table Mountain Observatory , the discoverer 's workplace , currently a NASA facility operated by the California Institute of Technology 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory , which began operation as a Smithsonian Institution site in 1924 to study the solar constant . In the late 1950s , the site was used to test the first solar panels and is now dedicated to optical astronomy and to study Earth 's atmosphere . Citation was published on 28 October 2004 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"84882_Table_Mountain\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 72094\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Directional-hemispherical reflectance Content: Directional-hemispherical reflectance is the reflectance of a surface under direct illumination ( with no diffuse component ) . Directional-hemispherical reflectance is the integral of the BRDF over all viewing directions . It is sometimes called `` black-sky albedo '' . See also : Bi-hemispherical reflectance Category : Electromagnetic radiation Category : Climatology\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Directional-hemispherical_reflectance\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 71826\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 10P/Tempel Content: 10P/Tempel , also known as Tempel 2 , is a periodic Jupiter-family comet in the Solar System . It was discovered in 1873 and has an orbital period of 5.3 years . The comet nucleus is estimated to be 10.6 kilometers in diameter with a low albedo of 0.022 . The nucleus is dark because hydrocarbons on the surface have been converted to a dark , tarry like substance by solar ultraviolet radiation . During the 2010 apparition the comet brightened to about apparent magnitude 8 . It next comes to perihelion ( closest approach to the Sun ) on 14 November 2015 when it should brighten to around magnitude 11 . The most favorable apparition of 10P/Tempel 2 was in 1925 when it came within 0.35 AU of Earth with an apparent magnitude of 6.5 . On August 3 , 2026 , comet Tempel 2 is expected to have another close pass within about 0.41 AU of Earth .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"10P/Tempel\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 71730\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Lebedodes ianrobertsoni Content: Lebedodes ianrobertsoni is a moth in the Cossidae family . It is found in Tanzania , where it has been recorded from the central subregion of the Eastern Arc Mountains probably extending further east into the drier coastal forests . The length of the forewings is about 9 mm . The forewings are pale orange-yellow with buckthorn brown transverse lines and striae . The hindwings are ivory yellow , but ecru-olive with a narrow line along the termen .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Lebedodes_ianrobertsoni\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 71475\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Montes Alpes Content: Montes Alpes is a mountain range in the northern part of the Moon 's near side . It was named after the Alps in Europe ; the name was confirmed by the International Astronomical Union in 1935 . It lies between the selenographic coordinates latitudes 52.81 ° N and 42.04 ° N , and longitudes 5.6 ° W and 3.22 ° E . The range thus crosses the lunar prime meridian , and is partially illuminated and partially in shadow during first and last quarters . The center of the range is at 48.36 ° N , 0.58 ° W , and has a diameter of 334 km . This range forms the northeastern border of the Mare Imbrium lunar mare . To the west of the range is the level and nearly featureless mare , while on the eastern face is a more rugged continental area with a higher albedo . The range begins about one crater diameter northwest of the crater Cassini , at the Promontorium Agassiz , then stretches about 280 kilometres to the northwest and continues in intermittent fashion and the mountains proper end shy of one crater length from the eastern rim of the dark-floored crater Plato . The system of rilles named Rimae Plato may be found in between the eastern edge of Plato and the western edge of the Alpes mountains . The peaks of the Alpes range in height from 1,800 m to 2,400 m. The Alpes range was part of the middle ring of the multi-ringed Imbrium Basin . The other mountain ranges around the Imbrium Basin ( Montes Caucasus , Montes Apenninus , and Montes Carpatus ) were part of the outer ring . The Alpes , being part of the middle ring , thus have a shorter radius to the center of Imbrium than the other ranges of the basin . The northwestern third of the range is separated from the remainder of the mountains by the Vallis Alpes , a wide rift valley that extends from a narrow cleft in the Montes Alpes to the northeast , reaching the edge of the Mare Frigoris . The total length of this formation is about 166 km , and it reaches a maximum width of 10 km . Running down the center of this valley is a narrow cleft which is not observable through smaller telescopes . Sunrise and sunset in this area occur before the respective lunar quarters . About one-third the length of the range from the southeast is Mons Blanc , a peak rising to a height of 3.6 km . This compares to a typical height of peaks in this range of 1.8 to 2.4 km . Midway between Mons Blanc and Promontorium Agassiz is Promontorium Deville . To the southwest of Promontorium Agassiz is the isolated Mons Piton , a peak rising to a height of 2.3 km . Blanc , Piton , and the Montes Teneriffe make up part of the inner ring of the Imbrium Basin .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Montes_Alpes\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 71172\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tractus Fossae Content: The Tractus Fossae are a set of troughs in the Tharsis quadrangle of Mars , located at 26 ° north latitude and 101.4 ° west longitude . They are 390 km long and are named after a classical albedo feature name . The term `` fossae '' is used to indicate large troughs when using geographical terminology related to Mars . Troughs , sometimes also called grabens , form when the crust is stretched until it breaks , which forms two breaks with a middle section moving down , leaving steep cliffs along the sides . Sometimes , a line of pits form as materials collapse into a void that forms from the stretching .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Tractus_Fossae\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 71115\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Iris hypothesis Content: The iris hypothesis is a hypothesis proposed by Richard Lindzen et al. in 2001 that suggested increased sea surface temperature in the tropics would result in reduced cirrus clouds and thus more infrared radiation leakage from Earth 's atmosphere . His study of observed changes in cloud coverage and modeled effects on infrared radiation released to space as a result supported the hypothesis . This suggested infrared radiation leakage was hypothesized to be a negative feedback in which an initial warming would result in an overall cooling of the surface . The consensus view is that increased sea surface temperature would result in increased cirrus clouds and reduced infrared radiation leakage and therefore a positive feedback . Other scientists subsequently tested the hypothesis . Some concluded that there was no evidence supporting the hypothesis . Others found evidence suggesting that increased sea surface temperature in the tropics did indeed reduce cirrus clouds but found that the effect was nonetheless a positive feedback rather than the negative feedback that Lindzen had hypothesized . A later 2007 study conducted by Roy Spencer et al. using updated satellite data potentially supported the iris hypothesis . In 2011 , Lindzen published a rebuttal to the main criticisms . In 2015 a paper was published which again suggested the possibility of an `` Iris Effect '' . It also proposed what it called a `` plausible physical mechanism for an iris effect . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Iris_hypothesis\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 71050\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cerberus (Martian albedo feature) Content: Cerberus is a large `` dark spot '' ( an albedo feature ) located on Mars and named after the mythical dog Cerberus . The arcuate markings in the upper right are in the Amazonis plains and may be sand drifts . The Elysium volcano , a yellow area north of Cerberus , has several channels radiating from its flanks . The three bright spots , upper left , are volcanoes partially veiled by thin clouds . High resolution images show the bulk of the Cerberus Plains is covered by platy-ridged and inflated lavas , which are interpreted as insulated sheet flows . Eastern Cerberus Plains lavas originate at Cerberus Fossae fissures and shields . Some flows extend for 2000 km through Marte Valles into Amazonis Planitia . Athabasca Valles are both incised into pristine lavas and embayed by pristine lavas , indicating that Athabascan fluvial events were contemporaneous with volcanic eruptions . Deposits of the Medusae Fossae Formation lie both over and under lavas , suggesting the deposition of the Medusae Fossae Formation was contemporaneous with volcanism . Statistics of small craters indicate lavas in the Western Cerberus Plains may be less than a million years old , but the model isochrons may be unreliable if the small crater population is dominated by secondary craters . Images showing no large craters with diameters 500 m superimposed on Western Cerberus Plains lavas indicate the same surface is younger than 49 Ma .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Cerberus_(Martian_albedo_feature)\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 70807\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 113390 Helvetia Content: 113390 Helvetia , provisional designation , is an asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 2.2 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 29 September 2002 , by Swiss astronomer Markus Griesser at the Eschenberg Observatory in Winterthur , near Zürich , Switzerland . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.8 -- 2.8 AU once every 3 years and 6 months ( 1,276 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.20 and an inclination of 7 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at Palomar Observatory in 1960 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 42 years prior to its discovery . As of 2016 , the asteroid 's shape , composition and rotation period remain unknown . Based on its absolute magnitude of 15.6 , its diameter lies between 2 and 4 kilometers , assuming an albedo in the range of 0.05 to 0.25 . According to the survey carried out by the NEOWISE mission of NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , the asteroid measures 2.2 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.231 , which is typical for stony asteroids . The minor planet was named in February 2006 and bears the name for Switzerland ( Confoederatio Helvetica ) , where the asteroid was discovered . Helvetia is also an allegorical figure and symbol for the nation . Each Swiss stamp carries her name , and her figure appears on most Swiss coins . Naming citation was published on 19 February 2006 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"113390_Helvetia\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 70797\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 30564 Olomouc Content: 30564 Olomouc ( -LSB- ˈolomoʊ̯ts -RSB- ) provisionally designated , is an asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt . It was discovered by Czech astronomer Petr Pravec on July 28 , 2001 at Ondřejov Observatory and was named after Olomouc , a city in central Moravia , the Czech Republic , where the discoverer lived . The citation accompanying the suggestion of the name and published in the Minor Planet Circular on 6 January 2003 said : `` The city of Olomouc is the center of Hanakia in the heart of Moravia . The seat of Catholic bishops since 1063 and Moravian primates since 1777 , it has been home to a university since 1573 , now called Palacký University . '' The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.2 -- 3.0 AU once every 4 years and 2 months ( 1,529 days ) . Its orbit shows an eccentricity of 0.14 and an inclination of 4 degrees from the plane of the ecliptic . Little is known about the asteroids size , chemical and mineralogical composition , albedo and rotation , despite having a well-observed orbit with the lowest possible uncertainty ( i.e. a condition code of 0 ) and an observation arc that spans over a period of more than 20 years . On the basis of its absolute magnitude in the visible light spectrum and supposed albedo ( which usually varies from 0.05 to 0.25 for the main-belt asteroids ) its diameter could be anywhere between 3 and 6 kilometers . Since asteroids in the inner main-belt are typically of a silicaceous rather than of a carbonaceous composition , with albedos around 0.20 , the body 's diameter might be on the lower end of NASA 's published conversion table , as the higher the reflectivity ( albedo ) , the smaller the body 's diameter for the given absolute magnitude of 15.0 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"30564_Olomouc\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 70759\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cooling Content: Cooling is the transfer of thermal energy via thermal radiation , heat conduction or convection . Examples include :\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Cooling\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 70519\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sympathetic cooling Content: Sympathetic cooling is a process in which particles of one type cool particles of another type . Typically , atomic ions that can be directly laser cooled are used to cool nearby ions or atoms , by way of their mutual Coulomb interaction . This technique allows cooling of ions and atoms that ca n't be cooled directly by laser cooling . This includes most molecular ion species , especially large organic molecules . However , sympathetic cooling is most efficient when the mass/charge ratios of the sympathetic - and laser-cooled ions are similar . The cooling of neutral atoms in this manner was first demonstrated by Christopher Myatt et al. in 1997 . Here , a technique with electric and magnetic fields were used , where atoms with spin in one direction were more weakly confined than those with spin in the opposite direction . The weakly confined atoms with a high kinetic energy were allowed to more easily escape , lowering the total kinetic energy , resulting in a cooling of the strongly confined atoms . Myatt et al. also showed the utility of their version of sympathetic cooling for the creation of Bose -- Einstein condensates\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Sympathetic_cooling\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 70386\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: HD 73256 b Content: HD 73256 b is an 1.87 MJ hot Jupiter orbiting at 0.037 AU taking 2.55 days to orbit around HD 73256 . Assuming the planet is perfectly grey with no greenhouse or tidal effects , and a Bond albedo of 0.1 , the temperature would be about 1300 K . This is close to 51 Pegasi b ; between the predicted temperatures of HD 189733 b and HD 209458 b ( 1180-1392K ) , before they were measured . It is a candidate for `` near-infrared characterisation with the VLTI Spectro-Imager '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"HD_73256_b\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 70234\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of areas of chaos terrain on Mars Content: This is a list of areas of chaos terrain officially named by the International Astronomical Union on the planet Mars . Chaos terrain ( or chaotic terrain ) is an astrogeological term used to denote planetary surface areas where features such as ridges , cracks , and plains appear jumbled and enmeshed with one another . Coordinates are in planetocentric latitude with east longitude . Areas of chaos terrain are usually named after a nearby albedo feature as in line with the IAU 's rules on planetary nomenclature . Such an albedo feature must feature on the maps of Mars made by either Giovanni Schiaparelli or Eugène Michel Antoniadi and are listed at Classical albedo features on Mars .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_areas_of_chaos_terrain_on_Mars\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 70064\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2661 Bydžovský Content: 2661 Bydžovský , provisional designation , is an asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt , approximately 30 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 23 March 1982 , by Czech astronomer Zdeňka Vávrová at the South Bohemian Kleť Observatory in the Czech Republic . Bydžovský orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.7 -- 3.3 AU once every 5 years and 3 months ( 1,923 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.09 and an inclination of 10 ° with respect to the ecliptic . It was first identified as at Heidelberg Observatory in 1950 , extending the body 's observation arc by 32 years prior to its discovery . As of 2016 , Bydžovskýs size , albedo , composition and rotation period remain unknown . Based on its absolute magnitude of 11.4 , its diameter is estimated to measure between 13 and 32 kilometers , assuming an albedo in the range of 0.05 to 0.25 . Since most asteroids in the outer main-belt are of a carbonaceous rather than of a silicaceous composition , with low albedos , typically closer to 0.05 than to 0.25 , the asteroid 's diameter might be on the upper end of NASA 's published conversion table , as the lower the reflectivity ( albedo ) , the larger the body 's diameter for a given absolute magnitude . The minor planet was named in honour of mathematician Bohumil Bydžovský ( 1880 -- 1969 ) , chancellor of the Charles University in Prague . He was born in southern Bohemia and became the most eminent citizen of the Czech town Veselí on the Lužnice river , after which the minor planets 2321 Lužnice and 2599 Veselí were named , respectively . Naming citation was published on 6 February 1993 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"2661_Bydžovský\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 70027\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Radiative cooling Content: Radiative cooling is the process by which a body loses heat by thermal radiation .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Radiative_cooling\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 69926\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 645 Agrippina Content: 645 Agrippina , provisional designation 1907 AG , is a stony asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt , roughly 30 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by American astronomer reverend Joel Metcalf at Taunton , Massachusetts , USA , on 13 September 1907 . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.7 -- 3.7 AU once every 5 years and 9 months ( 2,103 days ) . Its orbit shows an eccentricity of 0.15 and is tilted by 7 degrees to the plane of the ecliptic . A photometric light-curve analysis from the 1980s and a provisional observation in 2004 rendered a rotation period of 32.6 and 34.4 hours , respectively . According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite , IRAS , the Japanese Akari satellite , and the U.S.Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid has a dissimilar albedo in the range of 0.14 to 0.23 , which leads to a varying estimate for its diameter from 28 to 36 kilometers . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link publishes an albedo of 0.23 from an alternative result of the Supplemental IRAS Minor Planet Survey ( SIMPS ) and derives a slightly lower diameter of 27.9 kilometers . The minor planet was named for two women of ancient Roman history . Agrippina the Elder ( 14 BCE -- 33 ) was the daughter of the Roman statesman Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa , the wife of Germanicus and the mother of the Emperor Caligula . Her daughter , Agrippina the Younger ( 15 -- 59 AD ) was the mother of Emperor Nero . The naming might be influenced by the two letters of the provisional designation 1907 AG . In the Dictionary of Minor Planet Names , Lutz Schmadel supposes that the name originated from a list of female names from mythology and history , compiled by the Astronomisches Rechen-Institut ( ARI ) in 1913 . The ARI then sent this list to a number of astronomers with the request to name their discoveries in order to avoid confusion , as the number of unnamed minor planet up to number 700 had grown significantly at the time .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"645_Agrippina\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 69900\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: (42301) 2001 UR163 Content: , also written as ( 42301 ) 2001 UR163 , is likely a dwarf planet that resides in the scattered disc . It was discovered on October 21 , 2001 by the Deep Ecliptic Survey ( DES ) program at Kitt Peak . Light-curve-amplitude analysis shows only small deviations , suggesting that is a spheroid with small albedo spots . Michael Brown 's website lists it as a highly likely dwarf planet , but the diameter of the object has never been measured . has the reddest color index of any object in the Solar System . On October 31 , 2002 , the 3.6-meter Canada -- France -- Hawaii Telescope observed set a record red reading of B − R = 2.28 . This makes even redder than Pholus , , Sedna and comet C/2001 T4 . Reddening of the spectrum is caused by cosmic irradiation by ultraviolet radiation and charged particles . Becoming bluer in the spectrum is caused by impact collisions exposing the interior of an object . In the visible spectrum , would appear orange-brown , depending on its albedo . It came to perihelion around 1937 . In 2006 , it moved beyond 50 AU from the Sun . It is currently 51.9 AU from the Sun .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"(42301)_2001_UR163\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 69572\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Peel (fruit) Content: Peel , also known as rind or skin , is the outer protective layer of a fruit or vegetable which can be peeled off . The rind is usually the botanical exocarp , but the term exocarp also includes the hard cases of nuts , which are not named peels since they are not peeled off by hand or peeler , but rather shells because of their hardness . A fruit with a thick peel , such as a citrus fruit , is called a hesperidium . In hesperidiums , the inner layer ( also called albedo or , among non-botanists , pith ) is peeled off together with the outer layer ( called flavedo ) , and together they are called the peel . The flavedo and albedo , respectively , are the exocarp and the mesocarp . The juicy layer inside the peel ( containing the seeds ) is the endocarp .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Peel_(fruit)\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 69515\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ronaldo Alves Content: Ronaldo Luiz Alves ( born July 9 , 1989 in Bebedouro ) , known as Ronaldo Alves , is a Brazilian footballer who plays for Náutico , as a central defender .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Ronaldo_Alves\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 69379\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cooling, Kent Content: Cooling is a village and civil parish on the Hoo Peninsula , overlooking the North Kent Marshes , 6 miles north northwest of Rochester , England . According to the 2001 census the parish had a population of 209 , which increased to 216 at the 2011 Census . Cooling was recorded in the Domesday Book when it was held by Bishop Odo of Bayeux ( half-brother of William the Conqueror ) . The most notable surviving feature of the village is Cooling Castle , built on the edge of the marshes during the 12th century to defend the neighbouring port of Cliffe from the threat of French raiders .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Cooling,_Kent\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 69297\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Quaternary glaciation Content: The Quaternary glaciation , also known as the Pleistocene glaciation or the current ice age , is a series of glacial events separated by interglacial events during the Quaternary period from 2.58 Ma ( million years ago ) to present . During this period , ice sheets expanded , notably from out of Antarctica and Greenland , and fluctuating ice sheets occurred elsewhere ( for example , the Laurentide ice sheet ) . The major effects of the ice age are erosion and deposition of material over large parts of the continents , modification of river systems , creation of millions of lakes , changes in sea level , development of pluvial lakes far from the ice margins , isostatic adjustment of the crust , and abnormal winds . It affected oceans , flooding , and biological communities . The ice sheets themselves , by raising the albedo , affect a major feedback on climate cooling .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Quaternary_glaciation\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 69254\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: MaryAnne Tebedo Content: MaryAnne Geivett Tebedo ( born October 30 , 1936 in Denver , Colorado ) was a Colorado State Senator from Colorado Springs . From 1982 through 1988 Tebedo served as a Republican in the Colorado House of Representatives , and was elected to the Colorado State Senate in 1988 . Tebedo completed her legislative career on December 31 , 2001 pursuant to term limits . Tebedo chaired two Senate committees , the Local Government Committee and the State , Military and Veterans Affairs Committee , and served on eight legislative committees . Legislation she sponsored dealt with early education through college , transportation , energy and mining , local government affairs , National Guard , state finance , constitution and elections , large and small business and labor affairs , and the environment . Colorado Springs Gazette columnist Ralph Routon wrote a series of columns supporting the idea of placing all of Colorado on year-round daylight saving time in order to save state residents the `` aggravation of resetting their clocks every six months . '' The idea gathered noticeable popular support within Colorado Springs , and attention of the state 's larger newspapers , but when then state Senator MaryAnne Tebedo attempted to present the idea to the state legislature , her research uncovered Federal laws forbidding the state-initiated extension of daylight saving time . Still determined to relieve Coloradans of the need to change their clocks , Tebedo introduced the only bill legally permitted to her : a proposal to exempt the state of Colorado from DST . The bill failed to escape committee during the 2000 legislative session . MaryAnne is the mother of Kevin Tebedo , a former Executive Director of the organization Colorado for Family Values .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"MaryAnne_Tebedo\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 69230\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1684 Iguassú Content: 1684 Iguassú , provisional designation , is a carbonaceous asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt , approximately 30.5 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 23 August 1951 , by Argentine astronomer Miguel Itzigsohn at the La Plata Astronomical Observatory , located in the city of La Plata , Argentina . The C-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.7 -- 3.5 AU once every 5 years and 5 months ( 1,991 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.12 and an inclination of 4 ° with respect to the ecliptic . In January 2014 , two rotational light-curves of Iguassú were obtained at the Palomar Transient Factory in California . They gave a rotation period of 9.14 and 9.23 hours , respectively , both with a brightness change of in magnitude . According to the survey carried out by NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , Iguassú measures between 30.21 and 31.38 kilometers in diameter , and its surface has an albedo between 0.08 and 0.093 . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for carbonaceous asteroids of 0.057 and calculates a diameter of 30.62 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 11.3 . This minor planet is named for the large Iguazu Falls , a 60 meters high and 1 kilometer wide waterfall , which river of the same name marks part of the boundary between Argentina and Brazil . As a curiosity , the spelling of the minor planet 's name ( Iguassú ) neither concurs with the Spanish `` Iguazú '' nor with the Portuguese `` Iguaçu '' . It is rather similar to `` Yguasu '' , used in the native Guarani language , from which the waterfall 's name originates . Naming citation was published on 8 April 1982 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"1684_Iguassú\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 69060\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 4082 Swann Content: 4082 Swann , provisional designation , is a carbonaceous asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 10 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by American astronomer Carolyn Shoemaker at Palomar Observatory on 27 September 1984 . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.8 -- 3.0 AU once every 3 years and 8 months ( 1,349 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.26 and an inclination of 10 ° with respect to the ecliptic . First identified as `` 1947 UF '' at the Finnish Turku Observatory in 1947 , the asteroid 's observation arc was extended by 37 years prior to its discovery . The C-type asteroid is classified as a Ch-subtype in the SMASS taxonomy . According to the surveys carried out by the Japanese Akari satellite and NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid measures 9.5 and 11.1 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.029 and 0.101 , respectively . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link , however , assumes a standard albedo for stony asteroids of 0.20 and derives a much smaller diameter of 5.85 kilometers , based on an absolute magnitude of 13.46 . In July 2006 , a rotational light-curve for this asteroid was obtained from photometric observations by Petr Pravec at the Ondřejov Observatory in the Czech Republic . It gave a rotation period of hours with a brightness variation of 0.67 magnitude . A second light-curve obtained by Jean-Gabriel Bosch in September 2006 , gave a period of hours and an amplitude of 0.35 magnitude . The minor planet was named after American geologist Gordon A. Swann ( b. 1931 ) . He served as the principal investigator of the `` Apollo Lunar Geologic Experiment '' conducted at the lunar landing sites of Apollo 14 and Apollo 15 . Naming citation was published on 12 December 1989 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"4082_Swann\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 68938\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Radiant cooling Content: A radiant cooling system refers to a temperature-controlled surface that cools indoor temperatures by the removing sensible heat and where more than half of heat transfer occurs through thermal radiation . Heat will flow from objects , occupants , equipment and lights in a space to a cooled surface as long as their temperatures are warmer than that of the cooled surface and they are within the line of sight of the cooled surface . The process of radiant exchange has a negligible effect on air temperature , but through the process of convection , the air temperature will be lowered when air comes in contact with the cooled surface . Radiant cooling systems use the opposite effect of radiant heating systems , which rely on the process of heat flow from a heated surface to objects and occupants .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Radiant_cooling\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 68717\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 341 California Content: 341 California is an asteroid belonging to the Flora family in the Main Belt , that has an unusually high albedo . It was discovered by Max Wolf on 25 September 1892 in Heidelberg .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"341_California\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 68663\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Arbedo-Castione Content: Arbedo-Castione is a municipality in the district of Bellinzona in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Arbedo-Castione\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 68559\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 Content: Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 ( ETM-2 ) , also called H-1 or the Elmo ( Eocene Layer of Mysterious Origin ) event , was a transient period of global warming that occurred approximately 53.7 million years ago ( Ma ) . It appears to be the second major hyperthermal that punctuated the long-term warming trend from the Late Paleocene through the early Eocene ( 58 to 50 Ma ) . The hyperthermals were geologically brief time intervals ( < 200,000 years ) of global warming and massive carbon input . The most extreme and best-studied event , the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM or ETM-1 ) , occurred about 1.8 million years before ETM-2 , at approximately 55.5 Ma . Other hyperthermals likely followed ETM-2 at nominally 53.6 Ma ( H-2 ) , 53.3 ( I-1 ) , 53.2 ( I-2 ) and 52.8 Ma ( informally called K , X or ETM-3 ) . The number , nomenclature , absolute ages and relative global impact of the Eocene hyperthermals are the source of much current research . In any case , the hyperthermals appear to have ushered in the Early Eocene Climatic Optimum , the warmest interval of the Cenozoic Era . They also definitely precede the Azolla event at about 49 Ma . ETM-2 is clearly recognized in sediment sequences by analyzing the stable carbon isotope composition of carbon-bearing material . The 13C/12C ratio of calcium carbonate or organic matter drops significantly across the event . This is similar to what happens when one examines sediment across the PETM , although the magnitude of the negative carbon isotope excursion is not as large . The timing of Earth system perturbations during ETM-2 and the PETM also appear different . Specifically , the onset of ETM-2 may have been longer ( perhaps 30,000 years ) while the recovery seems to have been shorter ( perhaps < 50,000 years ) . ( Note , however , that the timing of short-term carbon cycle perturbations during both events remains difficult to constrain ) . A thin clay-rich horizon marks ETM-2 in marine sediment from widely separated locations . In sections recovered from the deep-sea ( for example those recovered by Ocean Drilling Program Leg 208 on Walvis Ridge ) , this layer is caused by dissolution of calcium carbonate . However , in sections deposited along continental margins ( for example those now exposed along the Clarence River , New Zealand ) , the clay-rich horizon represents dilution by excess accumulation of terrestrial material entering into the ocean . Similar changes in sediment accumulation are found across the PETM . In sediment from Lomonosov Ridge in the Arctic Ocean , intervals across both ETM-2 and the PETM shows signs of higher temperature , lower salinity and lower dissolved oxygen . The PETM and ETM-2 are thought to have a similar generic origin , although this idea is at the edge of current research . During both events , a tremendous amount of 13C-depleted carbon rapidly entered the ocean and atmosphere . This decreased the 13C/12C ratio of carbon-bearing sedimentary components , and dissolved carbonate in the deep ocean . Somehow the carbon input was coupled to an increase in Earth surface temperature and a greater seasonality in precipitation , which explains the excess terrestrial sediment discharge along continental margins . Possible explanations for changes during ETM-2 are the same as those for the PETM , and are discussed under the latter entry . The H-2 event appears to be a `` minor '' hyperthermal that follows ETM-2 ( H-1 ) by about 100,000 years . This has led to speculation that the two events are somehow coupled and paced by changes in orbital eccentricity . As in the case of the PETM , reversible dwarfing of mammals has been noted during the ETM-2 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Eocene_Thermal_Maximum_2\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 68536\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 11441 Anadiego Content: 11441 Anadiego , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid from the middle region of the asteroid belt , approximately 7 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 31 December 1975 , by Argentine astronomer Mario R. Cesco at the El Leoncito Complex in western Argentina . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.9 -- 3.2 AU once every 4 years and 1 month ( 1,497 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.26 and an inclination of 12 ° with respect to the ecliptic . As no precoveries were taken , the asteroid 's observation arc starts with its discovery observation in 1975 . A rotational light-curve was obtained for this asteroid by astronomer Kevin Hills at the Australian Riverland Dingo Observatory in February 2013 . It gave a rotation period of hours with a brightness variation of 0.11 magnitude . According to the surveys carried out by NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid measures 6.8 and 7.3 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.287 and 0.254 , respectively . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a lower standard albedo for stony asteroids of 0.20 , and , correspondingly calculates a larger diameter of 8.2 kilometers , based on an absolute magnitude of 12.8 . The minor planet was named in memory of Ana Teresa Diego ( 1954 -- 1976 ) , an astronomy student at La Plata Astronomical Observatory and political activist who was kidnapped and disappeared in September 1976 by unidentified persons believed working for the military junta then ruling Argentina . Naming citation was published 10 December 2011 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"11441_Anadiego\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 68534\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global cooling (disambiguation) Content: Global cooling was a 1970s conjecture about global climate change . Global cooling may also refer to : In general , one of the means by which Earth can undergo climate change Climate change denial , including contrarian views about global warming in the 20th and 21st centuries Cooling periods on the multimillion-year scale in the geologic temperature record Geophysical global cooling , a conjecture about the formation of natural features that was made obsolete by the theory of plate tectonics Little Ice Age , a period from the 16th to 19th centuries characterized by cooling and coincident with below average sunspots frequency\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_cooling_(disambiguation)\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 68519\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Dilmun (Titan) Content: Dilmun is a region of high albedo on Titan , Saturn 's natural satellite .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Dilmun_(Titan)\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 68450\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Minnaert function Content: The Minnaert function is a photometric function used to interpret astronomical observations and remote sensing data for the Earth . It was named after the astronomer Marcel Minnaert . This function expresses the radiance factor ( RADF ) as a function the phase angle , the photometric latitude and the photometric longitude . where is the Minnaert albedo , is an empirical parameter , is the scattered radiance in the direction , is the incident radiance , and The phase angle is the angle between the light source and the observer with the object as the center . The assumptions made are : the surface is illuminated by a distant point source . the surface is isotropic and flat . Minnaert 's contribution is the introduction of the parameter , having a value between 0 and 1 , originally for a better interpretation of observations of the Moon . In remote sensing the use of this function is referred to as Minnaert topographic correction , a necessity when interpreting images of rough terrain .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Minnaert_function\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 68365\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 28P/Neujmin Content: 28P/Neujmin , also known as Neujmin 1 , is a large periodic comet in the Solar System . With a perihelion distance ( closest approach to the Sun ) of 1.5 AU , this comet does not make close approaches to the Earth . The comet nucleus is estimated to be 21.4 kilometers in diameter with a low albedo of 0.025 . Since 28P has such a large nucleus , it will become brighter than the 20th magnitude in early 2019 , roughly 2 years before coming to perihelion . When it comes to opposition in May 2020 , when it is still 3.5 AU from the Sun , it will likely have an apparent magnitude around 16.9 . But during the 2021 perihelion passage the comet will be on the opposite side of the Sun as the Earth . The comet is not known for bright outbursts of activity .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"28P/Neujmin\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 68341\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 78816 Caripito Content: 78816 Caripito , provisional designation , is an asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt , approximately 5 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 4 August 2003 , by American amateur astronomer and professor of geophysics , Joseph Dellinger , at the U.S. Needville Observatory , Texas . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.4 -- 3.8 AU once every 5 years and 7 months ( 2,033 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.23 and an inclination of 6 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at Palomar 's Digitized Sky Survey in 1953 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 50 years prior to its discovery . As of 2016 , the Caripitos composition and albedo , as well as its rotation period and shape remain unknown . According to the survey carried out by NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid measures 5.3 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.052 . This low albedo is typical for asteroids in the outer main-belt , which are mostly of a carbonaceous rather than of a silicaceous composition . Based on an absolute magnitude of 15.4 , and assuming an albedo of 0.05 , the asteroid 's generic diameter measures between 2 and 5 kilometers . This minor planet is named for the Venezuelan town of Caripito in the northeastern Monagas State . It was the place where the parents of the discoverer , Thomas Baynes Dellinger ( b. 1926 ) and María de la Garza Cantú ( b. 1928 ) , met in 1949 . At the time , the town was a base camp for the country 's rich Quiriquire oil field . Naming citation was published on 18 September 2005 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"78816_Caripito\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 68335\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Lunar swirls Content: Lunar swirls are enigmatic features found across the Moon 's surface , which are characterized by having a high albedo , appearing optically immature ( i.e. having the optical characteristics of a relatively young regolith ) , and ( often ) having a sinuous shape . Their curvilinear shape is often accentuated by low albedo regions that wind between the bright swirls . They appear to overlay the lunar surface , superposed on top of craters and ejecta deposits , but impart no observable topography . Swirls have been identified on the lunar maria and highlands - they are not associated with a specific lithologic composition . Swirls on the maria are characterized by strong albedo contrasts and complex , sinuous morphology , whereas those on highland terrain appear less prominent and exhibit simpler shapes , such as single loops or diffuse bright spots .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Lunar_swirls\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 68321\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 3181 Ahnert Content: 3181 Ahnert , provisional designation , is a stony Flora asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , about 8 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by German astronomer Freimut Börngen at the Karl Schwarzschild Observatory in Tautenburg , eastern Germany , on 8 March 1964 . The S-type asteroid is a member of the Flora family , one of the largest groups of stony asteroids in the main-belt . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.1 -- 2.4 AU once every 3 years and 4 months ( 1,215 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.07 and an inclination of 4 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was obtained at Lowell Observatory in 1931 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 33 years prior to its discovery . According to the surveys carried out by NASA 's space-based Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid measures between 8.0 and 8.6 kilometers and its surface has an albedo between 0.19 and 0.26 . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an intermediate albedo of 0.24 -- derived from 8 Flora , the largest member and namesake of this orbital family -- and calculates a diameter of 8.2 kilometers . As of 2016 , the asteroid 's rotation period and shape still remain unknown . The minor planet was named after German astronomer Paul Ahnert ( 1897 -- 1989 ) , author of the annual calendar of astronomical events ( Kalender für Sternfreunde ) and a renowned astronomer among professionals and amateurs . His fields of research included the physics of the Solar System and periods of variable stars at the Sonneberg Observatory . ( The minor planet 1039 Sonneberga is named after this observatory . ) Publisher of several books on performing astronomical observations , he also popularized the subject of astronomy to the general public . Naming citation was published on 2 July 1985 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"3181_Ahnert\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 68319\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kepler-22b Content: Kepler-22b , also known by its Kepler object of interest designation KOI-087 .01 , is an extrasolar planet orbiting within the empirical habitable zone of the Sun-like star Kepler-22 . It is located about 600 ly from Earth in the constellation of Cygnus . It was discovered by NASA 's Kepler Space Telescope in December 2011 and was the first known transiting planet to orbit within the habitable zone of a Sun-like star . Kepler-22 is too dim to be seen with the naked eye . Kepler-22b 's size is roughly twice that of Earth . Its mass and surface composition are unknown . An Earth-like composition for the planet has been ruled out . It is likely to have a volatile-rich composition with a liquid or gaseous outer shell . The only parameters of the planet 's orbit that are currently available are its orbital period , which is about , and its inclination , which is approximately 90 ° . Evidence suggests that the planet has a moderate surface temperature , assuming that the surface is not subject to extreme greenhouse heating . In the absence of an atmosphere , its equilibrium temperature ( assuming an Earth-like albedo ) would be approximately 262 K. The planet 's first transit was observed on 12 May 2009 . Confirmation of the existence of Kepler-22b was announced on 5 December 2011 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Kepler-22b\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 68264\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 15017 Cuppy Content: 15017 Cuppy , provisional designation , is a small asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 2 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by the U.S. Lowell Observatory Near-Earth-Object Search ( LONEOS ) at its Anderson Mesa Station , Arizona , on 22 September 1998 . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.0 -- 2.7 AU once every 3 years and 7 months ( 1,296 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.16 and an inclination of 6 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at Palomar Observatory in 1991 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 7 years prior to its discovery . As of 2016 , its effective size , composition and albedo , as well as its rotation period and shape remain unknown . According to the survey carried out by NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid measures 1.8 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.50 . Based on an absolute magnitude of 15.6 , the asteroid is calculated to measure between 2 and 5 kilometers in diameter , assuming an albedo in the range of 0.05 to 0.25 . In September 2003 , the minor planet was named in memory of American literary critic and humorist , Will Cuppy ( 1884 -- 1949 ) . He is known for his satirical books The Decline and Fall of Practically Everybody , How to Attract the Wombat , How to Become Extinct and How to Tell Your Friends from the Apes . The name was proposed by M. Walter . Naming citation was published on 10 September 2003 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"15017_Cuppy\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 68215\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Algorithmic cooling Content: Algorithmic cooling is an algorithmic method for transferring heat ( or entropy ) from some qubits to others or outside the system and into the environment , which results in a cooling effect . This method uses regular quantum operations on ensembles of qubits , and it can be shown that it can succeed beyond Shannon 's bound on data compression . The phenomenon is a result of the connection between thermodynamics and information theory . The cooling itself is done in an algorithmic manner using ordinary quantum operations . The input is a set of qubits , and the output is a subset of qubits cooled to a desired threshold determined by the user . This cooling effect may have usages in initializing cold ( highly pure ) qubits for quantum computation and in increasing polarization of certain spins in nuclear magnetic resonance . Therefore , it can be used in the initializing process taking place before a regular quantum computation .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Algorithmic_cooling\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 68195\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Phlegra Montes Content: The Phlegra Montes are a system of mountains in the Cebrenia quadrangle of Mars , located at 40.4 degrees north latitude and 163.71 degrees east longitude . They are 1,350 km across and were named after a classical albedo feature name . They form a complex system of isolated hills , ridges and small basins , and it was suggested they have endogenic tectonic origin .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Phlegra_Montes\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 68193\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sulci Gordii Content: Sulci Gordii in the feature in the Tharsis quadrangle of Mars . Sulci is a term used for subparallel furrows and ridges . It is located at 18.9 ° north latitude and 125.5 ° west longitude . It is 400 km long and was named after a classical albedo feature name .\",\n \"qid\": \"2763\",\n \"docid\": \"Sulci_Gordii\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 68185\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":1362,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"\"Earth’s Albedo has risen in the past few years, and by doing reconstructions of the past albedo, it appears that there was a significant reduction in Earth’s albedo leading up to a lull in 1997."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Peter Thejll Content: Peter Andreas Thejll ( born 1956 ) is a Danish astrophysicist and climate researcher . His research in solar variation helped provide evidence of the greenhouse effect on the Earth 's climate in the late 20th century . In particular , his study with Knud Lassen on Northern Hemisphere land air temperature showed that the rise of 0.4 degrees Celsius since 1980 could not be accounted for by the solar cycle . Climatologists have pointed to this finding as an `` actual piece of evidence for greenhouse warming '' . Thejll received his undergraduate education at the University of Copenhagen . He received an M.S. in physics and a Ph.D. in astrophysics from the University of Delaware . Thejll was a Carlsberg Fellow at the Niels Bohr Institute and worked at the Nordic Institute for Theoretical Physics . Thejll currently is a senior scientist at the Danish Meteorological Institute in Copenhagen . He is currently involved in the creation of a global automatic system to observe the Earth 's reflectivity - albedo - using observations of the earthshine on the Moon . Such data can be used for climate change studies and calibration of satellite data as the measurements deliver independent data on the albedo . A telescope is now installed on Hawaii at the Mauna Loa Observatory . The Swedish research agency VINNOVA is funding this project .","qid":"2765","docid":"Peter_Thejll","rank":1,"score":145891},{"content":"Title: Ice-albedo feedback Content: Ice-albedo feedback ( or snow-albedo feedback ) is a positive feedback climate process where a change in the area of snow-covered land , ice caps , glaciers or sea ice alters the albedo . This change in albedo acts to reinforce the initial alteration in ice area . Cooling tends to increase ice cover and hence the albedo , reducing the amount of solar energy absorbed and leading to more cooling . Conversely , warming tends to decrease ice cover and hence the albedo , increasing the amount of solar energy absorbed , leading to more warming . The effect also applies on the small scale to snow-covered surfaces . A small amount of snow melt exposes darker ground which absorbs more radiation , leading to more snowmelt . The effect has mostly been discussed in terms of the recent trend of declining Arctic sea ice . Internal feedback processes may also potentially occur , as land ice melts and causes eustatic sea level rise , and also potentially induces earthquakes as a result of isostatic rebound , which further acts to disrupt glaciers , ice shelves , etc. .","qid":"2765","docid":"Ice-albedo_feedback","rank":2,"score":132884},{"content":"Title: Volcanic winter Content: A volcanic winter is a reduction in global temperatures caused by volcanic ash and droplets of sulfuric acid and water obscuring the Sun and raising Earth 's albedo ( increasing the reflection of solar radiation ) after a large particularly explosive volcanic eruption . Long-term cooling effects are primarily dependent upon injection of sulfur gasses into the stratosphere where they undergo a series of reactions to create sulfuric acid which can nucleate and form aerosols . Volcanic stratospheric aerosols cool the surface by reflecting solar radiation and warm the stratosphere by absorbing terrestrial radiation . The volcanic aerosols , resulting from the 1991 Pinatubo eruption and others , have been shown to contribute to anthropogenic ozone depletion . The variations in atmospheric warming and cooling results in changes in tropospheric and stratospheric circulation .","qid":"2765","docid":"Volcanic_winter","rank":3,"score":126378},{"content":"Title: 925 Alphonsina Content: 925 Alphonsina , provisional designation 1920 GM , is a large , stony asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt , about 58 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by Spanish astronomer of Catalan origin , Josep Comas i Solà , at the Fabra Observatory in Barcelona , on 13 January 1920 . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.5 -- 2.9 AU once every 4 years and 5 months ( 1,622 days ) . Its orbit is tilted by 21 degrees to the plane of the ecliptic and shows an eccentricity of 0.08 . A large number of photometric light-curve analysis rendered a well-defined , concurring rotation period of 7.9 hours for the body . According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite , IRAS , the Japanese Akari satellite , and the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid 's albedo is in the range of 0.20 -- 0.28 . In addition , the body 's albedo has been inferred by using the technique of stellar occultation in 2003 . The measurement also gave a diameter of 59.2 kilometers . The minor planet was named in honor of the Iberian Kings , Alfonso X ( 1221 -- 1284 ) and Alfonso XIII ( 1886 -- 1941 ) , King of Castile and Spain , respectively . The original citation mentions , that the 13th century king inspired the field of astronomy in the Middle Ages , and , that the latter king was a great enthusiast of the scientific development in Spain . It also mentions that the King of Spain approved the naming of the asteroid .","qid":"2765","docid":"925_Alphonsina","rank":4,"score":117067},{"content":"Title: Albedo feature Content: An albedo feature is a large area on the surface of a planet ( or other solar system body ) which shows a contrast in brightness or darkness ( albedo ) with adjacent areas . Historically , albedo features were the very first ( and usually only ) features to be seen and named on Mars and Mercury . Early classical maps ( such as those of Schiaparelli and Antoniadi ) showed only albedo features , and it was not until the arrival of space probes that other surface features such as craters could be seen . On bodies other than Mars and Mercury , an albedo feature is sometimes called a regio . On bodies with a very thick atmosphere like Venus or Titan , permanent albedo features can not be seen using ordinary optical telescopes because the surface is not visible , and only clouds and other transient atmospheric phenomena are seen . The Cassini -- Huygens probe has observed multiple albedo features on Titan since its arrival in Saturn 's orbit in 2004 . The very first albedo feature ever seen on another planet was Syrtis Major Planum on Mars in the 17th century . Today , thanks to space probes , very high-resolution images of surface features on Mars and Mercury are available , and the classical nomenclature based on albedo features has fallen somewhat into disuse . It is however still used for Earth-based observing of Mars by amateur astronomers . However , for some Solar System bodies ( such as Pluto prior to the New Horizons mission ) , the best available images show only albedo features . These images were usually taken by the Hubble Space Telescope or by ground-based telescopes using adaptive optics . Cydonia Mensae on Mars is an example of an albedo feature .","qid":"2765","docid":"Albedo_feature","rank":5,"score":114172},{"content":"Title: 1169 Alwine Content: 1169 Alwine , provisional designation , is an asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 8 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 30 August 1930 , by German and Italian astronomers Max Wolf and Mario Ferrero at Heidelberg Observatory in southwest Germany . Alwine orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.0 -- 2.7 AU once every 3 years and 6 months ( 1,290 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.15 and an inclination of 4 ° with respect to the ecliptic . As no precoveries were taken , and no prior identifications were made , Alwines observation arc begins with its official discovery observation at Heidelberg in 1930 . According to the survey carried out by NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , Alwine measures 7.89 kilometers in diameter , and its surface has an albedo of 0.179 . Based on a generic magnitude-to-diameter conversion , its diameter is between 7 and 17 kilometers for an absolute magnitude of 12.8 and an albedo in the range of 0.05 to 0.25 . As of 2017 , no rotational lightcurves have been obtained . The body 's rotation period , pole and shape remain unknown . This minor planet is named after a common German female name . Any reference of this name to a person or occurrence is unknown .","qid":"2765","docid":"1169_Alwine","rank":6,"score":113544},{"content":"Title: 1897 Hind Content: 1897 Hind , provisional designation , is a Florian asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 5 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 26 October 1971 , by Czech astronomer Luboš Kohoutek at Bergedorf Observatory in Hamburg , Germany . The S-type asteroid is a member of the Flora family , one of the largest groups of stony asteroids in the main-belt . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.0 -- 2.6 AU once every 3 years and 5 months ( 1,260 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.14 and an inclination of 4 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at Palomar Observatory in 1956 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 15 years prior to its discovery . According to the survey carried out by the NEOWISE mission of NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , the asteroid measures 5.0 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.307 , while the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo of 0.24 -- derived from 8 Flora , the family 's largest member and namesake -- and calculates a diameter of 5.7 kilometers , based on an absolute magnitude of 13.4 . In July 2005 , Hind had originally been identified as a relatively fast rotator , as photometric observations by astronomers Reiner Stoss , Jaime Nomen , Salvador Sanchez and Raoul Behrend gave a rotation period of hours , or less than 50 minutes . However , the light-curve was only fragmentary . In August 2012 , it was superseded with more accurate observation at the Australian Riverland Dingo Observatory that gave a slower period of hours with a brightness variation of 0.09 in magnitude . The minor planet was named after English astronomer John Russell Hind ( 1823 -- 1895 ) , discoverer of ten minor planets including 7 Iris and 8 Flora , the namesake of the family the asteroid belongs to . Hind worked for many years at George Bishop 's Observatory near London where he made his discoveries . He was also superintendent of the British Nautical Almanac Office in the second half of the 19th century . Naming citation was published before November 1977 .","qid":"2765","docid":"1897_Hind","rank":7,"score":113020},{"content":"Title: Future of Earth Content: The biological and geological future of Earth can be extrapolated based upon the estimated effects of several long-term influences . These include the chemistry at Earth 's surface , the rate of cooling of the planet 's interior , the gravitational interactions with other objects in the Solar System , and a steady increase in the Sun 's luminosity . An uncertain factor in this extrapolation is the ongoing influence of technology introduced by humans , such as climate engineering , which could cause significant changes to the planet . The current Holocene extinction is being caused by technology and the effects may last for up to five million years . In turn , technology may result in the extinction of humanity , leaving the planet to gradually return to a slower evolutionary pace resulting solely from long-term natural processes . Over time intervals of hundreds of millions of years , random celestial events pose a global risk to the biosphere , which can result in mass extinctions . These include impacts by comets or asteroids with diameters of 5 -- or more , and the possibility of a massive stellar explosion , called a supernova , within a 100-light-year radius of the Sun , called a Near-Earth supernova . Other large-scale geological events are more predictable . If the long-term effects of global warming are disregarded , Milankovitch theory predicts that the planet will continue to undergo glacial periods at least until the Quaternary glaciation comes to an end . These periods are caused by variations in eccentricity , axial tilt , and precession of the Earth 's orbit . As part of the ongoing supercontinent cycle , plate tectonics will probably result in a supercontinent in 250 -- 350 million years . Some time in the next 1.5 -- 4.5 billion years , the axial tilt of the Earth may begin to undergo chaotic variations , with changes in the axial tilt of up to 90 ° . During the next four billion years , the luminosity of the Sun will steadily increase , resulting in a rise in the solar radiation reaching the Earth . This will result in a higher rate of weathering of silicate minerals , which will cause a decrease in the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . In about 600 million years from now , the level of CO2 will fall below the level needed to sustain C3 carbon fixation photosynthesis used by trees . Some plants use the C4 carbon fixation method , allowing them to persist at concentrations as low as 10 parts per million . However , the long-term trend is for plant life to die off altogether . The extinction of plants will be the demise of almost all animal life , since plants are the base of the food chain on Earth . In about one billion years , the solar luminosity will be 10 % higher than at present . This will cause the atmosphere to become a `` moist greenhouse '' , resulting in a runaway evaporation of the oceans . As a likely consequence , plate tectonics will come to an end , and with them the entire carbon cycle . Following this event , in about 2 − 3 billion years , the planet 's magnetic dynamo may cease , causing the magnetosphere to decay and leading to an accelerated loss of volatiles from the outer atmosphere . Four billion years from now , the increase in the Earth 's surface temperature will cause a runaway greenhouse effect , heating the surface enough to melt it . By that point , all life on the Earth will be extinct . The most probable fate of the planet is absorption by the Sun in about 7.5 billion years , after the star has entered the red giant phase and expanded to cross the planet 's current orbit .","qid":"2765","docid":"Future_of_Earth","rank":8,"score":112608},{"content":"Title: 145523 Lulin Content: 145523 Lulin , provisional designation , is an asteroid from the middle region of the asteroid belt , approximately 4 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 7 March 2006 , by Taiwanese astronomers Hung-Chin Lin and Ye Quanzhi at Lulin Observatory in central Taiwan . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.2 -- 3.2 AU once every 4 years and 7 months ( 1,665 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.18 and an inclination of 11 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The earliest precovery was taken at ESO 's La Silla Observatory in 1992 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 14 years prior to its discovery observation . According to the survey carried out by the NEOWISE mission of NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , the asteroid measures 3.9 kilometers in diameter and its surface has a low albedo of 0.073 , which is rather typical for a carbonaceous C-type body . As of 2016 , the asteroid 's rotation period and shape remain unknown . The minor planet was named after the Lulin mountain in central Taiwan , location of the discovering Lulin Observatory at an altitude of 2862 meters . Naming citation was published on 2 April 2007 .","qid":"2765","docid":"145523_Lulin","rank":9,"score":110758},{"content":"Title: Sinus Lunicus Content: Sinus Lunicus ( latin for `` Bay of Lunik '' ) is an area of lunar mare along the southeast edge of the Mare Imbrium on the earth 's moon . It is formed by the area enclosed by the prominent craters Archimedes to the southwest , Autolycus to the southeast , and Aristillus to the northeast . The bay is open to the northwest , and faces the Montes Spitzbergen , a small chain of mountains . This bay was named the Bay of Lunik by the International Astronomical Union ( IAU ) in 1970 to honor the landing site of the first space probe to make contact with another interplanetary body . The Luna 2 landed in the gap between the craters Archimedes and Autolycus on September 14 , 1959 . The official selenographic coordinates of Sinus Lunicus are 31.8 ° N and 1.4 ° W , with a diameter of 126 kilometers . The most distinctive features on the bay are the complex outer ramparts of ejecta from the craters Aristillus and Autolycus , and the small satellite craters Archimedes C and Archimedes D . The albedo of the surface is brightened by overlapping ray material from Autolycus and Aristillus . Lunicus , Sinus","qid":"2765","docid":"Sinus_Lunicus","rank":10,"score":110501},{"content":"Title: 775 Lumière Content: 775 Lumière is a minor planet orbiting the Sun . The apparent magnitude is 10.40 . The diameter is 33.58 kilometers . Its rotational period is 6.103 hours , and the albedo is .108 . The name honors Auguste and Louis Lumiere and the company making photographic film for astronomers in France .","qid":"2765","docid":"775_Lumière","rank":11,"score":109385},{"content":"Title: Albedo Content: Albedo ( -LSB- ælˈbiːdoʊ -RSB- ) is a measure for reflectance or optical brightness ( Latin albedo , Arabic albayad , `` whiteness '' ) . It is dimensionless and measured on a scale from zero ( corresponding to a black body that absorbs all incident radiation ) to one ( corresponding to a white body that reflects all incident radiation ) . Surface albedo is defined as the ratio of radiation reflected to the radiation incident on a surface . The proportion reflected is not only determined by properties of the surface itself , but also by the spectral and angular distribution of solar radiation reaching the Earth 's surface . These factors vary with atmospheric composition , geographic location and time ( see Position of the Sun ) . While bi-hemispherical reflectance is calculated for a single angle of incidence ( i.e. , for a given position of the sun ) , albedo is the directional integration of reflectance over all solar angles in a given period . The temporal resolution may range from seconds ( as obtained from flux measurements ) to daily , seasonal or annual averages . Unless given for a specific wavelength ( spectral albedo ) , albedo refers to the entire spectrum of solar radiation . Due to measurement constraints , it is often given for the spectrum in which most solar energy reaches the surface ( approximately between 0.3 and 3 μm ) . This spectrum includes visible light ( 0.39-0 .7 μm ) , which explains why surfaces with a low albedo appear dark ( e.g. , trees absorb most radiation ) , whereas surfaces with a high albedo appear bright ( e.g. , snow reflects most radiation ) . Albedo is an important concept in climatology , astronomy , and environmental management ( e.g. , as part of the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design ( LEED ) program for sustainable rating of buildings ) . The average albedo of the Earth at the top of the atmosphere , its planetary albedo , is 30 to 35 % because of cloud cover , but widely varies locally across the surface because of different geological and environmental features . The term albedo was introduced into optics by Johann Heinrich Lambert in his 1760 work Photometria .","qid":"2765","docid":"Albedo","rank":12,"score":108337},{"content":"Title: Arctic geoengineering Content: Temperatures in the Arctic region have tended to increase more rapidly than the global average . Projections of sea ice loss that are adjusted to take account of recent rapid Arctic shrinkage suggest that the Arctic will likely be free of summer sea ice sometime between 2059 and 2078 . Various climate engineering schemes have been suggested to reduce the chance of significant and irreversible effects such as Arctic methane release . Several climate engineering proposals have been made which are specific to the Arctic . They are usually hydrological in nature , and principally centre upon measures to prevent Arctic ice loss . In addition , other solar radiation management climate engineering techniques , such as stratospheric sulfate aerosols have been proposed . These would cool the Arctic by adjusting the albedo of the atmosphere .","qid":"2765","docid":"Arctic_geoengineering","rank":13,"score":108264},{"content":"Title: (148209) 2000 CR105 Content: , also written as ( 148209 ) 2000 CR105 , is the tenth-most-distant known object in the Solar System . Considered a detached object , it orbits the Sun in a highly eccentric orbit every 3305 years at an average distance of 222 astronomical units ( AU ) . Mike Brown 's website lists it as a possible dwarf planet with a diameter of 328 km based on an assumed albedo of 0.04 . The albedo is expected to be low because the object has a blue ( neutral ) color . However , if the albedo is higher , the object could easily be half that size . and Sedna differ from scattered-disc objects in that they are not within the gravitational influence of the planet Neptune even at their perihelion distances ( closest approaches to the Sun ) . It is something of a mystery as to how these objects came to be in their current , far-flung orbits . Several hypotheses have been put forward : They were pulled from their original positions by a passing star . They were pulled from their original positions by a very distant , and as-yet-undiscovered ( albeit unlikely ) , giant planet . They were pulled from their original positions by an undiscovered companion star orbiting the Sun . They were captured from another planetary system during a close encounter early in the Sun 's history . According to Kenyon and Bromley , there is a 15 % probability that a star like the Sun had an early close encounter and a 1 % probability that outer planetary exchanges would have happened . is estimated to be 2 -- 3 times more likely to be a captured planetary object than Sedna . is the first object discovered in the Solar System to have a semi-major axis exceeding 150 AU , a perihelion beyond Neptune , and an argument of perihelion of 340 ± 55 ° . It is one of five objects known with a semi-major axis greater than 100 AU and perihelion beyond 42 AU . It may be influenced by Planet Nine .","qid":"2765","docid":"(148209)_2000_CR105","rank":14,"score":107960},{"content":"Title: 1394 Algoa Content: 1394 Algoa , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 14 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 12 June 1936 , by English-born South-African astronomer Cyril Jackson at Union Observatory in Johannesburg , South Africa . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.3 -- 2.6 AU once every 3 years and 10 months ( 1,391 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.08 and an inclination of 3 ° with respect to the ecliptic . Prior to its discovery observation in 1936 , Algoa was identified as and at Lowell Observatory and Uccle Observatory , respectively . These observations , however , remained unused to extend the body 's observation arc . In 2012 , two rotational light-curves of Algoa were obtained at the U.S. Etscorn Observatory , New Mexico , and at the Riverland Dingo Observatory , Australia . They gave a well-defined , concurring rotation period of 2.768 hours with a brightness variation of 0.20 and 0.21 magnitude , respectively . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for stony asteroids of 0.20 , and calculates a diameter of 14.2 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 11.6 . The minor planet is named after the historical Algoa Bay , located approximately 700 kilometers east of the Cape of Good Hope , South Africa . Naming citation was published before November 1977 .","qid":"2765","docid":"1394_Algoa","rank":15,"score":107594},{"content":"Title: (192642) 1999 RD32 Content: , provisionally known as 1999 RD32 , is a near-Earth asteroid and potentially hazardous object . It was discovered on 8 September 1999 by Lincoln Near-Earth Asteroid Research ( LINEAR ) at an apparent magnitude of 18 using a 1.0 m reflecting telescope . With two precovery images from January 1995 , the asteroid has a very well determined orbit with an observation arc of 17 years . It is known that passed 0.0093 AU from Earth on 27 August 1969 . During the 1969 close approach the asteroid reached about apparent magnitude 8.8 . The similarly-sized 4179 Toutatis also reached that brightness in September 2004 . passed less than 0.007 AU from asteroid 29 Amphitrite on 17 January 1939 . Arecibo radar observations on 5 -- 6 March 2012 showed that is approximately 5 km in diameter and has an albedo of only a few percent . The two visible lobes suggest that is a tight binary asteroid or contact binary . About 10 -- 15 % of near-Earth asteroids larger than 200 meters are expected to be contact binary asteroids with two lobes in mutual contact .","qid":"2765","docid":"(192642)_1999_RD32","rank":16,"score":106855},{"content":"Title: 15017 Cuppy Content: 15017 Cuppy , provisional designation , is a small asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 2 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by the U.S. Lowell Observatory Near-Earth-Object Search ( LONEOS ) at its Anderson Mesa Station , Arizona , on 22 September 1998 . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.0 -- 2.7 AU once every 3 years and 7 months ( 1,296 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.16 and an inclination of 6 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at Palomar Observatory in 1991 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 7 years prior to its discovery . As of 2016 , its effective size , composition and albedo , as well as its rotation period and shape remain unknown . According to the survey carried out by NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid measures 1.8 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.50 . Based on an absolute magnitude of 15.6 , the asteroid is calculated to measure between 2 and 5 kilometers in diameter , assuming an albedo in the range of 0.05 to 0.25 . In September 2003 , the minor planet was named in memory of American literary critic and humorist , Will Cuppy ( 1884 -- 1949 ) . He is known for his satirical books The Decline and Fall of Practically Everybody , How to Attract the Wombat , How to Become Extinct and How to Tell Your Friends from the Apes . The name was proposed by M. Walter . Naming citation was published on 10 September 2003 .","qid":"2765","docid":"15017_Cuppy","rank":17,"score":106531},{"content":"Title: Bond albedo Content: The Bond albedo , named after the American astronomer George Phillips Bond ( 1825 -- 1865 ) , who originally proposed it , is the fraction of power in the total electromagnetic radiation incident on an astronomical body that is scattered back out into space . Because the Bond albedo accounts for all of the light scattered from a body at all wavelengths and all phase angles , it is a necessary quantity for determining how much energy a body absorbs . This , in turn , is crucial for determining the equilibrium temperature of a body . Because bodies in the outer Solar System are always observed at very low phase angles from the Earth , the only reliable data for measuring their Bond albedo comes from spacecraft .","qid":"2765","docid":"Bond_albedo","rank":18,"score":106501},{"content":"Title: 11824 Alpaidze Content: 11824 Alpaidze , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid from the middle region of the asteroid belt , approximately 5 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 16 September 1982 , by Russian astronomer Lyudmila Chernykh at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory , Nauchnyj , on the Crimean peninsula . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.8 -- 3.4 AU once every 4 years and 3 months ( 1,563 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.31 and an inclination of 2 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was obtained at Palomar Observatory in 1978 . However , the observation was not used to extend the asteroid 's observation arc . Two rotational light-curves of this asteroid were obtained from photometric observations made at the U.S. Palomar Transient Factory , California , in September 2009 . The fragmentary light-curves gave a rotation period of and hours with a brightness amplitude of 0.05 and 0.06 in magnitude , respectively . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.10 , untypically low for a stony asteroid , and calculates a diameter of 4.8 kilometers , based on an absolute magnitude of 14.7 . The minor planet is named after Georgian-born Soviet Lieutenant General Galaktion Alpaidze ( 1916 -- 2006 ) , Hero of the Soviet Union and laureate of the USSR State Prize . He was the head of the Plesetsk Cosmodrome in the 1960s and 1970s , where space crafts were tested . During his supervision , the Cosmodrome became the world 's most active launch site in the world . Naming citation was published on 2 April 2007 .","qid":"2765","docid":"11824_Alpaidze","rank":19,"score":106140},{"content":"Title: Hockey stick controversy Content: In the hockey stick controversy , the data and methods used in reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years have been disputed . Reconstructions have consistently shown that the rise in the instrumental temperature record of the past 150 years is not matched in earlier centuries , and the name `` hockey stick graph '' was coined for figures showing a long-term decline followed by an abrupt rise in temperatures . These graphs were publicised to explain the scientific findings of climatology , and in addition to scientific debate over the reconstructions , they have been the topic of political dispute . The issue is part of the global warming controversy and has been one focus of political responses to reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . The use of proxy indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed from the 1990s onwards , and found indications that recent warming was exceptional . The reconstruction introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large-scale reconstructions , and its findings were disputed by Patrick Michaels at the United States House Committee on Science . In 1998 , Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 . In ( MBH99 ) the methodology was extended back to 1000 . The term hockey stick was coined by the climatologist Jerry D. Mahlman , to describe the pattern this showed , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' , followed by a sharp increase corresponding to the `` blade '' . A version of this graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , along with four other reconstructions supporting the same conclusion . The graph was publicised , and became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th-century warmth was exceptional . Those disputing the graph included Pat Michaels , the George C. Marshall Institute and Fred Singer . A paper by Willie Soon and Sallie Baliunas claiming greater medieval warmth was used by the Bush administration chief of staff Philip Cooney to justify altering the first Environmental Protection Agency Report on the Environment . The paper was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy , but on July 28 , Republican Jim Inhofe spoke in the Senate citing it to claim `` that man-made global warming is the greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American people '' . Later in 2003 , a paper by Steve McIntyre and Ross McKitrick disputing the data used in MBH98 paper was publicised by the George C. Marshall Institute and the Competitive Enterprise Institute . In 2004 , Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 , McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal component analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . The analysis therein was subsequently disputed by published papers , including and , which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . In June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton launched what Sherwood Boehlert , chairman of the House Science Committee , called a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into the data , methods and personal information of Mann , Bradley and Hughes . At Boehlert 's request , a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council was set up , which reported in 2006 , supporting Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . Barton and U.S. Rep. Ed Whitfield requested Edward Wegman to set up a team of statisticians to investigate , and they supported McIntyre and McKitrick 's view that there were statistical failings , although they did not quantify whether there was any significant effect . They also produced an extensive network analysis which has been discredited by expert opinion and found to have issues of plagiarism . Arguments against the MBH studies were reintroduced as part of the Climatic Research Unit email controversy , but dismissed by eight independent investigations . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , have supported the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Over a dozen subsequent reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .","qid":"2765","docid":"Hockey_stick_controversy","rank":20,"score":106013},{"content":"Title: Atmospheric Circulation Reconstructions over the Earth Content: The Atmospheric Circulation Reconstructions over the Earth , ACRE , is an international science project , began in 2008 , that recovers historical weather observations to reconstruct past global and local weather patterns and so support meteorological reanalysis . The project aims to collect weather data from the past 250 years by linking international meteorological organisations to support data recovery projects and the imaging and digitisation of historical meteorological observations made at , for example , inland stations , lighthouses , or by ships at sea or in ports . The project aims to create historical datasets that are spatially and temporally complete , so as to be of value at a local , or regional level , as well as on a global scale . ACRE aims to recover millions of historic weather observations . This data will be deposited into two databases , ISPD - the International Surface Pressure Databank , ICOADS - the International Comprehensive Ocean-Atmosphere Data Set . This data will also be used to build a global dataset of historical weather reconstructions based on a grid of two degrees of latitude by two of longitude at six hourly intervals , entitled the 20th Century Reanalysis , or 20CR . Version one of 20CR , covering 1891 to 2008 , was released in Autumn 2009 . Version two , covering 1871 to 2010 , appeared in December 2011 . Plans for a third version , covering 1850 to 2011 , have been put ` on hold ' following a cut in the budget of NOAA . It is intended that all the data recovered and the 20CR will be made freely available .","qid":"2765","docid":"Atmospheric_Circulation_Reconstructions_over_the_Earth","rank":21,"score":105512},{"content":"Title: C/2001 OG108 Content: C/2001 OG108 ( LONEOS ) is a Halley-type comet with an orbital period of 48.51 years . It was discovered on 28 July 2001 by the LONEOS telescope at Lowell Observatory . Observations taken in January and February 2002 showed that the `` asteroid '' had developed a small amount of cometary activity as it approached perihelion . It was subsequently reclassified as a comet . The comet came to perihelion ( closest approach to the Sun ) on 15 March 2002 . The next perihelion passage is calculated to be on 6 June 2050 . The comet has a rotational period of 2.38 ± 0.02 days ( 57.12 hr ) . In 2003 , the comet was estimated to have a mean absolute V magnitude ( H ) of 13.05 ± 0.10 , with an albedo of 0.03 , giving an effective radius of 8.9 ± 0.7 km . Using data from Fernandez ( 2004 -- 2005 ) JPL lists the comet with an albedo of 0.05 and a diameter of 13.6 ± 1.0 km . This comet probably represents the transition between typical Halley-family/long-period comets and extinct comets . Damocloids have been studied as possible extinct cometary candidates due to the similarity of their orbital parameters with those of Halley-family comets .","qid":"2765","docid":"C/2001_OG108","rank":22,"score":105287},{"content":"Title: 1999 CW8 Content: 1999 CW8 is an Apollo asteroid and near-Earth object that is a B-type asteroid , relatively rare in the asteroid belt but common in the inner solar system . The asteroid never approaches Earth closer than 0.2 AU , but occasionally makes close approaches to Mars of 0.07 AU . It makes one such approach in 2073 , at 0.067 AU , and another one in 2103 , at 0.094 AU . Due to 1999 CW8 's relatively high inclination , although it passes closer to the Sun than the Earth ( 0.9 AU ) , it never comes closer than 0.2 AU . Based on absolute magnitude , and assuming an albedo between 0.05 and 0.3 , typical of most asteroids , the asteroid is between 500 and 1100 meters across , and if it impacted the Earth would cause significant damage , but not as much as the Cretaceous -- Paleogene extinction event progenitor , which brought about a mass extinction , as it is only 1/20 to 1/10 the size . However , it is unlikely to come close enough to Earth to impact it , or even become a risk of impact .","qid":"2765","docid":"1999_CW8","rank":23,"score":105139},{"content":"Title: Cap carbonate Content: Cap carbonates are layers of distinctively textured carbonate rocks which typically form the uppermost layer of sedimentary sequences reflecting major glaciations in the geological record . The rising temperatures , and increased oceanic surface area - due to reduced ice cover and rising sea levels - at the end of a glaciation increase the rate of precipitation . High concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) must build up in the atmosphere to overcome the effect of the high reflectivity ( albedo ) of ice and allow temperatures to rise sufficiently to begin melting . Increased precipitation dissolves carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , falling as a weak carbonic acid - acid rain . This would weather exposed silicate and carbonate rock , including readily-attacked glacial debris , which would release large amounts of calcium . When washed into the ocean , these precipitate to form distinctively textured layers of carbonate sedimentary rock . A heavily debated cap carbonate appears at the top of the Gaskiers glaciation , believed by many to be global in extent .","qid":"2765","docid":"Cap_carbonate","rank":24,"score":104938},{"content":"Title: 84882 Table Mountain Content: 84882 Table Mountain , provisional designation , is a bright asteroid from the middle region of the asteroid belt , approximately 5 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 1 February 2003 , by American astronomer James Whitney Young at the U.S. Table Mountain Observatory near Wrightwood , California . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.9 -- 3.4 AU once every 4 years and 3 months ( 1,566 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.29 and an inclination of 14 ° with respect to the ecliptic . It was first identified as at Lincoln Laboratory 's Experimental Test Site in 1997 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 6 years prior to its discovery observation . As of 2016 , the asteroid 's composition , rotation period and shape remain unknown . According to the survey carried out by the NEOWISE mission of NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , the asteroid measures 3.0 kilometers in diameter and its surface has a high albedo of 0.306 . Based on an assumed albedo in the range of 0.05 -- 0.25 and an absolute magnitude of 14.7 , the asteroid 's generic diameter measures would be between 3 and 7 kilometers , as the higher the body 's reflectivity ( albedo ) , the smaller is its diameter at a constant absolute magnitude ( brightness ) . The minor planet was named for the Table Mountain Observatory , the discoverer 's workplace , currently a NASA facility operated by the California Institute of Technology 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory , which began operation as a Smithsonian Institution site in 1924 to study the solar constant . In the late 1950s , the site was used to test the first solar panels and is now dedicated to optical astronomy and to study Earth 's atmosphere . Citation was published on 28 October 2004 .","qid":"2765","docid":"84882_Table_Mountain","rank":25,"score":104789},{"content":"Title: (153814) 2001 WN5 Content: ( 153814 ) 2001 WN5 is a near-Earth asteroid of the Apollo group . It was first discovered by the LONEOS Project at Anderson Mesa on November 20 , 2001 , and was later classified as a Potentially Hazardous Asteroid ( PHA ) . It was removed from the Sentry Risk Table on January 30 , 2002 . There are precovery images dating back to February 10 , 1996 . The orbit is well determined with an observation arc of 14.9 years using two radar delay observations , and has an Uncertainty Parameter of 0 . The asteroid will pass within 250,000 km ( 0.65 lunar distances ) from the Earth on June 26 , 2028 . During the close approach , the asteroid should peak at about apparent magnitude 6.7 , and will be visible in binoculars . It has an absolute magnitude ( H ) of 18.2 . Depending on its characteristics and albedo , it is estimated to be 700 to 1,500 meters in diameter .","qid":"2765","docid":"(153814)_2001_WN5","rank":26,"score":104749},{"content":"Title: (26375) 1999 DE9 Content: ( also written ( 26375 ) 1999 DE9 ) is a trans-Neptunian object . Light-curve-amplitude analysis shows only small deviations , suggesting is a spheroid with small albedo spots . Measurements by the Spitzer Space Telescope estimate that it is 461 ± 45 km in diameter . It was discovered in 1999 by Chad Trujillo and Jane X. Luu . It is possibly a dwarf planet . orbit is in 2:5 resonance with Neptune 's . Spectral analysis has shown traces of ice .","qid":"2765","docid":"(26375)_1999_DE9","rank":27,"score":104672},{"content":"Title: 17683 Kanagawa Content: 17683 Kanagawa , provisional designation , is a carbonaceous asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt , approximately 22 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 10 January 1997 , by Japanese astronomer Atsuo Asami at the Hadano Astronomical Observatory , located 60 kilometers southwest of Tokyo , Japan . The C-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.5 -- 3.5 AU once every 5 years and 2 months ( 1,882 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.16 and an inclination of 18 ° with respect to the ecliptic . No precoveries were taken prior to its discovery . In October 2009 , a rotational light-curve was obtained at the Wise Observatory in Israel . The photometric observations rendered a well-defined rotation period of hours with a brightness variation of 0.4 in magnitude . According to the space-based surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS , the Japanese Akari satellite , and NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid has a low albedo between 0.030 and 0.062 , and a diameter of 16.8 to 22.1 kilometers . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link agrees with the results obtained by IRAS and derives an albedo of 0.033 with a diameter of 22.1 kilometers . The minor planet is named after the Japanese Kanagawa Prefecture , in which the city of Hadano with its discovering observatory is located . Also located in the east of Kanagawa Prefecture , are the industrial cities of Yokohama and Kawasaki , the second and ninth biggest city of the country , respectively , and vital centers of Japan 's economy . The discoverer , Atsuo Asami , graduated at Kanagawa University . Naming citation was published on 9 March 2001 .","qid":"2765","docid":"17683_Kanagawa","rank":28,"score":104248},{"content":"Title: (9901) 1997 NV Content: , provisional designation , is a stony Vestian asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 3 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 1 July 1997 , by astronomers at Kleť Observatory in the Czech Republic . The asteroid is a member of the Vesta family orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.0 -- 2.7 AU once every 3 years and 7 months ( 1,313 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.13 and an inclination of 5 ° with respect to the ecliptic . It was first identified as at Crimea -- Nauchnij in 1983 , extending the body 's observation arc by 14 years prior to its official discovery observation at Klet . According to the survey carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS and NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid measures 17.8 and 3.029 kilometers in diameter , respectively . WISE/NEOWISE also gives an albedo of 0.334 for the body 's surface . It has an absolute magnitude of 14.3 . As of 2017 , the asteroid 's rotation period and shape remain unknown . It was the 376th asteroid discovered by the Kleť Observatory .","qid":"2765","docid":"(9901)_1997_NV","rank":29,"score":104182},{"content":"Title: Five Ways to Save the World Content: Five Ways to Save the World is a British documentary film on environmental issues related to climate change , released in 2006 . The film was made by Karen O'Connor , for the big screen and was shot in the English language to reach an international audience . It includes interviews with five environmental scientists and experts including Paul Crutzen , James Roger Angel , John Latham , Ian Jones , and Klaus Lackner . The `` five ways '' proposed are geoengineering techniques : space lenses in orbit , to diffract sunlight away from the earth cloud seeding with seawater to increase albedo sulfur launched into the stratosphere to increase albedo ocean fertilization with iron or urea ( nitrogen fertilizer ) artificial trees ( see carbon capture and sequestration ) Since the first three methods do not remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , they would only reduce global warming but not ocean acidification . Since the last two methods would remove carbon dioxide , they could in theory reduce both global warming and ocean acidification .","qid":"2765","docid":"Five_Ways_to_Save_the_World","rank":30,"score":103906},{"content":"Title: Twomey effect Content: The Twomey effect describes how cloud condensation nuclei ( CCN ) , possibly from anthropogenic pollution , may increase the amount of solar radiation reflected by clouds . This is an indirect effect . Aerosol particles can act as CCN 's creating more droplets which have a smaller size distribution . The reduction in size distribution increases the Optical depth of the cloud . This increases the cloud albedo as clouds appear whiter and larger , leading to a cooling of between -0.3 and -1.8 Wm − 2 . For example , on satellite imagery we observe trails of white clouds from ships crossing the oceans due to this effect .","qid":"2765","docid":"Twomey_effect","rank":31,"score":103738},{"content":"Title: (42301) 2001 UR163 Content: , also written as ( 42301 ) 2001 UR163 , is likely a dwarf planet that resides in the scattered disc . It was discovered on October 21 , 2001 by the Deep Ecliptic Survey ( DES ) program at Kitt Peak . Light-curve-amplitude analysis shows only small deviations , suggesting that is a spheroid with small albedo spots . Michael Brown 's website lists it as a highly likely dwarf planet , but the diameter of the object has never been measured . has the reddest color index of any object in the Solar System . On October 31 , 2002 , the 3.6-meter Canada -- France -- Hawaii Telescope observed set a record red reading of B − R = 2.28 . This makes even redder than Pholus , , Sedna and comet C/2001 T4 . Reddening of the spectrum is caused by cosmic irradiation by ultraviolet radiation and charged particles . Becoming bluer in the spectrum is caused by impact collisions exposing the interior of an object . In the visible spectrum , would appear orange-brown , depending on its albedo . It came to perihelion around 1937 . In 2006 , it moved beyond 50 AU from the Sun . It is currently 51.9 AU from the Sun .","qid":"2765","docid":"(42301)_2001_UR163","rank":32,"score":103519},{"content":"Title: List of albedo features on Mercury Content: This is a list of the albedo features of the planet Mercury as seen by early telescopic observation . Early telescopic observations of Mercury were based on the assumption that Mercury keeps one of its faces permanently turned toward the Sun , through the mechanism of tidal locking . Although this is not true ( Mercury rotates three times on its axis for every two revolutions around the Sun ) , when it is positioned for best viewing from Earth , the amount by which its visible face has rotated from its previous best viewing position is fairly small . A map of Mercury made in the 1910s by astronomer Eugène Michel Antoniadi shows the following albedo features , localized by a grid in which 0 ° longitude is the ( assumed ) subsolar meridian . No certain connection has been made between these features and the topographic features viewed on Mercury by the Mariner 10 spacecraft . Mariner 10 , however , imaged less than half of Mercury 's surface . The names are drawn from Greek mythology , and often allude to myths about Hermes , the Greek equivalent of the Roman god Mercury .","qid":"2765","docid":"List_of_albedo_features_on_Mercury","rank":33,"score":103498},{"content":"Title: 8661 Ratzinger Content: 8661 Ratzinger , provisional designation , is an asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt , approximately 20 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 14 October 1990 , by German astronomers Lutz Schmadel and Freimut Börngen at the Karl Schwarzschild Observatory in Tautenburg , eastern Germany . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.9 -- 3.1 AU once every 5 years and 3 months ( 1,903 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.03 and an inclination of 11 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first used observation was made at Leoncito Astronomical Complex in 1974 , extending Ratzingers observation arc by 16 years prior to its discovery . According to the survey carried out by NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid measures 13.4 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.09 , while a generic estimate based on its absolute magnitude of 12.3 and a typical carbonaceous albedo of 0.05 , gives a diameter of approximately 20 kilometers . As of 2016 , Ratzingers composition , rotation period and shape remains unknown . The asteroid was named after German Joseph Ratzinger ( b. 1927 ) , then Cardinal and professor of theology , for the role he played in supervising the opening of the Vatican Secret Archives in 1998 to researchers investigating judicial errors against Galileo , after whom the minor planet 697 Galilea is named , and other medieval scientists . Ratzinger was considered to be one of the most authoritative voices in the Vatican and became Pope Benedict XVI in 2005 . The name was proposed by the asteroid 's first discoverer , Lutz Schmadel . Naming citation was published on 23 May 2000 .","qid":"2765","docid":"8661_Ratzinger","rank":34,"score":103400},{"content":"Title: 7959 Alysecherri Content: 7959 Alysecherri , provisional designation , is a bright , stony Hungaria asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 3 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 2 August 1994 , by American astronomer Carl Hergenrother at the U.S. Steward Observatory Catalina Station on Mt Bigelow near Tucson , Arizona . The E-type asteroid is a member of the Hungaria family , which form the innermost dense concentration of asteroids in the Solar System . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.8 -- 2.1 AU once every 2 years and 9 months ( 989 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.09 and an inclination of 19 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at Palomar Observatory in 1951 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 43 years prior to its discovery . A rotational light-curve for this asteroid was obtained from photometric observations made by American astronomer Brian Warner at the U.S. Palmer Divide Observatory , Colorado , in July 2013 . It gave a rotation period of hours with a brightness amplitude of 0.13 in magnitude . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.30 and calculates a diameter of 3.05 kilometers . The minor planet is named after the maiden name of the discovering astronomer 's wife , Alyse Cherri Smith . Naming citation was published on 13 November 2008 .","qid":"2765","docid":"7959_Alysecherri","rank":35,"score":102999},{"content":"Title: 14871 Pyramus Content: 14871 Pyramus , provisional designation , is an asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt , roughly 9 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 13 October 1990 by German astronomers Lutz Schmadel and Freimut Börngen at the Karl Schwarzschild Observatory in Tautenburg , Germany . The asteroid is one of very few bodies located in the 2 : 1 mean motion resonance with the giant planet Jupiter . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.6 -- 4.0 AU once every 5 years and 12 months ( 2,186 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.22 and an inclination of 1 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at Palomar Observatory in 1954 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 36 years prior to its discovery . As of 2016 , the asteroid 's effective size , its composition and albedo , as well as its rotation period and shape remain unknown . A generic diameter of 4 to 9 kilometers for Pyramus can be calculated based on an absolute magnitude of 13.9 and an albedo in the range of 0.05 to 0.25 . According to the survey carried out by NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , Pyramus measures 9.2 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.069 . The minor planet is named from Greco-Roman mythology after Pyramus , the lover of Thisbe ( see minor planet 88 Thisbe ) from which the tragedy of Romeo and Juliet ultimately originated . As narrated in Ovid 's Metamorphoses , the two ill-fated lovers committed suicide as their parents were against their marriage . The asteroid 's name was proposed by Austrian amateur astronomer Herbert Raab . The citation mentions that the `` two lovers are now finally united forever in the asteroid belt '' . Naming citation was published on 6 January 2003 .","qid":"2765","docid":"14871_Pyramus","rank":36,"score":102850},{"content":"Title: Kepler-22b Content: Kepler-22b , also known by its Kepler object of interest designation KOI-087 .01 , is an extrasolar planet orbiting within the empirical habitable zone of the Sun-like star Kepler-22 . It is located about 600 ly from Earth in the constellation of Cygnus . It was discovered by NASA 's Kepler Space Telescope in December 2011 and was the first known transiting planet to orbit within the habitable zone of a Sun-like star . Kepler-22 is too dim to be seen with the naked eye . Kepler-22b 's size is roughly twice that of Earth . Its mass and surface composition are unknown . An Earth-like composition for the planet has been ruled out . It is likely to have a volatile-rich composition with a liquid or gaseous outer shell . The only parameters of the planet 's orbit that are currently available are its orbital period , which is about , and its inclination , which is approximately 90 ° . Evidence suggests that the planet has a moderate surface temperature , assuming that the surface is not subject to extreme greenhouse heating . In the absence of an atmosphere , its equilibrium temperature ( assuming an Earth-like albedo ) would be approximately 262 K. The planet 's first transit was observed on 12 May 2009 . Confirmation of the existence of Kepler-22b was announced on 5 December 2011 .","qid":"2765","docid":"Kepler-22b","rank":37,"score":102539},{"content":"Title: 10P/Tempel Content: 10P/Tempel , also known as Tempel 2 , is a periodic Jupiter-family comet in the Solar System . It was discovered in 1873 and has an orbital period of 5.3 years . The comet nucleus is estimated to be 10.6 kilometers in diameter with a low albedo of 0.022 . The nucleus is dark because hydrocarbons on the surface have been converted to a dark , tarry like substance by solar ultraviolet radiation . During the 2010 apparition the comet brightened to about apparent magnitude 8 . It next comes to perihelion ( closest approach to the Sun ) on 14 November 2015 when it should brighten to around magnitude 11 . The most favorable apparition of 10P/Tempel 2 was in 1925 when it came within 0.35 AU of Earth with an apparent magnitude of 6.5 . On August 3 , 2026 , comet Tempel 2 is expected to have another close pass within about 0.41 AU of Earth .","qid":"2765","docid":"10P/Tempel","rank":38,"score":102350},{"content":"Title: 113390 Helvetia Content: 113390 Helvetia , provisional designation , is an asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 2.2 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 29 September 2002 , by Swiss astronomer Markus Griesser at the Eschenberg Observatory in Winterthur , near Zürich , Switzerland . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.8 -- 2.8 AU once every 3 years and 6 months ( 1,276 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.20 and an inclination of 7 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at Palomar Observatory in 1960 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 42 years prior to its discovery . As of 2016 , the asteroid 's shape , composition and rotation period remain unknown . Based on its absolute magnitude of 15.6 , its diameter lies between 2 and 4 kilometers , assuming an albedo in the range of 0.05 to 0.25 . According to the survey carried out by the NEOWISE mission of NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , the asteroid measures 2.2 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.231 , which is typical for stony asteroids . The minor planet was named in February 2006 and bears the name for Switzerland ( Confoederatio Helvetica ) , where the asteroid was discovered . Helvetia is also an allegorical figure and symbol for the nation . Each Swiss stamp carries her name , and her figure appears on most Swiss coins . Naming citation was published on 19 February 2006 .","qid":"2765","docid":"113390_Helvetia","rank":39,"score":102240},{"content":"Title: 2537 Gilmore Content: 2537 Gilmore , provisional designation , is a Eunomia asteroid from the middle region of the asteroid belt , approximately 7 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 4 September 1951 , by German astronomer Karl Reinmuth at Heidelberg-Königstuhl State Observatory in southern Germany . The asteroid is a member of the Eunomia family , a large group of S-type asteroids and the most prominent family in the intermediate main-belt . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.2 -- 3.1 AU once every 4 years and 4 months ( 1,581 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.17 and an inclination of 13 ° with respect to the ecliptic . As no precoveries were taken , the asteroid 's observation arc begins with its discovery in 1951 . According to the survey carried out by the NEOWISE mission of NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , the asteroid measures 7.2 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.309 , while the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.21 and calculates a diameter of 6.7 kilometers , based on an absolute magnitude of 13.19 . Two rotational light-curves for this asteroid were obtained from photometric observations at the U.S. Palomar Transient Factory , California , from January to February 2014 . The light-curves gave a rotation period of and hours with a brightness variation of 0.34 and 0.35 in magnitude , respectively . The minor planet was named in honor of New Zealand astronomer couple Alan C. Gilmore and his wife , Pamela ( née Kilmartin ) , two very productive observers of comets and minor planet in the Southern Hemisphere . They research at the Mount John University Observatory since 1980 , and are members of the Royal Astronomical Society of New Zealand . Naming citation was published on 24 July 1983 , based on a proposal by Conrad Bardwell ( see 1615 Bardwell ) and Brian G. Marsden . Pamela Gilmore is also honored by the minor planet 3907 Kilmartin .","qid":"2765","docid":"2537_Gilmore","rank":40,"score":102066},{"content":"Title: 2531 Cambridge Content: 2531 Cambridge , provisional designation 1980 LD , is a main-belt asteroid discovered by American astronomer Edward Bowell at Lowell 's Anderson Mesa Station in Flagstaff , Arizona . The asteroid measures about 19 kilometer in diameter and has a high albedo of 0.21 . It has its perihelion at 2.84 AU , an eccentricity of 0.06 and an orbital period of 1,906 days ( 5.22 years ) . It is named after the University of Cambridge in England and the universities in the city of Cambridge , Massachusetts ( United States ) , where the Minor Planet Center is located at the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory .","qid":"2765","docid":"2531_Cambridge","rank":41,"score":101651},{"content":"Title: 2017 AG13 Content: is an Aten asteroid that made a close approach of 0.54 lunar distances from Earth on January 9 , 2017 . It was the largest asteroid to pass less than 1 lunar distance from Earth since on August 28 , 2016 . The Catalina Sky Survey discovered it on January 7 , 2017 , only two days before its closest approach . At its brightest , reached apparent magnitude 14.8 . Shortly after , it moved too close to the Sun to be seen by telescopes . The asteroid frequently makes close approaches to Earth , possibly passing as close as 127000 km to Earth on January 9 , 2069 , however it will most likely pass much further away . is most likely 13 -- 41 meters across , assuming a typical asteroid albedo of between 0.05 and 0.3 .","qid":"2765","docid":"2017_AG13","rank":42,"score":100235},{"content":"Title: (237442) 1999 TA10 Content: , provisionally known as 1999 TA10 , is a near-Earth object ( NEO ) from the Amor asteroid group . It is suspected of being an inner fragment of the differentiated asteroid 4 Vesta . Given an absolute magnitude ( H ) of 17.9 , and that the albedo is unknown , this NEO could vary from 500 to 1500 meters in diameter . was discovered on 5 October 1999 at apparent magnitude 17.7 , when it was only 0.39 AU from Earth . In 2010 , it came within 0.3 AU of Earth . During the 2010 close approach , NASA Infrared Telescope Facility ( NASA IRTF ) studies suggested that originated from the interior of Vesta . The next close approach will be in 2023 . In 2086 , it will come within 0.017 AU of Mars .","qid":"2765","docid":"(237442)_1999_TA10","rank":43,"score":100031},{"content":"Title: 645 Agrippina Content: 645 Agrippina , provisional designation 1907 AG , is a stony asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt , roughly 30 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by American astronomer reverend Joel Metcalf at Taunton , Massachusetts , USA , on 13 September 1907 . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.7 -- 3.7 AU once every 5 years and 9 months ( 2,103 days ) . Its orbit shows an eccentricity of 0.15 and is tilted by 7 degrees to the plane of the ecliptic . A photometric light-curve analysis from the 1980s and a provisional observation in 2004 rendered a rotation period of 32.6 and 34.4 hours , respectively . According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite , IRAS , the Japanese Akari satellite , and the U.S.Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid has a dissimilar albedo in the range of 0.14 to 0.23 , which leads to a varying estimate for its diameter from 28 to 36 kilometers . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link publishes an albedo of 0.23 from an alternative result of the Supplemental IRAS Minor Planet Survey ( SIMPS ) and derives a slightly lower diameter of 27.9 kilometers . The minor planet was named for two women of ancient Roman history . Agrippina the Elder ( 14 BCE -- 33 ) was the daughter of the Roman statesman Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa , the wife of Germanicus and the mother of the Emperor Caligula . Her daughter , Agrippina the Younger ( 15 -- 59 AD ) was the mother of Emperor Nero . The naming might be influenced by the two letters of the provisional designation 1907 AG . In the Dictionary of Minor Planet Names , Lutz Schmadel supposes that the name originated from a list of female names from mythology and history , compiled by the Astronomisches Rechen-Institut ( ARI ) in 1913 . The ARI then sent this list to a number of astronomers with the request to name their discoveries in order to avoid confusion , as the number of unnamed minor planet up to number 700 had grown significantly at the time .","qid":"2765","docid":"645_Agrippina","rank":44,"score":99873},{"content":"Title: Global dimming Content: Global dimming is the gradual reduction in the amount of global direct irradiance at the Earth 's surface that was observed for several decades after the start of systematic measurements in the 1950s . The effect varies by location , but worldwide it has been estimated to be of the order of a 4 % reduction over the three decades from 1960 -- 1990 . However , after discounting an anomaly caused by the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 , a very slight reversal in the overall trend has been observed . Global dimming is thought to have been caused by an increase in particulates such as sulfate aerosols in the atmosphere due to human action . It has interfered with the hydrological cycle by reducing evaporation and may have reduced rainfall in some areas . Global dimming also creates a cooling effect that may have partially counteracted the effect of greenhouse gases on global warming .","qid":"2765","docid":"Global_dimming","rank":45,"score":99806},{"content":"Title: 11441 Anadiego Content: 11441 Anadiego , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid from the middle region of the asteroid belt , approximately 7 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 31 December 1975 , by Argentine astronomer Mario R. Cesco at the El Leoncito Complex in western Argentina . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.9 -- 3.2 AU once every 4 years and 1 month ( 1,497 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.26 and an inclination of 12 ° with respect to the ecliptic . As no precoveries were taken , the asteroid 's observation arc starts with its discovery observation in 1975 . A rotational light-curve was obtained for this asteroid by astronomer Kevin Hills at the Australian Riverland Dingo Observatory in February 2013 . It gave a rotation period of hours with a brightness variation of 0.11 magnitude . According to the surveys carried out by NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid measures 6.8 and 7.3 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.287 and 0.254 , respectively . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a lower standard albedo for stony asteroids of 0.20 , and , correspondingly calculates a larger diameter of 8.2 kilometers , based on an absolute magnitude of 12.8 . The minor planet was named in memory of Ana Teresa Diego ( 1954 -- 1976 ) , an astronomy student at La Plata Astronomical Observatory and political activist who was kidnapped and disappeared in September 1976 by unidentified persons believed working for the military junta then ruling Argentina . Naming citation was published 10 December 2011 .","qid":"2765","docid":"11441_Anadiego","rank":46,"score":99722},{"content":"Title: Albedo Anthropomorphics Content: Albedo Anthropomorphics , or Albedo for short , was a furry comic book anthology series which was credited with starting the furry comic book subgenre that featured sophisticated stories with funny animals primarily intended for an adult audience . The first issue of Albedo was published in 1983 ; the most recent issue was published in 2005 . Albedo was started by Steve Gallacci , who produced its main feature , Erma Felna : EDF -- a sophisticated science fiction military series set in a sector of space populated by sapient and predominantly humanoid versions of mammal and avian species . The focus of the series is Erma Felna , a young feline officer who eventually plays a central role in the complex political conflicts that consume her universe . Gallacci was a technical illustrator for the United States Air Force and one feature of Albedo is well thought-out and illustrated vehicles . His experience also shows in the realistic treatment of military life and operations . The series was used as inspiration for the Albedo role-playing game , which has had three editions and multiple supplements .","qid":"2765","docid":"Albedo_Anthropomorphics","rank":47,"score":99688},{"content":"Title: 6470 Aldrin Content: 6470 Aldrin , provisional designation , is a stony Flora asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 3 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by Czech astronomer Antonín Mrkos at Kleť Observatory on 14 September 1982 . The S-type asteroid is a member of the Flora family , one of the largest groups of stony asteroids in the main-belt . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.9 -- 2.6 AU once every 3 years and 5 months ( 1,253 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.15 and an inclination of 3 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The asteroid 's observation arc begins in 1982 , as no precoveries had been taken prior to its discovery . A rotational light-curve of this asteroid was obtained from photometric observations made at the U.S. Palomar Transient Factory in September 2013 . The light-curve gave a rotation period of hours with a brightness variation of 0.82 in magnitude . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.24 -- which derives from 8 Flora , the largest member and namesake of this orbital family -- and calculates a diameter of 3.0 kilometers , based on an absolute magnitude of 14.78 . The minor planet was named for American astronaut Buzz Aldrin ( b. 1930 ) , on the occasion of the 30th anniversary of the Apollo 11 mission . He was one of the first two humans to land on the Moon , and the second person to walk on it , following Neil Armstrong , after whom the asteroid 6469 Armstrong is named . Its name was suggested by Czech astronomers Jana Tichá , Miloš Tichý and Zdeněk Moravec , who observed the asteroid during its 1995-opposition , shortly before being numbered . Naming citation was published on 4 May 1999 .","qid":"2765","docid":"6470_Aldrin","rank":48,"score":99686},{"content":"Title: 1834 Palach Content: 1834 Palach , provisional designation , is a stony Eoan asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt , approximately 19 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 22 August 1969 by Czech astronomer Luboš Kohoutek at Bergedorf Observatory in Hamburg , Germany . The S-type asteroid is a member of the Eos family , an orbital group of more than 4,000 asteroids , which are well known for mostly being of stony composition with a relatively high albedo . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.8 -- 3.2 AU once every 5 years and 3 months ( 1,922 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.07 and an inclination of 9 ° with respect to the ecliptic . As no precoveries were taken , and no prior identifications were made , Palachs observation arc begins with its official discovery observation in 1969 . In September 2006 , a rotational light-curve for Palach was obtained from photometric observations made by French amateur astronomer Laurent Bernasconi at St. Michel sur Meu . It gave a rotation period of 3.139 hours with a brightness amplitude of 0.16 magnitude . In May 2010 , a second light-curve , obtained by Zachary Pligge at Oakley Southern Sky Observatory , Australia , gave a period of 3.1358 hours with an amplitude of 0.13 . According to the surveys carried out by the Japanese Akari satellite and NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , Palach measures between 17.16 and 20.23 kilometers in diameter , and its surface has an albedo between 0.109 and 0.151 . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for Eoan asteroids of 0.14 and calculates a diameter of 19.52 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 11.3 . It was named in memory of Czech student Jan Palach , who burned himself to death , as a protest against the Soviet occupation of Czechoslovakia that followed and ended the national reform movement known as the Prague Spring . Naming citation was published on 25 August 1991 .","qid":"2765","docid":"1834_Palach","rank":49,"score":99599},{"content":"Title: 116903 Jeromeapt Content: 116903 Jeromeapt , provisional designation , is an asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 1 kilometer in diameter . It was discovered on 11 April 2004 , by American astronomer James Whitney Young at the U.S. Table Mountain Observatory near Wrightwood , California . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.0 -- 2.9 AU once every 3 years and 10 months ( 1,401 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.17 and an inclination of 2 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at Steward Observatory in 2002 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by more than 2 years prior to its discovery . As of 2016 , the asteroid 's effective size , its composition and albedo , as well as its rotation period and shape remain unknown . Based on an absolute magnitude of 17.3 , the asteroid is calculated to measure between 1 and 2 kilometers in diameter , assuming an albedo in the range of 0.05 to 0.25 . Since asteroids in the inner main-belt are often of a silicaceous rather than of a carbonaceous composition , with higher albedos , typically around 0.20 , the asteroid 's diameter might be on the lower end of NASA 's published conversion table , as the higher the body 's reflectivity ( albedo ) , the smaller its diameter at a constant absolute magnitude ( brightness ) . The minor planet is named in honor of American Jerome Apt ( b. 1949 ) , who was the discovering observatory 's director and also an astronaut on 4 Space Shuttle missions in the 1990s . At the time of naming this asteroid , he was a professor at Carnegie Mellon University . Naming citation was published 29 October 2012 .","qid":"2765","docid":"116903_Jeromeapt","rank":50,"score":99370},{"content":"Title: Umov effect Content: The Umov effect , also known as Umov 's law , is a relationship between the albedo of an astronomical object , and the degree of polarization of light reflecting off it . The effect was discovered by the Russian physicist Nikolay Umov in 1905 , and can be observed for celestial objects such as the surface of the Moon and the asteroids . The degree of linear polarization of light P is defined by where and are the intensities of light in the directions perpendicular and parallel to the plane of a polarizer aligned in the plane of reflection . Values of P are zero for unpolarized light , and ± 1 for linearly polarized light . Umov 's law states where α is the albedo of the object . Thus , highly reflective objects tend to reflect mostly unpolarized light , and dimly reflective objects tend to reflect polarized light . The law is only valid for large phase angles ( angles between the incident light and the reflected light ) .","qid":"2765","docid":"Umov_effect","rank":51,"score":98852},{"content":"Title: Albedo 0.39 Content: Albedo 0.39 is a studio album by the Greek electronic composer Vangelis , released in 1976 . It was the second album produced by Vangelis in Nemo Studios , London , which was his creative base until the late 1980s . It contrasts with his previous album , Heaven and Hell , which was classically inspired and choral , while Albedo 0.39 has blues and jazz overtones . It was his first Top 20 UK album .","qid":"2765","docid":"Albedo_0.39","rank":52,"score":98702},{"content":"Title: 2661 Bydžovský Content: 2661 Bydžovský , provisional designation , is an asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt , approximately 30 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 23 March 1982 , by Czech astronomer Zdeňka Vávrová at the South Bohemian Kleť Observatory in the Czech Republic . Bydžovský orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.7 -- 3.3 AU once every 5 years and 3 months ( 1,923 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.09 and an inclination of 10 ° with respect to the ecliptic . It was first identified as at Heidelberg Observatory in 1950 , extending the body 's observation arc by 32 years prior to its discovery . As of 2016 , Bydžovskýs size , albedo , composition and rotation period remain unknown . Based on its absolute magnitude of 11.4 , its diameter is estimated to measure between 13 and 32 kilometers , assuming an albedo in the range of 0.05 to 0.25 . Since most asteroids in the outer main-belt are of a carbonaceous rather than of a silicaceous composition , with low albedos , typically closer to 0.05 than to 0.25 , the asteroid 's diameter might be on the upper end of NASA 's published conversion table , as the lower the reflectivity ( albedo ) , the larger the body 's diameter for a given absolute magnitude . The minor planet was named in honour of mathematician Bohumil Bydžovský ( 1880 -- 1969 ) , chancellor of the Charles University in Prague . He was born in southern Bohemia and became the most eminent citizen of the Czech town Veselí on the Lužnice river , after which the minor planets 2321 Lužnice and 2599 Veselí were named , respectively . Naming citation was published on 6 February 1993 .","qid":"2765","docid":"2661_Bydžovský","rank":53,"score":98679},{"content":"Title: The Greening of Planet Earth Content: The Greening of Planet Earth is a half-hour-long video produced by the coal industry , which argues that rising CO2 levels will be beneficial to agriculture , and that policies intending to reduce CO2 levels are therefore misguided . The video argues that rising CO2 levels both directly stimulate plant growth and , as a result of their warming properties , cause winter temperatures to rise , thereby indirectly stimulating plant growth . It was produced in 1991 and released the following year . A sequel , entitled , The Greening of Planet Earth Continues , was released in 1998 . The video was narrated by Sherwood Idso . After the video was made , it was distributed to thousands of journalists by a coal industry group . The video became very popular viewing in the George H. W. Bush White House and elsewhere in Washington , where it was promoted before the 1992 Earth Summit , and , according to some reports , became especially popular with then-chief of staff John H. Sununu .","qid":"2765","docid":"The_Greening_of_Planet_Earth","rank":54,"score":98634},{"content":"Title: 4082 Swann Content: 4082 Swann , provisional designation , is a carbonaceous asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 10 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by American astronomer Carolyn Shoemaker at Palomar Observatory on 27 September 1984 . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.8 -- 3.0 AU once every 3 years and 8 months ( 1,349 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.26 and an inclination of 10 ° with respect to the ecliptic . First identified as `` 1947 UF '' at the Finnish Turku Observatory in 1947 , the asteroid 's observation arc was extended by 37 years prior to its discovery . The C-type asteroid is classified as a Ch-subtype in the SMASS taxonomy . According to the surveys carried out by the Japanese Akari satellite and NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid measures 9.5 and 11.1 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.029 and 0.101 , respectively . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link , however , assumes a standard albedo for stony asteroids of 0.20 and derives a much smaller diameter of 5.85 kilometers , based on an absolute magnitude of 13.46 . In July 2006 , a rotational light-curve for this asteroid was obtained from photometric observations by Petr Pravec at the Ondřejov Observatory in the Czech Republic . It gave a rotation period of hours with a brightness variation of 0.67 magnitude . A second light-curve obtained by Jean-Gabriel Bosch in September 2006 , gave a period of hours and an amplitude of 0.35 magnitude . The minor planet was named after American geologist Gordon A. Swann ( b. 1931 ) . He served as the principal investigator of the `` Apollo Lunar Geologic Experiment '' conducted at the lunar landing sites of Apollo 14 and Apollo 15 . Naming citation was published on 12 December 1989 .","qid":"2765","docid":"4082_Swann","rank":55,"score":98591},{"content":"Title: 31179 Gongju Content: 31179 Gongju , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , about 5 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by Japanese amateur astronomer Naoto Sato at Chichibu Observatory near Tokyo , central Japan , on 21 December 1997 . The S-type asteroid is a member of the stony subgroup of the Nysa family , one of the smaller families in the main-belt , named after its namesake , 44 Nysa . The body orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.0 -- 2.9 AU once every 3 years and 10 months ( 1,395 days ) . Its orbit shows an eccentricity of 0.19 and is tilted by 3 degrees to the plane of the ecliptic . In 2012 , a light-curve analysis at the Shadowbox Observatory in Carmel , Indiana , rendered a rotation period of hours with an estimated amplitude of 0.80 in magnitude . It has an albedo of 0.35 , according to the survey carried out by the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its NEOWISE mission , while the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a somewhat lower albedo of 0.21 , a typical value for stony asteroids . The minor planet was named after the South Korean city of Gongju , located in Chungcheongnam-do Province . It has a population of approximately 120,000 and was the capital of Baekje dynasty in the 5th century AD and the seat of the provincial government until 1932 .","qid":"2765","docid":"31179_Gongju","rank":56,"score":98580},{"content":"Title: 78816 Caripito Content: 78816 Caripito , provisional designation , is an asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt , approximately 5 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 4 August 2003 , by American amateur astronomer and professor of geophysics , Joseph Dellinger , at the U.S. Needville Observatory , Texas . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.4 -- 3.8 AU once every 5 years and 7 months ( 2,033 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.23 and an inclination of 6 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at Palomar 's Digitized Sky Survey in 1953 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 50 years prior to its discovery . As of 2016 , the Caripitos composition and albedo , as well as its rotation period and shape remain unknown . According to the survey carried out by NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid measures 5.3 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.052 . This low albedo is typical for asteroids in the outer main-belt , which are mostly of a carbonaceous rather than of a silicaceous composition . Based on an absolute magnitude of 15.4 , and assuming an albedo of 0.05 , the asteroid 's generic diameter measures between 2 and 5 kilometers . This minor planet is named for the Venezuelan town of Caripito in the northeastern Monagas State . It was the place where the parents of the discoverer , Thomas Baynes Dellinger ( b. 1926 ) and María de la Garza Cantú ( b. 1928 ) , met in 1949 . At the time , the town was a base camp for the country 's rich Quiriquire oil field . Naming citation was published on 18 September 2005 .","qid":"2765","docid":"78816_Caripito","rank":57,"score":98480},{"content":"Title: Albedo One Content: Albedo One is an Irish horror , fantasy and science fiction magazine founded in 1993 and currently published by Albedo One Productions .","qid":"2765","docid":"Albedo_One","rank":58,"score":97995},{"content":"Title: 18880 Toddblumberg Content: 18880 Toddblumberg , provisional designation , is an asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt , approximately 4 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 10 December 1999 , by LINEAR at Lincoln Laboratory 's Experimental Test Site , near Socorro , New Mexico . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.6 -- 3.8 AU once every 5 years and 9 months ( 2,096 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.18 and an inclination of 10 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at Palomar Observatory ( DSS ) in 1953 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 46 years prior to its discovery . Although discovered by LINEAR , 18880 Toddblumberg is not a near-Earth asteroid . Its closest approach to the Sun ( perihelion ) is about double the maximum distance of 1.3 AU that qualifies an asteroid as `` near-Earth '' . According to the survey carried out by NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , Toddblumberg measures 4.3 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.265 . As of 2016 , the bodyŝ spectral type as well as its rotation period remain unknown . This minor planet was named for Todd James Blumberg ( b. 1984 ) , a student at the Plano Senior High School in Plano , Texas , who won the Intel International Science and Engineering Fair ( ISEF ) award for his microbiology project in 2003 . Since 2001 , hundreds of secondary school students who have won awards at science fairs have had asteroids named after them . Naming citation was published on 30 August 2004 .","qid":"2765","docid":"18880_Toddblumberg","rank":59,"score":97848},{"content":"Title: 1421 Esperanto Content: 1421 Esperanto , provisional designation 1936 FQ , is an asteroid from the asteroid belt , about 43 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on March 18 , 1936 , by the Finnish astronomer Yrjö Väisälä at Iso-Heikkilä Observatory in Turku , Finland . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.8 -- 3.3 AU once every five and a half years . It rotational period has been measured to take almost 22 hours . It has a relatively low albedo of 0.07 . Yrjö Väisälä named the asteroid after the artificial language , Esperanto , which was created by inventor and writer , Ludwik Lejzer Zamenhof ( 1859 -- 1917 ) , who used the pseudonym `` Doktoro Esperanto '' . The discoverer also named another asteroid , 1462 Zamenhof , directly after the inventor . Both asteroids are considered to be the most remote Zamenhof-Esperanto objects .","qid":"2765","docid":"1421_Esperanto","rank":60,"score":97612},{"content":"Title: 1798 Watts Content: 1798 Watts , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 7 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 4 April 1949 , by IU 's Indiana Asteroid Program at Goethe Link Observatory near Brooklyn , Indiana , United States . The asteroid is a member of the Flora family , a large group of stony S-type asteroids in the inner main-belt . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.9 -- 2.5 AU once every 3 years and 3 months ( 1,191 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.12 and an inclination of 6 ° with respect to the ecliptic . Watts was first observed and identified as at Yerkes Observatory in 1934 , extending the body 's observation arc by 15 years prior to its official discovery observation . According to the survey carried out by NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , Watts measures 6.63 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo between 0.276 and 0.294 . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.24 -- derived from 8 Flora , the largest member and namesake of this asteroid family -- and calculates a diameter of 7.14 kilometers , based on an absolute magnitude of 12.9 . As of 2017 , Wattss rotation period and shape remain unknown . The minor planet was named in honour of American astronomer Chester Burleigh Watts ( 1889 -- 1971 ) , a graduate of Indiana University . He worked at the United States Naval Observatory for 44 years , making distinguished contributions in the field of positional astronomy and pioneered in the field of automation of transit circle observations , which led to results of the highest systematic accuracy . From the late 1940 until 1963 he meticulously mapped every feature on the marginal zone of the Moon . Naming citation was published before November 1977 .","qid":"2765","docid":"1798_Watts","rank":61,"score":97484},{"content":"Title: Geometric albedo Content: In astronomy , the geometric albedo of a celestial body is the ratio of its actual brightness as seen from the light source ( i.e. at zero phase angle ) to that of an idealized flat , fully reflecting , diffusively scattering ( Lambertian ) disk with the same cross-section . ( This phase angle refers to the direction of the light paths and is not a phase angle in its normal meaning in optics or electronics . ) Diffuse scattering implies that radiation is reflected isotropically with no memory of the location of the incident light source . Zero phase angle corresponds to looking along the direction of illumination . For Earth-bound observers this occurs when the body in question is at opposition and on the ecliptic . The visual geometric albedo refers to the geometric albedo quantity when accounting for only electromagnetic radiation in the visible spectrum .","qid":"2765","docid":"Geometric_albedo","rank":62,"score":97409},{"content":"Title: (394130) 2006 HY51 Content: is an outstandingly eccentric asteroid and near-Earth object of the Apollo group , approximately 1.2 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by LINEAR at Lincoln Lab 's ETS on 26 April 2006 . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 0.1 -- 5.1 AU once every 4 years and 2 months ( 1,529 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.97 and an inclination of 31 ° with respect to the ecliptic . It is the asteroid with the third-smallest known perihelion of any known object orbiting the Sun . Its extreme orbital eccentricity brings it within 0.081 AU of the Sun ( 26 % of Mercury 's perihelion ) and as far as 5.118 AU from the Sun ( making it a Jupiter-grazer ) . It has a minimum orbit intersection distance with Earth of 0.0930 AU , equivalent to 35 lunar distances . As of 2016 , the asteroid 's effective size , its composition and albedo , as well as its rotation period and shape remain unknown .","qid":"2765","docid":"(394130)_2006_HY51","rank":63,"score":96972},{"content":"Title: 3181 Ahnert Content: 3181 Ahnert , provisional designation , is a stony Flora asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , about 8 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by German astronomer Freimut Börngen at the Karl Schwarzschild Observatory in Tautenburg , eastern Germany , on 8 March 1964 . The S-type asteroid is a member of the Flora family , one of the largest groups of stony asteroids in the main-belt . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.1 -- 2.4 AU once every 3 years and 4 months ( 1,215 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.07 and an inclination of 4 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was obtained at Lowell Observatory in 1931 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 33 years prior to its discovery . According to the surveys carried out by NASA 's space-based Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid measures between 8.0 and 8.6 kilometers and its surface has an albedo between 0.19 and 0.26 . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an intermediate albedo of 0.24 -- derived from 8 Flora , the largest member and namesake of this orbital family -- and calculates a diameter of 8.2 kilometers . As of 2016 , the asteroid 's rotation period and shape still remain unknown . The minor planet was named after German astronomer Paul Ahnert ( 1897 -- 1989 ) , author of the annual calendar of astronomical events ( Kalender für Sternfreunde ) and a renowned astronomer among professionals and amateurs . His fields of research included the physics of the Solar System and periods of variable stars at the Sonneberg Observatory . ( The minor planet 1039 Sonneberga is named after this observatory . ) Publisher of several books on performing astronomical observations , he also popularized the subject of astronomy to the general public . Naming citation was published on 2 July 1985 .","qid":"2765","docid":"3181_Ahnert","rank":64,"score":96927},{"content":"Title: 145534 Jhongda Content: 145534 Jhongda , provisional designation , is a carbonaceous asteroid from the middle region of the asteroid belt , approximately 3.5 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by Taiwanese astronomers Yang Tingzhang and Ye Quanzhi at Lulin Observatory on 1 April 2006 . The C-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.3 -- 3.1 AU once every 4 years and 5 months ( 1,627 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.14 and an inclination of 6 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at Steward Observatory ( Kitt Peak ) in 1992 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 14 years prior to its discovery . In January 2014 , a rotational light-curve was obtained for this asteroid from photometric observation at the Palomar Transient Factory in California . It gave a rotation period of hours with a brightness variation of 0.67 in magnitude . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for carbonaceous asteroids of 0.057 and calculates a diameter of 3.54 kilometers , based on an absolute magnitude of 15.98 . The minor planet was named after the Taiwanese National Central University , which controls the discovering Lulin Observatory . `` Jhongda '' is the University 's abbreviation in Mandarin Chinese . Naming citation was published on 2 April 2007 .","qid":"2765","docid":"145534_Jhongda","rank":65,"score":96900},{"content":"Title: 1684 Iguassú Content: 1684 Iguassú , provisional designation , is a carbonaceous asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt , approximately 30.5 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 23 August 1951 , by Argentine astronomer Miguel Itzigsohn at the La Plata Astronomical Observatory , located in the city of La Plata , Argentina . The C-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.7 -- 3.5 AU once every 5 years and 5 months ( 1,991 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.12 and an inclination of 4 ° with respect to the ecliptic . In January 2014 , two rotational light-curves of Iguassú were obtained at the Palomar Transient Factory in California . They gave a rotation period of 9.14 and 9.23 hours , respectively , both with a brightness change of in magnitude . According to the survey carried out by NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , Iguassú measures between 30.21 and 31.38 kilometers in diameter , and its surface has an albedo between 0.08 and 0.093 . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for carbonaceous asteroids of 0.057 and calculates a diameter of 30.62 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 11.3 . This minor planet is named for the large Iguazu Falls , a 60 meters high and 1 kilometer wide waterfall , which river of the same name marks part of the boundary between Argentina and Brazil . As a curiosity , the spelling of the minor planet 's name ( Iguassú ) neither concurs with the Spanish `` Iguazú '' nor with the Portuguese `` Iguaçu '' . It is rather similar to `` Yguasu '' , used in the native Guarani language , from which the waterfall 's name originates . Naming citation was published on 8 April 1982 .","qid":"2765","docid":"1684_Iguassú","rank":66,"score":96724},{"content":"Title: 1861 Komenský Content: 1861 Komenský , provisional designation , is an asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt , estimated to measure approximately 15 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 24 November 1970 , by Czech astronomer Luboš Kohoutek at the Bergedorf Observatory in Hamburg , Germany . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.8 -- 3.2 AU once every 5 years and 3 months ( 1,917 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.06 and an inclination of 10 ° with respect to the ecliptic . Komenskýs observation arc begins with its official discovery observation , as no precoveries and no previous identifications were made . According to the survey carried out by NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , Komenský measures 14.8 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.158 . Based on an absolute magnitude of 11.7 , and assuming an albedo in the range of 0.05 to 0.25 , the asteroid has a generic mean diameter of 12 to 28 kilometers . As of 2016 , Komenskýs composition , rotation period and shape remain unknown . It was named in honor of Czech educational reformer and theologist , John Amos Comenius ( 1592 -- 1670 ) , known as Jan Amos Komenský in the original Czech language . He is considered the father of modern education and spend most of his life in exile . Naming citation was published before November 1977 .","qid":"2765","docid":"1861_Komenský","rank":67,"score":96447},{"content":"Title: 2007 McCuskey Content: 2007 McCuskey , provisional designation 1963 SQ , is a larger mid-sized asteroid from the asteroid belt . It was discovered on 22 September 1963 , by the Indiana Asteroid Program at Goethe Link Observatory near Brooklyn , Indiana , United States . The rather dark asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.1 -- 2.7 AU once every 3.68 years ( 1,344 days ) . It has a rotation period of 8.6 hours . Measurements made with the IRAS observatory give a diameter of kilometers and a geometric albedo of . By comparison , measurements with Spitzer 's Multiband Imaging Photometer ( MIPS ) give a diameter of kilometers and a geometric albedo of . It is named in honour of American mathematician and astronomer Sidney Wilcox McCuskey ( 1907 -- 1979 ) , who was the director of the Warner and Swasey Observatory and president of IAU Commission 33 , Structure and Dynamics of the Galactic System . He is best known for his contribution on stellar luminosity and galactic structure .","qid":"2765","docid":"2007_McCuskey","rank":68,"score":96445},{"content":"Title: (386454) 2008 XM Content: ( 386454 ) 2008 XM is an outstandingly eccentric , sub-kilometer-sized asteroid , with one of the smallest known perihelions among all minor planets . It is classified as near-Earth object of the Apollo group and potentially hazardous asteroid , and measures approximately 370 meters in diameter . It was discovered on 2 December 2008 , by the U.S. LINEAR program at Lincoln Laboratory 's Experimental Test Site in Socorro , New Mexico . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 0.1 -- 2.3 AU once every 16 months ( 494 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.91 and an inclination of 5 ° with respect to the ecliptic . Due to its outstanding eccentricity , it is also a Mercury-crosser , Venus-crosser and Mars-crosser . It has the third-smallest perihelion of any numbered asteroid behind and . Its Earth minimum orbital intersection distance of 0.0047 AU corresponds to only 1.84 lunar distances . According to the survey carried out by the NEOWISE mission of NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , the asteroid measures meters in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.128 . As of 2016 , the body 's composition and spectral type , as well as its rotation period and shape remains unknown .","qid":"2765","docid":"(386454)_2008_XM","rank":69,"score":96396},{"content":"Title: 2865 Laurel Content: 2865 Laurel , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid from the middle region of the asteroid belt , approximately 15 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by English-born South African astronomer Cyril Jackson at Johannesburg Observatory on 31 July 1935 . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.4 -- 2.7 AU once every 4 years and 1 month ( 1,497 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.07 and an inclination of 14 ° with respect to the ecliptic . No precoveries were taken and the asteroid 's observation arc begins with its discovery observation in 1935 . A rotational light-curve for this asteroid was obtained from photometric observations by French amateur astronomer Pierre Antonini in September 2005 . It gave a longer than average rotation period of hours with a brightness variation of 0.15 in magnitude . According to the space-based surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS , the Japanese Akari satellite , and NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid measures between 14.7 and 25.0 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo between 0.09 and 0.22 . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link agrees with IRAS and derives an albedo of 0.24 and a diameter 14.8 kilometers . The minor planet was named after English-born comedian Stan Laurel ( 1890 -- 1965 ) . Together with Oliver Hardy ( 1892 -- 1957 ) , who was honored with the main-belt asteroid 2866 Hardy , they formed the first great comedy duo in Classical Hollywood cinema . Naming citation was published on 1 September 1993 , based on a suggestion by Gareth V. Williams and others .","qid":"2765","docid":"2865_Laurel","rank":70,"score":96263},{"content":"Title: 6522 Aci Content: 6522 Aci , provisional designation , is a stony Phocaea asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , about 6 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by American astronomer Eleanor Helin at the U.S. Palomar Observatory in California , on 9 July 1991 . The S-type asteroid is a member of the Phocaea family , a relatively small group of asteroids with similar orbital characteristics . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.9 -- 2.9 AU once every 3 years and 8 months ( 1,345 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.20 and an inclination of 22 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at the German Karl Schwarzschild Observatory in 1990 , one year prior to its discovery . A photometric light-curve analysis performed at the U.S. Palomar Transient Factory in 2010 , rendered a rotation period of hours with a brightness amplitude of 0.68 in magnitude . According to the NEOWISE mission of NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , the asteroid measures 6.1 kilometers in diameter and its surface has a high albedo of 0.39 , while the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.23 -- which derives from 25 Phocaea , namesake and largest member of this orbital family -- and calculates a diameter of 5.7 kilometers . The minor planet was named for the river southeast of Mount Etna in Sicily , Italy . The towns and villages along the river , such as Aci Castello , Aci Trezza , Aci-Reale , and Aci Sant ` Antonio , were also honored . The river also brings to mind the myth of Aci from Greek mythology , which is about a young Sicilian shepherd , who was killed by the jealous cyclops Polyphemus , because of his love for the sea nymph Galatea . The minor planet 74 Galatea is named after this Nereid . Naming citation was published on 26 October 1996 .","qid":"2765","docid":"6522_Aci","rank":71,"score":96103},{"content":"Title: 3255 Tholen Content: 3255 Tholen , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid , Mars-crosser and relatively fast rotator , that measures approximately 6 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 2 September 1980 , by American astronomer Edward Bowell at Lowell 's Anderson Mesa Station in Flagstaff , Arizona . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.5 -- 3.2 AU once every 3 years and 8 months ( 1,335 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.36 and an inclination of 21 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first observation was made at the Argentinian El Leoncito site in 1969 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 11 years prior to its discovery . According to the space-based survey carried out by the Japanese Akari satellite and NASA 's NEOWISE mission , the asteroid measures 4.0 and 6.8 kilometers in diameter , and its surface has an albedo of 0.14 and 0.34 , respectively , while the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for stony asteroids of 0.20 and calculates a diameter of 5.1 kilometers , based on an absolute magnitude of 13.84 . Several rotational light-curves were obtained for this asteroid from photometric observations . In September 2013 , Italian astronomer Andrea Ferrero at the Bigmuskie Observatory in Mombercelli , Italy , derived a rotation period of hours with a brightness variation of 0.11 in magnitude , while two month later , in November 2013 , astronomer Brian A. Skiff obtained two light-curves that both gave a period of 2.95 and an amplitude of 0.24 and 0.28 in magnitude , respectively . The results supersede two older light-curves from 1991 and 2002 , that gave a period of and 6 hours , respectively . The minor planet was named after David J. Tholen ( b. 1955 ) , a discoverer of minor planets and planetary scientist at the Institute for Astronomy of the University of Hawaii , known for his eight-color taxonomic scheme on minor planets . Naming citation was published on 14 April 1987 .","qid":"2765","docid":"3255_Tholen","rank":72,"score":96056},{"content":"Title: 11949 Kagayayutaka Content: 11949 Kagayayutaka , provisional designation , is an asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt , approximately 23 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 19 September 1993 , by Japanese amateur astronomers Kin Endate and Kazuro Watanabe at Kitami Observatory in eastern Hokkaidō , Japan . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.5 -- 3.6 AU once every 5 years and 5 months ( 1,983 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.18 and an inclination of 8 ° with respect to the ecliptic . As no precoveries were taken , the asteroid 's observation arc starts with its discovery observation in September 1993 . The body is classified as both a C and S-type asteroid by the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link ( CALL ) and Pan-STARRS survey of magnitudes , respectively . According to the survey carried out by NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid measures 22.28 kilometers in diameter and its surface has a high albedo of 0.708 , while CALL assumes a standard albedo for carbonaceous asteroids of 0.057 and calculates a diameter of 23.21 kilometers . A rotational light-curve was obtained for this asteroid from photometric observations by French astronomer René Roy in November 2015 . It gave a provisional rotation period of hours with a brightness variation of 0.28 in magnitude . The minor planet was named after Kagaya Yutaka ( b. 1968 ) , the Japanese space and digital artist and receiver of the Gold Medal in the American Digital Art Contest in 2000 . Naming citation was published on 10 September 2003 .","qid":"2765","docid":"11949_Kagayayutaka","rank":73,"score":95998},{"content":"Title: 2014 JO25 Content: 2014 JO25 is a peanut-shaped contact-binary near-earth asteroid . It was discovered in May 2014 by A. D. Grauer of the Catalina Sky Survey as part of NASA 's NEO Observations Program . Early estimation based on observed absolute magnitude and estimated albedo indicates object 600-1400 m in diameter . Further research based on NEOWISE data indicates an object of 650 m in diameter and albedo 0.25 . Data taken during 2017 flyby shows asteroid measures at least 870 m ( largest dimension ) . The 2017 flyby within a distance of 1.8 million kilometers was the closest approach to Earth by 2014 JO25 for at least the next 400 years .","qid":"2765","docid":"2014_JO25","rank":74,"score":95998},{"content":"Title: 677 Aaltje Content: 677 Aaltje is a main-belt minor planet orbiting the Sun , discovered by August Kopff at Heidelberg on January 18 , 1909 . It was named after the Dutch singer Aaltje Noordewier-Reddingius . This object has a geometric albedo of 0.2794 . Photometric observations during 2008 showed a rotation period of 16.6076 ± 0.0006 hours and a brightness variation of 0.30 ± 0.02 in magnitude . 677 Aaltje is orbiting within the 7/3 Kirkwood gap . This means it has a 7:3 orbital resonance with Jupiter , completing seven orbits for every three orbits of the planet . For smaller objects , this would typically lead to orbital instability , causing it to shift to a different orbital period . However , 677 Aaltje is too large for its orbit to have been moved by more than about 0.01 AU over the lifetime of the Solar System . What is more likely is that orbital interactions with the dwarf planet Ceres may have shifted it to the present-day orbit -- the orbit of 677 Aaltje leads it into relatively close encounters with Ceres .","qid":"2765","docid":"677_Aaltje","rank":75,"score":95954},{"content":"Title: 1807 Slovakia Content: 1807 Slovakia , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid and slow rotator from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 9 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 20 August 1971 , by Slovak astronomer Milan Antal at Skalnaté pleso Observatory in the High Tatras mountains of Slovakia . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.8 -- 2.6 AU once every 3 years and 4 months ( 1,213 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.18 and an inclination of 3 ° with respect to the ecliptic.of 1.8 -- 2.6 AU once every 3 years and 4 months ( 1,213 days ) . Slovakia has an exceptionally long rotation period of 308 hours with a high brightness variation of 1.10 magnitude . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link ( CALL ) adopts a period of 308.6 hours with an amplitude of 1.1 magnitude . According to the survey carried out by NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , Slovakia measures 9.14 kilometers in diameter , and its surface has an albedo of 0.31 , while CALL assumes a standard albedo for stony asteroids of 0.20 and calculates a diameter of 9.40 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 12.5 This minor planet was named in honor of the now independent state of Slovakia ( Slovak Republic ) , the country where the discovering observatory is located . At the time Slovakia was still part of the socialistic republic of Czechoslovakia that was formed after World War I and lasted until the end of the Cold War ( also see 2315 Czechoslovakia ) . Naming citation was published before November 1977 .","qid":"2765","docid":"1807_Slovakia","rank":76,"score":95825},{"content":"Title: 13070 Seanconnery Content: 13070 Seanconnery , provisional designation , is an eccentric stony asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 3 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 8 September 1991 , by Belgian astronomer Eric Elst at Haute-Provence Observatory , St. Michael , in southeast France . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.8 -- 3.1 AU once every 3 years and 9 months ( 1,383 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.28 and an inclination of 6 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at Palomar Observatory in 1971 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 20 years prior to its discovery . In August 2006 , a rotational light-curve for this asteroid was obtained from photometric observations made at the Hunters Hill Observatory in Ngunnawal , Australia . The light-curve gave a well-defined rotation period of hours with a brightness amplitude of 0.18 in magnitude . According to the survey carried out by the NEOWISE mission of NASA 's space-based Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , the asteroid has an outstandingly high albedo of 0.90 and a diameter of 1.8 kilometers . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for stony asteroids of 0.20 and calculates a diameter 3.6 kilometers , as the lower the albedo ( reflectivity ) , the larger the asteroid 's diameter , at a constant absolute magnitude ( brightness ) . The minor planet was named for celebrated Scottish actor and Academy Award winner Sean Connery ( b. 1930 ) , famous for portraying the character James Bond -- after which the minor planet 9007 James Bond is named , starring in seven Bond films between 1962 and 1983 . With this minor planet , he is especially honored by the discoverer for his performance as the Franciscan friar William of Baskerville in The Name of the Rose . Naming citation was published on 9 March 2001 .","qid":"2765","docid":"13070_Seanconnery","rank":77,"score":95817},{"content":"Title: 342843 Davidbowie Content: 342843 Davidbowie , provisional designation , is a small asteroid from the middle region of the asteroid belt , approximately 2 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 21 December 2008 , by German astronomer Felix Hormuth from Max-Planck-Institute for Astronomy at Calar Alto Observatory in Almería , southeastern Spain . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.5 -- 3.0 AU once every 4 years and 7 months ( 1,664 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.09 and an inclination of 3 ° with respect to the ecliptic . Notably , the asteroid had a close encounter with the 200 kilometer-sized asteroid 16 Psyche , one of the most massive bodies in the main-belt , which it passed at only 0.04 AU on 15 May 1935 . It was first identified as at Steward Observatory ( Kitt Peak ) in 2003 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 5 years prior to its discovery observation . As of 2017 , the asteroid 's effective size , its composition , albedo and rotation period remain unknown . It has , however , a well-observed orbit with the lowest possible condition code and an observation arc that spans over a period of more than a decade . It was first observed in 2003 , but not identified as a new asteroid until 2008 . Based on its absolute magnitude of 17.1 , its diameter is between 1 and 2 kilometers , assuming an albedo in the range of 0.05 to 0.25 . Since most asteroids in the outer main-belt are of a carbonaceous rather than of a silicaceous composition , with a low albedo , typically around 0.05 , the asteroid 's diameter might be on the upper end of NASA 's published conversion table , as the lower the albedo ( reflectivity ) , the larger the body 's diameter for its given absolute magnitude ( brightness ) . The minor planet was named on 5 January 2015 , in honor of British singer , songwriter , producer and actor , David Bowie ( 1947 -- 2016 ) , just 3 days before Bowie 's 68th birthday . Considered to be one of the most influential artists , Bowie released more than 25 albums including The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars . He was also an actor in movies such as Labyrinth and The Prestige .","qid":"2765","docid":"342843_Davidbowie","rank":78,"score":95787},{"content":"Title: 16765 Agnesi Content: 16765 Agnesi , provisional designation , is a stony Eunomia asteroid from the middle region of the asteroid belt , approximately 4 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 16 October 1996 , by Italian-American amateur astronomer Paul Comba at his private Prescott Observatory in the U.S. state of Arizona . The asteroid is a member of the Eunomia family , a large group of S-type asteroids and the most prominent family in the intermediate main-belt . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.3 -- 2.9 AU once every 4 years and 3 months ( 1,553 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.11 and an inclination of 12 ° with respect to the ecliptic . It was first observed by Haleakala -- NEAT/GEODSS , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 32 days prior to its official discovery observation . According to the NEOWISE mission of NASA 's space-based Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , the asteroid measures 4.1 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.28 , while the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.21 -- derived from 15 Eunomia , the family 's largest member and namesake -- and calculates a diameter of 3.8 kilometers . A rotational light-curve of this asteroid was obtained from photometric observations made at the U.S. Palomar Transient Factory in September 2013 . The light-curve gave a rotation period of hours with a brightness variation of in magnitude . The minor planet was named in honour of Italian Maria Gaetana Agnesi ( 1718 -- 1799 ) , who was the first Western woman to write a widely translated mathematics handbook and the first woman appointed to a professorship at a university in 1750 . Naming citation was published on 9 January 2001 .","qid":"2765","docid":"16765_Agnesi","rank":79,"score":95746},{"content":"Title: 24988 Alainmilsztajn Content: 24988 Alainmilsztajn , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 2.5 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 19 June 1998 , by the OCA-DLR Asteroid Survey ( ODAS ) at CERGA , Caussols , in southeastern France . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.1 -- 2.7 AU once every 3 years and 9 months ( 1,363 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.14 and an inclination of 5 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at the Steward Observatory ( Kitt Peak ) in 1995 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 3 years prior to its discovery . According to the survey carried out by NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid measures 2.2 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an exceptionally high albedo of 0.42 , while the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for stony asteroids of 0.20 and calculates a diameter of 2.5 kilometers . A rotational light-curve of this asteroid was obtained from photometric observations made at the U.S. Palomar Transient Factory in October 2010 . The fragmentary light-curve gave a rotation period of hours with a brightness amplitude of 0.09 in magnitude . The minor planet was named in memory of French particle physicist and astronomer Alain Milsztajn ( 1955 -- 2007 ) . His research included the structure of the proton and the quest of detecting dark matter by means of gravitational lensing . Naming citation was published on 19 August 2008 .","qid":"2765","docid":"24988_Alainmilsztajn","rank":80,"score":95546},{"content":"Title: 2010 AL30 Content: is a near-Earth asteroid that was discovered on 10 January 2010 . Italian scientists Ernesto Guido and Giovanni Sostero told RIA Novosti that it had an orbital period of almost exactly one year and might be a spent rocket booster . However , it was determined that it is a near-Earth asteroid . On January 13 , 2010 at 1246 UT it passed Earth at 0.0008624 AU , about 1/3 of the distance from the Earth to the Moon ( or 0.33 LD ) . Based an estimated diameter of 10 - , if 2010 AL30 had entered the Earth 's atmosphere , it would have created an air burst equivalent to between 50 kT and 100 kT ( kilotons of TNT ) . The Nagasaki `` Fat Man '' atom bomb had a yield between 13 -- 18 kT . It has an uncertainty parameter of 2 and has been observed by radar . Radar observations show the asteroid is elongated and is about 30 meters in diameter . It may be a contact binary .","qid":"2765","docid":"2010_AL30","rank":81,"score":95430},{"content":"Title: 13732 Woodall Content: 13732 Woodall , provisional designation , is a stony Vestian asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 4 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 14 September 1998 , by the Lincoln Near-Earth Asteroid Research ( LINEAR ) team at Lincoln Laboratory 's Experimental Test Site in Socorro , New Mexico . The stony S-type asteroid is a member of the Vesta family , which is named after the asteroid 4 Vesta , the second-largest body in the main-belt . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.1 -- 2.6 AU once every 3 years and 8 months ( 1,337 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.10 and an inclination of 6 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at Siding Spring Observatory in 1989 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 9 years prior to its discovery . A rotational light-curve was obtained based on photometric observations by Czech astronomer Petr Pravec at the Ondřejov Observatory in September 2009 . The light-curve gave a well-defined rotation period of hours with a brightness amplitude of in magnitude . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for stony asteroids of 0.20 and calculates a diameter of 3.9 kilometers , based on an absolute magnitude of 14.4 . The minor planet was named after Ashley Renee Woodall ( b. 1987 ) student at the U.S. Austin Academy for Excellence in Garland , Texas . In 2002 , she was a finalist of the Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge ( DCYSC ) , a science and engineering competition . Naming citation was published on 21 October 2002 .","qid":"2765","docid":"13732_Woodall","rank":82,"score":95356},{"content":"Title: Comet Lulin Content: Comet Lulin ( official designation C/2007 N3 ( Lulin ) , Traditional Chinese : 鹿林彗星 ) is a non-periodic comet . It was discovered by Ye Quanzhi and Lin Chi-Sheng from Lulin Observatory . It peaked in brightness and arrived at perigee for observers on Earth on February 24 , 2009 , at magnitude +5 , and at 0.411 AU from Earth . The comet was near conjunction with Saturn on February 23 , and passed near Regulus in the constellation of Leo on February 26 and 27 , 2009 . It was expected to pass near Comet Cardinal on May 12 , 2009 . The comet became visible to the naked eye from dark-sky sites around February 7 . It passed near the double star Zubenelgenubi on February 6 , near Spica on February 15 and 16 , near Gamma Virginis on February 19 and near the star cluster M44 on March 5 and 6 . It also passed near the planetary nebula NGC 2392 on March 14 , and near the double star Wasat around March 17 . According to NASA , Comet Lulin 's green color comes from a combination of gases that make up its local atmosphere , primarily diatomic carbon , which appears as a green glow when illuminated by sunlight in the vacuum of space . When SWIFT observed comet Lulin on 28 January 2009 , the comet was shedding nearly 800 USgal of water each second . Comet Lulin was methanol-rich .","qid":"2765","docid":"Comet_Lulin","rank":83,"score":95313},{"content":"Title: 12482 Pajka Content: 12482 Pajka , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 4.3 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by Slovak astronomers Adrián Galád and Alexander Pravda at Modra Observatory on 23 March 1997 . The stony S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.0 -- 2.8 AU once every 3 years and 9 months ( 1,372 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.16 and an inclination of 9 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at Steward Observatory ( Kitt Peak -- Spacewatch ) in 1991 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 6 years prior to its discovery . A rotational light-curve was obtained from photometric observations made by the discovering astronomer at Modra Observatory in January 2008 . The light-curve showed a rotation period of hours with a brightness amplitude of 0.21 in magnitude . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for stony asteroids of 0.20 and calculates a diameter of 4.3 kilometers . The minor planet was named after Paula Pravdová ( b. 1990 ) , whose familiar name is `` Pajka '' . She is the daughter of the discovering astronomer Alexander Pravda and often visited Modra Observatory . Naming citation was published on 28 March 2002 .","qid":"2765","docid":"12482_Pajka","rank":84,"score":95253},{"content":"Title: 30564 Olomouc Content: 30564 Olomouc ( -LSB- ˈolomoʊ̯ts -RSB- ) provisionally designated , is an asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt . It was discovered by Czech astronomer Petr Pravec on July 28 , 2001 at Ondřejov Observatory and was named after Olomouc , a city in central Moravia , the Czech Republic , where the discoverer lived . The citation accompanying the suggestion of the name and published in the Minor Planet Circular on 6 January 2003 said : `` The city of Olomouc is the center of Hanakia in the heart of Moravia . The seat of Catholic bishops since 1063 and Moravian primates since 1777 , it has been home to a university since 1573 , now called Palacký University . '' The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.2 -- 3.0 AU once every 4 years and 2 months ( 1,529 days ) . Its orbit shows an eccentricity of 0.14 and an inclination of 4 degrees from the plane of the ecliptic . Little is known about the asteroids size , chemical and mineralogical composition , albedo and rotation , despite having a well-observed orbit with the lowest possible uncertainty ( i.e. a condition code of 0 ) and an observation arc that spans over a period of more than 20 years . On the basis of its absolute magnitude in the visible light spectrum and supposed albedo ( which usually varies from 0.05 to 0.25 for the main-belt asteroids ) its diameter could be anywhere between 3 and 6 kilometers . Since asteroids in the inner main-belt are typically of a silicaceous rather than of a carbonaceous composition , with albedos around 0.20 , the body 's diameter might be on the lower end of NASA 's published conversion table , as the higher the reflectivity ( albedo ) , the smaller the body 's diameter for the given absolute magnitude of 15.0 .","qid":"2765","docid":"30564_Olomouc","rank":85,"score":95193},{"content":"Title: 39741 Komm Content: 39741 Komm , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid and eccentric Mars-crosser from the innermost regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 2 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 9 January 1997 , by American astronomer Roy Tucker at Goodricke-Pigott Observatory in Tucson , Arizona , United States . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.4 -- 2.9 AU once every 3 years and 3 months ( 1,177 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.35 and an inclination of 6 ° with respect to the ecliptic . As no precoveries were taken , the asteroid 's observation arc begins with its discovery observation . In October 2009 , the first and so far only rotational light-curve for Komm was obtained by French amateur astronomer René Roy . It gave a well-defined rotation period of hours with a high brightness variation of 0.83 magnitude , indicative of a non-spheroidal shape . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for stony asteroids of 0.20 and calculates a diameter of 2.15 kilometers , based on an absolute magnitude of 15.7 . The minor planet was named after Rudolf Komm ( b. 1957 ) , an American helioseismologist , who contributed in the study of solar activity . Naming citation was published on 6 August 2003 .","qid":"2765","docid":"39741_Komm","rank":86,"score":95175},{"content":"Title: 950 Ahrensa Content: 950 Ahrensa , provisional designation 1921 JP , is a stony asteroid and slow rotator from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , about 15 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 1 April 1921 , by German astronomer Karl Reinmuth at Heidelberg Observatory in southern Germany . The S-type asteroid , classified as a Sa-subtype in the SMASS taxonomic scheme , is a member of the Phocaea family , a group of asteroids with similar orbital characteristics . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.0 -- 2.7 AU once every 3 years and 8 months ( 1,334 days ) . Its orbit shows an eccentricity of 0.16 and is tilted by 23 degrees to the plane of the ecliptic . A photometric light-curve analysis at the U.S. Palmer Divide Observatory in 2009 , showed that the body has an exceptionally long rotation period of 202 hours . According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite , IRAS , the Japanese Akari satellite , and the U.S. Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the surface of the asteroid has an albedo in the range of 0.16 to 0.23 , while the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link derives an even higher value of 0.27 for the stony body . The minor planet was named in honor of friends of the discoverer Karl Reinmuth , the Ahrens family , who helped him financially at the Heidelberg Observatory . Reinmuth also named the minor planet 909 Ulla after Ulla Ahrens , a member of this family .","qid":"2765","docid":"950_Ahrensa","rank":87,"score":95121},{"content":"Title: 1933 Tinchen Content: 1933 Tinchen , provisional designation , is a Vestian asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , about 5 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by Czech astronomer Luboš Kohoutek at the Hamburger Bergedorf Observatory , Germany on 14 January 1972 . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.1 -- 2.6 AU once every 3 years and 7 months ( 1,318 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.12 and an inclination of 7 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The vestoid or V-type asteroid is also a member of the Vesta family . Asteroids with these spectral and orbital characteristics are thought to have all originated from the Rheasilvia crater , a large impact crater on the south-polar surface of 4 Vesta , which is the main-belt 's second-most-massive asteroid after 1 Ceres . Tinchen has a rotation period of 3.671 hours . Its assumed high geometric albedo of 0.4 is based on observational data in the range of 0.30 -- 0.61 . The discoverer named the asteroid after his wife , Christine Kohoutek . Naming citation was published before November 1977 .","qid":"2765","docid":"1933_Tinchen","rank":88,"score":95112},{"content":"Title: 3103 Eger Content: 3103 Eger is an Apollo and Mars-crosser asteroid that was discovered in 1982 , by Miklós Lovas . It was named after the city of Eger , Hungary . It has an albedo of 0.64 , making it a highly reflective asteroid . It has made and will continue to make many close approaches to Earth . Its closest so far occurred in August 6 , 1996 , when the asteroid passed 0.11509 AU from Earth . 3103 Eger is the only asteroid besides 4 Vesta identified as the parent body for specific meteorites . 4 Vesta is the parent body for Howardite , Eucrite , and Diogenite meteorites , while 3103 Eger is the parent body for Aubrite meteorites . In this characteristic 3103 Eger is related spectroscopically to the 434 Hungaria type asteroids , which are a Hirayama-family of orbital types , and E-type asteroids which form a spectroscopical type .","qid":"2765","docid":"3103_Eger","rank":89,"score":94997},{"content":"Title: 28P/Neujmin Content: 28P/Neujmin , also known as Neujmin 1 , is a large periodic comet in the Solar System . With a perihelion distance ( closest approach to the Sun ) of 1.5 AU , this comet does not make close approaches to the Earth . The comet nucleus is estimated to be 21.4 kilometers in diameter with a low albedo of 0.025 . Since 28P has such a large nucleus , it will become brighter than the 20th magnitude in early 2019 , roughly 2 years before coming to perihelion . When it comes to opposition in May 2020 , when it is still 3.5 AU from the Sun , it will likely have an apparent magnitude around 16.9 . But during the 2021 perihelion passage the comet will be on the opposite side of the Sun as the Earth . The comet is not known for bright outbursts of activity .","qid":"2765","docid":"28P/Neujmin","rank":90,"score":94982},{"content":"Title: 1865 Cerberus Content: 1865 Cerberus , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid and near-Earth object of the Apollo group , approximately 1.6 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 26 October 1971 , by Czech astronomer Luboš Kohoutek at the Hamburger Bergedorf Observatory in Germany and named in 1974 . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 0.6 -- 1.6 AU once every 1 years and 1 month ( 410 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.47 and an inclination of 16 ° with respect to the ecliptic . Cerberus is composed of 65 % plagioclase and 35 % pyroxene , has a rotation period of 6.804 hours , a geometric albedo of 0.220 , and passes within 30 gigametres ( Gm ) of the Earth 7 times from the year 1900 to the year 2100 , each time at a distance of 24.4 Gm to 25.7 Gm . It also makes close approaches to Mars and Venus . The minor planet is named after the figure from Greek mythology , Cerberus , a three-headed dog that guarded the entrance to Hades , the Underworld . His capture marked the last of the twelve labors of Hercules . It is also the name of an extinct constellation , Cerberus , now contained in the eastern part of Hercules . ( It should not be confused with Kerberos , a moon of the dwarf planet Pluto . ) Naming citation was published before November 1977 .","qid":"2765","docid":"1865_Cerberus","rank":91,"score":94590},{"content":"Title: Impact winter Content: An impact winter is a hypothesized period of prolonged cold weather due to the impact of a large asteroid or comet on the Earth 's surface . If an asteroid were to strike land or a shallow body of water , it would eject an enormous amount of dust , ash , and other material into the atmosphere , blocking the radiation from the sun . This would cause the global temperature to decrease drastically . If an asteroid or comet with the diameter of about 5 km or more were to hit in a large deep body of water or explode before hitting the surface , there would still be an enormous amount of debris ejected into the atmosphere . It has been proposed that an impact winter could lead to mass extinction , wiping out many of the world 's existing species .","qid":"2765","docid":"Impact_winter","rank":92,"score":94477},{"content":"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.","qid":"2765","docid":"Climate_change_in_the_United_States","rank":93,"score":94459},{"content":"Title: Hurricane dynamics and cloud microphysics Content: Tropical convective clouds play an important part in the Earth 's climate system . Convection and release of latent heat transports energy from the surface into the upper atmosphere . Clouds have a higher albedo than the underlying ocean , which causes more incoming solar radiation to be reflected back to space . Since the tops of tropical systems are much cooler than the surface of the Earth , the presence of high convective clouds cools the climate system . The most recognizable cloud system in the tropics is the hurricane . In addition to the important climatic effects of tropical weather systems , hurricanes possess enough energy to cause massive death and destruction . Therefore , their accurate prediction is of utmost importance . Cloud microphysics describe the structure and properties of clouds on the microscopic scale .","qid":"2765","docid":"Hurricane_dynamics_and_cloud_microphysics","rank":94,"score":94313},{"content":"Title: 4150 Starr Content: 4150 Starr , provisional designation , is a stony Florian asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 7 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by American astronomer Brian A. Skiff at Lowell 's Anderson Mesa Station on 31 August 1984 . The S-type asteroid is a member of the Flora family , one of the largest groups of stony asteroids in the main-belt . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.9 -- 2.6 AU once every 3 years and 4 months ( 1,219 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.17 and an inclination of 3 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first observation was made at the U.S. Goethe Link Observatory in 1957 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 27 years prior to its discovery . According to the space-based survey by the NEOWISE mission of NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , the asteroid measures 6.6 and 6.9 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.258 and 0.277 , respectively , while the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link ( CALL ) assumes an albedo of 0.24 -- derived from 8 Flora , the family 's largest member and namesake -- and calculates a diameter of 7.5 kilometers , based on an absolute magnitude of 12.8 . Several rotational light-curves were obtained for this asteroid from photometric observations . An unpublished light-curve by Kryszczynska from November 2011 , has been rated best by CALL . It gave a rotation period of hours and a brightness variation of 0.20 in magnitude . The minor planet was named in after Richard Starkey ( b. 1940 ) , better known as Ringo Starr , the drummer of The Beatles . He joined the English rock band in 1962 , replacing its former drummer Pete Best . Ringo has released various albums in his solo career and also acted in several movies . Naming citation was published on 10 April 1990 . The minor planets 8749 Beatles , 4147 Lennon , 4148 McCartney and 4149 Harrison were named after the band and its three other members .","qid":"2765","docid":"4150_Starr","rank":95,"score":94218},{"content":"Title: 100268 Rosenthal Content: 100268 Rosenthal , provisional designation , is an asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 3 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 5 October 1994 , by German astronomer Freimut Börngen at the Karl Schwarzschild Observatory , Thuringia , eastern Germany . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.0 -- 2.9 AU once every 3 years and 10 months ( 1,392 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.17 and an inclination of 12 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at the Siding Spring Observatory ( DSS ) in 1990 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 4 years prior to its discovery . As of 2016 , the asteroids effective size , shape and composition , as well as its albedo and rotation period remain unknown . Based on its absolute magnitude of 15.6 , its diameter is between 2 and 5 kilometers , assuming an albedo in the range of 0.05 to 0.25 . Since asteroids in the inner main-belt are often of a brighter silicaceous -- rather than of a darker carbonaceous composition , with higher albedos , typically around 0.20 , the asteroid 's diameter might be on the lower end of NASA 's published conversion table , as the lower the reflectivity ( albedo ) , the larger the body 's diameter for a given absolute magnitude . The minor planet was named in honour of famous German radio and TV host Hans Rosenthal ( 1925 -- 1987 ) , a German Jew who survived the Holocaust as a boy inside Germany and became one of the country 's most popular TV show masters ever in the early 1980s . He died of cancer at the age of 61 . Naming citation was published on 13 April 2006 .","qid":"2765","docid":"100268_Rosenthal","rank":96,"score":94147},{"content":"Title: 2015 TC25 Content: is a near-Earth asteroid , and at only 2 meters ( 6 ft ) across , it is thought to be the smallest asteroid observed from telescopes on Earth . The asteroid is notable for reflecting about 60 % of the light that hits it , making it one of the brightest near-earth asteroids ever seen . Discovered by the Catalina Sky Survey on 12 October 2015 , it was observed with several ground-based telescopes . Radar observations were also made using the Arecibo Observatory as it passed 128,000 kilometers ( approximately a third of the distance to the moon ) from the Earth . Observations suggest its surface composition is similar to Aubrite meteorites , a rare class of high-albedo differentiated meteorites . The albedo and radar polarization ratio suggest belongs to the E-type asteroids , and comparison of its spectral and dynamical properties suggest its parent body may be the 70 kilometer diameter E-type asteroid 44 Nysa . is also notable for its rather short rotation period of only about 2 minutes , which , combined with its low surface gravity makes it very difficult for to retain a regolith layer . It 's surface therefore most likely resembles a bare rock .","qid":"2765","docid":"2015_TC25","rank":97,"score":93889},{"content":"Title: 1064 Aethusa Content: 1064 Aethusa , provisional designation 1926 PA , is a main-belt asteroid , discovered by German astronomer Karl Reinmuth at Heidelberg Observatory on 2 August 1926 . It is orbiting the Sun in a distance of 2.09 − 2.99 AU , measures about 19 kilometers in diameter , and has a high geometric albedo of 0.32 . Measurements made with the IRAS observatory give a diameter of 20.64 ± 1.37 km and a geometric albedo of 0.27 ± 0.03 . By comparison , the MIPS photometer on the Spitzer Space Telescope gives a diameter of 8.621 ± 4.28 km and a geometric albedo of 0.17 ± 0.04 . Other photometric observations of the asteroid collected during 2006 show a rotation period of 8.621 ± 0.004 hours with a brightness variation of 0.18 ± 0.02 magnitude . The asteroid is named after a genus in the carrot family , `` Aethusa '' , of which the plant Aethusa cynapium ( fool 's parsley ) is the only member .","qid":"2765","docid":"1064_Aethusa","rank":98,"score":93833},{"content":"Title: 7204 Ondřejov Content: 7204 Ondřejov , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid from the middle region of the asteroid belt , approximately 6 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 3 April 1995 , by Czech astronomer Petr Pravec at Ondřejov Observatory near Prague , Czech Republic . This asteroid was the observatory 's first numbered minor planet discovery . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.3 -- 3.0 AU once every 4 years and 4 months ( 1,593 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.12 and an inclination of 5 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at Palomar Observatory in 1980 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 15 years prior to its discovery . A rotational light-curve was obtained based on a photometric observations at the U.S. Palomar Transient Factory , California , in December 2011 . It showed a rotation period of hours with a brightness amplitude of 0.55 in magnitude . According to the survey carried out by the NEOWISE mission of NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , the asteroid measures 5.9 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.18 , while the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a lower albedo of 0.10 and calculates a diameter of 6.3 kilometers . The minor planet was named for both , the Czech village of Ondřejov , and its discovering Ondřejov Observatory , founded in 1898 . It is the Czech Republic 's oldest astronomical observatory still in use . In 1953 , the observatory was integrated into the Astronomical Institute and is now also owned by the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic . Ondřejov is located about 35 kilometers southeast of the country 's capital , Prague . Naming citation was published on 22 February 1997 .","qid":"2765","docid":"7204_Ondřejov","rank":99,"score":93800},{"content":"Title: 1704 Wachmann Content: 1704 Wachmann , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 7 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by German astronomer Karl Reinmuth at Heidelberg Observatory on 7 March 1924 . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.0 -- 2.4 AU once every 3 years and 4 months ( 1,211 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.09 and an inclination of 1 ° with respect to the ecliptic . No precoveries were taken and the asteroid 's observation arc begins 3 days after its official discovery date . In April 2007 , a rotational light-curve for this asteroid was obtained at the U.S. Sandia View Observatory in New Mexico . The light-curve gave a well-defined rotation period of hours with a brightness variation of 0.40 in magnitude . According to the survey carried out by the NEOWISE mission of NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , the asteroid measures 6.6 and 6.9 kilometers in diameter , and its surface has an albedo of 0.177 and 0.193 , respectively , while the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for stony asteroids of 0.20 and calculates a diameter of 7.8 kilometers , based on an absolute magnitude of 12.9 . The minor planet was named for Arno Wachmann ( 1902 -- 1990 ) , long-time astronomer at the Bergedorf Observatory in Hamburg , discoverer of minor planets and comets , and observer of variable and binary stars . He is best known for the co-discovery of the three `` Schwassmann -- Wachmann '' comets , 29P , 31P and 73P . Naming citation was published before November 1977 .","qid":"2765","docid":"1704_Wachmann","rank":100,"score":93746}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Peter Thejll Content: Peter Andreas Thejll ( born 1956 ) is a Danish astrophysicist and climate researcher . His research in solar variation helped provide evidence of the greenhouse effect on the Earth 's climate in the late 20th century . In particular , his study with Knud Lassen on Northern Hemisphere land air temperature showed that the rise of 0.4 degrees Celsius since 1980 could not be accounted for by the solar cycle . Climatologists have pointed to this finding as an `` actual piece of evidence for greenhouse warming '' . Thejll received his undergraduate education at the University of Copenhagen . He received an M.S. in physics and a Ph.D. in astrophysics from the University of Delaware . Thejll was a Carlsberg Fellow at the Niels Bohr Institute and worked at the Nordic Institute for Theoretical Physics . Thejll currently is a senior scientist at the Danish Meteorological Institute in Copenhagen . He is currently involved in the creation of a global automatic system to observe the Earth 's reflectivity - albedo - using observations of the earthshine on the Moon . Such data can be used for climate change studies and calibration of satellite data as the measurements deliver independent data on the albedo . A telescope is now installed on Hawaii at the Mauna Loa Observatory . The Swedish research agency VINNOVA is funding this project .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"Peter_Thejll\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 145891\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ice-albedo feedback Content: Ice-albedo feedback ( or snow-albedo feedback ) is a positive feedback climate process where a change in the area of snow-covered land , ice caps , glaciers or sea ice alters the albedo . This change in albedo acts to reinforce the initial alteration in ice area . Cooling tends to increase ice cover and hence the albedo , reducing the amount of solar energy absorbed and leading to more cooling . Conversely , warming tends to decrease ice cover and hence the albedo , increasing the amount of solar energy absorbed , leading to more warming . The effect also applies on the small scale to snow-covered surfaces . A small amount of snow melt exposes darker ground which absorbs more radiation , leading to more snowmelt . The effect has mostly been discussed in terms of the recent trend of declining Arctic sea ice . Internal feedback processes may also potentially occur , as land ice melts and causes eustatic sea level rise , and also potentially induces earthquakes as a result of isostatic rebound , which further acts to disrupt glaciers , ice shelves , etc. .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"Ice-albedo_feedback\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 132884\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Volcanic winter Content: A volcanic winter is a reduction in global temperatures caused by volcanic ash and droplets of sulfuric acid and water obscuring the Sun and raising Earth 's albedo ( increasing the reflection of solar radiation ) after a large particularly explosive volcanic eruption . Long-term cooling effects are primarily dependent upon injection of sulfur gasses into the stratosphere where they undergo a series of reactions to create sulfuric acid which can nucleate and form aerosols . Volcanic stratospheric aerosols cool the surface by reflecting solar radiation and warm the stratosphere by absorbing terrestrial radiation . The volcanic aerosols , resulting from the 1991 Pinatubo eruption and others , have been shown to contribute to anthropogenic ozone depletion . The variations in atmospheric warming and cooling results in changes in tropospheric and stratospheric circulation .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"Volcanic_winter\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 126378\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 925 Alphonsina Content: 925 Alphonsina , provisional designation 1920 GM , is a large , stony asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt , about 58 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by Spanish astronomer of Catalan origin , Josep Comas i Solà , at the Fabra Observatory in Barcelona , on 13 January 1920 . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.5 -- 2.9 AU once every 4 years and 5 months ( 1,622 days ) . Its orbit is tilted by 21 degrees to the plane of the ecliptic and shows an eccentricity of 0.08 . A large number of photometric light-curve analysis rendered a well-defined , concurring rotation period of 7.9 hours for the body . According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite , IRAS , the Japanese Akari satellite , and the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid 's albedo is in the range of 0.20 -- 0.28 . In addition , the body 's albedo has been inferred by using the technique of stellar occultation in 2003 . The measurement also gave a diameter of 59.2 kilometers . The minor planet was named in honor of the Iberian Kings , Alfonso X ( 1221 -- 1284 ) and Alfonso XIII ( 1886 -- 1941 ) , King of Castile and Spain , respectively . The original citation mentions , that the 13th century king inspired the field of astronomy in the Middle Ages , and , that the latter king was a great enthusiast of the scientific development in Spain . It also mentions that the King of Spain approved the naming of the asteroid .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"925_Alphonsina\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 117067\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Albedo feature Content: An albedo feature is a large area on the surface of a planet ( or other solar system body ) which shows a contrast in brightness or darkness ( albedo ) with adjacent areas . Historically , albedo features were the very first ( and usually only ) features to be seen and named on Mars and Mercury . Early classical maps ( such as those of Schiaparelli and Antoniadi ) showed only albedo features , and it was not until the arrival of space probes that other surface features such as craters could be seen . On bodies other than Mars and Mercury , an albedo feature is sometimes called a regio . On bodies with a very thick atmosphere like Venus or Titan , permanent albedo features can not be seen using ordinary optical telescopes because the surface is not visible , and only clouds and other transient atmospheric phenomena are seen . The Cassini -- Huygens probe has observed multiple albedo features on Titan since its arrival in Saturn 's orbit in 2004 . The very first albedo feature ever seen on another planet was Syrtis Major Planum on Mars in the 17th century . Today , thanks to space probes , very high-resolution images of surface features on Mars and Mercury are available , and the classical nomenclature based on albedo features has fallen somewhat into disuse . It is however still used for Earth-based observing of Mars by amateur astronomers . However , for some Solar System bodies ( such as Pluto prior to the New Horizons mission ) , the best available images show only albedo features . These images were usually taken by the Hubble Space Telescope or by ground-based telescopes using adaptive optics . Cydonia Mensae on Mars is an example of an albedo feature .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"Albedo_feature\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 114172\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1169 Alwine Content: 1169 Alwine , provisional designation , is an asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 8 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 30 August 1930 , by German and Italian astronomers Max Wolf and Mario Ferrero at Heidelberg Observatory in southwest Germany . Alwine orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.0 -- 2.7 AU once every 3 years and 6 months ( 1,290 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.15 and an inclination of 4 ° with respect to the ecliptic . As no precoveries were taken , and no prior identifications were made , Alwines observation arc begins with its official discovery observation at Heidelberg in 1930 . According to the survey carried out by NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , Alwine measures 7.89 kilometers in diameter , and its surface has an albedo of 0.179 . Based on a generic magnitude-to-diameter conversion , its diameter is between 7 and 17 kilometers for an absolute magnitude of 12.8 and an albedo in the range of 0.05 to 0.25 . As of 2017 , no rotational lightcurves have been obtained . The body 's rotation period , pole and shape remain unknown . This minor planet is named after a common German female name . Any reference of this name to a person or occurrence is unknown .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"1169_Alwine\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 113544\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1897 Hind Content: 1897 Hind , provisional designation , is a Florian asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 5 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 26 October 1971 , by Czech astronomer Luboš Kohoutek at Bergedorf Observatory in Hamburg , Germany . The S-type asteroid is a member of the Flora family , one of the largest groups of stony asteroids in the main-belt . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.0 -- 2.6 AU once every 3 years and 5 months ( 1,260 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.14 and an inclination of 4 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at Palomar Observatory in 1956 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 15 years prior to its discovery . According to the survey carried out by the NEOWISE mission of NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , the asteroid measures 5.0 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.307 , while the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo of 0.24 -- derived from 8 Flora , the family 's largest member and namesake -- and calculates a diameter of 5.7 kilometers , based on an absolute magnitude of 13.4 . In July 2005 , Hind had originally been identified as a relatively fast rotator , as photometric observations by astronomers Reiner Stoss , Jaime Nomen , Salvador Sanchez and Raoul Behrend gave a rotation period of hours , or less than 50 minutes . However , the light-curve was only fragmentary . In August 2012 , it was superseded with more accurate observation at the Australian Riverland Dingo Observatory that gave a slower period of hours with a brightness variation of 0.09 in magnitude . The minor planet was named after English astronomer John Russell Hind ( 1823 -- 1895 ) , discoverer of ten minor planets including 7 Iris and 8 Flora , the namesake of the family the asteroid belongs to . Hind worked for many years at George Bishop 's Observatory near London where he made his discoveries . He was also superintendent of the British Nautical Almanac Office in the second half of the 19th century . Naming citation was published before November 1977 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"1897_Hind\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 113020\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Future of Earth Content: The biological and geological future of Earth can be extrapolated based upon the estimated effects of several long-term influences . These include the chemistry at Earth 's surface , the rate of cooling of the planet 's interior , the gravitational interactions with other objects in the Solar System , and a steady increase in the Sun 's luminosity . An uncertain factor in this extrapolation is the ongoing influence of technology introduced by humans , such as climate engineering , which could cause significant changes to the planet . The current Holocene extinction is being caused by technology and the effects may last for up to five million years . In turn , technology may result in the extinction of humanity , leaving the planet to gradually return to a slower evolutionary pace resulting solely from long-term natural processes . Over time intervals of hundreds of millions of years , random celestial events pose a global risk to the biosphere , which can result in mass extinctions . These include impacts by comets or asteroids with diameters of 5 -- or more , and the possibility of a massive stellar explosion , called a supernova , within a 100-light-year radius of the Sun , called a Near-Earth supernova . Other large-scale geological events are more predictable . If the long-term effects of global warming are disregarded , Milankovitch theory predicts that the planet will continue to undergo glacial periods at least until the Quaternary glaciation comes to an end . These periods are caused by variations in eccentricity , axial tilt , and precession of the Earth 's orbit . As part of the ongoing supercontinent cycle , plate tectonics will probably result in a supercontinent in 250 -- 350 million years . Some time in the next 1.5 -- 4.5 billion years , the axial tilt of the Earth may begin to undergo chaotic variations , with changes in the axial tilt of up to 90 ° . During the next four billion years , the luminosity of the Sun will steadily increase , resulting in a rise in the solar radiation reaching the Earth . This will result in a higher rate of weathering of silicate minerals , which will cause a decrease in the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . In about 600 million years from now , the level of CO2 will fall below the level needed to sustain C3 carbon fixation photosynthesis used by trees . Some plants use the C4 carbon fixation method , allowing them to persist at concentrations as low as 10 parts per million . However , the long-term trend is for plant life to die off altogether . The extinction of plants will be the demise of almost all animal life , since plants are the base of the food chain on Earth . In about one billion years , the solar luminosity will be 10 % higher than at present . This will cause the atmosphere to become a `` moist greenhouse '' , resulting in a runaway evaporation of the oceans . As a likely consequence , plate tectonics will come to an end , and with them the entire carbon cycle . Following this event , in about 2 − 3 billion years , the planet 's magnetic dynamo may cease , causing the magnetosphere to decay and leading to an accelerated loss of volatiles from the outer atmosphere . Four billion years from now , the increase in the Earth 's surface temperature will cause a runaway greenhouse effect , heating the surface enough to melt it . By that point , all life on the Earth will be extinct . The most probable fate of the planet is absorption by the Sun in about 7.5 billion years , after the star has entered the red giant phase and expanded to cross the planet 's current orbit .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"Future_of_Earth\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 112608\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 145523 Lulin Content: 145523 Lulin , provisional designation , is an asteroid from the middle region of the asteroid belt , approximately 4 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 7 March 2006 , by Taiwanese astronomers Hung-Chin Lin and Ye Quanzhi at Lulin Observatory in central Taiwan . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.2 -- 3.2 AU once every 4 years and 7 months ( 1,665 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.18 and an inclination of 11 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The earliest precovery was taken at ESO 's La Silla Observatory in 1992 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 14 years prior to its discovery observation . According to the survey carried out by the NEOWISE mission of NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , the asteroid measures 3.9 kilometers in diameter and its surface has a low albedo of 0.073 , which is rather typical for a carbonaceous C-type body . As of 2016 , the asteroid 's rotation period and shape remain unknown . The minor planet was named after the Lulin mountain in central Taiwan , location of the discovering Lulin Observatory at an altitude of 2862 meters . Naming citation was published on 2 April 2007 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"145523_Lulin\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 110758\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sinus Lunicus Content: Sinus Lunicus ( latin for `` Bay of Lunik '' ) is an area of lunar mare along the southeast edge of the Mare Imbrium on the earth 's moon . It is formed by the area enclosed by the prominent craters Archimedes to the southwest , Autolycus to the southeast , and Aristillus to the northeast . The bay is open to the northwest , and faces the Montes Spitzbergen , a small chain of mountains . This bay was named the Bay of Lunik by the International Astronomical Union ( IAU ) in 1970 to honor the landing site of the first space probe to make contact with another interplanetary body . The Luna 2 landed in the gap between the craters Archimedes and Autolycus on September 14 , 1959 . The official selenographic coordinates of Sinus Lunicus are 31.8 ° N and 1.4 ° W , with a diameter of 126 kilometers . The most distinctive features on the bay are the complex outer ramparts of ejecta from the craters Aristillus and Autolycus , and the small satellite craters Archimedes C and Archimedes D . The albedo of the surface is brightened by overlapping ray material from Autolycus and Aristillus . Lunicus , Sinus\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"Sinus_Lunicus\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 110501\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 775 Lumière Content: 775 Lumière is a minor planet orbiting the Sun . The apparent magnitude is 10.40 . The diameter is 33.58 kilometers . Its rotational period is 6.103 hours , and the albedo is .108 . The name honors Auguste and Louis Lumiere and the company making photographic film for astronomers in France .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"775_Lumière\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 109385\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Albedo Content: Albedo ( -LSB- ælˈbiːdoʊ -RSB- ) is a measure for reflectance or optical brightness ( Latin albedo , Arabic albayad , `` whiteness '' ) . It is dimensionless and measured on a scale from zero ( corresponding to a black body that absorbs all incident radiation ) to one ( corresponding to a white body that reflects all incident radiation ) . Surface albedo is defined as the ratio of radiation reflected to the radiation incident on a surface . The proportion reflected is not only determined by properties of the surface itself , but also by the spectral and angular distribution of solar radiation reaching the Earth 's surface . These factors vary with atmospheric composition , geographic location and time ( see Position of the Sun ) . While bi-hemispherical reflectance is calculated for a single angle of incidence ( i.e. , for a given position of the sun ) , albedo is the directional integration of reflectance over all solar angles in a given period . The temporal resolution may range from seconds ( as obtained from flux measurements ) to daily , seasonal or annual averages . Unless given for a specific wavelength ( spectral albedo ) , albedo refers to the entire spectrum of solar radiation . Due to measurement constraints , it is often given for the spectrum in which most solar energy reaches the surface ( approximately between 0.3 and 3 μm ) . This spectrum includes visible light ( 0.39-0 .7 μm ) , which explains why surfaces with a low albedo appear dark ( e.g. , trees absorb most radiation ) , whereas surfaces with a high albedo appear bright ( e.g. , snow reflects most radiation ) . Albedo is an important concept in climatology , astronomy , and environmental management ( e.g. , as part of the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design ( LEED ) program for sustainable rating of buildings ) . The average albedo of the Earth at the top of the atmosphere , its planetary albedo , is 30 to 35 % because of cloud cover , but widely varies locally across the surface because of different geological and environmental features . The term albedo was introduced into optics by Johann Heinrich Lambert in his 1760 work Photometria .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"Albedo\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 108337\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Arctic geoengineering Content: Temperatures in the Arctic region have tended to increase more rapidly than the global average . Projections of sea ice loss that are adjusted to take account of recent rapid Arctic shrinkage suggest that the Arctic will likely be free of summer sea ice sometime between 2059 and 2078 . Various climate engineering schemes have been suggested to reduce the chance of significant and irreversible effects such as Arctic methane release . Several climate engineering proposals have been made which are specific to the Arctic . They are usually hydrological in nature , and principally centre upon measures to prevent Arctic ice loss . In addition , other solar radiation management climate engineering techniques , such as stratospheric sulfate aerosols have been proposed . These would cool the Arctic by adjusting the albedo of the atmosphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"Arctic_geoengineering\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 108264\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: (148209) 2000 CR105 Content: , also written as ( 148209 ) 2000 CR105 , is the tenth-most-distant known object in the Solar System . Considered a detached object , it orbits the Sun in a highly eccentric orbit every 3305 years at an average distance of 222 astronomical units ( AU ) . Mike Brown 's website lists it as a possible dwarf planet with a diameter of 328 km based on an assumed albedo of 0.04 . The albedo is expected to be low because the object has a blue ( neutral ) color . However , if the albedo is higher , the object could easily be half that size . and Sedna differ from scattered-disc objects in that they are not within the gravitational influence of the planet Neptune even at their perihelion distances ( closest approaches to the Sun ) . It is something of a mystery as to how these objects came to be in their current , far-flung orbits . Several hypotheses have been put forward : They were pulled from their original positions by a passing star . They were pulled from their original positions by a very distant , and as-yet-undiscovered ( albeit unlikely ) , giant planet . They were pulled from their original positions by an undiscovered companion star orbiting the Sun . They were captured from another planetary system during a close encounter early in the Sun 's history . According to Kenyon and Bromley , there is a 15 % probability that a star like the Sun had an early close encounter and a 1 % probability that outer planetary exchanges would have happened . is estimated to be 2 -- 3 times more likely to be a captured planetary object than Sedna . is the first object discovered in the Solar System to have a semi-major axis exceeding 150 AU , a perihelion beyond Neptune , and an argument of perihelion of 340 ± 55 ° . It is one of five objects known with a semi-major axis greater than 100 AU and perihelion beyond 42 AU . It may be influenced by Planet Nine .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"(148209)_2000_CR105\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 107960\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1394 Algoa Content: 1394 Algoa , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 14 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 12 June 1936 , by English-born South-African astronomer Cyril Jackson at Union Observatory in Johannesburg , South Africa . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.3 -- 2.6 AU once every 3 years and 10 months ( 1,391 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.08 and an inclination of 3 ° with respect to the ecliptic . Prior to its discovery observation in 1936 , Algoa was identified as and at Lowell Observatory and Uccle Observatory , respectively . These observations , however , remained unused to extend the body 's observation arc . In 2012 , two rotational light-curves of Algoa were obtained at the U.S. Etscorn Observatory , New Mexico , and at the Riverland Dingo Observatory , Australia . They gave a well-defined , concurring rotation period of 2.768 hours with a brightness variation of 0.20 and 0.21 magnitude , respectively . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for stony asteroids of 0.20 , and calculates a diameter of 14.2 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 11.6 . The minor planet is named after the historical Algoa Bay , located approximately 700 kilometers east of the Cape of Good Hope , South Africa . Naming citation was published before November 1977 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"1394_Algoa\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 107594\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: (192642) 1999 RD32 Content: , provisionally known as 1999 RD32 , is a near-Earth asteroid and potentially hazardous object . It was discovered on 8 September 1999 by Lincoln Near-Earth Asteroid Research ( LINEAR ) at an apparent magnitude of 18 using a 1.0 m reflecting telescope . With two precovery images from January 1995 , the asteroid has a very well determined orbit with an observation arc of 17 years . It is known that passed 0.0093 AU from Earth on 27 August 1969 . During the 1969 close approach the asteroid reached about apparent magnitude 8.8 . The similarly-sized 4179 Toutatis also reached that brightness in September 2004 . passed less than 0.007 AU from asteroid 29 Amphitrite on 17 January 1939 . Arecibo radar observations on 5 -- 6 March 2012 showed that is approximately 5 km in diameter and has an albedo of only a few percent . The two visible lobes suggest that is a tight binary asteroid or contact binary . About 10 -- 15 % of near-Earth asteroids larger than 200 meters are expected to be contact binary asteroids with two lobes in mutual contact .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"(192642)_1999_RD32\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 106855\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 15017 Cuppy Content: 15017 Cuppy , provisional designation , is a small asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 2 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by the U.S. Lowell Observatory Near-Earth-Object Search ( LONEOS ) at its Anderson Mesa Station , Arizona , on 22 September 1998 . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.0 -- 2.7 AU once every 3 years and 7 months ( 1,296 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.16 and an inclination of 6 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at Palomar Observatory in 1991 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 7 years prior to its discovery . As of 2016 , its effective size , composition and albedo , as well as its rotation period and shape remain unknown . According to the survey carried out by NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid measures 1.8 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.50 . Based on an absolute magnitude of 15.6 , the asteroid is calculated to measure between 2 and 5 kilometers in diameter , assuming an albedo in the range of 0.05 to 0.25 . In September 2003 , the minor planet was named in memory of American literary critic and humorist , Will Cuppy ( 1884 -- 1949 ) . He is known for his satirical books The Decline and Fall of Practically Everybody , How to Attract the Wombat , How to Become Extinct and How to Tell Your Friends from the Apes . The name was proposed by M. Walter . Naming citation was published on 10 September 2003 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"15017_Cuppy\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 106531\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bond albedo Content: The Bond albedo , named after the American astronomer George Phillips Bond ( 1825 -- 1865 ) , who originally proposed it , is the fraction of power in the total electromagnetic radiation incident on an astronomical body that is scattered back out into space . Because the Bond albedo accounts for all of the light scattered from a body at all wavelengths and all phase angles , it is a necessary quantity for determining how much energy a body absorbs . This , in turn , is crucial for determining the equilibrium temperature of a body . Because bodies in the outer Solar System are always observed at very low phase angles from the Earth , the only reliable data for measuring their Bond albedo comes from spacecraft .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"Bond_albedo\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 106501\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 11824 Alpaidze Content: 11824 Alpaidze , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid from the middle region of the asteroid belt , approximately 5 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 16 September 1982 , by Russian astronomer Lyudmila Chernykh at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory , Nauchnyj , on the Crimean peninsula . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.8 -- 3.4 AU once every 4 years and 3 months ( 1,563 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.31 and an inclination of 2 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was obtained at Palomar Observatory in 1978 . However , the observation was not used to extend the asteroid 's observation arc . Two rotational light-curves of this asteroid were obtained from photometric observations made at the U.S. Palomar Transient Factory , California , in September 2009 . The fragmentary light-curves gave a rotation period of and hours with a brightness amplitude of 0.05 and 0.06 in magnitude , respectively . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.10 , untypically low for a stony asteroid , and calculates a diameter of 4.8 kilometers , based on an absolute magnitude of 14.7 . The minor planet is named after Georgian-born Soviet Lieutenant General Galaktion Alpaidze ( 1916 -- 2006 ) , Hero of the Soviet Union and laureate of the USSR State Prize . He was the head of the Plesetsk Cosmodrome in the 1960s and 1970s , where space crafts were tested . During his supervision , the Cosmodrome became the world 's most active launch site in the world . Naming citation was published on 2 April 2007 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"11824_Alpaidze\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 106140\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hockey stick controversy Content: In the hockey stick controversy , the data and methods used in reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years have been disputed . Reconstructions have consistently shown that the rise in the instrumental temperature record of the past 150 years is not matched in earlier centuries , and the name `` hockey stick graph '' was coined for figures showing a long-term decline followed by an abrupt rise in temperatures . These graphs were publicised to explain the scientific findings of climatology , and in addition to scientific debate over the reconstructions , they have been the topic of political dispute . The issue is part of the global warming controversy and has been one focus of political responses to reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . The use of proxy indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed from the 1990s onwards , and found indications that recent warming was exceptional . The reconstruction introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large-scale reconstructions , and its findings were disputed by Patrick Michaels at the United States House Committee on Science . In 1998 , Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 . In ( MBH99 ) the methodology was extended back to 1000 . The term hockey stick was coined by the climatologist Jerry D. Mahlman , to describe the pattern this showed , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' , followed by a sharp increase corresponding to the `` blade '' . A version of this graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , along with four other reconstructions supporting the same conclusion . The graph was publicised , and became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th-century warmth was exceptional . Those disputing the graph included Pat Michaels , the George C. Marshall Institute and Fred Singer . A paper by Willie Soon and Sallie Baliunas claiming greater medieval warmth was used by the Bush administration chief of staff Philip Cooney to justify altering the first Environmental Protection Agency Report on the Environment . The paper was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy , but on July 28 , Republican Jim Inhofe spoke in the Senate citing it to claim `` that man-made global warming is the greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American people '' . Later in 2003 , a paper by Steve McIntyre and Ross McKitrick disputing the data used in MBH98 paper was publicised by the George C. Marshall Institute and the Competitive Enterprise Institute . In 2004 , Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 , McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal component analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . The analysis therein was subsequently disputed by published papers , including and , which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . In June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton launched what Sherwood Boehlert , chairman of the House Science Committee , called a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into the data , methods and personal information of Mann , Bradley and Hughes . At Boehlert 's request , a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council was set up , which reported in 2006 , supporting Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . Barton and U.S. Rep. Ed Whitfield requested Edward Wegman to set up a team of statisticians to investigate , and they supported McIntyre and McKitrick 's view that there were statistical failings , although they did not quantify whether there was any significant effect . They also produced an extensive network analysis which has been discredited by expert opinion and found to have issues of plagiarism . Arguments against the MBH studies were reintroduced as part of the Climatic Research Unit email controversy , but dismissed by eight independent investigations . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , have supported the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Over a dozen subsequent reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"Hockey_stick_controversy\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 106013\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmospheric Circulation Reconstructions over the Earth Content: The Atmospheric Circulation Reconstructions over the Earth , ACRE , is an international science project , began in 2008 , that recovers historical weather observations to reconstruct past global and local weather patterns and so support meteorological reanalysis . The project aims to collect weather data from the past 250 years by linking international meteorological organisations to support data recovery projects and the imaging and digitisation of historical meteorological observations made at , for example , inland stations , lighthouses , or by ships at sea or in ports . The project aims to create historical datasets that are spatially and temporally complete , so as to be of value at a local , or regional level , as well as on a global scale . ACRE aims to recover millions of historic weather observations . This data will be deposited into two databases , ISPD - the International Surface Pressure Databank , ICOADS - the International Comprehensive Ocean-Atmosphere Data Set . This data will also be used to build a global dataset of historical weather reconstructions based on a grid of two degrees of latitude by two of longitude at six hourly intervals , entitled the 20th Century Reanalysis , or 20CR . Version one of 20CR , covering 1891 to 2008 , was released in Autumn 2009 . Version two , covering 1871 to 2010 , appeared in December 2011 . Plans for a third version , covering 1850 to 2011 , have been put ` on hold ' following a cut in the budget of NOAA . It is intended that all the data recovered and the 20CR will be made freely available .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmospheric_Circulation_Reconstructions_over_the_Earth\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 105512\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: C/2001 OG108 Content: C/2001 OG108 ( LONEOS ) is a Halley-type comet with an orbital period of 48.51 years . It was discovered on 28 July 2001 by the LONEOS telescope at Lowell Observatory . Observations taken in January and February 2002 showed that the `` asteroid '' had developed a small amount of cometary activity as it approached perihelion . It was subsequently reclassified as a comet . The comet came to perihelion ( closest approach to the Sun ) on 15 March 2002 . The next perihelion passage is calculated to be on 6 June 2050 . The comet has a rotational period of 2.38 ± 0.02 days ( 57.12 hr ) . In 2003 , the comet was estimated to have a mean absolute V magnitude ( H ) of 13.05 ± 0.10 , with an albedo of 0.03 , giving an effective radius of 8.9 ± 0.7 km . Using data from Fernandez ( 2004 -- 2005 ) JPL lists the comet with an albedo of 0.05 and a diameter of 13.6 ± 1.0 km . This comet probably represents the transition between typical Halley-family/long-period comets and extinct comets . Damocloids have been studied as possible extinct cometary candidates due to the similarity of their orbital parameters with those of Halley-family comets .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"C/2001_OG108\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 105287\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1999 CW8 Content: 1999 CW8 is an Apollo asteroid and near-Earth object that is a B-type asteroid , relatively rare in the asteroid belt but common in the inner solar system . The asteroid never approaches Earth closer than 0.2 AU , but occasionally makes close approaches to Mars of 0.07 AU . It makes one such approach in 2073 , at 0.067 AU , and another one in 2103 , at 0.094 AU . Due to 1999 CW8 's relatively high inclination , although it passes closer to the Sun than the Earth ( 0.9 AU ) , it never comes closer than 0.2 AU . Based on absolute magnitude , and assuming an albedo between 0.05 and 0.3 , typical of most asteroids , the asteroid is between 500 and 1100 meters across , and if it impacted the Earth would cause significant damage , but not as much as the Cretaceous -- Paleogene extinction event progenitor , which brought about a mass extinction , as it is only 1/20 to 1/10 the size . However , it is unlikely to come close enough to Earth to impact it , or even become a risk of impact .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"1999_CW8\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 105139\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cap carbonate Content: Cap carbonates are layers of distinctively textured carbonate rocks which typically form the uppermost layer of sedimentary sequences reflecting major glaciations in the geological record . The rising temperatures , and increased oceanic surface area - due to reduced ice cover and rising sea levels - at the end of a glaciation increase the rate of precipitation . High concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) must build up in the atmosphere to overcome the effect of the high reflectivity ( albedo ) of ice and allow temperatures to rise sufficiently to begin melting . Increased precipitation dissolves carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , falling as a weak carbonic acid - acid rain . This would weather exposed silicate and carbonate rock , including readily-attacked glacial debris , which would release large amounts of calcium . When washed into the ocean , these precipitate to form distinctively textured layers of carbonate sedimentary rock . A heavily debated cap carbonate appears at the top of the Gaskiers glaciation , believed by many to be global in extent .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"Cap_carbonate\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 104938\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 84882 Table Mountain Content: 84882 Table Mountain , provisional designation , is a bright asteroid from the middle region of the asteroid belt , approximately 5 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 1 February 2003 , by American astronomer James Whitney Young at the U.S. Table Mountain Observatory near Wrightwood , California . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.9 -- 3.4 AU once every 4 years and 3 months ( 1,566 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.29 and an inclination of 14 ° with respect to the ecliptic . It was first identified as at Lincoln Laboratory 's Experimental Test Site in 1997 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 6 years prior to its discovery observation . As of 2016 , the asteroid 's composition , rotation period and shape remain unknown . According to the survey carried out by the NEOWISE mission of NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , the asteroid measures 3.0 kilometers in diameter and its surface has a high albedo of 0.306 . Based on an assumed albedo in the range of 0.05 -- 0.25 and an absolute magnitude of 14.7 , the asteroid 's generic diameter measures would be between 3 and 7 kilometers , as the higher the body 's reflectivity ( albedo ) , the smaller is its diameter at a constant absolute magnitude ( brightness ) . The minor planet was named for the Table Mountain Observatory , the discoverer 's workplace , currently a NASA facility operated by the California Institute of Technology 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory , which began operation as a Smithsonian Institution site in 1924 to study the solar constant . In the late 1950s , the site was used to test the first solar panels and is now dedicated to optical astronomy and to study Earth 's atmosphere . Citation was published on 28 October 2004 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"84882_Table_Mountain\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 104789\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: (153814) 2001 WN5 Content: ( 153814 ) 2001 WN5 is a near-Earth asteroid of the Apollo group . It was first discovered by the LONEOS Project at Anderson Mesa on November 20 , 2001 , and was later classified as a Potentially Hazardous Asteroid ( PHA ) . It was removed from the Sentry Risk Table on January 30 , 2002 . There are precovery images dating back to February 10 , 1996 . The orbit is well determined with an observation arc of 14.9 years using two radar delay observations , and has an Uncertainty Parameter of 0 . The asteroid will pass within 250,000 km ( 0.65 lunar distances ) from the Earth on June 26 , 2028 . During the close approach , the asteroid should peak at about apparent magnitude 6.7 , and will be visible in binoculars . It has an absolute magnitude ( H ) of 18.2 . Depending on its characteristics and albedo , it is estimated to be 700 to 1,500 meters in diameter .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"(153814)_2001_WN5\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 104749\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: (26375) 1999 DE9 Content: ( also written ( 26375 ) 1999 DE9 ) is a trans-Neptunian object . Light-curve-amplitude analysis shows only small deviations , suggesting is a spheroid with small albedo spots . Measurements by the Spitzer Space Telescope estimate that it is 461 ± 45 km in diameter . It was discovered in 1999 by Chad Trujillo and Jane X. Luu . It is possibly a dwarf planet . orbit is in 2:5 resonance with Neptune 's . Spectral analysis has shown traces of ice .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"(26375)_1999_DE9\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 104672\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 17683 Kanagawa Content: 17683 Kanagawa , provisional designation , is a carbonaceous asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt , approximately 22 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 10 January 1997 , by Japanese astronomer Atsuo Asami at the Hadano Astronomical Observatory , located 60 kilometers southwest of Tokyo , Japan . The C-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.5 -- 3.5 AU once every 5 years and 2 months ( 1,882 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.16 and an inclination of 18 ° with respect to the ecliptic . No precoveries were taken prior to its discovery . In October 2009 , a rotational light-curve was obtained at the Wise Observatory in Israel . The photometric observations rendered a well-defined rotation period of hours with a brightness variation of 0.4 in magnitude . According to the space-based surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS , the Japanese Akari satellite , and NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid has a low albedo between 0.030 and 0.062 , and a diameter of 16.8 to 22.1 kilometers . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link agrees with the results obtained by IRAS and derives an albedo of 0.033 with a diameter of 22.1 kilometers . The minor planet is named after the Japanese Kanagawa Prefecture , in which the city of Hadano with its discovering observatory is located . Also located in the east of Kanagawa Prefecture , are the industrial cities of Yokohama and Kawasaki , the second and ninth biggest city of the country , respectively , and vital centers of Japan 's economy . The discoverer , Atsuo Asami , graduated at Kanagawa University . Naming citation was published on 9 March 2001 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"17683_Kanagawa\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 104248\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: (9901) 1997 NV Content: , provisional designation , is a stony Vestian asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 3 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 1 July 1997 , by astronomers at Kleť Observatory in the Czech Republic . The asteroid is a member of the Vesta family orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.0 -- 2.7 AU once every 3 years and 7 months ( 1,313 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.13 and an inclination of 5 ° with respect to the ecliptic . It was first identified as at Crimea -- Nauchnij in 1983 , extending the body 's observation arc by 14 years prior to its official discovery observation at Klet . According to the survey carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS and NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid measures 17.8 and 3.029 kilometers in diameter , respectively . WISE/NEOWISE also gives an albedo of 0.334 for the body 's surface . It has an absolute magnitude of 14.3 . As of 2017 , the asteroid 's rotation period and shape remain unknown . It was the 376th asteroid discovered by the Kleť Observatory .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"(9901)_1997_NV\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 104182\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Five Ways to Save the World Content: Five Ways to Save the World is a British documentary film on environmental issues related to climate change , released in 2006 . The film was made by Karen O'Connor , for the big screen and was shot in the English language to reach an international audience . It includes interviews with five environmental scientists and experts including Paul Crutzen , James Roger Angel , John Latham , Ian Jones , and Klaus Lackner . The `` five ways '' proposed are geoengineering techniques : space lenses in orbit , to diffract sunlight away from the earth cloud seeding with seawater to increase albedo sulfur launched into the stratosphere to increase albedo ocean fertilization with iron or urea ( nitrogen fertilizer ) artificial trees ( see carbon capture and sequestration ) Since the first three methods do not remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , they would only reduce global warming but not ocean acidification . Since the last two methods would remove carbon dioxide , they could in theory reduce both global warming and ocean acidification .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"Five_Ways_to_Save_the_World\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 103906\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Twomey effect Content: The Twomey effect describes how cloud condensation nuclei ( CCN ) , possibly from anthropogenic pollution , may increase the amount of solar radiation reflected by clouds . This is an indirect effect . Aerosol particles can act as CCN 's creating more droplets which have a smaller size distribution . The reduction in size distribution increases the Optical depth of the cloud . This increases the cloud albedo as clouds appear whiter and larger , leading to a cooling of between -0.3 and -1.8 Wm − 2 . For example , on satellite imagery we observe trails of white clouds from ships crossing the oceans due to this effect .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"Twomey_effect\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 103738\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: (42301) 2001 UR163 Content: , also written as ( 42301 ) 2001 UR163 , is likely a dwarf planet that resides in the scattered disc . It was discovered on October 21 , 2001 by the Deep Ecliptic Survey ( DES ) program at Kitt Peak . Light-curve-amplitude analysis shows only small deviations , suggesting that is a spheroid with small albedo spots . Michael Brown 's website lists it as a highly likely dwarf planet , but the diameter of the object has never been measured . has the reddest color index of any object in the Solar System . On October 31 , 2002 , the 3.6-meter Canada -- France -- Hawaii Telescope observed set a record red reading of B − R = 2.28 . This makes even redder than Pholus , , Sedna and comet C/2001 T4 . Reddening of the spectrum is caused by cosmic irradiation by ultraviolet radiation and charged particles . Becoming bluer in the spectrum is caused by impact collisions exposing the interior of an object . In the visible spectrum , would appear orange-brown , depending on its albedo . It came to perihelion around 1937 . In 2006 , it moved beyond 50 AU from the Sun . It is currently 51.9 AU from the Sun .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"(42301)_2001_UR163\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 103519\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of albedo features on Mercury Content: This is a list of the albedo features of the planet Mercury as seen by early telescopic observation . Early telescopic observations of Mercury were based on the assumption that Mercury keeps one of its faces permanently turned toward the Sun , through the mechanism of tidal locking . Although this is not true ( Mercury rotates three times on its axis for every two revolutions around the Sun ) , when it is positioned for best viewing from Earth , the amount by which its visible face has rotated from its previous best viewing position is fairly small . A map of Mercury made in the 1910s by astronomer Eugène Michel Antoniadi shows the following albedo features , localized by a grid in which 0 ° longitude is the ( assumed ) subsolar meridian . No certain connection has been made between these features and the topographic features viewed on Mercury by the Mariner 10 spacecraft . Mariner 10 , however , imaged less than half of Mercury 's surface . The names are drawn from Greek mythology , and often allude to myths about Hermes , the Greek equivalent of the Roman god Mercury .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_albedo_features_on_Mercury\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 103498\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 8661 Ratzinger Content: 8661 Ratzinger , provisional designation , is an asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt , approximately 20 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 14 October 1990 , by German astronomers Lutz Schmadel and Freimut Börngen at the Karl Schwarzschild Observatory in Tautenburg , eastern Germany . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.9 -- 3.1 AU once every 5 years and 3 months ( 1,903 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.03 and an inclination of 11 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first used observation was made at Leoncito Astronomical Complex in 1974 , extending Ratzingers observation arc by 16 years prior to its discovery . According to the survey carried out by NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid measures 13.4 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.09 , while a generic estimate based on its absolute magnitude of 12.3 and a typical carbonaceous albedo of 0.05 , gives a diameter of approximately 20 kilometers . As of 2016 , Ratzingers composition , rotation period and shape remains unknown . The asteroid was named after German Joseph Ratzinger ( b. 1927 ) , then Cardinal and professor of theology , for the role he played in supervising the opening of the Vatican Secret Archives in 1998 to researchers investigating judicial errors against Galileo , after whom the minor planet 697 Galilea is named , and other medieval scientists . Ratzinger was considered to be one of the most authoritative voices in the Vatican and became Pope Benedict XVI in 2005 . The name was proposed by the asteroid 's first discoverer , Lutz Schmadel . Naming citation was published on 23 May 2000 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"8661_Ratzinger\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 103400\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 7959 Alysecherri Content: 7959 Alysecherri , provisional designation , is a bright , stony Hungaria asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 3 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 2 August 1994 , by American astronomer Carl Hergenrother at the U.S. Steward Observatory Catalina Station on Mt Bigelow near Tucson , Arizona . The E-type asteroid is a member of the Hungaria family , which form the innermost dense concentration of asteroids in the Solar System . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.8 -- 2.1 AU once every 2 years and 9 months ( 989 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.09 and an inclination of 19 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at Palomar Observatory in 1951 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 43 years prior to its discovery . A rotational light-curve for this asteroid was obtained from photometric observations made by American astronomer Brian Warner at the U.S. Palmer Divide Observatory , Colorado , in July 2013 . It gave a rotation period of hours with a brightness amplitude of 0.13 in magnitude . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.30 and calculates a diameter of 3.05 kilometers . The minor planet is named after the maiden name of the discovering astronomer 's wife , Alyse Cherri Smith . Naming citation was published on 13 November 2008 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"7959_Alysecherri\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 102999\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 14871 Pyramus Content: 14871 Pyramus , provisional designation , is an asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt , roughly 9 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 13 October 1990 by German astronomers Lutz Schmadel and Freimut Börngen at the Karl Schwarzschild Observatory in Tautenburg , Germany . The asteroid is one of very few bodies located in the 2 : 1 mean motion resonance with the giant planet Jupiter . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.6 -- 4.0 AU once every 5 years and 12 months ( 2,186 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.22 and an inclination of 1 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at Palomar Observatory in 1954 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 36 years prior to its discovery . As of 2016 , the asteroid 's effective size , its composition and albedo , as well as its rotation period and shape remain unknown . A generic diameter of 4 to 9 kilometers for Pyramus can be calculated based on an absolute magnitude of 13.9 and an albedo in the range of 0.05 to 0.25 . According to the survey carried out by NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , Pyramus measures 9.2 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.069 . The minor planet is named from Greco-Roman mythology after Pyramus , the lover of Thisbe ( see minor planet 88 Thisbe ) from which the tragedy of Romeo and Juliet ultimately originated . As narrated in Ovid 's Metamorphoses , the two ill-fated lovers committed suicide as their parents were against their marriage . The asteroid 's name was proposed by Austrian amateur astronomer Herbert Raab . The citation mentions that the `` two lovers are now finally united forever in the asteroid belt '' . Naming citation was published on 6 January 2003 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"14871_Pyramus\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 102850\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kepler-22b Content: Kepler-22b , also known by its Kepler object of interest designation KOI-087 .01 , is an extrasolar planet orbiting within the empirical habitable zone of the Sun-like star Kepler-22 . It is located about 600 ly from Earth in the constellation of Cygnus . It was discovered by NASA 's Kepler Space Telescope in December 2011 and was the first known transiting planet to orbit within the habitable zone of a Sun-like star . Kepler-22 is too dim to be seen with the naked eye . Kepler-22b 's size is roughly twice that of Earth . Its mass and surface composition are unknown . An Earth-like composition for the planet has been ruled out . It is likely to have a volatile-rich composition with a liquid or gaseous outer shell . The only parameters of the planet 's orbit that are currently available are its orbital period , which is about , and its inclination , which is approximately 90 ° . Evidence suggests that the planet has a moderate surface temperature , assuming that the surface is not subject to extreme greenhouse heating . In the absence of an atmosphere , its equilibrium temperature ( assuming an Earth-like albedo ) would be approximately 262 K. The planet 's first transit was observed on 12 May 2009 . Confirmation of the existence of Kepler-22b was announced on 5 December 2011 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"Kepler-22b\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 102539\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 10P/Tempel Content: 10P/Tempel , also known as Tempel 2 , is a periodic Jupiter-family comet in the Solar System . It was discovered in 1873 and has an orbital period of 5.3 years . The comet nucleus is estimated to be 10.6 kilometers in diameter with a low albedo of 0.022 . The nucleus is dark because hydrocarbons on the surface have been converted to a dark , tarry like substance by solar ultraviolet radiation . During the 2010 apparition the comet brightened to about apparent magnitude 8 . It next comes to perihelion ( closest approach to the Sun ) on 14 November 2015 when it should brighten to around magnitude 11 . The most favorable apparition of 10P/Tempel 2 was in 1925 when it came within 0.35 AU of Earth with an apparent magnitude of 6.5 . On August 3 , 2026 , comet Tempel 2 is expected to have another close pass within about 0.41 AU of Earth .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"10P/Tempel\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 102350\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 113390 Helvetia Content: 113390 Helvetia , provisional designation , is an asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 2.2 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 29 September 2002 , by Swiss astronomer Markus Griesser at the Eschenberg Observatory in Winterthur , near Zürich , Switzerland . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.8 -- 2.8 AU once every 3 years and 6 months ( 1,276 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.20 and an inclination of 7 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at Palomar Observatory in 1960 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 42 years prior to its discovery . As of 2016 , the asteroid 's shape , composition and rotation period remain unknown . Based on its absolute magnitude of 15.6 , its diameter lies between 2 and 4 kilometers , assuming an albedo in the range of 0.05 to 0.25 . According to the survey carried out by the NEOWISE mission of NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , the asteroid measures 2.2 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.231 , which is typical for stony asteroids . The minor planet was named in February 2006 and bears the name for Switzerland ( Confoederatio Helvetica ) , where the asteroid was discovered . Helvetia is also an allegorical figure and symbol for the nation . Each Swiss stamp carries her name , and her figure appears on most Swiss coins . Naming citation was published on 19 February 2006 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"113390_Helvetia\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 102240\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2537 Gilmore Content: 2537 Gilmore , provisional designation , is a Eunomia asteroid from the middle region of the asteroid belt , approximately 7 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 4 September 1951 , by German astronomer Karl Reinmuth at Heidelberg-Königstuhl State Observatory in southern Germany . The asteroid is a member of the Eunomia family , a large group of S-type asteroids and the most prominent family in the intermediate main-belt . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.2 -- 3.1 AU once every 4 years and 4 months ( 1,581 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.17 and an inclination of 13 ° with respect to the ecliptic . As no precoveries were taken , the asteroid 's observation arc begins with its discovery in 1951 . According to the survey carried out by the NEOWISE mission of NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , the asteroid measures 7.2 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.309 , while the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.21 and calculates a diameter of 6.7 kilometers , based on an absolute magnitude of 13.19 . Two rotational light-curves for this asteroid were obtained from photometric observations at the U.S. Palomar Transient Factory , California , from January to February 2014 . The light-curves gave a rotation period of and hours with a brightness variation of 0.34 and 0.35 in magnitude , respectively . The minor planet was named in honor of New Zealand astronomer couple Alan C. Gilmore and his wife , Pamela ( née Kilmartin ) , two very productive observers of comets and minor planet in the Southern Hemisphere . They research at the Mount John University Observatory since 1980 , and are members of the Royal Astronomical Society of New Zealand . Naming citation was published on 24 July 1983 , based on a proposal by Conrad Bardwell ( see 1615 Bardwell ) and Brian G. Marsden . Pamela Gilmore is also honored by the minor planet 3907 Kilmartin .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"2537_Gilmore\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 102066\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2531 Cambridge Content: 2531 Cambridge , provisional designation 1980 LD , is a main-belt asteroid discovered by American astronomer Edward Bowell at Lowell 's Anderson Mesa Station in Flagstaff , Arizona . The asteroid measures about 19 kilometer in diameter and has a high albedo of 0.21 . It has its perihelion at 2.84 AU , an eccentricity of 0.06 and an orbital period of 1,906 days ( 5.22 years ) . It is named after the University of Cambridge in England and the universities in the city of Cambridge , Massachusetts ( United States ) , where the Minor Planet Center is located at the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"2531_Cambridge\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 101651\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2017 AG13 Content: is an Aten asteroid that made a close approach of 0.54 lunar distances from Earth on January 9 , 2017 . It was the largest asteroid to pass less than 1 lunar distance from Earth since on August 28 , 2016 . The Catalina Sky Survey discovered it on January 7 , 2017 , only two days before its closest approach . At its brightest , reached apparent magnitude 14.8 . Shortly after , it moved too close to the Sun to be seen by telescopes . The asteroid frequently makes close approaches to Earth , possibly passing as close as 127000 km to Earth on January 9 , 2069 , however it will most likely pass much further away . is most likely 13 -- 41 meters across , assuming a typical asteroid albedo of between 0.05 and 0.3 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"2017_AG13\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 100235\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: (237442) 1999 TA10 Content: , provisionally known as 1999 TA10 , is a near-Earth object ( NEO ) from the Amor asteroid group . It is suspected of being an inner fragment of the differentiated asteroid 4 Vesta . Given an absolute magnitude ( H ) of 17.9 , and that the albedo is unknown , this NEO could vary from 500 to 1500 meters in diameter . was discovered on 5 October 1999 at apparent magnitude 17.7 , when it was only 0.39 AU from Earth . In 2010 , it came within 0.3 AU of Earth . During the 2010 close approach , NASA Infrared Telescope Facility ( NASA IRTF ) studies suggested that originated from the interior of Vesta . The next close approach will be in 2023 . In 2086 , it will come within 0.017 AU of Mars .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"(237442)_1999_TA10\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 100031\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 645 Agrippina Content: 645 Agrippina , provisional designation 1907 AG , is a stony asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt , roughly 30 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by American astronomer reverend Joel Metcalf at Taunton , Massachusetts , USA , on 13 September 1907 . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.7 -- 3.7 AU once every 5 years and 9 months ( 2,103 days ) . Its orbit shows an eccentricity of 0.15 and is tilted by 7 degrees to the plane of the ecliptic . A photometric light-curve analysis from the 1980s and a provisional observation in 2004 rendered a rotation period of 32.6 and 34.4 hours , respectively . According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite , IRAS , the Japanese Akari satellite , and the U.S.Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid has a dissimilar albedo in the range of 0.14 to 0.23 , which leads to a varying estimate for its diameter from 28 to 36 kilometers . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link publishes an albedo of 0.23 from an alternative result of the Supplemental IRAS Minor Planet Survey ( SIMPS ) and derives a slightly lower diameter of 27.9 kilometers . The minor planet was named for two women of ancient Roman history . Agrippina the Elder ( 14 BCE -- 33 ) was the daughter of the Roman statesman Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa , the wife of Germanicus and the mother of the Emperor Caligula . Her daughter , Agrippina the Younger ( 15 -- 59 AD ) was the mother of Emperor Nero . The naming might be influenced by the two letters of the provisional designation 1907 AG . In the Dictionary of Minor Planet Names , Lutz Schmadel supposes that the name originated from a list of female names from mythology and history , compiled by the Astronomisches Rechen-Institut ( ARI ) in 1913 . The ARI then sent this list to a number of astronomers with the request to name their discoveries in order to avoid confusion , as the number of unnamed minor planet up to number 700 had grown significantly at the time .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"645_Agrippina\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 99873\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global dimming Content: Global dimming is the gradual reduction in the amount of global direct irradiance at the Earth 's surface that was observed for several decades after the start of systematic measurements in the 1950s . The effect varies by location , but worldwide it has been estimated to be of the order of a 4 % reduction over the three decades from 1960 -- 1990 . However , after discounting an anomaly caused by the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 , a very slight reversal in the overall trend has been observed . Global dimming is thought to have been caused by an increase in particulates such as sulfate aerosols in the atmosphere due to human action . It has interfered with the hydrological cycle by reducing evaporation and may have reduced rainfall in some areas . Global dimming also creates a cooling effect that may have partially counteracted the effect of greenhouse gases on global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_dimming\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 99806\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 11441 Anadiego Content: 11441 Anadiego , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid from the middle region of the asteroid belt , approximately 7 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 31 December 1975 , by Argentine astronomer Mario R. Cesco at the El Leoncito Complex in western Argentina . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.9 -- 3.2 AU once every 4 years and 1 month ( 1,497 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.26 and an inclination of 12 ° with respect to the ecliptic . As no precoveries were taken , the asteroid 's observation arc starts with its discovery observation in 1975 . A rotational light-curve was obtained for this asteroid by astronomer Kevin Hills at the Australian Riverland Dingo Observatory in February 2013 . It gave a rotation period of hours with a brightness variation of 0.11 magnitude . According to the surveys carried out by NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid measures 6.8 and 7.3 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.287 and 0.254 , respectively . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a lower standard albedo for stony asteroids of 0.20 , and , correspondingly calculates a larger diameter of 8.2 kilometers , based on an absolute magnitude of 12.8 . The minor planet was named in memory of Ana Teresa Diego ( 1954 -- 1976 ) , an astronomy student at La Plata Astronomical Observatory and political activist who was kidnapped and disappeared in September 1976 by unidentified persons believed working for the military junta then ruling Argentina . Naming citation was published 10 December 2011 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"11441_Anadiego\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 99722\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Albedo Anthropomorphics Content: Albedo Anthropomorphics , or Albedo for short , was a furry comic book anthology series which was credited with starting the furry comic book subgenre that featured sophisticated stories with funny animals primarily intended for an adult audience . The first issue of Albedo was published in 1983 ; the most recent issue was published in 2005 . Albedo was started by Steve Gallacci , who produced its main feature , Erma Felna : EDF -- a sophisticated science fiction military series set in a sector of space populated by sapient and predominantly humanoid versions of mammal and avian species . The focus of the series is Erma Felna , a young feline officer who eventually plays a central role in the complex political conflicts that consume her universe . Gallacci was a technical illustrator for the United States Air Force and one feature of Albedo is well thought-out and illustrated vehicles . His experience also shows in the realistic treatment of military life and operations . The series was used as inspiration for the Albedo role-playing game , which has had three editions and multiple supplements .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"Albedo_Anthropomorphics\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 99688\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 6470 Aldrin Content: 6470 Aldrin , provisional designation , is a stony Flora asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 3 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by Czech astronomer Antonín Mrkos at Kleť Observatory on 14 September 1982 . The S-type asteroid is a member of the Flora family , one of the largest groups of stony asteroids in the main-belt . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.9 -- 2.6 AU once every 3 years and 5 months ( 1,253 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.15 and an inclination of 3 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The asteroid 's observation arc begins in 1982 , as no precoveries had been taken prior to its discovery . A rotational light-curve of this asteroid was obtained from photometric observations made at the U.S. Palomar Transient Factory in September 2013 . The light-curve gave a rotation period of hours with a brightness variation of 0.82 in magnitude . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.24 -- which derives from 8 Flora , the largest member and namesake of this orbital family -- and calculates a diameter of 3.0 kilometers , based on an absolute magnitude of 14.78 . The minor planet was named for American astronaut Buzz Aldrin ( b. 1930 ) , on the occasion of the 30th anniversary of the Apollo 11 mission . He was one of the first two humans to land on the Moon , and the second person to walk on it , following Neil Armstrong , after whom the asteroid 6469 Armstrong is named . Its name was suggested by Czech astronomers Jana Tichá , Miloš Tichý and Zdeněk Moravec , who observed the asteroid during its 1995-opposition , shortly before being numbered . Naming citation was published on 4 May 1999 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"6470_Aldrin\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 99686\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1834 Palach Content: 1834 Palach , provisional designation , is a stony Eoan asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt , approximately 19 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 22 August 1969 by Czech astronomer Luboš Kohoutek at Bergedorf Observatory in Hamburg , Germany . The S-type asteroid is a member of the Eos family , an orbital group of more than 4,000 asteroids , which are well known for mostly being of stony composition with a relatively high albedo . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.8 -- 3.2 AU once every 5 years and 3 months ( 1,922 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.07 and an inclination of 9 ° with respect to the ecliptic . As no precoveries were taken , and no prior identifications were made , Palachs observation arc begins with its official discovery observation in 1969 . In September 2006 , a rotational light-curve for Palach was obtained from photometric observations made by French amateur astronomer Laurent Bernasconi at St. Michel sur Meu . It gave a rotation period of 3.139 hours with a brightness amplitude of 0.16 magnitude . In May 2010 , a second light-curve , obtained by Zachary Pligge at Oakley Southern Sky Observatory , Australia , gave a period of 3.1358 hours with an amplitude of 0.13 . According to the surveys carried out by the Japanese Akari satellite and NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , Palach measures between 17.16 and 20.23 kilometers in diameter , and its surface has an albedo between 0.109 and 0.151 . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for Eoan asteroids of 0.14 and calculates a diameter of 19.52 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 11.3 . It was named in memory of Czech student Jan Palach , who burned himself to death , as a protest against the Soviet occupation of Czechoslovakia that followed and ended the national reform movement known as the Prague Spring . Naming citation was published on 25 August 1991 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"1834_Palach\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 99599\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 116903 Jeromeapt Content: 116903 Jeromeapt , provisional designation , is an asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 1 kilometer in diameter . It was discovered on 11 April 2004 , by American astronomer James Whitney Young at the U.S. Table Mountain Observatory near Wrightwood , California . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.0 -- 2.9 AU once every 3 years and 10 months ( 1,401 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.17 and an inclination of 2 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at Steward Observatory in 2002 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by more than 2 years prior to its discovery . As of 2016 , the asteroid 's effective size , its composition and albedo , as well as its rotation period and shape remain unknown . Based on an absolute magnitude of 17.3 , the asteroid is calculated to measure between 1 and 2 kilometers in diameter , assuming an albedo in the range of 0.05 to 0.25 . Since asteroids in the inner main-belt are often of a silicaceous rather than of a carbonaceous composition , with higher albedos , typically around 0.20 , the asteroid 's diameter might be on the lower end of NASA 's published conversion table , as the higher the body 's reflectivity ( albedo ) , the smaller its diameter at a constant absolute magnitude ( brightness ) . The minor planet is named in honor of American Jerome Apt ( b. 1949 ) , who was the discovering observatory 's director and also an astronaut on 4 Space Shuttle missions in the 1990s . At the time of naming this asteroid , he was a professor at Carnegie Mellon University . Naming citation was published 29 October 2012 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"116903_Jeromeapt\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 99370\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Umov effect Content: The Umov effect , also known as Umov 's law , is a relationship between the albedo of an astronomical object , and the degree of polarization of light reflecting off it . The effect was discovered by the Russian physicist Nikolay Umov in 1905 , and can be observed for celestial objects such as the surface of the Moon and the asteroids . The degree of linear polarization of light P is defined by where and are the intensities of light in the directions perpendicular and parallel to the plane of a polarizer aligned in the plane of reflection . Values of P are zero for unpolarized light , and ± 1 for linearly polarized light . Umov 's law states where α is the albedo of the object . Thus , highly reflective objects tend to reflect mostly unpolarized light , and dimly reflective objects tend to reflect polarized light . The law is only valid for large phase angles ( angles between the incident light and the reflected light ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"Umov_effect\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 98852\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Albedo 0.39 Content: Albedo 0.39 is a studio album by the Greek electronic composer Vangelis , released in 1976 . It was the second album produced by Vangelis in Nemo Studios , London , which was his creative base until the late 1980s . It contrasts with his previous album , Heaven and Hell , which was classically inspired and choral , while Albedo 0.39 has blues and jazz overtones . It was his first Top 20 UK album .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"Albedo_0.39\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 98702\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2661 Bydžovský Content: 2661 Bydžovský , provisional designation , is an asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt , approximately 30 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 23 March 1982 , by Czech astronomer Zdeňka Vávrová at the South Bohemian Kleť Observatory in the Czech Republic . Bydžovský orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.7 -- 3.3 AU once every 5 years and 3 months ( 1,923 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.09 and an inclination of 10 ° with respect to the ecliptic . It was first identified as at Heidelberg Observatory in 1950 , extending the body 's observation arc by 32 years prior to its discovery . As of 2016 , Bydžovskýs size , albedo , composition and rotation period remain unknown . Based on its absolute magnitude of 11.4 , its diameter is estimated to measure between 13 and 32 kilometers , assuming an albedo in the range of 0.05 to 0.25 . Since most asteroids in the outer main-belt are of a carbonaceous rather than of a silicaceous composition , with low albedos , typically closer to 0.05 than to 0.25 , the asteroid 's diameter might be on the upper end of NASA 's published conversion table , as the lower the reflectivity ( albedo ) , the larger the body 's diameter for a given absolute magnitude . The minor planet was named in honour of mathematician Bohumil Bydžovský ( 1880 -- 1969 ) , chancellor of the Charles University in Prague . He was born in southern Bohemia and became the most eminent citizen of the Czech town Veselí on the Lužnice river , after which the minor planets 2321 Lužnice and 2599 Veselí were named , respectively . Naming citation was published on 6 February 1993 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"2661_Bydžovský\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 98679\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Greening of Planet Earth Content: The Greening of Planet Earth is a half-hour-long video produced by the coal industry , which argues that rising CO2 levels will be beneficial to agriculture , and that policies intending to reduce CO2 levels are therefore misguided . The video argues that rising CO2 levels both directly stimulate plant growth and , as a result of their warming properties , cause winter temperatures to rise , thereby indirectly stimulating plant growth . It was produced in 1991 and released the following year . A sequel , entitled , The Greening of Planet Earth Continues , was released in 1998 . The video was narrated by Sherwood Idso . After the video was made , it was distributed to thousands of journalists by a coal industry group . The video became very popular viewing in the George H. W. Bush White House and elsewhere in Washington , where it was promoted before the 1992 Earth Summit , and , according to some reports , became especially popular with then-chief of staff John H. Sununu .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Greening_of_Planet_Earth\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 98634\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 4082 Swann Content: 4082 Swann , provisional designation , is a carbonaceous asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 10 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by American astronomer Carolyn Shoemaker at Palomar Observatory on 27 September 1984 . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.8 -- 3.0 AU once every 3 years and 8 months ( 1,349 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.26 and an inclination of 10 ° with respect to the ecliptic . First identified as `` 1947 UF '' at the Finnish Turku Observatory in 1947 , the asteroid 's observation arc was extended by 37 years prior to its discovery . The C-type asteroid is classified as a Ch-subtype in the SMASS taxonomy . According to the surveys carried out by the Japanese Akari satellite and NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid measures 9.5 and 11.1 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.029 and 0.101 , respectively . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link , however , assumes a standard albedo for stony asteroids of 0.20 and derives a much smaller diameter of 5.85 kilometers , based on an absolute magnitude of 13.46 . In July 2006 , a rotational light-curve for this asteroid was obtained from photometric observations by Petr Pravec at the Ondřejov Observatory in the Czech Republic . It gave a rotation period of hours with a brightness variation of 0.67 magnitude . A second light-curve obtained by Jean-Gabriel Bosch in September 2006 , gave a period of hours and an amplitude of 0.35 magnitude . The minor planet was named after American geologist Gordon A. Swann ( b. 1931 ) . He served as the principal investigator of the `` Apollo Lunar Geologic Experiment '' conducted at the lunar landing sites of Apollo 14 and Apollo 15 . Naming citation was published on 12 December 1989 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"4082_Swann\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 98591\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 31179 Gongju Content: 31179 Gongju , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , about 5 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by Japanese amateur astronomer Naoto Sato at Chichibu Observatory near Tokyo , central Japan , on 21 December 1997 . The S-type asteroid is a member of the stony subgroup of the Nysa family , one of the smaller families in the main-belt , named after its namesake , 44 Nysa . The body orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.0 -- 2.9 AU once every 3 years and 10 months ( 1,395 days ) . Its orbit shows an eccentricity of 0.19 and is tilted by 3 degrees to the plane of the ecliptic . In 2012 , a light-curve analysis at the Shadowbox Observatory in Carmel , Indiana , rendered a rotation period of hours with an estimated amplitude of 0.80 in magnitude . It has an albedo of 0.35 , according to the survey carried out by the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its NEOWISE mission , while the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a somewhat lower albedo of 0.21 , a typical value for stony asteroids . The minor planet was named after the South Korean city of Gongju , located in Chungcheongnam-do Province . It has a population of approximately 120,000 and was the capital of Baekje dynasty in the 5th century AD and the seat of the provincial government until 1932 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"31179_Gongju\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 98580\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 78816 Caripito Content: 78816 Caripito , provisional designation , is an asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt , approximately 5 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 4 August 2003 , by American amateur astronomer and professor of geophysics , Joseph Dellinger , at the U.S. Needville Observatory , Texas . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.4 -- 3.8 AU once every 5 years and 7 months ( 2,033 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.23 and an inclination of 6 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at Palomar 's Digitized Sky Survey in 1953 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 50 years prior to its discovery . As of 2016 , the Caripitos composition and albedo , as well as its rotation period and shape remain unknown . According to the survey carried out by NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid measures 5.3 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.052 . This low albedo is typical for asteroids in the outer main-belt , which are mostly of a carbonaceous rather than of a silicaceous composition . Based on an absolute magnitude of 15.4 , and assuming an albedo of 0.05 , the asteroid 's generic diameter measures between 2 and 5 kilometers . This minor planet is named for the Venezuelan town of Caripito in the northeastern Monagas State . It was the place where the parents of the discoverer , Thomas Baynes Dellinger ( b. 1926 ) and María de la Garza Cantú ( b. 1928 ) , met in 1949 . At the time , the town was a base camp for the country 's rich Quiriquire oil field . Naming citation was published on 18 September 2005 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"78816_Caripito\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 98480\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Albedo One Content: Albedo One is an Irish horror , fantasy and science fiction magazine founded in 1993 and currently published by Albedo One Productions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"Albedo_One\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 97995\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 18880 Toddblumberg Content: 18880 Toddblumberg , provisional designation , is an asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt , approximately 4 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 10 December 1999 , by LINEAR at Lincoln Laboratory 's Experimental Test Site , near Socorro , New Mexico . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.6 -- 3.8 AU once every 5 years and 9 months ( 2,096 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.18 and an inclination of 10 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at Palomar Observatory ( DSS ) in 1953 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 46 years prior to its discovery . Although discovered by LINEAR , 18880 Toddblumberg is not a near-Earth asteroid . Its closest approach to the Sun ( perihelion ) is about double the maximum distance of 1.3 AU that qualifies an asteroid as `` near-Earth '' . According to the survey carried out by NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , Toddblumberg measures 4.3 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.265 . As of 2016 , the bodyŝ spectral type as well as its rotation period remain unknown . This minor planet was named for Todd James Blumberg ( b. 1984 ) , a student at the Plano Senior High School in Plano , Texas , who won the Intel International Science and Engineering Fair ( ISEF ) award for his microbiology project in 2003 . Since 2001 , hundreds of secondary school students who have won awards at science fairs have had asteroids named after them . Naming citation was published on 30 August 2004 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"18880_Toddblumberg\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 97848\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1421 Esperanto Content: 1421 Esperanto , provisional designation 1936 FQ , is an asteroid from the asteroid belt , about 43 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on March 18 , 1936 , by the Finnish astronomer Yrjö Väisälä at Iso-Heikkilä Observatory in Turku , Finland . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.8 -- 3.3 AU once every five and a half years . It rotational period has been measured to take almost 22 hours . It has a relatively low albedo of 0.07 . Yrjö Väisälä named the asteroid after the artificial language , Esperanto , which was created by inventor and writer , Ludwik Lejzer Zamenhof ( 1859 -- 1917 ) , who used the pseudonym `` Doktoro Esperanto '' . The discoverer also named another asteroid , 1462 Zamenhof , directly after the inventor . Both asteroids are considered to be the most remote Zamenhof-Esperanto objects .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"1421_Esperanto\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 97612\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1798 Watts Content: 1798 Watts , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 7 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 4 April 1949 , by IU 's Indiana Asteroid Program at Goethe Link Observatory near Brooklyn , Indiana , United States . The asteroid is a member of the Flora family , a large group of stony S-type asteroids in the inner main-belt . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.9 -- 2.5 AU once every 3 years and 3 months ( 1,191 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.12 and an inclination of 6 ° with respect to the ecliptic . Watts was first observed and identified as at Yerkes Observatory in 1934 , extending the body 's observation arc by 15 years prior to its official discovery observation . According to the survey carried out by NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , Watts measures 6.63 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo between 0.276 and 0.294 . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.24 -- derived from 8 Flora , the largest member and namesake of this asteroid family -- and calculates a diameter of 7.14 kilometers , based on an absolute magnitude of 12.9 . As of 2017 , Wattss rotation period and shape remain unknown . The minor planet was named in honour of American astronomer Chester Burleigh Watts ( 1889 -- 1971 ) , a graduate of Indiana University . He worked at the United States Naval Observatory for 44 years , making distinguished contributions in the field of positional astronomy and pioneered in the field of automation of transit circle observations , which led to results of the highest systematic accuracy . From the late 1940 until 1963 he meticulously mapped every feature on the marginal zone of the Moon . Naming citation was published before November 1977 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"1798_Watts\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 97484\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Geometric albedo Content: In astronomy , the geometric albedo of a celestial body is the ratio of its actual brightness as seen from the light source ( i.e. at zero phase angle ) to that of an idealized flat , fully reflecting , diffusively scattering ( Lambertian ) disk with the same cross-section . ( This phase angle refers to the direction of the light paths and is not a phase angle in its normal meaning in optics or electronics . ) Diffuse scattering implies that radiation is reflected isotropically with no memory of the location of the incident light source . Zero phase angle corresponds to looking along the direction of illumination . For Earth-bound observers this occurs when the body in question is at opposition and on the ecliptic . The visual geometric albedo refers to the geometric albedo quantity when accounting for only electromagnetic radiation in the visible spectrum .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"Geometric_albedo\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 97409\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: (394130) 2006 HY51 Content: is an outstandingly eccentric asteroid and near-Earth object of the Apollo group , approximately 1.2 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by LINEAR at Lincoln Lab 's ETS on 26 April 2006 . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 0.1 -- 5.1 AU once every 4 years and 2 months ( 1,529 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.97 and an inclination of 31 ° with respect to the ecliptic . It is the asteroid with the third-smallest known perihelion of any known object orbiting the Sun . Its extreme orbital eccentricity brings it within 0.081 AU of the Sun ( 26 % of Mercury 's perihelion ) and as far as 5.118 AU from the Sun ( making it a Jupiter-grazer ) . It has a minimum orbit intersection distance with Earth of 0.0930 AU , equivalent to 35 lunar distances . As of 2016 , the asteroid 's effective size , its composition and albedo , as well as its rotation period and shape remain unknown .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"(394130)_2006_HY51\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 96972\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 3181 Ahnert Content: 3181 Ahnert , provisional designation , is a stony Flora asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , about 8 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by German astronomer Freimut Börngen at the Karl Schwarzschild Observatory in Tautenburg , eastern Germany , on 8 March 1964 . The S-type asteroid is a member of the Flora family , one of the largest groups of stony asteroids in the main-belt . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.1 -- 2.4 AU once every 3 years and 4 months ( 1,215 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.07 and an inclination of 4 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was obtained at Lowell Observatory in 1931 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 33 years prior to its discovery . According to the surveys carried out by NASA 's space-based Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid measures between 8.0 and 8.6 kilometers and its surface has an albedo between 0.19 and 0.26 . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an intermediate albedo of 0.24 -- derived from 8 Flora , the largest member and namesake of this orbital family -- and calculates a diameter of 8.2 kilometers . As of 2016 , the asteroid 's rotation period and shape still remain unknown . The minor planet was named after German astronomer Paul Ahnert ( 1897 -- 1989 ) , author of the annual calendar of astronomical events ( Kalender für Sternfreunde ) and a renowned astronomer among professionals and amateurs . His fields of research included the physics of the Solar System and periods of variable stars at the Sonneberg Observatory . ( The minor planet 1039 Sonneberga is named after this observatory . ) Publisher of several books on performing astronomical observations , he also popularized the subject of astronomy to the general public . Naming citation was published on 2 July 1985 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"3181_Ahnert\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 96927\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 145534 Jhongda Content: 145534 Jhongda , provisional designation , is a carbonaceous asteroid from the middle region of the asteroid belt , approximately 3.5 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by Taiwanese astronomers Yang Tingzhang and Ye Quanzhi at Lulin Observatory on 1 April 2006 . The C-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.3 -- 3.1 AU once every 4 years and 5 months ( 1,627 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.14 and an inclination of 6 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at Steward Observatory ( Kitt Peak ) in 1992 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 14 years prior to its discovery . In January 2014 , a rotational light-curve was obtained for this asteroid from photometric observation at the Palomar Transient Factory in California . It gave a rotation period of hours with a brightness variation of 0.67 in magnitude . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for carbonaceous asteroids of 0.057 and calculates a diameter of 3.54 kilometers , based on an absolute magnitude of 15.98 . The minor planet was named after the Taiwanese National Central University , which controls the discovering Lulin Observatory . `` Jhongda '' is the University 's abbreviation in Mandarin Chinese . Naming citation was published on 2 April 2007 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"145534_Jhongda\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 96900\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1684 Iguassú Content: 1684 Iguassú , provisional designation , is a carbonaceous asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt , approximately 30.5 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 23 August 1951 , by Argentine astronomer Miguel Itzigsohn at the La Plata Astronomical Observatory , located in the city of La Plata , Argentina . The C-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.7 -- 3.5 AU once every 5 years and 5 months ( 1,991 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.12 and an inclination of 4 ° with respect to the ecliptic . In January 2014 , two rotational light-curves of Iguassú were obtained at the Palomar Transient Factory in California . They gave a rotation period of 9.14 and 9.23 hours , respectively , both with a brightness change of in magnitude . According to the survey carried out by NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , Iguassú measures between 30.21 and 31.38 kilometers in diameter , and its surface has an albedo between 0.08 and 0.093 . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for carbonaceous asteroids of 0.057 and calculates a diameter of 30.62 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 11.3 . This minor planet is named for the large Iguazu Falls , a 60 meters high and 1 kilometer wide waterfall , which river of the same name marks part of the boundary between Argentina and Brazil . As a curiosity , the spelling of the minor planet 's name ( Iguassú ) neither concurs with the Spanish `` Iguazú '' nor with the Portuguese `` Iguaçu '' . It is rather similar to `` Yguasu '' , used in the native Guarani language , from which the waterfall 's name originates . Naming citation was published on 8 April 1982 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"1684_Iguassú\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 96724\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1861 Komenský Content: 1861 Komenský , provisional designation , is an asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt , estimated to measure approximately 15 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 24 November 1970 , by Czech astronomer Luboš Kohoutek at the Bergedorf Observatory in Hamburg , Germany . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.8 -- 3.2 AU once every 5 years and 3 months ( 1,917 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.06 and an inclination of 10 ° with respect to the ecliptic . Komenskýs observation arc begins with its official discovery observation , as no precoveries and no previous identifications were made . According to the survey carried out by NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , Komenský measures 14.8 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.158 . Based on an absolute magnitude of 11.7 , and assuming an albedo in the range of 0.05 to 0.25 , the asteroid has a generic mean diameter of 12 to 28 kilometers . As of 2016 , Komenskýs composition , rotation period and shape remain unknown . It was named in honor of Czech educational reformer and theologist , John Amos Comenius ( 1592 -- 1670 ) , known as Jan Amos Komenský in the original Czech language . He is considered the father of modern education and spend most of his life in exile . Naming citation was published before November 1977 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"1861_Komenský\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 96447\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2007 McCuskey Content: 2007 McCuskey , provisional designation 1963 SQ , is a larger mid-sized asteroid from the asteroid belt . It was discovered on 22 September 1963 , by the Indiana Asteroid Program at Goethe Link Observatory near Brooklyn , Indiana , United States . The rather dark asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.1 -- 2.7 AU once every 3.68 years ( 1,344 days ) . It has a rotation period of 8.6 hours . Measurements made with the IRAS observatory give a diameter of kilometers and a geometric albedo of . By comparison , measurements with Spitzer 's Multiband Imaging Photometer ( MIPS ) give a diameter of kilometers and a geometric albedo of . It is named in honour of American mathematician and astronomer Sidney Wilcox McCuskey ( 1907 -- 1979 ) , who was the director of the Warner and Swasey Observatory and president of IAU Commission 33 , Structure and Dynamics of the Galactic System . He is best known for his contribution on stellar luminosity and galactic structure .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"2007_McCuskey\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 96445\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: (386454) 2008 XM Content: ( 386454 ) 2008 XM is an outstandingly eccentric , sub-kilometer-sized asteroid , with one of the smallest known perihelions among all minor planets . It is classified as near-Earth object of the Apollo group and potentially hazardous asteroid , and measures approximately 370 meters in diameter . It was discovered on 2 December 2008 , by the U.S. LINEAR program at Lincoln Laboratory 's Experimental Test Site in Socorro , New Mexico . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 0.1 -- 2.3 AU once every 16 months ( 494 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.91 and an inclination of 5 ° with respect to the ecliptic . Due to its outstanding eccentricity , it is also a Mercury-crosser , Venus-crosser and Mars-crosser . It has the third-smallest perihelion of any numbered asteroid behind and . Its Earth minimum orbital intersection distance of 0.0047 AU corresponds to only 1.84 lunar distances . According to the survey carried out by the NEOWISE mission of NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , the asteroid measures meters in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.128 . As of 2016 , the body 's composition and spectral type , as well as its rotation period and shape remains unknown .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"(386454)_2008_XM\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 96396\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2865 Laurel Content: 2865 Laurel , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid from the middle region of the asteroid belt , approximately 15 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by English-born South African astronomer Cyril Jackson at Johannesburg Observatory on 31 July 1935 . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.4 -- 2.7 AU once every 4 years and 1 month ( 1,497 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.07 and an inclination of 14 ° with respect to the ecliptic . No precoveries were taken and the asteroid 's observation arc begins with its discovery observation in 1935 . A rotational light-curve for this asteroid was obtained from photometric observations by French amateur astronomer Pierre Antonini in September 2005 . It gave a longer than average rotation period of hours with a brightness variation of 0.15 in magnitude . According to the space-based surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS , the Japanese Akari satellite , and NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid measures between 14.7 and 25.0 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo between 0.09 and 0.22 . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link agrees with IRAS and derives an albedo of 0.24 and a diameter 14.8 kilometers . The minor planet was named after English-born comedian Stan Laurel ( 1890 -- 1965 ) . Together with Oliver Hardy ( 1892 -- 1957 ) , who was honored with the main-belt asteroid 2866 Hardy , they formed the first great comedy duo in Classical Hollywood cinema . Naming citation was published on 1 September 1993 , based on a suggestion by Gareth V. Williams and others .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"2865_Laurel\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 96263\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 6522 Aci Content: 6522 Aci , provisional designation , is a stony Phocaea asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , about 6 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by American astronomer Eleanor Helin at the U.S. Palomar Observatory in California , on 9 July 1991 . The S-type asteroid is a member of the Phocaea family , a relatively small group of asteroids with similar orbital characteristics . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.9 -- 2.9 AU once every 3 years and 8 months ( 1,345 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.20 and an inclination of 22 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at the German Karl Schwarzschild Observatory in 1990 , one year prior to its discovery . A photometric light-curve analysis performed at the U.S. Palomar Transient Factory in 2010 , rendered a rotation period of hours with a brightness amplitude of 0.68 in magnitude . According to the NEOWISE mission of NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , the asteroid measures 6.1 kilometers in diameter and its surface has a high albedo of 0.39 , while the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.23 -- which derives from 25 Phocaea , namesake and largest member of this orbital family -- and calculates a diameter of 5.7 kilometers . The minor planet was named for the river southeast of Mount Etna in Sicily , Italy . The towns and villages along the river , such as Aci Castello , Aci Trezza , Aci-Reale , and Aci Sant ` Antonio , were also honored . The river also brings to mind the myth of Aci from Greek mythology , which is about a young Sicilian shepherd , who was killed by the jealous cyclops Polyphemus , because of his love for the sea nymph Galatea . The minor planet 74 Galatea is named after this Nereid . Naming citation was published on 26 October 1996 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"6522_Aci\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 96103\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 3255 Tholen Content: 3255 Tholen , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid , Mars-crosser and relatively fast rotator , that measures approximately 6 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 2 September 1980 , by American astronomer Edward Bowell at Lowell 's Anderson Mesa Station in Flagstaff , Arizona . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.5 -- 3.2 AU once every 3 years and 8 months ( 1,335 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.36 and an inclination of 21 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first observation was made at the Argentinian El Leoncito site in 1969 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 11 years prior to its discovery . According to the space-based survey carried out by the Japanese Akari satellite and NASA 's NEOWISE mission , the asteroid measures 4.0 and 6.8 kilometers in diameter , and its surface has an albedo of 0.14 and 0.34 , respectively , while the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for stony asteroids of 0.20 and calculates a diameter of 5.1 kilometers , based on an absolute magnitude of 13.84 . Several rotational light-curves were obtained for this asteroid from photometric observations . In September 2013 , Italian astronomer Andrea Ferrero at the Bigmuskie Observatory in Mombercelli , Italy , derived a rotation period of hours with a brightness variation of 0.11 in magnitude , while two month later , in November 2013 , astronomer Brian A. Skiff obtained two light-curves that both gave a period of 2.95 and an amplitude of 0.24 and 0.28 in magnitude , respectively . The results supersede two older light-curves from 1991 and 2002 , that gave a period of and 6 hours , respectively . The minor planet was named after David J. Tholen ( b. 1955 ) , a discoverer of minor planets and planetary scientist at the Institute for Astronomy of the University of Hawaii , known for his eight-color taxonomic scheme on minor planets . Naming citation was published on 14 April 1987 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"3255_Tholen\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 96056\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 11949 Kagayayutaka Content: 11949 Kagayayutaka , provisional designation , is an asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt , approximately 23 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 19 September 1993 , by Japanese amateur astronomers Kin Endate and Kazuro Watanabe at Kitami Observatory in eastern Hokkaidō , Japan . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.5 -- 3.6 AU once every 5 years and 5 months ( 1,983 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.18 and an inclination of 8 ° with respect to the ecliptic . As no precoveries were taken , the asteroid 's observation arc starts with its discovery observation in September 1993 . The body is classified as both a C and S-type asteroid by the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link ( CALL ) and Pan-STARRS survey of magnitudes , respectively . According to the survey carried out by NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid measures 22.28 kilometers in diameter and its surface has a high albedo of 0.708 , while CALL assumes a standard albedo for carbonaceous asteroids of 0.057 and calculates a diameter of 23.21 kilometers . A rotational light-curve was obtained for this asteroid from photometric observations by French astronomer René Roy in November 2015 . It gave a provisional rotation period of hours with a brightness variation of 0.28 in magnitude . The minor planet was named after Kagaya Yutaka ( b. 1968 ) , the Japanese space and digital artist and receiver of the Gold Medal in the American Digital Art Contest in 2000 . Naming citation was published on 10 September 2003 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"11949_Kagayayutaka\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 95998\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2014 JO25 Content: 2014 JO25 is a peanut-shaped contact-binary near-earth asteroid . It was discovered in May 2014 by A. D. Grauer of the Catalina Sky Survey as part of NASA 's NEO Observations Program . Early estimation based on observed absolute magnitude and estimated albedo indicates object 600-1400 m in diameter . Further research based on NEOWISE data indicates an object of 650 m in diameter and albedo 0.25 . Data taken during 2017 flyby shows asteroid measures at least 870 m ( largest dimension ) . The 2017 flyby within a distance of 1.8 million kilometers was the closest approach to Earth by 2014 JO25 for at least the next 400 years .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"2014_JO25\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 95998\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 677 Aaltje Content: 677 Aaltje is a main-belt minor planet orbiting the Sun , discovered by August Kopff at Heidelberg on January 18 , 1909 . It was named after the Dutch singer Aaltje Noordewier-Reddingius . This object has a geometric albedo of 0.2794 . Photometric observations during 2008 showed a rotation period of 16.6076 ± 0.0006 hours and a brightness variation of 0.30 ± 0.02 in magnitude . 677 Aaltje is orbiting within the 7/3 Kirkwood gap . This means it has a 7:3 orbital resonance with Jupiter , completing seven orbits for every three orbits of the planet . For smaller objects , this would typically lead to orbital instability , causing it to shift to a different orbital period . However , 677 Aaltje is too large for its orbit to have been moved by more than about 0.01 AU over the lifetime of the Solar System . What is more likely is that orbital interactions with the dwarf planet Ceres may have shifted it to the present-day orbit -- the orbit of 677 Aaltje leads it into relatively close encounters with Ceres .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"677_Aaltje\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 95954\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1807 Slovakia Content: 1807 Slovakia , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid and slow rotator from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 9 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 20 August 1971 , by Slovak astronomer Milan Antal at Skalnaté pleso Observatory in the High Tatras mountains of Slovakia . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.8 -- 2.6 AU once every 3 years and 4 months ( 1,213 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.18 and an inclination of 3 ° with respect to the ecliptic.of 1.8 -- 2.6 AU once every 3 years and 4 months ( 1,213 days ) . Slovakia has an exceptionally long rotation period of 308 hours with a high brightness variation of 1.10 magnitude . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link ( CALL ) adopts a period of 308.6 hours with an amplitude of 1.1 magnitude . According to the survey carried out by NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , Slovakia measures 9.14 kilometers in diameter , and its surface has an albedo of 0.31 , while CALL assumes a standard albedo for stony asteroids of 0.20 and calculates a diameter of 9.40 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 12.5 This minor planet was named in honor of the now independent state of Slovakia ( Slovak Republic ) , the country where the discovering observatory is located . At the time Slovakia was still part of the socialistic republic of Czechoslovakia that was formed after World War I and lasted until the end of the Cold War ( also see 2315 Czechoslovakia ) . Naming citation was published before November 1977 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"1807_Slovakia\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 95825\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 13070 Seanconnery Content: 13070 Seanconnery , provisional designation , is an eccentric stony asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 3 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 8 September 1991 , by Belgian astronomer Eric Elst at Haute-Provence Observatory , St. Michael , in southeast France . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.8 -- 3.1 AU once every 3 years and 9 months ( 1,383 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.28 and an inclination of 6 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at Palomar Observatory in 1971 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 20 years prior to its discovery . In August 2006 , a rotational light-curve for this asteroid was obtained from photometric observations made at the Hunters Hill Observatory in Ngunnawal , Australia . The light-curve gave a well-defined rotation period of hours with a brightness amplitude of 0.18 in magnitude . According to the survey carried out by the NEOWISE mission of NASA 's space-based Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , the asteroid has an outstandingly high albedo of 0.90 and a diameter of 1.8 kilometers . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for stony asteroids of 0.20 and calculates a diameter 3.6 kilometers , as the lower the albedo ( reflectivity ) , the larger the asteroid 's diameter , at a constant absolute magnitude ( brightness ) . The minor planet was named for celebrated Scottish actor and Academy Award winner Sean Connery ( b. 1930 ) , famous for portraying the character James Bond -- after which the minor planet 9007 James Bond is named , starring in seven Bond films between 1962 and 1983 . With this minor planet , he is especially honored by the discoverer for his performance as the Franciscan friar William of Baskerville in The Name of the Rose . Naming citation was published on 9 March 2001 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"13070_Seanconnery\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 95817\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 342843 Davidbowie Content: 342843 Davidbowie , provisional designation , is a small asteroid from the middle region of the asteroid belt , approximately 2 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 21 December 2008 , by German astronomer Felix Hormuth from Max-Planck-Institute for Astronomy at Calar Alto Observatory in Almería , southeastern Spain . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.5 -- 3.0 AU once every 4 years and 7 months ( 1,664 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.09 and an inclination of 3 ° with respect to the ecliptic . Notably , the asteroid had a close encounter with the 200 kilometer-sized asteroid 16 Psyche , one of the most massive bodies in the main-belt , which it passed at only 0.04 AU on 15 May 1935 . It was first identified as at Steward Observatory ( Kitt Peak ) in 2003 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 5 years prior to its discovery observation . As of 2017 , the asteroid 's effective size , its composition , albedo and rotation period remain unknown . It has , however , a well-observed orbit with the lowest possible condition code and an observation arc that spans over a period of more than a decade . It was first observed in 2003 , but not identified as a new asteroid until 2008 . Based on its absolute magnitude of 17.1 , its diameter is between 1 and 2 kilometers , assuming an albedo in the range of 0.05 to 0.25 . Since most asteroids in the outer main-belt are of a carbonaceous rather than of a silicaceous composition , with a low albedo , typically around 0.05 , the asteroid 's diameter might be on the upper end of NASA 's published conversion table , as the lower the albedo ( reflectivity ) , the larger the body 's diameter for its given absolute magnitude ( brightness ) . The minor planet was named on 5 January 2015 , in honor of British singer , songwriter , producer and actor , David Bowie ( 1947 -- 2016 ) , just 3 days before Bowie 's 68th birthday . Considered to be one of the most influential artists , Bowie released more than 25 albums including The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars . He was also an actor in movies such as Labyrinth and The Prestige .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"342843_Davidbowie\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 95787\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 16765 Agnesi Content: 16765 Agnesi , provisional designation , is a stony Eunomia asteroid from the middle region of the asteroid belt , approximately 4 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 16 October 1996 , by Italian-American amateur astronomer Paul Comba at his private Prescott Observatory in the U.S. state of Arizona . The asteroid is a member of the Eunomia family , a large group of S-type asteroids and the most prominent family in the intermediate main-belt . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.3 -- 2.9 AU once every 4 years and 3 months ( 1,553 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.11 and an inclination of 12 ° with respect to the ecliptic . It was first observed by Haleakala -- NEAT/GEODSS , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 32 days prior to its official discovery observation . According to the NEOWISE mission of NASA 's space-based Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , the asteroid measures 4.1 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.28 , while the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.21 -- derived from 15 Eunomia , the family 's largest member and namesake -- and calculates a diameter of 3.8 kilometers . A rotational light-curve of this asteroid was obtained from photometric observations made at the U.S. Palomar Transient Factory in September 2013 . The light-curve gave a rotation period of hours with a brightness variation of in magnitude . The minor planet was named in honour of Italian Maria Gaetana Agnesi ( 1718 -- 1799 ) , who was the first Western woman to write a widely translated mathematics handbook and the first woman appointed to a professorship at a university in 1750 . Naming citation was published on 9 January 2001 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"16765_Agnesi\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 95746\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 24988 Alainmilsztajn Content: 24988 Alainmilsztajn , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 2.5 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 19 June 1998 , by the OCA-DLR Asteroid Survey ( ODAS ) at CERGA , Caussols , in southeastern France . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.1 -- 2.7 AU once every 3 years and 9 months ( 1,363 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.14 and an inclination of 5 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at the Steward Observatory ( Kitt Peak ) in 1995 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 3 years prior to its discovery . According to the survey carried out by NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid measures 2.2 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an exceptionally high albedo of 0.42 , while the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for stony asteroids of 0.20 and calculates a diameter of 2.5 kilometers . A rotational light-curve of this asteroid was obtained from photometric observations made at the U.S. Palomar Transient Factory in October 2010 . The fragmentary light-curve gave a rotation period of hours with a brightness amplitude of 0.09 in magnitude . The minor planet was named in memory of French particle physicist and astronomer Alain Milsztajn ( 1955 -- 2007 ) . His research included the structure of the proton and the quest of detecting dark matter by means of gravitational lensing . Naming citation was published on 19 August 2008 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"24988_Alainmilsztajn\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 95546\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2010 AL30 Content: is a near-Earth asteroid that was discovered on 10 January 2010 . Italian scientists Ernesto Guido and Giovanni Sostero told RIA Novosti that it had an orbital period of almost exactly one year and might be a spent rocket booster . However , it was determined that it is a near-Earth asteroid . On January 13 , 2010 at 1246 UT it passed Earth at 0.0008624 AU , about 1/3 of the distance from the Earth to the Moon ( or 0.33 LD ) . Based an estimated diameter of 10 - , if 2010 AL30 had entered the Earth 's atmosphere , it would have created an air burst equivalent to between 50 kT and 100 kT ( kilotons of TNT ) . The Nagasaki `` Fat Man '' atom bomb had a yield between 13 -- 18 kT . It has an uncertainty parameter of 2 and has been observed by radar . Radar observations show the asteroid is elongated and is about 30 meters in diameter . It may be a contact binary .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"2010_AL30\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 95430\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 13732 Woodall Content: 13732 Woodall , provisional designation , is a stony Vestian asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 4 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 14 September 1998 , by the Lincoln Near-Earth Asteroid Research ( LINEAR ) team at Lincoln Laboratory 's Experimental Test Site in Socorro , New Mexico . The stony S-type asteroid is a member of the Vesta family , which is named after the asteroid 4 Vesta , the second-largest body in the main-belt . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.1 -- 2.6 AU once every 3 years and 8 months ( 1,337 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.10 and an inclination of 6 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at Siding Spring Observatory in 1989 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 9 years prior to its discovery . A rotational light-curve was obtained based on photometric observations by Czech astronomer Petr Pravec at the Ondřejov Observatory in September 2009 . The light-curve gave a well-defined rotation period of hours with a brightness amplitude of in magnitude . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for stony asteroids of 0.20 and calculates a diameter of 3.9 kilometers , based on an absolute magnitude of 14.4 . The minor planet was named after Ashley Renee Woodall ( b. 1987 ) student at the U.S. Austin Academy for Excellence in Garland , Texas . In 2002 , she was a finalist of the Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge ( DCYSC ) , a science and engineering competition . Naming citation was published on 21 October 2002 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"13732_Woodall\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 95356\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Comet Lulin Content: Comet Lulin ( official designation C/2007 N3 ( Lulin ) , Traditional Chinese : 鹿林彗星 ) is a non-periodic comet . It was discovered by Ye Quanzhi and Lin Chi-Sheng from Lulin Observatory . It peaked in brightness and arrived at perigee for observers on Earth on February 24 , 2009 , at magnitude +5 , and at 0.411 AU from Earth . The comet was near conjunction with Saturn on February 23 , and passed near Regulus in the constellation of Leo on February 26 and 27 , 2009 . It was expected to pass near Comet Cardinal on May 12 , 2009 . The comet became visible to the naked eye from dark-sky sites around February 7 . It passed near the double star Zubenelgenubi on February 6 , near Spica on February 15 and 16 , near Gamma Virginis on February 19 and near the star cluster M44 on March 5 and 6 . It also passed near the planetary nebula NGC 2392 on March 14 , and near the double star Wasat around March 17 . According to NASA , Comet Lulin 's green color comes from a combination of gases that make up its local atmosphere , primarily diatomic carbon , which appears as a green glow when illuminated by sunlight in the vacuum of space . When SWIFT observed comet Lulin on 28 January 2009 , the comet was shedding nearly 800 USgal of water each second . Comet Lulin was methanol-rich .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"Comet_Lulin\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 95313\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 12482 Pajka Content: 12482 Pajka , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 4.3 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by Slovak astronomers Adrián Galád and Alexander Pravda at Modra Observatory on 23 March 1997 . The stony S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.0 -- 2.8 AU once every 3 years and 9 months ( 1,372 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.16 and an inclination of 9 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at Steward Observatory ( Kitt Peak -- Spacewatch ) in 1991 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 6 years prior to its discovery . A rotational light-curve was obtained from photometric observations made by the discovering astronomer at Modra Observatory in January 2008 . The light-curve showed a rotation period of hours with a brightness amplitude of 0.21 in magnitude . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for stony asteroids of 0.20 and calculates a diameter of 4.3 kilometers . The minor planet was named after Paula Pravdová ( b. 1990 ) , whose familiar name is `` Pajka '' . She is the daughter of the discovering astronomer Alexander Pravda and often visited Modra Observatory . Naming citation was published on 28 March 2002 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"12482_Pajka\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 95253\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 30564 Olomouc Content: 30564 Olomouc ( -LSB- ˈolomoʊ̯ts -RSB- ) provisionally designated , is an asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt . It was discovered by Czech astronomer Petr Pravec on July 28 , 2001 at Ondřejov Observatory and was named after Olomouc , a city in central Moravia , the Czech Republic , where the discoverer lived . The citation accompanying the suggestion of the name and published in the Minor Planet Circular on 6 January 2003 said : `` The city of Olomouc is the center of Hanakia in the heart of Moravia . The seat of Catholic bishops since 1063 and Moravian primates since 1777 , it has been home to a university since 1573 , now called Palacký University . '' The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.2 -- 3.0 AU once every 4 years and 2 months ( 1,529 days ) . Its orbit shows an eccentricity of 0.14 and an inclination of 4 degrees from the plane of the ecliptic . Little is known about the asteroids size , chemical and mineralogical composition , albedo and rotation , despite having a well-observed orbit with the lowest possible uncertainty ( i.e. a condition code of 0 ) and an observation arc that spans over a period of more than 20 years . On the basis of its absolute magnitude in the visible light spectrum and supposed albedo ( which usually varies from 0.05 to 0.25 for the main-belt asteroids ) its diameter could be anywhere between 3 and 6 kilometers . Since asteroids in the inner main-belt are typically of a silicaceous rather than of a carbonaceous composition , with albedos around 0.20 , the body 's diameter might be on the lower end of NASA 's published conversion table , as the higher the reflectivity ( albedo ) , the smaller the body 's diameter for the given absolute magnitude of 15.0 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"30564_Olomouc\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 95193\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 39741 Komm Content: 39741 Komm , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid and eccentric Mars-crosser from the innermost regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 2 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 9 January 1997 , by American astronomer Roy Tucker at Goodricke-Pigott Observatory in Tucson , Arizona , United States . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.4 -- 2.9 AU once every 3 years and 3 months ( 1,177 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.35 and an inclination of 6 ° with respect to the ecliptic . As no precoveries were taken , the asteroid 's observation arc begins with its discovery observation . In October 2009 , the first and so far only rotational light-curve for Komm was obtained by French amateur astronomer René Roy . It gave a well-defined rotation period of hours with a high brightness variation of 0.83 magnitude , indicative of a non-spheroidal shape . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for stony asteroids of 0.20 and calculates a diameter of 2.15 kilometers , based on an absolute magnitude of 15.7 . The minor planet was named after Rudolf Komm ( b. 1957 ) , an American helioseismologist , who contributed in the study of solar activity . Naming citation was published on 6 August 2003 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"39741_Komm\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 95175\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 950 Ahrensa Content: 950 Ahrensa , provisional designation 1921 JP , is a stony asteroid and slow rotator from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , about 15 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 1 April 1921 , by German astronomer Karl Reinmuth at Heidelberg Observatory in southern Germany . The S-type asteroid , classified as a Sa-subtype in the SMASS taxonomic scheme , is a member of the Phocaea family , a group of asteroids with similar orbital characteristics . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.0 -- 2.7 AU once every 3 years and 8 months ( 1,334 days ) . Its orbit shows an eccentricity of 0.16 and is tilted by 23 degrees to the plane of the ecliptic . A photometric light-curve analysis at the U.S. Palmer Divide Observatory in 2009 , showed that the body has an exceptionally long rotation period of 202 hours . According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite , IRAS , the Japanese Akari satellite , and the U.S. Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the surface of the asteroid has an albedo in the range of 0.16 to 0.23 , while the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link derives an even higher value of 0.27 for the stony body . The minor planet was named in honor of friends of the discoverer Karl Reinmuth , the Ahrens family , who helped him financially at the Heidelberg Observatory . Reinmuth also named the minor planet 909 Ulla after Ulla Ahrens , a member of this family .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"950_Ahrensa\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 95121\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1933 Tinchen Content: 1933 Tinchen , provisional designation , is a Vestian asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , about 5 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by Czech astronomer Luboš Kohoutek at the Hamburger Bergedorf Observatory , Germany on 14 January 1972 . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.1 -- 2.6 AU once every 3 years and 7 months ( 1,318 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.12 and an inclination of 7 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The vestoid or V-type asteroid is also a member of the Vesta family . Asteroids with these spectral and orbital characteristics are thought to have all originated from the Rheasilvia crater , a large impact crater on the south-polar surface of 4 Vesta , which is the main-belt 's second-most-massive asteroid after 1 Ceres . Tinchen has a rotation period of 3.671 hours . Its assumed high geometric albedo of 0.4 is based on observational data in the range of 0.30 -- 0.61 . The discoverer named the asteroid after his wife , Christine Kohoutek . Naming citation was published before November 1977 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"1933_Tinchen\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 95112\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 3103 Eger Content: 3103 Eger is an Apollo and Mars-crosser asteroid that was discovered in 1982 , by Miklós Lovas . It was named after the city of Eger , Hungary . It has an albedo of 0.64 , making it a highly reflective asteroid . It has made and will continue to make many close approaches to Earth . Its closest so far occurred in August 6 , 1996 , when the asteroid passed 0.11509 AU from Earth . 3103 Eger is the only asteroid besides 4 Vesta identified as the parent body for specific meteorites . 4 Vesta is the parent body for Howardite , Eucrite , and Diogenite meteorites , while 3103 Eger is the parent body for Aubrite meteorites . In this characteristic 3103 Eger is related spectroscopically to the 434 Hungaria type asteroids , which are a Hirayama-family of orbital types , and E-type asteroids which form a spectroscopical type .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"3103_Eger\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 94997\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 28P/Neujmin Content: 28P/Neujmin , also known as Neujmin 1 , is a large periodic comet in the Solar System . With a perihelion distance ( closest approach to the Sun ) of 1.5 AU , this comet does not make close approaches to the Earth . The comet nucleus is estimated to be 21.4 kilometers in diameter with a low albedo of 0.025 . Since 28P has such a large nucleus , it will become brighter than the 20th magnitude in early 2019 , roughly 2 years before coming to perihelion . When it comes to opposition in May 2020 , when it is still 3.5 AU from the Sun , it will likely have an apparent magnitude around 16.9 . But during the 2021 perihelion passage the comet will be on the opposite side of the Sun as the Earth . The comet is not known for bright outbursts of activity .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"28P/Neujmin\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 94982\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1865 Cerberus Content: 1865 Cerberus , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid and near-Earth object of the Apollo group , approximately 1.6 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 26 October 1971 , by Czech astronomer Luboš Kohoutek at the Hamburger Bergedorf Observatory in Germany and named in 1974 . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 0.6 -- 1.6 AU once every 1 years and 1 month ( 410 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.47 and an inclination of 16 ° with respect to the ecliptic . Cerberus is composed of 65 % plagioclase and 35 % pyroxene , has a rotation period of 6.804 hours , a geometric albedo of 0.220 , and passes within 30 gigametres ( Gm ) of the Earth 7 times from the year 1900 to the year 2100 , each time at a distance of 24.4 Gm to 25.7 Gm . It also makes close approaches to Mars and Venus . The minor planet is named after the figure from Greek mythology , Cerberus , a three-headed dog that guarded the entrance to Hades , the Underworld . His capture marked the last of the twelve labors of Hercules . It is also the name of an extinct constellation , Cerberus , now contained in the eastern part of Hercules . ( It should not be confused with Kerberos , a moon of the dwarf planet Pluto . ) Naming citation was published before November 1977 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"1865_Cerberus\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 94590\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Impact winter Content: An impact winter is a hypothesized period of prolonged cold weather due to the impact of a large asteroid or comet on the Earth 's surface . If an asteroid were to strike land or a shallow body of water , it would eject an enormous amount of dust , ash , and other material into the atmosphere , blocking the radiation from the sun . This would cause the global temperature to decrease drastically . If an asteroid or comet with the diameter of about 5 km or more were to hit in a large deep body of water or explode before hitting the surface , there would still be an enormous amount of debris ejected into the atmosphere . It has been proposed that an impact winter could lead to mass extinction , wiping out many of the world 's existing species .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"Impact_winter\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 94477\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 94459\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hurricane dynamics and cloud microphysics Content: Tropical convective clouds play an important part in the Earth 's climate system . Convection and release of latent heat transports energy from the surface into the upper atmosphere . Clouds have a higher albedo than the underlying ocean , which causes more incoming solar radiation to be reflected back to space . Since the tops of tropical systems are much cooler than the surface of the Earth , the presence of high convective clouds cools the climate system . The most recognizable cloud system in the tropics is the hurricane . In addition to the important climatic effects of tropical weather systems , hurricanes possess enough energy to cause massive death and destruction . Therefore , their accurate prediction is of utmost importance . Cloud microphysics describe the structure and properties of clouds on the microscopic scale .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"Hurricane_dynamics_and_cloud_microphysics\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 94313\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 4150 Starr Content: 4150 Starr , provisional designation , is a stony Florian asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 7 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by American astronomer Brian A. Skiff at Lowell 's Anderson Mesa Station on 31 August 1984 . The S-type asteroid is a member of the Flora family , one of the largest groups of stony asteroids in the main-belt . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.9 -- 2.6 AU once every 3 years and 4 months ( 1,219 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.17 and an inclination of 3 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first observation was made at the U.S. Goethe Link Observatory in 1957 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 27 years prior to its discovery . According to the space-based survey by the NEOWISE mission of NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , the asteroid measures 6.6 and 6.9 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.258 and 0.277 , respectively , while the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link ( CALL ) assumes an albedo of 0.24 -- derived from 8 Flora , the family 's largest member and namesake -- and calculates a diameter of 7.5 kilometers , based on an absolute magnitude of 12.8 . Several rotational light-curves were obtained for this asteroid from photometric observations . An unpublished light-curve by Kryszczynska from November 2011 , has been rated best by CALL . It gave a rotation period of hours and a brightness variation of 0.20 in magnitude . The minor planet was named in after Richard Starkey ( b. 1940 ) , better known as Ringo Starr , the drummer of The Beatles . He joined the English rock band in 1962 , replacing its former drummer Pete Best . Ringo has released various albums in his solo career and also acted in several movies . Naming citation was published on 10 April 1990 . The minor planets 8749 Beatles , 4147 Lennon , 4148 McCartney and 4149 Harrison were named after the band and its three other members .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"4150_Starr\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 94218\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 100268 Rosenthal Content: 100268 Rosenthal , provisional designation , is an asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 3 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 5 October 1994 , by German astronomer Freimut Börngen at the Karl Schwarzschild Observatory , Thuringia , eastern Germany . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.0 -- 2.9 AU once every 3 years and 10 months ( 1,392 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.17 and an inclination of 12 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at the Siding Spring Observatory ( DSS ) in 1990 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 4 years prior to its discovery . As of 2016 , the asteroids effective size , shape and composition , as well as its albedo and rotation period remain unknown . Based on its absolute magnitude of 15.6 , its diameter is between 2 and 5 kilometers , assuming an albedo in the range of 0.05 to 0.25 . Since asteroids in the inner main-belt are often of a brighter silicaceous -- rather than of a darker carbonaceous composition , with higher albedos , typically around 0.20 , the asteroid 's diameter might be on the lower end of NASA 's published conversion table , as the lower the reflectivity ( albedo ) , the larger the body 's diameter for a given absolute magnitude . The minor planet was named in honour of famous German radio and TV host Hans Rosenthal ( 1925 -- 1987 ) , a German Jew who survived the Holocaust as a boy inside Germany and became one of the country 's most popular TV show masters ever in the early 1980s . He died of cancer at the age of 61 . Naming citation was published on 13 April 2006 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"100268_Rosenthal\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 94147\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2015 TC25 Content: is a near-Earth asteroid , and at only 2 meters ( 6 ft ) across , it is thought to be the smallest asteroid observed from telescopes on Earth . The asteroid is notable for reflecting about 60 % of the light that hits it , making it one of the brightest near-earth asteroids ever seen . Discovered by the Catalina Sky Survey on 12 October 2015 , it was observed with several ground-based telescopes . Radar observations were also made using the Arecibo Observatory as it passed 128,000 kilometers ( approximately a third of the distance to the moon ) from the Earth . Observations suggest its surface composition is similar to Aubrite meteorites , a rare class of high-albedo differentiated meteorites . The albedo and radar polarization ratio suggest belongs to the E-type asteroids , and comparison of its spectral and dynamical properties suggest its parent body may be the 70 kilometer diameter E-type asteroid 44 Nysa . is also notable for its rather short rotation period of only about 2 minutes , which , combined with its low surface gravity makes it very difficult for to retain a regolith layer . It 's surface therefore most likely resembles a bare rock .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"2015_TC25\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 93889\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1064 Aethusa Content: 1064 Aethusa , provisional designation 1926 PA , is a main-belt asteroid , discovered by German astronomer Karl Reinmuth at Heidelberg Observatory on 2 August 1926 . It is orbiting the Sun in a distance of 2.09 − 2.99 AU , measures about 19 kilometers in diameter , and has a high geometric albedo of 0.32 . Measurements made with the IRAS observatory give a diameter of 20.64 ± 1.37 km and a geometric albedo of 0.27 ± 0.03 . By comparison , the MIPS photometer on the Spitzer Space Telescope gives a diameter of 8.621 ± 4.28 km and a geometric albedo of 0.17 ± 0.04 . Other photometric observations of the asteroid collected during 2006 show a rotation period of 8.621 ± 0.004 hours with a brightness variation of 0.18 ± 0.02 magnitude . The asteroid is named after a genus in the carrot family , `` Aethusa '' , of which the plant Aethusa cynapium ( fool 's parsley ) is the only member .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"1064_Aethusa\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 93833\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 7204 Ondřejov Content: 7204 Ondřejov , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid from the middle region of the asteroid belt , approximately 6 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 3 April 1995 , by Czech astronomer Petr Pravec at Ondřejov Observatory near Prague , Czech Republic . This asteroid was the observatory 's first numbered minor planet discovery . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.3 -- 3.0 AU once every 4 years and 4 months ( 1,593 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.12 and an inclination of 5 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at Palomar Observatory in 1980 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 15 years prior to its discovery . A rotational light-curve was obtained based on a photometric observations at the U.S. Palomar Transient Factory , California , in December 2011 . It showed a rotation period of hours with a brightness amplitude of 0.55 in magnitude . According to the survey carried out by the NEOWISE mission of NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , the asteroid measures 5.9 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.18 , while the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a lower albedo of 0.10 and calculates a diameter of 6.3 kilometers . The minor planet was named for both , the Czech village of Ondřejov , and its discovering Ondřejov Observatory , founded in 1898 . It is the Czech Republic 's oldest astronomical observatory still in use . In 1953 , the observatory was integrated into the Astronomical Institute and is now also owned by the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic . Ondřejov is located about 35 kilometers southeast of the country 's capital , Prague . Naming citation was published on 22 February 1997 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"7204_Ondřejov\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 93800\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1704 Wachmann Content: 1704 Wachmann , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 7 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by German astronomer Karl Reinmuth at Heidelberg Observatory on 7 March 1924 . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.0 -- 2.4 AU once every 3 years and 4 months ( 1,211 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.09 and an inclination of 1 ° with respect to the ecliptic . No precoveries were taken and the asteroid 's observation arc begins 3 days after its official discovery date . In April 2007 , a rotational light-curve for this asteroid was obtained at the U.S. Sandia View Observatory in New Mexico . The light-curve gave a well-defined rotation period of hours with a brightness variation of 0.40 in magnitude . According to the survey carried out by the NEOWISE mission of NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , the asteroid measures 6.6 and 6.9 kilometers in diameter , and its surface has an albedo of 0.177 and 0.193 , respectively , while the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for stony asteroids of 0.20 and calculates a diameter of 7.8 kilometers , based on an absolute magnitude of 12.9 . The minor planet was named for Arno Wachmann ( 1902 -- 1990 ) , long-time astronomer at the Bergedorf Observatory in Hamburg , discoverer of minor planets and comets , and observer of variable and binary stars . He is best known for the co-discovery of the three `` Schwassmann -- Wachmann '' comets , 29P , 31P and 73P . Naming citation was published before November 1977 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2765\",\n \"docid\": \"1704_Wachmann\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 93746\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":1363,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"The most interesting thing here is that the albedo forcings, in watts/sq meter seem to be fairly large."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: 1798 Watts Content: 1798 Watts , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 7 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 4 April 1949 , by IU 's Indiana Asteroid Program at Goethe Link Observatory near Brooklyn , Indiana , United States . The asteroid is a member of the Flora family , a large group of stony S-type asteroids in the inner main-belt . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.9 -- 2.5 AU once every 3 years and 3 months ( 1,191 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.12 and an inclination of 6 ° with respect to the ecliptic . Watts was first observed and identified as at Yerkes Observatory in 1934 , extending the body 's observation arc by 15 years prior to its official discovery observation . According to the survey carried out by NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , Watts measures 6.63 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo between 0.276 and 0.294 . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.24 -- derived from 8 Flora , the largest member and namesake of this asteroid family -- and calculates a diameter of 7.14 kilometers , based on an absolute magnitude of 12.9 . As of 2017 , Wattss rotation period and shape remain unknown . The minor planet was named in honour of American astronomer Chester Burleigh Watts ( 1889 -- 1971 ) , a graduate of Indiana University . He worked at the United States Naval Observatory for 44 years , making distinguished contributions in the field of positional astronomy and pioneered in the field of automation of transit circle observations , which led to results of the highest systematic accuracy . From the late 1940 until 1963 he meticulously mapped every feature on the marginal zone of the Moon . Naming citation was published before November 1977 .","qid":"2766","docid":"1798_Watts","rank":1,"score":128015},{"content":"Title: Radiative forcing Content: Radiative forcing or climate forcing is the difference between insolation ( sunlight ) absorbed by the Earth and energy radiated back to space . Typically , radiative forcing is quantified at the tropopause in units of watts per square meter of the Earth 's surface . Positive forcing ( incoming energy exceeding outgoing energy ) warms the system , while negative forcing ( outgoing energy exceeding incoming energy ) cools it . Causes of radiative forcing include changes in insolation and the concentrations of radiatively active gases , commonly known as greenhouse gases and aerosols .","qid":"2766","docid":"Radiative_forcing","rank":2,"score":123561},{"content":"Title: 925 Alphonsina Content: 925 Alphonsina , provisional designation 1920 GM , is a large , stony asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt , about 58 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by Spanish astronomer of Catalan origin , Josep Comas i Solà , at the Fabra Observatory in Barcelona , on 13 January 1920 . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.5 -- 2.9 AU once every 4 years and 5 months ( 1,622 days ) . Its orbit is tilted by 21 degrees to the plane of the ecliptic and shows an eccentricity of 0.08 . A large number of photometric light-curve analysis rendered a well-defined , concurring rotation period of 7.9 hours for the body . According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite , IRAS , the Japanese Akari satellite , and the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid 's albedo is in the range of 0.20 -- 0.28 . In addition , the body 's albedo has been inferred by using the technique of stellar occultation in 2003 . The measurement also gave a diameter of 59.2 kilometers . The minor planet was named in honor of the Iberian Kings , Alfonso X ( 1221 -- 1284 ) and Alfonso XIII ( 1886 -- 1941 ) , King of Castile and Spain , respectively . The original citation mentions , that the 13th century king inspired the field of astronomy in the Middle Ages , and , that the latter king was a great enthusiast of the scientific development in Spain . It also mentions that the King of Spain approved the naming of the asteroid .","qid":"2766","docid":"925_Alphonsina","rank":3,"score":113261},{"content":"Title: Bond albedo Content: The Bond albedo , named after the American astronomer George Phillips Bond ( 1825 -- 1865 ) , who originally proposed it , is the fraction of power in the total electromagnetic radiation incident on an astronomical body that is scattered back out into space . Because the Bond albedo accounts for all of the light scattered from a body at all wavelengths and all phase angles , it is a necessary quantity for determining how much energy a body absorbs . This , in turn , is crucial for determining the equilibrium temperature of a body . Because bodies in the outer Solar System are always observed at very low phase angles from the Earth , the only reliable data for measuring their Bond albedo comes from spacecraft .","qid":"2766","docid":"Bond_albedo","rank":4,"score":111403},{"content":"Title: Albedo feature Content: An albedo feature is a large area on the surface of a planet ( or other solar system body ) which shows a contrast in brightness or darkness ( albedo ) with adjacent areas . Historically , albedo features were the very first ( and usually only ) features to be seen and named on Mars and Mercury . Early classical maps ( such as those of Schiaparelli and Antoniadi ) showed only albedo features , and it was not until the arrival of space probes that other surface features such as craters could be seen . On bodies other than Mars and Mercury , an albedo feature is sometimes called a regio . On bodies with a very thick atmosphere like Venus or Titan , permanent albedo features can not be seen using ordinary optical telescopes because the surface is not visible , and only clouds and other transient atmospheric phenomena are seen . The Cassini -- Huygens probe has observed multiple albedo features on Titan since its arrival in Saturn 's orbit in 2004 . The very first albedo feature ever seen on another planet was Syrtis Major Planum on Mars in the 17th century . Today , thanks to space probes , very high-resolution images of surface features on Mars and Mercury are available , and the classical nomenclature based on albedo features has fallen somewhat into disuse . It is however still used for Earth-based observing of Mars by amateur astronomers . However , for some Solar System bodies ( such as Pluto prior to the New Horizons mission ) , the best available images show only albedo features . These images were usually taken by the Hubble Space Telescope or by ground-based telescopes using adaptive optics . Cydonia Mensae on Mars is an example of an albedo feature .","qid":"2766","docid":"Albedo_feature","rank":5,"score":111000},{"content":"Title: Albedo Content: Albedo ( -LSB- ælˈbiːdoʊ -RSB- ) is a measure for reflectance or optical brightness ( Latin albedo , Arabic albayad , `` whiteness '' ) . It is dimensionless and measured on a scale from zero ( corresponding to a black body that absorbs all incident radiation ) to one ( corresponding to a white body that reflects all incident radiation ) . Surface albedo is defined as the ratio of radiation reflected to the radiation incident on a surface . The proportion reflected is not only determined by properties of the surface itself , but also by the spectral and angular distribution of solar radiation reaching the Earth 's surface . These factors vary with atmospheric composition , geographic location and time ( see Position of the Sun ) . While bi-hemispherical reflectance is calculated for a single angle of incidence ( i.e. , for a given position of the sun ) , albedo is the directional integration of reflectance over all solar angles in a given period . The temporal resolution may range from seconds ( as obtained from flux measurements ) to daily , seasonal or annual averages . Unless given for a specific wavelength ( spectral albedo ) , albedo refers to the entire spectrum of solar radiation . Due to measurement constraints , it is often given for the spectrum in which most solar energy reaches the surface ( approximately between 0.3 and 3 μm ) . This spectrum includes visible light ( 0.39-0 .7 μm ) , which explains why surfaces with a low albedo appear dark ( e.g. , trees absorb most radiation ) , whereas surfaces with a high albedo appear bright ( e.g. , snow reflects most radiation ) . Albedo is an important concept in climatology , astronomy , and environmental management ( e.g. , as part of the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design ( LEED ) program for sustainable rating of buildings ) . The average albedo of the Earth at the top of the atmosphere , its planetary albedo , is 30 to 35 % because of cloud cover , but widely varies locally across the surface because of different geological and environmental features . The term albedo was introduced into optics by Johann Heinrich Lambert in his 1760 work Photometria .","qid":"2766","docid":"Albedo","rank":6,"score":110234},{"content":"Title: 2007 McCuskey Content: 2007 McCuskey , provisional designation 1963 SQ , is a larger mid-sized asteroid from the asteroid belt . It was discovered on 22 September 1963 , by the Indiana Asteroid Program at Goethe Link Observatory near Brooklyn , Indiana , United States . The rather dark asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.1 -- 2.7 AU once every 3.68 years ( 1,344 days ) . It has a rotation period of 8.6 hours . Measurements made with the IRAS observatory give a diameter of kilometers and a geometric albedo of . By comparison , measurements with Spitzer 's Multiband Imaging Photometer ( MIPS ) give a diameter of kilometers and a geometric albedo of . It is named in honour of American mathematician and astronomer Sidney Wilcox McCuskey ( 1907 -- 1979 ) , who was the director of the Warner and Swasey Observatory and president of IAU Commission 33 , Structure and Dynamics of the Galactic System . He is best known for his contribution on stellar luminosity and galactic structure .","qid":"2766","docid":"2007_McCuskey","rank":7,"score":109717},{"content":"Title: 7784 Watterson Content: 7784 Watterson , provisional designation , is a stony Phocaea asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 6 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by American astronomer Timothy Spahr at the U.S. Catalina Station , Arizona , on 5 August 1994 . The S-type asteroid is a member of the Phocaea family , a group of asteroids with similar orbital characteristics . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.7 -- 2.8 AU once every 3 years and 5 months ( 1,248 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.24 and an inclination of 23 ° with respect to the ecliptic . In 2011 , a photometric light-curve analysis by astronomer Brian Skiff gave a rotation period of hours with a relatively low brightness amplitude of 0.10 in magnitude , indicative of a nearly spheroidal shape . According to the surveys carried out by the NEOWISE mission of NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer ( WISE ) , the asteroid has an albedo of 0.19 and a diameter of 5.6 kilometers . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link agrees with WISE 's observations and assumes a slightly higher albedo of 0.23 and calculates a diameter of 5.5 kilometers . This minor planet is named after Bill Watterson ( born 1958 ) , cartoonist of the daily comic strip Calvin and Hobbes . Syndicated from 1985 to 1995 , this strip is fondly remembered and treasured by the discoverer , and helped him stay awake and sane on long observing nights and during the trials and tribulations of graduate school .","qid":"2766","docid":"7784_Watterson","rank":8,"score":109173},{"content":"Title: Albedo (disambiguation) Content: Albedo is a measure of reflectivity . Albedo may also refer to : ALBEDO Telecom , a telecom company Albedo ( alchemy ) , a stage of alchemical progression Albedo ( Ben 10 ) , a character in the television series Ben 10 : Alien Force Albedo Anthropomorphics , a comic book anthology Albedo ( role-playing game ) , derived from the comics Albedo , the mesocarp of a fruit Albedo , a character in the video game series Xenosaga Albedo 0.39 , a 1976 album by the artist Vangelis Albedo One '' , an Irish horror , fantasy and science fiction magazine founded in 1993","qid":"2766","docid":"Albedo_(disambiguation)","rank":9,"score":107926},{"content":"Title: 1169 Alwine Content: 1169 Alwine , provisional designation , is an asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 8 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 30 August 1930 , by German and Italian astronomers Max Wolf and Mario Ferrero at Heidelberg Observatory in southwest Germany . Alwine orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.0 -- 2.7 AU once every 3 years and 6 months ( 1,290 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.15 and an inclination of 4 ° with respect to the ecliptic . As no precoveries were taken , and no prior identifications were made , Alwines observation arc begins with its official discovery observation at Heidelberg in 1930 . According to the survey carried out by NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , Alwine measures 7.89 kilometers in diameter , and its surface has an albedo of 0.179 . Based on a generic magnitude-to-diameter conversion , its diameter is between 7 and 17 kilometers for an absolute magnitude of 12.8 and an albedo in the range of 0.05 to 0.25 . As of 2017 , no rotational lightcurves have been obtained . The body 's rotation period , pole and shape remain unknown . This minor planet is named after a common German female name . Any reference of this name to a person or occurrence is unknown .","qid":"2766","docid":"1169_Alwine","rank":10,"score":103073},{"content":"Title: (148209) 2000 CR105 Content: , also written as ( 148209 ) 2000 CR105 , is the tenth-most-distant known object in the Solar System . Considered a detached object , it orbits the Sun in a highly eccentric orbit every 3305 years at an average distance of 222 astronomical units ( AU ) . Mike Brown 's website lists it as a possible dwarf planet with a diameter of 328 km based on an assumed albedo of 0.04 . The albedo is expected to be low because the object has a blue ( neutral ) color . However , if the albedo is higher , the object could easily be half that size . and Sedna differ from scattered-disc objects in that they are not within the gravitational influence of the planet Neptune even at their perihelion distances ( closest approaches to the Sun ) . It is something of a mystery as to how these objects came to be in their current , far-flung orbits . Several hypotheses have been put forward : They were pulled from their original positions by a passing star . They were pulled from their original positions by a very distant , and as-yet-undiscovered ( albeit unlikely ) , giant planet . They were pulled from their original positions by an undiscovered companion star orbiting the Sun . They were captured from another planetary system during a close encounter early in the Sun 's history . According to Kenyon and Bromley , there is a 15 % probability that a star like the Sun had an early close encounter and a 1 % probability that outer planetary exchanges would have happened . is estimated to be 2 -- 3 times more likely to be a captured planetary object than Sedna . is the first object discovered in the Solar System to have a semi-major axis exceeding 150 AU , a perihelion beyond Neptune , and an argument of perihelion of 340 ± 55 ° . It is one of five objects known with a semi-major axis greater than 100 AU and perihelion beyond 42 AU . It may be influenced by Planet Nine .","qid":"2766","docid":"(148209)_2000_CR105","rank":11,"score":102847},{"content":"Title: (308933) 2006 SQ372 Content: is a small trans-Neptunian object discovered through the Sloan Digital Sky Survey by Andrew Becker , Andrew Puckett , and Jeremy Kubica on images first taken on September 27 , 2006 ( with precovery images dated to September 13 , 2005 ) . It has a strongly eccentric orbit , crossing that of Neptune near perihelion but bringing it more than 1,500 AU from the Sun at aphelion . It takes about 22,500 years to orbit the barycenter of the Solar System . The large semi-major axis makes it similar to and 90377 Sedna . With an absolute magnitude ( H ) of 8.1 , it is estimated to be about 60 to 140 km in diameter . Michael Brown estimates that it has an albedo of 0.08 which would give a diameter of around 110 km . The object could possibly be a comet . The discoverers hypothesize that the object could come from the Hills cloud , but other scientists like California Institute of Technology 's Michael Brown also consider other possibilities , including the theory `` it may have formed from debris just beyond Neptune -LSB- in the Kuiper belt -RSB- and been ` kicked ' into its distant orbit by a planet like Neptune or Uranus '' .","qid":"2766","docid":"(308933)_2006_SQ372","rank":12,"score":101422},{"content":"Title: 28P/Neujmin Content: 28P/Neujmin , also known as Neujmin 1 , is a large periodic comet in the Solar System . With a perihelion distance ( closest approach to the Sun ) of 1.5 AU , this comet does not make close approaches to the Earth . The comet nucleus is estimated to be 21.4 kilometers in diameter with a low albedo of 0.025 . Since 28P has such a large nucleus , it will become brighter than the 20th magnitude in early 2019 , roughly 2 years before coming to perihelion . When it comes to opposition in May 2020 , when it is still 3.5 AU from the Sun , it will likely have an apparent magnitude around 16.9 . But during the 2021 perihelion passage the comet will be on the opposite side of the Sun as the Earth . The comet is not known for bright outbursts of activity .","qid":"2766","docid":"28P/Neujmin","rank":13,"score":100751},{"content":"Title: Ice-albedo feedback Content: Ice-albedo feedback ( or snow-albedo feedback ) is a positive feedback climate process where a change in the area of snow-covered land , ice caps , glaciers or sea ice alters the albedo . This change in albedo acts to reinforce the initial alteration in ice area . Cooling tends to increase ice cover and hence the albedo , reducing the amount of solar energy absorbed and leading to more cooling . Conversely , warming tends to decrease ice cover and hence the albedo , increasing the amount of solar energy absorbed , leading to more warming . The effect also applies on the small scale to snow-covered surfaces . A small amount of snow melt exposes darker ground which absorbs more radiation , leading to more snowmelt . The effect has mostly been discussed in terms of the recent trend of declining Arctic sea ice . Internal feedback processes may also potentially occur , as land ice melts and causes eustatic sea level rise , and also potentially induces earthquakes as a result of isostatic rebound , which further acts to disrupt glaciers , ice shelves , etc. .","qid":"2766","docid":"Ice-albedo_feedback","rank":14,"score":100534},{"content":"Title: 9344 Klopstock Content: 9344 Klopstock ( 1991 RB4 ) is a dark main-belt asteroid that is 17 km in diameter and was discovered on September 12 , 1991 by F. Borngen at Tautenburg . With an albedo of 0.01 , it is the 3rd darkest asteroid on the JPL Small-Body Database . The very low albedo ( reflectivity ) makes the asteroid unusually large for the absolute magnitude ( H ) of 14.2 .","qid":"2766","docid":"9344_Klopstock","rank":15,"score":99781},{"content":"Title: Geometric albedo Content: In astronomy , the geometric albedo of a celestial body is the ratio of its actual brightness as seen from the light source ( i.e. at zero phase angle ) to that of an idealized flat , fully reflecting , diffusively scattering ( Lambertian ) disk with the same cross-section . ( This phase angle refers to the direction of the light paths and is not a phase angle in its normal meaning in optics or electronics . ) Diffuse scattering implies that radiation is reflected isotropically with no memory of the location of the incident light source . Zero phase angle corresponds to looking along the direction of illumination . For Earth-bound observers this occurs when the body in question is at opposition and on the ecliptic . The visual geometric albedo refers to the geometric albedo quantity when accounting for only electromagnetic radiation in the visible spectrum .","qid":"2766","docid":"Geometric_albedo","rank":16,"score":99070},{"content":"Title: Albedo Anthropomorphics Content: Albedo Anthropomorphics , or Albedo for short , was a furry comic book anthology series which was credited with starting the furry comic book subgenre that featured sophisticated stories with funny animals primarily intended for an adult audience . The first issue of Albedo was published in 1983 ; the most recent issue was published in 2005 . Albedo was started by Steve Gallacci , who produced its main feature , Erma Felna : EDF -- a sophisticated science fiction military series set in a sector of space populated by sapient and predominantly humanoid versions of mammal and avian species . The focus of the series is Erma Felna , a young feline officer who eventually plays a central role in the complex political conflicts that consume her universe . Gallacci was a technical illustrator for the United States Air Force and one feature of Albedo is well thought-out and illustrated vehicles . His experience also shows in the realistic treatment of military life and operations . The series was used as inspiration for the Albedo role-playing game , which has had three editions and multiple supplements .","qid":"2766","docid":"Albedo_Anthropomorphics","rank":17,"score":98490},{"content":"Title: 7959 Alysecherri Content: 7959 Alysecherri , provisional designation , is a bright , stony Hungaria asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 3 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 2 August 1994 , by American astronomer Carl Hergenrother at the U.S. Steward Observatory Catalina Station on Mt Bigelow near Tucson , Arizona . The E-type asteroid is a member of the Hungaria family , which form the innermost dense concentration of asteroids in the Solar System . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.8 -- 2.1 AU once every 2 years and 9 months ( 989 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.09 and an inclination of 19 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at Palomar Observatory in 1951 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 43 years prior to its discovery . A rotational light-curve for this asteroid was obtained from photometric observations made by American astronomer Brian Warner at the U.S. Palmer Divide Observatory , Colorado , in July 2013 . It gave a rotation period of hours with a brightness amplitude of 0.13 in magnitude . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.30 and calculates a diameter of 3.05 kilometers . The minor planet is named after the maiden name of the discovering astronomer 's wife , Alyse Cherri Smith . Naming citation was published on 13 November 2008 .","qid":"2766","docid":"7959_Alysecherri","rank":18,"score":98074},{"content":"Title: Cloud albedo Content:","qid":"2766","docid":"Cloud_albedo","rank":19,"score":97786},{"content":"Title: Comet nucleus Content: The nucleus is the solid , central part of a comet , popularly termed a dirty snowball or an icy dirtball . A cometary nucleus is composed of rock , dust , and frozen gases . When heated by the Sun , the gases sublimate and produce an atmosphere surrounding the nucleus known as the coma . The force exerted on the coma by the Sun 's radiation pressure and solar wind cause an enormous tail to form , which points away from the Sun . A typical comet nucleus has an albedo of 0.04 . This is blacker than coal , and may be caused by a covering of dust . Results from the Rosetta and Philae spacecraft show that the nucleus of 67P/Churyumov -- Gerasimenko has no magnetic field , which suggests that magnetism may not have played a role in the early formation of planetesimals . Further , the ALICE spectrograph on Rosetta determined that electrons ( within 1 km above the comet nucleus ) produced from photoionization of water molecules by solar radiation , and not photons from the Sun as thought earlier , are responsible for the degradation of water and carbon dioxide molecules released from the comet nucleus into its coma . On 30 July 2015 , scientists reported that the Philae spacecraft , that landed on comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko in November 2014 , detected at least 16 organic compounds , of which four ( including acetamide , acetone , methyl isocyanate and propionaldehyde ) were detected for the first time on a comet .","qid":"2766","docid":"Comet_nucleus","rank":20,"score":97533},{"content":"Title: Single-scattering albedo Content: Single-scattering albedo is the ratio of scattering efficiency to total extinction efficiency ( which is also termed `` attenuance '' , a sum of scattering and absorption ) . Most often it is defined for small-particle scattering of electromagnetic waves . Single-scattering albedo is unitless , and a value of unity implies that all particle extinction is due to scattering ; conversely , a single-scattering albedo of zero implies that all extinction is due to absorption . For spherical particles one can calculate single-scattering albedo from Mie theory and knowledge of bulk properties of material such as refractive index . For non-spherical particles one could use discrete dipole approximation or other methods of computational electromagnetics . The albedo of particles of shapes which are easily parameterized in non-standard co-ordinate systems may be determined through solutions of Maxwell 's equation analogues in such coordinate systems . Scattering albedo equations have yet to be determined in elliptical , torroidal , conical and many others . Derivation and solutions to such equations is a field of ongoing research .","qid":"2766","docid":"Single-scattering_albedo","rank":21,"score":96863},{"content":"Title: 1394 Algoa Content: 1394 Algoa , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 14 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 12 June 1936 , by English-born South-African astronomer Cyril Jackson at Union Observatory in Johannesburg , South Africa . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.3 -- 2.6 AU once every 3 years and 10 months ( 1,391 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.08 and an inclination of 3 ° with respect to the ecliptic . Prior to its discovery observation in 1936 , Algoa was identified as and at Lowell Observatory and Uccle Observatory , respectively . These observations , however , remained unused to extend the body 's observation arc . In 2012 , two rotational light-curves of Algoa were obtained at the U.S. Etscorn Observatory , New Mexico , and at the Riverland Dingo Observatory , Australia . They gave a well-defined , concurring rotation period of 2.768 hours with a brightness variation of 0.20 and 0.21 magnitude , respectively . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for stony asteroids of 0.20 , and calculates a diameter of 14.2 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 11.6 . The minor planet is named after the historical Algoa Bay , located approximately 700 kilometers east of the Cape of Good Hope , South Africa . Naming citation was published before November 1977 .","qid":"2766","docid":"1394_Algoa","rank":22,"score":94696},{"content":"Title: 11824 Alpaidze Content: 11824 Alpaidze , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid from the middle region of the asteroid belt , approximately 5 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 16 September 1982 , by Russian astronomer Lyudmila Chernykh at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory , Nauchnyj , on the Crimean peninsula . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.8 -- 3.4 AU once every 4 years and 3 months ( 1,563 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.31 and an inclination of 2 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was obtained at Palomar Observatory in 1978 . However , the observation was not used to extend the asteroid 's observation arc . Two rotational light-curves of this asteroid were obtained from photometric observations made at the U.S. Palomar Transient Factory , California , in September 2009 . The fragmentary light-curves gave a rotation period of and hours with a brightness amplitude of 0.05 and 0.06 in magnitude , respectively . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.10 , untypically low for a stony asteroid , and calculates a diameter of 4.8 kilometers , based on an absolute magnitude of 14.7 . The minor planet is named after Georgian-born Soviet Lieutenant General Galaktion Alpaidze ( 1916 -- 2006 ) , Hero of the Soviet Union and laureate of the USSR State Prize . He was the head of the Plesetsk Cosmodrome in the 1960s and 1970s , where space crafts were tested . During his supervision , the Cosmodrome became the world 's most active launch site in the world . Naming citation was published on 2 April 2007 .","qid":"2766","docid":"11824_Alpaidze","rank":23,"score":94513},{"content":"Title: 15017 Cuppy Content: 15017 Cuppy , provisional designation , is a small asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 2 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by the U.S. Lowell Observatory Near-Earth-Object Search ( LONEOS ) at its Anderson Mesa Station , Arizona , on 22 September 1998 . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.0 -- 2.7 AU once every 3 years and 7 months ( 1,296 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.16 and an inclination of 6 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at Palomar Observatory in 1991 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 7 years prior to its discovery . As of 2016 , its effective size , composition and albedo , as well as its rotation period and shape remain unknown . According to the survey carried out by NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid measures 1.8 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.50 . Based on an absolute magnitude of 15.6 , the asteroid is calculated to measure between 2 and 5 kilometers in diameter , assuming an albedo in the range of 0.05 to 0.25 . In September 2003 , the minor planet was named in memory of American literary critic and humorist , Will Cuppy ( 1884 -- 1949 ) . He is known for his satirical books The Decline and Fall of Practically Everybody , How to Attract the Wombat , How to Become Extinct and How to Tell Your Friends from the Apes . The name was proposed by M. Walter . Naming citation was published on 10 September 2003 .","qid":"2766","docid":"15017_Cuppy","rank":24,"score":94043},{"content":"Title: Albedo 0.39 Content: Albedo 0.39 is a studio album by the Greek electronic composer Vangelis , released in 1976 . It was the second album produced by Vangelis in Nemo Studios , London , which was his creative base until the late 1980s . It contrasts with his previous album , Heaven and Hell , which was classically inspired and choral , while Albedo 0.39 has blues and jazz overtones . It was his first Top 20 UK album .","qid":"2766","docid":"Albedo_0.39","rank":25,"score":93794},{"content":"Title: 2002 CY248 Content: , also written 2002 CY248 , is a large classical Kuiper belt object with an absolute magnitude of 5.0 and an albedo of 0.07 . It is about 383 km in diameter . It is possibly a dwarf planet .","qid":"2766","docid":"2002_CY248","rank":26,"score":93722},{"content":"Title: 10P/Tempel Content: 10P/Tempel , also known as Tempel 2 , is a periodic Jupiter-family comet in the Solar System . It was discovered in 1873 and has an orbital period of 5.3 years . The comet nucleus is estimated to be 10.6 kilometers in diameter with a low albedo of 0.022 . The nucleus is dark because hydrocarbons on the surface have been converted to a dark , tarry like substance by solar ultraviolet radiation . During the 2010 apparition the comet brightened to about apparent magnitude 8 . It next comes to perihelion ( closest approach to the Sun ) on 14 November 2015 when it should brighten to around magnitude 11 . The most favorable apparition of 10P/Tempel 2 was in 1925 when it came within 0.35 AU of Earth with an apparent magnitude of 6.5 . On August 3 , 2026 , comet Tempel 2 is expected to have another close pass within about 0.41 AU of Earth .","qid":"2766","docid":"10P/Tempel","rank":27,"score":93116},{"content":"Title: 283 Emma Content: 283 Emma is a large asteroid of the asteroid belt . It was discovered by Auguste Charlois on February 8 , 1889 , in Nice , France . The reason for its name is unknown . Measurements made with the IRAS observatory give a diameter of 145.70 ± 5.89 km and a geometric albedo of 0.03 ± 0.01 . By comparison , the MIPS photometer on the Spitzer Space Telescope gives a diameter of 145.44 ± 7.72 km and a geometric albedo of 0.03 ± 0.01 . When the asteroid was observed occulting a star , the results showed a diameter of 148.00 ± 16.26 km .","qid":"2766","docid":"283_Emma","rank":28,"score":91883},{"content":"Title: ALBEDO Telecom Content: ALBEDO Telecom is a company that designs and manufactures products for the telecom industry including testers , synchronization nodes and networking devices . Typical users are R&D laboratories , Mobile and Telecom operators to verify and install the infrastructures that support any kind of applications based on voice , video and data . It is headquartered in Barcelona , Spain in the European Union .","qid":"2766","docid":"ALBEDO_Telecom","rank":29,"score":91782},{"content":"Title: 184 Dejopeja Content: 184 Dejopeja is a large M-type Main belt asteroid . It was discovered by J. Palisa on February 28 , 1878 , and was named after Deiopea , a Roman nymph . This is an X-type asteroid with a diameter of 66 km and a geometric albedo of 0.190 . Based upon Photometric observations taken during 2000 , it has a synodic rotation period of 6.441 ± 0.001 h . The light curve is tri-modal , most likely due to an angular shape , with a peak-to-peak amplitude of 0.19 ± 0.01 in magnitude .","qid":"2766","docid":"184_Dejopeja","rank":30,"score":91579},{"content":"Title: (386454) 2008 XM Content: ( 386454 ) 2008 XM is an outstandingly eccentric , sub-kilometer-sized asteroid , with one of the smallest known perihelions among all minor planets . It is classified as near-Earth object of the Apollo group and potentially hazardous asteroid , and measures approximately 370 meters in diameter . It was discovered on 2 December 2008 , by the U.S. LINEAR program at Lincoln Laboratory 's Experimental Test Site in Socorro , New Mexico . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 0.1 -- 2.3 AU once every 16 months ( 494 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.91 and an inclination of 5 ° with respect to the ecliptic . Due to its outstanding eccentricity , it is also a Mercury-crosser , Venus-crosser and Mars-crosser . It has the third-smallest perihelion of any numbered asteroid behind and . Its Earth minimum orbital intersection distance of 0.0047 AU corresponds to only 1.84 lunar distances . According to the survey carried out by the NEOWISE mission of NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , the asteroid measures meters in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.128 . As of 2016 , the body 's composition and spectral type , as well as its rotation period and shape remains unknown .","qid":"2766","docid":"(386454)_2008_XM","rank":31,"score":91498},{"content":"Title: Albedo One Content: Albedo One is an Irish horror , fantasy and science fiction magazine founded in 1993 and currently published by Albedo One Productions .","qid":"2766","docid":"Albedo_One","rank":32,"score":91490},{"content":"Title: 19 Fortuna Content: 19 Fortuna is one of the largest main-belt asteroids . It has a composition similar to 1 Ceres : a darkly colored surface that is heavily space-weathered with the composition of primitive organic compounds , including tholins . Fortuna is 225 km in diameter and has one of the darkest known geometric albedos for an asteroid over 150 km in diameter . Its albedo has been measured at 0.028 and 0.037 . The Hubble Space Telescope observed Fortuna in 1993 . It was resolved with an apparent diameter of 0.20 arcseconds ( 4.5 pixels in the Planetary Camera ) and its shape was found to be nearly spherical . Satellites were searched for but none were detected . Stellar occultations by Fortuna have been observed several times . Fortuna has been studied by radar . It was discovered by J. R. Hind on August 22 , 1852 , and named after Fortuna , the Roman goddess of luck . Fortuna has been perturbed by the 80 km 135 Hertha and was initially estimated by Baer to have a mass of 1.08 kg . A more recent estimate by Baer suggests it has a mass of 1.27 kg . On December 21 , 2012 Fortuna ( ~ 200 km ) harmlessly passed within 6.5 Gm of asteroid 687 Tinette .","qid":"2766","docid":"19_Fortuna","rank":33,"score":91342},{"content":"Title: Albedo (alchemy) Content: In alchemy , albedo is one of the four major stages of the magnum opus ; along with nigredo , citrinitas and rubedo . It is a Latinicized term meaning `` whiteness '' . Following the chaos or massa confusa of the nigredo stage , the alchemist undertakes a purification in albedo , which is literally referred to as ablutio -- the washing away of impurities . In this process , the subject is divided into two opposing principles to be later coagulated to form a unity of opposites or coincidentia oppositorum during rubedo . Titus Burckhardt interprets the albedo as the end of the lesser work , corresponding to a spiritualization of the body . The goal of this portion of the process is to regain the original purity and receptivity of the soul . Psychologist Carl Jung equated the albedo with unconscious contrasexual soul images ; the anima in men and animus in women . It is a phase where insight into shadow projections are realized , and inflated ego and unneeded conceptualizations are removed from the psyche .","qid":"2766","docid":"Albedo_(alchemy)","rank":34,"score":91081},{"content":"Title: 276 Adelheid Content: 276 Adelheid is a very large main-belt asteroid that was discovered by Austrian astronomer Johann Palisa on April 17 , 1888 , in Vienna . This asteroid has a diameter of 122 km and a geometric albedo of 0.045 . Photometric observations in 1992 gave a light curve with a period of 6.328 ± 0.012 hours and a brightness variation of 0.10 ± 0.02 in magnitude . The curve is regular with two maxima and minima . This object has a spectrum that matches an X-type classification .","qid":"2766","docid":"276_Adelheid","rank":35,"score":91021},{"content":"Title: Albedo (role-playing game) Content: Albedo is a role-playing game based on Steve Gallacci 's Erma Felna : EDF and Birthright storylines from the comic anthologies Albedo Anthropomorphics and Critters .","qid":"2766","docid":"Albedo_(role-playing_game)","rank":36,"score":90788},{"content":"Title: 84882 Table Mountain Content: 84882 Table Mountain , provisional designation , is a bright asteroid from the middle region of the asteroid belt , approximately 5 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 1 February 2003 , by American astronomer James Whitney Young at the U.S. Table Mountain Observatory near Wrightwood , California . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.9 -- 3.4 AU once every 4 years and 3 months ( 1,566 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.29 and an inclination of 14 ° with respect to the ecliptic . It was first identified as at Lincoln Laboratory 's Experimental Test Site in 1997 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 6 years prior to its discovery observation . As of 2016 , the asteroid 's composition , rotation period and shape remain unknown . According to the survey carried out by the NEOWISE mission of NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , the asteroid measures 3.0 kilometers in diameter and its surface has a high albedo of 0.306 . Based on an assumed albedo in the range of 0.05 -- 0.25 and an absolute magnitude of 14.7 , the asteroid 's generic diameter measures would be between 3 and 7 kilometers , as the higher the body 's reflectivity ( albedo ) , the smaller is its diameter at a constant absolute magnitude ( brightness ) . The minor planet was named for the Table Mountain Observatory , the discoverer 's workplace , currently a NASA facility operated by the California Institute of Technology 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory , which began operation as a Smithsonian Institution site in 1924 to study the solar constant . In the late 1950s , the site was used to test the first solar panels and is now dedicated to optical astronomy and to study Earth 's atmosphere . Citation was published on 28 October 2004 .","qid":"2766","docid":"84882_Table_Mountain","rank":37,"score":90460},{"content":"Title: Umov effect Content: The Umov effect , also known as Umov 's law , is a relationship between the albedo of an astronomical object , and the degree of polarization of light reflecting off it . The effect was discovered by the Russian physicist Nikolay Umov in 1905 , and can be observed for celestial objects such as the surface of the Moon and the asteroids . The degree of linear polarization of light P is defined by where and are the intensities of light in the directions perpendicular and parallel to the plane of a polarizer aligned in the plane of reflection . Values of P are zero for unpolarized light , and ± 1 for linearly polarized light . Umov 's law states where α is the albedo of the object . Thus , highly reflective objects tend to reflect mostly unpolarized light , and dimly reflective objects tend to reflect polarized light . The law is only valid for large phase angles ( angles between the incident light and the reflected light ) .","qid":"2766","docid":"Umov_effect","rank":38,"score":90333},{"content":"Title: List of albedo features on Mercury Content: This is a list of the albedo features of the planet Mercury as seen by early telescopic observation . Early telescopic observations of Mercury were based on the assumption that Mercury keeps one of its faces permanently turned toward the Sun , through the mechanism of tidal locking . Although this is not true ( Mercury rotates three times on its axis for every two revolutions around the Sun ) , when it is positioned for best viewing from Earth , the amount by which its visible face has rotated from its previous best viewing position is fairly small . A map of Mercury made in the 1910s by astronomer Eugène Michel Antoniadi shows the following albedo features , localized by a grid in which 0 ° longitude is the ( assumed ) subsolar meridian . No certain connection has been made between these features and the topographic features viewed on Mercury by the Mariner 10 spacecraft . Mariner 10 , however , imaged less than half of Mercury 's surface . The names are drawn from Greek mythology , and often allude to myths about Hermes , the Greek equivalent of the Roman god Mercury .","qid":"2766","docid":"List_of_albedo_features_on_Mercury","rank":39,"score":90256},{"content":"Title: (42301) 2001 UR163 Content: , also written as ( 42301 ) 2001 UR163 , is likely a dwarf planet that resides in the scattered disc . It was discovered on October 21 , 2001 by the Deep Ecliptic Survey ( DES ) program at Kitt Peak . Light-curve-amplitude analysis shows only small deviations , suggesting that is a spheroid with small albedo spots . Michael Brown 's website lists it as a highly likely dwarf planet , but the diameter of the object has never been measured . has the reddest color index of any object in the Solar System . On October 31 , 2002 , the 3.6-meter Canada -- France -- Hawaii Telescope observed set a record red reading of B − R = 2.28 . This makes even redder than Pholus , , Sedna and comet C/2001 T4 . Reddening of the spectrum is caused by cosmic irradiation by ultraviolet radiation and charged particles . Becoming bluer in the spectrum is caused by impact collisions exposing the interior of an object . In the visible spectrum , would appear orange-brown , depending on its albedo . It came to perihelion around 1937 . In 2006 , it moved beyond 50 AU from the Sun . It is currently 51.9 AU from the Sun .","qid":"2766","docid":"(42301)_2001_UR163","rank":40,"score":90239},{"content":"Title: Twomey effect Content: The Twomey effect describes how cloud condensation nuclei ( CCN ) , possibly from anthropogenic pollution , may increase the amount of solar radiation reflected by clouds . This is an indirect effect . Aerosol particles can act as CCN 's creating more droplets which have a smaller size distribution . The reduction in size distribution increases the Optical depth of the cloud . This increases the cloud albedo as clouds appear whiter and larger , leading to a cooling of between -0.3 and -1.8 Wm − 2 . For example , on satellite imagery we observe trails of white clouds from ships crossing the oceans due to this effect .","qid":"2766","docid":"Twomey_effect","rank":41,"score":89961},{"content":"Title: 415 Palatia Content: 415 Palatia is a large main belt asteroid that was discovered by German astronomer Max Wolf on February 7 , 1896 in Heidelberg . 10µ radiometric data collected from Kitt Peak in 1975 gave an overly large diameter estimate of 93 km . It has a very low radiometric albedo of 0.026 and the spectrum suggests a metal-rich enstatite composition .","qid":"2766","docid":"415_Palatia","rank":42,"score":89899},{"content":"Title: Steve Gallacci Content: Steven A. Gallacci ( born 1955 ) is best known for creating and publishing Albedo Anthropomorphics , a black and white alternative comic containing anthropomorphic funny animal characters , which has been considered a major factor in the origins of furry fandom . Gallacci spent six years in the US Air Force as a graphics specialist , including a tour of duty in Germany . After leaving the military , Gallacci started Albedo under his own Thoughts & Images imprint . First published in 1983 , Albedo '' 's last issue was published in 2005 under the Shanda Fantasy Arts imprint . Among some of the story lines that have appeared in Albedo are Gallacci 's own `` Erma Felna : EDF '' , a military sci-fi epic featuring some elements of political intrigue , and Stan Sakai 's Usagi Yojimbo , which first appeared in the infamously rare Albedo # 2 . Gallacci also worked on Fusion , a SF adventure comic from Eclipse Comics similar to the TV show Firefly , though pre-dating it by nearly twenty years . Lela Dowling co-authored the artwork and Steve Barnes drafted the first issues , though Gallacci would write most of the later ones with Lex Nakashima . He also created `` Birthright '' , an indirect sequel to Erma Felna , serialized in the Fantagraphics title `` Critters '' . The first three issues of Donna Barr 's `` the Desert Peach '' and a single issue of his own fantasy adventure `` Zell , Sworddancer '' with art assistance by Steve Adams , was also published under his Thoughts & Images imprint . Thoughts & Images also published the first edition of Albedo RPG , written by Craig Hilton and Paul Kidd , and based on the Erma Felna storyline from Albedo '' . Additional editions and supplements were published by Chessex in the early 1990s . An all-new version of an Albedo RPG has been published by Sanguin . Galacci provided art for episodes of Elin Winkler 's `` Tales of the Fehnnik '' , published by Radio Comix , and short bits for Ken Fletcher 's `` Spontoon '' fanzine . He has also done Science Fiction art and illustration since the late 1970s , as well as straight technical/commercial illustration . He occasionally produces silver bullets for his Argent Small Arms line of replica firearms . More recently , he has been creating masters for after-market scale model aircraft detail/correction/conversion sets . Gallacci lives in Seattle with his two dogs . His wife of twenty-two years , the long time SF and media fan Beverley Clark , died 16 September 2007 .","qid":"2766","docid":"Steve_Gallacci","rank":43,"score":89894},{"content":"Title: 2014 JO25 Content: 2014 JO25 is a peanut-shaped contact-binary near-earth asteroid . It was discovered in May 2014 by A. D. Grauer of the Catalina Sky Survey as part of NASA 's NEO Observations Program . Early estimation based on observed absolute magnitude and estimated albedo indicates object 600-1400 m in diameter . Further research based on NEOWISE data indicates an object of 650 m in diameter and albedo 0.25 . Data taken during 2017 flyby shows asteroid measures at least 870 m ( largest dimension ) . The 2017 flyby within a distance of 1.8 million kilometers was the closest approach to Earth by 2014 JO25 for at least the next 400 years .","qid":"2766","docid":"2014_JO25","rank":44,"score":89728},{"content":"Title: Tartarus Montes Content: The Tartarus Montes are a mountain range on the planet Mars , stretching over 1070 km and located around the coordinates 15.46 º N , 167.54 º E , between Orcus Patera and the Elysium volcanic region . Albedo was first identified from the contrast of bright and dark signals photographed by Eugène Antoniadi .","qid":"2766","docid":"Tartarus_Montes","rank":45,"score":89456},{"content":"Title: 3255 Tholen Content: 3255 Tholen , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid , Mars-crosser and relatively fast rotator , that measures approximately 6 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 2 September 1980 , by American astronomer Edward Bowell at Lowell 's Anderson Mesa Station in Flagstaff , Arizona . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.5 -- 3.2 AU once every 3 years and 8 months ( 1,335 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.36 and an inclination of 21 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first observation was made at the Argentinian El Leoncito site in 1969 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 11 years prior to its discovery . According to the space-based survey carried out by the Japanese Akari satellite and NASA 's NEOWISE mission , the asteroid measures 4.0 and 6.8 kilometers in diameter , and its surface has an albedo of 0.14 and 0.34 , respectively , while the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for stony asteroids of 0.20 and calculates a diameter of 5.1 kilometers , based on an absolute magnitude of 13.84 . Several rotational light-curves were obtained for this asteroid from photometric observations . In September 2013 , Italian astronomer Andrea Ferrero at the Bigmuskie Observatory in Mombercelli , Italy , derived a rotation period of hours with a brightness variation of 0.11 in magnitude , while two month later , in November 2013 , astronomer Brian A. Skiff obtained two light-curves that both gave a period of 2.95 and an amplitude of 0.24 and 0.28 in magnitude , respectively . The results supersede two older light-curves from 1991 and 2002 , that gave a period of and 6 hours , respectively . The minor planet was named after David J. Tholen ( b. 1955 ) , a discoverer of minor planets and planetary scientist at the Institute for Astronomy of the University of Hawaii , known for his eight-color taxonomic scheme on minor planets . Naming citation was published on 14 April 1987 .","qid":"2766","docid":"3255_Tholen","rank":46,"score":89419},{"content":"Title: 342843 Davidbowie Content: 342843 Davidbowie , provisional designation , is a small asteroid from the middle region of the asteroid belt , approximately 2 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 21 December 2008 , by German astronomer Felix Hormuth from Max-Planck-Institute for Astronomy at Calar Alto Observatory in Almería , southeastern Spain . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.5 -- 3.0 AU once every 4 years and 7 months ( 1,664 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.09 and an inclination of 3 ° with respect to the ecliptic . Notably , the asteroid had a close encounter with the 200 kilometer-sized asteroid 16 Psyche , one of the most massive bodies in the main-belt , which it passed at only 0.04 AU on 15 May 1935 . It was first identified as at Steward Observatory ( Kitt Peak ) in 2003 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 5 years prior to its discovery observation . As of 2017 , the asteroid 's effective size , its composition , albedo and rotation period remain unknown . It has , however , a well-observed orbit with the lowest possible condition code and an observation arc that spans over a period of more than a decade . It was first observed in 2003 , but not identified as a new asteroid until 2008 . Based on its absolute magnitude of 17.1 , its diameter is between 1 and 2 kilometers , assuming an albedo in the range of 0.05 to 0.25 . Since most asteroids in the outer main-belt are of a carbonaceous rather than of a silicaceous composition , with a low albedo , typically around 0.05 , the asteroid 's diameter might be on the upper end of NASA 's published conversion table , as the lower the albedo ( reflectivity ) , the larger the body 's diameter for its given absolute magnitude ( brightness ) . The minor planet was named on 5 January 2015 , in honor of British singer , songwriter , producer and actor , David Bowie ( 1947 -- 2016 ) , just 3 days before Bowie 's 68th birthday . Considered to be one of the most influential artists , Bowie released more than 25 albums including The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars . He was also an actor in movies such as Labyrinth and The Prestige .","qid":"2766","docid":"342843_Davidbowie","rank":47,"score":88369},{"content":"Title: Hapke parameters Content: The Hapke parameters are a set of parameters for an empirical model that is commonly used to describe the directional reflectance properties of the airless regolith surfaces of bodies in the solar system . The model has been developed by astronomer Bruce Hapke at the University of Pittsburgh . The parameters are : -- Single scattering albedo . This is the ratio of scattering efficiency to total light extinction ( which includes also absorption ) , for small-particle scattering of light . That is , , where is the scattering coefficient , and is the absorption coefficient -- The width of the opposition surge . or -- The strength of the opposition surge . or g -- The particle phase function parameter , also called the asymmetry factor . -- The effective surface tilt , also called the macroscopic roughness angle . The Hapke parameters can be used to derive other albedo and scattering properties such as the geometric albedo , the phase integral , and the Bond albedo .","qid":"2766","docid":"Hapke_parameters","rank":48,"score":88220},{"content":"Title: 6470 Aldrin Content: 6470 Aldrin , provisional designation , is a stony Flora asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 3 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by Czech astronomer Antonín Mrkos at Kleť Observatory on 14 September 1982 . The S-type asteroid is a member of the Flora family , one of the largest groups of stony asteroids in the main-belt . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.9 -- 2.6 AU once every 3 years and 5 months ( 1,253 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.15 and an inclination of 3 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The asteroid 's observation arc begins in 1982 , as no precoveries had been taken prior to its discovery . A rotational light-curve of this asteroid was obtained from photometric observations made at the U.S. Palomar Transient Factory in September 2013 . The light-curve gave a rotation period of hours with a brightness variation of 0.82 in magnitude . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.24 -- which derives from 8 Flora , the largest member and namesake of this orbital family -- and calculates a diameter of 3.0 kilometers , based on an absolute magnitude of 14.78 . The minor planet was named for American astronaut Buzz Aldrin ( b. 1930 ) , on the occasion of the 30th anniversary of the Apollo 11 mission . He was one of the first two humans to land on the Moon , and the second person to walk on it , following Neil Armstrong , after whom the asteroid 6469 Armstrong is named . Its name was suggested by Czech astronomers Jana Tichá , Miloš Tichý and Zdeněk Moravec , who observed the asteroid during its 1995-opposition , shortly before being numbered . Naming citation was published on 4 May 1999 .","qid":"2766","docid":"6470_Aldrin","rank":49,"score":88208},{"content":"Title: 11441 Anadiego Content: 11441 Anadiego , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid from the middle region of the asteroid belt , approximately 7 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 31 December 1975 , by Argentine astronomer Mario R. Cesco at the El Leoncito Complex in western Argentina . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.9 -- 3.2 AU once every 4 years and 1 month ( 1,497 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.26 and an inclination of 12 ° with respect to the ecliptic . As no precoveries were taken , the asteroid 's observation arc starts with its discovery observation in 1975 . A rotational light-curve was obtained for this asteroid by astronomer Kevin Hills at the Australian Riverland Dingo Observatory in February 2013 . It gave a rotation period of hours with a brightness variation of 0.11 magnitude . According to the surveys carried out by NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid measures 6.8 and 7.3 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.287 and 0.254 , respectively . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a lower standard albedo for stony asteroids of 0.20 , and , correspondingly calculates a larger diameter of 8.2 kilometers , based on an absolute magnitude of 12.8 . The minor planet was named in memory of Ana Teresa Diego ( 1954 -- 1976 ) , an astronomy student at La Plata Astronomical Observatory and political activist who was kidnapped and disappeared in September 1976 by unidentified persons believed working for the military junta then ruling Argentina . Naming citation was published 10 December 2011 .","qid":"2766","docid":"11441_Anadiego","rank":50,"score":88026},{"content":"Title: 1684 Iguassú Content: 1684 Iguassú , provisional designation , is a carbonaceous asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt , approximately 30.5 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 23 August 1951 , by Argentine astronomer Miguel Itzigsohn at the La Plata Astronomical Observatory , located in the city of La Plata , Argentina . The C-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.7 -- 3.5 AU once every 5 years and 5 months ( 1,991 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.12 and an inclination of 4 ° with respect to the ecliptic . In January 2014 , two rotational light-curves of Iguassú were obtained at the Palomar Transient Factory in California . They gave a rotation period of 9.14 and 9.23 hours , respectively , both with a brightness change of in magnitude . According to the survey carried out by NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , Iguassú measures between 30.21 and 31.38 kilometers in diameter , and its surface has an albedo between 0.08 and 0.093 . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for carbonaceous asteroids of 0.057 and calculates a diameter of 30.62 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 11.3 . This minor planet is named for the large Iguazu Falls , a 60 meters high and 1 kilometer wide waterfall , which river of the same name marks part of the boundary between Argentina and Brazil . As a curiosity , the spelling of the minor planet 's name ( Iguassú ) neither concurs with the Spanish `` Iguazú '' nor with the Portuguese `` Iguaçu '' . It is rather similar to `` Yguasu '' , used in the native Guarani language , from which the waterfall 's name originates . Naming citation was published on 8 April 1982 .","qid":"2766","docid":"1684_Iguassú","rank":51,"score":87804},{"content":"Title: Gonnus Mons Content: Gonnus Mons is a large mountain on the planet Mars . The name Gonnus Mons is a classical albedo name . It has a diameter of 57 km and a peak of 2890 m . This was approved by International Astronomical Union in 1991 .","qid":"2766","docid":"Gonnus_Mons","rank":52,"score":87431},{"content":"Title: 2661 Bydžovský Content: 2661 Bydžovský , provisional designation , is an asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt , approximately 30 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 23 March 1982 , by Czech astronomer Zdeňka Vávrová at the South Bohemian Kleť Observatory in the Czech Republic . Bydžovský orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.7 -- 3.3 AU once every 5 years and 3 months ( 1,923 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.09 and an inclination of 10 ° with respect to the ecliptic . It was first identified as at Heidelberg Observatory in 1950 , extending the body 's observation arc by 32 years prior to its discovery . As of 2016 , Bydžovskýs size , albedo , composition and rotation period remain unknown . Based on its absolute magnitude of 11.4 , its diameter is estimated to measure between 13 and 32 kilometers , assuming an albedo in the range of 0.05 to 0.25 . Since most asteroids in the outer main-belt are of a carbonaceous rather than of a silicaceous composition , with low albedos , typically closer to 0.05 than to 0.25 , the asteroid 's diameter might be on the upper end of NASA 's published conversion table , as the lower the reflectivity ( albedo ) , the larger the body 's diameter for a given absolute magnitude . The minor planet was named in honour of mathematician Bohumil Bydžovský ( 1880 -- 1969 ) , chancellor of the Charles University in Prague . He was born in southern Bohemia and became the most eminent citizen of the Czech town Veselí on the Lužnice river , after which the minor planets 2321 Lužnice and 2599 Veselí were named , respectively . Naming citation was published on 6 February 1993 .","qid":"2766","docid":"2661_Bydžovský","rank":53,"score":87145},{"content":"Title: 113390 Helvetia Content: 113390 Helvetia , provisional designation , is an asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 2.2 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 29 September 2002 , by Swiss astronomer Markus Griesser at the Eschenberg Observatory in Winterthur , near Zürich , Switzerland . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.8 -- 2.8 AU once every 3 years and 6 months ( 1,276 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.20 and an inclination of 7 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at Palomar Observatory in 1960 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 42 years prior to its discovery . As of 2016 , the asteroid 's shape , composition and rotation period remain unknown . Based on its absolute magnitude of 15.6 , its diameter lies between 2 and 4 kilometers , assuming an albedo in the range of 0.05 to 0.25 . According to the survey carried out by the NEOWISE mission of NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , the asteroid measures 2.2 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.231 , which is typical for stony asteroids . The minor planet was named in February 2006 and bears the name for Switzerland ( Confoederatio Helvetica ) , where the asteroid was discovered . Helvetia is also an allegorical figure and symbol for the nation . Each Swiss stamp carries her name , and her figure appears on most Swiss coins . Naming citation was published on 19 February 2006 .","qid":"2766","docid":"113390_Helvetia","rank":54,"score":86780},{"content":"Title: 2004 TG10 Content: , also written as 2004 TG10 , is a near-Earth object . It may be a fragment of Comet Encke . Depending on its albedo it is estimated to be 350 to 780 meters in diameter . It may be the source of the Northern Taurids meteor shower in November .","qid":"2766","docid":"2004_TG10","rank":55,"score":86725},{"content":"Title: Skinakas (hypothetical basin) Content: The Skinakas basin is the informal name given to a structure on Mercury that appeared to be an extremely large impact basin . The limited-resolution images available showed a double-ringed structure , with the inner ring having a diameter of around 1600 km , which would have made it one of the largest impact basins in the solar system . It appeared to be even larger than the Caloris basin on Mercury , which has been known since the Mariner 10 flybys of that planet . The part of the outer ring that was imaged appeared to correspond to a diameter of around 2300 km . The basin was supposedly centered at about and lay on the hemisphere of Mercury that was not imaged by Mariner 10 . This place is situated near an albedo feature Solitudo Aphrodites . In 2001 , it was observed and imaged by ALPO ( Association of Lunar and Planetary Observers ) members . But it was followed by L. Ksanfomality from lucky imaging observations in 2004 . The informal name is after the Skinakas observatory on Crete where the observations were taken . Despite radar images having a far greater resolution they are not useful for detecting very large impact basins such as this one ; for example , the Caloris basin is also not visible in radar . However , careful examination of images by MESSENGER spacecraft showed no evidence of the Skinakas basin .","qid":"2766","docid":"Skinakas_(hypothetical_basin)","rank":56,"score":86665},{"content":"Title: 6522 Aci Content: 6522 Aci , provisional designation , is a stony Phocaea asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , about 6 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by American astronomer Eleanor Helin at the U.S. Palomar Observatory in California , on 9 July 1991 . The S-type asteroid is a member of the Phocaea family , a relatively small group of asteroids with similar orbital characteristics . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.9 -- 2.9 AU once every 3 years and 8 months ( 1,345 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.20 and an inclination of 22 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at the German Karl Schwarzschild Observatory in 1990 , one year prior to its discovery . A photometric light-curve analysis performed at the U.S. Palomar Transient Factory in 2010 , rendered a rotation period of hours with a brightness amplitude of 0.68 in magnitude . According to the NEOWISE mission of NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , the asteroid measures 6.1 kilometers in diameter and its surface has a high albedo of 0.39 , while the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.23 -- which derives from 25 Phocaea , namesake and largest member of this orbital family -- and calculates a diameter of 5.7 kilometers . The minor planet was named for the river southeast of Mount Etna in Sicily , Italy . The towns and villages along the river , such as Aci Castello , Aci Trezza , Aci-Reale , and Aci Sant ` Antonio , were also honored . The river also brings to mind the myth of Aci from Greek mythology , which is about a young Sicilian shepherd , who was killed by the jealous cyclops Polyphemus , because of his love for the sea nymph Galatea . The minor planet 74 Galatea is named after this Nereid . Naming citation was published on 26 October 1996 .","qid":"2766","docid":"6522_Aci","rank":57,"score":86467},{"content":"Title: 829 Academia Content: 829 Academia is a minor planet orbiting the Sun . The asteroid is roughly 44 km in diameter and has a low albedo . Photometric measurements of the asteroid made in 2005 at the Palmer Divide Observatory showed a light curve with a period of 7.891 ± 0.005 hours and a brightness variation of 0.44 ± 0.02 in magnitude .","qid":"2766","docid":"829_Academia","rank":58,"score":86397},{"content":"Title: 2010 VR11 Content: , also written 2010 VR11 , is a classical Kuiper belt object with an absolute magnitude of 5.6 . Assuming an albedo of 0.08 , it is estimated to be about 350 km in diameter . Astronomer Mike Brown lists it as possibly a dwarf planet .","qid":"2766","docid":"2010_VR11","rank":59,"score":86357},{"content":"Title: 206 Hersilia Content: 206 Hersilia is a fairly large Main belt asteroid . It was discovered by C. H. F. Peters on October 13 , 1879 , in Clinton , New York . The asteroid was named after Hersilia , Roman wife of Romulus . It is classified as a primitive , dark carbon-rich C-type asteroid . Measurements made with the IRAS observatory give a diameter of 101.72 ± 5.18 km and a geometric albedo of 0.06 ± 0.01 . By comparison , the MIPS photometer on the Spitzer Space Telescope gives a diameter of 97.99 ± 7.40 km and a geometric albedo of 0.06 ± 0.02 . The last close earth transit was in November and December 2002 .","qid":"2766","docid":"206_Hersilia","rank":60,"score":86148},{"content":"Title: 1064 Aethusa Content: 1064 Aethusa , provisional designation 1926 PA , is a main-belt asteroid , discovered by German astronomer Karl Reinmuth at Heidelberg Observatory on 2 August 1926 . It is orbiting the Sun in a distance of 2.09 − 2.99 AU , measures about 19 kilometers in diameter , and has a high geometric albedo of 0.32 . Measurements made with the IRAS observatory give a diameter of 20.64 ± 1.37 km and a geometric albedo of 0.27 ± 0.03 . By comparison , the MIPS photometer on the Spitzer Space Telescope gives a diameter of 8.621 ± 4.28 km and a geometric albedo of 0.17 ± 0.04 . Other photometric observations of the asteroid collected during 2006 show a rotation period of 8.621 ± 0.004 hours with a brightness variation of 0.18 ± 0.02 magnitude . The asteroid is named after a genus in the carrot family , `` Aethusa '' , of which the plant Aethusa cynapium ( fool 's parsley ) is the only member .","qid":"2766","docid":"1064_Aethusa","rank":61,"score":85867},{"content":"Title: Sinus Meridiani Content: Sinus Meridiani is a feature name for an albedo feature on Mars stretching east-west just south of that planet 's equator . It was named by the French astronomer Camille Flammarion in the late 1870s . It has a diameter of 1622 km , and its center is located at 7.12 S and 4 E.","qid":"2766","docid":"Sinus_Meridiani","rank":62,"score":85208},{"content":"Title: 4082 Swann Content: 4082 Swann , provisional designation , is a carbonaceous asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 10 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by American astronomer Carolyn Shoemaker at Palomar Observatory on 27 September 1984 . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.8 -- 3.0 AU once every 3 years and 8 months ( 1,349 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.26 and an inclination of 10 ° with respect to the ecliptic . First identified as `` 1947 UF '' at the Finnish Turku Observatory in 1947 , the asteroid 's observation arc was extended by 37 years prior to its discovery . The C-type asteroid is classified as a Ch-subtype in the SMASS taxonomy . According to the surveys carried out by the Japanese Akari satellite and NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid measures 9.5 and 11.1 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.029 and 0.101 , respectively . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link , however , assumes a standard albedo for stony asteroids of 0.20 and derives a much smaller diameter of 5.85 kilometers , based on an absolute magnitude of 13.46 . In July 2006 , a rotational light-curve for this asteroid was obtained from photometric observations by Petr Pravec at the Ondřejov Observatory in the Czech Republic . It gave a rotation period of hours with a brightness variation of 0.67 magnitude . A second light-curve obtained by Jean-Gabriel Bosch in September 2006 , gave a period of hours and an amplitude of 0.35 magnitude . The minor planet was named after American geologist Gordon A. Swann ( b. 1931 ) . He served as the principal investigator of the `` Apollo Lunar Geologic Experiment '' conducted at the lunar landing sites of Apollo 14 and Apollo 15 . Naming citation was published on 12 December 1989 .","qid":"2766","docid":"4082_Swann","rank":63,"score":85029},{"content":"Title: 318 Magdalena Content: 318 Magdalena is a main belt asteroid orbiting the Sun . It was discovered by Auguste Charlois on 24 September 1891 in Nice . On April 15 , 2005 UT Magdalena occulted a 10.7 mag star in the constellation Scutum for observers along a path across Australia . Measurements made with the IRAS observatory give a diameter of 106.08 ± 0.25 km and a geometric albedo of 0.03 ± 0.01 . By comparison , the MIPS photometer on the Spitzer Space Telescope gives a diameter of 105.32 ± 11.11 km and a geometric albedo of 0.03 ± 0.01 . Alternative Rock group The Pixies named one of their songs after the asteroid on their album Indie Cindy .","qid":"2766","docid":"318_Magdalena","rank":64,"score":84981},{"content":"Title: Kombayashi–Ingersoll limit Content: In planetary science , the Kombayashi -- Ingersoll limit represents the maximum solar flux a planet can handle without a runaway greenhouse effect setting in . For planets with temperature-dependent sources of greenhouse gases such as liquid water and optically thin atmospheres the outgoing longwave radiation curve ( which indicates how fast energy can be radiated away by the planet ) flattens at high temperatures , reaching a horizontal asymptote -- the Kombayashi -- Ingersoll limit itself . Since the equilibrium temperature is the intersection of this curve and a horizontal line representing solar flux , for fluxes above this point the planet heats up indefinitely . Kasting estimated the limit for Earth to be 320 watts per square meter . The limit is relevant for estimating the inner edge of the circumstellar habitable zone . However , the limit also depends on the surface gravity of the planet , making heavy worlds somewhat more resistant to the runaway effect .","qid":"2766","docid":"Kombayashi–Ingersoll_limit","rank":65,"score":84904},{"content":"Title: (48639) 1995 TL8 Content: ( also written ( 48639 ) 1995 TL8 ) is a classical Kuiper belt object possessing a relatively large satellite . The assumed diameter of 352 km is derived from an albedo guess of 0.09 , being typical for trans-Neptunian objects .","qid":"2766","docid":"(48639)_1995_TL8","rank":66,"score":84799},{"content":"Title: 11949 Kagayayutaka Content: 11949 Kagayayutaka , provisional designation , is an asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt , approximately 23 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 19 September 1993 , by Japanese amateur astronomers Kin Endate and Kazuro Watanabe at Kitami Observatory in eastern Hokkaidō , Japan . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.5 -- 3.6 AU once every 5 years and 5 months ( 1,983 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.18 and an inclination of 8 ° with respect to the ecliptic . As no precoveries were taken , the asteroid 's observation arc starts with its discovery observation in September 1993 . The body is classified as both a C and S-type asteroid by the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link ( CALL ) and Pan-STARRS survey of magnitudes , respectively . According to the survey carried out by NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid measures 22.28 kilometers in diameter and its surface has a high albedo of 0.708 , while CALL assumes a standard albedo for carbonaceous asteroids of 0.057 and calculates a diameter of 23.21 kilometers . A rotational light-curve was obtained for this asteroid from photometric observations by French astronomer René Roy in November 2015 . It gave a provisional rotation period of hours with a brightness variation of 0.28 in magnitude . The minor planet was named after Kagaya Yutaka ( b. 1968 ) , the Japanese space and digital artist and receiver of the Gold Medal in the American Digital Art Contest in 2000 . Naming citation was published on 10 September 2003 .","qid":"2766","docid":"11949_Kagayayutaka","rank":67,"score":84392},{"content":"Title: 92 Undina Content: 92 Undina ( -LSB- ʌnˈdaɪnə -RSB- ; Latin : Undīna ) is a large main belt asteroid . It has an unusually high albedo and an M-type spectrum . It was discovered by C. H. F. Peters on July 7 , 1867 . It is named for the eponymous heroine of Undine , a popular novella by Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué . Undina is a member of the Veritas asteroid family , which formed some eight million years ago . See 490 Veritas for details . Observations performed at the Palmer Divide Observatory in Colorado Springs , Colorado in during 2007 produced a light curve with a period of 15.941 ± 0.002 hours with a brightness range of 0.20 ± 0.02 in magnitude . This matches a 15.94-hour period reported in 1979 .","qid":"2766","docid":"92_Undina","rank":68,"score":84240},{"content":"Title: 225 Henrietta Content: 225 Henrietta is a very large outer main-belt asteroid . It was discovered by Johann Palisa on April 19 , 1882 , in Vienna and named after Henrietta , wife of astronomer Pierre J. C. Janssen . This is classified as a C-type asteroid and is probably composed of privitive carbonaceous material . It has very dark surface , with an albedo of 0.040 . Photometric measurements made from the Oakley Southern Sky Observatory during 2012 gave a light curve with a period of 7.352 ± 0.003 hours and a variation in brightness of 0.18 ± 0.02 in magnitude . This is consistent with a synodic rotation period of 7.356 ± 0.001 hours determined in 2000 . In 2001 , the asteroid was detected by radar from the Arecibo Observatory at a distance of 1.58 AU . The resulting data yielded an effective diameter of . 225 Henrietta belongs to Cybele group of asteroids and is probably in a 4:7 orbital resonance with the planet Jupiter .","qid":"2766","docid":"225_Henrietta","rank":69,"score":84219},{"content":"Title: 4150 Starr Content: 4150 Starr , provisional designation , is a stony Florian asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 7 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by American astronomer Brian A. Skiff at Lowell 's Anderson Mesa Station on 31 August 1984 . The S-type asteroid is a member of the Flora family , one of the largest groups of stony asteroids in the main-belt . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.9 -- 2.6 AU once every 3 years and 4 months ( 1,219 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.17 and an inclination of 3 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first observation was made at the U.S. Goethe Link Observatory in 1957 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 27 years prior to its discovery . According to the space-based survey by the NEOWISE mission of NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , the asteroid measures 6.6 and 6.9 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.258 and 0.277 , respectively , while the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link ( CALL ) assumes an albedo of 0.24 -- derived from 8 Flora , the family 's largest member and namesake -- and calculates a diameter of 7.5 kilometers , based on an absolute magnitude of 12.8 . Several rotational light-curves were obtained for this asteroid from photometric observations . An unpublished light-curve by Kryszczynska from November 2011 , has been rated best by CALL . It gave a rotation period of hours and a brightness variation of 0.20 in magnitude . The minor planet was named in after Richard Starkey ( b. 1940 ) , better known as Ringo Starr , the drummer of The Beatles . He joined the English rock band in 1962 , replacing its former drummer Pete Best . Ringo has released various albums in his solo career and also acted in several movies . Naming citation was published on 10 April 1990 . The minor planets 8749 Beatles , 4147 Lennon , 4148 McCartney and 4149 Harrison were named after the band and its three other members .","qid":"2766","docid":"4150_Starr","rank":70,"score":84202},{"content":"Title: (308193) 2005 CB79 Content: is a trans-Neptunian object that is a member of the Haumea family . As a member of the Haumea family , is suspected of being an icy mantle collisional fragment from dwarf planet Haumea . With an absolute magnitude ( H ) of 4.7 , and a Haumea-family albedo of 0.7 , this object would have a diameter of 158 km . Observations by Mike Brown in 2012 using the W. M. Keck Observatory suggest that does not have a companion .","qid":"2766","docid":"(308193)_2005_CB79","rank":71,"score":84196},{"content":"Title: Dynamic Albedo of Neutrons Content: The Dynamic Albedo of Neutrons ( DAN ) instrument is an experiment mounted on the Mars Science Laboratory Curiosity rover . It is a pulsed sealed-tube neutron source and detector used to measure hydrogen or ice and water at or near the Martian surface . DAN was provided by the Russian Federal Space Agency , funded by Russia and is under the leadership of Principal Investigator Igor Mitrofanov . On August 18 , 2012 ( sol ) , DAN was turned on , marking the success of a Russian-American collaboration on the surface of Mars and the first working Russian science instrument on the Martian surface since Mars 3 stopped transmitting over forty years ago . The instrument is designed to detect subsurface water . On March 18 , 2013 ( sol ) , NASA reported evidence of mineral hydration , likely hydrated calcium sulfate , in several rock samples including the broken fragments of `` Tintina '' rock and `` Sutton Inlier '' rock as well as in veins and nodules in other rocks like `` Knorr '' rock and `` Wernicke '' rock . Analysis using the rover 's DAN instrument provided evidence of subsurface water , amounting to as much as 4 % water content , down to a depth of 60 cm , in the rover 's traverse from the Bradbury Landing site to the Yellowknife Bay area in the Glenelg terrain . On August 19 , 2015 , NASA scientists reported that the DAN instrument on Curiosity detected an unusual hydrogen-rich area , at `` Marias Pass , '' on Mars . The hydrogen found seemed related to water or hydroxyl ions in rocks within three feet beneath the rover , according to the scientists .","qid":"2766","docid":"Dynamic_Albedo_of_Neutrons","rank":72,"score":84134},{"content":"Title: 645 Agrippina Content: 645 Agrippina , provisional designation 1907 AG , is a stony asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt , roughly 30 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by American astronomer reverend Joel Metcalf at Taunton , Massachusetts , USA , on 13 September 1907 . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.7 -- 3.7 AU once every 5 years and 9 months ( 2,103 days ) . Its orbit shows an eccentricity of 0.15 and is tilted by 7 degrees to the plane of the ecliptic . A photometric light-curve analysis from the 1980s and a provisional observation in 2004 rendered a rotation period of 32.6 and 34.4 hours , respectively . According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite , IRAS , the Japanese Akari satellite , and the U.S.Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid has a dissimilar albedo in the range of 0.14 to 0.23 , which leads to a varying estimate for its diameter from 28 to 36 kilometers . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link publishes an albedo of 0.23 from an alternative result of the Supplemental IRAS Minor Planet Survey ( SIMPS ) and derives a slightly lower diameter of 27.9 kilometers . The minor planet was named for two women of ancient Roman history . Agrippina the Elder ( 14 BCE -- 33 ) was the daughter of the Roman statesman Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa , the wife of Germanicus and the mother of the Emperor Caligula . Her daughter , Agrippina the Younger ( 15 -- 59 AD ) was the mother of Emperor Nero . The naming might be influenced by the two letters of the provisional designation 1907 AG . In the Dictionary of Minor Planet Names , Lutz Schmadel supposes that the name originated from a list of female names from mythology and history , compiled by the Astronomisches Rechen-Institut ( ARI ) in 1913 . The ARI then sent this list to a number of astronomers with the request to name their discoveries in order to avoid confusion , as the number of unnamed minor planet up to number 700 had grown significantly at the time .","qid":"2766","docid":"645_Agrippina","rank":73,"score":84082},{"content":"Title: Volcanic winter Content: A volcanic winter is a reduction in global temperatures caused by volcanic ash and droplets of sulfuric acid and water obscuring the Sun and raising Earth 's albedo ( increasing the reflection of solar radiation ) after a large particularly explosive volcanic eruption . Long-term cooling effects are primarily dependent upon injection of sulfur gasses into the stratosphere where they undergo a series of reactions to create sulfuric acid which can nucleate and form aerosols . Volcanic stratospheric aerosols cool the surface by reflecting solar radiation and warm the stratosphere by absorbing terrestrial radiation . The volcanic aerosols , resulting from the 1991 Pinatubo eruption and others , have been shown to contribute to anthropogenic ozone depletion . The variations in atmospheric warming and cooling results in changes in tropospheric and stratospheric circulation .","qid":"2766","docid":"Volcanic_winter","rank":74,"score":83872},{"content":"Title: 116903 Jeromeapt Content: 116903 Jeromeapt , provisional designation , is an asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 1 kilometer in diameter . It was discovered on 11 April 2004 , by American astronomer James Whitney Young at the U.S. Table Mountain Observatory near Wrightwood , California . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.0 -- 2.9 AU once every 3 years and 10 months ( 1,401 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.17 and an inclination of 2 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at Steward Observatory in 2002 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by more than 2 years prior to its discovery . As of 2016 , the asteroid 's effective size , its composition and albedo , as well as its rotation period and shape remain unknown . Based on an absolute magnitude of 17.3 , the asteroid is calculated to measure between 1 and 2 kilometers in diameter , assuming an albedo in the range of 0.05 to 0.25 . Since asteroids in the inner main-belt are often of a silicaceous rather than of a carbonaceous composition , with higher albedos , typically around 0.20 , the asteroid 's diameter might be on the lower end of NASA 's published conversion table , as the higher the body 's reflectivity ( albedo ) , the smaller its diameter at a constant absolute magnitude ( brightness ) . The minor planet is named in honor of American Jerome Apt ( b. 1949 ) , who was the discovering observatory 's director and also an astronaut on 4 Space Shuttle missions in the 1990s . At the time of naming this asteroid , he was a professor at Carnegie Mellon University . Naming citation was published 29 October 2012 .","qid":"2766","docid":"116903_Jeromeapt","rank":75,"score":83840},{"content":"Title: Peter Thejll Content: Peter Andreas Thejll ( born 1956 ) is a Danish astrophysicist and climate researcher . His research in solar variation helped provide evidence of the greenhouse effect on the Earth 's climate in the late 20th century . In particular , his study with Knud Lassen on Northern Hemisphere land air temperature showed that the rise of 0.4 degrees Celsius since 1980 could not be accounted for by the solar cycle . Climatologists have pointed to this finding as an `` actual piece of evidence for greenhouse warming '' . Thejll received his undergraduate education at the University of Copenhagen . He received an M.S. in physics and a Ph.D. in astrophysics from the University of Delaware . Thejll was a Carlsberg Fellow at the Niels Bohr Institute and worked at the Nordic Institute for Theoretical Physics . Thejll currently is a senior scientist at the Danish Meteorological Institute in Copenhagen . He is currently involved in the creation of a global automatic system to observe the Earth 's reflectivity - albedo - using observations of the earthshine on the Moon . Such data can be used for climate change studies and calibration of satellite data as the measurements deliver independent data on the albedo . A telescope is now installed on Hawaii at the Mauna Loa Observatory . The Swedish research agency VINNOVA is funding this project .","qid":"2766","docid":"Peter_Thejll","rank":76,"score":83795},{"content":"Title: Classical albedo features on Mars Content: The classical albedo features of Mars are the light and dark features that can be seen on the planet Mars through an Earth-based telescope . Before the age of space probes , several astronomers created maps of Mars on which they gave names to the features they could see . The most popular system of nomenclature was devised by Giovanni Schiaparelli , who used names from classical antiquity . Today , the improved understanding of Mars enabled by space probes has rendered many of the classical names obsolete for the purposes of cartography ; however , some of the old names are still used to describe geographical features on the planet .","qid":"2766","docid":"Classical_albedo_features_on_Mars","rank":77,"score":83664},{"content":"Title: Street (crater) Content: Street is a lunar impact crater located just to the south of the prominent ray crater Tycho . Street lies within the skirt of high-albedo ejecta from Tycho , and it is more heavily worn than its younger and larger neighbor . There are several smaller craters joined to the western rim , as well as two craters along the eastern rim . The floor is relatively smooth and flat , except for a small craterlet in the western half . The crater is 58 kilometers in diameter and 1,500 meters in depth . It may be from the Pre-Imbrian period , which lasted from 4.55 to 3.85 billion years ago . It is named for the 17th-century English astronomer Thomas Streete .","qid":"2766","docid":"Street_(crater)","rank":78,"score":83628},{"content":"Title: 8900 AAVSO Content: 8900 AAVSO , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid from the middle region of the asteroid belt , approximately 5.5 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by American amateur astronomer Dennis di Cicco at the U.S Sudbury Observatory , Massachusetts , on 24 October 1995 . The stony S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.2 -- 2.9 AU once every 4.04 years ( 1,475 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.15 and an inclination of 9 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was obtained at Kleť Observatory in 1979 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 16 years prior to its discovery . In May 2010 , a photometric light-curve analysis at the U.S. Palomar Transient Factory , California , gave it a rotation period of hours with a brightness amplitude of 0.43 in magnitude . According to the NEOWISE mission of NASA 's space-based Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , the asteroid measures 5.8 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.28 , while the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for stony asteroids of 0.20 and calculates a diameter of 5.3 kilometers . The minor planet was named after the American Association of Variable Star Observers ( AAVSO ) , an astronomical pro-am organization that promotes the study of variable stars to both amateur and professional astronomers , maintaining the largest database of variable star observations in the world . It was founded in 1911 by amateur astronomer William Tyler Olcott ( 1873 -- 1936 ) , based on a suggestion by Edward Charles Pickering 's ( 1846 -- 1919 ) , after whom the minor planet 784 Pickeringia is named . Naming citation was published on 1 May 2003 .","qid":"2766","docid":"8900_AAVSO","rank":79,"score":83582},{"content":"Title: 209 Dido Content: 209 Dido is a very large main-belt asteroid . It is classified as a C-type asteroid and is probably composed of carbonaceous materials . Like many asteroids of its type , it has an extremely low albedo . It was discovered by C. H. F. Peters on October 22 , 1879 , in Clinton , New York and was named after the mythical Carthaginian queen Dido . Photometric observations at the Palmer Divide Observatory during 2005 showed a rotation period of 5.7366 ± 0.0005 hours with a brightness variation of 0.17 ± 0.02 in magnitude .","qid":"2766","docid":"209_Dido","rank":80,"score":83528},{"content":"Title: 49P/Arend–Rigaux Content: 49P/Arend -- Rigaux is a periodic comet in the Solar System . The comet nucleus is estimated to be 8.48 kilometers in diameter with a low albedo of 0.028 . On 20 December 2058 the comet will pass 0.0867 AU from Mars .","qid":"2766","docid":"49P/Arend–Rigaux","rank":81,"score":83510},{"content":"Title: Kuiper quadrangle Content: The Kuiper quadrangle , located in a heavily cratered region of Mercury , includes the young , 55-km-diameter crater Kuiper ( 11 ° S. , 31.5 ° ) , which has the highest albedo recorded on the planet , and the small crater Hun Kal ( 0.6 ° S. , 20.0 ° ) , which is the principal reference point for Mercurian longitude ( Davies and Batson , 1975 ) . Impact craters and basins , their numerous secondary craters , and heavily to lightly cratered plains are the characteristic landforms of the region . At least six multiringed basins ranging from 150 km to 440 km in diameter are present . Inasmuch as multiringed basins occur widely on that part of Mercury photographed by Mariner 10 , as well as on the Moon and Mars , they offer a potentially valuable basis for comparison between these planetary bodies .","qid":"2766","docid":"Kuiper_quadrangle","rank":82,"score":83205},{"content":"Title: HD 73256 b Content: HD 73256 b is an 1.87 MJ hot Jupiter orbiting at 0.037 AU taking 2.55 days to orbit around HD 73256 . Assuming the planet is perfectly grey with no greenhouse or tidal effects , and a Bond albedo of 0.1 , the temperature would be about 1300 K . This is close to 51 Pegasi b ; between the predicted temperatures of HD 189733 b and HD 209458 b ( 1180-1392K ) , before they were measured . It is a candidate for `` near-infrared characterisation with the VLTI Spectro-Imager '' .","qid":"2766","docid":"HD_73256_b","rank":83,"score":83096},{"content":"Title: 2865 Laurel Content: 2865 Laurel , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid from the middle region of the asteroid belt , approximately 15 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by English-born South African astronomer Cyril Jackson at Johannesburg Observatory on 31 July 1935 . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.4 -- 2.7 AU once every 4 years and 1 month ( 1,497 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.07 and an inclination of 14 ° with respect to the ecliptic . No precoveries were taken and the asteroid 's observation arc begins with its discovery observation in 1935 . A rotational light-curve for this asteroid was obtained from photometric observations by French amateur astronomer Pierre Antonini in September 2005 . It gave a longer than average rotation period of hours with a brightness variation of 0.15 in magnitude . According to the space-based surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS , the Japanese Akari satellite , and NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid measures between 14.7 and 25.0 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo between 0.09 and 0.22 . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link agrees with IRAS and derives an albedo of 0.24 and a diameter 14.8 kilometers . The minor planet was named after English-born comedian Stan Laurel ( 1890 -- 1965 ) . Together with Oliver Hardy ( 1892 -- 1957 ) , who was honored with the main-belt asteroid 2866 Hardy , they formed the first great comedy duo in Classical Hollywood cinema . Naming citation was published on 1 September 1993 , based on a suggestion by Gareth V. Williams and others .","qid":"2766","docid":"2865_Laurel","rank":84,"score":82628},{"content":"Title: 2015 TC25 Content: is a near-Earth asteroid , and at only 2 meters ( 6 ft ) across , it is thought to be the smallest asteroid observed from telescopes on Earth . The asteroid is notable for reflecting about 60 % of the light that hits it , making it one of the brightest near-earth asteroids ever seen . Discovered by the Catalina Sky Survey on 12 October 2015 , it was observed with several ground-based telescopes . Radar observations were also made using the Arecibo Observatory as it passed 128,000 kilometers ( approximately a third of the distance to the moon ) from the Earth . Observations suggest its surface composition is similar to Aubrite meteorites , a rare class of high-albedo differentiated meteorites . The albedo and radar polarization ratio suggest belongs to the E-type asteroids , and comparison of its spectral and dynamical properties suggest its parent body may be the 70 kilometer diameter E-type asteroid 44 Nysa . is also notable for its rather short rotation period of only about 2 minutes , which , combined with its low surface gravity makes it very difficult for to retain a regolith layer . It 's surface therefore most likely resembles a bare rock .","qid":"2766","docid":"2015_TC25","rank":85,"score":82520},{"content":"Title: 9564 Jeffwynn Content: 9564 Jeffwynn , provisional designation , is a stony and eccentric asteroid , classified as a Mars-crosser , that measures approximately 4.7 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by American astronomer couple Carolyn and Eugene Shoemaker at the U.S. Palomar Observatory in California , on 26 September 1987 . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.6 -- 3.1 AU once every 3 years and 7 months ( 1,307 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.32 and an inclination of 22 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at Palomar Observatory in 1951 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 36 years prior to its discovery . In September 2012 , a rotational light-curve was obtained from photometric observations by U.S. astronomer Brian D. Warner at his Palmer Divide Observatory , Colorado . It gave a well-defined rotation period of hours with a brightness variation of 0.16 in magnitude . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link calculates a diameter of 4.7 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 14.0 and an assumed albedo for stony asteroids of 0.20 . The minor planet was named in honor of American Jeffrey C. Wynn , research geophysicist with the United States Geological Survey , described as a `` humorous , curious , inventive , adventurous geophysicist '' , who examined the Saudi Arabian Wabar craters on several expeditions in 1994 and 1995 , together with Eugene Shoemaker , after whom the minor planet 2074 Shoemaker is named . Wynn 's research included mapping the seafloor , analyzing terrestrial minerals , and studying aquifers and archaeological sites . He also observed with the comet-discovering Shoemaker-Levy team . Naming citation was published on 23 November 1999 .","qid":"2766","docid":"9564_Jeffwynn","rank":86,"score":82495},{"content":"Title: 3181 Ahnert Content: 3181 Ahnert , provisional designation , is a stony Flora asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , about 8 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by German astronomer Freimut Börngen at the Karl Schwarzschild Observatory in Tautenburg , eastern Germany , on 8 March 1964 . The S-type asteroid is a member of the Flora family , one of the largest groups of stony asteroids in the main-belt . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.1 -- 2.4 AU once every 3 years and 4 months ( 1,215 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.07 and an inclination of 4 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was obtained at Lowell Observatory in 1931 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 33 years prior to its discovery . According to the surveys carried out by NASA 's space-based Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid measures between 8.0 and 8.6 kilometers and its surface has an albedo between 0.19 and 0.26 . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an intermediate albedo of 0.24 -- derived from 8 Flora , the largest member and namesake of this orbital family -- and calculates a diameter of 8.2 kilometers . As of 2016 , the asteroid 's rotation period and shape still remain unknown . The minor planet was named after German astronomer Paul Ahnert ( 1897 -- 1989 ) , author of the annual calendar of astronomical events ( Kalender für Sternfreunde ) and a renowned astronomer among professionals and amateurs . His fields of research included the physics of the Solar System and periods of variable stars at the Sonneberg Observatory . ( The minor planet 1039 Sonneberga is named after this observatory . ) Publisher of several books on performing astronomical observations , he also popularized the subject of astronomy to the general public . Naming citation was published on 2 July 1985 .","qid":"2766","docid":"3181_Ahnert","rank":87,"score":82471},{"content":"Title: 94 Aurora Content: Not to be confused with Aurora borealis . 94 Aurora is one of the largest main-belt asteroids . With an albedo of only 0.04 , it is darker than soot , and has a primitive compositions consisting of carbonaecous material . It was discovered by J. C. Watson on September 6 , 1867 , in Ann Arbor , and named after Aurora , the Roman goddess of the dawn . Observations of an occultation using nine chords indicate an oval outline of 225 × 173 km .","qid":"2766","docid":"94_Aurora","rank":88,"score":82278},{"content":"Title: 78816 Caripito Content: 78816 Caripito , provisional designation , is an asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt , approximately 5 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 4 August 2003 , by American amateur astronomer and professor of geophysics , Joseph Dellinger , at the U.S. Needville Observatory , Texas . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.4 -- 3.8 AU once every 5 years and 7 months ( 2,033 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.23 and an inclination of 6 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at Palomar 's Digitized Sky Survey in 1953 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 50 years prior to its discovery . As of 2016 , the Caripitos composition and albedo , as well as its rotation period and shape remain unknown . According to the survey carried out by NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid measures 5.3 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.052 . This low albedo is typical for asteroids in the outer main-belt , which are mostly of a carbonaceous rather than of a silicaceous composition . Based on an absolute magnitude of 15.4 , and assuming an albedo of 0.05 , the asteroid 's generic diameter measures between 2 and 5 kilometers . This minor planet is named for the Venezuelan town of Caripito in the northeastern Monagas State . It was the place where the parents of the discoverer , Thomas Baynes Dellinger ( b. 1926 ) and María de la Garza Cantú ( b. 1928 ) , met in 1949 . At the time , the town was a base camp for the country 's rich Quiriquire oil field . Naming citation was published on 18 September 2005 .","qid":"2766","docid":"78816_Caripito","rank":89,"score":82225},{"content":"Title: Elysium Fossae Content: The Elysium Fossae are a group of large troughs in the Elysium quadrangle of Mars at 24.8 ° north latitude and 213.7 ° west longitude . They are about 1,175 km long and are named after a classical albedo feature name .","qid":"2766","docid":"Elysium_Fossae","rank":90,"score":82157},{"content":"Title: Adiri (Titan) Content: Adiri is a large , bright albedo feature on Saturn 's moon Titan . It is named after the paradise in Melanesian mythology . It is located to the west of the large , dark region of Shangri-la . Adiri is a region of high ground and appears to be riddled with drainage channels . The Huygens probe landed on a plain just off the northwest ` coast ' of Adiri in 2005 . Category : Surface features of Titan ( moon )","qid":"2766","docid":"Adiri_(Titan)","rank":91,"score":82071},{"content":"Title: (237442) 1999 TA10 Content: , provisionally known as 1999 TA10 , is a near-Earth object ( NEO ) from the Amor asteroid group . It is suspected of being an inner fragment of the differentiated asteroid 4 Vesta . Given an absolute magnitude ( H ) of 17.9 , and that the albedo is unknown , this NEO could vary from 500 to 1500 meters in diameter . was discovered on 5 October 1999 at apparent magnitude 17.7 , when it was only 0.39 AU from Earth . In 2010 , it came within 0.3 AU of Earth . During the 2010 close approach , NASA Infrared Telescope Facility ( NASA IRTF ) studies suggested that originated from the interior of Vesta . The next close approach will be in 2023 . In 2086 , it will come within 0.017 AU of Mars .","qid":"2766","docid":"(237442)_1999_TA10","rank":92,"score":82024},{"content":"Title: 802 Epyaxa Content: 802 Epyaxa , provisional designation 1915 WR , is a stony asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , about 7 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by German astronomer Max Wolf at the Heidelberg Observatory in southern Germany , on 20 March 1915 . The S-type asteroid is a member of the Flora family , one of the largest groups of stony asteroids in the main-belt . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.0 -- 2.4 AU once every 3 years and 3 months ( 1,189 days ) . Its orbit shows an eccentricity of 0.08 and is tilted by 5 degrees to the plane of the ecliptic . From 2009 to 2014 , seven photometric light-curve analysis rendered a well-defined , concurring rotation period of 4.39 hours ( also see adjunct infobox ) . According to the survey carried out by the U.S. Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its NEOWISE mission , the asteroid 's surface has a relatively high albedo of 0.29 , while the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a more moderate value of 0.24 , which is also identical to the albedo of the Flora family 's namesake , the asteroid 8 Flora . The minor planet was named after `` Epyaxa '' , wife of King Syennesis and queen of the Kingdom of Cilicia in South Asia Minor in the 5th century BCE . The couple supported the revolt of Cyrus the Younger against his brother Artaxerxes II of Persia , after whom the minor planet 7212 Artaxerxes is named . Epyaxa had her own army and her own lavish budget to spend . Her Kingdom lost its independence and became a Persian satrapy of the Achaemenid Empire after the defeat of Cyrus .","qid":"2766","docid":"802_Epyaxa","rank":93,"score":81908},{"content":"Title: Sea salt aerosol Content: Sea salt aerosol , which originally comes from sea spray , is one of the most widely distributed natural aerosols . Sea salt aerosols are characterized as non-light-absorbing , highly hygroscopic , and having coarse particle size . Some sea salt dominated aerosols could have a single scattering albedo as large as ~ 0.97 . Due to the hygroscopy , a sea salt particle can serve as a very efficient cloud condensation nuclei ( CCN ) , altering cloud reflectivity , lifetime , and precipitation process . According to the IPCC report , the total sea salt flux from ocean to atmosphere is ~ 3300 Tg/yr .","qid":"2766","docid":"Sea_salt_aerosol","rank":94,"score":81888},{"content":"Title: 1704 Wachmann Content: 1704 Wachmann , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 7 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by German astronomer Karl Reinmuth at Heidelberg Observatory on 7 March 1924 . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.0 -- 2.4 AU once every 3 years and 4 months ( 1,211 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.09 and an inclination of 1 ° with respect to the ecliptic . No precoveries were taken and the asteroid 's observation arc begins 3 days after its official discovery date . In April 2007 , a rotational light-curve for this asteroid was obtained at the U.S. Sandia View Observatory in New Mexico . The light-curve gave a well-defined rotation period of hours with a brightness variation of 0.40 in magnitude . According to the survey carried out by the NEOWISE mission of NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , the asteroid measures 6.6 and 6.9 kilometers in diameter , and its surface has an albedo of 0.177 and 0.193 , respectively , while the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for stony asteroids of 0.20 and calculates a diameter of 7.8 kilometers , based on an absolute magnitude of 12.9 . The minor planet was named for Arno Wachmann ( 1902 -- 1990 ) , long-time astronomer at the Bergedorf Observatory in Hamburg , discoverer of minor planets and comets , and observer of variable and binary stars . He is best known for the co-discovery of the three `` Schwassmann -- Wachmann '' comets , 29P , 31P and 73P . Naming citation was published before November 1977 .","qid":"2766","docid":"1704_Wachmann","rank":95,"score":81678},{"content":"Title: 1867 Deiphobus Content: 1867 Deiphobus , provisional designation , is a Jupiter trojan from the Trojan camp , approximately 123 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 3 March 1971 , by Argentine astronomers Carlos Cesco and A. G. Samuel at the Leoncito Astronomical Complex in Argentina . The D-type minor planet orbits the Sun at a distance of 4.9 -- 5.4 AU once every 11 years and 7 months ( 4,242 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.04 and an inclination of 27 ° with respect to the ecliptic . Photometric observations of this asteroid during 1994 were used to build a light curve showing a slow rotation period of 58.66 ± 0.18 hours with a brightness variation of 0.27 ± 0.03 magnitude . According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS , the Japanese Akari satellite , and NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , Deiphobus measures between 118.2 and 131.3 kilometers in diameter , and its surface has an albedo between 0.037 and 0.060 . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link derives an albedo of 0.040 , and calculates a diameter of 122.7 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 8.68 . It was named after the Trojan warrior , Deiphobus , son of Priamus ( also see 108 Hecuba and 884 Priamus ) . Naming citation was published before November 1977 .","qid":"2766","docid":"1867_Deiphobus","rank":96,"score":81632},{"content":"Title: 3754 Kathleen Content: 3754 Kathleen ( 1931 FM ) is a main-belt asteroid discovered on March 16 , 1931 by Clyde Tombaugh at Flagstaff ( LO ) . It has a common main belt albedo of 0.06 , and thus is 53 km in diameter . It is the last discovered `` main-belt '' asteroid more than 50 kilometers in diameter , though that does not include larger Jupiter trojans , Centaurs , and Trans-Neptunian objects that are further from the Sun . Photometric observations of this asteroid collected during 2007 show a rotation period of 11.2 ± 0.1 hours with a brightness variation of 0.2 ± 0.04 magnitude .","qid":"2766","docid":"3754_Kathleen","rank":97,"score":81626},{"content":"Title: Kepler-22b Content: Kepler-22b , also known by its Kepler object of interest designation KOI-087 .01 , is an extrasolar planet orbiting within the empirical habitable zone of the Sun-like star Kepler-22 . It is located about 600 ly from Earth in the constellation of Cygnus . It was discovered by NASA 's Kepler Space Telescope in December 2011 and was the first known transiting planet to orbit within the habitable zone of a Sun-like star . Kepler-22 is too dim to be seen with the naked eye . Kepler-22b 's size is roughly twice that of Earth . Its mass and surface composition are unknown . An Earth-like composition for the planet has been ruled out . It is likely to have a volatile-rich composition with a liquid or gaseous outer shell . The only parameters of the planet 's orbit that are currently available are its orbital period , which is about , and its inclination , which is approximately 90 ° . Evidence suggests that the planet has a moderate surface temperature , assuming that the surface is not subject to extreme greenhouse heating . In the absence of an atmosphere , its equilibrium temperature ( assuming an Earth-like albedo ) would be approximately 262 K. The planet 's first transit was observed on 12 May 2009 . Confirmation of the existence of Kepler-22b was announced on 5 December 2011 .","qid":"2766","docid":"Kepler-22b","rank":98,"score":81595},{"content":"Title: 32145 Katberman Content: 32145 Katberman , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 4 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by the U.S. LINEAR team at Lincoln Laboratory 's Experimental Test Site in Socorro , New Mexico , on 7 June 2000 . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.0 -- 2.8 AU once every 3 years and 9 months ( 1,371 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.18 and an inclination of 9 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at Steward Observatory ( Kitt Peak-Spacewatch ) in 1996 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 4 years prior to its discovery . According to the survey carried out by the NEOWISE mission of NASA 's space-based Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , the asteroid measures 4.4 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.16 , while the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for stony asteroids of 0.20 and calculates a diameter of 2.9 kilometers , based on an absolute magnitude of 15.04 . In October 2012 and January 2014 , three rotational light-curves were obtained from photometric observations made at the U.S Palomar Transient Factory in California . The light-curves gave a rotation period of , and hours , respectively , with a corresponding brightness variation of 0.85 , 0.80 and 0.70 in magnitude . The minor planet was named after Katharine Barr Berman ( b. 1998 ) awardee in the Intel Science Talent Search of 2016 . She was a finalist for her cellular and molecular biology project . At the time , she attended the U.S. Hastings High School in New York . Naming citation was published on 21 May 2016 .","qid":"2766","docid":"32145_Katberman","rank":99,"score":81570},{"content":"Title: 16765 Agnesi Content: 16765 Agnesi , provisional designation , is a stony Eunomia asteroid from the middle region of the asteroid belt , approximately 4 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 16 October 1996 , by Italian-American amateur astronomer Paul Comba at his private Prescott Observatory in the U.S. state of Arizona . The asteroid is a member of the Eunomia family , a large group of S-type asteroids and the most prominent family in the intermediate main-belt . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.3 -- 2.9 AU once every 4 years and 3 months ( 1,553 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.11 and an inclination of 12 ° with respect to the ecliptic . It was first observed by Haleakala -- NEAT/GEODSS , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 32 days prior to its official discovery observation . According to the NEOWISE mission of NASA 's space-based Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , the asteroid measures 4.1 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.28 , while the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.21 -- derived from 15 Eunomia , the family 's largest member and namesake -- and calculates a diameter of 3.8 kilometers . A rotational light-curve of this asteroid was obtained from photometric observations made at the U.S. Palomar Transient Factory in September 2013 . The light-curve gave a rotation period of hours with a brightness variation of in magnitude . The minor planet was named in honour of Italian Maria Gaetana Agnesi ( 1718 -- 1799 ) , who was the first Western woman to write a widely translated mathematics handbook and the first woman appointed to a professorship at a university in 1750 . Naming citation was published on 9 January 2001 .","qid":"2766","docid":"16765_Agnesi","rank":100,"score":81545}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1798 Watts Content: 1798 Watts , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 7 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 4 April 1949 , by IU 's Indiana Asteroid Program at Goethe Link Observatory near Brooklyn , Indiana , United States . The asteroid is a member of the Flora family , a large group of stony S-type asteroids in the inner main-belt . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.9 -- 2.5 AU once every 3 years and 3 months ( 1,191 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.12 and an inclination of 6 ° with respect to the ecliptic . Watts was first observed and identified as at Yerkes Observatory in 1934 , extending the body 's observation arc by 15 years prior to its official discovery observation . According to the survey carried out by NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , Watts measures 6.63 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo between 0.276 and 0.294 . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.24 -- derived from 8 Flora , the largest member and namesake of this asteroid family -- and calculates a diameter of 7.14 kilometers , based on an absolute magnitude of 12.9 . As of 2017 , Wattss rotation period and shape remain unknown . The minor planet was named in honour of American astronomer Chester Burleigh Watts ( 1889 -- 1971 ) , a graduate of Indiana University . He worked at the United States Naval Observatory for 44 years , making distinguished contributions in the field of positional astronomy and pioneered in the field of automation of transit circle observations , which led to results of the highest systematic accuracy . From the late 1940 until 1963 he meticulously mapped every feature on the marginal zone of the Moon . Naming citation was published before November 1977 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"1798_Watts\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 128015\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Radiative forcing Content: Radiative forcing or climate forcing is the difference between insolation ( sunlight ) absorbed by the Earth and energy radiated back to space . Typically , radiative forcing is quantified at the tropopause in units of watts per square meter of the Earth 's surface . Positive forcing ( incoming energy exceeding outgoing energy ) warms the system , while negative forcing ( outgoing energy exceeding incoming energy ) cools it . Causes of radiative forcing include changes in insolation and the concentrations of radiatively active gases , commonly known as greenhouse gases and aerosols .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"Radiative_forcing\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 123561\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 925 Alphonsina Content: 925 Alphonsina , provisional designation 1920 GM , is a large , stony asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt , about 58 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by Spanish astronomer of Catalan origin , Josep Comas i Solà , at the Fabra Observatory in Barcelona , on 13 January 1920 . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.5 -- 2.9 AU once every 4 years and 5 months ( 1,622 days ) . Its orbit is tilted by 21 degrees to the plane of the ecliptic and shows an eccentricity of 0.08 . A large number of photometric light-curve analysis rendered a well-defined , concurring rotation period of 7.9 hours for the body . According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite , IRAS , the Japanese Akari satellite , and the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid 's albedo is in the range of 0.20 -- 0.28 . In addition , the body 's albedo has been inferred by using the technique of stellar occultation in 2003 . The measurement also gave a diameter of 59.2 kilometers . The minor planet was named in honor of the Iberian Kings , Alfonso X ( 1221 -- 1284 ) and Alfonso XIII ( 1886 -- 1941 ) , King of Castile and Spain , respectively . The original citation mentions , that the 13th century king inspired the field of astronomy in the Middle Ages , and , that the latter king was a great enthusiast of the scientific development in Spain . It also mentions that the King of Spain approved the naming of the asteroid .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"925_Alphonsina\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 113261\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bond albedo Content: The Bond albedo , named after the American astronomer George Phillips Bond ( 1825 -- 1865 ) , who originally proposed it , is the fraction of power in the total electromagnetic radiation incident on an astronomical body that is scattered back out into space . Because the Bond albedo accounts for all of the light scattered from a body at all wavelengths and all phase angles , it is a necessary quantity for determining how much energy a body absorbs . This , in turn , is crucial for determining the equilibrium temperature of a body . Because bodies in the outer Solar System are always observed at very low phase angles from the Earth , the only reliable data for measuring their Bond albedo comes from spacecraft .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"Bond_albedo\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 111403\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Albedo feature Content: An albedo feature is a large area on the surface of a planet ( or other solar system body ) which shows a contrast in brightness or darkness ( albedo ) with adjacent areas . Historically , albedo features were the very first ( and usually only ) features to be seen and named on Mars and Mercury . Early classical maps ( such as those of Schiaparelli and Antoniadi ) showed only albedo features , and it was not until the arrival of space probes that other surface features such as craters could be seen . On bodies other than Mars and Mercury , an albedo feature is sometimes called a regio . On bodies with a very thick atmosphere like Venus or Titan , permanent albedo features can not be seen using ordinary optical telescopes because the surface is not visible , and only clouds and other transient atmospheric phenomena are seen . The Cassini -- Huygens probe has observed multiple albedo features on Titan since its arrival in Saturn 's orbit in 2004 . The very first albedo feature ever seen on another planet was Syrtis Major Planum on Mars in the 17th century . Today , thanks to space probes , very high-resolution images of surface features on Mars and Mercury are available , and the classical nomenclature based on albedo features has fallen somewhat into disuse . It is however still used for Earth-based observing of Mars by amateur astronomers . However , for some Solar System bodies ( such as Pluto prior to the New Horizons mission ) , the best available images show only albedo features . These images were usually taken by the Hubble Space Telescope or by ground-based telescopes using adaptive optics . Cydonia Mensae on Mars is an example of an albedo feature .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"Albedo_feature\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 111000\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Albedo Content: Albedo ( -LSB- ælˈbiːdoʊ -RSB- ) is a measure for reflectance or optical brightness ( Latin albedo , Arabic albayad , `` whiteness '' ) . It is dimensionless and measured on a scale from zero ( corresponding to a black body that absorbs all incident radiation ) to one ( corresponding to a white body that reflects all incident radiation ) . Surface albedo is defined as the ratio of radiation reflected to the radiation incident on a surface . The proportion reflected is not only determined by properties of the surface itself , but also by the spectral and angular distribution of solar radiation reaching the Earth 's surface . These factors vary with atmospheric composition , geographic location and time ( see Position of the Sun ) . While bi-hemispherical reflectance is calculated for a single angle of incidence ( i.e. , for a given position of the sun ) , albedo is the directional integration of reflectance over all solar angles in a given period . The temporal resolution may range from seconds ( as obtained from flux measurements ) to daily , seasonal or annual averages . Unless given for a specific wavelength ( spectral albedo ) , albedo refers to the entire spectrum of solar radiation . Due to measurement constraints , it is often given for the spectrum in which most solar energy reaches the surface ( approximately between 0.3 and 3 μm ) . This spectrum includes visible light ( 0.39-0 .7 μm ) , which explains why surfaces with a low albedo appear dark ( e.g. , trees absorb most radiation ) , whereas surfaces with a high albedo appear bright ( e.g. , snow reflects most radiation ) . Albedo is an important concept in climatology , astronomy , and environmental management ( e.g. , as part of the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design ( LEED ) program for sustainable rating of buildings ) . The average albedo of the Earth at the top of the atmosphere , its planetary albedo , is 30 to 35 % because of cloud cover , but widely varies locally across the surface because of different geological and environmental features . The term albedo was introduced into optics by Johann Heinrich Lambert in his 1760 work Photometria .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"Albedo\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 110234\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2007 McCuskey Content: 2007 McCuskey , provisional designation 1963 SQ , is a larger mid-sized asteroid from the asteroid belt . It was discovered on 22 September 1963 , by the Indiana Asteroid Program at Goethe Link Observatory near Brooklyn , Indiana , United States . The rather dark asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.1 -- 2.7 AU once every 3.68 years ( 1,344 days ) . It has a rotation period of 8.6 hours . Measurements made with the IRAS observatory give a diameter of kilometers and a geometric albedo of . By comparison , measurements with Spitzer 's Multiband Imaging Photometer ( MIPS ) give a diameter of kilometers and a geometric albedo of . It is named in honour of American mathematician and astronomer Sidney Wilcox McCuskey ( 1907 -- 1979 ) , who was the director of the Warner and Swasey Observatory and president of IAU Commission 33 , Structure and Dynamics of the Galactic System . He is best known for his contribution on stellar luminosity and galactic structure .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"2007_McCuskey\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 109717\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 7784 Watterson Content: 7784 Watterson , provisional designation , is a stony Phocaea asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 6 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by American astronomer Timothy Spahr at the U.S. Catalina Station , Arizona , on 5 August 1994 . The S-type asteroid is a member of the Phocaea family , a group of asteroids with similar orbital characteristics . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.7 -- 2.8 AU once every 3 years and 5 months ( 1,248 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.24 and an inclination of 23 ° with respect to the ecliptic . In 2011 , a photometric light-curve analysis by astronomer Brian Skiff gave a rotation period of hours with a relatively low brightness amplitude of 0.10 in magnitude , indicative of a nearly spheroidal shape . According to the surveys carried out by the NEOWISE mission of NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer ( WISE ) , the asteroid has an albedo of 0.19 and a diameter of 5.6 kilometers . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link agrees with WISE 's observations and assumes a slightly higher albedo of 0.23 and calculates a diameter of 5.5 kilometers . This minor planet is named after Bill Watterson ( born 1958 ) , cartoonist of the daily comic strip Calvin and Hobbes . Syndicated from 1985 to 1995 , this strip is fondly remembered and treasured by the discoverer , and helped him stay awake and sane on long observing nights and during the trials and tribulations of graduate school .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"7784_Watterson\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 109173\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Albedo (disambiguation) Content: Albedo is a measure of reflectivity . Albedo may also refer to : ALBEDO Telecom , a telecom company Albedo ( alchemy ) , a stage of alchemical progression Albedo ( Ben 10 ) , a character in the television series Ben 10 : Alien Force Albedo Anthropomorphics , a comic book anthology Albedo ( role-playing game ) , derived from the comics Albedo , the mesocarp of a fruit Albedo , a character in the video game series Xenosaga Albedo 0.39 , a 1976 album by the artist Vangelis Albedo One '' , an Irish horror , fantasy and science fiction magazine founded in 1993\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"Albedo_(disambiguation)\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 107926\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1169 Alwine Content: 1169 Alwine , provisional designation , is an asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 8 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 30 August 1930 , by German and Italian astronomers Max Wolf and Mario Ferrero at Heidelberg Observatory in southwest Germany . Alwine orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.0 -- 2.7 AU once every 3 years and 6 months ( 1,290 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.15 and an inclination of 4 ° with respect to the ecliptic . As no precoveries were taken , and no prior identifications were made , Alwines observation arc begins with its official discovery observation at Heidelberg in 1930 . According to the survey carried out by NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , Alwine measures 7.89 kilometers in diameter , and its surface has an albedo of 0.179 . Based on a generic magnitude-to-diameter conversion , its diameter is between 7 and 17 kilometers for an absolute magnitude of 12.8 and an albedo in the range of 0.05 to 0.25 . As of 2017 , no rotational lightcurves have been obtained . The body 's rotation period , pole and shape remain unknown . This minor planet is named after a common German female name . Any reference of this name to a person or occurrence is unknown .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"1169_Alwine\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 103073\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: (148209) 2000 CR105 Content: , also written as ( 148209 ) 2000 CR105 , is the tenth-most-distant known object in the Solar System . Considered a detached object , it orbits the Sun in a highly eccentric orbit every 3305 years at an average distance of 222 astronomical units ( AU ) . Mike Brown 's website lists it as a possible dwarf planet with a diameter of 328 km based on an assumed albedo of 0.04 . The albedo is expected to be low because the object has a blue ( neutral ) color . However , if the albedo is higher , the object could easily be half that size . and Sedna differ from scattered-disc objects in that they are not within the gravitational influence of the planet Neptune even at their perihelion distances ( closest approaches to the Sun ) . It is something of a mystery as to how these objects came to be in their current , far-flung orbits . Several hypotheses have been put forward : They were pulled from their original positions by a passing star . They were pulled from their original positions by a very distant , and as-yet-undiscovered ( albeit unlikely ) , giant planet . They were pulled from their original positions by an undiscovered companion star orbiting the Sun . They were captured from another planetary system during a close encounter early in the Sun 's history . According to Kenyon and Bromley , there is a 15 % probability that a star like the Sun had an early close encounter and a 1 % probability that outer planetary exchanges would have happened . is estimated to be 2 -- 3 times more likely to be a captured planetary object than Sedna . is the first object discovered in the Solar System to have a semi-major axis exceeding 150 AU , a perihelion beyond Neptune , and an argument of perihelion of 340 ± 55 ° . It is one of five objects known with a semi-major axis greater than 100 AU and perihelion beyond 42 AU . It may be influenced by Planet Nine .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"(148209)_2000_CR105\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 102847\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: (308933) 2006 SQ372 Content: is a small trans-Neptunian object discovered through the Sloan Digital Sky Survey by Andrew Becker , Andrew Puckett , and Jeremy Kubica on images first taken on September 27 , 2006 ( with precovery images dated to September 13 , 2005 ) . It has a strongly eccentric orbit , crossing that of Neptune near perihelion but bringing it more than 1,500 AU from the Sun at aphelion . It takes about 22,500 years to orbit the barycenter of the Solar System . The large semi-major axis makes it similar to and 90377 Sedna . With an absolute magnitude ( H ) of 8.1 , it is estimated to be about 60 to 140 km in diameter . Michael Brown estimates that it has an albedo of 0.08 which would give a diameter of around 110 km . The object could possibly be a comet . The discoverers hypothesize that the object could come from the Hills cloud , but other scientists like California Institute of Technology 's Michael Brown also consider other possibilities , including the theory `` it may have formed from debris just beyond Neptune -LSB- in the Kuiper belt -RSB- and been ` kicked ' into its distant orbit by a planet like Neptune or Uranus '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"(308933)_2006_SQ372\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 101422\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 28P/Neujmin Content: 28P/Neujmin , also known as Neujmin 1 , is a large periodic comet in the Solar System . With a perihelion distance ( closest approach to the Sun ) of 1.5 AU , this comet does not make close approaches to the Earth . The comet nucleus is estimated to be 21.4 kilometers in diameter with a low albedo of 0.025 . Since 28P has such a large nucleus , it will become brighter than the 20th magnitude in early 2019 , roughly 2 years before coming to perihelion . When it comes to opposition in May 2020 , when it is still 3.5 AU from the Sun , it will likely have an apparent magnitude around 16.9 . But during the 2021 perihelion passage the comet will be on the opposite side of the Sun as the Earth . The comet is not known for bright outbursts of activity .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"28P/Neujmin\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 100751\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ice-albedo feedback Content: Ice-albedo feedback ( or snow-albedo feedback ) is a positive feedback climate process where a change in the area of snow-covered land , ice caps , glaciers or sea ice alters the albedo . This change in albedo acts to reinforce the initial alteration in ice area . Cooling tends to increase ice cover and hence the albedo , reducing the amount of solar energy absorbed and leading to more cooling . Conversely , warming tends to decrease ice cover and hence the albedo , increasing the amount of solar energy absorbed , leading to more warming . The effect also applies on the small scale to snow-covered surfaces . A small amount of snow melt exposes darker ground which absorbs more radiation , leading to more snowmelt . The effect has mostly been discussed in terms of the recent trend of declining Arctic sea ice . Internal feedback processes may also potentially occur , as land ice melts and causes eustatic sea level rise , and also potentially induces earthquakes as a result of isostatic rebound , which further acts to disrupt glaciers , ice shelves , etc. .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"Ice-albedo_feedback\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 100534\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 9344 Klopstock Content: 9344 Klopstock ( 1991 RB4 ) is a dark main-belt asteroid that is 17 km in diameter and was discovered on September 12 , 1991 by F. Borngen at Tautenburg . With an albedo of 0.01 , it is the 3rd darkest asteroid on the JPL Small-Body Database . The very low albedo ( reflectivity ) makes the asteroid unusually large for the absolute magnitude ( H ) of 14.2 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"9344_Klopstock\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 99781\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Geometric albedo Content: In astronomy , the geometric albedo of a celestial body is the ratio of its actual brightness as seen from the light source ( i.e. at zero phase angle ) to that of an idealized flat , fully reflecting , diffusively scattering ( Lambertian ) disk with the same cross-section . ( This phase angle refers to the direction of the light paths and is not a phase angle in its normal meaning in optics or electronics . ) Diffuse scattering implies that radiation is reflected isotropically with no memory of the location of the incident light source . Zero phase angle corresponds to looking along the direction of illumination . For Earth-bound observers this occurs when the body in question is at opposition and on the ecliptic . The visual geometric albedo refers to the geometric albedo quantity when accounting for only electromagnetic radiation in the visible spectrum .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"Geometric_albedo\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 99070\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Albedo Anthropomorphics Content: Albedo Anthropomorphics , or Albedo for short , was a furry comic book anthology series which was credited with starting the furry comic book subgenre that featured sophisticated stories with funny animals primarily intended for an adult audience . The first issue of Albedo was published in 1983 ; the most recent issue was published in 2005 . Albedo was started by Steve Gallacci , who produced its main feature , Erma Felna : EDF -- a sophisticated science fiction military series set in a sector of space populated by sapient and predominantly humanoid versions of mammal and avian species . The focus of the series is Erma Felna , a young feline officer who eventually plays a central role in the complex political conflicts that consume her universe . Gallacci was a technical illustrator for the United States Air Force and one feature of Albedo is well thought-out and illustrated vehicles . His experience also shows in the realistic treatment of military life and operations . The series was used as inspiration for the Albedo role-playing game , which has had three editions and multiple supplements .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"Albedo_Anthropomorphics\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 98490\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 7959 Alysecherri Content: 7959 Alysecherri , provisional designation , is a bright , stony Hungaria asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 3 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 2 August 1994 , by American astronomer Carl Hergenrother at the U.S. Steward Observatory Catalina Station on Mt Bigelow near Tucson , Arizona . The E-type asteroid is a member of the Hungaria family , which form the innermost dense concentration of asteroids in the Solar System . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.8 -- 2.1 AU once every 2 years and 9 months ( 989 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.09 and an inclination of 19 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at Palomar Observatory in 1951 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 43 years prior to its discovery . A rotational light-curve for this asteroid was obtained from photometric observations made by American astronomer Brian Warner at the U.S. Palmer Divide Observatory , Colorado , in July 2013 . It gave a rotation period of hours with a brightness amplitude of 0.13 in magnitude . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.30 and calculates a diameter of 3.05 kilometers . The minor planet is named after the maiden name of the discovering astronomer 's wife , Alyse Cherri Smith . Naming citation was published on 13 November 2008 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"7959_Alysecherri\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 98074\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cloud albedo Content:\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"Cloud_albedo\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 97786\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Comet nucleus Content: The nucleus is the solid , central part of a comet , popularly termed a dirty snowball or an icy dirtball . A cometary nucleus is composed of rock , dust , and frozen gases . When heated by the Sun , the gases sublimate and produce an atmosphere surrounding the nucleus known as the coma . The force exerted on the coma by the Sun 's radiation pressure and solar wind cause an enormous tail to form , which points away from the Sun . A typical comet nucleus has an albedo of 0.04 . This is blacker than coal , and may be caused by a covering of dust . Results from the Rosetta and Philae spacecraft show that the nucleus of 67P/Churyumov -- Gerasimenko has no magnetic field , which suggests that magnetism may not have played a role in the early formation of planetesimals . Further , the ALICE spectrograph on Rosetta determined that electrons ( within 1 km above the comet nucleus ) produced from photoionization of water molecules by solar radiation , and not photons from the Sun as thought earlier , are responsible for the degradation of water and carbon dioxide molecules released from the comet nucleus into its coma . On 30 July 2015 , scientists reported that the Philae spacecraft , that landed on comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko in November 2014 , detected at least 16 organic compounds , of which four ( including acetamide , acetone , methyl isocyanate and propionaldehyde ) were detected for the first time on a comet .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"Comet_nucleus\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 97533\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Single-scattering albedo Content: Single-scattering albedo is the ratio of scattering efficiency to total extinction efficiency ( which is also termed `` attenuance '' , a sum of scattering and absorption ) . Most often it is defined for small-particle scattering of electromagnetic waves . Single-scattering albedo is unitless , and a value of unity implies that all particle extinction is due to scattering ; conversely , a single-scattering albedo of zero implies that all extinction is due to absorption . For spherical particles one can calculate single-scattering albedo from Mie theory and knowledge of bulk properties of material such as refractive index . For non-spherical particles one could use discrete dipole approximation or other methods of computational electromagnetics . The albedo of particles of shapes which are easily parameterized in non-standard co-ordinate systems may be determined through solutions of Maxwell 's equation analogues in such coordinate systems . Scattering albedo equations have yet to be determined in elliptical , torroidal , conical and many others . Derivation and solutions to such equations is a field of ongoing research .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"Single-scattering_albedo\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 96863\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1394 Algoa Content: 1394 Algoa , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 14 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 12 June 1936 , by English-born South-African astronomer Cyril Jackson at Union Observatory in Johannesburg , South Africa . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.3 -- 2.6 AU once every 3 years and 10 months ( 1,391 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.08 and an inclination of 3 ° with respect to the ecliptic . Prior to its discovery observation in 1936 , Algoa was identified as and at Lowell Observatory and Uccle Observatory , respectively . These observations , however , remained unused to extend the body 's observation arc . In 2012 , two rotational light-curves of Algoa were obtained at the U.S. Etscorn Observatory , New Mexico , and at the Riverland Dingo Observatory , Australia . They gave a well-defined , concurring rotation period of 2.768 hours with a brightness variation of 0.20 and 0.21 magnitude , respectively . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for stony asteroids of 0.20 , and calculates a diameter of 14.2 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 11.6 . The minor planet is named after the historical Algoa Bay , located approximately 700 kilometers east of the Cape of Good Hope , South Africa . Naming citation was published before November 1977 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"1394_Algoa\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 94696\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 11824 Alpaidze Content: 11824 Alpaidze , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid from the middle region of the asteroid belt , approximately 5 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 16 September 1982 , by Russian astronomer Lyudmila Chernykh at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory , Nauchnyj , on the Crimean peninsula . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.8 -- 3.4 AU once every 4 years and 3 months ( 1,563 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.31 and an inclination of 2 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was obtained at Palomar Observatory in 1978 . However , the observation was not used to extend the asteroid 's observation arc . Two rotational light-curves of this asteroid were obtained from photometric observations made at the U.S. Palomar Transient Factory , California , in September 2009 . The fragmentary light-curves gave a rotation period of and hours with a brightness amplitude of 0.05 and 0.06 in magnitude , respectively . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.10 , untypically low for a stony asteroid , and calculates a diameter of 4.8 kilometers , based on an absolute magnitude of 14.7 . The minor planet is named after Georgian-born Soviet Lieutenant General Galaktion Alpaidze ( 1916 -- 2006 ) , Hero of the Soviet Union and laureate of the USSR State Prize . He was the head of the Plesetsk Cosmodrome in the 1960s and 1970s , where space crafts were tested . During his supervision , the Cosmodrome became the world 's most active launch site in the world . Naming citation was published on 2 April 2007 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"11824_Alpaidze\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 94513\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 15017 Cuppy Content: 15017 Cuppy , provisional designation , is a small asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 2 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by the U.S. Lowell Observatory Near-Earth-Object Search ( LONEOS ) at its Anderson Mesa Station , Arizona , on 22 September 1998 . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.0 -- 2.7 AU once every 3 years and 7 months ( 1,296 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.16 and an inclination of 6 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at Palomar Observatory in 1991 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 7 years prior to its discovery . As of 2016 , its effective size , composition and albedo , as well as its rotation period and shape remain unknown . According to the survey carried out by NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid measures 1.8 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.50 . Based on an absolute magnitude of 15.6 , the asteroid is calculated to measure between 2 and 5 kilometers in diameter , assuming an albedo in the range of 0.05 to 0.25 . In September 2003 , the minor planet was named in memory of American literary critic and humorist , Will Cuppy ( 1884 -- 1949 ) . He is known for his satirical books The Decline and Fall of Practically Everybody , How to Attract the Wombat , How to Become Extinct and How to Tell Your Friends from the Apes . The name was proposed by M. Walter . Naming citation was published on 10 September 2003 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"15017_Cuppy\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 94043\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Albedo 0.39 Content: Albedo 0.39 is a studio album by the Greek electronic composer Vangelis , released in 1976 . It was the second album produced by Vangelis in Nemo Studios , London , which was his creative base until the late 1980s . It contrasts with his previous album , Heaven and Hell , which was classically inspired and choral , while Albedo 0.39 has blues and jazz overtones . It was his first Top 20 UK album .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"Albedo_0.39\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 93794\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2002 CY248 Content: , also written 2002 CY248 , is a large classical Kuiper belt object with an absolute magnitude of 5.0 and an albedo of 0.07 . It is about 383 km in diameter . It is possibly a dwarf planet .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"2002_CY248\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 93722\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 10P/Tempel Content: 10P/Tempel , also known as Tempel 2 , is a periodic Jupiter-family comet in the Solar System . It was discovered in 1873 and has an orbital period of 5.3 years . The comet nucleus is estimated to be 10.6 kilometers in diameter with a low albedo of 0.022 . The nucleus is dark because hydrocarbons on the surface have been converted to a dark , tarry like substance by solar ultraviolet radiation . During the 2010 apparition the comet brightened to about apparent magnitude 8 . It next comes to perihelion ( closest approach to the Sun ) on 14 November 2015 when it should brighten to around magnitude 11 . The most favorable apparition of 10P/Tempel 2 was in 1925 when it came within 0.35 AU of Earth with an apparent magnitude of 6.5 . On August 3 , 2026 , comet Tempel 2 is expected to have another close pass within about 0.41 AU of Earth .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"10P/Tempel\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 93116\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 283 Emma Content: 283 Emma is a large asteroid of the asteroid belt . It was discovered by Auguste Charlois on February 8 , 1889 , in Nice , France . The reason for its name is unknown . Measurements made with the IRAS observatory give a diameter of 145.70 ± 5.89 km and a geometric albedo of 0.03 ± 0.01 . By comparison , the MIPS photometer on the Spitzer Space Telescope gives a diameter of 145.44 ± 7.72 km and a geometric albedo of 0.03 ± 0.01 . When the asteroid was observed occulting a star , the results showed a diameter of 148.00 ± 16.26 km .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"283_Emma\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 91883\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: ALBEDO Telecom Content: ALBEDO Telecom is a company that designs and manufactures products for the telecom industry including testers , synchronization nodes and networking devices . Typical users are R&D laboratories , Mobile and Telecom operators to verify and install the infrastructures that support any kind of applications based on voice , video and data . It is headquartered in Barcelona , Spain in the European Union .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"ALBEDO_Telecom\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 91782\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 184 Dejopeja Content: 184 Dejopeja is a large M-type Main belt asteroid . It was discovered by J. Palisa on February 28 , 1878 , and was named after Deiopea , a Roman nymph . This is an X-type asteroid with a diameter of 66 km and a geometric albedo of 0.190 . Based upon Photometric observations taken during 2000 , it has a synodic rotation period of 6.441 ± 0.001 h . The light curve is tri-modal , most likely due to an angular shape , with a peak-to-peak amplitude of 0.19 ± 0.01 in magnitude .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"184_Dejopeja\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 91579\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: (386454) 2008 XM Content: ( 386454 ) 2008 XM is an outstandingly eccentric , sub-kilometer-sized asteroid , with one of the smallest known perihelions among all minor planets . It is classified as near-Earth object of the Apollo group and potentially hazardous asteroid , and measures approximately 370 meters in diameter . It was discovered on 2 December 2008 , by the U.S. LINEAR program at Lincoln Laboratory 's Experimental Test Site in Socorro , New Mexico . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 0.1 -- 2.3 AU once every 16 months ( 494 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.91 and an inclination of 5 ° with respect to the ecliptic . Due to its outstanding eccentricity , it is also a Mercury-crosser , Venus-crosser and Mars-crosser . It has the third-smallest perihelion of any numbered asteroid behind and . Its Earth minimum orbital intersection distance of 0.0047 AU corresponds to only 1.84 lunar distances . According to the survey carried out by the NEOWISE mission of NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , the asteroid measures meters in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.128 . As of 2016 , the body 's composition and spectral type , as well as its rotation period and shape remains unknown .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"(386454)_2008_XM\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 91498\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Albedo One Content: Albedo One is an Irish horror , fantasy and science fiction magazine founded in 1993 and currently published by Albedo One Productions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"Albedo_One\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 91490\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 19 Fortuna Content: 19 Fortuna is one of the largest main-belt asteroids . It has a composition similar to 1 Ceres : a darkly colored surface that is heavily space-weathered with the composition of primitive organic compounds , including tholins . Fortuna is 225 km in diameter and has one of the darkest known geometric albedos for an asteroid over 150 km in diameter . Its albedo has been measured at 0.028 and 0.037 . The Hubble Space Telescope observed Fortuna in 1993 . It was resolved with an apparent diameter of 0.20 arcseconds ( 4.5 pixels in the Planetary Camera ) and its shape was found to be nearly spherical . Satellites were searched for but none were detected . Stellar occultations by Fortuna have been observed several times . Fortuna has been studied by radar . It was discovered by J. R. Hind on August 22 , 1852 , and named after Fortuna , the Roman goddess of luck . Fortuna has been perturbed by the 80 km 135 Hertha and was initially estimated by Baer to have a mass of 1.08 kg . A more recent estimate by Baer suggests it has a mass of 1.27 kg . On December 21 , 2012 Fortuna ( ~ 200 km ) harmlessly passed within 6.5 Gm of asteroid 687 Tinette .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"19_Fortuna\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 91342\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Albedo (alchemy) Content: In alchemy , albedo is one of the four major stages of the magnum opus ; along with nigredo , citrinitas and rubedo . It is a Latinicized term meaning `` whiteness '' . Following the chaos or massa confusa of the nigredo stage , the alchemist undertakes a purification in albedo , which is literally referred to as ablutio -- the washing away of impurities . In this process , the subject is divided into two opposing principles to be later coagulated to form a unity of opposites or coincidentia oppositorum during rubedo . Titus Burckhardt interprets the albedo as the end of the lesser work , corresponding to a spiritualization of the body . The goal of this portion of the process is to regain the original purity and receptivity of the soul . Psychologist Carl Jung equated the albedo with unconscious contrasexual soul images ; the anima in men and animus in women . It is a phase where insight into shadow projections are realized , and inflated ego and unneeded conceptualizations are removed from the psyche .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"Albedo_(alchemy)\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 91081\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 276 Adelheid Content: 276 Adelheid is a very large main-belt asteroid that was discovered by Austrian astronomer Johann Palisa on April 17 , 1888 , in Vienna . This asteroid has a diameter of 122 km and a geometric albedo of 0.045 . Photometric observations in 1992 gave a light curve with a period of 6.328 ± 0.012 hours and a brightness variation of 0.10 ± 0.02 in magnitude . The curve is regular with two maxima and minima . This object has a spectrum that matches an X-type classification .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"276_Adelheid\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 91021\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Albedo (role-playing game) Content: Albedo is a role-playing game based on Steve Gallacci 's Erma Felna : EDF and Birthright storylines from the comic anthologies Albedo Anthropomorphics and Critters .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"Albedo_(role-playing_game)\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 90788\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 84882 Table Mountain Content: 84882 Table Mountain , provisional designation , is a bright asteroid from the middle region of the asteroid belt , approximately 5 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 1 February 2003 , by American astronomer James Whitney Young at the U.S. Table Mountain Observatory near Wrightwood , California . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.9 -- 3.4 AU once every 4 years and 3 months ( 1,566 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.29 and an inclination of 14 ° with respect to the ecliptic . It was first identified as at Lincoln Laboratory 's Experimental Test Site in 1997 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 6 years prior to its discovery observation . As of 2016 , the asteroid 's composition , rotation period and shape remain unknown . According to the survey carried out by the NEOWISE mission of NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , the asteroid measures 3.0 kilometers in diameter and its surface has a high albedo of 0.306 . Based on an assumed albedo in the range of 0.05 -- 0.25 and an absolute magnitude of 14.7 , the asteroid 's generic diameter measures would be between 3 and 7 kilometers , as the higher the body 's reflectivity ( albedo ) , the smaller is its diameter at a constant absolute magnitude ( brightness ) . The minor planet was named for the Table Mountain Observatory , the discoverer 's workplace , currently a NASA facility operated by the California Institute of Technology 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory , which began operation as a Smithsonian Institution site in 1924 to study the solar constant . In the late 1950s , the site was used to test the first solar panels and is now dedicated to optical astronomy and to study Earth 's atmosphere . Citation was published on 28 October 2004 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"84882_Table_Mountain\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 90460\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Umov effect Content: The Umov effect , also known as Umov 's law , is a relationship between the albedo of an astronomical object , and the degree of polarization of light reflecting off it . The effect was discovered by the Russian physicist Nikolay Umov in 1905 , and can be observed for celestial objects such as the surface of the Moon and the asteroids . The degree of linear polarization of light P is defined by where and are the intensities of light in the directions perpendicular and parallel to the plane of a polarizer aligned in the plane of reflection . Values of P are zero for unpolarized light , and ± 1 for linearly polarized light . Umov 's law states where α is the albedo of the object . Thus , highly reflective objects tend to reflect mostly unpolarized light , and dimly reflective objects tend to reflect polarized light . The law is only valid for large phase angles ( angles between the incident light and the reflected light ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"Umov_effect\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 90333\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of albedo features on Mercury Content: This is a list of the albedo features of the planet Mercury as seen by early telescopic observation . Early telescopic observations of Mercury were based on the assumption that Mercury keeps one of its faces permanently turned toward the Sun , through the mechanism of tidal locking . Although this is not true ( Mercury rotates three times on its axis for every two revolutions around the Sun ) , when it is positioned for best viewing from Earth , the amount by which its visible face has rotated from its previous best viewing position is fairly small . A map of Mercury made in the 1910s by astronomer Eugène Michel Antoniadi shows the following albedo features , localized by a grid in which 0 ° longitude is the ( assumed ) subsolar meridian . No certain connection has been made between these features and the topographic features viewed on Mercury by the Mariner 10 spacecraft . Mariner 10 , however , imaged less than half of Mercury 's surface . The names are drawn from Greek mythology , and often allude to myths about Hermes , the Greek equivalent of the Roman god Mercury .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_albedo_features_on_Mercury\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 90256\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: (42301) 2001 UR163 Content: , also written as ( 42301 ) 2001 UR163 , is likely a dwarf planet that resides in the scattered disc . It was discovered on October 21 , 2001 by the Deep Ecliptic Survey ( DES ) program at Kitt Peak . Light-curve-amplitude analysis shows only small deviations , suggesting that is a spheroid with small albedo spots . Michael Brown 's website lists it as a highly likely dwarf planet , but the diameter of the object has never been measured . has the reddest color index of any object in the Solar System . On October 31 , 2002 , the 3.6-meter Canada -- France -- Hawaii Telescope observed set a record red reading of B − R = 2.28 . This makes even redder than Pholus , , Sedna and comet C/2001 T4 . Reddening of the spectrum is caused by cosmic irradiation by ultraviolet radiation and charged particles . Becoming bluer in the spectrum is caused by impact collisions exposing the interior of an object . In the visible spectrum , would appear orange-brown , depending on its albedo . It came to perihelion around 1937 . In 2006 , it moved beyond 50 AU from the Sun . It is currently 51.9 AU from the Sun .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"(42301)_2001_UR163\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 90239\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Twomey effect Content: The Twomey effect describes how cloud condensation nuclei ( CCN ) , possibly from anthropogenic pollution , may increase the amount of solar radiation reflected by clouds . This is an indirect effect . Aerosol particles can act as CCN 's creating more droplets which have a smaller size distribution . The reduction in size distribution increases the Optical depth of the cloud . This increases the cloud albedo as clouds appear whiter and larger , leading to a cooling of between -0.3 and -1.8 Wm − 2 . For example , on satellite imagery we observe trails of white clouds from ships crossing the oceans due to this effect .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"Twomey_effect\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 89961\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 415 Palatia Content: 415 Palatia is a large main belt asteroid that was discovered by German astronomer Max Wolf on February 7 , 1896 in Heidelberg . 10µ radiometric data collected from Kitt Peak in 1975 gave an overly large diameter estimate of 93 km . It has a very low radiometric albedo of 0.026 and the spectrum suggests a metal-rich enstatite composition .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"415_Palatia\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 89899\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Steve Gallacci Content: Steven A. Gallacci ( born 1955 ) is best known for creating and publishing Albedo Anthropomorphics , a black and white alternative comic containing anthropomorphic funny animal characters , which has been considered a major factor in the origins of furry fandom . Gallacci spent six years in the US Air Force as a graphics specialist , including a tour of duty in Germany . After leaving the military , Gallacci started Albedo under his own Thoughts & Images imprint . First published in 1983 , Albedo '' 's last issue was published in 2005 under the Shanda Fantasy Arts imprint . Among some of the story lines that have appeared in Albedo are Gallacci 's own `` Erma Felna : EDF '' , a military sci-fi epic featuring some elements of political intrigue , and Stan Sakai 's Usagi Yojimbo , which first appeared in the infamously rare Albedo # 2 . Gallacci also worked on Fusion , a SF adventure comic from Eclipse Comics similar to the TV show Firefly , though pre-dating it by nearly twenty years . Lela Dowling co-authored the artwork and Steve Barnes drafted the first issues , though Gallacci would write most of the later ones with Lex Nakashima . He also created `` Birthright '' , an indirect sequel to Erma Felna , serialized in the Fantagraphics title `` Critters '' . The first three issues of Donna Barr 's `` the Desert Peach '' and a single issue of his own fantasy adventure `` Zell , Sworddancer '' with art assistance by Steve Adams , was also published under his Thoughts & Images imprint . Thoughts & Images also published the first edition of Albedo RPG , written by Craig Hilton and Paul Kidd , and based on the Erma Felna storyline from Albedo '' . Additional editions and supplements were published by Chessex in the early 1990s . An all-new version of an Albedo RPG has been published by Sanguin . Galacci provided art for episodes of Elin Winkler 's `` Tales of the Fehnnik '' , published by Radio Comix , and short bits for Ken Fletcher 's `` Spontoon '' fanzine . He has also done Science Fiction art and illustration since the late 1970s , as well as straight technical/commercial illustration . He occasionally produces silver bullets for his Argent Small Arms line of replica firearms . More recently , he has been creating masters for after-market scale model aircraft detail/correction/conversion sets . Gallacci lives in Seattle with his two dogs . His wife of twenty-two years , the long time SF and media fan Beverley Clark , died 16 September 2007 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"Steve_Gallacci\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 89894\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2014 JO25 Content: 2014 JO25 is a peanut-shaped contact-binary near-earth asteroid . It was discovered in May 2014 by A. D. Grauer of the Catalina Sky Survey as part of NASA 's NEO Observations Program . Early estimation based on observed absolute magnitude and estimated albedo indicates object 600-1400 m in diameter . Further research based on NEOWISE data indicates an object of 650 m in diameter and albedo 0.25 . Data taken during 2017 flyby shows asteroid measures at least 870 m ( largest dimension ) . The 2017 flyby within a distance of 1.8 million kilometers was the closest approach to Earth by 2014 JO25 for at least the next 400 years .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"2014_JO25\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 89728\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tartarus Montes Content: The Tartarus Montes are a mountain range on the planet Mars , stretching over 1070 km and located around the coordinates 15.46 º N , 167.54 º E , between Orcus Patera and the Elysium volcanic region . Albedo was first identified from the contrast of bright and dark signals photographed by Eugène Antoniadi .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"Tartarus_Montes\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 89456\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 3255 Tholen Content: 3255 Tholen , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid , Mars-crosser and relatively fast rotator , that measures approximately 6 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 2 September 1980 , by American astronomer Edward Bowell at Lowell 's Anderson Mesa Station in Flagstaff , Arizona . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.5 -- 3.2 AU once every 3 years and 8 months ( 1,335 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.36 and an inclination of 21 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first observation was made at the Argentinian El Leoncito site in 1969 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 11 years prior to its discovery . According to the space-based survey carried out by the Japanese Akari satellite and NASA 's NEOWISE mission , the asteroid measures 4.0 and 6.8 kilometers in diameter , and its surface has an albedo of 0.14 and 0.34 , respectively , while the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for stony asteroids of 0.20 and calculates a diameter of 5.1 kilometers , based on an absolute magnitude of 13.84 . Several rotational light-curves were obtained for this asteroid from photometric observations . In September 2013 , Italian astronomer Andrea Ferrero at the Bigmuskie Observatory in Mombercelli , Italy , derived a rotation period of hours with a brightness variation of 0.11 in magnitude , while two month later , in November 2013 , astronomer Brian A. Skiff obtained two light-curves that both gave a period of 2.95 and an amplitude of 0.24 and 0.28 in magnitude , respectively . The results supersede two older light-curves from 1991 and 2002 , that gave a period of and 6 hours , respectively . The minor planet was named after David J. Tholen ( b. 1955 ) , a discoverer of minor planets and planetary scientist at the Institute for Astronomy of the University of Hawaii , known for his eight-color taxonomic scheme on minor planets . Naming citation was published on 14 April 1987 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"3255_Tholen\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 89419\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 342843 Davidbowie Content: 342843 Davidbowie , provisional designation , is a small asteroid from the middle region of the asteroid belt , approximately 2 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 21 December 2008 , by German astronomer Felix Hormuth from Max-Planck-Institute for Astronomy at Calar Alto Observatory in Almería , southeastern Spain . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.5 -- 3.0 AU once every 4 years and 7 months ( 1,664 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.09 and an inclination of 3 ° with respect to the ecliptic . Notably , the asteroid had a close encounter with the 200 kilometer-sized asteroid 16 Psyche , one of the most massive bodies in the main-belt , which it passed at only 0.04 AU on 15 May 1935 . It was first identified as at Steward Observatory ( Kitt Peak ) in 2003 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 5 years prior to its discovery observation . As of 2017 , the asteroid 's effective size , its composition , albedo and rotation period remain unknown . It has , however , a well-observed orbit with the lowest possible condition code and an observation arc that spans over a period of more than a decade . It was first observed in 2003 , but not identified as a new asteroid until 2008 . Based on its absolute magnitude of 17.1 , its diameter is between 1 and 2 kilometers , assuming an albedo in the range of 0.05 to 0.25 . Since most asteroids in the outer main-belt are of a carbonaceous rather than of a silicaceous composition , with a low albedo , typically around 0.05 , the asteroid 's diameter might be on the upper end of NASA 's published conversion table , as the lower the albedo ( reflectivity ) , the larger the body 's diameter for its given absolute magnitude ( brightness ) . The minor planet was named on 5 January 2015 , in honor of British singer , songwriter , producer and actor , David Bowie ( 1947 -- 2016 ) , just 3 days before Bowie 's 68th birthday . Considered to be one of the most influential artists , Bowie released more than 25 albums including The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars . He was also an actor in movies such as Labyrinth and The Prestige .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"342843_Davidbowie\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 88369\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hapke parameters Content: The Hapke parameters are a set of parameters for an empirical model that is commonly used to describe the directional reflectance properties of the airless regolith surfaces of bodies in the solar system . The model has been developed by astronomer Bruce Hapke at the University of Pittsburgh . The parameters are : -- Single scattering albedo . This is the ratio of scattering efficiency to total light extinction ( which includes also absorption ) , for small-particle scattering of light . That is , , where is the scattering coefficient , and is the absorption coefficient -- The width of the opposition surge . or -- The strength of the opposition surge . or g -- The particle phase function parameter , also called the asymmetry factor . -- The effective surface tilt , also called the macroscopic roughness angle . The Hapke parameters can be used to derive other albedo and scattering properties such as the geometric albedo , the phase integral , and the Bond albedo .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"Hapke_parameters\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 88220\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 6470 Aldrin Content: 6470 Aldrin , provisional designation , is a stony Flora asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 3 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by Czech astronomer Antonín Mrkos at Kleť Observatory on 14 September 1982 . The S-type asteroid is a member of the Flora family , one of the largest groups of stony asteroids in the main-belt . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.9 -- 2.6 AU once every 3 years and 5 months ( 1,253 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.15 and an inclination of 3 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The asteroid 's observation arc begins in 1982 , as no precoveries had been taken prior to its discovery . A rotational light-curve of this asteroid was obtained from photometric observations made at the U.S. Palomar Transient Factory in September 2013 . The light-curve gave a rotation period of hours with a brightness variation of 0.82 in magnitude . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.24 -- which derives from 8 Flora , the largest member and namesake of this orbital family -- and calculates a diameter of 3.0 kilometers , based on an absolute magnitude of 14.78 . The minor planet was named for American astronaut Buzz Aldrin ( b. 1930 ) , on the occasion of the 30th anniversary of the Apollo 11 mission . He was one of the first two humans to land on the Moon , and the second person to walk on it , following Neil Armstrong , after whom the asteroid 6469 Armstrong is named . Its name was suggested by Czech astronomers Jana Tichá , Miloš Tichý and Zdeněk Moravec , who observed the asteroid during its 1995-opposition , shortly before being numbered . Naming citation was published on 4 May 1999 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"6470_Aldrin\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 88208\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 11441 Anadiego Content: 11441 Anadiego , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid from the middle region of the asteroid belt , approximately 7 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 31 December 1975 , by Argentine astronomer Mario R. Cesco at the El Leoncito Complex in western Argentina . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.9 -- 3.2 AU once every 4 years and 1 month ( 1,497 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.26 and an inclination of 12 ° with respect to the ecliptic . As no precoveries were taken , the asteroid 's observation arc starts with its discovery observation in 1975 . A rotational light-curve was obtained for this asteroid by astronomer Kevin Hills at the Australian Riverland Dingo Observatory in February 2013 . It gave a rotation period of hours with a brightness variation of 0.11 magnitude . According to the surveys carried out by NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid measures 6.8 and 7.3 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.287 and 0.254 , respectively . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a lower standard albedo for stony asteroids of 0.20 , and , correspondingly calculates a larger diameter of 8.2 kilometers , based on an absolute magnitude of 12.8 . The minor planet was named in memory of Ana Teresa Diego ( 1954 -- 1976 ) , an astronomy student at La Plata Astronomical Observatory and political activist who was kidnapped and disappeared in September 1976 by unidentified persons believed working for the military junta then ruling Argentina . Naming citation was published 10 December 2011 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"11441_Anadiego\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 88026\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1684 Iguassú Content: 1684 Iguassú , provisional designation , is a carbonaceous asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt , approximately 30.5 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 23 August 1951 , by Argentine astronomer Miguel Itzigsohn at the La Plata Astronomical Observatory , located in the city of La Plata , Argentina . The C-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.7 -- 3.5 AU once every 5 years and 5 months ( 1,991 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.12 and an inclination of 4 ° with respect to the ecliptic . In January 2014 , two rotational light-curves of Iguassú were obtained at the Palomar Transient Factory in California . They gave a rotation period of 9.14 and 9.23 hours , respectively , both with a brightness change of in magnitude . According to the survey carried out by NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , Iguassú measures between 30.21 and 31.38 kilometers in diameter , and its surface has an albedo between 0.08 and 0.093 . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for carbonaceous asteroids of 0.057 and calculates a diameter of 30.62 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 11.3 . This minor planet is named for the large Iguazu Falls , a 60 meters high and 1 kilometer wide waterfall , which river of the same name marks part of the boundary between Argentina and Brazil . As a curiosity , the spelling of the minor planet 's name ( Iguassú ) neither concurs with the Spanish `` Iguazú '' nor with the Portuguese `` Iguaçu '' . It is rather similar to `` Yguasu '' , used in the native Guarani language , from which the waterfall 's name originates . Naming citation was published on 8 April 1982 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"1684_Iguassú\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 87804\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Gonnus Mons Content: Gonnus Mons is a large mountain on the planet Mars . The name Gonnus Mons is a classical albedo name . It has a diameter of 57 km and a peak of 2890 m . This was approved by International Astronomical Union in 1991 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"Gonnus_Mons\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 87431\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2661 Bydžovský Content: 2661 Bydžovský , provisional designation , is an asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt , approximately 30 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 23 March 1982 , by Czech astronomer Zdeňka Vávrová at the South Bohemian Kleť Observatory in the Czech Republic . Bydžovský orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.7 -- 3.3 AU once every 5 years and 3 months ( 1,923 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.09 and an inclination of 10 ° with respect to the ecliptic . It was first identified as at Heidelberg Observatory in 1950 , extending the body 's observation arc by 32 years prior to its discovery . As of 2016 , Bydžovskýs size , albedo , composition and rotation period remain unknown . Based on its absolute magnitude of 11.4 , its diameter is estimated to measure between 13 and 32 kilometers , assuming an albedo in the range of 0.05 to 0.25 . Since most asteroids in the outer main-belt are of a carbonaceous rather than of a silicaceous composition , with low albedos , typically closer to 0.05 than to 0.25 , the asteroid 's diameter might be on the upper end of NASA 's published conversion table , as the lower the reflectivity ( albedo ) , the larger the body 's diameter for a given absolute magnitude . The minor planet was named in honour of mathematician Bohumil Bydžovský ( 1880 -- 1969 ) , chancellor of the Charles University in Prague . He was born in southern Bohemia and became the most eminent citizen of the Czech town Veselí on the Lužnice river , after which the minor planets 2321 Lužnice and 2599 Veselí were named , respectively . Naming citation was published on 6 February 1993 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"2661_Bydžovský\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 87145\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 113390 Helvetia Content: 113390 Helvetia , provisional designation , is an asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 2.2 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 29 September 2002 , by Swiss astronomer Markus Griesser at the Eschenberg Observatory in Winterthur , near Zürich , Switzerland . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.8 -- 2.8 AU once every 3 years and 6 months ( 1,276 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.20 and an inclination of 7 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at Palomar Observatory in 1960 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 42 years prior to its discovery . As of 2016 , the asteroid 's shape , composition and rotation period remain unknown . Based on its absolute magnitude of 15.6 , its diameter lies between 2 and 4 kilometers , assuming an albedo in the range of 0.05 to 0.25 . According to the survey carried out by the NEOWISE mission of NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , the asteroid measures 2.2 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.231 , which is typical for stony asteroids . The minor planet was named in February 2006 and bears the name for Switzerland ( Confoederatio Helvetica ) , where the asteroid was discovered . Helvetia is also an allegorical figure and symbol for the nation . Each Swiss stamp carries her name , and her figure appears on most Swiss coins . Naming citation was published on 19 February 2006 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"113390_Helvetia\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 86780\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2004 TG10 Content: , also written as 2004 TG10 , is a near-Earth object . It may be a fragment of Comet Encke . Depending on its albedo it is estimated to be 350 to 780 meters in diameter . It may be the source of the Northern Taurids meteor shower in November .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"2004_TG10\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 86725\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Skinakas (hypothetical basin) Content: The Skinakas basin is the informal name given to a structure on Mercury that appeared to be an extremely large impact basin . The limited-resolution images available showed a double-ringed structure , with the inner ring having a diameter of around 1600 km , which would have made it one of the largest impact basins in the solar system . It appeared to be even larger than the Caloris basin on Mercury , which has been known since the Mariner 10 flybys of that planet . The part of the outer ring that was imaged appeared to correspond to a diameter of around 2300 km . The basin was supposedly centered at about and lay on the hemisphere of Mercury that was not imaged by Mariner 10 . This place is situated near an albedo feature Solitudo Aphrodites . In 2001 , it was observed and imaged by ALPO ( Association of Lunar and Planetary Observers ) members . But it was followed by L. Ksanfomality from lucky imaging observations in 2004 . The informal name is after the Skinakas observatory on Crete where the observations were taken . Despite radar images having a far greater resolution they are not useful for detecting very large impact basins such as this one ; for example , the Caloris basin is also not visible in radar . However , careful examination of images by MESSENGER spacecraft showed no evidence of the Skinakas basin .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"Skinakas_(hypothetical_basin)\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 86665\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 6522 Aci Content: 6522 Aci , provisional designation , is a stony Phocaea asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , about 6 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by American astronomer Eleanor Helin at the U.S. Palomar Observatory in California , on 9 July 1991 . The S-type asteroid is a member of the Phocaea family , a relatively small group of asteroids with similar orbital characteristics . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.9 -- 2.9 AU once every 3 years and 8 months ( 1,345 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.20 and an inclination of 22 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at the German Karl Schwarzschild Observatory in 1990 , one year prior to its discovery . A photometric light-curve analysis performed at the U.S. Palomar Transient Factory in 2010 , rendered a rotation period of hours with a brightness amplitude of 0.68 in magnitude . According to the NEOWISE mission of NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , the asteroid measures 6.1 kilometers in diameter and its surface has a high albedo of 0.39 , while the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.23 -- which derives from 25 Phocaea , namesake and largest member of this orbital family -- and calculates a diameter of 5.7 kilometers . The minor planet was named for the river southeast of Mount Etna in Sicily , Italy . The towns and villages along the river , such as Aci Castello , Aci Trezza , Aci-Reale , and Aci Sant ` Antonio , were also honored . The river also brings to mind the myth of Aci from Greek mythology , which is about a young Sicilian shepherd , who was killed by the jealous cyclops Polyphemus , because of his love for the sea nymph Galatea . The minor planet 74 Galatea is named after this Nereid . Naming citation was published on 26 October 1996 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"6522_Aci\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 86467\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 829 Academia Content: 829 Academia is a minor planet orbiting the Sun . The asteroid is roughly 44 km in diameter and has a low albedo . Photometric measurements of the asteroid made in 2005 at the Palmer Divide Observatory showed a light curve with a period of 7.891 ± 0.005 hours and a brightness variation of 0.44 ± 0.02 in magnitude .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"829_Academia\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 86397\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2010 VR11 Content: , also written 2010 VR11 , is a classical Kuiper belt object with an absolute magnitude of 5.6 . Assuming an albedo of 0.08 , it is estimated to be about 350 km in diameter . Astronomer Mike Brown lists it as possibly a dwarf planet .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"2010_VR11\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 86357\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 206 Hersilia Content: 206 Hersilia is a fairly large Main belt asteroid . It was discovered by C. H. F. Peters on October 13 , 1879 , in Clinton , New York . The asteroid was named after Hersilia , Roman wife of Romulus . It is classified as a primitive , dark carbon-rich C-type asteroid . Measurements made with the IRAS observatory give a diameter of 101.72 ± 5.18 km and a geometric albedo of 0.06 ± 0.01 . By comparison , the MIPS photometer on the Spitzer Space Telescope gives a diameter of 97.99 ± 7.40 km and a geometric albedo of 0.06 ± 0.02 . The last close earth transit was in November and December 2002 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"206_Hersilia\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 86148\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1064 Aethusa Content: 1064 Aethusa , provisional designation 1926 PA , is a main-belt asteroid , discovered by German astronomer Karl Reinmuth at Heidelberg Observatory on 2 August 1926 . It is orbiting the Sun in a distance of 2.09 − 2.99 AU , measures about 19 kilometers in diameter , and has a high geometric albedo of 0.32 . Measurements made with the IRAS observatory give a diameter of 20.64 ± 1.37 km and a geometric albedo of 0.27 ± 0.03 . By comparison , the MIPS photometer on the Spitzer Space Telescope gives a diameter of 8.621 ± 4.28 km and a geometric albedo of 0.17 ± 0.04 . Other photometric observations of the asteroid collected during 2006 show a rotation period of 8.621 ± 0.004 hours with a brightness variation of 0.18 ± 0.02 magnitude . The asteroid is named after a genus in the carrot family , `` Aethusa '' , of which the plant Aethusa cynapium ( fool 's parsley ) is the only member .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"1064_Aethusa\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 85867\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sinus Meridiani Content: Sinus Meridiani is a feature name for an albedo feature on Mars stretching east-west just south of that planet 's equator . It was named by the French astronomer Camille Flammarion in the late 1870s . It has a diameter of 1622 km , and its center is located at 7.12 S and 4 E.\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"Sinus_Meridiani\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 85208\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 4082 Swann Content: 4082 Swann , provisional designation , is a carbonaceous asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 10 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by American astronomer Carolyn Shoemaker at Palomar Observatory on 27 September 1984 . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.8 -- 3.0 AU once every 3 years and 8 months ( 1,349 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.26 and an inclination of 10 ° with respect to the ecliptic . First identified as `` 1947 UF '' at the Finnish Turku Observatory in 1947 , the asteroid 's observation arc was extended by 37 years prior to its discovery . The C-type asteroid is classified as a Ch-subtype in the SMASS taxonomy . According to the surveys carried out by the Japanese Akari satellite and NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid measures 9.5 and 11.1 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.029 and 0.101 , respectively . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link , however , assumes a standard albedo for stony asteroids of 0.20 and derives a much smaller diameter of 5.85 kilometers , based on an absolute magnitude of 13.46 . In July 2006 , a rotational light-curve for this asteroid was obtained from photometric observations by Petr Pravec at the Ondřejov Observatory in the Czech Republic . It gave a rotation period of hours with a brightness variation of 0.67 magnitude . A second light-curve obtained by Jean-Gabriel Bosch in September 2006 , gave a period of hours and an amplitude of 0.35 magnitude . The minor planet was named after American geologist Gordon A. Swann ( b. 1931 ) . He served as the principal investigator of the `` Apollo Lunar Geologic Experiment '' conducted at the lunar landing sites of Apollo 14 and Apollo 15 . Naming citation was published on 12 December 1989 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"4082_Swann\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 85029\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 318 Magdalena Content: 318 Magdalena is a main belt asteroid orbiting the Sun . It was discovered by Auguste Charlois on 24 September 1891 in Nice . On April 15 , 2005 UT Magdalena occulted a 10.7 mag star in the constellation Scutum for observers along a path across Australia . Measurements made with the IRAS observatory give a diameter of 106.08 ± 0.25 km and a geometric albedo of 0.03 ± 0.01 . By comparison , the MIPS photometer on the Spitzer Space Telescope gives a diameter of 105.32 ± 11.11 km and a geometric albedo of 0.03 ± 0.01 . Alternative Rock group The Pixies named one of their songs after the asteroid on their album Indie Cindy .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"318_Magdalena\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 84981\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kombayashi–Ingersoll limit Content: In planetary science , the Kombayashi -- Ingersoll limit represents the maximum solar flux a planet can handle without a runaway greenhouse effect setting in . For planets with temperature-dependent sources of greenhouse gases such as liquid water and optically thin atmospheres the outgoing longwave radiation curve ( which indicates how fast energy can be radiated away by the planet ) flattens at high temperatures , reaching a horizontal asymptote -- the Kombayashi -- Ingersoll limit itself . Since the equilibrium temperature is the intersection of this curve and a horizontal line representing solar flux , for fluxes above this point the planet heats up indefinitely . Kasting estimated the limit for Earth to be 320 watts per square meter . The limit is relevant for estimating the inner edge of the circumstellar habitable zone . However , the limit also depends on the surface gravity of the planet , making heavy worlds somewhat more resistant to the runaway effect .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"Kombayashi–Ingersoll_limit\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 84904\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: (48639) 1995 TL8 Content: ( also written ( 48639 ) 1995 TL8 ) is a classical Kuiper belt object possessing a relatively large satellite . The assumed diameter of 352 km is derived from an albedo guess of 0.09 , being typical for trans-Neptunian objects .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"(48639)_1995_TL8\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 84799\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 11949 Kagayayutaka Content: 11949 Kagayayutaka , provisional designation , is an asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt , approximately 23 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 19 September 1993 , by Japanese amateur astronomers Kin Endate and Kazuro Watanabe at Kitami Observatory in eastern Hokkaidō , Japan . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.5 -- 3.6 AU once every 5 years and 5 months ( 1,983 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.18 and an inclination of 8 ° with respect to the ecliptic . As no precoveries were taken , the asteroid 's observation arc starts with its discovery observation in September 1993 . The body is classified as both a C and S-type asteroid by the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link ( CALL ) and Pan-STARRS survey of magnitudes , respectively . According to the survey carried out by NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid measures 22.28 kilometers in diameter and its surface has a high albedo of 0.708 , while CALL assumes a standard albedo for carbonaceous asteroids of 0.057 and calculates a diameter of 23.21 kilometers . A rotational light-curve was obtained for this asteroid from photometric observations by French astronomer René Roy in November 2015 . It gave a provisional rotation period of hours with a brightness variation of 0.28 in magnitude . The minor planet was named after Kagaya Yutaka ( b. 1968 ) , the Japanese space and digital artist and receiver of the Gold Medal in the American Digital Art Contest in 2000 . Naming citation was published on 10 September 2003 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"11949_Kagayayutaka\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 84392\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 92 Undina Content: 92 Undina ( -LSB- ʌnˈdaɪnə -RSB- ; Latin : Undīna ) is a large main belt asteroid . It has an unusually high albedo and an M-type spectrum . It was discovered by C. H. F. Peters on July 7 , 1867 . It is named for the eponymous heroine of Undine , a popular novella by Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué . Undina is a member of the Veritas asteroid family , which formed some eight million years ago . See 490 Veritas for details . Observations performed at the Palmer Divide Observatory in Colorado Springs , Colorado in during 2007 produced a light curve with a period of 15.941 ± 0.002 hours with a brightness range of 0.20 ± 0.02 in magnitude . This matches a 15.94-hour period reported in 1979 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"92_Undina\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 84240\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 225 Henrietta Content: 225 Henrietta is a very large outer main-belt asteroid . It was discovered by Johann Palisa on April 19 , 1882 , in Vienna and named after Henrietta , wife of astronomer Pierre J. C. Janssen . This is classified as a C-type asteroid and is probably composed of privitive carbonaceous material . It has very dark surface , with an albedo of 0.040 . Photometric measurements made from the Oakley Southern Sky Observatory during 2012 gave a light curve with a period of 7.352 ± 0.003 hours and a variation in brightness of 0.18 ± 0.02 in magnitude . This is consistent with a synodic rotation period of 7.356 ± 0.001 hours determined in 2000 . In 2001 , the asteroid was detected by radar from the Arecibo Observatory at a distance of 1.58 AU . The resulting data yielded an effective diameter of . 225 Henrietta belongs to Cybele group of asteroids and is probably in a 4:7 orbital resonance with the planet Jupiter .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"225_Henrietta\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 84219\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 4150 Starr Content: 4150 Starr , provisional designation , is a stony Florian asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 7 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by American astronomer Brian A. Skiff at Lowell 's Anderson Mesa Station on 31 August 1984 . The S-type asteroid is a member of the Flora family , one of the largest groups of stony asteroids in the main-belt . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.9 -- 2.6 AU once every 3 years and 4 months ( 1,219 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.17 and an inclination of 3 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first observation was made at the U.S. Goethe Link Observatory in 1957 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 27 years prior to its discovery . According to the space-based survey by the NEOWISE mission of NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , the asteroid measures 6.6 and 6.9 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.258 and 0.277 , respectively , while the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link ( CALL ) assumes an albedo of 0.24 -- derived from 8 Flora , the family 's largest member and namesake -- and calculates a diameter of 7.5 kilometers , based on an absolute magnitude of 12.8 . Several rotational light-curves were obtained for this asteroid from photometric observations . An unpublished light-curve by Kryszczynska from November 2011 , has been rated best by CALL . It gave a rotation period of hours and a brightness variation of 0.20 in magnitude . The minor planet was named in after Richard Starkey ( b. 1940 ) , better known as Ringo Starr , the drummer of The Beatles . He joined the English rock band in 1962 , replacing its former drummer Pete Best . Ringo has released various albums in his solo career and also acted in several movies . Naming citation was published on 10 April 1990 . The minor planets 8749 Beatles , 4147 Lennon , 4148 McCartney and 4149 Harrison were named after the band and its three other members .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"4150_Starr\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 84202\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: (308193) 2005 CB79 Content: is a trans-Neptunian object that is a member of the Haumea family . As a member of the Haumea family , is suspected of being an icy mantle collisional fragment from dwarf planet Haumea . With an absolute magnitude ( H ) of 4.7 , and a Haumea-family albedo of 0.7 , this object would have a diameter of 158 km . Observations by Mike Brown in 2012 using the W. M. Keck Observatory suggest that does not have a companion .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"(308193)_2005_CB79\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 84196\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Dynamic Albedo of Neutrons Content: The Dynamic Albedo of Neutrons ( DAN ) instrument is an experiment mounted on the Mars Science Laboratory Curiosity rover . It is a pulsed sealed-tube neutron source and detector used to measure hydrogen or ice and water at or near the Martian surface . DAN was provided by the Russian Federal Space Agency , funded by Russia and is under the leadership of Principal Investigator Igor Mitrofanov . On August 18 , 2012 ( sol ) , DAN was turned on , marking the success of a Russian-American collaboration on the surface of Mars and the first working Russian science instrument on the Martian surface since Mars 3 stopped transmitting over forty years ago . The instrument is designed to detect subsurface water . On March 18 , 2013 ( sol ) , NASA reported evidence of mineral hydration , likely hydrated calcium sulfate , in several rock samples including the broken fragments of `` Tintina '' rock and `` Sutton Inlier '' rock as well as in veins and nodules in other rocks like `` Knorr '' rock and `` Wernicke '' rock . Analysis using the rover 's DAN instrument provided evidence of subsurface water , amounting to as much as 4 % water content , down to a depth of 60 cm , in the rover 's traverse from the Bradbury Landing site to the Yellowknife Bay area in the Glenelg terrain . On August 19 , 2015 , NASA scientists reported that the DAN instrument on Curiosity detected an unusual hydrogen-rich area , at `` Marias Pass , '' on Mars . The hydrogen found seemed related to water or hydroxyl ions in rocks within three feet beneath the rover , according to the scientists .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"Dynamic_Albedo_of_Neutrons\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 84134\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 645 Agrippina Content: 645 Agrippina , provisional designation 1907 AG , is a stony asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt , roughly 30 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by American astronomer reverend Joel Metcalf at Taunton , Massachusetts , USA , on 13 September 1907 . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.7 -- 3.7 AU once every 5 years and 9 months ( 2,103 days ) . Its orbit shows an eccentricity of 0.15 and is tilted by 7 degrees to the plane of the ecliptic . A photometric light-curve analysis from the 1980s and a provisional observation in 2004 rendered a rotation period of 32.6 and 34.4 hours , respectively . According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite , IRAS , the Japanese Akari satellite , and the U.S.Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid has a dissimilar albedo in the range of 0.14 to 0.23 , which leads to a varying estimate for its diameter from 28 to 36 kilometers . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link publishes an albedo of 0.23 from an alternative result of the Supplemental IRAS Minor Planet Survey ( SIMPS ) and derives a slightly lower diameter of 27.9 kilometers . The minor planet was named for two women of ancient Roman history . Agrippina the Elder ( 14 BCE -- 33 ) was the daughter of the Roman statesman Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa , the wife of Germanicus and the mother of the Emperor Caligula . Her daughter , Agrippina the Younger ( 15 -- 59 AD ) was the mother of Emperor Nero . The naming might be influenced by the two letters of the provisional designation 1907 AG . In the Dictionary of Minor Planet Names , Lutz Schmadel supposes that the name originated from a list of female names from mythology and history , compiled by the Astronomisches Rechen-Institut ( ARI ) in 1913 . The ARI then sent this list to a number of astronomers with the request to name their discoveries in order to avoid confusion , as the number of unnamed minor planet up to number 700 had grown significantly at the time .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"645_Agrippina\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 84082\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Volcanic winter Content: A volcanic winter is a reduction in global temperatures caused by volcanic ash and droplets of sulfuric acid and water obscuring the Sun and raising Earth 's albedo ( increasing the reflection of solar radiation ) after a large particularly explosive volcanic eruption . Long-term cooling effects are primarily dependent upon injection of sulfur gasses into the stratosphere where they undergo a series of reactions to create sulfuric acid which can nucleate and form aerosols . Volcanic stratospheric aerosols cool the surface by reflecting solar radiation and warm the stratosphere by absorbing terrestrial radiation . The volcanic aerosols , resulting from the 1991 Pinatubo eruption and others , have been shown to contribute to anthropogenic ozone depletion . The variations in atmospheric warming and cooling results in changes in tropospheric and stratospheric circulation .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"Volcanic_winter\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 83872\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 116903 Jeromeapt Content: 116903 Jeromeapt , provisional designation , is an asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 1 kilometer in diameter . It was discovered on 11 April 2004 , by American astronomer James Whitney Young at the U.S. Table Mountain Observatory near Wrightwood , California . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.0 -- 2.9 AU once every 3 years and 10 months ( 1,401 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.17 and an inclination of 2 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at Steward Observatory in 2002 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by more than 2 years prior to its discovery . As of 2016 , the asteroid 's effective size , its composition and albedo , as well as its rotation period and shape remain unknown . Based on an absolute magnitude of 17.3 , the asteroid is calculated to measure between 1 and 2 kilometers in diameter , assuming an albedo in the range of 0.05 to 0.25 . Since asteroids in the inner main-belt are often of a silicaceous rather than of a carbonaceous composition , with higher albedos , typically around 0.20 , the asteroid 's diameter might be on the lower end of NASA 's published conversion table , as the higher the body 's reflectivity ( albedo ) , the smaller its diameter at a constant absolute magnitude ( brightness ) . The minor planet is named in honor of American Jerome Apt ( b. 1949 ) , who was the discovering observatory 's director and also an astronaut on 4 Space Shuttle missions in the 1990s . At the time of naming this asteroid , he was a professor at Carnegie Mellon University . Naming citation was published 29 October 2012 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"116903_Jeromeapt\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 83840\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Peter Thejll Content: Peter Andreas Thejll ( born 1956 ) is a Danish astrophysicist and climate researcher . His research in solar variation helped provide evidence of the greenhouse effect on the Earth 's climate in the late 20th century . In particular , his study with Knud Lassen on Northern Hemisphere land air temperature showed that the rise of 0.4 degrees Celsius since 1980 could not be accounted for by the solar cycle . Climatologists have pointed to this finding as an `` actual piece of evidence for greenhouse warming '' . Thejll received his undergraduate education at the University of Copenhagen . He received an M.S. in physics and a Ph.D. in astrophysics from the University of Delaware . Thejll was a Carlsberg Fellow at the Niels Bohr Institute and worked at the Nordic Institute for Theoretical Physics . Thejll currently is a senior scientist at the Danish Meteorological Institute in Copenhagen . He is currently involved in the creation of a global automatic system to observe the Earth 's reflectivity - albedo - using observations of the earthshine on the Moon . Such data can be used for climate change studies and calibration of satellite data as the measurements deliver independent data on the albedo . A telescope is now installed on Hawaii at the Mauna Loa Observatory . The Swedish research agency VINNOVA is funding this project .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"Peter_Thejll\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 83795\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Classical albedo features on Mars Content: The classical albedo features of Mars are the light and dark features that can be seen on the planet Mars through an Earth-based telescope . Before the age of space probes , several astronomers created maps of Mars on which they gave names to the features they could see . The most popular system of nomenclature was devised by Giovanni Schiaparelli , who used names from classical antiquity . Today , the improved understanding of Mars enabled by space probes has rendered many of the classical names obsolete for the purposes of cartography ; however , some of the old names are still used to describe geographical features on the planet .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"Classical_albedo_features_on_Mars\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 83664\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Street (crater) Content: Street is a lunar impact crater located just to the south of the prominent ray crater Tycho . Street lies within the skirt of high-albedo ejecta from Tycho , and it is more heavily worn than its younger and larger neighbor . There are several smaller craters joined to the western rim , as well as two craters along the eastern rim . The floor is relatively smooth and flat , except for a small craterlet in the western half . The crater is 58 kilometers in diameter and 1,500 meters in depth . It may be from the Pre-Imbrian period , which lasted from 4.55 to 3.85 billion years ago . It is named for the 17th-century English astronomer Thomas Streete .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"Street_(crater)\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 83628\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 8900 AAVSO Content: 8900 AAVSO , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid from the middle region of the asteroid belt , approximately 5.5 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by American amateur astronomer Dennis di Cicco at the U.S Sudbury Observatory , Massachusetts , on 24 October 1995 . The stony S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.2 -- 2.9 AU once every 4.04 years ( 1,475 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.15 and an inclination of 9 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was obtained at Kleť Observatory in 1979 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 16 years prior to its discovery . In May 2010 , a photometric light-curve analysis at the U.S. Palomar Transient Factory , California , gave it a rotation period of hours with a brightness amplitude of 0.43 in magnitude . According to the NEOWISE mission of NASA 's space-based Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , the asteroid measures 5.8 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.28 , while the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for stony asteroids of 0.20 and calculates a diameter of 5.3 kilometers . The minor planet was named after the American Association of Variable Star Observers ( AAVSO ) , an astronomical pro-am organization that promotes the study of variable stars to both amateur and professional astronomers , maintaining the largest database of variable star observations in the world . It was founded in 1911 by amateur astronomer William Tyler Olcott ( 1873 -- 1936 ) , based on a suggestion by Edward Charles Pickering 's ( 1846 -- 1919 ) , after whom the minor planet 784 Pickeringia is named . Naming citation was published on 1 May 2003 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"8900_AAVSO\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 83582\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 209 Dido Content: 209 Dido is a very large main-belt asteroid . It is classified as a C-type asteroid and is probably composed of carbonaceous materials . Like many asteroids of its type , it has an extremely low albedo . It was discovered by C. H. F. Peters on October 22 , 1879 , in Clinton , New York and was named after the mythical Carthaginian queen Dido . Photometric observations at the Palmer Divide Observatory during 2005 showed a rotation period of 5.7366 ± 0.0005 hours with a brightness variation of 0.17 ± 0.02 in magnitude .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"209_Dido\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 83528\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 49P/Arend–Rigaux Content: 49P/Arend -- Rigaux is a periodic comet in the Solar System . The comet nucleus is estimated to be 8.48 kilometers in diameter with a low albedo of 0.028 . On 20 December 2058 the comet will pass 0.0867 AU from Mars .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"49P/Arend–Rigaux\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 83510\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kuiper quadrangle Content: The Kuiper quadrangle , located in a heavily cratered region of Mercury , includes the young , 55-km-diameter crater Kuiper ( 11 ° S. , 31.5 ° ) , which has the highest albedo recorded on the planet , and the small crater Hun Kal ( 0.6 ° S. , 20.0 ° ) , which is the principal reference point for Mercurian longitude ( Davies and Batson , 1975 ) . Impact craters and basins , their numerous secondary craters , and heavily to lightly cratered plains are the characteristic landforms of the region . At least six multiringed basins ranging from 150 km to 440 km in diameter are present . Inasmuch as multiringed basins occur widely on that part of Mercury photographed by Mariner 10 , as well as on the Moon and Mars , they offer a potentially valuable basis for comparison between these planetary bodies .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"Kuiper_quadrangle\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 83205\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: HD 73256 b Content: HD 73256 b is an 1.87 MJ hot Jupiter orbiting at 0.037 AU taking 2.55 days to orbit around HD 73256 . Assuming the planet is perfectly grey with no greenhouse or tidal effects , and a Bond albedo of 0.1 , the temperature would be about 1300 K . This is close to 51 Pegasi b ; between the predicted temperatures of HD 189733 b and HD 209458 b ( 1180-1392K ) , before they were measured . It is a candidate for `` near-infrared characterisation with the VLTI Spectro-Imager '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"HD_73256_b\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 83096\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2865 Laurel Content: 2865 Laurel , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid from the middle region of the asteroid belt , approximately 15 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by English-born South African astronomer Cyril Jackson at Johannesburg Observatory on 31 July 1935 . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.4 -- 2.7 AU once every 4 years and 1 month ( 1,497 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.07 and an inclination of 14 ° with respect to the ecliptic . No precoveries were taken and the asteroid 's observation arc begins with its discovery observation in 1935 . A rotational light-curve for this asteroid was obtained from photometric observations by French amateur astronomer Pierre Antonini in September 2005 . It gave a longer than average rotation period of hours with a brightness variation of 0.15 in magnitude . According to the space-based surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS , the Japanese Akari satellite , and NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid measures between 14.7 and 25.0 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo between 0.09 and 0.22 . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link agrees with IRAS and derives an albedo of 0.24 and a diameter 14.8 kilometers . The minor planet was named after English-born comedian Stan Laurel ( 1890 -- 1965 ) . Together with Oliver Hardy ( 1892 -- 1957 ) , who was honored with the main-belt asteroid 2866 Hardy , they formed the first great comedy duo in Classical Hollywood cinema . Naming citation was published on 1 September 1993 , based on a suggestion by Gareth V. Williams and others .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"2865_Laurel\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 82628\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2015 TC25 Content: is a near-Earth asteroid , and at only 2 meters ( 6 ft ) across , it is thought to be the smallest asteroid observed from telescopes on Earth . The asteroid is notable for reflecting about 60 % of the light that hits it , making it one of the brightest near-earth asteroids ever seen . Discovered by the Catalina Sky Survey on 12 October 2015 , it was observed with several ground-based telescopes . Radar observations were also made using the Arecibo Observatory as it passed 128,000 kilometers ( approximately a third of the distance to the moon ) from the Earth . Observations suggest its surface composition is similar to Aubrite meteorites , a rare class of high-albedo differentiated meteorites . The albedo and radar polarization ratio suggest belongs to the E-type asteroids , and comparison of its spectral and dynamical properties suggest its parent body may be the 70 kilometer diameter E-type asteroid 44 Nysa . is also notable for its rather short rotation period of only about 2 minutes , which , combined with its low surface gravity makes it very difficult for to retain a regolith layer . It 's surface therefore most likely resembles a bare rock .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"2015_TC25\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 82520\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 9564 Jeffwynn Content: 9564 Jeffwynn , provisional designation , is a stony and eccentric asteroid , classified as a Mars-crosser , that measures approximately 4.7 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by American astronomer couple Carolyn and Eugene Shoemaker at the U.S. Palomar Observatory in California , on 26 September 1987 . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.6 -- 3.1 AU once every 3 years and 7 months ( 1,307 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.32 and an inclination of 22 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at Palomar Observatory in 1951 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 36 years prior to its discovery . In September 2012 , a rotational light-curve was obtained from photometric observations by U.S. astronomer Brian D. Warner at his Palmer Divide Observatory , Colorado . It gave a well-defined rotation period of hours with a brightness variation of 0.16 in magnitude . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link calculates a diameter of 4.7 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 14.0 and an assumed albedo for stony asteroids of 0.20 . The minor planet was named in honor of American Jeffrey C. Wynn , research geophysicist with the United States Geological Survey , described as a `` humorous , curious , inventive , adventurous geophysicist '' , who examined the Saudi Arabian Wabar craters on several expeditions in 1994 and 1995 , together with Eugene Shoemaker , after whom the minor planet 2074 Shoemaker is named . Wynn 's research included mapping the seafloor , analyzing terrestrial minerals , and studying aquifers and archaeological sites . He also observed with the comet-discovering Shoemaker-Levy team . Naming citation was published on 23 November 1999 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"9564_Jeffwynn\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 82495\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 3181 Ahnert Content: 3181 Ahnert , provisional designation , is a stony Flora asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , about 8 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by German astronomer Freimut Börngen at the Karl Schwarzschild Observatory in Tautenburg , eastern Germany , on 8 March 1964 . The S-type asteroid is a member of the Flora family , one of the largest groups of stony asteroids in the main-belt . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.1 -- 2.4 AU once every 3 years and 4 months ( 1,215 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.07 and an inclination of 4 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was obtained at Lowell Observatory in 1931 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 33 years prior to its discovery . According to the surveys carried out by NASA 's space-based Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid measures between 8.0 and 8.6 kilometers and its surface has an albedo between 0.19 and 0.26 . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an intermediate albedo of 0.24 -- derived from 8 Flora , the largest member and namesake of this orbital family -- and calculates a diameter of 8.2 kilometers . As of 2016 , the asteroid 's rotation period and shape still remain unknown . The minor planet was named after German astronomer Paul Ahnert ( 1897 -- 1989 ) , author of the annual calendar of astronomical events ( Kalender für Sternfreunde ) and a renowned astronomer among professionals and amateurs . His fields of research included the physics of the Solar System and periods of variable stars at the Sonneberg Observatory . ( The minor planet 1039 Sonneberga is named after this observatory . ) Publisher of several books on performing astronomical observations , he also popularized the subject of astronomy to the general public . Naming citation was published on 2 July 1985 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"3181_Ahnert\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 82471\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 94 Aurora Content: Not to be confused with Aurora borealis . 94 Aurora is one of the largest main-belt asteroids . With an albedo of only 0.04 , it is darker than soot , and has a primitive compositions consisting of carbonaecous material . It was discovered by J. C. Watson on September 6 , 1867 , in Ann Arbor , and named after Aurora , the Roman goddess of the dawn . Observations of an occultation using nine chords indicate an oval outline of 225 × 173 km .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"94_Aurora\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 82278\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 78816 Caripito Content: 78816 Caripito , provisional designation , is an asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt , approximately 5 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 4 August 2003 , by American amateur astronomer and professor of geophysics , Joseph Dellinger , at the U.S. Needville Observatory , Texas . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.4 -- 3.8 AU once every 5 years and 7 months ( 2,033 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.23 and an inclination of 6 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at Palomar 's Digitized Sky Survey in 1953 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 50 years prior to its discovery . As of 2016 , the Caripitos composition and albedo , as well as its rotation period and shape remain unknown . According to the survey carried out by NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid measures 5.3 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.052 . This low albedo is typical for asteroids in the outer main-belt , which are mostly of a carbonaceous rather than of a silicaceous composition . Based on an absolute magnitude of 15.4 , and assuming an albedo of 0.05 , the asteroid 's generic diameter measures between 2 and 5 kilometers . This minor planet is named for the Venezuelan town of Caripito in the northeastern Monagas State . It was the place where the parents of the discoverer , Thomas Baynes Dellinger ( b. 1926 ) and María de la Garza Cantú ( b. 1928 ) , met in 1949 . At the time , the town was a base camp for the country 's rich Quiriquire oil field . Naming citation was published on 18 September 2005 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"78816_Caripito\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 82225\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Elysium Fossae Content: The Elysium Fossae are a group of large troughs in the Elysium quadrangle of Mars at 24.8 ° north latitude and 213.7 ° west longitude . They are about 1,175 km long and are named after a classical albedo feature name .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"Elysium_Fossae\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 82157\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Adiri (Titan) Content: Adiri is a large , bright albedo feature on Saturn 's moon Titan . It is named after the paradise in Melanesian mythology . It is located to the west of the large , dark region of Shangri-la . Adiri is a region of high ground and appears to be riddled with drainage channels . The Huygens probe landed on a plain just off the northwest ` coast ' of Adiri in 2005 . Category : Surface features of Titan ( moon )\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"Adiri_(Titan)\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 82071\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: (237442) 1999 TA10 Content: , provisionally known as 1999 TA10 , is a near-Earth object ( NEO ) from the Amor asteroid group . It is suspected of being an inner fragment of the differentiated asteroid 4 Vesta . Given an absolute magnitude ( H ) of 17.9 , and that the albedo is unknown , this NEO could vary from 500 to 1500 meters in diameter . was discovered on 5 October 1999 at apparent magnitude 17.7 , when it was only 0.39 AU from Earth . In 2010 , it came within 0.3 AU of Earth . During the 2010 close approach , NASA Infrared Telescope Facility ( NASA IRTF ) studies suggested that originated from the interior of Vesta . The next close approach will be in 2023 . In 2086 , it will come within 0.017 AU of Mars .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"(237442)_1999_TA10\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 82024\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 802 Epyaxa Content: 802 Epyaxa , provisional designation 1915 WR , is a stony asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , about 7 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by German astronomer Max Wolf at the Heidelberg Observatory in southern Germany , on 20 March 1915 . The S-type asteroid is a member of the Flora family , one of the largest groups of stony asteroids in the main-belt . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.0 -- 2.4 AU once every 3 years and 3 months ( 1,189 days ) . Its orbit shows an eccentricity of 0.08 and is tilted by 5 degrees to the plane of the ecliptic . From 2009 to 2014 , seven photometric light-curve analysis rendered a well-defined , concurring rotation period of 4.39 hours ( also see adjunct infobox ) . According to the survey carried out by the U.S. Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its NEOWISE mission , the asteroid 's surface has a relatively high albedo of 0.29 , while the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a more moderate value of 0.24 , which is also identical to the albedo of the Flora family 's namesake , the asteroid 8 Flora . The minor planet was named after `` Epyaxa '' , wife of King Syennesis and queen of the Kingdom of Cilicia in South Asia Minor in the 5th century BCE . The couple supported the revolt of Cyrus the Younger against his brother Artaxerxes II of Persia , after whom the minor planet 7212 Artaxerxes is named . Epyaxa had her own army and her own lavish budget to spend . Her Kingdom lost its independence and became a Persian satrapy of the Achaemenid Empire after the defeat of Cyrus .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"802_Epyaxa\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 81908\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea salt aerosol Content: Sea salt aerosol , which originally comes from sea spray , is one of the most widely distributed natural aerosols . Sea salt aerosols are characterized as non-light-absorbing , highly hygroscopic , and having coarse particle size . Some sea salt dominated aerosols could have a single scattering albedo as large as ~ 0.97 . Due to the hygroscopy , a sea salt particle can serve as a very efficient cloud condensation nuclei ( CCN ) , altering cloud reflectivity , lifetime , and precipitation process . According to the IPCC report , the total sea salt flux from ocean to atmosphere is ~ 3300 Tg/yr .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea_salt_aerosol\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 81888\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1704 Wachmann Content: 1704 Wachmann , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 7 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by German astronomer Karl Reinmuth at Heidelberg Observatory on 7 March 1924 . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.0 -- 2.4 AU once every 3 years and 4 months ( 1,211 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.09 and an inclination of 1 ° with respect to the ecliptic . No precoveries were taken and the asteroid 's observation arc begins 3 days after its official discovery date . In April 2007 , a rotational light-curve for this asteroid was obtained at the U.S. Sandia View Observatory in New Mexico . The light-curve gave a well-defined rotation period of hours with a brightness variation of 0.40 in magnitude . According to the survey carried out by the NEOWISE mission of NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , the asteroid measures 6.6 and 6.9 kilometers in diameter , and its surface has an albedo of 0.177 and 0.193 , respectively , while the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for stony asteroids of 0.20 and calculates a diameter of 7.8 kilometers , based on an absolute magnitude of 12.9 . The minor planet was named for Arno Wachmann ( 1902 -- 1990 ) , long-time astronomer at the Bergedorf Observatory in Hamburg , discoverer of minor planets and comets , and observer of variable and binary stars . He is best known for the co-discovery of the three `` Schwassmann -- Wachmann '' comets , 29P , 31P and 73P . Naming citation was published before November 1977 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"1704_Wachmann\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 81678\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1867 Deiphobus Content: 1867 Deiphobus , provisional designation , is a Jupiter trojan from the Trojan camp , approximately 123 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 3 March 1971 , by Argentine astronomers Carlos Cesco and A. G. Samuel at the Leoncito Astronomical Complex in Argentina . The D-type minor planet orbits the Sun at a distance of 4.9 -- 5.4 AU once every 11 years and 7 months ( 4,242 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.04 and an inclination of 27 ° with respect to the ecliptic . Photometric observations of this asteroid during 1994 were used to build a light curve showing a slow rotation period of 58.66 ± 0.18 hours with a brightness variation of 0.27 ± 0.03 magnitude . According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS , the Japanese Akari satellite , and NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , Deiphobus measures between 118.2 and 131.3 kilometers in diameter , and its surface has an albedo between 0.037 and 0.060 . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link derives an albedo of 0.040 , and calculates a diameter of 122.7 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 8.68 . It was named after the Trojan warrior , Deiphobus , son of Priamus ( also see 108 Hecuba and 884 Priamus ) . Naming citation was published before November 1977 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"1867_Deiphobus\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 81632\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 3754 Kathleen Content: 3754 Kathleen ( 1931 FM ) is a main-belt asteroid discovered on March 16 , 1931 by Clyde Tombaugh at Flagstaff ( LO ) . It has a common main belt albedo of 0.06 , and thus is 53 km in diameter . It is the last discovered `` main-belt '' asteroid more than 50 kilometers in diameter , though that does not include larger Jupiter trojans , Centaurs , and Trans-Neptunian objects that are further from the Sun . Photometric observations of this asteroid collected during 2007 show a rotation period of 11.2 ± 0.1 hours with a brightness variation of 0.2 ± 0.04 magnitude .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"3754_Kathleen\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 81626\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kepler-22b Content: Kepler-22b , also known by its Kepler object of interest designation KOI-087 .01 , is an extrasolar planet orbiting within the empirical habitable zone of the Sun-like star Kepler-22 . It is located about 600 ly from Earth in the constellation of Cygnus . It was discovered by NASA 's Kepler Space Telescope in December 2011 and was the first known transiting planet to orbit within the habitable zone of a Sun-like star . Kepler-22 is too dim to be seen with the naked eye . Kepler-22b 's size is roughly twice that of Earth . Its mass and surface composition are unknown . An Earth-like composition for the planet has been ruled out . It is likely to have a volatile-rich composition with a liquid or gaseous outer shell . The only parameters of the planet 's orbit that are currently available are its orbital period , which is about , and its inclination , which is approximately 90 ° . Evidence suggests that the planet has a moderate surface temperature , assuming that the surface is not subject to extreme greenhouse heating . In the absence of an atmosphere , its equilibrium temperature ( assuming an Earth-like albedo ) would be approximately 262 K. The planet 's first transit was observed on 12 May 2009 . Confirmation of the existence of Kepler-22b was announced on 5 December 2011 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"Kepler-22b\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 81595\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 32145 Katberman Content: 32145 Katberman , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 4 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by the U.S. LINEAR team at Lincoln Laboratory 's Experimental Test Site in Socorro , New Mexico , on 7 June 2000 . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.0 -- 2.8 AU once every 3 years and 9 months ( 1,371 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.18 and an inclination of 9 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at Steward Observatory ( Kitt Peak-Spacewatch ) in 1996 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 4 years prior to its discovery . According to the survey carried out by the NEOWISE mission of NASA 's space-based Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , the asteroid measures 4.4 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.16 , while the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for stony asteroids of 0.20 and calculates a diameter of 2.9 kilometers , based on an absolute magnitude of 15.04 . In October 2012 and January 2014 , three rotational light-curves were obtained from photometric observations made at the U.S Palomar Transient Factory in California . The light-curves gave a rotation period of , and hours , respectively , with a corresponding brightness variation of 0.85 , 0.80 and 0.70 in magnitude . The minor planet was named after Katharine Barr Berman ( b. 1998 ) awardee in the Intel Science Talent Search of 2016 . She was a finalist for her cellular and molecular biology project . At the time , she attended the U.S. Hastings High School in New York . Naming citation was published on 21 May 2016 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"32145_Katberman\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 81570\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 16765 Agnesi Content: 16765 Agnesi , provisional designation , is a stony Eunomia asteroid from the middle region of the asteroid belt , approximately 4 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 16 October 1996 , by Italian-American amateur astronomer Paul Comba at his private Prescott Observatory in the U.S. state of Arizona . The asteroid is a member of the Eunomia family , a large group of S-type asteroids and the most prominent family in the intermediate main-belt . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.3 -- 2.9 AU once every 4 years and 3 months ( 1,553 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.11 and an inclination of 12 ° with respect to the ecliptic . It was first observed by Haleakala -- NEAT/GEODSS , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 32 days prior to its official discovery observation . According to the NEOWISE mission of NASA 's space-based Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , the asteroid measures 4.1 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.28 , while the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.21 -- derived from 15 Eunomia , the family 's largest member and namesake -- and calculates a diameter of 3.8 kilometers . A rotational light-curve of this asteroid was obtained from photometric observations made at the U.S. Palomar Transient Factory in September 2013 . The light-curve gave a rotation period of hours with a brightness variation of in magnitude . The minor planet was named in honour of Italian Maria Gaetana Agnesi ( 1718 -- 1799 ) , who was the first Western woman to write a widely translated mathematics handbook and the first woman appointed to a professorship at a university in 1750 . Naming citation was published on 9 January 2001 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2766\",\n \"docid\": \"16765_Agnesi\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 81545\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":1364,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"The long term trend from albedo is that of cooling."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Ice-albedo feedback Content: Ice-albedo feedback ( or snow-albedo feedback ) is a positive feedback climate process where a change in the area of snow-covered land , ice caps , glaciers or sea ice alters the albedo . This change in albedo acts to reinforce the initial alteration in ice area . Cooling tends to increase ice cover and hence the albedo , reducing the amount of solar energy absorbed and leading to more cooling . Conversely , warming tends to decrease ice cover and hence the albedo , increasing the amount of solar energy absorbed , leading to more warming . The effect also applies on the small scale to snow-covered surfaces . A small amount of snow melt exposes darker ground which absorbs more radiation , leading to more snowmelt . The effect has mostly been discussed in terms of the recent trend of declining Arctic sea ice . Internal feedback processes may also potentially occur , as land ice melts and causes eustatic sea level rise , and also potentially induces earthquakes as a result of isostatic rebound , which further acts to disrupt glaciers , ice shelves , etc. .","qid":"2768","docid":"Ice-albedo_feedback","rank":1,"score":139338},{"content":"Title: Volcanic winter Content: A volcanic winter is a reduction in global temperatures caused by volcanic ash and droplets of sulfuric acid and water obscuring the Sun and raising Earth 's albedo ( increasing the reflection of solar radiation ) after a large particularly explosive volcanic eruption . Long-term cooling effects are primarily dependent upon injection of sulfur gasses into the stratosphere where they undergo a series of reactions to create sulfuric acid which can nucleate and form aerosols . Volcanic stratospheric aerosols cool the surface by reflecting solar radiation and warm the stratosphere by absorbing terrestrial radiation . The volcanic aerosols , resulting from the 1991 Pinatubo eruption and others , have been shown to contribute to anthropogenic ozone depletion . The variations in atmospheric warming and cooling results in changes in tropospheric and stratospheric circulation .","qid":"2768","docid":"Volcanic_winter","rank":2,"score":130264},{"content":"Title: Albedo Content: Albedo ( -LSB- ælˈbiːdoʊ -RSB- ) is a measure for reflectance or optical brightness ( Latin albedo , Arabic albayad , `` whiteness '' ) . It is dimensionless and measured on a scale from zero ( corresponding to a black body that absorbs all incident radiation ) to one ( corresponding to a white body that reflects all incident radiation ) . Surface albedo is defined as the ratio of radiation reflected to the radiation incident on a surface . The proportion reflected is not only determined by properties of the surface itself , but also by the spectral and angular distribution of solar radiation reaching the Earth 's surface . These factors vary with atmospheric composition , geographic location and time ( see Position of the Sun ) . While bi-hemispherical reflectance is calculated for a single angle of incidence ( i.e. , for a given position of the sun ) , albedo is the directional integration of reflectance over all solar angles in a given period . The temporal resolution may range from seconds ( as obtained from flux measurements ) to daily , seasonal or annual averages . Unless given for a specific wavelength ( spectral albedo ) , albedo refers to the entire spectrum of solar radiation . Due to measurement constraints , it is often given for the spectrum in which most solar energy reaches the surface ( approximately between 0.3 and 3 μm ) . This spectrum includes visible light ( 0.39-0 .7 μm ) , which explains why surfaces with a low albedo appear dark ( e.g. , trees absorb most radiation ) , whereas surfaces with a high albedo appear bright ( e.g. , snow reflects most radiation ) . Albedo is an important concept in climatology , astronomy , and environmental management ( e.g. , as part of the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design ( LEED ) program for sustainable rating of buildings ) . The average albedo of the Earth at the top of the atmosphere , its planetary albedo , is 30 to 35 % because of cloud cover , but widely varies locally across the surface because of different geological and environmental features . The term albedo was introduced into optics by Johann Heinrich Lambert in his 1760 work Photometria .","qid":"2768","docid":"Albedo","rank":3,"score":113984},{"content":"Title: Bond albedo Content: The Bond albedo , named after the American astronomer George Phillips Bond ( 1825 -- 1865 ) , who originally proposed it , is the fraction of power in the total electromagnetic radiation incident on an astronomical body that is scattered back out into space . Because the Bond albedo accounts for all of the light scattered from a body at all wavelengths and all phase angles , it is a necessary quantity for determining how much energy a body absorbs . This , in turn , is crucial for determining the equilibrium temperature of a body . Because bodies in the outer Solar System are always observed at very low phase angles from the Earth , the only reliable data for measuring their Bond albedo comes from spacecraft .","qid":"2768","docid":"Bond_albedo","rank":4,"score":113345},{"content":"Title: Geometric albedo Content: In astronomy , the geometric albedo of a celestial body is the ratio of its actual brightness as seen from the light source ( i.e. at zero phase angle ) to that of an idealized flat , fully reflecting , diffusively scattering ( Lambertian ) disk with the same cross-section . ( This phase angle refers to the direction of the light paths and is not a phase angle in its normal meaning in optics or electronics . ) Diffuse scattering implies that radiation is reflected isotropically with no memory of the location of the incident light source . Zero phase angle corresponds to looking along the direction of illumination . For Earth-bound observers this occurs when the body in question is at opposition and on the ecliptic . The visual geometric albedo refers to the geometric albedo quantity when accounting for only electromagnetic radiation in the visible spectrum .","qid":"2768","docid":"Geometric_albedo","rank":5,"score":113297},{"content":"Title: Albedo feature Content: An albedo feature is a large area on the surface of a planet ( or other solar system body ) which shows a contrast in brightness or darkness ( albedo ) with adjacent areas . Historically , albedo features were the very first ( and usually only ) features to be seen and named on Mars and Mercury . Early classical maps ( such as those of Schiaparelli and Antoniadi ) showed only albedo features , and it was not until the arrival of space probes that other surface features such as craters could be seen . On bodies other than Mars and Mercury , an albedo feature is sometimes called a regio . On bodies with a very thick atmosphere like Venus or Titan , permanent albedo features can not be seen using ordinary optical telescopes because the surface is not visible , and only clouds and other transient atmospheric phenomena are seen . The Cassini -- Huygens probe has observed multiple albedo features on Titan since its arrival in Saturn 's orbit in 2004 . The very first albedo feature ever seen on another planet was Syrtis Major Planum on Mars in the 17th century . Today , thanks to space probes , very high-resolution images of surface features on Mars and Mercury are available , and the classical nomenclature based on albedo features has fallen somewhat into disuse . It is however still used for Earth-based observing of Mars by amateur astronomers . However , for some Solar System bodies ( such as Pluto prior to the New Horizons mission ) , the best available images show only albedo features . These images were usually taken by the Hubble Space Telescope or by ground-based telescopes using adaptive optics . Cydonia Mensae on Mars is an example of an albedo feature .","qid":"2768","docid":"Albedo_feature","rank":6,"score":111243},{"content":"Title: Albedo (alchemy) Content: In alchemy , albedo is one of the four major stages of the magnum opus ; along with nigredo , citrinitas and rubedo . It is a Latinicized term meaning `` whiteness '' . Following the chaos or massa confusa of the nigredo stage , the alchemist undertakes a purification in albedo , which is literally referred to as ablutio -- the washing away of impurities . In this process , the subject is divided into two opposing principles to be later coagulated to form a unity of opposites or coincidentia oppositorum during rubedo . Titus Burckhardt interprets the albedo as the end of the lesser work , corresponding to a spiritualization of the body . The goal of this portion of the process is to regain the original purity and receptivity of the soul . Psychologist Carl Jung equated the albedo with unconscious contrasexual soul images ; the anima in men and animus in women . It is a phase where insight into shadow projections are realized , and inflated ego and unneeded conceptualizations are removed from the psyche .","qid":"2768","docid":"Albedo_(alchemy)","rank":7,"score":106237},{"content":"Title: Twomey effect Content: The Twomey effect describes how cloud condensation nuclei ( CCN ) , possibly from anthropogenic pollution , may increase the amount of solar radiation reflected by clouds . This is an indirect effect . Aerosol particles can act as CCN 's creating more droplets which have a smaller size distribution . The reduction in size distribution increases the Optical depth of the cloud . This increases the cloud albedo as clouds appear whiter and larger , leading to a cooling of between -0.3 and -1.8 Wm − 2 . For example , on satellite imagery we observe trails of white clouds from ships crossing the oceans due to this effect .","qid":"2768","docid":"Twomey_effect","rank":8,"score":105246},{"content":"Title: Cloud albedo Content:","qid":"2768","docid":"Cloud_albedo","rank":9,"score":104937},{"content":"Title: Albedo (disambiguation) Content: Albedo is a measure of reflectivity . Albedo may also refer to : ALBEDO Telecom , a telecom company Albedo ( alchemy ) , a stage of alchemical progression Albedo ( Ben 10 ) , a character in the television series Ben 10 : Alien Force Albedo Anthropomorphics , a comic book anthology Albedo ( role-playing game ) , derived from the comics Albedo , the mesocarp of a fruit Albedo , a character in the video game series Xenosaga Albedo 0.39 , a 1976 album by the artist Vangelis Albedo One '' , an Irish horror , fantasy and science fiction magazine founded in 1993","qid":"2768","docid":"Albedo_(disambiguation)","rank":10,"score":104019},{"content":"Title: Single-scattering albedo Content: Single-scattering albedo is the ratio of scattering efficiency to total extinction efficiency ( which is also termed `` attenuance '' , a sum of scattering and absorption ) . Most often it is defined for small-particle scattering of electromagnetic waves . Single-scattering albedo is unitless , and a value of unity implies that all particle extinction is due to scattering ; conversely , a single-scattering albedo of zero implies that all extinction is due to absorption . For spherical particles one can calculate single-scattering albedo from Mie theory and knowledge of bulk properties of material such as refractive index . For non-spherical particles one could use discrete dipole approximation or other methods of computational electromagnetics . The albedo of particles of shapes which are easily parameterized in non-standard co-ordinate systems may be determined through solutions of Maxwell 's equation analogues in such coordinate systems . Scattering albedo equations have yet to be determined in elliptical , torroidal , conical and many others . Derivation and solutions to such equations is a field of ongoing research .","qid":"2768","docid":"Single-scattering_albedo","rank":11,"score":102487},{"content":"Title: Albedo 0.39 Content: Albedo 0.39 is a studio album by the Greek electronic composer Vangelis , released in 1976 . It was the second album produced by Vangelis in Nemo Studios , London , which was his creative base until the late 1980s . It contrasts with his previous album , Heaven and Hell , which was classically inspired and choral , while Albedo 0.39 has blues and jazz overtones . It was his first Top 20 UK album .","qid":"2768","docid":"Albedo_0.39","rank":12,"score":100471},{"content":"Title: Albedo Anthropomorphics Content: Albedo Anthropomorphics , or Albedo for short , was a furry comic book anthology series which was credited with starting the furry comic book subgenre that featured sophisticated stories with funny animals primarily intended for an adult audience . The first issue of Albedo was published in 1983 ; the most recent issue was published in 2005 . Albedo was started by Steve Gallacci , who produced its main feature , Erma Felna : EDF -- a sophisticated science fiction military series set in a sector of space populated by sapient and predominantly humanoid versions of mammal and avian species . The focus of the series is Erma Felna , a young feline officer who eventually plays a central role in the complex political conflicts that consume her universe . Gallacci was a technical illustrator for the United States Air Force and one feature of Albedo is well thought-out and illustrated vehicles . His experience also shows in the realistic treatment of military life and operations . The series was used as inspiration for the Albedo role-playing game , which has had three editions and multiple supplements .","qid":"2768","docid":"Albedo_Anthropomorphics","rank":13,"score":99629},{"content":"Title: Albedo (role-playing game) Content: Albedo is a role-playing game based on Steve Gallacci 's Erma Felna : EDF and Birthright storylines from the comic anthologies Albedo Anthropomorphics and Critters .","qid":"2768","docid":"Albedo_(role-playing_game)","rank":14,"score":98561},{"content":"Title: ALBEDO Telecom Content: ALBEDO Telecom is a company that designs and manufactures products for the telecom industry including testers , synchronization nodes and networking devices . Typical users are R&D laboratories , Mobile and Telecom operators to verify and install the infrastructures that support any kind of applications based on voice , video and data . It is headquartered in Barcelona , Spain in the European Union .","qid":"2768","docid":"ALBEDO_Telecom","rank":15,"score":98558},{"content":"Title: Umov effect Content: The Umov effect , also known as Umov 's law , is a relationship between the albedo of an astronomical object , and the degree of polarization of light reflecting off it . The effect was discovered by the Russian physicist Nikolay Umov in 1905 , and can be observed for celestial objects such as the surface of the Moon and the asteroids . The degree of linear polarization of light P is defined by where and are the intensities of light in the directions perpendicular and parallel to the plane of a polarizer aligned in the plane of reflection . Values of P are zero for unpolarized light , and ± 1 for linearly polarized light . Umov 's law states where α is the albedo of the object . Thus , highly reflective objects tend to reflect mostly unpolarized light , and dimly reflective objects tend to reflect polarized light . The law is only valid for large phase angles ( angles between the incident light and the reflected light ) .","qid":"2768","docid":"Umov_effect","rank":16,"score":98547},{"content":"Title: Albedo One Content: Albedo One is an Irish horror , fantasy and science fiction magazine founded in 1993 and currently published by Albedo One Productions .","qid":"2768","docid":"Albedo_One","rank":17,"score":97929},{"content":"Title: Hurricane dynamics and cloud microphysics Content: Tropical convective clouds play an important part in the Earth 's climate system . Convection and release of latent heat transports energy from the surface into the upper atmosphere . Clouds have a higher albedo than the underlying ocean , which causes more incoming solar radiation to be reflected back to space . Since the tops of tropical systems are much cooler than the surface of the Earth , the presence of high convective clouds cools the climate system . The most recognizable cloud system in the tropics is the hurricane . In addition to the important climatic effects of tropical weather systems , hurricanes possess enough energy to cause massive death and destruction . Therefore , their accurate prediction is of utmost importance . Cloud microphysics describe the structure and properties of clouds on the microscopic scale .","qid":"2768","docid":"Hurricane_dynamics_and_cloud_microphysics","rank":18,"score":95676},{"content":"Title: 925 Alphonsina Content: 925 Alphonsina , provisional designation 1920 GM , is a large , stony asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt , about 58 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by Spanish astronomer of Catalan origin , Josep Comas i Solà , at the Fabra Observatory in Barcelona , on 13 January 1920 . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.5 -- 2.9 AU once every 4 years and 5 months ( 1,622 days ) . Its orbit is tilted by 21 degrees to the plane of the ecliptic and shows an eccentricity of 0.08 . A large number of photometric light-curve analysis rendered a well-defined , concurring rotation period of 7.9 hours for the body . According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite , IRAS , the Japanese Akari satellite , and the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid 's albedo is in the range of 0.20 -- 0.28 . In addition , the body 's albedo has been inferred by using the technique of stellar occultation in 2003 . The measurement also gave a diameter of 59.2 kilometers . The minor planet was named in honor of the Iberian Kings , Alfonso X ( 1221 -- 1284 ) and Alfonso XIII ( 1886 -- 1941 ) , King of Castile and Spain , respectively . The original citation mentions , that the 13th century king inspired the field of astronomy in the Middle Ages , and , that the latter king was a great enthusiast of the scientific development in Spain . It also mentions that the King of Spain approved the naming of the asteroid .","qid":"2768","docid":"925_Alphonsina","rank":19,"score":93593},{"content":"Title: Marine cloud brightening Content: Marine cloud brightening is a proposed solar radiation management climate engineering technique that would make clouds brighter , reflecting a small fraction of incoming sunlight back into space in order to offset anthropogenic global warming . Along with stratospheric aerosol injection , it is one of the two solar radiation management methods that may most feasibly have a substantial climate impact . The intention is that increasing the Earth 's albedo , in combination with greenhouse gas emissions reduction , carbon dioxide removal , and adaptation , would reduce climate change and its risks to people and the environment . If implemented , the cooling effect is expected to be felt rapidly and to be reversible on fairly short time scales . However , technical barriers remain to large-scale marine cloud brightening . There are also risks with such modification of complex climate systems .","qid":"2768","docid":"Marine_cloud_brightening","rank":20,"score":91633},{"content":"Title: (148209) 2000 CR105 Content: , also written as ( 148209 ) 2000 CR105 , is the tenth-most-distant known object in the Solar System . Considered a detached object , it orbits the Sun in a highly eccentric orbit every 3305 years at an average distance of 222 astronomical units ( AU ) . Mike Brown 's website lists it as a possible dwarf planet with a diameter of 328 km based on an assumed albedo of 0.04 . The albedo is expected to be low because the object has a blue ( neutral ) color . However , if the albedo is higher , the object could easily be half that size . and Sedna differ from scattered-disc objects in that they are not within the gravitational influence of the planet Neptune even at their perihelion distances ( closest approaches to the Sun ) . It is something of a mystery as to how these objects came to be in their current , far-flung orbits . Several hypotheses have been put forward : They were pulled from their original positions by a passing star . They were pulled from their original positions by a very distant , and as-yet-undiscovered ( albeit unlikely ) , giant planet . They were pulled from their original positions by an undiscovered companion star orbiting the Sun . They were captured from another planetary system during a close encounter early in the Sun 's history . According to Kenyon and Bromley , there is a 15 % probability that a star like the Sun had an early close encounter and a 1 % probability that outer planetary exchanges would have happened . is estimated to be 2 -- 3 times more likely to be a captured planetary object than Sedna . is the first object discovered in the Solar System to have a semi-major axis exceeding 150 AU , a perihelion beyond Neptune , and an argument of perihelion of 340 ± 55 ° . It is one of five objects known with a semi-major axis greater than 100 AU and perihelion beyond 42 AU . It may be influenced by Planet Nine .","qid":"2768","docid":"(148209)_2000_CR105","rank":21,"score":90976},{"content":"Title: Hapke parameters Content: The Hapke parameters are a set of parameters for an empirical model that is commonly used to describe the directional reflectance properties of the airless regolith surfaces of bodies in the solar system . The model has been developed by astronomer Bruce Hapke at the University of Pittsburgh . The parameters are : -- Single scattering albedo . This is the ratio of scattering efficiency to total light extinction ( which includes also absorption ) , for small-particle scattering of light . That is , , where is the scattering coefficient , and is the absorption coefficient -- The width of the opposition surge . or -- The strength of the opposition surge . or g -- The particle phase function parameter , also called the asymmetry factor . -- The effective surface tilt , also called the macroscopic roughness angle . The Hapke parameters can be used to derive other albedo and scattering properties such as the geometric albedo , the phase integral , and the Bond albedo .","qid":"2768","docid":"Hapke_parameters","rank":22,"score":90158},{"content":"Title: Ray system Content: A ray system comprises radial streaks of fine ejecta thrown out during the formation of an impact crater , looking somewhat like many thin spokes coming from the hub of a wheel . The rays may extend for lengths up to several times the diameter of their originating crater , and are often accompanied by small secondary craters formed by larger chunks of ejecta . Ray systems have been identified on the Moon , Earth ( Kamil Crater ) , Mercury , and some moons of the outer planets . Originally it was thought that they existed only on planets or moons lacking an atmosphere , but more recently they have been identified on Mars in infrared images taken from orbit by 2001 Mars Odysseys thermal imager . Rays appear at visible , and in some cases infrared wavelengths , when ejecta are made of material with different reflectivity ( i.e. , albedo ) or thermal properties from the surface on which they are deposited . Typically , visible rays have a higher albedo than the surrounding surface . More rarely an impact will excavate low albedo material , for example basaltic-lava deposits on the lunar maria . Thermal rays , as seen on Mars , are especially apparent at night when slopes and shadows do not influence the infrared energy emitted by the Martian surface . The layering of rays across other surface features can be useful as an indicator of the relative age of the impact crater , because over time various processes obliterate the rays . On non-atmosphered bodies such as the Moon , space weathering from exposure to cosmic rays and micrometeorites causes a steady reduction of the differential between the ejecta 's albedo and that of the underlying material . Micrometeorites in particular produce a glassy melt in the regolith that lowers the albedo . Rays can also become covered by lava flows , or by other impact craters or ejecta .","qid":"2768","docid":"Ray_system","rank":23,"score":88382},{"content":"Title: Classical albedo features on Mars Content: The classical albedo features of Mars are the light and dark features that can be seen on the planet Mars through an Earth-based telescope . Before the age of space probes , several astronomers created maps of Mars on which they gave names to the features they could see . The most popular system of nomenclature was devised by Giovanni Schiaparelli , who used names from classical antiquity . Today , the improved understanding of Mars enabled by space probes has rendered many of the classical names obsolete for the purposes of cartography ; however , some of the old names are still used to describe geographical features on the planet .","qid":"2768","docid":"Classical_albedo_features_on_Mars","rank":24,"score":87566},{"content":"Title: List of albedo features on Mercury Content: This is a list of the albedo features of the planet Mercury as seen by early telescopic observation . Early telescopic observations of Mercury were based on the assumption that Mercury keeps one of its faces permanently turned toward the Sun , through the mechanism of tidal locking . Although this is not true ( Mercury rotates three times on its axis for every two revolutions around the Sun ) , when it is positioned for best viewing from Earth , the amount by which its visible face has rotated from its previous best viewing position is fairly small . A map of Mercury made in the 1910s by astronomer Eugène Michel Antoniadi shows the following albedo features , localized by a grid in which 0 ° longitude is the ( assumed ) subsolar meridian . No certain connection has been made between these features and the topographic features viewed on Mercury by the Mariner 10 spacecraft . Mariner 10 , however , imaged less than half of Mercury 's surface . The names are drawn from Greek mythology , and often allude to myths about Hermes , the Greek equivalent of the Roman god Mercury .","qid":"2768","docid":"List_of_albedo_features_on_Mercury","rank":25,"score":87323},{"content":"Title: 1169 Alwine Content: 1169 Alwine , provisional designation , is an asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 8 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 30 August 1930 , by German and Italian astronomers Max Wolf and Mario Ferrero at Heidelberg Observatory in southwest Germany . Alwine orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.0 -- 2.7 AU once every 3 years and 6 months ( 1,290 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.15 and an inclination of 4 ° with respect to the ecliptic . As no precoveries were taken , and no prior identifications were made , Alwines observation arc begins with its official discovery observation at Heidelberg in 1930 . According to the survey carried out by NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , Alwine measures 7.89 kilometers in diameter , and its surface has an albedo of 0.179 . Based on a generic magnitude-to-diameter conversion , its diameter is between 7 and 17 kilometers for an absolute magnitude of 12.8 and an albedo in the range of 0.05 to 0.25 . As of 2017 , no rotational lightcurves have been obtained . The body 's rotation period , pole and shape remain unknown . This minor planet is named after a common German female name . Any reference of this name to a person or occurrence is unknown .","qid":"2768","docid":"1169_Alwine","rank":26,"score":86862},{"content":"Title: Steve Gallacci Content: Steven A. Gallacci ( born 1955 ) is best known for creating and publishing Albedo Anthropomorphics , a black and white alternative comic containing anthropomorphic funny animal characters , which has been considered a major factor in the origins of furry fandom . Gallacci spent six years in the US Air Force as a graphics specialist , including a tour of duty in Germany . After leaving the military , Gallacci started Albedo under his own Thoughts & Images imprint . First published in 1983 , Albedo '' 's last issue was published in 2005 under the Shanda Fantasy Arts imprint . Among some of the story lines that have appeared in Albedo are Gallacci 's own `` Erma Felna : EDF '' , a military sci-fi epic featuring some elements of political intrigue , and Stan Sakai 's Usagi Yojimbo , which first appeared in the infamously rare Albedo # 2 . Gallacci also worked on Fusion , a SF adventure comic from Eclipse Comics similar to the TV show Firefly , though pre-dating it by nearly twenty years . Lela Dowling co-authored the artwork and Steve Barnes drafted the first issues , though Gallacci would write most of the later ones with Lex Nakashima . He also created `` Birthright '' , an indirect sequel to Erma Felna , serialized in the Fantagraphics title `` Critters '' . The first three issues of Donna Barr 's `` the Desert Peach '' and a single issue of his own fantasy adventure `` Zell , Sworddancer '' with art assistance by Steve Adams , was also published under his Thoughts & Images imprint . Thoughts & Images also published the first edition of Albedo RPG , written by Craig Hilton and Paul Kidd , and based on the Erma Felna storyline from Albedo '' . Additional editions and supplements were published by Chessex in the early 1990s . An all-new version of an Albedo RPG has been published by Sanguin . Galacci provided art for episodes of Elin Winkler 's `` Tales of the Fehnnik '' , published by Radio Comix , and short bits for Ken Fletcher 's `` Spontoon '' fanzine . He has also done Science Fiction art and illustration since the late 1970s , as well as straight technical/commercial illustration . He occasionally produces silver bullets for his Argent Small Arms line of replica firearms . More recently , he has been creating masters for after-market scale model aircraft detail/correction/conversion sets . Gallacci lives in Seattle with his two dogs . His wife of twenty-two years , the long time SF and media fan Beverley Clark , died 16 September 2007 .","qid":"2768","docid":"Steve_Gallacci","rank":27,"score":86475},{"content":"Title: Antarctica cooling controversy Content: An apparent contradiction in the observed cooling behavior of Antarctica between 1966 and 2000 became part of the public debate in the global warming controversy , particularly between advocacy groups of both sides in the public arena including politicians , as well as the popular media . In his novel State of Fear , Michael Crichton asserted that the Antarctic data contradict global warming . The few scientists who have commented on the supposed controversy state that there is no contradiction , while the author of the paper whose work inspired Crichton 's remarks has said that Crichton `` misused '' his results . There is no similar controversy within the scientific community , as the small observed changes in Antarctica are consistent with the small changes predicted by climate models , and because the overall trend since comprehensive observations began is now known to be one of warming . At the South Pole , where some of the strongest cooling trends were observed between the 1950s and 1990s , the mean trend is flat from 1957 through 2013 .","qid":"2768","docid":"Antarctica_cooling_controversy","rank":28,"score":86353},{"content":"Title: Citrinitas Content: Citrinitas , sometimes referred to as xanthosis , is a term given by alchemists to `` yellowness . '' It was one of the four major stages of the alchemical magnum opus , and literally referred to `` transmutation of silver into gold '' or `` yellowing of the lunar consciousness . '' In alchemical philosophy , citrinitas stood for the dawning of the `` solar light '' inherent in one 's being , and that the reflective `` lunar or soul light '' was no longer necessary . The other three alchemical stages were nigredo ( blackness ) , albedo ( whiteness ) , and rubedo ( redness ) . Psychologist Carl Jung is credited with interpreting the alchemical process as analogous to modern-day psychoanalysis . In the Jungian archetypal schema , nigredo is the Shadow ; albedo refers to the anima and animus ( contrasexual soul images ) ; citrinitas is the wise old man ( or woman ) archetype ; and rubedo is the Self archetype which has achieved wholeness .","qid":"2768","docid":"Citrinitas","rank":29,"score":86166},{"content":"Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .","qid":"2768","docid":"Global_cooling","rank":30,"score":85888},{"content":"Title: Tartarus Montes Content: The Tartarus Montes are a mountain range on the planet Mars , stretching over 1070 km and located around the coordinates 15.46 º N , 167.54 º E , between Orcus Patera and the Elysium volcanic region . Albedo was first identified from the contrast of bright and dark signals photographed by Eugène Antoniadi .","qid":"2768","docid":"Tartarus_Montes","rank":31,"score":85701},{"content":"Title: 1394 Algoa Content: 1394 Algoa , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 14 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 12 June 1936 , by English-born South-African astronomer Cyril Jackson at Union Observatory in Johannesburg , South Africa . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.3 -- 2.6 AU once every 3 years and 10 months ( 1,391 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.08 and an inclination of 3 ° with respect to the ecliptic . Prior to its discovery observation in 1936 , Algoa was identified as and at Lowell Observatory and Uccle Observatory , respectively . These observations , however , remained unused to extend the body 's observation arc . In 2012 , two rotational light-curves of Algoa were obtained at the U.S. Etscorn Observatory , New Mexico , and at the Riverland Dingo Observatory , Australia . They gave a well-defined , concurring rotation period of 2.768 hours with a brightness variation of 0.20 and 0.21 magnitude , respectively . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for stony asteroids of 0.20 , and calculates a diameter of 14.2 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 11.6 . The minor planet is named after the historical Algoa Bay , located approximately 700 kilometers east of the Cape of Good Hope , South Africa . Naming citation was published before November 1977 .","qid":"2768","docid":"1394_Algoa","rank":32,"score":84834},{"content":"Title: Neoglaciation Content: The neoglaciation ( `` renewed glaciation '' ) describes the documented cooling trend in the Earth 's climate during the Holocene , following the retreat of the Wisconsin glaciation , the most recent glacial period . Neoglaciation has followed the hypsithermal or Holocene Climatic Optimum , the warmest point in the Earth 's climate during the current interglacial stage . The neoglaciation has no well-marked universal beginning : local conditions and ecological inertia affected the onset of detectably cooler ( and wetter ) conditions . Driven inexorably by the Milankovitch cycle , cooler summers in higher latitudes of North America , which would cease to completely melt the annual snowfall , were masked at first by the presence of the slowly disappearing continental ice sheets , which persisted long after the astronomically calculated moment of maximum summer warmth : `` the neoglaciation can be said to have begun when the cooling caught up with the warming '' , remarked E. C. Pielou . With the close of the `` Little Ice Age '' ( mid-14th to late 19th centuries ) , neoglaciation appears to have been stalled in the late 20th century , assumed to be caused by anthropogenic global warming . Whether it has been temporarily or semi-permanently stalled , neoglaciation has been marked by a retreat from the warm conditions of the Climatic Optimum and the advance or reformation of glaciers that had not existed since the last ice age . In the mountains of western North America , montane glaciers that had completely melted reformed shortly before 5000 BP . The most severe part of the best documented neoglacial period , especially in Europe and the North Atlantic , is termed the `` Little Ice Age '' . In North America , neoglaciation had ecological effects in the spread of muskeg on flat , poorly drained land , such as the bed of recently drained Lake Agassiz and in the Hudson Bay lowlands , in the retreat of grassland before an advancing forest border in the Great Plains , and in shifting ranges of forest trees and diagnostic plant species ( identified through palynology ) . The view that neoglaciation is ending in present times , is assumed by those who identify the most recent climate changes and global warming as the onset of a new period in Earth history , speculatively calling it the `` Early anthropocene '' , as a coming geological age dominated by the effects of Homo sapiens .","qid":"2768","docid":"Neoglaciation","rank":33,"score":84700},{"content":"Title: Wabedo, Minnesota Content: Wabedo is an unincorporated community in Wabedo Township , Cass County , Minnesota , United States , near Longville . It is along Cass County Road 54 near the junction with County Road 120 .","qid":"2768","docid":"Wabedo,_Minnesota","rank":34,"score":84371},{"content":"Title: Starlight Content: Starlight is the light emitted by stars . It typically refers to visible electromagnetic radiation from stars other than the Sun observable from Earth during the night time although a component of starlight is observable from the Earth during the daytime . Sunlight is the term used for the Sun 's starlight observed during daytime . During nighttime , albedo describes solar reflections from other Solar System objects including moonlight . Observation and measurement of starlight through telescopes is the basis for many fields of astronomy , including photometry and stellar spectroscopy . Hipparchus did not have a telescope or any instrument that could measure apparent brightness accurately , so he simply made estimates with his eyes . He sorted the stars into six brightness categories , which he called magnitudes . He referred to the brightest stars in his catalog as first-magnitudes stars , which were the brightest stars and those so faint he could barely see them were sixth-magnitude stars . Starlight is also a notable part of personal experience and human culture , impacting a diverse range of pursuits including poetry , astronomy , and military strategy . The United States Army spent millions of dollars in the 1950s and onward to develop a starlight scope , that could amplify starlight , moonlight filtered by clouds , and the fluorescence of rotting vegetation about 50,000 times to allow a person to see in the night . In contrast to previously developed active infrared system such as sniperscope , it was a passive device and did not require additional light emission to see . The average color of starlight in the observable universe is a shade of yellowish-white that has been given the name Cosmic Latte . Starlight spectroscopy , examination of the stellar spectra , was pioneered by Joseph Fraunhofer in 1814 . Starlight can be understood to be composed of three main spectra types , continuous spectrum , emission spectrum , and absorption spectrum . One of the oldest stars yet identified ( oldest not most distant in this case ) was identified in 2014 , the star SMSS J031300 .362670839.3 was determined to be 6000 light years away but date to 13.8 billion years ago . The starlight shining on Earth would include this star . In the field of photography , there is a specialty of night-time photography especially when subjects are lit primarily by starlight . -LSB- https://books.google.com/books?id=Z7QNrgEACAAJ&dq=starlight+photography&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjivLqj7r3RAhWF5SYKHelUDJsQ6AEIGjAA Directly taking images of night sky is also a part of astrophotography . Starlight astrophotography can also be used for the pursuit of science and/or leisure . Starlight photography can be important for observing nocturnal animals . In many cases starlight photography may also overlap with a need to understand the impact of moonlight .","qid":"2768","docid":"Starlight","rank":35,"score":82877},{"content":"Title: 11824 Alpaidze Content: 11824 Alpaidze , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid from the middle region of the asteroid belt , approximately 5 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 16 September 1982 , by Russian astronomer Lyudmila Chernykh at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory , Nauchnyj , on the Crimean peninsula . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.8 -- 3.4 AU once every 4 years and 3 months ( 1,563 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.31 and an inclination of 2 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was obtained at Palomar Observatory in 1978 . However , the observation was not used to extend the asteroid 's observation arc . Two rotational light-curves of this asteroid were obtained from photometric observations made at the U.S. Palomar Transient Factory , California , in September 2009 . The fragmentary light-curves gave a rotation period of and hours with a brightness amplitude of 0.05 and 0.06 in magnitude , respectively . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.10 , untypically low for a stony asteroid , and calculates a diameter of 4.8 kilometers , based on an absolute magnitude of 14.7 . The minor planet is named after Georgian-born Soviet Lieutenant General Galaktion Alpaidze ( 1916 -- 2006 ) , Hero of the Soviet Union and laureate of the USSR State Prize . He was the head of the Plesetsk Cosmodrome in the 1960s and 1970s , where space crafts were tested . During his supervision , the Cosmodrome became the world 's most active launch site in the world . Naming citation was published on 2 April 2007 .","qid":"2768","docid":"11824_Alpaidze","rank":36,"score":82730},{"content":"Title: 7959 Alysecherri Content: 7959 Alysecherri , provisional designation , is a bright , stony Hungaria asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 3 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 2 August 1994 , by American astronomer Carl Hergenrother at the U.S. Steward Observatory Catalina Station on Mt Bigelow near Tucson , Arizona . The E-type asteroid is a member of the Hungaria family , which form the innermost dense concentration of asteroids in the Solar System . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.8 -- 2.1 AU once every 2 years and 9 months ( 989 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.09 and an inclination of 19 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at Palomar Observatory in 1951 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 43 years prior to its discovery . A rotational light-curve for this asteroid was obtained from photometric observations made by American astronomer Brian Warner at the U.S. Palmer Divide Observatory , Colorado , in July 2013 . It gave a rotation period of hours with a brightness amplitude of 0.13 in magnitude . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.30 and calculates a diameter of 3.05 kilometers . The minor planet is named after the maiden name of the discovering astronomer 's wife , Alyse Cherri Smith . Naming citation was published on 13 November 2008 .","qid":"2768","docid":"7959_Alysecherri","rank":37,"score":81664},{"content":"Title: Comet nucleus Content: The nucleus is the solid , central part of a comet , popularly termed a dirty snowball or an icy dirtball . A cometary nucleus is composed of rock , dust , and frozen gases . When heated by the Sun , the gases sublimate and produce an atmosphere surrounding the nucleus known as the coma . The force exerted on the coma by the Sun 's radiation pressure and solar wind cause an enormous tail to form , which points away from the Sun . A typical comet nucleus has an albedo of 0.04 . This is blacker than coal , and may be caused by a covering of dust . Results from the Rosetta and Philae spacecraft show that the nucleus of 67P/Churyumov -- Gerasimenko has no magnetic field , which suggests that magnetism may not have played a role in the early formation of planetesimals . Further , the ALICE spectrograph on Rosetta determined that electrons ( within 1 km above the comet nucleus ) produced from photoionization of water molecules by solar radiation , and not photons from the Sun as thought earlier , are responsible for the degradation of water and carbon dioxide molecules released from the comet nucleus into its coma . On 30 July 2015 , scientists reported that the Philae spacecraft , that landed on comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko in November 2014 , detected at least 16 organic compounds , of which four ( including acetamide , acetone , methyl isocyanate and propionaldehyde ) were detected for the first time on a comet .","qid":"2768","docid":"Comet_nucleus","rank":38,"score":81588},{"content":"Title: Dynamic Albedo of Neutrons Content: The Dynamic Albedo of Neutrons ( DAN ) instrument is an experiment mounted on the Mars Science Laboratory Curiosity rover . It is a pulsed sealed-tube neutron source and detector used to measure hydrogen or ice and water at or near the Martian surface . DAN was provided by the Russian Federal Space Agency , funded by Russia and is under the leadership of Principal Investigator Igor Mitrofanov . On August 18 , 2012 ( sol ) , DAN was turned on , marking the success of a Russian-American collaboration on the surface of Mars and the first working Russian science instrument on the Martian surface since Mars 3 stopped transmitting over forty years ago . The instrument is designed to detect subsurface water . On March 18 , 2013 ( sol ) , NASA reported evidence of mineral hydration , likely hydrated calcium sulfate , in several rock samples including the broken fragments of `` Tintina '' rock and `` Sutton Inlier '' rock as well as in veins and nodules in other rocks like `` Knorr '' rock and `` Wernicke '' rock . Analysis using the rover 's DAN instrument provided evidence of subsurface water , amounting to as much as 4 % water content , down to a depth of 60 cm , in the rover 's traverse from the Bradbury Landing site to the Yellowknife Bay area in the Glenelg terrain . On August 19 , 2015 , NASA scientists reported that the DAN instrument on Curiosity detected an unusual hydrogen-rich area , at `` Marias Pass , '' on Mars . The hydrogen found seemed related to water or hydroxyl ions in rocks within three feet beneath the rover , according to the scientists .","qid":"2768","docid":"Dynamic_Albedo_of_Neutrons","rank":39,"score":81564},{"content":"Title: Directional-hemispherical reflectance Content: Directional-hemispherical reflectance is the reflectance of a surface under direct illumination ( with no diffuse component ) . Directional-hemispherical reflectance is the integral of the BRDF over all viewing directions . It is sometimes called `` black-sky albedo '' . See also : Bi-hemispherical reflectance Category : Electromagnetic radiation Category : Climatology","qid":"2768","docid":"Directional-hemispherical_reflectance","rank":40,"score":80809},{"content":"Title: Bi-hemispherical reflectance Content: Bi-hemispherical reflectance is the reflectance of a surface under diffuse illumination ( with no direct component ) . Bi-hemispherical reflectance is an important part of the Bidirectional reflectance distribution function over all viewing and illumination directions of a hemisphere . It is sometimes called `` white-sky albedo '' .","qid":"2768","docid":"Bi-hemispherical_reflectance","rank":41,"score":80070},{"content":"Title: Sinus Meridiani Content: Sinus Meridiani is a feature name for an albedo feature on Mars stretching east-west just south of that planet 's equator . It was named by the French astronomer Camille Flammarion in the late 1870s . It has a diameter of 1622 km , and its center is located at 7.12 S and 4 E.","qid":"2768","docid":"Sinus_Meridiani","rank":42,"score":79677},{"content":"Title: Claritas Fossae Content: Claritas Fossae is a group of troughs in the Phoenicis Lacus and Thaumasia quadrangles of Mars , located at 31.5 S and 104.1 W . The structure is 2,050.0 km long and was named after a classical albedo feature name . Long narrow depressions on Mars are called fossae . This term is derived from Latin ; therefore fossa is singular and fossae is plural . Troughs form when the crust is stretched until it breaks . The stretching can be due to the large weight of a nearby volcano . Fossae/pit craters are common near volcanoes in the Tharsis and Elysium regions . A trough often has two breaks with a middle section moving down , leaving steep cliffs along the sides ; such a trough is called a graben .","qid":"2768","docid":"Claritas_Fossae","rank":43,"score":79616},{"content":"Title: Peter Thejll Content: Peter Andreas Thejll ( born 1956 ) is a Danish astrophysicist and climate researcher . His research in solar variation helped provide evidence of the greenhouse effect on the Earth 's climate in the late 20th century . In particular , his study with Knud Lassen on Northern Hemisphere land air temperature showed that the rise of 0.4 degrees Celsius since 1980 could not be accounted for by the solar cycle . Climatologists have pointed to this finding as an `` actual piece of evidence for greenhouse warming '' . Thejll received his undergraduate education at the University of Copenhagen . He received an M.S. in physics and a Ph.D. in astrophysics from the University of Delaware . Thejll was a Carlsberg Fellow at the Niels Bohr Institute and worked at the Nordic Institute for Theoretical Physics . Thejll currently is a senior scientist at the Danish Meteorological Institute in Copenhagen . He is currently involved in the creation of a global automatic system to observe the Earth 's reflectivity - albedo - using observations of the earthshine on the Moon . Such data can be used for climate change studies and calibration of satellite data as the measurements deliver independent data on the albedo . A telescope is now installed on Hawaii at the Mauna Loa Observatory . The Swedish research agency VINNOVA is funding this project .","qid":"2768","docid":"Peter_Thejll","rank":44,"score":79409},{"content":"Title: Wabedo Lake Content: Wabedo Lake is a lake in Cass County , Minnesota , in the United States . Wabedo Lake was named for a Ojibwe warrior killed by Sioux . The Wabedo Lake is 1,185 acres in size and it is approximately 95 feet deep at its deepest point . Wabedo Lake is located 4 1/2 miles south of Longville off of Highway 54 . Anglers , a person who fishes with a rod and line , can anticipate to catch 15 different types of fish . These 15 different fish species are : Black Bullhead , Black Crappie , Bluegill , Brown Bullhead , Largemouth Bass , Muskellunge ( Muskie ) , Northern Pike , Pumpkinseed , Rock Bass , Smallmouth Bass , Walleye , White Sucker , Yellow Bullhead and Yellow Perch .","qid":"2768","docid":"Wabedo_Lake","rank":45,"score":78141},{"content":"Title: Cooling (disambiguation) Content: Cooling is the transfer of thermal energy via thermal radiation , heat conduction or convection . Cooling may also refer to : Cooling ( surname ) , any of several people `` Cooling '' , a song written and performed by Tori Amos on her 1999 album To Venus and Back A Cantonese food classification Cooling , Kent , a village in Kent , England","qid":"2768","docid":"Cooling_(disambiguation)","rank":46,"score":77851},{"content":"Title: Outgoing longwave radiation Content: Outgoing Longwave Radiation ( OLR ) is the energy radiating from the Earth as infrared radiation at low energy to Space . OLR is electromagnetic radiation emitted from Earth and its atmosphere out to space in the form of thermal radiation . The flux of energy transported by outgoing longwave radiation is measured in W/m ² . Over 99 % of outgoing longwave radiation has wavelengths between 4 µm and 100 µm , in the thermal infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum . Contributions with wavelengths larger than 40 µm are small , therefore often only wavelengths up to 50 µm are considered . In the wavelength range between 4 µm and 10 µm the spectrum of outgoing longwave radiation overlaps that of solar radiation , and for various applications different cut-off wavelengths between the two may be chosen . Radiative cooling by outgoing longwave radiation is the primary way the Earth System loses energy . The balance between this loss and the energy gained by radiative heating from incoming solar shortwave radiation determines global heating or cooling of the Earth system ( Energy budget of Earth 's climate ) . Local differences between radiative heating and cooling provide the energy that drives atmospheric dynamics .","qid":"2768","docid":"Outgoing_longwave_radiation","rank":47,"score":77366},{"content":"Title: C/2001 OG108 Content: C/2001 OG108 ( LONEOS ) is a Halley-type comet with an orbital period of 48.51 years . It was discovered on 28 July 2001 by the LONEOS telescope at Lowell Observatory . Observations taken in January and February 2002 showed that the `` asteroid '' had developed a small amount of cometary activity as it approached perihelion . It was subsequently reclassified as a comet . The comet came to perihelion ( closest approach to the Sun ) on 15 March 2002 . The next perihelion passage is calculated to be on 6 June 2050 . The comet has a rotational period of 2.38 ± 0.02 days ( 57.12 hr ) . In 2003 , the comet was estimated to have a mean absolute V magnitude ( H ) of 13.05 ± 0.10 , with an albedo of 0.03 , giving an effective radius of 8.9 ± 0.7 km . Using data from Fernandez ( 2004 -- 2005 ) JPL lists the comet with an albedo of 0.05 and a diameter of 13.6 ± 1.0 km . This comet probably represents the transition between typical Halley-family/long-period comets and extinct comets . Damocloids have been studied as possible extinct cometary candidates due to the similarity of their orbital parameters with those of Halley-family comets .","qid":"2768","docid":"C/2001_OG108","rank":48,"score":77338},{"content":"Title: Hockey stick graph Content: Hockey stick graphs present the global or hemispherical mean temperature record of the past 500 to 2000 years as shown by quantitative climate reconstructions based on climate proxy records . These reconstructions have consistently shown a slow long term cooling trend changing into relatively rapid warming in the 20th century , with the instrumental temperature record by 2000 exceeding earlier temperatures . The term `` hockey stick graph '' was coined by the climatologist Jerry Mahlman , to describe the pattern shown by the ( MBH99 ) reconstruction , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat with a downward trend to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' followed by a sharp , steady increase corresponding to the `` blade '' portion . The reconstructions have featured in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports as evidence of global warming . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . Paleoclimatology dates back to the 19th century , and the concept of examining varves in lake beds and tree rings to track local climatic changes was suggested in the 1930s . In the 1960s , Hubert Lamb generalised from historical documents and temperature records of central England to propose a Medieval Warm Period from around 900 to 1300 , followed by Little Ice Age . This was the basis of a `` schematic diagram '' featured in the IPCC First Assessment Report of 1990 beside cautions that the medieval warming might not have been global . The use of indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed , and by the late 1990s a number of competing teams of climatologists found indications that recent warming was exceptional . introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large scale reconstructions . Their study was featured in the IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . In 1998 Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 with shading emphasising that uncertainties ( to two standard error limits ) were much greater in earlier centuries . independently produced a CPS reconstruction extending back for a thousand years , and ( MBH99 ) used the MBH98 methodology to extend their study back to 1000 . A version of the MBH99 graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , which also drew on Jones et al. 1998 and three other reconstructions to support the conclusion that , in the Northern Hemisphere , the 1990s was likely to have been the warmest decade and 1998 the warmest year during the past 1,000 years . The graph became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th century warmth was exceptional . In 2003 , as lobbying over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol intensified , a paper claiming greater medieval warmth was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy . Later in 2003 , Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick published disputing the data used in MBH98 paper . In 2004 Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal components analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . Their analysis was subsequently disputed by published papers including and which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . Political disputes led to the formation of a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council , their North Report in 2006 supported Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , support the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Further reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .","qid":"2768","docid":"Hockey_stick_graph","rank":49,"score":76806},{"content":"Title: 6470 Aldrin Content: 6470 Aldrin , provisional designation , is a stony Flora asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 3 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by Czech astronomer Antonín Mrkos at Kleť Observatory on 14 September 1982 . The S-type asteroid is a member of the Flora family , one of the largest groups of stony asteroids in the main-belt . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.9 -- 2.6 AU once every 3 years and 5 months ( 1,253 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.15 and an inclination of 3 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The asteroid 's observation arc begins in 1982 , as no precoveries had been taken prior to its discovery . A rotational light-curve of this asteroid was obtained from photometric observations made at the U.S. Palomar Transient Factory in September 2013 . The light-curve gave a rotation period of hours with a brightness variation of 0.82 in magnitude . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.24 -- which derives from 8 Flora , the largest member and namesake of this orbital family -- and calculates a diameter of 3.0 kilometers , based on an absolute magnitude of 14.78 . The minor planet was named for American astronaut Buzz Aldrin ( b. 1930 ) , on the occasion of the 30th anniversary of the Apollo 11 mission . He was one of the first two humans to land on the Moon , and the second person to walk on it , following Neil Armstrong , after whom the asteroid 6469 Armstrong is named . Its name was suggested by Czech astronomers Jana Tichá , Miloš Tichý and Zdeněk Moravec , who observed the asteroid during its 1995-opposition , shortly before being numbered . Naming citation was published on 4 May 1999 .","qid":"2768","docid":"6470_Aldrin","rank":50,"score":76633},{"content":"Title: Cooling curve Content: A cooling curve is a line graph that represents the change of phase of matter , typically from a gas to a solid or a liquid to a solid . The independent variable ( X-axis ) is time and the dependent variable ( Y-axis ) is temperature . Below is an example of a cooling curve used in castings . The initial point of the graph is the starting temperature of the matter , here noted as the `` pouring temperature '' . When the phase change occurs there is a `` thermal arrest '' , that is the temperature stays constant . This is because the matter has more internal energy as a liquid or gas than in the state that it is cooling to . The amount of energy required for a phase change is known as latent heat . The `` cooling rate '' is the slope of the cooling curve at any point .","qid":"2768","docid":"Cooling_curve","rank":51,"score":76506},{"content":"Title: Albiorix (moon) Content: Albiorix ( -LSB- ˌælbiˈɒrᵻks -RSB- ) is a prograde irregular satellite of Saturn . It was discovered by Holman and colleagues in 2000 , and given the temporary designation S/2000 S 11 . Albiorix is the largest member of the Gallic group of irregular satellites . It was named in August 2003 for Albiorix , `` a Gallic giant who was considered to be the king of the world . '' The name is known from an inscription found near the French town of Sablet which identifies him with the Roman god Mars ( an interpretatio romana ) . Albiorix orbits Saturn at a distance of about 16 million km and its diameter is estimated at 32 kilometers , assuming an albedo of 0.04 . The rotation period was measured by the ISS camera of the Cassini spacecraft to 13 hours and 19 minutes . The diagram illustrates the Albiorigian orbit in relation to other prograde irregular satellites of Saturn . The eccentricity of the orbits is represented by the yellow segments extending from the pericentre to the apocentre . Given the similarity of the orbital elements and the homogeneity of the physical characteristics with other members of the Gallic group , it was suggested that these satellites could have a common origin in the break-up of a larger moon . Varying colours revealed recently suggest a possibility of a large crater , leading to an alternative hypothesis that Erriapus and Tarvos could be fragments of Albiorix following a near-break-up collision with another body .","qid":"2768","docid":"Albiorix_(moon)","rank":52,"score":76400},{"content":"Title: Cooling flow Content: A cooling flow occurs according to the theory that the intracluster medium ( ICM ) in the centres of galaxy clusters should be rapidly cooling at the rate of tens to thousands of solar masses per year . This should happen as the ICM ( a plasma ) is quickly losing its energy by the emission of X-rays . The X-ray brightness of the ICM is proportional to the square of its density , which rises steeply towards the centres of many clusters . Also the temperature falls to typically a third or a half of the temperature in the outskirts of the cluster . The typical -LSB- predicted -RSB- timescale for the ICM to cool is relatively short , less than a billion years . As material in the centre of the cluster cools out , the pressure of the overlying ICM should cause more material to flow inwards ( the cooling flow ) . In a steady state , the rate of mass deposition , i.e. the rate at which the plasma cools , is given by where L is the bolometric ( i.e. over the entire spectrum ) luminosity of the cooling region , T is its temperature , k is the Boltzmann constant and μm is the mean molecular mass .","qid":"2768","docid":"Cooling_flow","rank":53,"score":76315},{"content":"Title: Amenthes Fossae Content: The Amenthes Fossae are a system of troughs in the Amenthes quadrangle of Mars centered at 9.07 ° N and 102.68 ° E . They are 850 km across and were named after a classical albedo feature . The classical albedo feature name was based on the Egyptian name for a place where souls of the dead go ( Amenthes or Duat ) . The name Amenthes Fossae was approved in 1976 .","qid":"2768","docid":"Amenthes_Fossae","rank":54,"score":75949},{"content":"Title: Arctic geoengineering Content: Temperatures in the Arctic region have tended to increase more rapidly than the global average . Projections of sea ice loss that are adjusted to take account of recent rapid Arctic shrinkage suggest that the Arctic will likely be free of summer sea ice sometime between 2059 and 2078 . Various climate engineering schemes have been suggested to reduce the chance of significant and irreversible effects such as Arctic methane release . Several climate engineering proposals have been made which are specific to the Arctic . They are usually hydrological in nature , and principally centre upon measures to prevent Arctic ice loss . In addition , other solar radiation management climate engineering techniques , such as stratospheric sulfate aerosols have been proposed . These would cool the Arctic by adjusting the albedo of the atmosphere .","qid":"2768","docid":"Arctic_geoengineering","rank":55,"score":75610},{"content":"Title: K-type asteroid Content: K-type asteroids are relatively uncommon asteroids with a moderately reddish spectrum shortwards of 0.75 μm , and a slight bluish trend longwards of this . They have a low albedo . Their spectrum resembles that of CV and CO meteorites . These asteroids were described as `` featureless '' S-types in the Tholen classification . The K-type was proposed by J. F. Bell and colleagues in 1988 for bodies having a particularly shallow 1 μm absorption feature , and lacking the 2 μm absorption . These were found during studies of the Eos family of asteroids .","qid":"2768","docid":"K-type_asteroid","rank":56,"score":75364},{"content":"Title: Tractus Fossae Content: The Tractus Fossae are a set of troughs in the Tharsis quadrangle of Mars , located at 26 ° north latitude and 101.4 ° west longitude . They are 390 km long and are named after a classical albedo feature name . The term `` fossae '' is used to indicate large troughs when using geographical terminology related to Mars . Troughs , sometimes also called grabens , form when the crust is stretched until it breaks , which forms two breaks with a middle section moving down , leaving steep cliffs along the sides . Sometimes , a line of pits form as materials collapse into a void that forms from the stretching .","qid":"2768","docid":"Tractus_Fossae","rank":57,"score":75305},{"content":"Title: Montes Alpes Content: Montes Alpes is a mountain range in the northern part of the Moon 's near side . It was named after the Alps in Europe ; the name was confirmed by the International Astronomical Union in 1935 . It lies between the selenographic coordinates latitudes 52.81 ° N and 42.04 ° N , and longitudes 5.6 ° W and 3.22 ° E . The range thus crosses the lunar prime meridian , and is partially illuminated and partially in shadow during first and last quarters . The center of the range is at 48.36 ° N , 0.58 ° W , and has a diameter of 334 km . This range forms the northeastern border of the Mare Imbrium lunar mare . To the west of the range is the level and nearly featureless mare , while on the eastern face is a more rugged continental area with a higher albedo . The range begins about one crater diameter northwest of the crater Cassini , at the Promontorium Agassiz , then stretches about 280 kilometres to the northwest and continues in intermittent fashion and the mountains proper end shy of one crater length from the eastern rim of the dark-floored crater Plato . The system of rilles named Rimae Plato may be found in between the eastern edge of Plato and the western edge of the Alpes mountains . The peaks of the Alpes range in height from 1,800 m to 2,400 m. The Alpes range was part of the middle ring of the multi-ringed Imbrium Basin . The other mountain ranges around the Imbrium Basin ( Montes Caucasus , Montes Apenninus , and Montes Carpatus ) were part of the outer ring . The Alpes , being part of the middle ring , thus have a shorter radius to the center of Imbrium than the other ranges of the basin . The northwestern third of the range is separated from the remainder of the mountains by the Vallis Alpes , a wide rift valley that extends from a narrow cleft in the Montes Alpes to the northeast , reaching the edge of the Mare Frigoris . The total length of this formation is about 166 km , and it reaches a maximum width of 10 km . Running down the center of this valley is a narrow cleft which is not observable through smaller telescopes . Sunrise and sunset in this area occur before the respective lunar quarters . About one-third the length of the range from the southeast is Mons Blanc , a peak rising to a height of 3.6 km . This compares to a typical height of peaks in this range of 1.8 to 2.4 km . Midway between Mons Blanc and Promontorium Agassiz is Promontorium Deville . To the southwest of Promontorium Agassiz is the isolated Mons Piton , a peak rising to a height of 2.3 km . Blanc , Piton , and the Montes Teneriffe make up part of the inner ring of the Imbrium Basin .","qid":"2768","docid":"Montes_Alpes","rank":58,"score":75275},{"content":"Title: Cooling center Content: A cooling center is a air-conditioned public space set up by local authorities to temporarily deal with the health effects of a heat wave . Cooling centers are meant to prevent hyperthermia caused by heat , humidity , and poor air quality . Cooling centers provide shade , water , and restrooms ; medical attention and referrals to social services may also be offered . Their services are aimed at the homeless , at-risk populations such as the elderly , and those without air conditioning . As the danger of heat waves has risen in the public consciousness , cooling centers are increasingly used in cities such as New York City , Chicago , Boston , and Toronto , as well as less urban population areas . Cooling centers may also be used in places like Seattle where home air conditioning is rare but summer can bring temperatures exceeding 90 F for several days . They are usually sited at multiple locations throughout a municipality , such as public libraries , community centers , senior centers , and police stations . Another health measure sometimes taken during heat waves is to extend operational hours at public beaches and swimming pools .","qid":"2768","docid":"Cooling_center","rank":59,"score":75000},{"content":"Title: 84882 Table Mountain Content: 84882 Table Mountain , provisional designation , is a bright asteroid from the middle region of the asteroid belt , approximately 5 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 1 February 2003 , by American astronomer James Whitney Young at the U.S. Table Mountain Observatory near Wrightwood , California . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.9 -- 3.4 AU once every 4 years and 3 months ( 1,566 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.29 and an inclination of 14 ° with respect to the ecliptic . It was first identified as at Lincoln Laboratory 's Experimental Test Site in 1997 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 6 years prior to its discovery observation . As of 2016 , the asteroid 's composition , rotation period and shape remain unknown . According to the survey carried out by the NEOWISE mission of NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , the asteroid measures 3.0 kilometers in diameter and its surface has a high albedo of 0.306 . Based on an assumed albedo in the range of 0.05 -- 0.25 and an absolute magnitude of 14.7 , the asteroid 's generic diameter measures would be between 3 and 7 kilometers , as the higher the body 's reflectivity ( albedo ) , the smaller is its diameter at a constant absolute magnitude ( brightness ) . The minor planet was named for the Table Mountain Observatory , the discoverer 's workplace , currently a NASA facility operated by the California Institute of Technology 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory , which began operation as a Smithsonian Institution site in 1924 to study the solar constant . In the late 1950s , the site was used to test the first solar panels and is now dedicated to optical astronomy and to study Earth 's atmosphere . Citation was published on 28 October 2004 .","qid":"2768","docid":"84882_Table_Mountain","rank":60,"score":74902},{"content":"Title: Minnaert function Content: The Minnaert function is a photometric function used to interpret astronomical observations and remote sensing data for the Earth . It was named after the astronomer Marcel Minnaert . This function expresses the radiance factor ( RADF ) as a function the phase angle , the photometric latitude and the photometric longitude . where is the Minnaert albedo , is an empirical parameter , is the scattered radiance in the direction , is the incident radiance , and The phase angle is the angle between the light source and the observer with the object as the center . The assumptions made are : the surface is illuminated by a distant point source . the surface is isotropic and flat . Minnaert 's contribution is the introduction of the parameter , having a value between 0 and 1 , originally for a better interpretation of observations of the Moon . In remote sensing the use of this function is referred to as Minnaert topographic correction , a necessity when interpreting images of rough terrain .","qid":"2768","docid":"Minnaert_function","rank":61,"score":74433},{"content":"Title: Coolhunting Content: Coolhunting is a neologism coined in the early 1990s referring to a new kind of marketing professionals who make observations and predictions in changes of new or existing `` cool '' cultural fads and trends . Coolhunting is also referred to as `` trend spotting , '' and is a subset of trend analysis . Coolhunters resemble the intuitive fashion magazine editors of the 1960s such as Nancy White ( Harper 's Bazaar 1958 -- 1971 ) . Coolhunters operate mostly in the world of street fashion and design , but their work also blurs into that of futurists such as Faith Popcorn .","qid":"2768","docid":"Coolhunting","rank":62,"score":73988},{"content":"Title: 113390 Helvetia Content: 113390 Helvetia , provisional designation , is an asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 2.2 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 29 September 2002 , by Swiss astronomer Markus Griesser at the Eschenberg Observatory in Winterthur , near Zürich , Switzerland . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.8 -- 2.8 AU once every 3 years and 6 months ( 1,276 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.20 and an inclination of 7 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at Palomar Observatory in 1960 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 42 years prior to its discovery . As of 2016 , the asteroid 's shape , composition and rotation period remain unknown . Based on its absolute magnitude of 15.6 , its diameter lies between 2 and 4 kilometers , assuming an albedo in the range of 0.05 to 0.25 . According to the survey carried out by the NEOWISE mission of NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , the asteroid measures 2.2 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.231 , which is typical for stony asteroids . The minor planet was named in February 2006 and bears the name for Switzerland ( Confoederatio Helvetica ) , where the asteroid was discovered . Helvetia is also an allegorical figure and symbol for the nation . Each Swiss stamp carries her name , and her figure appears on most Swiss coins . Naming citation was published on 19 February 2006 .","qid":"2768","docid":"113390_Helvetia","rank":63,"score":73807},{"content":"Title: 10P/Tempel Content: 10P/Tempel , also known as Tempel 2 , is a periodic Jupiter-family comet in the Solar System . It was discovered in 1873 and has an orbital period of 5.3 years . The comet nucleus is estimated to be 10.6 kilometers in diameter with a low albedo of 0.022 . The nucleus is dark because hydrocarbons on the surface have been converted to a dark , tarry like substance by solar ultraviolet radiation . During the 2010 apparition the comet brightened to about apparent magnitude 8 . It next comes to perihelion ( closest approach to the Sun ) on 14 November 2015 when it should brighten to around magnitude 11 . The most favorable apparition of 10P/Tempel 2 was in 1925 when it came within 0.35 AU of Earth with an apparent magnitude of 6.5 . On August 3 , 2026 , comet Tempel 2 is expected to have another close pass within about 0.41 AU of Earth .","qid":"2768","docid":"10P/Tempel","rank":64,"score":73240},{"content":"Title: (42301) 2001 UR163 Content: , also written as ( 42301 ) 2001 UR163 , is likely a dwarf planet that resides in the scattered disc . It was discovered on October 21 , 2001 by the Deep Ecliptic Survey ( DES ) program at Kitt Peak . Light-curve-amplitude analysis shows only small deviations , suggesting that is a spheroid with small albedo spots . Michael Brown 's website lists it as a highly likely dwarf planet , but the diameter of the object has never been measured . has the reddest color index of any object in the Solar System . On October 31 , 2002 , the 3.6-meter Canada -- France -- Hawaii Telescope observed set a record red reading of B − R = 2.28 . This makes even redder than Pholus , , Sedna and comet C/2001 T4 . Reddening of the spectrum is caused by cosmic irradiation by ultraviolet radiation and charged particles . Becoming bluer in the spectrum is caused by impact collisions exposing the interior of an object . In the visible spectrum , would appear orange-brown , depending on its albedo . It came to perihelion around 1937 . In 2006 , it moved beyond 50 AU from the Sun . It is currently 51.9 AU from the Sun .","qid":"2768","docid":"(42301)_2001_UR163","rank":65,"score":73187},{"content":"Title: Sympathetic cooling Content: Sympathetic cooling is a process in which particles of one type cool particles of another type . Typically , atomic ions that can be directly laser cooled are used to cool nearby ions or atoms , by way of their mutual Coulomb interaction . This technique allows cooling of ions and atoms that ca n't be cooled directly by laser cooling . This includes most molecular ion species , especially large organic molecules . However , sympathetic cooling is most efficient when the mass/charge ratios of the sympathetic - and laser-cooled ions are similar . The cooling of neutral atoms in this manner was first demonstrated by Christopher Myatt et al. in 1997 . Here , a technique with electric and magnetic fields were used , where atoms with spin in one direction were more weakly confined than those with spin in the opposite direction . The weakly confined atoms with a high kinetic energy were allowed to more easily escape , lowering the total kinetic energy , resulting in a cooling of the strongly confined atoms . Myatt et al. also showed the utility of their version of sympathetic cooling for the creation of Bose -- Einstein condensates","qid":"2768","docid":"Sympathetic_cooling","rank":66,"score":73181},{"content":"Title: Iris hypothesis Content: The iris hypothesis is a hypothesis proposed by Richard Lindzen et al. in 2001 that suggested increased sea surface temperature in the tropics would result in reduced cirrus clouds and thus more infrared radiation leakage from Earth 's atmosphere . His study of observed changes in cloud coverage and modeled effects on infrared radiation released to space as a result supported the hypothesis . This suggested infrared radiation leakage was hypothesized to be a negative feedback in which an initial warming would result in an overall cooling of the surface . The consensus view is that increased sea surface temperature would result in increased cirrus clouds and reduced infrared radiation leakage and therefore a positive feedback . Other scientists subsequently tested the hypothesis . Some concluded that there was no evidence supporting the hypothesis . Others found evidence suggesting that increased sea surface temperature in the tropics did indeed reduce cirrus clouds but found that the effect was nonetheless a positive feedback rather than the negative feedback that Lindzen had hypothesized . A later 2007 study conducted by Roy Spencer et al. using updated satellite data potentially supported the iris hypothesis . In 2011 , Lindzen published a rebuttal to the main criticisms . In 2015 a paper was published which again suggested the possibility of an `` Iris Effect '' . It also proposed what it called a `` plausible physical mechanism for an iris effect . ''","qid":"2768","docid":"Iris_hypothesis","rank":67,"score":73127},{"content":"Title: Wibjörn Karlén Content: Wibjörn Karlén ( born 26 August 1937 in Kristine , Kopparberg County , Sweden ) , Ph.D. , is a professor emeritus of physical geography and quaternary geology at Stockholm University , Sweden . In an article which describes Karlén as a paleoclimatologist , he is quoted as saying : `` One of the big problems with trying to determine long-term temperature changes , is that weather records only go back to about 1860 . By relying on statistical reconstruction of the last 1000 years , using only the temperature patterns of the last 140 years instead of actual temperature readings , the IPCC report and Summary missed both a major cooling period as well as a significant warming trend during that millennium . '' Karlén has also criticized the mainstream media for `` spreading the exaggerated views of a human impact on climate . '' He was also named in a 2007 minority report of the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee as one of 400 `` prominent scientists '' who were said to dispute global warming . In 2010 , he predicted that natural climate changes , caused to a large degree by the sun 's activity , would more likely make the climate colder than warmer in the next decades . He is a contributing author to the Fraser Institute 2007 Independent Summary for Policymakers . Karlén is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences .","qid":"2768","docid":"Wibjörn_Karlén","rank":68,"score":73049},{"content":"Title: Aganippe Fossa Content: Aganippe Fossa is a surface feature on Mars which runs from 4.1 ° to 13 ° south latitude and 124.9 ° to 126.9 ° west longitude . It is named after a classical albedo feature . Its name was approved by the IAU in 1976 . Figure 1 shows dark streaks on the slopes of Aganippe Fossa . Such streaks are common on Mars . They occur on steep slopes of craters , troughs , and valleys . The streaks are dark at first . They get lighter with age . Sometimes they start in a tiny spot , then spread out and go for hundreds of meters . They have been seen to travel around obstacles , like boulders . It is believed that they are avalanches of bright dust that expose a darker underlying layer . However , several ideas have been advanced to explain them . Some involve water or even the growth of organisms . The streaks appear in areas covered with dust . Much of the Martian surface is covered with dust . Fine dust settles out of the atmosphere covering everything .","qid":"2768","docid":"Aganippe_Fossa","rank":69,"score":72970},{"content":"Title: 645 Agrippina Content: 645 Agrippina , provisional designation 1907 AG , is a stony asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt , roughly 30 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by American astronomer reverend Joel Metcalf at Taunton , Massachusetts , USA , on 13 September 1907 . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.7 -- 3.7 AU once every 5 years and 9 months ( 2,103 days ) . Its orbit shows an eccentricity of 0.15 and is tilted by 7 degrees to the plane of the ecliptic . A photometric light-curve analysis from the 1980s and a provisional observation in 2004 rendered a rotation period of 32.6 and 34.4 hours , respectively . According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite , IRAS , the Japanese Akari satellite , and the U.S.Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid has a dissimilar albedo in the range of 0.14 to 0.23 , which leads to a varying estimate for its diameter from 28 to 36 kilometers . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link publishes an albedo of 0.23 from an alternative result of the Supplemental IRAS Minor Planet Survey ( SIMPS ) and derives a slightly lower diameter of 27.9 kilometers . The minor planet was named for two women of ancient Roman history . Agrippina the Elder ( 14 BCE -- 33 ) was the daughter of the Roman statesman Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa , the wife of Germanicus and the mother of the Emperor Caligula . Her daughter , Agrippina the Younger ( 15 -- 59 AD ) was the mother of Emperor Nero . The naming might be influenced by the two letters of the provisional designation 1907 AG . In the Dictionary of Minor Planet Names , Lutz Schmadel supposes that the name originated from a list of female names from mythology and history , compiled by the Astronomisches Rechen-Institut ( ARI ) in 1913 . The ARI then sent this list to a number of astronomers with the request to name their discoveries in order to avoid confusion , as the number of unnamed minor planet up to number 700 had grown significantly at the time .","qid":"2768","docid":"645_Agrippina","rank":70,"score":72955},{"content":"Title: 30564 Olomouc Content: 30564 Olomouc ( -LSB- ˈolomoʊ̯ts -RSB- ) provisionally designated , is an asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt . It was discovered by Czech astronomer Petr Pravec on July 28 , 2001 at Ondřejov Observatory and was named after Olomouc , a city in central Moravia , the Czech Republic , where the discoverer lived . The citation accompanying the suggestion of the name and published in the Minor Planet Circular on 6 January 2003 said : `` The city of Olomouc is the center of Hanakia in the heart of Moravia . The seat of Catholic bishops since 1063 and Moravian primates since 1777 , it has been home to a university since 1573 , now called Palacký University . '' The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.2 -- 3.0 AU once every 4 years and 2 months ( 1,529 days ) . Its orbit shows an eccentricity of 0.14 and an inclination of 4 degrees from the plane of the ecliptic . Little is known about the asteroids size , chemical and mineralogical composition , albedo and rotation , despite having a well-observed orbit with the lowest possible uncertainty ( i.e. a condition code of 0 ) and an observation arc that spans over a period of more than 20 years . On the basis of its absolute magnitude in the visible light spectrum and supposed albedo ( which usually varies from 0.05 to 0.25 for the main-belt asteroids ) its diameter could be anywhere between 3 and 6 kilometers . Since asteroids in the inner main-belt are typically of a silicaceous rather than of a carbonaceous composition , with albedos around 0.20 , the body 's diameter might be on the lower end of NASA 's published conversion table , as the higher the reflectivity ( albedo ) , the smaller the body 's diameter for the given absolute magnitude of 15.0 .","qid":"2768","docid":"30564_Olomouc","rank":71,"score":72917},{"content":"Title: Lebedodes ianrobertsoni Content: Lebedodes ianrobertsoni is a moth in the Cossidae family . It is found in Tanzania , where it has been recorded from the central subregion of the Eastern Arc Mountains probably extending further east into the drier coastal forests . The length of the forewings is about 9 mm . The forewings are pale orange-yellow with buckthorn brown transverse lines and striae . The hindwings are ivory yellow , but ecru-olive with a narrow line along the termen .","qid":"2768","docid":"Lebedodes_ianrobertsoni","rank":72,"score":72907},{"content":"Title: 2661 Bydžovský Content: 2661 Bydžovský , provisional designation , is an asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt , approximately 30 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 23 March 1982 , by Czech astronomer Zdeňka Vávrová at the South Bohemian Kleť Observatory in the Czech Republic . Bydžovský orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.7 -- 3.3 AU once every 5 years and 3 months ( 1,923 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.09 and an inclination of 10 ° with respect to the ecliptic . It was first identified as at Heidelberg Observatory in 1950 , extending the body 's observation arc by 32 years prior to its discovery . As of 2016 , Bydžovskýs size , albedo , composition and rotation period remain unknown . Based on its absolute magnitude of 11.4 , its diameter is estimated to measure between 13 and 32 kilometers , assuming an albedo in the range of 0.05 to 0.25 . Since most asteroids in the outer main-belt are of a carbonaceous rather than of a silicaceous composition , with low albedos , typically closer to 0.05 than to 0.25 , the asteroid 's diameter might be on the upper end of NASA 's published conversion table , as the lower the reflectivity ( albedo ) , the larger the body 's diameter for a given absolute magnitude . The minor planet was named in honour of mathematician Bohumil Bydžovský ( 1880 -- 1969 ) , chancellor of the Charles University in Prague . He was born in southern Bohemia and became the most eminent citizen of the Czech town Veselí on the Lužnice river , after which the minor planets 2321 Lužnice and 2599 Veselí were named , respectively . Naming citation was published on 6 February 1993 .","qid":"2768","docid":"2661_Bydžovský","rank":73,"score":72865},{"content":"Title: List of areas of chaos terrain on Mars Content: This is a list of areas of chaos terrain officially named by the International Astronomical Union on the planet Mars . Chaos terrain ( or chaotic terrain ) is an astrogeological term used to denote planetary surface areas where features such as ridges , cracks , and plains appear jumbled and enmeshed with one another . Coordinates are in planetocentric latitude with east longitude . Areas of chaos terrain are usually named after a nearby albedo feature as in line with the IAU 's rules on planetary nomenclature . Such an albedo feature must feature on the maps of Mars made by either Giovanni Schiaparelli or Eugène Michel Antoniadi and are listed at Classical albedo features on Mars .","qid":"2768","docid":"List_of_areas_of_chaos_terrain_on_Mars","rank":74,"score":72505},{"content":"Title: 1684 Iguassú Content: 1684 Iguassú , provisional designation , is a carbonaceous asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt , approximately 30.5 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 23 August 1951 , by Argentine astronomer Miguel Itzigsohn at the La Plata Astronomical Observatory , located in the city of La Plata , Argentina . The C-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.7 -- 3.5 AU once every 5 years and 5 months ( 1,991 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.12 and an inclination of 4 ° with respect to the ecliptic . In January 2014 , two rotational light-curves of Iguassú were obtained at the Palomar Transient Factory in California . They gave a rotation period of 9.14 and 9.23 hours , respectively , both with a brightness change of in magnitude . According to the survey carried out by NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , Iguassú measures between 30.21 and 31.38 kilometers in diameter , and its surface has an albedo between 0.08 and 0.093 . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for carbonaceous asteroids of 0.057 and calculates a diameter of 30.62 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 11.3 . This minor planet is named for the large Iguazu Falls , a 60 meters high and 1 kilometer wide waterfall , which river of the same name marks part of the boundary between Argentina and Brazil . As a curiosity , the spelling of the minor planet 's name ( Iguassú ) neither concurs with the Spanish `` Iguazú '' nor with the Portuguese `` Iguaçu '' . It is rather similar to `` Yguasu '' , used in the native Guarani language , from which the waterfall 's name originates . Naming citation was published on 8 April 1982 .","qid":"2768","docid":"1684_Iguassú","rank":75,"score":72415},{"content":"Title: 4082 Swann Content: 4082 Swann , provisional designation , is a carbonaceous asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 10 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by American astronomer Carolyn Shoemaker at Palomar Observatory on 27 September 1984 . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.8 -- 3.0 AU once every 3 years and 8 months ( 1,349 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.26 and an inclination of 10 ° with respect to the ecliptic . First identified as `` 1947 UF '' at the Finnish Turku Observatory in 1947 , the asteroid 's observation arc was extended by 37 years prior to its discovery . The C-type asteroid is classified as a Ch-subtype in the SMASS taxonomy . According to the surveys carried out by the Japanese Akari satellite and NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid measures 9.5 and 11.1 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.029 and 0.101 , respectively . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link , however , assumes a standard albedo for stony asteroids of 0.20 and derives a much smaller diameter of 5.85 kilometers , based on an absolute magnitude of 13.46 . In July 2006 , a rotational light-curve for this asteroid was obtained from photometric observations by Petr Pravec at the Ondřejov Observatory in the Czech Republic . It gave a rotation period of hours with a brightness variation of 0.67 magnitude . A second light-curve obtained by Jean-Gabriel Bosch in September 2006 , gave a period of hours and an amplitude of 0.35 magnitude . The minor planet was named after American geologist Gordon A. Swann ( b. 1931 ) . He served as the principal investigator of the `` Apollo Lunar Geologic Experiment '' conducted at the lunar landing sites of Apollo 14 and Apollo 15 . Naming citation was published on 12 December 1989 .","qid":"2768","docid":"4082_Swann","rank":76,"score":72068},{"content":"Title: Peel (fruit) Content: Peel , also known as rind or skin , is the outer protective layer of a fruit or vegetable which can be peeled off . The rind is usually the botanical exocarp , but the term exocarp also includes the hard cases of nuts , which are not named peels since they are not peeled off by hand or peeler , but rather shells because of their hardness . A fruit with a thick peel , such as a citrus fruit , is called a hesperidium . In hesperidiums , the inner layer ( also called albedo or , among non-botanists , pith ) is peeled off together with the outer layer ( called flavedo ) , and together they are called the peel . The flavedo and albedo , respectively , are the exocarp and the mesocarp . The juicy layer inside the peel ( containing the seeds ) is the endocarp .","qid":"2768","docid":"Peel_(fruit)","rank":77,"score":72015},{"content":"Title: Sulci Gordii Content: Sulci Gordii in the feature in the Tharsis quadrangle of Mars . Sulci is a term used for subparallel furrows and ridges . It is located at 18.9 ° north latitude and 125.5 ° west longitude . It is 400 km long and was named after a classical albedo feature name .","qid":"2768","docid":"Sulci_Gordii","rank":78,"score":71826},{"content":"Title: Cerberus (Martian albedo feature) Content: Cerberus is a large `` dark spot '' ( an albedo feature ) located on Mars and named after the mythical dog Cerberus . The arcuate markings in the upper right are in the Amazonis plains and may be sand drifts . The Elysium volcano , a yellow area north of Cerberus , has several channels radiating from its flanks . The three bright spots , upper left , are volcanoes partially veiled by thin clouds . High resolution images show the bulk of the Cerberus Plains is covered by platy-ridged and inflated lavas , which are interpreted as insulated sheet flows . Eastern Cerberus Plains lavas originate at Cerberus Fossae fissures and shields . Some flows extend for 2000 km through Marte Valles into Amazonis Planitia . Athabasca Valles are both incised into pristine lavas and embayed by pristine lavas , indicating that Athabascan fluvial events were contemporaneous with volcanic eruptions . Deposits of the Medusae Fossae Formation lie both over and under lavas , suggesting the deposition of the Medusae Fossae Formation was contemporaneous with volcanism . Statistics of small craters indicate lavas in the Western Cerberus Plains may be less than a million years old , but the model isochrons may be unreliable if the small crater population is dominated by secondary craters . Images showing no large craters with diameters 500 m superimposed on Western Cerberus Plains lavas indicate the same surface is younger than 49 Ma .","qid":"2768","docid":"Cerberus_(Martian_albedo_feature)","rank":79,"score":71790},{"content":"Title: Cooling Content: Cooling is the transfer of thermal energy via thermal radiation , heat conduction or convection . Examples include :","qid":"2768","docid":"Cooling","rank":80,"score":71667},{"content":"Title: Ronaldo Alves Content: Ronaldo Luiz Alves ( born July 9 , 1989 in Bebedouro ) , known as Ronaldo Alves , is a Brazilian footballer who plays for Náutico , as a central defender .","qid":"2768","docid":"Ronaldo_Alves","rank":81,"score":71470},{"content":"Title: 11441 Anadiego Content: 11441 Anadiego , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid from the middle region of the asteroid belt , approximately 7 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 31 December 1975 , by Argentine astronomer Mario R. Cesco at the El Leoncito Complex in western Argentina . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.9 -- 3.2 AU once every 4 years and 1 month ( 1,497 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.26 and an inclination of 12 ° with respect to the ecliptic . As no precoveries were taken , the asteroid 's observation arc starts with its discovery observation in 1975 . A rotational light-curve was obtained for this asteroid by astronomer Kevin Hills at the Australian Riverland Dingo Observatory in February 2013 . It gave a rotation period of hours with a brightness variation of 0.11 magnitude . According to the surveys carried out by NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid measures 6.8 and 7.3 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.287 and 0.254 , respectively . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a lower standard albedo for stony asteroids of 0.20 , and , correspondingly calculates a larger diameter of 8.2 kilometers , based on an absolute magnitude of 12.8 . The minor planet was named in memory of Ana Teresa Diego ( 1954 -- 1976 ) , an astronomy student at La Plata Astronomical Observatory and political activist who was kidnapped and disappeared in September 1976 by unidentified persons believed working for the military junta then ruling Argentina . Naming citation was published 10 December 2011 .","qid":"2768","docid":"11441_Anadiego","rank":82,"score":71355},{"content":"Title: 3255 Tholen Content: 3255 Tholen , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid , Mars-crosser and relatively fast rotator , that measures approximately 6 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 2 September 1980 , by American astronomer Edward Bowell at Lowell 's Anderson Mesa Station in Flagstaff , Arizona . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.5 -- 3.2 AU once every 3 years and 8 months ( 1,335 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.36 and an inclination of 21 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first observation was made at the Argentinian El Leoncito site in 1969 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 11 years prior to its discovery . According to the space-based survey carried out by the Japanese Akari satellite and NASA 's NEOWISE mission , the asteroid measures 4.0 and 6.8 kilometers in diameter , and its surface has an albedo of 0.14 and 0.34 , respectively , while the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for stony asteroids of 0.20 and calculates a diameter of 5.1 kilometers , based on an absolute magnitude of 13.84 . Several rotational light-curves were obtained for this asteroid from photometric observations . In September 2013 , Italian astronomer Andrea Ferrero at the Bigmuskie Observatory in Mombercelli , Italy , derived a rotation period of hours with a brightness variation of 0.11 in magnitude , while two month later , in November 2013 , astronomer Brian A. Skiff obtained two light-curves that both gave a period of 2.95 and an amplitude of 0.24 and 0.28 in magnitude , respectively . The results supersede two older light-curves from 1991 and 2002 , that gave a period of and 6 hours , respectively . The minor planet was named after David J. Tholen ( b. 1955 ) , a discoverer of minor planets and planetary scientist at the Institute for Astronomy of the University of Hawaii , known for his eight-color taxonomic scheme on minor planets . Naming citation was published on 14 April 1987 .","qid":"2768","docid":"3255_Tholen","rank":83,"score":71340},{"content":"Title: Xanadu (Titan) Content: Xanadu ( often called `` Xanadu Region '' , though this is not its official name ) is a highly reflective area on the leading hemisphere of Saturn 's moon Titan . Its name comes from an alternate transcription of Shangdu , the summer capital of the Yuan dynasty established by Kublai Khan and made famous by Samuel Taylor Coleridge . The feature was first identified in 1994 by astronomers using the Hubble Space Telescope at infrared wavelengths , and has recently been imaged in more detail by the Cassini space probe . Xanadu is about the size of Australia . Preliminary observations indicate that Xanadu is a plateau-like region of highly reflective water ice , contrasting somewhat with the darker lower regions . These in turn seem to contrast quite sharply with the very dark maria , which were once believed to be seas of liquid hydrocarbons , but are now thought to be plains . Recent images by Cassini during encounters in October and December 2004 reveal complex albedo patterns in the western portion of Xanadu . While scientists are still debating the significance and cause of the albedo patterns , one likely culprit is tectonism . Evidence for this exists in a pattern of criss-crossing dark lineaments near the western side of Xanadu . Scientists are also investigating the boundary between Xanadu and Shangri-La , a dark region to the west . The shape of the boundary suggests that the dark material embays the bright terrain . Radar images taken by Cassini have revealed dunes , hills , rivers and valleys present on Xanadu . The features are likely carved in water ice by liquid methane or ethane . Water ice behaves similarly to rock at the pressures and temperatures present on Titan 's surface .","qid":"2768","docid":"Xanadu_(Titan)","rank":84,"score":71333},{"content":"Title: Phlegra Montes Content: The Phlegra Montes are a system of mountains in the Cebrenia quadrangle of Mars , located at 40.4 degrees north latitude and 163.71 degrees east longitude . They are 1,350 km across and were named after a classical albedo feature name . They form a complex system of isolated hills , ridges and small basins , and it was suggested they have endogenic tectonic origin .","qid":"2768","docid":"Phlegra_Montes","rank":85,"score":71281},{"content":"Title: Olympica Fossae Content: The Olympica Fossae are set of troughs in the Tharsis quadrangle of Mars at 25 ° north latitude and 114.1 ° west longitude . They are about 420 km long and were named after an albedo feature at 17N , 134W . Parts of the fossae have been suggested to be both outflow channels as well as channels for flowing lava , routing both molten rock and catastrophic outburst floods of water at different times in Mars ' geological past .","qid":"2768","docid":"Olympica_Fossae","rank":86,"score":71255},{"content":"Title: 28P/Neujmin Content: 28P/Neujmin , also known as Neujmin 1 , is a large periodic comet in the Solar System . With a perihelion distance ( closest approach to the Sun ) of 1.5 AU , this comet does not make close approaches to the Earth . The comet nucleus is estimated to be 21.4 kilometers in diameter with a low albedo of 0.025 . Since 28P has such a large nucleus , it will become brighter than the 20th magnitude in early 2019 , roughly 2 years before coming to perihelion . When it comes to opposition in May 2020 , when it is still 3.5 AU from the Sun , it will likely have an apparent magnitude around 16.9 . But during the 2021 perihelion passage the comet will be on the opposite side of the Sun as the Earth . The comet is not known for bright outbursts of activity .","qid":"2768","docid":"28P/Neujmin","rank":87,"score":71246},{"content":"Title: Dilmun (Titan) Content: Dilmun is a region of high albedo on Titan , Saturn 's natural satellite .","qid":"2768","docid":"Dilmun_(Titan)","rank":88,"score":71048},{"content":"Title: Elysium Fossae Content: The Elysium Fossae are a group of large troughs in the Elysium quadrangle of Mars at 24.8 ° north latitude and 213.7 ° west longitude . They are about 1,175 km long and are named after a classical albedo feature name .","qid":"2768","docid":"Elysium_Fossae","rank":89,"score":70982},{"content":"Title: Arsia Chasmata Content: Arsia Chasmata is a steep-sided depression in the Phoenicis Lacus quadrangle on Mars , located at 7.6 ° S and 119.3 ° W . It is 81 km long and was named after an albedo name .","qid":"2768","docid":"Arsia_Chasmata","rank":90,"score":70943},{"content":"Title: HD 75289 b Content: HD 75289 b is an extrasolar planet orbiting the star HD 75289 in Vela constellation . It has a minimum mass half that of Jupiter , and it orbits in a very short orbit completing one circular revolution around the star in three and a half days . By studying the starlight scientists have concluded that the planet must have an albedo less than 0.12 , rather low for a gas giant . Otherwise its reflected light would have been detected . This planet was discovered by the Geneva Extrasolar Planet Search team using Doppler spectroscopy .","qid":"2768","docid":"HD_75289_b","rank":91,"score":70939},{"content":"Title: 3181 Ahnert Content: 3181 Ahnert , provisional designation , is a stony Flora asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , about 8 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by German astronomer Freimut Börngen at the Karl Schwarzschild Observatory in Tautenburg , eastern Germany , on 8 March 1964 . The S-type asteroid is a member of the Flora family , one of the largest groups of stony asteroids in the main-belt . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.1 -- 2.4 AU once every 3 years and 4 months ( 1,215 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.07 and an inclination of 4 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was obtained at Lowell Observatory in 1931 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 33 years prior to its discovery . According to the surveys carried out by NASA 's space-based Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid measures between 8.0 and 8.6 kilometers and its surface has an albedo between 0.19 and 0.26 . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an intermediate albedo of 0.24 -- derived from 8 Flora , the largest member and namesake of this orbital family -- and calculates a diameter of 8.2 kilometers . As of 2016 , the asteroid 's rotation period and shape still remain unknown . The minor planet was named after German astronomer Paul Ahnert ( 1897 -- 1989 ) , author of the annual calendar of astronomical events ( Kalender für Sternfreunde ) and a renowned astronomer among professionals and amateurs . His fields of research included the physics of the Solar System and periods of variable stars at the Sonneberg Observatory . ( The minor planet 1039 Sonneberga is named after this observatory . ) Publisher of several books on performing astronomical observations , he also popularized the subject of astronomy to the general public . Naming citation was published on 2 July 1985 .","qid":"2768","docid":"3181_Ahnert","rank":92,"score":70924},{"content":"Title: 6522 Aci Content: 6522 Aci , provisional designation , is a stony Phocaea asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , about 6 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by American astronomer Eleanor Helin at the U.S. Palomar Observatory in California , on 9 July 1991 . The S-type asteroid is a member of the Phocaea family , a relatively small group of asteroids with similar orbital characteristics . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.9 -- 2.9 AU once every 3 years and 8 months ( 1,345 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.20 and an inclination of 22 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at the German Karl Schwarzschild Observatory in 1990 , one year prior to its discovery . A photometric light-curve analysis performed at the U.S. Palomar Transient Factory in 2010 , rendered a rotation period of hours with a brightness amplitude of 0.68 in magnitude . According to the NEOWISE mission of NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , the asteroid measures 6.1 kilometers in diameter and its surface has a high albedo of 0.39 , while the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.23 -- which derives from 25 Phocaea , namesake and largest member of this orbital family -- and calculates a diameter of 5.7 kilometers . The minor planet was named for the river southeast of Mount Etna in Sicily , Italy . The towns and villages along the river , such as Aci Castello , Aci Trezza , Aci-Reale , and Aci Sant ` Antonio , were also honored . The river also brings to mind the myth of Aci from Greek mythology , which is about a young Sicilian shepherd , who was killed by the jealous cyclops Polyphemus , because of his love for the sea nymph Galatea . The minor planet 74 Galatea is named after this Nereid . Naming citation was published on 26 October 1996 .","qid":"2768","docid":"6522_Aci","rank":93,"score":70890},{"content":"Title: HD 73256 b Content: HD 73256 b is an 1.87 MJ hot Jupiter orbiting at 0.037 AU taking 2.55 days to orbit around HD 73256 . Assuming the planet is perfectly grey with no greenhouse or tidal effects , and a Bond albedo of 0.1 , the temperature would be about 1300 K . This is close to 51 Pegasi b ; between the predicted temperatures of HD 189733 b and HD 209458 b ( 1180-1392K ) , before they were measured . It is a candidate for `` near-infrared characterisation with the VLTI Spectro-Imager '' .","qid":"2768","docid":"HD_73256_b","rank":94,"score":70875},{"content":"Title: Alpenglow Content: Alpenglow ( from German : Alpenglühen ) is an optical phenomenon in which a horizontal red glowing band is observed on the horizon opposite to the sun . This effect occurs when the Sun is just below the horizon . Alpenglow is easiest to observe when mountains are illuminated but can also be observed when the sky is illuminated through backscattering . Since the Sun is below the horizon , there is no direct path for the light to reach the mountain . Unlike sunset or sunrise , the light that causes alpenglow is reflected off airborne snow , water , or ice particles low in the atmosphere . These conditions differentiate between a normal sunrise or sunset and alpenglow . The term is generally confused to be any sunrise or sunset light seen on the mountains , but true alpenglow is not direct sunlight , and is only observed after sunset or before sunrise . In the absence of mountains , the aerosols in the eastern portion of the sky can be illuminated in the same way at sunset by the remaining red scattered light straddling the border of the Earth 's own shadow ( the terminator ) . This back-scattered light produces a red band opposite the Sun .","qid":"2768","docid":"Alpenglow","rank":95,"score":70866},{"content":"Title: Glushko (crater) Content: Glushko is a young impact crater on the Moon attached to the western rim of the crater Olbers . Glushko possesses a relatively high albedo and is the focus of a prominent ray system that extends in all directions across the nearby surface . It has sharp , well-defined features that , combined with its higher albedo , are indicative of a relatively young impact crater . There is a small outer rampart , and material along the inner walls has slumped to form shelves and ramparts . There are three outward bulges in the rim to the north and northwest . Due to its prominent rays , Glushko is mapped as part of the Copernican System . This crater was previously designated Olbers A before being renamed by the IAU .","qid":"2768","docid":"Glushko_(crater)","rank":96,"score":70866},{"content":"Title: Lunar swirls Content: Lunar swirls are enigmatic features found across the Moon 's surface , which are characterized by having a high albedo , appearing optically immature ( i.e. having the optical characteristics of a relatively young regolith ) , and ( often ) having a sinuous shape . Their curvilinear shape is often accentuated by low albedo regions that wind between the bright swirls . They appear to overlay the lunar surface , superposed on top of craters and ejecta deposits , but impart no observable topography . Swirls have been identified on the lunar maria and highlands - they are not associated with a specific lithologic composition . Swirls on the maria are characterized by strong albedo contrasts and complex , sinuous morphology , whereas those on highland terrain appear less prominent and exhibit simpler shapes , such as single loops or diffuse bright spots .","qid":"2768","docid":"Lunar_swirls","rank":97,"score":70811},{"content":"Title: 78816 Caripito Content: 78816 Caripito , provisional designation , is an asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt , approximately 5 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 4 August 2003 , by American amateur astronomer and professor of geophysics , Joseph Dellinger , at the U.S. Needville Observatory , Texas . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.4 -- 3.8 AU once every 5 years and 7 months ( 2,033 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.23 and an inclination of 6 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at Palomar 's Digitized Sky Survey in 1953 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 50 years prior to its discovery . As of 2016 , the Caripitos composition and albedo , as well as its rotation period and shape remain unknown . According to the survey carried out by NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid measures 5.3 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.052 . This low albedo is typical for asteroids in the outer main-belt , which are mostly of a carbonaceous rather than of a silicaceous composition . Based on an absolute magnitude of 15.4 , and assuming an albedo of 0.05 , the asteroid 's generic diameter measures between 2 and 5 kilometers . This minor planet is named for the Venezuelan town of Caripito in the northeastern Monagas State . It was the place where the parents of the discoverer , Thomas Baynes Dellinger ( b. 1926 ) and María de la Garza Cantú ( b. 1928 ) , met in 1949 . At the time , the town was a base camp for the country 's rich Quiriquire oil field . Naming citation was published on 18 September 2005 .","qid":"2768","docid":"78816_Caripito","rank":98,"score":70809},{"content":"Title: 341 California Content: 341 California is an asteroid belonging to the Flora family in the Main Belt , that has an unusually high albedo . It was discovered by Max Wolf on 25 September 1892 in Heidelberg .","qid":"2768","docid":"341_California","rank":99,"score":70778},{"content":"Title: Arbedo-Castione Content: Arbedo-Castione is a municipality in the district of Bellinzona in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland .","qid":"2768","docid":"Arbedo-Castione","rank":100,"score":70701}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ice-albedo feedback Content: Ice-albedo feedback ( or snow-albedo feedback ) is a positive feedback climate process where a change in the area of snow-covered land , ice caps , glaciers or sea ice alters the albedo . This change in albedo acts to reinforce the initial alteration in ice area . Cooling tends to increase ice cover and hence the albedo , reducing the amount of solar energy absorbed and leading to more cooling . Conversely , warming tends to decrease ice cover and hence the albedo , increasing the amount of solar energy absorbed , leading to more warming . The effect also applies on the small scale to snow-covered surfaces . A small amount of snow melt exposes darker ground which absorbs more radiation , leading to more snowmelt . The effect has mostly been discussed in terms of the recent trend of declining Arctic sea ice . Internal feedback processes may also potentially occur , as land ice melts and causes eustatic sea level rise , and also potentially induces earthquakes as a result of isostatic rebound , which further acts to disrupt glaciers , ice shelves , etc. .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Ice-albedo_feedback\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 139338\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Volcanic winter Content: A volcanic winter is a reduction in global temperatures caused by volcanic ash and droplets of sulfuric acid and water obscuring the Sun and raising Earth 's albedo ( increasing the reflection of solar radiation ) after a large particularly explosive volcanic eruption . Long-term cooling effects are primarily dependent upon injection of sulfur gasses into the stratosphere where they undergo a series of reactions to create sulfuric acid which can nucleate and form aerosols . Volcanic stratospheric aerosols cool the surface by reflecting solar radiation and warm the stratosphere by absorbing terrestrial radiation . The volcanic aerosols , resulting from the 1991 Pinatubo eruption and others , have been shown to contribute to anthropogenic ozone depletion . The variations in atmospheric warming and cooling results in changes in tropospheric and stratospheric circulation .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Volcanic_winter\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 130264\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Albedo Content: Albedo ( -LSB- ælˈbiːdoʊ -RSB- ) is a measure for reflectance or optical brightness ( Latin albedo , Arabic albayad , `` whiteness '' ) . It is dimensionless and measured on a scale from zero ( corresponding to a black body that absorbs all incident radiation ) to one ( corresponding to a white body that reflects all incident radiation ) . Surface albedo is defined as the ratio of radiation reflected to the radiation incident on a surface . The proportion reflected is not only determined by properties of the surface itself , but also by the spectral and angular distribution of solar radiation reaching the Earth 's surface . These factors vary with atmospheric composition , geographic location and time ( see Position of the Sun ) . While bi-hemispherical reflectance is calculated for a single angle of incidence ( i.e. , for a given position of the sun ) , albedo is the directional integration of reflectance over all solar angles in a given period . The temporal resolution may range from seconds ( as obtained from flux measurements ) to daily , seasonal or annual averages . Unless given for a specific wavelength ( spectral albedo ) , albedo refers to the entire spectrum of solar radiation . Due to measurement constraints , it is often given for the spectrum in which most solar energy reaches the surface ( approximately between 0.3 and 3 μm ) . This spectrum includes visible light ( 0.39-0 .7 μm ) , which explains why surfaces with a low albedo appear dark ( e.g. , trees absorb most radiation ) , whereas surfaces with a high albedo appear bright ( e.g. , snow reflects most radiation ) . Albedo is an important concept in climatology , astronomy , and environmental management ( e.g. , as part of the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design ( LEED ) program for sustainable rating of buildings ) . The average albedo of the Earth at the top of the atmosphere , its planetary albedo , is 30 to 35 % because of cloud cover , but widely varies locally across the surface because of different geological and environmental features . The term albedo was introduced into optics by Johann Heinrich Lambert in his 1760 work Photometria .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Albedo\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 113984\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bond albedo Content: The Bond albedo , named after the American astronomer George Phillips Bond ( 1825 -- 1865 ) , who originally proposed it , is the fraction of power in the total electromagnetic radiation incident on an astronomical body that is scattered back out into space . Because the Bond albedo accounts for all of the light scattered from a body at all wavelengths and all phase angles , it is a necessary quantity for determining how much energy a body absorbs . This , in turn , is crucial for determining the equilibrium temperature of a body . Because bodies in the outer Solar System are always observed at very low phase angles from the Earth , the only reliable data for measuring their Bond albedo comes from spacecraft .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Bond_albedo\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 113345\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Geometric albedo Content: In astronomy , the geometric albedo of a celestial body is the ratio of its actual brightness as seen from the light source ( i.e. at zero phase angle ) to that of an idealized flat , fully reflecting , diffusively scattering ( Lambertian ) disk with the same cross-section . ( This phase angle refers to the direction of the light paths and is not a phase angle in its normal meaning in optics or electronics . ) Diffuse scattering implies that radiation is reflected isotropically with no memory of the location of the incident light source . Zero phase angle corresponds to looking along the direction of illumination . For Earth-bound observers this occurs when the body in question is at opposition and on the ecliptic . The visual geometric albedo refers to the geometric albedo quantity when accounting for only electromagnetic radiation in the visible spectrum .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Geometric_albedo\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 113297\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Albedo feature Content: An albedo feature is a large area on the surface of a planet ( or other solar system body ) which shows a contrast in brightness or darkness ( albedo ) with adjacent areas . Historically , albedo features were the very first ( and usually only ) features to be seen and named on Mars and Mercury . Early classical maps ( such as those of Schiaparelli and Antoniadi ) showed only albedo features , and it was not until the arrival of space probes that other surface features such as craters could be seen . On bodies other than Mars and Mercury , an albedo feature is sometimes called a regio . On bodies with a very thick atmosphere like Venus or Titan , permanent albedo features can not be seen using ordinary optical telescopes because the surface is not visible , and only clouds and other transient atmospheric phenomena are seen . The Cassini -- Huygens probe has observed multiple albedo features on Titan since its arrival in Saturn 's orbit in 2004 . The very first albedo feature ever seen on another planet was Syrtis Major Planum on Mars in the 17th century . Today , thanks to space probes , very high-resolution images of surface features on Mars and Mercury are available , and the classical nomenclature based on albedo features has fallen somewhat into disuse . It is however still used for Earth-based observing of Mars by amateur astronomers . However , for some Solar System bodies ( such as Pluto prior to the New Horizons mission ) , the best available images show only albedo features . These images were usually taken by the Hubble Space Telescope or by ground-based telescopes using adaptive optics . Cydonia Mensae on Mars is an example of an albedo feature .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Albedo_feature\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 111243\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Albedo (alchemy) Content: In alchemy , albedo is one of the four major stages of the magnum opus ; along with nigredo , citrinitas and rubedo . It is a Latinicized term meaning `` whiteness '' . Following the chaos or massa confusa of the nigredo stage , the alchemist undertakes a purification in albedo , which is literally referred to as ablutio -- the washing away of impurities . In this process , the subject is divided into two opposing principles to be later coagulated to form a unity of opposites or coincidentia oppositorum during rubedo . Titus Burckhardt interprets the albedo as the end of the lesser work , corresponding to a spiritualization of the body . The goal of this portion of the process is to regain the original purity and receptivity of the soul . Psychologist Carl Jung equated the albedo with unconscious contrasexual soul images ; the anima in men and animus in women . It is a phase where insight into shadow projections are realized , and inflated ego and unneeded conceptualizations are removed from the psyche .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Albedo_(alchemy)\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 106237\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Twomey effect Content: The Twomey effect describes how cloud condensation nuclei ( CCN ) , possibly from anthropogenic pollution , may increase the amount of solar radiation reflected by clouds . This is an indirect effect . Aerosol particles can act as CCN 's creating more droplets which have a smaller size distribution . The reduction in size distribution increases the Optical depth of the cloud . This increases the cloud albedo as clouds appear whiter and larger , leading to a cooling of between -0.3 and -1.8 Wm − 2 . For example , on satellite imagery we observe trails of white clouds from ships crossing the oceans due to this effect .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Twomey_effect\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 105246\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cloud albedo Content:\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Cloud_albedo\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 104937\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Albedo (disambiguation) Content: Albedo is a measure of reflectivity . Albedo may also refer to : ALBEDO Telecom , a telecom company Albedo ( alchemy ) , a stage of alchemical progression Albedo ( Ben 10 ) , a character in the television series Ben 10 : Alien Force Albedo Anthropomorphics , a comic book anthology Albedo ( role-playing game ) , derived from the comics Albedo , the mesocarp of a fruit Albedo , a character in the video game series Xenosaga Albedo 0.39 , a 1976 album by the artist Vangelis Albedo One '' , an Irish horror , fantasy and science fiction magazine founded in 1993\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Albedo_(disambiguation)\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 104019\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Single-scattering albedo Content: Single-scattering albedo is the ratio of scattering efficiency to total extinction efficiency ( which is also termed `` attenuance '' , a sum of scattering and absorption ) . Most often it is defined for small-particle scattering of electromagnetic waves . Single-scattering albedo is unitless , and a value of unity implies that all particle extinction is due to scattering ; conversely , a single-scattering albedo of zero implies that all extinction is due to absorption . For spherical particles one can calculate single-scattering albedo from Mie theory and knowledge of bulk properties of material such as refractive index . For non-spherical particles one could use discrete dipole approximation or other methods of computational electromagnetics . The albedo of particles of shapes which are easily parameterized in non-standard co-ordinate systems may be determined through solutions of Maxwell 's equation analogues in such coordinate systems . Scattering albedo equations have yet to be determined in elliptical , torroidal , conical and many others . Derivation and solutions to such equations is a field of ongoing research .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Single-scattering_albedo\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 102487\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Albedo 0.39 Content: Albedo 0.39 is a studio album by the Greek electronic composer Vangelis , released in 1976 . It was the second album produced by Vangelis in Nemo Studios , London , which was his creative base until the late 1980s . It contrasts with his previous album , Heaven and Hell , which was classically inspired and choral , while Albedo 0.39 has blues and jazz overtones . It was his first Top 20 UK album .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Albedo_0.39\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 100471\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Albedo Anthropomorphics Content: Albedo Anthropomorphics , or Albedo for short , was a furry comic book anthology series which was credited with starting the furry comic book subgenre that featured sophisticated stories with funny animals primarily intended for an adult audience . The first issue of Albedo was published in 1983 ; the most recent issue was published in 2005 . Albedo was started by Steve Gallacci , who produced its main feature , Erma Felna : EDF -- a sophisticated science fiction military series set in a sector of space populated by sapient and predominantly humanoid versions of mammal and avian species . The focus of the series is Erma Felna , a young feline officer who eventually plays a central role in the complex political conflicts that consume her universe . Gallacci was a technical illustrator for the United States Air Force and one feature of Albedo is well thought-out and illustrated vehicles . His experience also shows in the realistic treatment of military life and operations . The series was used as inspiration for the Albedo role-playing game , which has had three editions and multiple supplements .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Albedo_Anthropomorphics\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 99629\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Albedo (role-playing game) Content: Albedo is a role-playing game based on Steve Gallacci 's Erma Felna : EDF and Birthright storylines from the comic anthologies Albedo Anthropomorphics and Critters .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Albedo_(role-playing_game)\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 98561\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: ALBEDO Telecom Content: ALBEDO Telecom is a company that designs and manufactures products for the telecom industry including testers , synchronization nodes and networking devices . Typical users are R&D laboratories , Mobile and Telecom operators to verify and install the infrastructures that support any kind of applications based on voice , video and data . It is headquartered in Barcelona , Spain in the European Union .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"ALBEDO_Telecom\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 98558\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Umov effect Content: The Umov effect , also known as Umov 's law , is a relationship between the albedo of an astronomical object , and the degree of polarization of light reflecting off it . The effect was discovered by the Russian physicist Nikolay Umov in 1905 , and can be observed for celestial objects such as the surface of the Moon and the asteroids . The degree of linear polarization of light P is defined by where and are the intensities of light in the directions perpendicular and parallel to the plane of a polarizer aligned in the plane of reflection . Values of P are zero for unpolarized light , and ± 1 for linearly polarized light . Umov 's law states where α is the albedo of the object . Thus , highly reflective objects tend to reflect mostly unpolarized light , and dimly reflective objects tend to reflect polarized light . The law is only valid for large phase angles ( angles between the incident light and the reflected light ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Umov_effect\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 98547\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Albedo One Content: Albedo One is an Irish horror , fantasy and science fiction magazine founded in 1993 and currently published by Albedo One Productions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Albedo_One\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 97929\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hurricane dynamics and cloud microphysics Content: Tropical convective clouds play an important part in the Earth 's climate system . Convection and release of latent heat transports energy from the surface into the upper atmosphere . Clouds have a higher albedo than the underlying ocean , which causes more incoming solar radiation to be reflected back to space . Since the tops of tropical systems are much cooler than the surface of the Earth , the presence of high convective clouds cools the climate system . The most recognizable cloud system in the tropics is the hurricane . In addition to the important climatic effects of tropical weather systems , hurricanes possess enough energy to cause massive death and destruction . Therefore , their accurate prediction is of utmost importance . Cloud microphysics describe the structure and properties of clouds on the microscopic scale .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Hurricane_dynamics_and_cloud_microphysics\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 95676\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 925 Alphonsina Content: 925 Alphonsina , provisional designation 1920 GM , is a large , stony asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt , about 58 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by Spanish astronomer of Catalan origin , Josep Comas i Solà , at the Fabra Observatory in Barcelona , on 13 January 1920 . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.5 -- 2.9 AU once every 4 years and 5 months ( 1,622 days ) . Its orbit is tilted by 21 degrees to the plane of the ecliptic and shows an eccentricity of 0.08 . A large number of photometric light-curve analysis rendered a well-defined , concurring rotation period of 7.9 hours for the body . According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite , IRAS , the Japanese Akari satellite , and the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid 's albedo is in the range of 0.20 -- 0.28 . In addition , the body 's albedo has been inferred by using the technique of stellar occultation in 2003 . The measurement also gave a diameter of 59.2 kilometers . The minor planet was named in honor of the Iberian Kings , Alfonso X ( 1221 -- 1284 ) and Alfonso XIII ( 1886 -- 1941 ) , King of Castile and Spain , respectively . The original citation mentions , that the 13th century king inspired the field of astronomy in the Middle Ages , and , that the latter king was a great enthusiast of the scientific development in Spain . It also mentions that the King of Spain approved the naming of the asteroid .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"925_Alphonsina\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 93593\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Marine cloud brightening Content: Marine cloud brightening is a proposed solar radiation management climate engineering technique that would make clouds brighter , reflecting a small fraction of incoming sunlight back into space in order to offset anthropogenic global warming . Along with stratospheric aerosol injection , it is one of the two solar radiation management methods that may most feasibly have a substantial climate impact . The intention is that increasing the Earth 's albedo , in combination with greenhouse gas emissions reduction , carbon dioxide removal , and adaptation , would reduce climate change and its risks to people and the environment . If implemented , the cooling effect is expected to be felt rapidly and to be reversible on fairly short time scales . However , technical barriers remain to large-scale marine cloud brightening . There are also risks with such modification of complex climate systems .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Marine_cloud_brightening\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 91633\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: (148209) 2000 CR105 Content: , also written as ( 148209 ) 2000 CR105 , is the tenth-most-distant known object in the Solar System . Considered a detached object , it orbits the Sun in a highly eccentric orbit every 3305 years at an average distance of 222 astronomical units ( AU ) . Mike Brown 's website lists it as a possible dwarf planet with a diameter of 328 km based on an assumed albedo of 0.04 . The albedo is expected to be low because the object has a blue ( neutral ) color . However , if the albedo is higher , the object could easily be half that size . and Sedna differ from scattered-disc objects in that they are not within the gravitational influence of the planet Neptune even at their perihelion distances ( closest approaches to the Sun ) . It is something of a mystery as to how these objects came to be in their current , far-flung orbits . Several hypotheses have been put forward : They were pulled from their original positions by a passing star . They were pulled from their original positions by a very distant , and as-yet-undiscovered ( albeit unlikely ) , giant planet . They were pulled from their original positions by an undiscovered companion star orbiting the Sun . They were captured from another planetary system during a close encounter early in the Sun 's history . According to Kenyon and Bromley , there is a 15 % probability that a star like the Sun had an early close encounter and a 1 % probability that outer planetary exchanges would have happened . is estimated to be 2 -- 3 times more likely to be a captured planetary object than Sedna . is the first object discovered in the Solar System to have a semi-major axis exceeding 150 AU , a perihelion beyond Neptune , and an argument of perihelion of 340 ± 55 ° . It is one of five objects known with a semi-major axis greater than 100 AU and perihelion beyond 42 AU . It may be influenced by Planet Nine .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"(148209)_2000_CR105\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 90976\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hapke parameters Content: The Hapke parameters are a set of parameters for an empirical model that is commonly used to describe the directional reflectance properties of the airless regolith surfaces of bodies in the solar system . The model has been developed by astronomer Bruce Hapke at the University of Pittsburgh . The parameters are : -- Single scattering albedo . This is the ratio of scattering efficiency to total light extinction ( which includes also absorption ) , for small-particle scattering of light . That is , , where is the scattering coefficient , and is the absorption coefficient -- The width of the opposition surge . or -- The strength of the opposition surge . or g -- The particle phase function parameter , also called the asymmetry factor . -- The effective surface tilt , also called the macroscopic roughness angle . The Hapke parameters can be used to derive other albedo and scattering properties such as the geometric albedo , the phase integral , and the Bond albedo .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Hapke_parameters\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 90158\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ray system Content: A ray system comprises radial streaks of fine ejecta thrown out during the formation of an impact crater , looking somewhat like many thin spokes coming from the hub of a wheel . The rays may extend for lengths up to several times the diameter of their originating crater , and are often accompanied by small secondary craters formed by larger chunks of ejecta . Ray systems have been identified on the Moon , Earth ( Kamil Crater ) , Mercury , and some moons of the outer planets . Originally it was thought that they existed only on planets or moons lacking an atmosphere , but more recently they have been identified on Mars in infrared images taken from orbit by 2001 Mars Odysseys thermal imager . Rays appear at visible , and in some cases infrared wavelengths , when ejecta are made of material with different reflectivity ( i.e. , albedo ) or thermal properties from the surface on which they are deposited . Typically , visible rays have a higher albedo than the surrounding surface . More rarely an impact will excavate low albedo material , for example basaltic-lava deposits on the lunar maria . Thermal rays , as seen on Mars , are especially apparent at night when slopes and shadows do not influence the infrared energy emitted by the Martian surface . The layering of rays across other surface features can be useful as an indicator of the relative age of the impact crater , because over time various processes obliterate the rays . On non-atmosphered bodies such as the Moon , space weathering from exposure to cosmic rays and micrometeorites causes a steady reduction of the differential between the ejecta 's albedo and that of the underlying material . Micrometeorites in particular produce a glassy melt in the regolith that lowers the albedo . Rays can also become covered by lava flows , or by other impact craters or ejecta .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Ray_system\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 88382\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Classical albedo features on Mars Content: The classical albedo features of Mars are the light and dark features that can be seen on the planet Mars through an Earth-based telescope . Before the age of space probes , several astronomers created maps of Mars on which they gave names to the features they could see . The most popular system of nomenclature was devised by Giovanni Schiaparelli , who used names from classical antiquity . Today , the improved understanding of Mars enabled by space probes has rendered many of the classical names obsolete for the purposes of cartography ; however , some of the old names are still used to describe geographical features on the planet .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Classical_albedo_features_on_Mars\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 87566\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of albedo features on Mercury Content: This is a list of the albedo features of the planet Mercury as seen by early telescopic observation . Early telescopic observations of Mercury were based on the assumption that Mercury keeps one of its faces permanently turned toward the Sun , through the mechanism of tidal locking . Although this is not true ( Mercury rotates three times on its axis for every two revolutions around the Sun ) , when it is positioned for best viewing from Earth , the amount by which its visible face has rotated from its previous best viewing position is fairly small . A map of Mercury made in the 1910s by astronomer Eugène Michel Antoniadi shows the following albedo features , localized by a grid in which 0 ° longitude is the ( assumed ) subsolar meridian . No certain connection has been made between these features and the topographic features viewed on Mercury by the Mariner 10 spacecraft . Mariner 10 , however , imaged less than half of Mercury 's surface . The names are drawn from Greek mythology , and often allude to myths about Hermes , the Greek equivalent of the Roman god Mercury .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_albedo_features_on_Mercury\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 87323\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1169 Alwine Content: 1169 Alwine , provisional designation , is an asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 8 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 30 August 1930 , by German and Italian astronomers Max Wolf and Mario Ferrero at Heidelberg Observatory in southwest Germany . Alwine orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.0 -- 2.7 AU once every 3 years and 6 months ( 1,290 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.15 and an inclination of 4 ° with respect to the ecliptic . As no precoveries were taken , and no prior identifications were made , Alwines observation arc begins with its official discovery observation at Heidelberg in 1930 . According to the survey carried out by NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , Alwine measures 7.89 kilometers in diameter , and its surface has an albedo of 0.179 . Based on a generic magnitude-to-diameter conversion , its diameter is between 7 and 17 kilometers for an absolute magnitude of 12.8 and an albedo in the range of 0.05 to 0.25 . As of 2017 , no rotational lightcurves have been obtained . The body 's rotation period , pole and shape remain unknown . This minor planet is named after a common German female name . Any reference of this name to a person or occurrence is unknown .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"1169_Alwine\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 86862\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Steve Gallacci Content: Steven A. Gallacci ( born 1955 ) is best known for creating and publishing Albedo Anthropomorphics , a black and white alternative comic containing anthropomorphic funny animal characters , which has been considered a major factor in the origins of furry fandom . Gallacci spent six years in the US Air Force as a graphics specialist , including a tour of duty in Germany . After leaving the military , Gallacci started Albedo under his own Thoughts & Images imprint . First published in 1983 , Albedo '' 's last issue was published in 2005 under the Shanda Fantasy Arts imprint . Among some of the story lines that have appeared in Albedo are Gallacci 's own `` Erma Felna : EDF '' , a military sci-fi epic featuring some elements of political intrigue , and Stan Sakai 's Usagi Yojimbo , which first appeared in the infamously rare Albedo # 2 . Gallacci also worked on Fusion , a SF adventure comic from Eclipse Comics similar to the TV show Firefly , though pre-dating it by nearly twenty years . Lela Dowling co-authored the artwork and Steve Barnes drafted the first issues , though Gallacci would write most of the later ones with Lex Nakashima . He also created `` Birthright '' , an indirect sequel to Erma Felna , serialized in the Fantagraphics title `` Critters '' . The first three issues of Donna Barr 's `` the Desert Peach '' and a single issue of his own fantasy adventure `` Zell , Sworddancer '' with art assistance by Steve Adams , was also published under his Thoughts & Images imprint . Thoughts & Images also published the first edition of Albedo RPG , written by Craig Hilton and Paul Kidd , and based on the Erma Felna storyline from Albedo '' . Additional editions and supplements were published by Chessex in the early 1990s . An all-new version of an Albedo RPG has been published by Sanguin . Galacci provided art for episodes of Elin Winkler 's `` Tales of the Fehnnik '' , published by Radio Comix , and short bits for Ken Fletcher 's `` Spontoon '' fanzine . He has also done Science Fiction art and illustration since the late 1970s , as well as straight technical/commercial illustration . He occasionally produces silver bullets for his Argent Small Arms line of replica firearms . More recently , he has been creating masters for after-market scale model aircraft detail/correction/conversion sets . Gallacci lives in Seattle with his two dogs . His wife of twenty-two years , the long time SF and media fan Beverley Clark , died 16 September 2007 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Steve_Gallacci\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 86475\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Antarctica cooling controversy Content: An apparent contradiction in the observed cooling behavior of Antarctica between 1966 and 2000 became part of the public debate in the global warming controversy , particularly between advocacy groups of both sides in the public arena including politicians , as well as the popular media . In his novel State of Fear , Michael Crichton asserted that the Antarctic data contradict global warming . The few scientists who have commented on the supposed controversy state that there is no contradiction , while the author of the paper whose work inspired Crichton 's remarks has said that Crichton `` misused '' his results . There is no similar controversy within the scientific community , as the small observed changes in Antarctica are consistent with the small changes predicted by climate models , and because the overall trend since comprehensive observations began is now known to be one of warming . At the South Pole , where some of the strongest cooling trends were observed between the 1950s and 1990s , the mean trend is flat from 1957 through 2013 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Antarctica_cooling_controversy\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 86353\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Citrinitas Content: Citrinitas , sometimes referred to as xanthosis , is a term given by alchemists to `` yellowness . '' It was one of the four major stages of the alchemical magnum opus , and literally referred to `` transmutation of silver into gold '' or `` yellowing of the lunar consciousness . '' In alchemical philosophy , citrinitas stood for the dawning of the `` solar light '' inherent in one 's being , and that the reflective `` lunar or soul light '' was no longer necessary . The other three alchemical stages were nigredo ( blackness ) , albedo ( whiteness ) , and rubedo ( redness ) . Psychologist Carl Jung is credited with interpreting the alchemical process as analogous to modern-day psychoanalysis . In the Jungian archetypal schema , nigredo is the Shadow ; albedo refers to the anima and animus ( contrasexual soul images ) ; citrinitas is the wise old man ( or woman ) archetype ; and rubedo is the Self archetype which has achieved wholeness .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Citrinitas\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 86166\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_cooling\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 85888\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tartarus Montes Content: The Tartarus Montes are a mountain range on the planet Mars , stretching over 1070 km and located around the coordinates 15.46 º N , 167.54 º E , between Orcus Patera and the Elysium volcanic region . Albedo was first identified from the contrast of bright and dark signals photographed by Eugène Antoniadi .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Tartarus_Montes\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 85701\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1394 Algoa Content: 1394 Algoa , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 14 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 12 June 1936 , by English-born South-African astronomer Cyril Jackson at Union Observatory in Johannesburg , South Africa . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.3 -- 2.6 AU once every 3 years and 10 months ( 1,391 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.08 and an inclination of 3 ° with respect to the ecliptic . Prior to its discovery observation in 1936 , Algoa was identified as and at Lowell Observatory and Uccle Observatory , respectively . These observations , however , remained unused to extend the body 's observation arc . In 2012 , two rotational light-curves of Algoa were obtained at the U.S. Etscorn Observatory , New Mexico , and at the Riverland Dingo Observatory , Australia . They gave a well-defined , concurring rotation period of 2.768 hours with a brightness variation of 0.20 and 0.21 magnitude , respectively . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for stony asteroids of 0.20 , and calculates a diameter of 14.2 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 11.6 . The minor planet is named after the historical Algoa Bay , located approximately 700 kilometers east of the Cape of Good Hope , South Africa . Naming citation was published before November 1977 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"1394_Algoa\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 84834\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Neoglaciation Content: The neoglaciation ( `` renewed glaciation '' ) describes the documented cooling trend in the Earth 's climate during the Holocene , following the retreat of the Wisconsin glaciation , the most recent glacial period . Neoglaciation has followed the hypsithermal or Holocene Climatic Optimum , the warmest point in the Earth 's climate during the current interglacial stage . The neoglaciation has no well-marked universal beginning : local conditions and ecological inertia affected the onset of detectably cooler ( and wetter ) conditions . Driven inexorably by the Milankovitch cycle , cooler summers in higher latitudes of North America , which would cease to completely melt the annual snowfall , were masked at first by the presence of the slowly disappearing continental ice sheets , which persisted long after the astronomically calculated moment of maximum summer warmth : `` the neoglaciation can be said to have begun when the cooling caught up with the warming '' , remarked E. C. Pielou . With the close of the `` Little Ice Age '' ( mid-14th to late 19th centuries ) , neoglaciation appears to have been stalled in the late 20th century , assumed to be caused by anthropogenic global warming . Whether it has been temporarily or semi-permanently stalled , neoglaciation has been marked by a retreat from the warm conditions of the Climatic Optimum and the advance or reformation of glaciers that had not existed since the last ice age . In the mountains of western North America , montane glaciers that had completely melted reformed shortly before 5000 BP . The most severe part of the best documented neoglacial period , especially in Europe and the North Atlantic , is termed the `` Little Ice Age '' . In North America , neoglaciation had ecological effects in the spread of muskeg on flat , poorly drained land , such as the bed of recently drained Lake Agassiz and in the Hudson Bay lowlands , in the retreat of grassland before an advancing forest border in the Great Plains , and in shifting ranges of forest trees and diagnostic plant species ( identified through palynology ) . The view that neoglaciation is ending in present times , is assumed by those who identify the most recent climate changes and global warming as the onset of a new period in Earth history , speculatively calling it the `` Early anthropocene '' , as a coming geological age dominated by the effects of Homo sapiens .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Neoglaciation\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 84700\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wabedo, Minnesota Content: Wabedo is an unincorporated community in Wabedo Township , Cass County , Minnesota , United States , near Longville . It is along Cass County Road 54 near the junction with County Road 120 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Wabedo,_Minnesota\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 84371\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Starlight Content: Starlight is the light emitted by stars . It typically refers to visible electromagnetic radiation from stars other than the Sun observable from Earth during the night time although a component of starlight is observable from the Earth during the daytime . Sunlight is the term used for the Sun 's starlight observed during daytime . During nighttime , albedo describes solar reflections from other Solar System objects including moonlight . Observation and measurement of starlight through telescopes is the basis for many fields of astronomy , including photometry and stellar spectroscopy . Hipparchus did not have a telescope or any instrument that could measure apparent brightness accurately , so he simply made estimates with his eyes . He sorted the stars into six brightness categories , which he called magnitudes . He referred to the brightest stars in his catalog as first-magnitudes stars , which were the brightest stars and those so faint he could barely see them were sixth-magnitude stars . Starlight is also a notable part of personal experience and human culture , impacting a diverse range of pursuits including poetry , astronomy , and military strategy . The United States Army spent millions of dollars in the 1950s and onward to develop a starlight scope , that could amplify starlight , moonlight filtered by clouds , and the fluorescence of rotting vegetation about 50,000 times to allow a person to see in the night . In contrast to previously developed active infrared system such as sniperscope , it was a passive device and did not require additional light emission to see . The average color of starlight in the observable universe is a shade of yellowish-white that has been given the name Cosmic Latte . Starlight spectroscopy , examination of the stellar spectra , was pioneered by Joseph Fraunhofer in 1814 . Starlight can be understood to be composed of three main spectra types , continuous spectrum , emission spectrum , and absorption spectrum . One of the oldest stars yet identified ( oldest not most distant in this case ) was identified in 2014 , the star SMSS J031300 .362670839.3 was determined to be 6000 light years away but date to 13.8 billion years ago . The starlight shining on Earth would include this star . In the field of photography , there is a specialty of night-time photography especially when subjects are lit primarily by starlight . -LSB- https://books.google.com/books?id=Z7QNrgEACAAJ&dq=starlight+photography&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjivLqj7r3RAhWF5SYKHelUDJsQ6AEIGjAA Directly taking images of night sky is also a part of astrophotography . Starlight astrophotography can also be used for the pursuit of science and/or leisure . Starlight photography can be important for observing nocturnal animals . In many cases starlight photography may also overlap with a need to understand the impact of moonlight .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Starlight\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 82877\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 11824 Alpaidze Content: 11824 Alpaidze , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid from the middle region of the asteroid belt , approximately 5 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 16 September 1982 , by Russian astronomer Lyudmila Chernykh at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory , Nauchnyj , on the Crimean peninsula . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.8 -- 3.4 AU once every 4 years and 3 months ( 1,563 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.31 and an inclination of 2 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was obtained at Palomar Observatory in 1978 . However , the observation was not used to extend the asteroid 's observation arc . Two rotational light-curves of this asteroid were obtained from photometric observations made at the U.S. Palomar Transient Factory , California , in September 2009 . The fragmentary light-curves gave a rotation period of and hours with a brightness amplitude of 0.05 and 0.06 in magnitude , respectively . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.10 , untypically low for a stony asteroid , and calculates a diameter of 4.8 kilometers , based on an absolute magnitude of 14.7 . The minor planet is named after Georgian-born Soviet Lieutenant General Galaktion Alpaidze ( 1916 -- 2006 ) , Hero of the Soviet Union and laureate of the USSR State Prize . He was the head of the Plesetsk Cosmodrome in the 1960s and 1970s , where space crafts were tested . During his supervision , the Cosmodrome became the world 's most active launch site in the world . Naming citation was published on 2 April 2007 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"11824_Alpaidze\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 82730\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 7959 Alysecherri Content: 7959 Alysecherri , provisional designation , is a bright , stony Hungaria asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 3 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 2 August 1994 , by American astronomer Carl Hergenrother at the U.S. Steward Observatory Catalina Station on Mt Bigelow near Tucson , Arizona . The E-type asteroid is a member of the Hungaria family , which form the innermost dense concentration of asteroids in the Solar System . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.8 -- 2.1 AU once every 2 years and 9 months ( 989 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.09 and an inclination of 19 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at Palomar Observatory in 1951 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 43 years prior to its discovery . A rotational light-curve for this asteroid was obtained from photometric observations made by American astronomer Brian Warner at the U.S. Palmer Divide Observatory , Colorado , in July 2013 . It gave a rotation period of hours with a brightness amplitude of 0.13 in magnitude . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.30 and calculates a diameter of 3.05 kilometers . The minor planet is named after the maiden name of the discovering astronomer 's wife , Alyse Cherri Smith . Naming citation was published on 13 November 2008 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"7959_Alysecherri\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 81664\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Comet nucleus Content: The nucleus is the solid , central part of a comet , popularly termed a dirty snowball or an icy dirtball . A cometary nucleus is composed of rock , dust , and frozen gases . When heated by the Sun , the gases sublimate and produce an atmosphere surrounding the nucleus known as the coma . The force exerted on the coma by the Sun 's radiation pressure and solar wind cause an enormous tail to form , which points away from the Sun . A typical comet nucleus has an albedo of 0.04 . This is blacker than coal , and may be caused by a covering of dust . Results from the Rosetta and Philae spacecraft show that the nucleus of 67P/Churyumov -- Gerasimenko has no magnetic field , which suggests that magnetism may not have played a role in the early formation of planetesimals . Further , the ALICE spectrograph on Rosetta determined that electrons ( within 1 km above the comet nucleus ) produced from photoionization of water molecules by solar radiation , and not photons from the Sun as thought earlier , are responsible for the degradation of water and carbon dioxide molecules released from the comet nucleus into its coma . On 30 July 2015 , scientists reported that the Philae spacecraft , that landed on comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko in November 2014 , detected at least 16 organic compounds , of which four ( including acetamide , acetone , methyl isocyanate and propionaldehyde ) were detected for the first time on a comet .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Comet_nucleus\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 81588\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Dynamic Albedo of Neutrons Content: The Dynamic Albedo of Neutrons ( DAN ) instrument is an experiment mounted on the Mars Science Laboratory Curiosity rover . It is a pulsed sealed-tube neutron source and detector used to measure hydrogen or ice and water at or near the Martian surface . DAN was provided by the Russian Federal Space Agency , funded by Russia and is under the leadership of Principal Investigator Igor Mitrofanov . On August 18 , 2012 ( sol ) , DAN was turned on , marking the success of a Russian-American collaboration on the surface of Mars and the first working Russian science instrument on the Martian surface since Mars 3 stopped transmitting over forty years ago . The instrument is designed to detect subsurface water . On March 18 , 2013 ( sol ) , NASA reported evidence of mineral hydration , likely hydrated calcium sulfate , in several rock samples including the broken fragments of `` Tintina '' rock and `` Sutton Inlier '' rock as well as in veins and nodules in other rocks like `` Knorr '' rock and `` Wernicke '' rock . Analysis using the rover 's DAN instrument provided evidence of subsurface water , amounting to as much as 4 % water content , down to a depth of 60 cm , in the rover 's traverse from the Bradbury Landing site to the Yellowknife Bay area in the Glenelg terrain . On August 19 , 2015 , NASA scientists reported that the DAN instrument on Curiosity detected an unusual hydrogen-rich area , at `` Marias Pass , '' on Mars . The hydrogen found seemed related to water or hydroxyl ions in rocks within three feet beneath the rover , according to the scientists .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Dynamic_Albedo_of_Neutrons\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 81564\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Directional-hemispherical reflectance Content: Directional-hemispherical reflectance is the reflectance of a surface under direct illumination ( with no diffuse component ) . Directional-hemispherical reflectance is the integral of the BRDF over all viewing directions . It is sometimes called `` black-sky albedo '' . See also : Bi-hemispherical reflectance Category : Electromagnetic radiation Category : Climatology\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Directional-hemispherical_reflectance\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 80809\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bi-hemispherical reflectance Content: Bi-hemispherical reflectance is the reflectance of a surface under diffuse illumination ( with no direct component ) . Bi-hemispherical reflectance is an important part of the Bidirectional reflectance distribution function over all viewing and illumination directions of a hemisphere . It is sometimes called `` white-sky albedo '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Bi-hemispherical_reflectance\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 80070\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sinus Meridiani Content: Sinus Meridiani is a feature name for an albedo feature on Mars stretching east-west just south of that planet 's equator . It was named by the French astronomer Camille Flammarion in the late 1870s . It has a diameter of 1622 km , and its center is located at 7.12 S and 4 E.\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Sinus_Meridiani\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 79677\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Claritas Fossae Content: Claritas Fossae is a group of troughs in the Phoenicis Lacus and Thaumasia quadrangles of Mars , located at 31.5 S and 104.1 W . The structure is 2,050.0 km long and was named after a classical albedo feature name . Long narrow depressions on Mars are called fossae . This term is derived from Latin ; therefore fossa is singular and fossae is plural . Troughs form when the crust is stretched until it breaks . The stretching can be due to the large weight of a nearby volcano . Fossae/pit craters are common near volcanoes in the Tharsis and Elysium regions . A trough often has two breaks with a middle section moving down , leaving steep cliffs along the sides ; such a trough is called a graben .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Claritas_Fossae\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 79616\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Peter Thejll Content: Peter Andreas Thejll ( born 1956 ) is a Danish astrophysicist and climate researcher . His research in solar variation helped provide evidence of the greenhouse effect on the Earth 's climate in the late 20th century . In particular , his study with Knud Lassen on Northern Hemisphere land air temperature showed that the rise of 0.4 degrees Celsius since 1980 could not be accounted for by the solar cycle . Climatologists have pointed to this finding as an `` actual piece of evidence for greenhouse warming '' . Thejll received his undergraduate education at the University of Copenhagen . He received an M.S. in physics and a Ph.D. in astrophysics from the University of Delaware . Thejll was a Carlsberg Fellow at the Niels Bohr Institute and worked at the Nordic Institute for Theoretical Physics . Thejll currently is a senior scientist at the Danish Meteorological Institute in Copenhagen . He is currently involved in the creation of a global automatic system to observe the Earth 's reflectivity - albedo - using observations of the earthshine on the Moon . Such data can be used for climate change studies and calibration of satellite data as the measurements deliver independent data on the albedo . A telescope is now installed on Hawaii at the Mauna Loa Observatory . The Swedish research agency VINNOVA is funding this project .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Peter_Thejll\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 79409\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wabedo Lake Content: Wabedo Lake is a lake in Cass County , Minnesota , in the United States . Wabedo Lake was named for a Ojibwe warrior killed by Sioux . The Wabedo Lake is 1,185 acres in size and it is approximately 95 feet deep at its deepest point . Wabedo Lake is located 4 1/2 miles south of Longville off of Highway 54 . Anglers , a person who fishes with a rod and line , can anticipate to catch 15 different types of fish . These 15 different fish species are : Black Bullhead , Black Crappie , Bluegill , Brown Bullhead , Largemouth Bass , Muskellunge ( Muskie ) , Northern Pike , Pumpkinseed , Rock Bass , Smallmouth Bass , Walleye , White Sucker , Yellow Bullhead and Yellow Perch .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Wabedo_Lake\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 78141\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cooling (disambiguation) Content: Cooling is the transfer of thermal energy via thermal radiation , heat conduction or convection . Cooling may also refer to : Cooling ( surname ) , any of several people `` Cooling '' , a song written and performed by Tori Amos on her 1999 album To Venus and Back A Cantonese food classification Cooling , Kent , a village in Kent , England\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Cooling_(disambiguation)\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 77851\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Outgoing longwave radiation Content: Outgoing Longwave Radiation ( OLR ) is the energy radiating from the Earth as infrared radiation at low energy to Space . OLR is electromagnetic radiation emitted from Earth and its atmosphere out to space in the form of thermal radiation . The flux of energy transported by outgoing longwave radiation is measured in W/m ² . Over 99 % of outgoing longwave radiation has wavelengths between 4 µm and 100 µm , in the thermal infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum . Contributions with wavelengths larger than 40 µm are small , therefore often only wavelengths up to 50 µm are considered . In the wavelength range between 4 µm and 10 µm the spectrum of outgoing longwave radiation overlaps that of solar radiation , and for various applications different cut-off wavelengths between the two may be chosen . Radiative cooling by outgoing longwave radiation is the primary way the Earth System loses energy . The balance between this loss and the energy gained by radiative heating from incoming solar shortwave radiation determines global heating or cooling of the Earth system ( Energy budget of Earth 's climate ) . Local differences between radiative heating and cooling provide the energy that drives atmospheric dynamics .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Outgoing_longwave_radiation\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 77366\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: C/2001 OG108 Content: C/2001 OG108 ( LONEOS ) is a Halley-type comet with an orbital period of 48.51 years . It was discovered on 28 July 2001 by the LONEOS telescope at Lowell Observatory . Observations taken in January and February 2002 showed that the `` asteroid '' had developed a small amount of cometary activity as it approached perihelion . It was subsequently reclassified as a comet . The comet came to perihelion ( closest approach to the Sun ) on 15 March 2002 . The next perihelion passage is calculated to be on 6 June 2050 . The comet has a rotational period of 2.38 ± 0.02 days ( 57.12 hr ) . In 2003 , the comet was estimated to have a mean absolute V magnitude ( H ) of 13.05 ± 0.10 , with an albedo of 0.03 , giving an effective radius of 8.9 ± 0.7 km . Using data from Fernandez ( 2004 -- 2005 ) JPL lists the comet with an albedo of 0.05 and a diameter of 13.6 ± 1.0 km . This comet probably represents the transition between typical Halley-family/long-period comets and extinct comets . Damocloids have been studied as possible extinct cometary candidates due to the similarity of their orbital parameters with those of Halley-family comets .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"C/2001_OG108\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 77338\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hockey stick graph Content: Hockey stick graphs present the global or hemispherical mean temperature record of the past 500 to 2000 years as shown by quantitative climate reconstructions based on climate proxy records . These reconstructions have consistently shown a slow long term cooling trend changing into relatively rapid warming in the 20th century , with the instrumental temperature record by 2000 exceeding earlier temperatures . The term `` hockey stick graph '' was coined by the climatologist Jerry Mahlman , to describe the pattern shown by the ( MBH99 ) reconstruction , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat with a downward trend to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' followed by a sharp , steady increase corresponding to the `` blade '' portion . The reconstructions have featured in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports as evidence of global warming . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . Paleoclimatology dates back to the 19th century , and the concept of examining varves in lake beds and tree rings to track local climatic changes was suggested in the 1930s . In the 1960s , Hubert Lamb generalised from historical documents and temperature records of central England to propose a Medieval Warm Period from around 900 to 1300 , followed by Little Ice Age . This was the basis of a `` schematic diagram '' featured in the IPCC First Assessment Report of 1990 beside cautions that the medieval warming might not have been global . The use of indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed , and by the late 1990s a number of competing teams of climatologists found indications that recent warming was exceptional . introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large scale reconstructions . Their study was featured in the IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . In 1998 Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 with shading emphasising that uncertainties ( to two standard error limits ) were much greater in earlier centuries . independently produced a CPS reconstruction extending back for a thousand years , and ( MBH99 ) used the MBH98 methodology to extend their study back to 1000 . A version of the MBH99 graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , which also drew on Jones et al. 1998 and three other reconstructions to support the conclusion that , in the Northern Hemisphere , the 1990s was likely to have been the warmest decade and 1998 the warmest year during the past 1,000 years . The graph became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th century warmth was exceptional . In 2003 , as lobbying over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol intensified , a paper claiming greater medieval warmth was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy . Later in 2003 , Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick published disputing the data used in MBH98 paper . In 2004 Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal components analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . Their analysis was subsequently disputed by published papers including and which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . Political disputes led to the formation of a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council , their North Report in 2006 supported Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , support the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Further reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Hockey_stick_graph\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 76806\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 6470 Aldrin Content: 6470 Aldrin , provisional designation , is a stony Flora asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 3 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by Czech astronomer Antonín Mrkos at Kleť Observatory on 14 September 1982 . The S-type asteroid is a member of the Flora family , one of the largest groups of stony asteroids in the main-belt . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.9 -- 2.6 AU once every 3 years and 5 months ( 1,253 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.15 and an inclination of 3 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The asteroid 's observation arc begins in 1982 , as no precoveries had been taken prior to its discovery . A rotational light-curve of this asteroid was obtained from photometric observations made at the U.S. Palomar Transient Factory in September 2013 . The light-curve gave a rotation period of hours with a brightness variation of 0.82 in magnitude . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.24 -- which derives from 8 Flora , the largest member and namesake of this orbital family -- and calculates a diameter of 3.0 kilometers , based on an absolute magnitude of 14.78 . The minor planet was named for American astronaut Buzz Aldrin ( b. 1930 ) , on the occasion of the 30th anniversary of the Apollo 11 mission . He was one of the first two humans to land on the Moon , and the second person to walk on it , following Neil Armstrong , after whom the asteroid 6469 Armstrong is named . Its name was suggested by Czech astronomers Jana Tichá , Miloš Tichý and Zdeněk Moravec , who observed the asteroid during its 1995-opposition , shortly before being numbered . Naming citation was published on 4 May 1999 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"6470_Aldrin\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 76633\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cooling curve Content: A cooling curve is a line graph that represents the change of phase of matter , typically from a gas to a solid or a liquid to a solid . The independent variable ( X-axis ) is time and the dependent variable ( Y-axis ) is temperature . Below is an example of a cooling curve used in castings . The initial point of the graph is the starting temperature of the matter , here noted as the `` pouring temperature '' . When the phase change occurs there is a `` thermal arrest '' , that is the temperature stays constant . This is because the matter has more internal energy as a liquid or gas than in the state that it is cooling to . The amount of energy required for a phase change is known as latent heat . The `` cooling rate '' is the slope of the cooling curve at any point .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Cooling_curve\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 76506\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Albiorix (moon) Content: Albiorix ( -LSB- ˌælbiˈɒrᵻks -RSB- ) is a prograde irregular satellite of Saturn . It was discovered by Holman and colleagues in 2000 , and given the temporary designation S/2000 S 11 . Albiorix is the largest member of the Gallic group of irregular satellites . It was named in August 2003 for Albiorix , `` a Gallic giant who was considered to be the king of the world . '' The name is known from an inscription found near the French town of Sablet which identifies him with the Roman god Mars ( an interpretatio romana ) . Albiorix orbits Saturn at a distance of about 16 million km and its diameter is estimated at 32 kilometers , assuming an albedo of 0.04 . The rotation period was measured by the ISS camera of the Cassini spacecraft to 13 hours and 19 minutes . The diagram illustrates the Albiorigian orbit in relation to other prograde irregular satellites of Saturn . The eccentricity of the orbits is represented by the yellow segments extending from the pericentre to the apocentre . Given the similarity of the orbital elements and the homogeneity of the physical characteristics with other members of the Gallic group , it was suggested that these satellites could have a common origin in the break-up of a larger moon . Varying colours revealed recently suggest a possibility of a large crater , leading to an alternative hypothesis that Erriapus and Tarvos could be fragments of Albiorix following a near-break-up collision with another body .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Albiorix_(moon)\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 76400\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cooling flow Content: A cooling flow occurs according to the theory that the intracluster medium ( ICM ) in the centres of galaxy clusters should be rapidly cooling at the rate of tens to thousands of solar masses per year . This should happen as the ICM ( a plasma ) is quickly losing its energy by the emission of X-rays . The X-ray brightness of the ICM is proportional to the square of its density , which rises steeply towards the centres of many clusters . Also the temperature falls to typically a third or a half of the temperature in the outskirts of the cluster . The typical -LSB- predicted -RSB- timescale for the ICM to cool is relatively short , less than a billion years . As material in the centre of the cluster cools out , the pressure of the overlying ICM should cause more material to flow inwards ( the cooling flow ) . In a steady state , the rate of mass deposition , i.e. the rate at which the plasma cools , is given by where L is the bolometric ( i.e. over the entire spectrum ) luminosity of the cooling region , T is its temperature , k is the Boltzmann constant and μm is the mean molecular mass .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Cooling_flow\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 76315\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Amenthes Fossae Content: The Amenthes Fossae are a system of troughs in the Amenthes quadrangle of Mars centered at 9.07 ° N and 102.68 ° E . They are 850 km across and were named after a classical albedo feature . The classical albedo feature name was based on the Egyptian name for a place where souls of the dead go ( Amenthes or Duat ) . The name Amenthes Fossae was approved in 1976 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Amenthes_Fossae\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 75949\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Arctic geoengineering Content: Temperatures in the Arctic region have tended to increase more rapidly than the global average . Projections of sea ice loss that are adjusted to take account of recent rapid Arctic shrinkage suggest that the Arctic will likely be free of summer sea ice sometime between 2059 and 2078 . Various climate engineering schemes have been suggested to reduce the chance of significant and irreversible effects such as Arctic methane release . Several climate engineering proposals have been made which are specific to the Arctic . They are usually hydrological in nature , and principally centre upon measures to prevent Arctic ice loss . In addition , other solar radiation management climate engineering techniques , such as stratospheric sulfate aerosols have been proposed . These would cool the Arctic by adjusting the albedo of the atmosphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Arctic_geoengineering\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 75610\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: K-type asteroid Content: K-type asteroids are relatively uncommon asteroids with a moderately reddish spectrum shortwards of 0.75 μm , and a slight bluish trend longwards of this . They have a low albedo . Their spectrum resembles that of CV and CO meteorites . These asteroids were described as `` featureless '' S-types in the Tholen classification . The K-type was proposed by J. F. Bell and colleagues in 1988 for bodies having a particularly shallow 1 μm absorption feature , and lacking the 2 μm absorption . These were found during studies of the Eos family of asteroids .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"K-type_asteroid\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 75364\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tractus Fossae Content: The Tractus Fossae are a set of troughs in the Tharsis quadrangle of Mars , located at 26 ° north latitude and 101.4 ° west longitude . They are 390 km long and are named after a classical albedo feature name . The term `` fossae '' is used to indicate large troughs when using geographical terminology related to Mars . Troughs , sometimes also called grabens , form when the crust is stretched until it breaks , which forms two breaks with a middle section moving down , leaving steep cliffs along the sides . Sometimes , a line of pits form as materials collapse into a void that forms from the stretching .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Tractus_Fossae\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 75305\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Montes Alpes Content: Montes Alpes is a mountain range in the northern part of the Moon 's near side . It was named after the Alps in Europe ; the name was confirmed by the International Astronomical Union in 1935 . It lies between the selenographic coordinates latitudes 52.81 ° N and 42.04 ° N , and longitudes 5.6 ° W and 3.22 ° E . The range thus crosses the lunar prime meridian , and is partially illuminated and partially in shadow during first and last quarters . The center of the range is at 48.36 ° N , 0.58 ° W , and has a diameter of 334 km . This range forms the northeastern border of the Mare Imbrium lunar mare . To the west of the range is the level and nearly featureless mare , while on the eastern face is a more rugged continental area with a higher albedo . The range begins about one crater diameter northwest of the crater Cassini , at the Promontorium Agassiz , then stretches about 280 kilometres to the northwest and continues in intermittent fashion and the mountains proper end shy of one crater length from the eastern rim of the dark-floored crater Plato . The system of rilles named Rimae Plato may be found in between the eastern edge of Plato and the western edge of the Alpes mountains . The peaks of the Alpes range in height from 1,800 m to 2,400 m. The Alpes range was part of the middle ring of the multi-ringed Imbrium Basin . The other mountain ranges around the Imbrium Basin ( Montes Caucasus , Montes Apenninus , and Montes Carpatus ) were part of the outer ring . The Alpes , being part of the middle ring , thus have a shorter radius to the center of Imbrium than the other ranges of the basin . The northwestern third of the range is separated from the remainder of the mountains by the Vallis Alpes , a wide rift valley that extends from a narrow cleft in the Montes Alpes to the northeast , reaching the edge of the Mare Frigoris . The total length of this formation is about 166 km , and it reaches a maximum width of 10 km . Running down the center of this valley is a narrow cleft which is not observable through smaller telescopes . Sunrise and sunset in this area occur before the respective lunar quarters . About one-third the length of the range from the southeast is Mons Blanc , a peak rising to a height of 3.6 km . This compares to a typical height of peaks in this range of 1.8 to 2.4 km . Midway between Mons Blanc and Promontorium Agassiz is Promontorium Deville . To the southwest of Promontorium Agassiz is the isolated Mons Piton , a peak rising to a height of 2.3 km . Blanc , Piton , and the Montes Teneriffe make up part of the inner ring of the Imbrium Basin .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Montes_Alpes\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 75275\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cooling center Content: A cooling center is a air-conditioned public space set up by local authorities to temporarily deal with the health effects of a heat wave . Cooling centers are meant to prevent hyperthermia caused by heat , humidity , and poor air quality . Cooling centers provide shade , water , and restrooms ; medical attention and referrals to social services may also be offered . Their services are aimed at the homeless , at-risk populations such as the elderly , and those without air conditioning . As the danger of heat waves has risen in the public consciousness , cooling centers are increasingly used in cities such as New York City , Chicago , Boston , and Toronto , as well as less urban population areas . Cooling centers may also be used in places like Seattle where home air conditioning is rare but summer can bring temperatures exceeding 90 F for several days . They are usually sited at multiple locations throughout a municipality , such as public libraries , community centers , senior centers , and police stations . Another health measure sometimes taken during heat waves is to extend operational hours at public beaches and swimming pools .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Cooling_center\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 75000\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 84882 Table Mountain Content: 84882 Table Mountain , provisional designation , is a bright asteroid from the middle region of the asteroid belt , approximately 5 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 1 February 2003 , by American astronomer James Whitney Young at the U.S. Table Mountain Observatory near Wrightwood , California . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.9 -- 3.4 AU once every 4 years and 3 months ( 1,566 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.29 and an inclination of 14 ° with respect to the ecliptic . It was first identified as at Lincoln Laboratory 's Experimental Test Site in 1997 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 6 years prior to its discovery observation . As of 2016 , the asteroid 's composition , rotation period and shape remain unknown . According to the survey carried out by the NEOWISE mission of NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , the asteroid measures 3.0 kilometers in diameter and its surface has a high albedo of 0.306 . Based on an assumed albedo in the range of 0.05 -- 0.25 and an absolute magnitude of 14.7 , the asteroid 's generic diameter measures would be between 3 and 7 kilometers , as the higher the body 's reflectivity ( albedo ) , the smaller is its diameter at a constant absolute magnitude ( brightness ) . The minor planet was named for the Table Mountain Observatory , the discoverer 's workplace , currently a NASA facility operated by the California Institute of Technology 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory , which began operation as a Smithsonian Institution site in 1924 to study the solar constant . In the late 1950s , the site was used to test the first solar panels and is now dedicated to optical astronomy and to study Earth 's atmosphere . Citation was published on 28 October 2004 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"84882_Table_Mountain\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 74902\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Minnaert function Content: The Minnaert function is a photometric function used to interpret astronomical observations and remote sensing data for the Earth . It was named after the astronomer Marcel Minnaert . This function expresses the radiance factor ( RADF ) as a function the phase angle , the photometric latitude and the photometric longitude . where is the Minnaert albedo , is an empirical parameter , is the scattered radiance in the direction , is the incident radiance , and The phase angle is the angle between the light source and the observer with the object as the center . The assumptions made are : the surface is illuminated by a distant point source . the surface is isotropic and flat . Minnaert 's contribution is the introduction of the parameter , having a value between 0 and 1 , originally for a better interpretation of observations of the Moon . In remote sensing the use of this function is referred to as Minnaert topographic correction , a necessity when interpreting images of rough terrain .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Minnaert_function\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 74433\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coolhunting Content: Coolhunting is a neologism coined in the early 1990s referring to a new kind of marketing professionals who make observations and predictions in changes of new or existing `` cool '' cultural fads and trends . Coolhunting is also referred to as `` trend spotting , '' and is a subset of trend analysis . Coolhunters resemble the intuitive fashion magazine editors of the 1960s such as Nancy White ( Harper 's Bazaar 1958 -- 1971 ) . Coolhunters operate mostly in the world of street fashion and design , but their work also blurs into that of futurists such as Faith Popcorn .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Coolhunting\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 73988\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 113390 Helvetia Content: 113390 Helvetia , provisional designation , is an asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 2.2 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 29 September 2002 , by Swiss astronomer Markus Griesser at the Eschenberg Observatory in Winterthur , near Zürich , Switzerland . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.8 -- 2.8 AU once every 3 years and 6 months ( 1,276 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.20 and an inclination of 7 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at Palomar Observatory in 1960 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 42 years prior to its discovery . As of 2016 , the asteroid 's shape , composition and rotation period remain unknown . Based on its absolute magnitude of 15.6 , its diameter lies between 2 and 4 kilometers , assuming an albedo in the range of 0.05 to 0.25 . According to the survey carried out by the NEOWISE mission of NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , the asteroid measures 2.2 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.231 , which is typical for stony asteroids . The minor planet was named in February 2006 and bears the name for Switzerland ( Confoederatio Helvetica ) , where the asteroid was discovered . Helvetia is also an allegorical figure and symbol for the nation . Each Swiss stamp carries her name , and her figure appears on most Swiss coins . Naming citation was published on 19 February 2006 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"113390_Helvetia\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 73807\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 10P/Tempel Content: 10P/Tempel , also known as Tempel 2 , is a periodic Jupiter-family comet in the Solar System . It was discovered in 1873 and has an orbital period of 5.3 years . The comet nucleus is estimated to be 10.6 kilometers in diameter with a low albedo of 0.022 . The nucleus is dark because hydrocarbons on the surface have been converted to a dark , tarry like substance by solar ultraviolet radiation . During the 2010 apparition the comet brightened to about apparent magnitude 8 . It next comes to perihelion ( closest approach to the Sun ) on 14 November 2015 when it should brighten to around magnitude 11 . The most favorable apparition of 10P/Tempel 2 was in 1925 when it came within 0.35 AU of Earth with an apparent magnitude of 6.5 . On August 3 , 2026 , comet Tempel 2 is expected to have another close pass within about 0.41 AU of Earth .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"10P/Tempel\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 73240\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: (42301) 2001 UR163 Content: , also written as ( 42301 ) 2001 UR163 , is likely a dwarf planet that resides in the scattered disc . It was discovered on October 21 , 2001 by the Deep Ecliptic Survey ( DES ) program at Kitt Peak . Light-curve-amplitude analysis shows only small deviations , suggesting that is a spheroid with small albedo spots . Michael Brown 's website lists it as a highly likely dwarf planet , but the diameter of the object has never been measured . has the reddest color index of any object in the Solar System . On October 31 , 2002 , the 3.6-meter Canada -- France -- Hawaii Telescope observed set a record red reading of B − R = 2.28 . This makes even redder than Pholus , , Sedna and comet C/2001 T4 . Reddening of the spectrum is caused by cosmic irradiation by ultraviolet radiation and charged particles . Becoming bluer in the spectrum is caused by impact collisions exposing the interior of an object . In the visible spectrum , would appear orange-brown , depending on its albedo . It came to perihelion around 1937 . In 2006 , it moved beyond 50 AU from the Sun . It is currently 51.9 AU from the Sun .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"(42301)_2001_UR163\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 73187\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sympathetic cooling Content: Sympathetic cooling is a process in which particles of one type cool particles of another type . Typically , atomic ions that can be directly laser cooled are used to cool nearby ions or atoms , by way of their mutual Coulomb interaction . This technique allows cooling of ions and atoms that ca n't be cooled directly by laser cooling . This includes most molecular ion species , especially large organic molecules . However , sympathetic cooling is most efficient when the mass/charge ratios of the sympathetic - and laser-cooled ions are similar . The cooling of neutral atoms in this manner was first demonstrated by Christopher Myatt et al. in 1997 . Here , a technique with electric and magnetic fields were used , where atoms with spin in one direction were more weakly confined than those with spin in the opposite direction . The weakly confined atoms with a high kinetic energy were allowed to more easily escape , lowering the total kinetic energy , resulting in a cooling of the strongly confined atoms . Myatt et al. also showed the utility of their version of sympathetic cooling for the creation of Bose -- Einstein condensates\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Sympathetic_cooling\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 73181\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Iris hypothesis Content: The iris hypothesis is a hypothesis proposed by Richard Lindzen et al. in 2001 that suggested increased sea surface temperature in the tropics would result in reduced cirrus clouds and thus more infrared radiation leakage from Earth 's atmosphere . His study of observed changes in cloud coverage and modeled effects on infrared radiation released to space as a result supported the hypothesis . This suggested infrared radiation leakage was hypothesized to be a negative feedback in which an initial warming would result in an overall cooling of the surface . The consensus view is that increased sea surface temperature would result in increased cirrus clouds and reduced infrared radiation leakage and therefore a positive feedback . Other scientists subsequently tested the hypothesis . Some concluded that there was no evidence supporting the hypothesis . Others found evidence suggesting that increased sea surface temperature in the tropics did indeed reduce cirrus clouds but found that the effect was nonetheless a positive feedback rather than the negative feedback that Lindzen had hypothesized . A later 2007 study conducted by Roy Spencer et al. using updated satellite data potentially supported the iris hypothesis . In 2011 , Lindzen published a rebuttal to the main criticisms . In 2015 a paper was published which again suggested the possibility of an `` Iris Effect '' . It also proposed what it called a `` plausible physical mechanism for an iris effect . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Iris_hypothesis\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 73127\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wibjörn Karlén Content: Wibjörn Karlén ( born 26 August 1937 in Kristine , Kopparberg County , Sweden ) , Ph.D. , is a professor emeritus of physical geography and quaternary geology at Stockholm University , Sweden . In an article which describes Karlén as a paleoclimatologist , he is quoted as saying : `` One of the big problems with trying to determine long-term temperature changes , is that weather records only go back to about 1860 . By relying on statistical reconstruction of the last 1000 years , using only the temperature patterns of the last 140 years instead of actual temperature readings , the IPCC report and Summary missed both a major cooling period as well as a significant warming trend during that millennium . '' Karlén has also criticized the mainstream media for `` spreading the exaggerated views of a human impact on climate . '' He was also named in a 2007 minority report of the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee as one of 400 `` prominent scientists '' who were said to dispute global warming . In 2010 , he predicted that natural climate changes , caused to a large degree by the sun 's activity , would more likely make the climate colder than warmer in the next decades . He is a contributing author to the Fraser Institute 2007 Independent Summary for Policymakers . Karlén is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Wibjörn_Karlén\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 73049\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Aganippe Fossa Content: Aganippe Fossa is a surface feature on Mars which runs from 4.1 ° to 13 ° south latitude and 124.9 ° to 126.9 ° west longitude . It is named after a classical albedo feature . Its name was approved by the IAU in 1976 . Figure 1 shows dark streaks on the slopes of Aganippe Fossa . Such streaks are common on Mars . They occur on steep slopes of craters , troughs , and valleys . The streaks are dark at first . They get lighter with age . Sometimes they start in a tiny spot , then spread out and go for hundreds of meters . They have been seen to travel around obstacles , like boulders . It is believed that they are avalanches of bright dust that expose a darker underlying layer . However , several ideas have been advanced to explain them . Some involve water or even the growth of organisms . The streaks appear in areas covered with dust . Much of the Martian surface is covered with dust . Fine dust settles out of the atmosphere covering everything .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Aganippe_Fossa\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 72970\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 645 Agrippina Content: 645 Agrippina , provisional designation 1907 AG , is a stony asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt , roughly 30 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by American astronomer reverend Joel Metcalf at Taunton , Massachusetts , USA , on 13 September 1907 . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.7 -- 3.7 AU once every 5 years and 9 months ( 2,103 days ) . Its orbit shows an eccentricity of 0.15 and is tilted by 7 degrees to the plane of the ecliptic . A photometric light-curve analysis from the 1980s and a provisional observation in 2004 rendered a rotation period of 32.6 and 34.4 hours , respectively . According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite , IRAS , the Japanese Akari satellite , and the U.S.Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid has a dissimilar albedo in the range of 0.14 to 0.23 , which leads to a varying estimate for its diameter from 28 to 36 kilometers . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link publishes an albedo of 0.23 from an alternative result of the Supplemental IRAS Minor Planet Survey ( SIMPS ) and derives a slightly lower diameter of 27.9 kilometers . The minor planet was named for two women of ancient Roman history . Agrippina the Elder ( 14 BCE -- 33 ) was the daughter of the Roman statesman Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa , the wife of Germanicus and the mother of the Emperor Caligula . Her daughter , Agrippina the Younger ( 15 -- 59 AD ) was the mother of Emperor Nero . The naming might be influenced by the two letters of the provisional designation 1907 AG . In the Dictionary of Minor Planet Names , Lutz Schmadel supposes that the name originated from a list of female names from mythology and history , compiled by the Astronomisches Rechen-Institut ( ARI ) in 1913 . The ARI then sent this list to a number of astronomers with the request to name their discoveries in order to avoid confusion , as the number of unnamed minor planet up to number 700 had grown significantly at the time .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"645_Agrippina\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 72955\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 30564 Olomouc Content: 30564 Olomouc ( -LSB- ˈolomoʊ̯ts -RSB- ) provisionally designated , is an asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt . It was discovered by Czech astronomer Petr Pravec on July 28 , 2001 at Ondřejov Observatory and was named after Olomouc , a city in central Moravia , the Czech Republic , where the discoverer lived . The citation accompanying the suggestion of the name and published in the Minor Planet Circular on 6 January 2003 said : `` The city of Olomouc is the center of Hanakia in the heart of Moravia . The seat of Catholic bishops since 1063 and Moravian primates since 1777 , it has been home to a university since 1573 , now called Palacký University . '' The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.2 -- 3.0 AU once every 4 years and 2 months ( 1,529 days ) . Its orbit shows an eccentricity of 0.14 and an inclination of 4 degrees from the plane of the ecliptic . Little is known about the asteroids size , chemical and mineralogical composition , albedo and rotation , despite having a well-observed orbit with the lowest possible uncertainty ( i.e. a condition code of 0 ) and an observation arc that spans over a period of more than 20 years . On the basis of its absolute magnitude in the visible light spectrum and supposed albedo ( which usually varies from 0.05 to 0.25 for the main-belt asteroids ) its diameter could be anywhere between 3 and 6 kilometers . Since asteroids in the inner main-belt are typically of a silicaceous rather than of a carbonaceous composition , with albedos around 0.20 , the body 's diameter might be on the lower end of NASA 's published conversion table , as the higher the reflectivity ( albedo ) , the smaller the body 's diameter for the given absolute magnitude of 15.0 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"30564_Olomouc\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 72917\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Lebedodes ianrobertsoni Content: Lebedodes ianrobertsoni is a moth in the Cossidae family . It is found in Tanzania , where it has been recorded from the central subregion of the Eastern Arc Mountains probably extending further east into the drier coastal forests . The length of the forewings is about 9 mm . The forewings are pale orange-yellow with buckthorn brown transverse lines and striae . The hindwings are ivory yellow , but ecru-olive with a narrow line along the termen .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Lebedodes_ianrobertsoni\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 72907\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2661 Bydžovský Content: 2661 Bydžovský , provisional designation , is an asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt , approximately 30 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 23 March 1982 , by Czech astronomer Zdeňka Vávrová at the South Bohemian Kleť Observatory in the Czech Republic . Bydžovský orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.7 -- 3.3 AU once every 5 years and 3 months ( 1,923 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.09 and an inclination of 10 ° with respect to the ecliptic . It was first identified as at Heidelberg Observatory in 1950 , extending the body 's observation arc by 32 years prior to its discovery . As of 2016 , Bydžovskýs size , albedo , composition and rotation period remain unknown . Based on its absolute magnitude of 11.4 , its diameter is estimated to measure between 13 and 32 kilometers , assuming an albedo in the range of 0.05 to 0.25 . Since most asteroids in the outer main-belt are of a carbonaceous rather than of a silicaceous composition , with low albedos , typically closer to 0.05 than to 0.25 , the asteroid 's diameter might be on the upper end of NASA 's published conversion table , as the lower the reflectivity ( albedo ) , the larger the body 's diameter for a given absolute magnitude . The minor planet was named in honour of mathematician Bohumil Bydžovský ( 1880 -- 1969 ) , chancellor of the Charles University in Prague . He was born in southern Bohemia and became the most eminent citizen of the Czech town Veselí on the Lužnice river , after which the minor planets 2321 Lužnice and 2599 Veselí were named , respectively . Naming citation was published on 6 February 1993 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"2661_Bydžovský\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 72865\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of areas of chaos terrain on Mars Content: This is a list of areas of chaos terrain officially named by the International Astronomical Union on the planet Mars . Chaos terrain ( or chaotic terrain ) is an astrogeological term used to denote planetary surface areas where features such as ridges , cracks , and plains appear jumbled and enmeshed with one another . Coordinates are in planetocentric latitude with east longitude . Areas of chaos terrain are usually named after a nearby albedo feature as in line with the IAU 's rules on planetary nomenclature . Such an albedo feature must feature on the maps of Mars made by either Giovanni Schiaparelli or Eugène Michel Antoniadi and are listed at Classical albedo features on Mars .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_areas_of_chaos_terrain_on_Mars\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 72505\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1684 Iguassú Content: 1684 Iguassú , provisional designation , is a carbonaceous asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt , approximately 30.5 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 23 August 1951 , by Argentine astronomer Miguel Itzigsohn at the La Plata Astronomical Observatory , located in the city of La Plata , Argentina . The C-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.7 -- 3.5 AU once every 5 years and 5 months ( 1,991 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.12 and an inclination of 4 ° with respect to the ecliptic . In January 2014 , two rotational light-curves of Iguassú were obtained at the Palomar Transient Factory in California . They gave a rotation period of 9.14 and 9.23 hours , respectively , both with a brightness change of in magnitude . According to the survey carried out by NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , Iguassú measures between 30.21 and 31.38 kilometers in diameter , and its surface has an albedo between 0.08 and 0.093 . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for carbonaceous asteroids of 0.057 and calculates a diameter of 30.62 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 11.3 . This minor planet is named for the large Iguazu Falls , a 60 meters high and 1 kilometer wide waterfall , which river of the same name marks part of the boundary between Argentina and Brazil . As a curiosity , the spelling of the minor planet 's name ( Iguassú ) neither concurs with the Spanish `` Iguazú '' nor with the Portuguese `` Iguaçu '' . It is rather similar to `` Yguasu '' , used in the native Guarani language , from which the waterfall 's name originates . Naming citation was published on 8 April 1982 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"1684_Iguassú\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 72415\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 4082 Swann Content: 4082 Swann , provisional designation , is a carbonaceous asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 10 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by American astronomer Carolyn Shoemaker at Palomar Observatory on 27 September 1984 . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.8 -- 3.0 AU once every 3 years and 8 months ( 1,349 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.26 and an inclination of 10 ° with respect to the ecliptic . First identified as `` 1947 UF '' at the Finnish Turku Observatory in 1947 , the asteroid 's observation arc was extended by 37 years prior to its discovery . The C-type asteroid is classified as a Ch-subtype in the SMASS taxonomy . According to the surveys carried out by the Japanese Akari satellite and NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid measures 9.5 and 11.1 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.029 and 0.101 , respectively . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link , however , assumes a standard albedo for stony asteroids of 0.20 and derives a much smaller diameter of 5.85 kilometers , based on an absolute magnitude of 13.46 . In July 2006 , a rotational light-curve for this asteroid was obtained from photometric observations by Petr Pravec at the Ondřejov Observatory in the Czech Republic . It gave a rotation period of hours with a brightness variation of 0.67 magnitude . A second light-curve obtained by Jean-Gabriel Bosch in September 2006 , gave a period of hours and an amplitude of 0.35 magnitude . The minor planet was named after American geologist Gordon A. Swann ( b. 1931 ) . He served as the principal investigator of the `` Apollo Lunar Geologic Experiment '' conducted at the lunar landing sites of Apollo 14 and Apollo 15 . Naming citation was published on 12 December 1989 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"4082_Swann\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 72068\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Peel (fruit) Content: Peel , also known as rind or skin , is the outer protective layer of a fruit or vegetable which can be peeled off . The rind is usually the botanical exocarp , but the term exocarp also includes the hard cases of nuts , which are not named peels since they are not peeled off by hand or peeler , but rather shells because of their hardness . A fruit with a thick peel , such as a citrus fruit , is called a hesperidium . In hesperidiums , the inner layer ( also called albedo or , among non-botanists , pith ) is peeled off together with the outer layer ( called flavedo ) , and together they are called the peel . The flavedo and albedo , respectively , are the exocarp and the mesocarp . The juicy layer inside the peel ( containing the seeds ) is the endocarp .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Peel_(fruit)\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 72015\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sulci Gordii Content: Sulci Gordii in the feature in the Tharsis quadrangle of Mars . Sulci is a term used for subparallel furrows and ridges . It is located at 18.9 ° north latitude and 125.5 ° west longitude . It is 400 km long and was named after a classical albedo feature name .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Sulci_Gordii\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 71826\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cerberus (Martian albedo feature) Content: Cerberus is a large `` dark spot '' ( an albedo feature ) located on Mars and named after the mythical dog Cerberus . The arcuate markings in the upper right are in the Amazonis plains and may be sand drifts . The Elysium volcano , a yellow area north of Cerberus , has several channels radiating from its flanks . The three bright spots , upper left , are volcanoes partially veiled by thin clouds . High resolution images show the bulk of the Cerberus Plains is covered by platy-ridged and inflated lavas , which are interpreted as insulated sheet flows . Eastern Cerberus Plains lavas originate at Cerberus Fossae fissures and shields . Some flows extend for 2000 km through Marte Valles into Amazonis Planitia . Athabasca Valles are both incised into pristine lavas and embayed by pristine lavas , indicating that Athabascan fluvial events were contemporaneous with volcanic eruptions . Deposits of the Medusae Fossae Formation lie both over and under lavas , suggesting the deposition of the Medusae Fossae Formation was contemporaneous with volcanism . Statistics of small craters indicate lavas in the Western Cerberus Plains may be less than a million years old , but the model isochrons may be unreliable if the small crater population is dominated by secondary craters . Images showing no large craters with diameters 500 m superimposed on Western Cerberus Plains lavas indicate the same surface is younger than 49 Ma .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Cerberus_(Martian_albedo_feature)\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 71790\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cooling Content: Cooling is the transfer of thermal energy via thermal radiation , heat conduction or convection . Examples include :\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Cooling\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 71667\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ronaldo Alves Content: Ronaldo Luiz Alves ( born July 9 , 1989 in Bebedouro ) , known as Ronaldo Alves , is a Brazilian footballer who plays for Náutico , as a central defender .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Ronaldo_Alves\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 71470\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 11441 Anadiego Content: 11441 Anadiego , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid from the middle region of the asteroid belt , approximately 7 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 31 December 1975 , by Argentine astronomer Mario R. Cesco at the El Leoncito Complex in western Argentina . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.9 -- 3.2 AU once every 4 years and 1 month ( 1,497 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.26 and an inclination of 12 ° with respect to the ecliptic . As no precoveries were taken , the asteroid 's observation arc starts with its discovery observation in 1975 . A rotational light-curve was obtained for this asteroid by astronomer Kevin Hills at the Australian Riverland Dingo Observatory in February 2013 . It gave a rotation period of hours with a brightness variation of 0.11 magnitude . According to the surveys carried out by NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid measures 6.8 and 7.3 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.287 and 0.254 , respectively . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a lower standard albedo for stony asteroids of 0.20 , and , correspondingly calculates a larger diameter of 8.2 kilometers , based on an absolute magnitude of 12.8 . The minor planet was named in memory of Ana Teresa Diego ( 1954 -- 1976 ) , an astronomy student at La Plata Astronomical Observatory and political activist who was kidnapped and disappeared in September 1976 by unidentified persons believed working for the military junta then ruling Argentina . Naming citation was published 10 December 2011 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"11441_Anadiego\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 71355\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 3255 Tholen Content: 3255 Tholen , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid , Mars-crosser and relatively fast rotator , that measures approximately 6 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 2 September 1980 , by American astronomer Edward Bowell at Lowell 's Anderson Mesa Station in Flagstaff , Arizona . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.5 -- 3.2 AU once every 3 years and 8 months ( 1,335 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.36 and an inclination of 21 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first observation was made at the Argentinian El Leoncito site in 1969 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 11 years prior to its discovery . According to the space-based survey carried out by the Japanese Akari satellite and NASA 's NEOWISE mission , the asteroid measures 4.0 and 6.8 kilometers in diameter , and its surface has an albedo of 0.14 and 0.34 , respectively , while the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for stony asteroids of 0.20 and calculates a diameter of 5.1 kilometers , based on an absolute magnitude of 13.84 . Several rotational light-curves were obtained for this asteroid from photometric observations . In September 2013 , Italian astronomer Andrea Ferrero at the Bigmuskie Observatory in Mombercelli , Italy , derived a rotation period of hours with a brightness variation of 0.11 in magnitude , while two month later , in November 2013 , astronomer Brian A. Skiff obtained two light-curves that both gave a period of 2.95 and an amplitude of 0.24 and 0.28 in magnitude , respectively . The results supersede two older light-curves from 1991 and 2002 , that gave a period of and 6 hours , respectively . The minor planet was named after David J. Tholen ( b. 1955 ) , a discoverer of minor planets and planetary scientist at the Institute for Astronomy of the University of Hawaii , known for his eight-color taxonomic scheme on minor planets . Naming citation was published on 14 April 1987 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"3255_Tholen\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 71340\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Xanadu (Titan) Content: Xanadu ( often called `` Xanadu Region '' , though this is not its official name ) is a highly reflective area on the leading hemisphere of Saturn 's moon Titan . Its name comes from an alternate transcription of Shangdu , the summer capital of the Yuan dynasty established by Kublai Khan and made famous by Samuel Taylor Coleridge . The feature was first identified in 1994 by astronomers using the Hubble Space Telescope at infrared wavelengths , and has recently been imaged in more detail by the Cassini space probe . Xanadu is about the size of Australia . Preliminary observations indicate that Xanadu is a plateau-like region of highly reflective water ice , contrasting somewhat with the darker lower regions . These in turn seem to contrast quite sharply with the very dark maria , which were once believed to be seas of liquid hydrocarbons , but are now thought to be plains . Recent images by Cassini during encounters in October and December 2004 reveal complex albedo patterns in the western portion of Xanadu . While scientists are still debating the significance and cause of the albedo patterns , one likely culprit is tectonism . Evidence for this exists in a pattern of criss-crossing dark lineaments near the western side of Xanadu . Scientists are also investigating the boundary between Xanadu and Shangri-La , a dark region to the west . The shape of the boundary suggests that the dark material embays the bright terrain . Radar images taken by Cassini have revealed dunes , hills , rivers and valleys present on Xanadu . The features are likely carved in water ice by liquid methane or ethane . Water ice behaves similarly to rock at the pressures and temperatures present on Titan 's surface .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Xanadu_(Titan)\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 71333\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Phlegra Montes Content: The Phlegra Montes are a system of mountains in the Cebrenia quadrangle of Mars , located at 40.4 degrees north latitude and 163.71 degrees east longitude . They are 1,350 km across and were named after a classical albedo feature name . They form a complex system of isolated hills , ridges and small basins , and it was suggested they have endogenic tectonic origin .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Phlegra_Montes\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 71281\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Olympica Fossae Content: The Olympica Fossae are set of troughs in the Tharsis quadrangle of Mars at 25 ° north latitude and 114.1 ° west longitude . They are about 420 km long and were named after an albedo feature at 17N , 134W . Parts of the fossae have been suggested to be both outflow channels as well as channels for flowing lava , routing both molten rock and catastrophic outburst floods of water at different times in Mars ' geological past .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Olympica_Fossae\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 71255\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 28P/Neujmin Content: 28P/Neujmin , also known as Neujmin 1 , is a large periodic comet in the Solar System . With a perihelion distance ( closest approach to the Sun ) of 1.5 AU , this comet does not make close approaches to the Earth . The comet nucleus is estimated to be 21.4 kilometers in diameter with a low albedo of 0.025 . Since 28P has such a large nucleus , it will become brighter than the 20th magnitude in early 2019 , roughly 2 years before coming to perihelion . When it comes to opposition in May 2020 , when it is still 3.5 AU from the Sun , it will likely have an apparent magnitude around 16.9 . But during the 2021 perihelion passage the comet will be on the opposite side of the Sun as the Earth . The comet is not known for bright outbursts of activity .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"28P/Neujmin\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 71246\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Dilmun (Titan) Content: Dilmun is a region of high albedo on Titan , Saturn 's natural satellite .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Dilmun_(Titan)\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 71048\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Elysium Fossae Content: The Elysium Fossae are a group of large troughs in the Elysium quadrangle of Mars at 24.8 ° north latitude and 213.7 ° west longitude . They are about 1,175 km long and are named after a classical albedo feature name .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Elysium_Fossae\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 70982\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Arsia Chasmata Content: Arsia Chasmata is a steep-sided depression in the Phoenicis Lacus quadrangle on Mars , located at 7.6 ° S and 119.3 ° W . It is 81 km long and was named after an albedo name .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Arsia_Chasmata\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 70943\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: HD 75289 b Content: HD 75289 b is an extrasolar planet orbiting the star HD 75289 in Vela constellation . It has a minimum mass half that of Jupiter , and it orbits in a very short orbit completing one circular revolution around the star in three and a half days . By studying the starlight scientists have concluded that the planet must have an albedo less than 0.12 , rather low for a gas giant . Otherwise its reflected light would have been detected . This planet was discovered by the Geneva Extrasolar Planet Search team using Doppler spectroscopy .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"HD_75289_b\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 70939\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 3181 Ahnert Content: 3181 Ahnert , provisional designation , is a stony Flora asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , about 8 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by German astronomer Freimut Börngen at the Karl Schwarzschild Observatory in Tautenburg , eastern Germany , on 8 March 1964 . The S-type asteroid is a member of the Flora family , one of the largest groups of stony asteroids in the main-belt . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.1 -- 2.4 AU once every 3 years and 4 months ( 1,215 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.07 and an inclination of 4 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was obtained at Lowell Observatory in 1931 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 33 years prior to its discovery . According to the surveys carried out by NASA 's space-based Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid measures between 8.0 and 8.6 kilometers and its surface has an albedo between 0.19 and 0.26 . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an intermediate albedo of 0.24 -- derived from 8 Flora , the largest member and namesake of this orbital family -- and calculates a diameter of 8.2 kilometers . As of 2016 , the asteroid 's rotation period and shape still remain unknown . The minor planet was named after German astronomer Paul Ahnert ( 1897 -- 1989 ) , author of the annual calendar of astronomical events ( Kalender für Sternfreunde ) and a renowned astronomer among professionals and amateurs . His fields of research included the physics of the Solar System and periods of variable stars at the Sonneberg Observatory . ( The minor planet 1039 Sonneberga is named after this observatory . ) Publisher of several books on performing astronomical observations , he also popularized the subject of astronomy to the general public . Naming citation was published on 2 July 1985 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"3181_Ahnert\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 70924\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 6522 Aci Content: 6522 Aci , provisional designation , is a stony Phocaea asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , about 6 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by American astronomer Eleanor Helin at the U.S. Palomar Observatory in California , on 9 July 1991 . The S-type asteroid is a member of the Phocaea family , a relatively small group of asteroids with similar orbital characteristics . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.9 -- 2.9 AU once every 3 years and 8 months ( 1,345 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.20 and an inclination of 22 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at the German Karl Schwarzschild Observatory in 1990 , one year prior to its discovery . A photometric light-curve analysis performed at the U.S. Palomar Transient Factory in 2010 , rendered a rotation period of hours with a brightness amplitude of 0.68 in magnitude . According to the NEOWISE mission of NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , the asteroid measures 6.1 kilometers in diameter and its surface has a high albedo of 0.39 , while the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.23 -- which derives from 25 Phocaea , namesake and largest member of this orbital family -- and calculates a diameter of 5.7 kilometers . The minor planet was named for the river southeast of Mount Etna in Sicily , Italy . The towns and villages along the river , such as Aci Castello , Aci Trezza , Aci-Reale , and Aci Sant ` Antonio , were also honored . The river also brings to mind the myth of Aci from Greek mythology , which is about a young Sicilian shepherd , who was killed by the jealous cyclops Polyphemus , because of his love for the sea nymph Galatea . The minor planet 74 Galatea is named after this Nereid . Naming citation was published on 26 October 1996 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"6522_Aci\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 70890\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: HD 73256 b Content: HD 73256 b is an 1.87 MJ hot Jupiter orbiting at 0.037 AU taking 2.55 days to orbit around HD 73256 . Assuming the planet is perfectly grey with no greenhouse or tidal effects , and a Bond albedo of 0.1 , the temperature would be about 1300 K . This is close to 51 Pegasi b ; between the predicted temperatures of HD 189733 b and HD 209458 b ( 1180-1392K ) , before they were measured . It is a candidate for `` near-infrared characterisation with the VLTI Spectro-Imager '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"HD_73256_b\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 70875\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Alpenglow Content: Alpenglow ( from German : Alpenglühen ) is an optical phenomenon in which a horizontal red glowing band is observed on the horizon opposite to the sun . This effect occurs when the Sun is just below the horizon . Alpenglow is easiest to observe when mountains are illuminated but can also be observed when the sky is illuminated through backscattering . Since the Sun is below the horizon , there is no direct path for the light to reach the mountain . Unlike sunset or sunrise , the light that causes alpenglow is reflected off airborne snow , water , or ice particles low in the atmosphere . These conditions differentiate between a normal sunrise or sunset and alpenglow . The term is generally confused to be any sunrise or sunset light seen on the mountains , but true alpenglow is not direct sunlight , and is only observed after sunset or before sunrise . In the absence of mountains , the aerosols in the eastern portion of the sky can be illuminated in the same way at sunset by the remaining red scattered light straddling the border of the Earth 's own shadow ( the terminator ) . This back-scattered light produces a red band opposite the Sun .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Alpenglow\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 70866\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Glushko (crater) Content: Glushko is a young impact crater on the Moon attached to the western rim of the crater Olbers . Glushko possesses a relatively high albedo and is the focus of a prominent ray system that extends in all directions across the nearby surface . It has sharp , well-defined features that , combined with its higher albedo , are indicative of a relatively young impact crater . There is a small outer rampart , and material along the inner walls has slumped to form shelves and ramparts . There are three outward bulges in the rim to the north and northwest . Due to its prominent rays , Glushko is mapped as part of the Copernican System . This crater was previously designated Olbers A before being renamed by the IAU .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Glushko_(crater)\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 70866\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Lunar swirls Content: Lunar swirls are enigmatic features found across the Moon 's surface , which are characterized by having a high albedo , appearing optically immature ( i.e. having the optical characteristics of a relatively young regolith ) , and ( often ) having a sinuous shape . Their curvilinear shape is often accentuated by low albedo regions that wind between the bright swirls . They appear to overlay the lunar surface , superposed on top of craters and ejecta deposits , but impart no observable topography . Swirls have been identified on the lunar maria and highlands - they are not associated with a specific lithologic composition . Swirls on the maria are characterized by strong albedo contrasts and complex , sinuous morphology , whereas those on highland terrain appear less prominent and exhibit simpler shapes , such as single loops or diffuse bright spots .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Lunar_swirls\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 70811\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 78816 Caripito Content: 78816 Caripito , provisional designation , is an asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt , approximately 5 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 4 August 2003 , by American amateur astronomer and professor of geophysics , Joseph Dellinger , at the U.S. Needville Observatory , Texas . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.4 -- 3.8 AU once every 5 years and 7 months ( 2,033 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.23 and an inclination of 6 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first precovery was taken at Palomar 's Digitized Sky Survey in 1953 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 50 years prior to its discovery . As of 2016 , the Caripitos composition and albedo , as well as its rotation period and shape remain unknown . According to the survey carried out by NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid measures 5.3 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.052 . This low albedo is typical for asteroids in the outer main-belt , which are mostly of a carbonaceous rather than of a silicaceous composition . Based on an absolute magnitude of 15.4 , and assuming an albedo of 0.05 , the asteroid 's generic diameter measures between 2 and 5 kilometers . This minor planet is named for the Venezuelan town of Caripito in the northeastern Monagas State . It was the place where the parents of the discoverer , Thomas Baynes Dellinger ( b. 1926 ) and María de la Garza Cantú ( b. 1928 ) , met in 1949 . At the time , the town was a base camp for the country 's rich Quiriquire oil field . Naming citation was published on 18 September 2005 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"78816_Caripito\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 70809\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 341 California Content: 341 California is an asteroid belonging to the Flora family in the Main Belt , that has an unusually high albedo . It was discovered by Max Wolf on 25 September 1892 in Heidelberg .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"341_California\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 70778\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Arbedo-Castione Content: Arbedo-Castione is a municipality in the district of Bellinzona in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland .\",\n \"qid\": \"2768\",\n \"docid\": \"Arbedo-Castione\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 70701\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":1365,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"Tree-ring proxy reconstructions are reliable before 1960, tracking closely with the instrumental record and other independent proxies."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Proxy (climate) Content: In the study of past climates ( `` paleoclimatology '' ) , climate proxies are preserved physical characteristics of the past that stand in for direct meteorological measurements and enable scientists to reconstruct the climatic conditions over a longer fraction of the Earth 's history . Reliable global records of climate only began in the 1880s , and proxies provide the only means for scientists to determine climatic patterns before record-keeping began . Examples of proxies include ice cores , tree rings , sub-fossil pollen , boreholes , corals , lake and ocean sediments , and carbonate speleothems . The character of deposition or rate of growth of the proxies ' material has been influenced by the climatic conditions of the time in which they were laid down or grew . Chemical traces produced by climatic changes , such as quantities of particular isotopes , can be recovered from proxies . Some proxies , such as gas bubbles trapped in ice , enable traces of the ancient atmosphere to be recovered and measured directly to provide a history of fluctuations in the composition of the Earth 's atmosphere . To produce the most precise results , systematic cross-verification between proxy indicators is necessary for accuracy in readings and record-keeping . Proxies can be combined to produce temperature reconstructions longer than the instrumental temperature record and can inform discussions of global warming . The distribution of proxy records , just like the instrumental record , is not at all uniform , with more records in the northern hemisphere .","qid":"2773","docid":"Proxy_(climate)","rank":1,"score":198786},{"content":"Title: List of large-scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years Content: This list of large scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years includes climate reconstructions which have contributed significantly to the modern consensus on the temperature record of the past 2000 years . The instrumental temperature record only covers the last 150 years at a hemispheric or global scale , and reconstructions of earlier periods are based on climate proxies . In an early attempt to show that climate had changed , Hubert Lamb 's 1965 paper generalised from temperature records of central England together with historical , botanical and archeological evidence to produce a qualitative estimate of temperatures in the north Atlantic region . Subsequent quantitative reconstructions used statistical techniques with various climate proxies to produce larger scale reconstructions . Tree ring proxies can give an annual resolution of extratropical regions of the northern hemisphere , and can be statistically combined with other sparser proxies to produce multiproxy hemispherical or global reconstructions . Quantitative reconstructions have consistently shown earlier temperatures below the temperature levels reached in the late 20th century . This pattern as seen in was dubbed the hockey stick graph , and as of 2010 this broad conclusion was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears .","qid":"2773","docid":"List_of_large-scale_temperature_reconstructions_of_the_last_2,000_years","rank":2,"score":176595},{"content":"Title: Hockey stick graph Content: Hockey stick graphs present the global or hemispherical mean temperature record of the past 500 to 2000 years as shown by quantitative climate reconstructions based on climate proxy records . These reconstructions have consistently shown a slow long term cooling trend changing into relatively rapid warming in the 20th century , with the instrumental temperature record by 2000 exceeding earlier temperatures . The term `` hockey stick graph '' was coined by the climatologist Jerry Mahlman , to describe the pattern shown by the ( MBH99 ) reconstruction , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat with a downward trend to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' followed by a sharp , steady increase corresponding to the `` blade '' portion . The reconstructions have featured in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports as evidence of global warming . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . Paleoclimatology dates back to the 19th century , and the concept of examining varves in lake beds and tree rings to track local climatic changes was suggested in the 1930s . In the 1960s , Hubert Lamb generalised from historical documents and temperature records of central England to propose a Medieval Warm Period from around 900 to 1300 , followed by Little Ice Age . This was the basis of a `` schematic diagram '' featured in the IPCC First Assessment Report of 1990 beside cautions that the medieval warming might not have been global . The use of indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed , and by the late 1990s a number of competing teams of climatologists found indications that recent warming was exceptional . introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large scale reconstructions . Their study was featured in the IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . In 1998 Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 with shading emphasising that uncertainties ( to two standard error limits ) were much greater in earlier centuries . independently produced a CPS reconstruction extending back for a thousand years , and ( MBH99 ) used the MBH98 methodology to extend their study back to 1000 . A version of the MBH99 graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , which also drew on Jones et al. 1998 and three other reconstructions to support the conclusion that , in the Northern Hemisphere , the 1990s was likely to have been the warmest decade and 1998 the warmest year during the past 1,000 years . The graph became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th century warmth was exceptional . In 2003 , as lobbying over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol intensified , a paper claiming greater medieval warmth was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy . Later in 2003 , Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick published disputing the data used in MBH98 paper . In 2004 Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal components analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . Their analysis was subsequently disputed by published papers including and which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . Political disputes led to the formation of a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council , their North Report in 2006 supported Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , support the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Further reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .","qid":"2773","docid":"Hockey_stick_graph","rank":3,"score":158856},{"content":"Title: Dendroclimatology Content: Dendroclimatology is the science of determining past climates from trees ( primarily properties of the annual tree rings ) . Tree rings are wider when conditions favor growth , narrower when times are difficult . Other properties of the annual rings , such as maximum latewood density ( MXD ) have been shown to be better proxies than simple ring width . Using tree rings , scientists have estimated many local climates for hundreds to thousands of years previous . By combining multiple tree-ring studies ( sometimes with other climate proxy records ) , scientists have estimated past regional and global climates .","qid":"2773","docid":"Dendroclimatology","rank":4,"score":150379},{"content":"Title: Temperature record of the past 1000 years Content: For information on the description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in various IPCC reports see MWP and LIA in IPCC reportsThe temperature record of the past 1,000 years is reconstructed using data from climate proxy records in conjunction with the modern instrumental temperature record which only covers the last 150 years at a global scale . Large-scale reconstructions covering part or all of the 1st millennium and 2nd millennium have shown that recent temperatures are exceptional : the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report of 2007 concluded that `` Average Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the second half of the 20th century were very likely higher than during any other 50-year period in the last 500 years and likely '' the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . '' The curve shown in graphs of these reconstructions is widely known as the hockey stick graph because of the sharp increase in temperatures during the last century . As of 2010 this broad pattern was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th-century `` shaft '' appears . Sparseness of proxy records results in considerable uncertainty for earlier periods . Individual proxy records , such as tree ring widths and densities used in dendroclimatology , are calibrated against the instrumental record for the period of overlap . Networks of such records are used to reconstruct past temperatures for regions : tree ring proxies have been used to reconstruct Northern Hemisphere extratropical temperatures ( within the tropics trees do not form rings ) but are confined to land areas and are scarce in the Southern Hemisphere which is largely ocean . Wider coverage is provided by multiproxy reconstructions , incorporating proxies such as lake sediments , ice cores and corals which are found in different regions , and using statistical methods to relate these sparser proxies to the greater numbers of tree ring records . The `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method is widely used for large-scale multiproxy reconstructions of hemispheric or global average temperatures ; this is complemented by Climate Field Reconstruction ( CFR ) methods which show how climate patterns have developed over large spatial areas , making the reconstruction useful for investigating natural variability and long-term oscillations as well as for comparisons with patterns produced by climate models . During the 1,900 years before the 20th century , it is likely that the next warmest period was from 950 to 1100 , with peaks at different times in different regions . This has been called the Medieval Warm Period , and some evidence suggests widespread cooler conditions during a period around the 17th century known as the Little Ice Age . In the hockey stick controversy , contrarians have asserted that the Medieval Warm Period was warmer than at present , and have disputed the data and methods of climate reconstructions .","qid":"2773","docid":"Temperature_record_of_the_past_1000_years","rank":5,"score":137763},{"content":"Title: Hockey stick controversy Content: In the hockey stick controversy , the data and methods used in reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years have been disputed . Reconstructions have consistently shown that the rise in the instrumental temperature record of the past 150 years is not matched in earlier centuries , and the name `` hockey stick graph '' was coined for figures showing a long-term decline followed by an abrupt rise in temperatures . These graphs were publicised to explain the scientific findings of climatology , and in addition to scientific debate over the reconstructions , they have been the topic of political dispute . The issue is part of the global warming controversy and has been one focus of political responses to reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . The use of proxy indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed from the 1990s onwards , and found indications that recent warming was exceptional . The reconstruction introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large-scale reconstructions , and its findings were disputed by Patrick Michaels at the United States House Committee on Science . In 1998 , Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 . In ( MBH99 ) the methodology was extended back to 1000 . The term hockey stick was coined by the climatologist Jerry D. Mahlman , to describe the pattern this showed , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' , followed by a sharp increase corresponding to the `` blade '' . A version of this graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , along with four other reconstructions supporting the same conclusion . The graph was publicised , and became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th-century warmth was exceptional . Those disputing the graph included Pat Michaels , the George C. Marshall Institute and Fred Singer . A paper by Willie Soon and Sallie Baliunas claiming greater medieval warmth was used by the Bush administration chief of staff Philip Cooney to justify altering the first Environmental Protection Agency Report on the Environment . The paper was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy , but on July 28 , Republican Jim Inhofe spoke in the Senate citing it to claim `` that man-made global warming is the greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American people '' . Later in 2003 , a paper by Steve McIntyre and Ross McKitrick disputing the data used in MBH98 paper was publicised by the George C. Marshall Institute and the Competitive Enterprise Institute . In 2004 , Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 , McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal component analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . The analysis therein was subsequently disputed by published papers , including and , which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . In June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton launched what Sherwood Boehlert , chairman of the House Science Committee , called a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into the data , methods and personal information of Mann , Bradley and Hughes . At Boehlert 's request , a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council was set up , which reported in 2006 , supporting Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . Barton and U.S. Rep. Ed Whitfield requested Edward Wegman to set up a team of statisticians to investigate , and they supported McIntyre and McKitrick 's view that there were statistical failings , although they did not quantify whether there was any significant effect . They also produced an extensive network analysis which has been discredited by expert opinion and found to have issues of plagiarism . Arguments against the MBH studies were reintroduced as part of the Climatic Research Unit email controversy , but dismissed by eight independent investigations . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , have supported the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Over a dozen subsequent reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .","qid":"2773","docid":"Hockey_stick_controversy","rank":6,"score":129835},{"content":"Title: Pseudoproxy Content: A pseudoproxy is a synthetic dataset used in paleoclimatology to test methods of reconstruction of global or hemispherical climate change from temperature records , developed for reconstructing the temperature record of the past 1000 years using proxies for periods before the instrumental temperature record . In May 2002 Michael E. Mann and Scott Rutherford published a paper introducing this method of adding artificial noise to actual temperature records or to climate model simulations to produce what they called `` pseudoproxies '' . When the reconstruction algorithms were used with these pseudoproxies , the result was then compared with the original record or simulation to see how closely it had been reconstructed . They discussed the issue that regression methods of reconstruction tended to underestimate the amplitude of variation .","qid":"2773","docid":"Pseudoproxy","rank":7,"score":124403},{"content":"Title: Malcolm K. Hughes Content: Malcolm K. Hughes is a meso-climatologist and Regents ' Professor of Dendrochronology in the Laboratory for Tree-Ring Research at the University of Arizona . He was born in Matlock , Derbyshire , England , and earned a Ph.D in ecology from the University of Durham . Since 1998 , he is a fellow of the American Geophysical Union . His research is on the nature of climate variability , specifically focusing on the timescales of years to centuries . He uses natural recorded records such as tree rings . Hughes has studied geographical areas including Europe , Asia , and the Sierra Nevada . In addition to tree rings , Hughes uses ice cores , laminated sediments , and the historical temperature record to help understand past climates . In 1998 , he was a co-author with Michael E. Mann and Raymond S. Bradley on a paper which produced the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) incorporating multiple climate proxy data sets of different types and lengths into a high-resolution reconstruction of northern hemisphere temperatures . In 1999 the same team extended the method to cover 1,000 years , producing what was dubbed the hockey stick graph .","qid":"2773","docid":"Malcolm_K._Hughes","rank":8,"score":122254},{"content":"Title: Divergence problem Content: The divergence problem is an anomaly from the field of dendroclimatology , the study of past climate through observations of old trees , primarily the properties of their annual growth rings . It is the disagreement between the temperatures measured by the thermometers ( instrumental temperatures ) and the temperatures reconstructed from the latewood densities or , in some cases , widths of tree rings in the far northern forests . While the thermometer records indicate a substantial late 20th century warming trend , many tree rings from such sites do not display a corresponding change in their maximum latewood density . In some studies this issue has also been found with tree ring width . A temperature trend extracted from tree rings alone would not show any substantial warming since the 1950s . The temperature graphs calculated in these two ways thus `` diverge '' from one another , which is the origin of the term .","qid":"2773","docid":"Divergence_problem","rank":9,"score":119967},{"content":"Title: Forking proxy Content: A forking proxy , in the context of a communications system using Session Initiation Protocol ( SIP ) , is a server that attempts to find a correspondent by searching several locations . SIP proxy servers that route messages to more than one destination are called forking proxies . The forking of SIP requests means that multiple dialogs can be established from a single request . This also explains the need for the two-sided dialog identifier ; without a contribution from the recipients , the originator could not disambiguate the multiple dialogs established from a single request . SIP forking refers to the process of `` forking '' a single SIP call to multiple SIP endpoints . This is a very powerful feature of SIP . A single call can ring many endpoints at the same time . RFC 3261 - SIP Session Initiation Protocol With SIP forking you can have your desk phone ring at the same time as your softphone or a SIP phone on your mobile . For example , you would use SIP forking to ring your deskphone and your Android SIP Phone at the same time , allowing you to take the call from either device easily . No forwarding rules would be necessary as both devices would ring . In the same manner SIP forking can be used in an office and allow the secretary to answer calls to the extension of his/her boss when he is away or unable to take the call . Category : Servers ( computing )","qid":"2773","docid":"Forking_proxy","rank":10,"score":113298},{"content":"Title: Proxy server Content: In computer networks , a proxy server is a server ( a computer system or an application ) that acts as an intermediary for requests from clients seeking resources from other servers . A client connects to the proxy server , requesting some service , such as a file , connection , web page , or other resource available from a different server and the proxy server evaluates the request as a way to simplify and control its complexity . Proxies were invented to add structure and encapsulation to distributed systems . Today , most proxies are web proxies , facilitating access to content on the World Wide Web , providing anonymity and may be used to bypass IP address blocking .","qid":"2773","docid":"Proxy_server","rank":11,"score":111490},{"content":"Title: Laboratory of Tree-Ring Research Content: The Laboratory of Tree-Ring Research ( LTRR ) was established in 1937 by A.E. Douglass , founder of the modern science of dendrochronology . The LTRR is a research unit in the College of Science at the University of Arizona in Tucson . Since its founding , visiting scholars and faculty at the lab have done notable work in the areas of climate change , fire history , ecology , archeology and hydrology .","qid":"2773","docid":"Laboratory_of_Tree-Ring_Research","rank":12,"score":108344},{"content":"Title: Incremental dating Content: Incremental dating techniques allow the construction of year-by-year annual chronologies , which can be temporally fixed ( i.e. , linked to the present day and thus calendar or sidereal time ) or floating . Archaeologists use tree-ring dating ( dendrochronology ) to determine the age of old pieces of wood . Trees usually add growth rings on a yearly basis , with the spacing of rings being wider in high growth years and narrower in low growth years . Patterns in tree-ring growth can be used to establish the age of old wood samples , and also give some hints to local climatic conditions . This technique is useful to about 9,000 years ago for samples from the western United States using overlapping tree-ring series from living and dead wood . The Earth 's orbital motions ( inclination of the earth 's axis on its orbit with respect to the sun , gyroscopic precession of the earth 's axis every 26,000 years ; free precession every 440 days , precession of earth orbit and orbital variations such as perihelion precession every 19,000 and 23,000 years ) leave traces visible in the geological record . These changes provide a long-term sequence of climatic events , recorded as changes in the thickness of sediment layers ( known as `` varve analysis '' -- the term `` varve '' means a layer or layers of sediment . Typically , varve refers to lake or glacial sediment ) , as temperature induced changes in the isotopic ratios for oxygen isotopes in sediments , and in the relative abundance of fossils . Because these can be calibrated reliably over a period of 40 million years this provides an alternate verification to radiometric dating in cases where sufficient record exists to provide a reliable trace . Polarity reversals in the Earth 's magnetic field have also been used to determine geologic time . Periodically , the magnetic field of the earth reverses leaving a magnetic signal in volcanic and sedimentary rocks . This signal can be detected and sequences recorded , and in the case of volcanic rocks , tied to radiometric dates . Another technique used by archaeologists is to inspect the depth of penetration of water vapor into chipped obsidian ( volcanic glass ) artifacts . The water vapor creates a `` hydration rind '' in the obsidian , and so this approach is known as `` hydration dating '' or `` obsidian dating '' , and is useful for determining dates as far back as 200,000 years .","qid":"2773","docid":"Incremental_dating","rank":13,"score":105665},{"content":"Title: John A. Eddy Content: John Allen `` Jack '' Eddy ( March 25 , 1931 -- June 10 , 2009 ) was an American astronomer who published professionally under the name John A. Eddy but much of the content referencing him can be found under his nickname Jack which he preferred to use . In 1976 Dr. Eddy published a landmark paper in Science titled `` The Maunder Minimum '' where , using the Nineteenth Century works of Edward W. Maunder and Gustav Spörer , he identified a 70-year period from 1645 to 1715 as a time when solar activity all but stopped . In making the case for the anomaly , he gathered and interpreted data from a wide variety of sources , including first-hand accounts from extant historical observations of the Sun going back to the telescopic observations of Galileo and other contemporary scientists of the 17th and early 18th centuries ; from historical reports of the aurora borealis observed in past centuries in Europe and the New World ; from visual observations of sunspots seen with the unaided eye at sunrise and sunset in dynastic records from the Orient ; from existing descriptions of the eclipsed Sun ; and from measurements of carbon-14 in dated tree-rings . In the last of these , which can be used as a proxy indicator of solar activity , he found evidence of other similar periods of solar quiescence in the distant past , the most recent an even longer 90-year span , from about 1460 until 1550 , which he named the Spörer Minimum . Both the Maunder and Spörer minima fell during the coldest parts of the Little Ice Age , which suggested a meaningful connection between the longer term behavior of the Sun and of the Earth 's mean surface temperature . In advancing the theory that the Sun is a variable star Eddy observed : `` It has long been thought that the Sun is a constant star of regular and repeatable behavior . Measurements of the radiative output , or solar constant , seem to justify the first assumption , and the record of periodicity in sunspot numbers is taken as evidence of the second . Both records , however , sample only the most recent history of the Sun . ''","qid":"2773","docid":"John_A._Eddy","rank":14,"score":105651},{"content":"Title: Proxy list Content: A proxy list is a list of open HTTP/HTTPS/SOCKS proxy servers all on one website . Proxies allow users to make indirect network connections to other computer network services . Proxy lists include the IP addresses of computers hosting open proxy servers , meaning that these proxy servers are available to anyone on the internet . Proxy lists are often organized by the various proxy protocols the servers use . Many proxy lists index Web proxies , which can be used without changing browser settings .","qid":"2773","docid":"Proxy_list","rank":15,"score":105456},{"content":"Title: Proxy re-encryption Content: Proxy re-encryption schemes are cryptosystems which allow third parties ( proxies ) to alter a ciphertext which has been encrypted for one party , so that it may be decrypted by another .","qid":"2773","docid":"Proxy_re-encryption","rank":16,"score":103498},{"content":"Title: International Tree-Ring Data Bank Content: The International Tree-Ring Data Bank ( ITRDB ) is a data repository for tree ring measurements that has been maintained since 1990 by the United States ' National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Paleoclimatology Program and World Data Center for Paleoclimatology . The ITRDB was initially established by Hal Fritts through the Laboratory of Tree-Ring Research at the University of Arizona through a grant from the US National Science Foundation after the First International Workshop on Dendrochronology in 1974 . The ITRDB accepts all tree ring data with sufficient metadata to be uploaded , but was founded with a focus on tree ring measurements intended for climatic studies . Specific information is required for uploading data to the data base , such as the raw tree ring measurements , an indication of the type of measurement ( full ring widths , earlywood , latewood ) , and the location , but the types of data and the rules for accuracy and precision of the primary data , tree-ring width measurements , are decided by the dendrochronologists who are contributing the data rather than by the NOAA or another governing organization .","qid":"2773","docid":"International_Tree-Ring_Data_Bank","rank":17,"score":103406},{"content":"Title: Treefinder Content: Treefinder is a computer program for the likelihood-based reconstruction of phylogenetic trees from molecular sequences . It was written by Gangolf Jobb , a former researcher at the University of Munich , Germany , and was originally released in 2004 . Treefinder is free of charge , though the most recent license prohibits its use in many major western countries . A platform-independent graphical environment integrates a standard suite of analyses : phylogeny reconstruction , bootstrap analysis , model selection , hypothesis testing , tree calibration , manipulation of trees and sequence data . Treefinder is scriptable through a proprietary scripting language called TL . Treefinder has an efficient tree search algorithm that can infer trees with thousands of species within a short time . Result trees are displayed and can then be saved as a reconstruction report , which may serve as an input for further analysis , for example hypothesis testing . The report contains all information about the tree and the models used . Treefinder also supports exporting results as NEWICK or NEXUS files . The software supports a broad collection of models of sequence evolution . The June 2008 release implements 7 models of nucleotide substitution ( HKY , TN , J1 , J2 , J3 ( = TIM ) , TVM , GTR ) , 14 empirical models of amino acid substitution ( BLOSUM , cpREV , Dayhoff , JTT , LG , mtArt , mtMam , mtREV , PMB , rtREV , betHIV , witHIV , VT , WAG ) , 4 substitution models of structured rRNA ( bactRNA , eukRNA , euk23RNA , mitoRNA ) , the 6-state `` Dayhoff Groups '' protein model ( DG ) , 2-state and 3-state models of DNA ( GTR3 , GTR2 ) , a parametric mixed model ( MIX ) mixing the empirical models of proteins or rRNA , and also a user-definable GTR-type model ( MAP ) mapping characters to states as needed . Three models of among-site rate heterogeneity are available ( Gamma , Gamma + I , I ) , which can be combined with any of the substitution models . One can assume different models for different partitions of a sequence alignment , and partitions may be assumed to evolve at different speeds . All parameters of the models can be estimated from the data by maximization of likelihood . Certain TL expressions , the `` model expressions '' , allow the concise notation of complex models , together with their parameters and optimization modes . Treefinder 's original publication from 2004 has been cited several hundred times in the scientific literature .","qid":"2773","docid":"Treefinder","rank":18,"score":102975},{"content":"Title: Flash proxy Content: Flash proxy is a pluggable transport and proxy which runs in a web browser . Flash proxies are an Internet censorship circumvention tool which enables users to connect to the Tor anonymity network ( amongst others ) via a plethora of ephemeral browser-based proxy relays . The essential idea is that the IP addresses contingently used are changed faster than a censoring agency can detect , track , and block them . The Tor traffic is wrapped in a WebSocket format and disguised with an XOR cipher .","qid":"2773","docid":"Flash_proxy","rank":19,"score":102364},{"content":"Title: Performance-enhancing proxy Content: Performance-enhancing proxies ( PEPs ) are network agents designed to improve the end-to-end performance of some communication protocols . PEP standards are defined in RFC 3135 ( PEPs intended to mitigate link-related degradations ) and RFC 3449 ( TCP performance implications of network path asymmetry ) .","qid":"2773","docid":"Performance-enhancing_proxy","rank":20,"score":99964},{"content":"Title: Paleothermometer Content: A paleothermometer is a methodology for determining past temperatures using a proxy found in a natural record such as a sediment , ice core , tree rings or TEX86 .","qid":"2773","docid":"Paleothermometer","rank":21,"score":99889},{"content":"Title: SMTP proxy Content: SMTP proxies are specialized mail transfer agents ( MTAs ) that , similar to other types of proxy servers , pass SMTP sessions through to other MTAs without using the store-and-forward approach of a typical MTA . When an SMTP proxy receives a connection , it initiates another SMTP session to a destination MTA . Any errors or status information from the destination MTA will be passed back to the sending MTA through the proxy .","qid":"2773","docid":"SMTP_proxy","rank":22,"score":99835},{"content":"Title: If These Trees Could Talk Content: If These Trees Could Talk is an instrumental post-rock band from Akron , Ohio . The band self-released their self-titled debut EP in 2006 . Independent record label The Mylene Sheath re-released the EP on vinyl in 2007 , and went on to release the band 's debut studio album , Above the Earth , Below the Sky , on vinyl also , in 2009 . The band self-released their second album Red Forest in March 2012 , whilst the album 's vinyl release went through Science of Silence Records . They went on to follow up the release of `` Red Forest '' with a self-promoted tour throughout Europe in April 2012 . The band released its third album , The Bones of a Dying World , in June , 2016 on Metal Blade Records .","qid":"2773","docid":"If_These_Trees_Could_Talk","rank":23,"score":99537},{"content":"Title: Proxy (song) Content: `` Proxy '' is a song by Dutch DJ and record producer Martin Garrix . It was released as a free download on 6 March 2014 and on 2 July 2014 on iTunes . The song has charted in the Netherlands .","qid":"2773","docid":"Proxy_(song)","rank":24,"score":98896},{"content":"Title: Proxy voting Content: Proxy voting is a form of voting whereby a member of a decision-making body may delegate his or her voting power to a representative , to enable a vote in absence . The representative may be another member of the same body , or external . A person so designated is called a `` proxy '' and the person designating him or her is called a `` principal '' . Proxy appointments can be used to form a voting bloc that can exercise greater influence in deliberations or negotiations . Proxy voting is a particularly important practice with respect to corporations ; in the United States , investment advisers often vote proxies on behalf of their client accounts . The United States parliamentary manual Riddick 's Rules of Procedure notes that , under proxy voting , voting for officers should be done by ballot , due to the difficulties involved in authentication if a member simply calls out , `` I cast 17 votes for Mr. X. '' Proxy voting is also an important feature in corporate governance through the proxy statement .","qid":"2773","docid":"Proxy_voting","rank":25,"score":97954},{"content":"Title: The Integral Trees Content: The Integral Trees is a 1984 science fiction novel by Larry Niven ( first published as a serial in Analog in 1983 ) . Like much of Niven 's work , the story is heavily influenced by the setting : a gas torus , a ring of air around a neutron star . A sequel , The Smoke Ring , was published in 1987 . It was nominated for the Nebula Award for Best Novel in 1984 , and the Hugo Award for Best Novel in 1985 .","qid":"2773","docid":"The_Integral_Trees","rank":26,"score":97845},{"content":"Title: Proxy (film) Content: Proxy is a 2013 American horror film directed by Zack Parker . The movie had its world premiere on September 10 , 2013 at the Toronto International Film Festival . It stars Alexia Rasmussen as a pregnant young woman who joins a support group after she miscarries due to a vicious attack . The filmmakers describe Proxy as a spiritual successor to the horror film Rosemary 's Baby , and its main character Esther Woodhouse is named after the earlier film 's protagonist Rosemary Woodhouse . Film rights to Proxy were picked up by IFC Midnight shortly after its premiere at the Toronto International Film Festival .","qid":"2773","docid":"Proxy_(film)","rank":27,"score":97472},{"content":"Title: Electric Pink Content: Electric Pink was the final Jade Tree Records recording for The Promise Ring , released in early 2000 featuring four new tracks . `` Strictly Television '' was recorded during the Very Emergency sessions , and sounds more like the band 's older sound , while the other three sounds continued the progression in sound the band was making . `` American Girl '' is the acoustic version of the song , which originally appeared on the Boys + Girls EP .","qid":"2773","docid":"Electric_Pink","rank":28,"score":97318},{"content":"Title: Widow by Proxy Content: Widow by Proxy is a 1919 American silent romantic comedy film produced by Famous Players-Lasky and distributed by Paramount Pictures . It is based on a 1913 Broadway play by Catherine Chisholm Cushing and starred May Irwin . Julia Crawford Ivers provided the scenario and her son James Van Trees was one of the cinematographers . It is not known whether the film currently survives .","qid":"2773","docid":"Widow_by_Proxy","rank":29,"score":96790},{"content":"Title: Walnut Tree Records Content: Walnut Tree Records established in 2007 and closed in 2012 , was a British independent record label which specialised in limited run releases from new and upcoming bands from around the United Kingdom .","qid":"2773","docid":"Walnut_Tree_Records","rank":30,"score":96756},{"content":"Title: Decca tree Content: The Decca Tree is a spaced microphone array most commonly used for orchestral recording . It was originally developed as a sort of stereo A -- B recording method adding a center fill . The technique was developed in the early 1950s and first commercially used in 1954 by Arthur Haddy , Roy Wallace , and later refined by engineer Kenneth Wilkinson , and his team at Decca Records , to provide a strong stereo image .","qid":"2773","docid":"Decca_tree","rank":31,"score":96724},{"content":"Title: Dendrochronology Content: Dendrochronology ( or tree-ring dating ) is the scientific method of dating tree rings ( also called growth rings ) to the exact year they were formed in order to analyze atmospheric conditions during different periods in history . Dendrochronology is useful for determining the timing of events and rates of change in the environment ( most prominently climate ) and also in works of art and architecture , such as old panel paintings on wood , buildings , etc. . It is also used in radiocarbon dating to calibrate radiocarbon ages . New growth in trees occurs in a layer of cells near the bark . A tree 's growth rate changes in a predictable pattern throughout the year in response to seasonal climate changes , resulting in visible growth rings . Each ring marks a complete cycle of seasons , or one year , in the tree 's life . , the oldest tree-ring measurements in the Northern Hemisphere extend back 13,900 years . Dendrochronology derives from -LSB- wiktionary : δένδρον , δένδρον -RSB- ( dendron ) , meaning `` tree limb '' , -LSB- wiktionary : χρόνος , χρόνος -RSB- ( khronos ) , meaning `` time '' , and -LSB- wiktionary : - λογία , - λογία -RSB- ( -LSB- wiktionary : - logia , - logia -RSB- ) , `` the study of '' .","qid":"2773","docid":"Dendrochronology","rank":32,"score":95442},{"content":"Title: Tree Machine Records Content: Tree Machine Records is an independent record label out of Bloomington , Indiana . It was founded in the summer of 2010 by students at Indiana University working to sign new artists and expand Tree Machine 's outreach . It follows no specific genre and has connected with artists across the globe . Notable artists include Living Hour , ! mindparade , co-manager Eazy , Blimp Rock , Jon Dice , Vows , and Living Body . The first production under the label , was co-signed to Gulcher Records and has since received instant recognition in the underground , indie rock world , helping with the founding and early progression of the label . The label is now co-managed across the Atlantic in both Johannesburg , South Africa and Bloomington , Indiana in the U.S. . The genre focus is mostly eclectic with a balance between diverse indie rock and experimental electronic music .","qid":"2773","docid":"Tree_Machine_Records","rank":33,"score":94248},{"content":"Title: Proxy (novel) Content: Proxy is a 2013 sci-fi , dystopian young adult novel by Alex London . The novel , which was released on June 18 , 2013 , features a gay adolescent as its action-hero protagonist . A sequel to the novel has been released in 2014 , Guardian . The novel utilizes a third-person , subjective narration structure that alternates between Knox Brindle and Sydney Carton . London states that he drew inspiration for Proxy from the 1987 book The Whipping Boy , `` where the rich pay for the poor to take their punishments . ''","qid":"2773","docid":"Proxy_(novel)","rank":34,"score":93712},{"content":"Title: Family Tree Records Content: Family Tree is a South African independent record label started in 2014 by Cassper Nyovest , who currently operates as its CEO . The label 's A&R is handled by Sebastian `` Bash Vision '' Jameson & Jude Oratile Mmolawa .","qid":"2773","docid":"Family_Tree_Records","rank":35,"score":93601},{"content":"Title: Wesley Ferguson Content: Wesley Ferguson ( 1922 -- March 24 , 1986 ) was an American academic at the Tree-Ring Research Laboratory at the University of Arizona at Tucson who studied tree-rings . He built a tree-ring sequence from bristlecone pines which was used by Hans Suess to create a calibration curve for radiocarbon dating .","qid":"2773","docid":"Wesley_Ferguson","rank":36,"score":92900},{"content":"Title: YAD06 Content: YAD06 is a tree located in the Yamal Peninsula of Siberia . A core sample from this tree , YADO61 , provided data used to support hockey stick interpretation of global climate history . The data was originally published in 1995 a paper by Keith Briffa of the Climate Research Unit at the University of East Anglia . The paper asserted that the late Middle Ages , previously described as a `` Medieval Warm Period , '' was actually quite cold . Steve McIntyre has described this tree as possibly `` the most influential tree in the world '' , and publicly accused Briffa of cherry-picking certain tree ring records in order to get a specific result , creating what Michael E. Mann described as a `` manufactured scandal . ''","qid":"2773","docid":"YAD06","rank":37,"score":92035},{"content":"Title: Dendroarchaeology Content: Dendroarchaeology is a term used for the study of vegetation remains , old buildings , artifacts , furniture , art and musical instruments using the techniques of dendrochronology ( tree-ring dating ) . It refers to dendrochronological research of wood from the past regardless of its current physical context ( in or above the soil ) . This form of dating is the most accurate and precise absolute dating method available to archaeologists , as the last ring that grew is the first year the tree could have been incorporated into an archaeological structure . Tree-ring dating is useful in that it can contribute to `` chronometric '' , `` environmental '' , and `` behavioral '' archaeological research . The utility of tree-ring dating in an environmental sense is the most applicable of the three in today 's world . Tree rings can be used to `` reconstruct numerous environmental variables '' such as `` temperature '' , `` precipitation '' , `` stream flow '' , `` drought society '' , `` fire frequency and intensity '' , `` insect infestation '' , `` atmospheric circulation patterns '' , among others .","qid":"2773","docid":"Dendroarchaeology","rank":38,"score":90839},{"content":"Title: T-REX (webserver) Content: T-REX ( website ) ( Tree and Reticulogram Reconstruction ) is a freely available webserver , developed at the department of Computer Science of the Université du Québec à Montréal , dedicated to the inference , validation and visualization of phylogenetic trees and phylogenetic networks . The T-REX web server allows the users to perform several popular methods of phylogenetic analysis as well as some new phylogenetic applications for inferring , drawing and validating phylogenetic trees and networks .","qid":"2773","docid":"T-REX_(webserver)","rank":39,"score":90774},{"content":"Title: Reconstruction (Hugh Masekela album) Content: Reconstruction is the twelfth studio album by South African jazz trumpeter Hugh Masekela released via Chisa Records label in July 1970 . The album was re-released on CD in 1994 via MoJazz label .","qid":"2773","docid":"Reconstruction_(Hugh_Masekela_album)","rank":40,"score":90710},{"content":"Title: Beta-lactam Ring Records Content: Beta-lactam Ring Records is an American independent record label founded by Chris McBeth in 2000 . The label relocated from its founding city of Austin , Texas to Portland , Oregon in 2001 . The aesthetic focus of the label is psychedelic and experimental music with a global roster of artists representing these genres including Legendary Pink Dots ( including solo work by members of the band such as Edward Ka-spel ) , Nurse With Wound , Current 93 , Green Milk from the Planet Orange , LSD March , Volcano The Bear , Daniel Menche , Eyeless in Gaza , and Vas Deferens Organization . The label specializes in elaborately packaged releases including vinyl albums on 180 to 220 gram high quality vinyl , and cds with highly artistic sleeves and box sets . There have been few if any BLR Records releases in traditional plastic cd jewelcases .","qid":"2773","docid":"Beta-lactam_Ring_Records","rank":41,"score":90414},{"content":"Title: Proxomitron Content: Proxomitron , the Universal Web Filter , is a filtering web proxy written by Scott R. Lemmon . This program was originally designed to run under Windows 95 . All future development of the program was ceased in 2003 just one year before its author 's death on 1 May 2004 ; even so , Proxomitron is still viable and used on modern Windows platforms such as Vista and Windows 7 .","qid":"2773","docid":"Proxomitron","rank":42,"score":89198},{"content":"Title: Proxyon Content: Proxyon is a Dutch synthpop project founded by Michiel van der Kuy ( who also worked in similar synthdance projects as Laserdance , Koto , Rygar and Area 51 ) .","qid":"2773","docid":"Proxyon","rank":43,"score":88907},{"content":"Title: Louisiana gubernatorial election, 1979 Content: The Louisiana gubernatorial election of 1979 resulted in the election of David Treen as the first Republican governor of Louisiana since Reconstruction .","qid":"2773","docid":"Louisiana_gubernatorial_election,_1979","rank":44,"score":88611},{"content":"Title: The Hudsucker Proxy Content: The Hudsucker Proxy is a 1994 comedy film co-written , produced , and directed by Joel and Ethan Coen . Sam Raimi co-wrote the script and served as second unit director . The film stars Tim Robbins as a naïve business-school graduate who is installed as president of a manufacturing company , Jennifer Jason Leigh as a newspaper reporter , and Paul Newman as a company director who hires the young man as part of a stock scam . The script was finished in 1985 , but production did not start until 1991 , when Joel Silver acquired the script for Silver Pictures . Warner Bros. subsequently agreed to distribute the film , with further financing from PolyGram Filmed Entertainment and Working Title Films . Filming at Carolco Studios in Wilmington , North Carolina lasted from November 1992 to March 1993 . The New York City scale model set was designed by Micheal J. McAlister and Mark Stetson , with further effects provided by The Computer Film Company . Upon its release in March 1994 , The Hudsucker Proxy received mixed reviews from critics .","qid":"2773","docid":"The_Hudsucker_Proxy","rank":45,"score":88399},{"content":"Title: Strictly Instrumental (album) Content: Recorded over the span of more than 18 months , Strictly Instrumental was the ninth rock and roll album by Bill Haley & His Comets , and their final album of new material for Decca Records ( although Decca would release previously unissued recordings during the 1960s ) . Produced by Milt Gabler ( the last full album he would produce for Haley ) , the album collects instrumental recordings made by Haley and the Comets between June 1958 and their final Decca recording sessions in September 1959 . ( The band subsequently began recording for Warner Bros. . Records in January 1960 . ) As the title of the album suggests , all of the songs on this album were instrumentals , with the exception of some ensemble singing on the track `` Chiquita Linda '' . Bill Haley 's involvement in the recordings was a matter of conjecture until research for the Bear Family Records box set The Decca Years and More in the early 1990s confirmed his presence . Recording session information compiled by music historian Chris Gardner reveals that three different bass guitar players are heard on the varying tracks : Al Rex , Al Pompilli and Al Rappa . The album contains the Franny Beecher and Billy Williamson composition `` The Catwalk '' , `` Shaky '' , also composed by Franny Beecher and Billy Williamson , and `` Two Shadows '' , composed by pianist Johnny Grande and Billy Williamson . The album contained two chart hits : `` Joey 's Song '' , which made the charts in 1959 , reaching no. 35 on Cashbox , no. 46 on Billboard , no. 26 on the Canadian charts , and which was no. 1 for 8 weeks on the Australian charts ( December 12 , 1959-January 30 , 1960 ) based on the Kent Music Report , and `` Skokiaan '' , which became one of the band 's last new Decca North American charting recordings when it was released as a single in 1960 . The Warner Brothers release `` Tamiami '' would reach no. 79 on Cashbox on March 12 , 1960 . `` Joey 's Song '' was no. 2 on the year-end Top 25 Singles of 1959 list in Australia based on the Kent Music Report . `` Shaky '' , written by Franny Beecher and Billy Williamson , was also released as a single from the album by Decca in 1959 . This album also featured Haley 's last recordings to be produced by Milt Gabler , with the exception of a single ( `` The Green Door '' / `` Yeah , She 's Evil ! '' ) recorded for Decca in 1964 .","qid":"2773","docid":"Strictly_Instrumental_(album)","rank":46,"score":88081},{"content":"Title: Alan Mitchell Content: Alan F. Mitchell ( 4 November 1922 -- 3 August 1995 ) was a British forester , dendrologist and botanist , and author of several books on trees . He almost single-handedly measured every notable tree in the British Isles , founding the Tree Register of the British Isles ( T.R.O.B.I. ) , which held records of over 100,000 individual notable trees at the time of his death . During the Second World War , he served with the Fleet Air Arm in the Far East . Returning by troop ship in the Red Sea at the end of the war , he pondered his future and decided it would be trees . In 1976 , the Royal Forestry Society of England , Wales , and Northern Ireland awarded him its Medal for Distinguished Service to Forestry ( Gold Medal ) during a Society meeting at Westonbirt . ( From a tribute by Esmond Harris , Quarterly Journal of Forestry , January 1996 , page 67 ) . His 1987 book The Guide to Trees of Canada and North America is dedicated to his sister Christine . The book makes occasional oblique reference to a trip to North America in 1976 . Mitchell 's Rule states : `` If there are tree stumps or felled trunks nearby , count the annual growth rings and measure the trunk circumference to find local growth rates '' .","qid":"2773","docid":"Alan_Mitchell","rank":47,"score":88044},{"content":"Title: Gordon Manley Content: Gordon Valentine Manley , FRGS ( 3 January 1902 -- 29 January 1980 ) was an English climatologist who has been described as `` probably the best known , most prolific and most expert on the climate of Britain of his generation '' . He assembled the Central England temperature ( CET ) series of monthly mean temperatures stretching back to 1659 , which is the longest standardised instrumental record available for anywhere in the world . It provides a benchmark for proxy records of climatic change for the period covered , and is a notable example of scientific scholarship and perseverance ( it took over thirty years to complete ) . His two papers describing the work are available online .","qid":"2773","docid":"Gordon_Manley","rank":48,"score":88014},{"content":"Title: TLS termination proxy Content: A TLS termination proxy ( or SSL termination proxy ) is a proxy server that is used by an institution to handle incoming TLS connections , decrypting the TLS and passing on the unencrypted request to the institution 's other servers ( it is assumed that the institution 's own network is secure so the user 's session data does not need to be encrypted on that part of the link ) . TLS termination proxies are used to reduce the load on the main servers by offloading the cryptographic processing to another machine , and to support servers that do not support TLS , like Varnish .","qid":"2773","docid":"TLS_termination_proxy","rank":49,"score":87501},{"content":"Title: Delerium Records Content: Delerium Records was a British independent record label , that specialised in psychedelic music and which existed from 1991 to 2003 , and was notable in promoting the careers of bands including Porcupine Tree , Ozric Tentacles , Kava Kava , Mandragora , Sons of Selina and Moom and for starting the Freak Emporium and Molten Records .","qid":"2773","docid":"Delerium_Records","rank":50,"score":87353},{"content":"Title: Proxy Networks, Inc. Content: Proxy Networks , Inc. is a provider of Remote Desktop Software and remote collaboration software designed for help desk technicians , network administrators , and IT managers . Proxy Networks software has been used by US government agencies , multinational corporations , and is distributed worldwide by vendors ; the company 's remote access , remote control , and remote management tools are especially geared towards SMBs and enterprises in the legal , healthcare , education , government , financial services , and professional services sectors . Proxy Networks produces the PROXY Pro software series , which consists of four editions . The company was formed in 2006 by a venture capital-backed acquisition from Juniper Networks . Headquartered in Boston , Massachusetts , Proxy Networks is led by CEO Andy Kim .","qid":"2773","docid":"Proxy_Networks,_Inc.","rank":51,"score":86952},{"content":"Title: List of oldest trees Content: This is a list of the oldest known trees , as reported in reliable sources . Definitions of what constitutes an individual tree vary . In addition , tree ages are derived from a variety of sources , including documented `` tree-ring '' count core samples , and from estimates . For these reasons , this article presents three lists of `` oldest trees , '' each using varying criteria . There are three tables of trees , which are listed by age and species . The first table includes trees for which a minimum age has been directly determined , either through counting or cross-referencing tree rings or through radiocarbon dating . Many of these trees may be even older than their listed ages , but the oldest wood in the tree has rotted away . For some old trees , so much of the centre is missing that their age can not be directly determined . Instead , estimates are made based on the tree 's size and presumed growth rate . The second table includes trees with these estimated ages . The last table lists clonal colonies in which no individual tree trunks may be remarkably old but in which the organism as a whole is thought to be very old . The current record-holders for individual , non-clonal trees are the Great Basin bristlecone pine trees from California and Nevada , in the United States . Through tree-ring cross-referencing , they have been shown to be more than five millennia old . A clonal colony can survive for much longer than an individual tree . A colony of 47,000 quaking aspen trees ( nicknamed `` Pando '' ) , covering 106 acre in the Fishlake National Forest of Utah , is considered one of the oldest and largest organisms in the world . The colony has been estimated to be 80,000 years old , although tree ring samples date individual , above-ground , trees at only an average of about 130 years . A colony of Huon pine trees covering 2.5 acre on Mount Read , Tasmania is estimated to be around 10,000 years old , as determined by DNA samples taken from pollen collected from the sediment of a nearby lake . Individual trees in this group date to no more than 4,000 years old , as determined by tree ring samples .","qid":"2773","docid":"List_of_oldest_trees","rank":52,"score":86920},{"content":"Title: Instrumental temperature record Content: The instrumental temperature record provides the temperature of Earth 's climate system from the historical network of in situ measurements of surface air temperatures and ocean surface temperatures . Data are collected at thousands of meteorological stations , buoys and ships around the globe . The longest-running temperature record is the Central England temperature data series , that starts in 1659 . The longest-running quasi-global record starts in 1850 . In recent decades more extensive sampling of ocean temperatures at various depths have begun allowing estimates of ocean heat content but these do not form part of the global surface temperature datasets .","qid":"2773","docid":"Instrumental_temperature_record","rank":53,"score":86232},{"content":"Title: CoDeeN Content: CoDeeN is a proxy server system created at Princeton University in 2003 and deployed for general use on PlanetLab . It operates as per the following : Users set their internet caches to a nearby high bandwidth proxy that participates in the system . Requests to that proxy are then forwarded to an appropriate member of the system that is in charge of the file ( should be caching it ) and that has sent recent updates showing that it is still alive . The file is forwarded to the proxy and thence to the client . What this means for normal users is that if you use this and a server is slow , however the content is cached on the system , then ( after the first upload ) requests to that file will be fast . It also means that the request will not be satisfied by the original server , equivalent to free bandwidth . For rare files this system could be slightly slower than downloading the file itself . Especially for non-cacheable content , you may as well go to the origin host . The system 's speed is also subject to the constraint of number of participating proxies . For the case of large files requested by many peers , it uses a kind of ` multi-cast stream ' from one peer to the others , which then distribute out to their respective proxies . CoBlitz , a CDN technology firm ( 2006 -- 2009 ) , was a take-off of this , in that files are not saved in the web cache of a single member of the proxy-system , but are instead saved piece-wise across several members , and ` gathered up ' when they are requested . This allows for more sharing of disk space among proxies , and for higher fault tolerance . To access this system , URLs were prefixed with http://coblitz.codeen.org/ . Verivue Inc. acquired CoBlitz in October 2010 .","qid":"2773","docid":"CoDeeN","rank":54,"score":86046},{"content":"Title: 774–775 carbon-14 spike Content: The 774 -- 775 Carbon-14 Spike is an observed increase of 1.2 % in the concentration of carbon-14 isotope in tree rings dated to the years 774 or 775 AD , which is about 20 times as high as the normal background rate of variation . It was discovered during a study of Japanese cedar trees , with the year of occurrence determined through dendrochronology . A surge in beryllium isotope 10Be , detected in Antarctic ice cores , has also been associated with the 774 -- 775 event . The event appears to have been global , with the same carbon-14 signal found in tree rings from Germany , Russia , the United States , and New Zealand . The signal exhibits a sharp increase of ~ 1.2 % followed by a slow decline ( see Figure 1 ) , which is typical for an instant production of carbon-14 in the atmosphere , indicating that the event was short in duration . The globally averaged production of carbon-14 for this event is calculated as Q = ( 1.1-1 .5 ) × 108 atoms/cm2 .","qid":"2773","docid":"774–775_carbon-14_spike","rank":55,"score":85983},{"content":"Title: Labour party proxy and undeclared donations (2007) Content: The Labour party proxy and undeclared donations was a political scandal involving the British Labour Party in November and December 2007 , when it was discovered that , contrary to legislation passed during the Blair Government , the Party had been receiving significant financial donations made anonymously via third parties . The careers of Labour Party treasurer Peter Watt and the leader of the Scottish Labour Party , Wendy Alexander , were curtailed as a consequence . In May 2009 the Crown Prosecution Service decided there was insufficient evidence for any prosecution relating to these events .","qid":"2773","docid":"Labour_party_proxy_and_undeclared_donations_(2007)","rank":56,"score":85194},{"content":"Title: United States gubernatorial elections, 1979 Content: United States gubernatorial elections were held in the fall of 1979 , in three states and one territory . Republicans gained one gubernatorial seat in this year with Dave Treen 's victory in Louisiana who as a result became the first Republican Governor of that state since Reconstruction . Treen led a field of six major candidates in the October 27 primary , and narrowly edged state senator Louis Lambert in the December 8 general election ( or `` runoff '' ) . Democrats held control of the governor 's mansions in Kentucky and Mississippi in the November 6 general elections .","qid":"2773","docid":"United_States_gubernatorial_elections,_1979","rank":57,"score":85184},{"content":"Title: Pdnsd Content: pdnsd is a caching DNS proxy server created originally by Thomas Moestl and currently maintained by Paul Rombouts . pdnsd is configurable by a config file or using the program pdns-ctl that comes with the package . Unlike BIND , pdnsd stores cached DNS records on disk for long term retention and will not purge the cache upon program startup or shutdown . pdnsd is designed to be highly adaptable to situations where net connectivity is slow , unreliable , unavailable , or highly dynamic , as is the case with Wi-Fi hotspots or dialup internet . This program also has limited capability of acting as an authoritative nameserver for a local DNS zone within a private network . The program is released under the GNU General Public License ( GPL ) .","qid":"2773","docid":"Pdnsd","rank":58,"score":85174},{"content":"Title: No.6 Records Content: No. 6 Records was an independent record label , started in 1989 as a subsidiary of Rough Trade Records by A&R representative and booking agent Terry Tolkin . Their early releases of note include The Bridge : A Tribute to Neil Young , which received a four star review in Rolling Stone , featuring exclusive tracks from highly influential indie and grunge bands Psychic TV , Sonic Youth , The Flaming Lips , Soul Asylum , and The Pixies , and Guitarrorists featuring members of Dinosaur Jr. , Babes in Toyland , and Big Black . No. 6 Records later became associated with Elektra Records , continuing to release albums and EPs by alternative rock bands including Luna , Vegetarian Meat ( band ) , Afghan Whigs , Tindersticks , Charles Douglas , Unrest , Jennyanykind , Jule Brown , and Nada Surf . The label was disbanded in 1999 after ten years and fifty releases . In April 2009 Teenbeat Records released a compilation of all the No. 6 Records 7 '' singles , entitled Speed Dating : The No. 6 Records Compendium . Category : American independent record labels Category : Record labels established in 1989","qid":"2773","docid":"No.6_Records","rank":59,"score":85102},{"content":"Title: Jade Tree (record label) Content: Jade Tree International , Inc. is an independent record label formed by Darren Walters and Tim Owen in 1990 in Wilmington , Delaware .","qid":"2773","docid":"Jade_Tree_(record_label)","rank":60,"score":85000},{"content":"Title: Big Tree Records Content: Big Tree Records was a record label founded by current Sony Music Entertainment chairman Doug Morris in 1970 . They were best known for releases by Lobo , England Dan & John Ford Coley , Brownsville Station , Johnny Rivers , Dave and Ansel Collins , and British R&B group Hot Chocolate . The label was initially distributed by Ampex Records from 1970 to 1971 , and then by Bell Records from 1972 to 1973 . Morris sold the label to Atlantic Records in 1974 , and became co-chairman of Atlantic . The label continued to operate as a subsidiary of Atlantic , until Atlantic shut the label down in 1980 .","qid":"2773","docid":"Big_Tree_Records","rank":61,"score":84847},{"content":"Title: DR Class 52.80 Content: The Rekolokomotives of DR Class 52.80 first appeared in 1960 in service with the Deutsche Reichsbahn in East Germany as extensive rebuilds of the wartime locomotives or Kriegslokomotiven of DRB Class 52 . This modernisation , described as ` reconstruction ' ( Rekonstruktion , hence Rekolokomotive ) , extended to almost all of the components and systems on the engine .","qid":"2773","docid":"DR_Class_52.80","rank":62,"score":84837},{"content":"Title: A. E. Douglass Content: A. E. ( Andrew Ellicott ) Douglass ( July 5 , 1867 in Windsor , Vermont -- March 20 , 1962 in Tucson , Arizona ) was an American astronomer . He discovered a correlation between tree rings and the sunspot cycle , and founded the discipline of dendrochronology , which is a method of dating wood by analyzing the growth ring pattern . He started his discoveries in this field in 1894 when he was working at the Lowell Observatory . During this time he was an assistant to Percival Lowell , but fell out with him when his experiments made him doubt the existence of artificial `` canals '' on Mars and visible cusps on Venus . Craters on the Moon and Mars are named in his honor .","qid":"2773","docid":"A._E._Douglass","rank":63,"score":84823},{"content":"Title: Dave Treen Content: David Conner `` Dave '' Treen , Sr. ( July 16 , 1928 -- October 29 , 2009 ) , was an American attorney and politician from Mandeville , St. Tammany Parish , Louisiana . In 1979 he was elected as the first Republican Governor of the U.S. state of Louisiana since Reconstruction . It was a sign of changing party affiliations among white conservatives in the state , who have comprised a majority of the population since at least 1900 . In 1972 Treen was the first Republican elected in modern times from this state to the U.S. House of Representatives . The long absence of Republicans from state positions , from the turn of the century through much of the 1960s , was due to the party having been hollowed out by the Democrats passing a new constitution in 1898 that disenfranchised most African Americans in the state , who made up 47 % of the population in 1900 . But by 1900 , two years after the new constitution , only 5,320 black voters were registered in the state , despite their advances in education and literacy . They had constituted the majority of Republican Party members in the 19th century after gaining the franchise as freedmen and citizens in the post-Civil War years . Treen served as governor from 1980 -- 84 . He lost his bid in 1983 for reelection to his popular long-time rival , Democrat Edwin Edwards , who was returning after two previous terms . Treen had earlier been elected to Congress in 1972 , serving from 1973-80 . Treen grew up as a Democrat , but joined the Republican Party in 1962 . At the time , there were about 10,000 registered Republicans in the state ; African Americans , who had previously made up most of the party members , were still mostly disenfranchised . By the time of Treen 's death in 2009 , only a few other living Louisiana Republicans had exceeded his length of tenure in the Republican Party .","qid":"2773","docid":"Dave_Treen","rank":64,"score":84269},{"content":"Title: Reconstruction (band) Content: Reconstruction was a band formed in 1978 by John Kahn initially to occupy him while Jerry Garcia , his long-time musical collaborator , was busy with the Grateful Dead . The band 's original guitar player was Jerry Miller , best known for performing with Moby Grape . In March 1979 , Garcia took over guitar duties officially . The band performed while the Grateful Dead was on a brief hiatus , switching keyboard players from Keith Godchaux to Brent Mydland , and continued well into 1979 . The band varied its styles from previous Garcia/Kahn/Saunders collaborations to more of a disco and jazz sound .","qid":"2773","docid":"Reconstruction_(band)","rank":65,"score":84163},{"content":"Title: Coronary Reconstruction Content: Coronary Reconstruction is an EP by the Belgian death metal band Aborted , released on March 2 , 2010 through Century Media Records . The album is the first to be recorded with the band 's new 2009 line-up , and was released mainly as a digital EP , with only 1,000 physical copies made . The song `` Coronary Reconstruction '' contains audio samples from the film Hellbound : Hellraiser II .","qid":"2773","docid":"Coronary_Reconstruction","rank":66,"score":83699},{"content":"Title: The Magic Christmas Tree Content: The Magic Christmas Tree is a 1964 American Christmas-themed fantasy-adventure film about a boy who uses a magic ring to bring a Christmas tree to life . The tree then grants the boy three wishes .","qid":"2773","docid":"The_Magic_Christmas_Tree","rank":67,"score":83402},{"content":"Title: Imaginary Records Content: Imaginary Records was an independent record label based in Heywood , Greater Manchester , England , which specialised mainly in indie rock and post-punk . It was started in 1985 by Alan Duffy , known for his lyrical contributions to Porcupine Tree 's first two albums , On the Sunday of Life and Up the Downstair , and Andy Hopkins . The label released many albums by the Chameleons and related bands , including the Reegs , and Mark Burgess ' Zima Junction . The label also released a number of artist tribute albums , on which contemporary acts recorded cover versions of influential artists such as Captain Beefheart , the Velvet Underground , the Byrds , Syd Barrett , the Kinks , and Nick Drake , leading to Duffy being described as a `` tribute entrepreneur '' . Contributors to this series of albums included Sonic Youth , the Membranes , Nirvana , Echo & the Bunnymen , XTC , Dinosaur Jr. , Ride , Screaming Trees and Buffalo Tom . The albums were released in the US by Communion Records .","qid":"2773","docid":"Imaginary_Records","rank":68,"score":83364},{"content":"Title: Ice core Content: An ice core is a core sample that is typically removed from an ice sheet , most commonly from the polar ice caps of Antarctica , Greenland or from high mountain glaciers elsewhere . As the ice forms from the incremental buildup of annual layers of snow , lower layers are older than upper , and an ice core contains ice formed over a range of years . The properties of the ice and the recrystallized inclusions within the ice can then be used to reconstruct a climatic record over the age range of the core , normally through isotopic analysis . This enables the reconstruction of local temperature records and the history of atmospheric composition . Ice cores contain an abundance of information about climate . Inclusions in the snow of each year remain in the ice , such as wind-blown dust , ash , pollen , bubbles of atmospheric gas and radioactive substances . The variety of climatic proxies is greater than in any other natural recorder of climate , such as tree rings or sediment layers . These include ( proxies for ) temperature , ocean volume , precipitation , chemistry and gas composition of the lower atmosphere , volcanic eruptions , solar variability , sea-surface productivity , desert extent and forest fires . The length of the record depends on the depth of the ice core and varies from a few years up to 800 kyr ( 800,000 years ) for the EPICA core . The time resolution ( i.e. the shortest time period which can be accurately distinguished ) depends on the amount of annual snowfall , and reduces with depth as the ice compacts under the weight of layers accumulating on top of it . Upper layers of ice in a core correspond to a single year or sometimes a single season . Deeper into the ice the layers thin and annual layers become indistinguishable . An ice core from the right site can be used to reconstruct an uninterrupted and detailed climate record extending over hundreds of thousands of years , providing information on a wide variety of aspects of climate at each point in time . It is the simultaneity of these properties recorded in the ice that makes ice cores such a powerful tool in paleoclimate research .","qid":"2773","docid":"Ice_core","rank":69,"score":83299},{"content":"Title: Reconstruction (album) Content: Reconstruction is an album by Max Romeo , released in 1977 . Shortly after recording critically acclaimed War ina Babylon , Max Romeo broke up with his producer Lee `` Scratch '' Perry on professional ground , what prompted him to self-produce his next album . Reconstruction did not match the success of its predecessor and in 1978 Romeo left Jamaica .","qid":"2773","docid":"Reconstruction_(album)","rank":70,"score":83244},{"content":"Title: John S. Treen Content: John Speir Treen ( born February 5 , 1926 ) is a retired homebuilder from Metairie in Jefferson Parish , Louisiana , who lost a 1989 special election for the Louisiana House of Representatives to the former Ku Klux Klansman David Duke . Treen is the older brother of David C. Treen , the first Republican governor of Louisiana since Reconstruction .","qid":"2773","docid":"John_S._Treen","rank":71,"score":83071},{"content":"Title: What Are Records? Content: What Are Records ? ( or W.A.R. ? ) is an independent record label located in Boulder , CO. . Founded in New York City in 1991 by owner Rob Gordon ( former director of A&R at EMI . ) , the company relocated to Boulder in 1994 . W.A.R. ? has released over 100 records of a diverse group of artists including Frank Black ( of the Pixies ) , Bill Burr , Stephen Lynch , The Samples , Maceo Parker , Melissa Ferrick , and Whitest Kids U ' Know . The mission of W.A.R. ? is to sign few acts to devote the company 's resources to them , be truly independent , and to be aligned with the company 's artists in every aspect of career development .","qid":"2773","docid":"What_Are_Records?","rank":72,"score":83050},{"content":"Title: Bibliography of the Reconstruction Era Content: This is a selected bibliography of the main scholarly books and articles of Reconstruction , the period after the American Civil War , 1863 -- 1877 ( or 1865 to 1877 ) .","qid":"2773","docid":"Bibliography_of_the_Reconstruction_Era","rank":73,"score":82936},{"content":"Title: Napkin ring cylinder Content: A napkin ring cylinder is a format of phonograph cylinder manufactured and marketed by the Columbia Phonograph Company in 1904 and 1905 . They were of standard diameter , but only measured 1.5 inches in length . Primarily they were marketed for home recordings , at one-third the price of a standard-length cylinder , to be placed in an `` voice album '' , where family members or visitors to a home could leave a 30-second message , and a place was made on the container lid in which a photograph of the individual making the recording could be placed . The napkin ring cylinders were also used as a marketing tool at the 1904 St. Louis Exposition and the 1905 Lewis and Clark Centennial Exposition where visitors to Columbia 's booth were given the opportunity to make and be given a record without charge . On occasion , a record made by an entertainer at the booth could be acquired instead . Surviving examples are very scarce . Some of the very earliest wax cylinder records were also noted to have been similar in dimension to a napkin ring .","qid":"2773","docid":"Napkin_ring_cylinder","rank":74,"score":82766},{"content":"Title: Proxy Governance, Inc. Content: Proxy Governance , Inc. , was one of four prominent independent proxy advisory services ( proxy firm ) in the United States . ( The others are Glass Lewis & Co. , Egan-Jones Proxy Services and Institutional Shareholder Services , Inc. ) As such , it provided proxy voting recommendations on U.S. and non-U.S. publicly reporting companies . Additionally , it provided an online voting platform that permits clients to vote their shares . The company was often quoted in the media when they issue recommendations to shareholders during high-profile proxy fights , and in cases involving proposed mergers and acquisitions .","qid":"2773","docid":"Proxy_Governance,_Inc.","rank":75,"score":82529},{"content":"Title: Reconstruction (2001 film) Content: Reconstruction is a 2001 documentary made by Irene Lusztig that investigates the Ioanid Gang bank heist committed in 1959 in Communist Romania . The film focuses on Monica Sevianu , Lusztig 's grandmother , and the only female involved in the heist . The documentary gets its name from a propaganda film that was made by the Romanian government three years after the robbery was committed . The original Reconstruction was a strange blend of documentary and fiction , where the criminals played themselves in a crime-film whose plot was driven by clues that self-congratulatory detectives pieced together . The propaganda film was only screened to journalists and high-ranking communist officials before being buried beneath government files . Lusztig managed to find a copy and incorporates clips into her documentary .","qid":"2773","docid":"Reconstruction_(2001_film)","rank":76,"score":82528},{"content":"Title: Resolution by Proxy Content: Resolution by Proxy ( ResProx ) is a method for assessing the equivalent X-ray resolution of NMR-derived protein structures . ResProx calculates resolution from coordinate data rather than from electron density or other experimental inputs . This makes it possible to calculate the resolution of a structure regardless of how it was solved ( X-ray , NMR , EM , modeling , ab initio prediction ) . ResProx was originally designed to serve as a simple , single-number evaluation that allows straightforward comparison between the quality/resolution of X-ray structures and the quality of a given NMR structure . However , it can also be used to assess the reliability of an experimentally reported X-ray structure resolution , to evaluate protein structures solved by unconventional or hybrid means and to identify fraudulent structures deposited in the PDB . ResProx incorporates more than 25 different structural features to determine a single resolution-like value . ResProx values are reported in Angstroms . Tests on thousands of X-ray structures show that ResProx values match very closely to resolution values reported by X-ray crystallographers . Resolution-by-proxy values can be calculated for newly determined protein structures using a freely accessible ResProx web server . This server accepts protein coordinate data ( in PDB format ) and generates a resolution estimate ( in Angstroms ) for that input structure .","qid":"2773","docid":"Resolution_by_Proxy","rank":77,"score":82432},{"content":"Title: Push Proxy Gateway Content: A Push Proxy Gateway is a component of WAP Gateways that pushes URL notifications to mobile handsets . Notifications typically include MMS , email , IM , ringtone downloads , and new device firmware notifications . Most notifications will have an audible alert to the user of the device . The notification will typically be a text string with a URL link . Note that only a notification is pushed to the device ; the device must do something with the notification in order to download or view the content associated with it .","qid":"2773","docid":"Push_Proxy_Gateway","rank":78,"score":82387},{"content":"Title: Reconstruction Finance Corporation Content: The Reconstruction Finance Corporation ( RFC ) was a government corporation in the United States between 1932 and 1957 that provided financial support to state and local governments and made loans to banks , railroads , mortgage associations , and other businesses . Its purpose was to boost the country 's confidence and help banks resume daily functions after the start of the Great Depression . The RFC became more prominent under the New Deal and continued to operate through World War II . It was disbanded in 1957 , when the US government concluded that it no longer needed to stimulate lending . The RFC was an independent agency of the United States government , and fully owned and operated by the government . The idea was suggested by Eugene Meyer of the Federal Reserve Board of Governors , recommended by President Hoover , and established by Congress in 1932 . It was modeled after the War Finance Corporation of World War I . In total , it gave $ 2 billion in aid to state and local governments and made a large number of loans , nearly all of which were repaid . The agency played a major role in recapitalizing banks in the 1930s and it was effective in reducing bank failures and stimulating bank lending . It also helped to set up relief programs that were taken over by the New Deal in 1933 .","qid":"2773","docid":"Reconstruction_Finance_Corporation","rank":79,"score":82294},{"content":"Title: Tree (TVXQ album) Content: Tree ( stylized as TREE ) is the seventh Japanese studio album ( fourteenth overall ) by South Korean pop duo Tohoshinki , released by Avex Trax on March 5 , 2014 . The record was released in four physical versions , each with a seasonal theme cover -- Version A ( Spring/Summer ) , a CD+DVD version with music videos ; Version B ( Autumn ) , another CD+DVD version with off-shot movies ; Version C ( Winter ) , a CD only version with two bonus tracks ; and Version D , a fan club limited edition with a CD-Extra . Musically , Tree is a varied pop music album that is influenced by a broad range of musical genres , such as electronic dance music , hip hop , R&B , swing jazz , rock music , power ballads , and reggae . Recording for the album began well before the launch of their sixth Japanese studio album Time in early 2013 . Tree was Tohoshinki 's fourth consecutive album to debut at number one on the Oricon Albums Chart and the Billboard Japan Top Albums , selling 225,000 copies on its first week of release . With Tree , Tohoshinki became the first foreign group in Japan to have three consecutive studio albums with first-week sales of over 200,000 copies , breaking Bon Jovi 's thirteen-year record . Less than four weeks after release , the album earned a platinum certification by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) for shipments of over 250,000 copies . All four of the album 's commercially successful singles -- `` Ocean '' , `` Scream '' , `` Very Merry Xmas '' , and `` Hide & Seek / Something '' -- debuted at number two on the Oricon Singles Chart and achieved gold certifications by the RIAJ . To promote the album , Tohoshinki embarked on their seventh nationwide tour , Tree : Live Tour 2014 from April to June 2014 .","qid":"2773","docid":"Tree_(TVXQ_album)","rank":80,"score":82067},{"content":"Title: Proxyfan Content: Proxyfan is a histamine H3 receptor ligand which is a `` protean agonist '' , producing different effects ranging from full agonist , to antagonist , to inverse agonist in different tissues , depending on the level of constitutive activity of the histamine H3 receptor . This gives it a complex activity profile in vivo which has proven useful for scientific research .","qid":"2773","docid":"Proxyfan","rank":81,"score":82030},{"content":"Title: Roxy by Proxy Content: Roxy by Proxy is a live album by Frank Zappa , recorded in 1973 and released posthumously in 2014 by The Zappa Family Trust on Zappa Records . Ruth Underwood takes the listener on stage at the performances in her song by song liner notes .","qid":"2773","docid":"Roxy_by_Proxy","rank":82,"score":82028},{"content":"Title: The Singing Ringing Tree Content: The Singing Ringing Tree ( Das singende , klingende Bäumchen ) was a children 's film made by East German studio DEFA in 1957 and shown in the form of a television series by the BBC . It was a story in the style of the Brothers Grimm , directed by Francesco Stefani .","qid":"2773","docid":"The_Singing_Ringing_Tree","rank":83,"score":81874},{"content":"Title: Trees (folk band) Content: Trees was an English folk rock band that existed between 1970 and 1973 . Although the group met with little commercial success in their time , the reputation of the band has grown over the years . Like other folk contemporaries , Trees ' music was influenced by Fairport Convention , but with a heavier and more psychedelic edge . The group 's material was divided between adaptations of traditional songs and original compositions . Trees produced two studio albums , both in 1970 , The Garden of Jane Delawney and On The Shore . The latter featured cover artwork by the Hipgnosis studio . The original band disbanded after recording the two albums . A second Trees incarnation formed and played until 1973 ; this group featured Celia Humphris , Barry Clarke , David Costa , Barry Lyons ( ex-Mr Fox ) , Alun Eden ( also ex-Mr Fox ) and Chuck Fleming ( ex-JSD Band ) . Recordings by this line-up can be found on bootleg releases . Both studio albums have been released on CD . In addition , a deluxe two disc edition of On the Shore was released in 2007 , containing previously unreleased material . A new edition of the debut album followed in 2008 , also containing previously unreleased material as well as some new recordings . Celia Humphris went on to become a voice artist and has provided vocals for Dodson and Fogg , a folk-rock project released in 2012 and most recently , been guest vocalist on Galley Beggar 's 2017 album ` Heathen Hymns ' , released on Rise Above Records .","qid":"2773","docid":"Trees_(folk_band)","rank":84,"score":81782},{"content":"Title: 993–994 carbon-14 spike Content: The 993 -- 994 carbon-14 spike was a rapid increase in carbon-14 content from tree rings , and followed the 774 -- 775 carbon-14 spike . This event is also confirmed by a sharp increase of beryllium-10 and hence considered as solar-origin . It may have come from a massive solar storm as a series of auroral observations are known to be observed in late 992 .","qid":"2773","docid":"993–994_carbon-14_spike","rank":85,"score":81652},{"content":"Title: The Brass Ring Content: The Brass Ring was a group of American studio musicians led by saxophonist and arranger Phil Bodner . They were based in New York City and were stylistically similar to The Tijuana Brass , The Brass Buttons , the Baja Marimba Band and other `` Now Sound '' instrumental pop groups from the 1960s , although the twin-sax sound more closely resembles Billy Vaughn , whose biggest hits were in the 1950s . In addition to several successful albums , they had two hit singles . The first , `` The Phoenix Love Theme ( Senza Fine ) '' , was used in the movie The Flight of the Phoenix , and hit # 32 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 in 1966 . The second , `` The Dis-Advantages of You '' , written by Mitch Leigh , was used in a series of commercials for Benson & Hedges cigarettes , and hit # 36 in March 1967 . Numerous other singles hit Billboard 's Easy Listening chart , and a non-chart single , `` Love In The Open Air '' , is prized by collectors , as it is a cover of a little-known composition by Paul McCartney . The group recorded until at least 1972 on Enoch Light 's Project 3 label .","qid":"2773","docid":"The_Brass_Ring","rank":86,"score":81638},{"content":"Title: The Instrumentals (T-Pain album) Content: The Instrumentals is a compilation album containing instrumentals of select songs composed and performed by musician T-Pain . It was first released for digital download at Amazon.com on August 21 , 2009 . The tracks were available for purchase on iTunes just four days later . The songs that are released as instrumentals come from all albums by T-Pain , including Rappa Ternt Sanga , Epiphany , and Thr33 Ringz . The songs are uploaded on T-Pain 's official MySpace profile .","qid":"2773","docid":"The_Instrumentals_(T-Pain_album)","rank":87,"score":81224},{"content":"Title: Recordings (album) Content: Recordings is a compilation album by British progressive rock band Porcupine Tree , first released in May 2001 . It is mainly a collection of b-sides and unreleased songs from the Stupid Dream and Lightbulb Sun albums ' recording sessions . Recordings was originally a limited release , limited to only 20,000 copies worldwide . It was later reissued on CD in September , 2010 , and as double vinyl ( 2000 copies only ) in January 2011 .","qid":"2773","docid":"Recordings_(album)","rank":88,"score":81141},{"content":"Title: 30° Everywhere Content: 30 ° Everywhere is the debut full-length album from the American emo band The Promise Ring . Released in 1996 on Jade Tree Records . It was released on CD and a limited pressing of 500 copies each on colored gray and white vinyl .","qid":"2773","docid":"30°_Everywhere","rank":89,"score":80879},{"content":"Title: Cool tropics paradox Content: The cool tropics paradox refers to an apparent difference between modeled estimates of tropical temperatures during warm , ice-free periods of the Cretaceous and Eocene , and the colder temperatures which proxies suggested were present . The long-standing paradox was resolved when novel proxy derived temperatures showed significantly warmer tropics during past greenhouse climates . The low-gradient problem , i.e. the very warm polar regions with respect to present day , is still an issue for state-of-the-art climate models .","qid":"2773","docid":"Cool_tropics_paradox","rank":90,"score":80755},{"content":"Title: Proxy Husband Content: Proxy Husband is a 1919 American silent short film directed by and starring William Garwood .","qid":"2773","docid":"Proxy_Husband","rank":91,"score":80682},{"content":"Title: Family Health Care Decisions Act Content: The Family Health Care Decisions Act is a statute adopted in New York state in 2010 that had been pending before the legislature since 1994 . The statute was approved by the New York State Senate in July , 2009 . The legislation was introduced by state senator Thomas Duane of Manhattan . It was signed into law by Gov. David Paterson on March 16 , 2010 . The law adds new Articles 29-CC and 29-CCC to the Public Health Law and amends other existing sections of the laws of the State . It allows the relatives of incapacitated patients to make medical decisions for their family members in the absence of a living will or health care proxy . Currently , all other states except for Missouri permit such surrogacy . Advocates have called the bill the `` most important piece of medical legislation since lawmakers legalized health care proxies in 1990 . ''","qid":"2773","docid":"Family_Health_Care_Decisions_Act","rank":92,"score":80634},{"content":"Title: Sky and Trees Records Content: Sky and Trees Records is a record label set up by United Kingdom band Chumbawamba in 1983 . The band used the label to release and distribute a number of cassettes and booklets by themselves ( see also Cassette Culture ) , including their early demo recordings Be Happy Despite It All ( 1983 ) , Another Year Of The same Old Shit ( 1984 ) and the ` cassette single ' `` Common Ground '' ( 1984 ) , which was a benefit for striking miners ( see UK miners ' strike ( 1984-1985 ) ) . They also released material by other anarcho-punk performers , including their ` sister ' band The Passion Killers , Antidote and an animal rights benefit compilation , The Animals Packet . The only vinyl release on Sky and Trees was Chumbawamba singer Danbert Nobacon 's solo album The Unfairy Tale ( 1985 ) . In 1985 Chumbawamba founded Agit-Prop Records , which served as the vehicle for their future releases until they gained a record contract with One Little Indian , and later , controversially , signed to EMI .","qid":"2773","docid":"Sky_and_Trees_Records","rank":93,"score":80580},{"content":"Title: Reconstruction Agency Content: The is an administrative body of the Cabinet of Japan established on February 2 , 2012 to coordinate reconstruction activities related to the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami and Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster .","qid":"2773","docid":"Reconstruction_Agency","rank":94,"score":80437},{"content":"Title: The Smoke Ring (novel) Content: The Smoke Ring is a 1987 science fiction novel by Larry Niven . Like much of Niven 's work , the story is heavily influenced by the setting : a gas torus , a ring of air around a neutron star . It is a sequel to The Integral Trees '' .","qid":"2773","docid":"The_Smoke_Ring_(novel)","rank":95,"score":80271},{"content":"Title: The Artemis Complex Content: The Artemis Complex is the debut album for Interface , released in January 1999 . Originally self-pressed and intended to be sold independently , it was n't long before Tinman Records signed Interface to a distribution deal . Between the album 's release and the band 's increasing marketing presence on the internet , Interface 's fanbase grew accordingly . Tinman also lifted the track `` Frantic '' for their compilation CD Ringworm V1 in early 1999 . It received favorable reviews in publications like `` DAMN ! '' magazine and the Long Island Press . Overall , the album 's raw , gritty sound is reminiscent of mid 1990 's electro-industrial , combining definitive recordings of tracks heard on earlier demo tapes with newer dance tracks and atmospheric instrumentals . The album was mainly performed , produced , and recorded by Eric Eldredge in the fall of 1998 . It includes two of the band 's most enduring songs , `` Metalstorm '' and `` The Softest Blade '' . The album 's name comes from an article in a psychology magazine about women 's behavior patterns when expecting negative results from romantic relationships before they occur . The cover was designed by photo artist Kim Lauer , and depicts a heavily manipulated image of the Greek goddess Artemis . With the now-defunct Tinman label 's quantities depleted , the original album is now out of print .","qid":"2773","docid":"The_Artemis_Complex","rank":96,"score":80133},{"content":"Title: Rural Reconstruction Movement Content: The Rural Reconstruction Movement was started in China in the 1920s by Y.C. James Yen , Liang Shuming and others to revive the Chinese village . They strove for a middle way , independent of the Nationalist government but in competition with the radical revolutionary approach to the village espoused by Mao Zedong and the Chinese Communist Party .","qid":"2773","docid":"Rural_Reconstruction_Movement","rank":97,"score":80010},{"content":"Title: Treehouse Records Content: Treehouse Records may refer to : Treehouse Records , a Nashville-based record label established in 2009 by Morris Management Group 's Dale Morris , Clint Higham and Mike Betterton , through a partnership with Front Line Management CEO Irving Azoff . First major artist signed : Blaine Larsen . Oar Folkjokeopus , a former Minneapolis . Minnesota record store which served as headquarters for 1980s-1990s indie record label `` Treehouse Records ''","qid":"2773","docid":"Treehouse_Records","rank":98,"score":79998},{"content":"Title: The Tree Register Content: The Tree Register , or more fully , the Tree Register of the British Isles ( T.R.O.B.I. ) , is a registered charity collating and updating a database of notable trees throughout Britain and Ireland . It comprises a computer database with details of more than 150,000 trees . It contains data from the original hand-written records of the late and internationally acclaimed dendrologist Alan Mitchell , and other historical records taken from reference works going back more than 200 years . Recent height and girth measurements can be compared to those recorded by the likes of Loudon ( 1830s ) , Elwes and Henry ( early 1900s ) and the Hon. Maynard Greville ( 1950s ) , providing a valuable record of growth rates . The Tree Register was one of the founders of the Ancient Tree Hunt campaign .","qid":"2773","docid":"The_Tree_Register","rank":99,"score":79929},{"content":"Title: The Sweetheart Tree Content: The Sweetheart Tree is an album by American pop singer Johnny Mathis that was released by Mercury Records on September 30 , 1965 , and included songs associated with Italy ( `` Arrivederci Roma '' ) , France ( `` Clopin Clopant '' ) , Ireland ( `` Danny Boy '' ) , and Scotland ( `` The Skye Boat Song '' ) as well as several selections , such as `` I 'll Close My Eyes '' and `` The Very Thought of You '' , from English composers . The title song from the album had its first chart appearance on Billboard magazine 's list of the 40 most popular Easy Listening songs in the US in the issue dated July 24 of that year and got as high as number 21 over the course of 10 weeks . It also bubbled under -LSB- -LSB- Billboard Hot 100 | Billboard '' 's Hot 100 -RSB- -RSB- for six weeks beginning in the August 7 issue , during which time it peaked at number 108 . The album debuted on the magazine 's Top LP 's chart shortly after its release , in the issue dated October 16 , 1965 , and reached number 71 during its 26 weeks there . The album The Sweetheart Tree was released for the first time on compact disc on November 6 , 2012 , as one of two albums on one CD , the second of the two being his 1966 follow-up , The Shadow of Your Smile . Both were also included in Sony 's Mathis box set The Complete Global Albums Collection '' , which was released on November 17 , 2014 .","qid":"2773","docid":"The_Sweetheart_Tree","rank":100,"score":79841}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Proxy (climate) Content: In the study of past climates ( `` paleoclimatology '' ) , climate proxies are preserved physical characteristics of the past that stand in for direct meteorological measurements and enable scientists to reconstruct the climatic conditions over a longer fraction of the Earth 's history . Reliable global records of climate only began in the 1880s , and proxies provide the only means for scientists to determine climatic patterns before record-keeping began . Examples of proxies include ice cores , tree rings , sub-fossil pollen , boreholes , corals , lake and ocean sediments , and carbonate speleothems . The character of deposition or rate of growth of the proxies ' material has been influenced by the climatic conditions of the time in which they were laid down or grew . Chemical traces produced by climatic changes , such as quantities of particular isotopes , can be recovered from proxies . Some proxies , such as gas bubbles trapped in ice , enable traces of the ancient atmosphere to be recovered and measured directly to provide a history of fluctuations in the composition of the Earth 's atmosphere . To produce the most precise results , systematic cross-verification between proxy indicators is necessary for accuracy in readings and record-keeping . Proxies can be combined to produce temperature reconstructions longer than the instrumental temperature record and can inform discussions of global warming . The distribution of proxy records , just like the instrumental record , is not at all uniform , with more records in the northern hemisphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Proxy_(climate)\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 198786\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of large-scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years Content: This list of large scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years includes climate reconstructions which have contributed significantly to the modern consensus on the temperature record of the past 2000 years . The instrumental temperature record only covers the last 150 years at a hemispheric or global scale , and reconstructions of earlier periods are based on climate proxies . In an early attempt to show that climate had changed , Hubert Lamb 's 1965 paper generalised from temperature records of central England together with historical , botanical and archeological evidence to produce a qualitative estimate of temperatures in the north Atlantic region . Subsequent quantitative reconstructions used statistical techniques with various climate proxies to produce larger scale reconstructions . Tree ring proxies can give an annual resolution of extratropical regions of the northern hemisphere , and can be statistically combined with other sparser proxies to produce multiproxy hemispherical or global reconstructions . Quantitative reconstructions have consistently shown earlier temperatures below the temperature levels reached in the late 20th century . This pattern as seen in was dubbed the hockey stick graph , and as of 2010 this broad conclusion was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_large-scale_temperature_reconstructions_of_the_last_2,000_years\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 176595\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hockey stick graph Content: Hockey stick graphs present the global or hemispherical mean temperature record of the past 500 to 2000 years as shown by quantitative climate reconstructions based on climate proxy records . These reconstructions have consistently shown a slow long term cooling trend changing into relatively rapid warming in the 20th century , with the instrumental temperature record by 2000 exceeding earlier temperatures . The term `` hockey stick graph '' was coined by the climatologist Jerry Mahlman , to describe the pattern shown by the ( MBH99 ) reconstruction , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat with a downward trend to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' followed by a sharp , steady increase corresponding to the `` blade '' portion . The reconstructions have featured in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports as evidence of global warming . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . Paleoclimatology dates back to the 19th century , and the concept of examining varves in lake beds and tree rings to track local climatic changes was suggested in the 1930s . In the 1960s , Hubert Lamb generalised from historical documents and temperature records of central England to propose a Medieval Warm Period from around 900 to 1300 , followed by Little Ice Age . This was the basis of a `` schematic diagram '' featured in the IPCC First Assessment Report of 1990 beside cautions that the medieval warming might not have been global . The use of indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed , and by the late 1990s a number of competing teams of climatologists found indications that recent warming was exceptional . introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large scale reconstructions . Their study was featured in the IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . In 1998 Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 with shading emphasising that uncertainties ( to two standard error limits ) were much greater in earlier centuries . independently produced a CPS reconstruction extending back for a thousand years , and ( MBH99 ) used the MBH98 methodology to extend their study back to 1000 . A version of the MBH99 graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , which also drew on Jones et al. 1998 and three other reconstructions to support the conclusion that , in the Northern Hemisphere , the 1990s was likely to have been the warmest decade and 1998 the warmest year during the past 1,000 years . The graph became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th century warmth was exceptional . In 2003 , as lobbying over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol intensified , a paper claiming greater medieval warmth was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy . Later in 2003 , Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick published disputing the data used in MBH98 paper . In 2004 Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal components analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . Their analysis was subsequently disputed by published papers including and which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . Political disputes led to the formation of a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council , their North Report in 2006 supported Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , support the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Further reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Hockey_stick_graph\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 158856\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Dendroclimatology Content: Dendroclimatology is the science of determining past climates from trees ( primarily properties of the annual tree rings ) . Tree rings are wider when conditions favor growth , narrower when times are difficult . Other properties of the annual rings , such as maximum latewood density ( MXD ) have been shown to be better proxies than simple ring width . Using tree rings , scientists have estimated many local climates for hundreds to thousands of years previous . By combining multiple tree-ring studies ( sometimes with other climate proxy records ) , scientists have estimated past regional and global climates .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Dendroclimatology\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 150379\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Temperature record of the past 1000 years Content: For information on the description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in various IPCC reports see MWP and LIA in IPCC reportsThe temperature record of the past 1,000 years is reconstructed using data from climate proxy records in conjunction with the modern instrumental temperature record which only covers the last 150 years at a global scale . Large-scale reconstructions covering part or all of the 1st millennium and 2nd millennium have shown that recent temperatures are exceptional : the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report of 2007 concluded that `` Average Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the second half of the 20th century were very likely higher than during any other 50-year period in the last 500 years and likely '' the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . '' The curve shown in graphs of these reconstructions is widely known as the hockey stick graph because of the sharp increase in temperatures during the last century . As of 2010 this broad pattern was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th-century `` shaft '' appears . Sparseness of proxy records results in considerable uncertainty for earlier periods . Individual proxy records , such as tree ring widths and densities used in dendroclimatology , are calibrated against the instrumental record for the period of overlap . Networks of such records are used to reconstruct past temperatures for regions : tree ring proxies have been used to reconstruct Northern Hemisphere extratropical temperatures ( within the tropics trees do not form rings ) but are confined to land areas and are scarce in the Southern Hemisphere which is largely ocean . Wider coverage is provided by multiproxy reconstructions , incorporating proxies such as lake sediments , ice cores and corals which are found in different regions , and using statistical methods to relate these sparser proxies to the greater numbers of tree ring records . The `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method is widely used for large-scale multiproxy reconstructions of hemispheric or global average temperatures ; this is complemented by Climate Field Reconstruction ( CFR ) methods which show how climate patterns have developed over large spatial areas , making the reconstruction useful for investigating natural variability and long-term oscillations as well as for comparisons with patterns produced by climate models . During the 1,900 years before the 20th century , it is likely that the next warmest period was from 950 to 1100 , with peaks at different times in different regions . This has been called the Medieval Warm Period , and some evidence suggests widespread cooler conditions during a period around the 17th century known as the Little Ice Age . In the hockey stick controversy , contrarians have asserted that the Medieval Warm Period was warmer than at present , and have disputed the data and methods of climate reconstructions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Temperature_record_of_the_past_1000_years\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 137763\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hockey stick controversy Content: In the hockey stick controversy , the data and methods used in reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years have been disputed . Reconstructions have consistently shown that the rise in the instrumental temperature record of the past 150 years is not matched in earlier centuries , and the name `` hockey stick graph '' was coined for figures showing a long-term decline followed by an abrupt rise in temperatures . These graphs were publicised to explain the scientific findings of climatology , and in addition to scientific debate over the reconstructions , they have been the topic of political dispute . The issue is part of the global warming controversy and has been one focus of political responses to reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . The use of proxy indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed from the 1990s onwards , and found indications that recent warming was exceptional . The reconstruction introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large-scale reconstructions , and its findings were disputed by Patrick Michaels at the United States House Committee on Science . In 1998 , Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 . In ( MBH99 ) the methodology was extended back to 1000 . The term hockey stick was coined by the climatologist Jerry D. Mahlman , to describe the pattern this showed , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' , followed by a sharp increase corresponding to the `` blade '' . A version of this graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , along with four other reconstructions supporting the same conclusion . The graph was publicised , and became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th-century warmth was exceptional . Those disputing the graph included Pat Michaels , the George C. Marshall Institute and Fred Singer . A paper by Willie Soon and Sallie Baliunas claiming greater medieval warmth was used by the Bush administration chief of staff Philip Cooney to justify altering the first Environmental Protection Agency Report on the Environment . The paper was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy , but on July 28 , Republican Jim Inhofe spoke in the Senate citing it to claim `` that man-made global warming is the greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American people '' . Later in 2003 , a paper by Steve McIntyre and Ross McKitrick disputing the data used in MBH98 paper was publicised by the George C. Marshall Institute and the Competitive Enterprise Institute . In 2004 , Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 , McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal component analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . The analysis therein was subsequently disputed by published papers , including and , which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . In June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton launched what Sherwood Boehlert , chairman of the House Science Committee , called a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into the data , methods and personal information of Mann , Bradley and Hughes . At Boehlert 's request , a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council was set up , which reported in 2006 , supporting Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . Barton and U.S. Rep. Ed Whitfield requested Edward Wegman to set up a team of statisticians to investigate , and they supported McIntyre and McKitrick 's view that there were statistical failings , although they did not quantify whether there was any significant effect . They also produced an extensive network analysis which has been discredited by expert opinion and found to have issues of plagiarism . Arguments against the MBH studies were reintroduced as part of the Climatic Research Unit email controversy , but dismissed by eight independent investigations . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , have supported the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Over a dozen subsequent reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Hockey_stick_controversy\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 129835\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pseudoproxy Content: A pseudoproxy is a synthetic dataset used in paleoclimatology to test methods of reconstruction of global or hemispherical climate change from temperature records , developed for reconstructing the temperature record of the past 1000 years using proxies for periods before the instrumental temperature record . In May 2002 Michael E. Mann and Scott Rutherford published a paper introducing this method of adding artificial noise to actual temperature records or to climate model simulations to produce what they called `` pseudoproxies '' . When the reconstruction algorithms were used with these pseudoproxies , the result was then compared with the original record or simulation to see how closely it had been reconstructed . They discussed the issue that regression methods of reconstruction tended to underestimate the amplitude of variation .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Pseudoproxy\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 124403\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Malcolm K. Hughes Content: Malcolm K. Hughes is a meso-climatologist and Regents ' Professor of Dendrochronology in the Laboratory for Tree-Ring Research at the University of Arizona . He was born in Matlock , Derbyshire , England , and earned a Ph.D in ecology from the University of Durham . Since 1998 , he is a fellow of the American Geophysical Union . His research is on the nature of climate variability , specifically focusing on the timescales of years to centuries . He uses natural recorded records such as tree rings . Hughes has studied geographical areas including Europe , Asia , and the Sierra Nevada . In addition to tree rings , Hughes uses ice cores , laminated sediments , and the historical temperature record to help understand past climates . In 1998 , he was a co-author with Michael E. Mann and Raymond S. Bradley on a paper which produced the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) incorporating multiple climate proxy data sets of different types and lengths into a high-resolution reconstruction of northern hemisphere temperatures . In 1999 the same team extended the method to cover 1,000 years , producing what was dubbed the hockey stick graph .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Malcolm_K._Hughes\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 122254\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Divergence problem Content: The divergence problem is an anomaly from the field of dendroclimatology , the study of past climate through observations of old trees , primarily the properties of their annual growth rings . It is the disagreement between the temperatures measured by the thermometers ( instrumental temperatures ) and the temperatures reconstructed from the latewood densities or , in some cases , widths of tree rings in the far northern forests . While the thermometer records indicate a substantial late 20th century warming trend , many tree rings from such sites do not display a corresponding change in their maximum latewood density . In some studies this issue has also been found with tree ring width . A temperature trend extracted from tree rings alone would not show any substantial warming since the 1950s . The temperature graphs calculated in these two ways thus `` diverge '' from one another , which is the origin of the term .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Divergence_problem\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 119967\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Forking proxy Content: A forking proxy , in the context of a communications system using Session Initiation Protocol ( SIP ) , is a server that attempts to find a correspondent by searching several locations . SIP proxy servers that route messages to more than one destination are called forking proxies . The forking of SIP requests means that multiple dialogs can be established from a single request . This also explains the need for the two-sided dialog identifier ; without a contribution from the recipients , the originator could not disambiguate the multiple dialogs established from a single request . SIP forking refers to the process of `` forking '' a single SIP call to multiple SIP endpoints . This is a very powerful feature of SIP . A single call can ring many endpoints at the same time . RFC 3261 - SIP Session Initiation Protocol With SIP forking you can have your desk phone ring at the same time as your softphone or a SIP phone on your mobile . For example , you would use SIP forking to ring your deskphone and your Android SIP Phone at the same time , allowing you to take the call from either device easily . No forwarding rules would be necessary as both devices would ring . In the same manner SIP forking can be used in an office and allow the secretary to answer calls to the extension of his/her boss when he is away or unable to take the call . Category : Servers ( computing )\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Forking_proxy\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 113298\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Proxy server Content: In computer networks , a proxy server is a server ( a computer system or an application ) that acts as an intermediary for requests from clients seeking resources from other servers . A client connects to the proxy server , requesting some service , such as a file , connection , web page , or other resource available from a different server and the proxy server evaluates the request as a way to simplify and control its complexity . Proxies were invented to add structure and encapsulation to distributed systems . Today , most proxies are web proxies , facilitating access to content on the World Wide Web , providing anonymity and may be used to bypass IP address blocking .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Proxy_server\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 111490\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Laboratory of Tree-Ring Research Content: The Laboratory of Tree-Ring Research ( LTRR ) was established in 1937 by A.E. Douglass , founder of the modern science of dendrochronology . The LTRR is a research unit in the College of Science at the University of Arizona in Tucson . Since its founding , visiting scholars and faculty at the lab have done notable work in the areas of climate change , fire history , ecology , archeology and hydrology .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Laboratory_of_Tree-Ring_Research\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 108344\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Incremental dating Content: Incremental dating techniques allow the construction of year-by-year annual chronologies , which can be temporally fixed ( i.e. , linked to the present day and thus calendar or sidereal time ) or floating . Archaeologists use tree-ring dating ( dendrochronology ) to determine the age of old pieces of wood . Trees usually add growth rings on a yearly basis , with the spacing of rings being wider in high growth years and narrower in low growth years . Patterns in tree-ring growth can be used to establish the age of old wood samples , and also give some hints to local climatic conditions . This technique is useful to about 9,000 years ago for samples from the western United States using overlapping tree-ring series from living and dead wood . The Earth 's orbital motions ( inclination of the earth 's axis on its orbit with respect to the sun , gyroscopic precession of the earth 's axis every 26,000 years ; free precession every 440 days , precession of earth orbit and orbital variations such as perihelion precession every 19,000 and 23,000 years ) leave traces visible in the geological record . These changes provide a long-term sequence of climatic events , recorded as changes in the thickness of sediment layers ( known as `` varve analysis '' -- the term `` varve '' means a layer or layers of sediment . Typically , varve refers to lake or glacial sediment ) , as temperature induced changes in the isotopic ratios for oxygen isotopes in sediments , and in the relative abundance of fossils . Because these can be calibrated reliably over a period of 40 million years this provides an alternate verification to radiometric dating in cases where sufficient record exists to provide a reliable trace . Polarity reversals in the Earth 's magnetic field have also been used to determine geologic time . Periodically , the magnetic field of the earth reverses leaving a magnetic signal in volcanic and sedimentary rocks . This signal can be detected and sequences recorded , and in the case of volcanic rocks , tied to radiometric dates . Another technique used by archaeologists is to inspect the depth of penetration of water vapor into chipped obsidian ( volcanic glass ) artifacts . The water vapor creates a `` hydration rind '' in the obsidian , and so this approach is known as `` hydration dating '' or `` obsidian dating '' , and is useful for determining dates as far back as 200,000 years .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Incremental_dating\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 105665\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: John A. Eddy Content: John Allen `` Jack '' Eddy ( March 25 , 1931 -- June 10 , 2009 ) was an American astronomer who published professionally under the name John A. Eddy but much of the content referencing him can be found under his nickname Jack which he preferred to use . In 1976 Dr. Eddy published a landmark paper in Science titled `` The Maunder Minimum '' where , using the Nineteenth Century works of Edward W. Maunder and Gustav Spörer , he identified a 70-year period from 1645 to 1715 as a time when solar activity all but stopped . In making the case for the anomaly , he gathered and interpreted data from a wide variety of sources , including first-hand accounts from extant historical observations of the Sun going back to the telescopic observations of Galileo and other contemporary scientists of the 17th and early 18th centuries ; from historical reports of the aurora borealis observed in past centuries in Europe and the New World ; from visual observations of sunspots seen with the unaided eye at sunrise and sunset in dynastic records from the Orient ; from existing descriptions of the eclipsed Sun ; and from measurements of carbon-14 in dated tree-rings . In the last of these , which can be used as a proxy indicator of solar activity , he found evidence of other similar periods of solar quiescence in the distant past , the most recent an even longer 90-year span , from about 1460 until 1550 , which he named the Spörer Minimum . Both the Maunder and Spörer minima fell during the coldest parts of the Little Ice Age , which suggested a meaningful connection between the longer term behavior of the Sun and of the Earth 's mean surface temperature . In advancing the theory that the Sun is a variable star Eddy observed : `` It has long been thought that the Sun is a constant star of regular and repeatable behavior . Measurements of the radiative output , or solar constant , seem to justify the first assumption , and the record of periodicity in sunspot numbers is taken as evidence of the second . Both records , however , sample only the most recent history of the Sun . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"John_A._Eddy\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 105651\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Proxy list Content: A proxy list is a list of open HTTP/HTTPS/SOCKS proxy servers all on one website . Proxies allow users to make indirect network connections to other computer network services . Proxy lists include the IP addresses of computers hosting open proxy servers , meaning that these proxy servers are available to anyone on the internet . Proxy lists are often organized by the various proxy protocols the servers use . Many proxy lists index Web proxies , which can be used without changing browser settings .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Proxy_list\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 105456\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Proxy re-encryption Content: Proxy re-encryption schemes are cryptosystems which allow third parties ( proxies ) to alter a ciphertext which has been encrypted for one party , so that it may be decrypted by another .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Proxy_re-encryption\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 103498\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: International Tree-Ring Data Bank Content: The International Tree-Ring Data Bank ( ITRDB ) is a data repository for tree ring measurements that has been maintained since 1990 by the United States ' National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Paleoclimatology Program and World Data Center for Paleoclimatology . The ITRDB was initially established by Hal Fritts through the Laboratory of Tree-Ring Research at the University of Arizona through a grant from the US National Science Foundation after the First International Workshop on Dendrochronology in 1974 . The ITRDB accepts all tree ring data with sufficient metadata to be uploaded , but was founded with a focus on tree ring measurements intended for climatic studies . Specific information is required for uploading data to the data base , such as the raw tree ring measurements , an indication of the type of measurement ( full ring widths , earlywood , latewood ) , and the location , but the types of data and the rules for accuracy and precision of the primary data , tree-ring width measurements , are decided by the dendrochronologists who are contributing the data rather than by the NOAA or another governing organization .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"International_Tree-Ring_Data_Bank\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 103406\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Treefinder Content: Treefinder is a computer program for the likelihood-based reconstruction of phylogenetic trees from molecular sequences . It was written by Gangolf Jobb , a former researcher at the University of Munich , Germany , and was originally released in 2004 . Treefinder is free of charge , though the most recent license prohibits its use in many major western countries . A platform-independent graphical environment integrates a standard suite of analyses : phylogeny reconstruction , bootstrap analysis , model selection , hypothesis testing , tree calibration , manipulation of trees and sequence data . Treefinder is scriptable through a proprietary scripting language called TL . Treefinder has an efficient tree search algorithm that can infer trees with thousands of species within a short time . Result trees are displayed and can then be saved as a reconstruction report , which may serve as an input for further analysis , for example hypothesis testing . The report contains all information about the tree and the models used . Treefinder also supports exporting results as NEWICK or NEXUS files . The software supports a broad collection of models of sequence evolution . The June 2008 release implements 7 models of nucleotide substitution ( HKY , TN , J1 , J2 , J3 ( = TIM ) , TVM , GTR ) , 14 empirical models of amino acid substitution ( BLOSUM , cpREV , Dayhoff , JTT , LG , mtArt , mtMam , mtREV , PMB , rtREV , betHIV , witHIV , VT , WAG ) , 4 substitution models of structured rRNA ( bactRNA , eukRNA , euk23RNA , mitoRNA ) , the 6-state `` Dayhoff Groups '' protein model ( DG ) , 2-state and 3-state models of DNA ( GTR3 , GTR2 ) , a parametric mixed model ( MIX ) mixing the empirical models of proteins or rRNA , and also a user-definable GTR-type model ( MAP ) mapping characters to states as needed . Three models of among-site rate heterogeneity are available ( Gamma , Gamma + I , I ) , which can be combined with any of the substitution models . One can assume different models for different partitions of a sequence alignment , and partitions may be assumed to evolve at different speeds . All parameters of the models can be estimated from the data by maximization of likelihood . Certain TL expressions , the `` model expressions '' , allow the concise notation of complex models , together with their parameters and optimization modes . Treefinder 's original publication from 2004 has been cited several hundred times in the scientific literature .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Treefinder\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 102975\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Flash proxy Content: Flash proxy is a pluggable transport and proxy which runs in a web browser . Flash proxies are an Internet censorship circumvention tool which enables users to connect to the Tor anonymity network ( amongst others ) via a plethora of ephemeral browser-based proxy relays . The essential idea is that the IP addresses contingently used are changed faster than a censoring agency can detect , track , and block them . The Tor traffic is wrapped in a WebSocket format and disguised with an XOR cipher .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Flash_proxy\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 102364\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Performance-enhancing proxy Content: Performance-enhancing proxies ( PEPs ) are network agents designed to improve the end-to-end performance of some communication protocols . PEP standards are defined in RFC 3135 ( PEPs intended to mitigate link-related degradations ) and RFC 3449 ( TCP performance implications of network path asymmetry ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Performance-enhancing_proxy\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 99964\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Paleothermometer Content: A paleothermometer is a methodology for determining past temperatures using a proxy found in a natural record such as a sediment , ice core , tree rings or TEX86 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Paleothermometer\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 99889\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: SMTP proxy Content: SMTP proxies are specialized mail transfer agents ( MTAs ) that , similar to other types of proxy servers , pass SMTP sessions through to other MTAs without using the store-and-forward approach of a typical MTA . When an SMTP proxy receives a connection , it initiates another SMTP session to a destination MTA . Any errors or status information from the destination MTA will be passed back to the sending MTA through the proxy .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"SMTP_proxy\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 99835\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: If These Trees Could Talk Content: If These Trees Could Talk is an instrumental post-rock band from Akron , Ohio . The band self-released their self-titled debut EP in 2006 . Independent record label The Mylene Sheath re-released the EP on vinyl in 2007 , and went on to release the band 's debut studio album , Above the Earth , Below the Sky , on vinyl also , in 2009 . The band self-released their second album Red Forest in March 2012 , whilst the album 's vinyl release went through Science of Silence Records . They went on to follow up the release of `` Red Forest '' with a self-promoted tour throughout Europe in April 2012 . The band released its third album , The Bones of a Dying World , in June , 2016 on Metal Blade Records .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"If_These_Trees_Could_Talk\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 99537\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Proxy (song) Content: `` Proxy '' is a song by Dutch DJ and record producer Martin Garrix . It was released as a free download on 6 March 2014 and on 2 July 2014 on iTunes . The song has charted in the Netherlands .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Proxy_(song)\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 98896\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Proxy voting Content: Proxy voting is a form of voting whereby a member of a decision-making body may delegate his or her voting power to a representative , to enable a vote in absence . The representative may be another member of the same body , or external . A person so designated is called a `` proxy '' and the person designating him or her is called a `` principal '' . Proxy appointments can be used to form a voting bloc that can exercise greater influence in deliberations or negotiations . Proxy voting is a particularly important practice with respect to corporations ; in the United States , investment advisers often vote proxies on behalf of their client accounts . The United States parliamentary manual Riddick 's Rules of Procedure notes that , under proxy voting , voting for officers should be done by ballot , due to the difficulties involved in authentication if a member simply calls out , `` I cast 17 votes for Mr. X. '' Proxy voting is also an important feature in corporate governance through the proxy statement .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Proxy_voting\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 97954\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Integral Trees Content: The Integral Trees is a 1984 science fiction novel by Larry Niven ( first published as a serial in Analog in 1983 ) . Like much of Niven 's work , the story is heavily influenced by the setting : a gas torus , a ring of air around a neutron star . A sequel , The Smoke Ring , was published in 1987 . It was nominated for the Nebula Award for Best Novel in 1984 , and the Hugo Award for Best Novel in 1985 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Integral_Trees\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 97845\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Proxy (film) Content: Proxy is a 2013 American horror film directed by Zack Parker . The movie had its world premiere on September 10 , 2013 at the Toronto International Film Festival . It stars Alexia Rasmussen as a pregnant young woman who joins a support group after she miscarries due to a vicious attack . The filmmakers describe Proxy as a spiritual successor to the horror film Rosemary 's Baby , and its main character Esther Woodhouse is named after the earlier film 's protagonist Rosemary Woodhouse . Film rights to Proxy were picked up by IFC Midnight shortly after its premiere at the Toronto International Film Festival .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Proxy_(film)\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 97472\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Electric Pink Content: Electric Pink was the final Jade Tree Records recording for The Promise Ring , released in early 2000 featuring four new tracks . `` Strictly Television '' was recorded during the Very Emergency sessions , and sounds more like the band 's older sound , while the other three sounds continued the progression in sound the band was making . `` American Girl '' is the acoustic version of the song , which originally appeared on the Boys + Girls EP .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Electric_Pink\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 97318\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Widow by Proxy Content: Widow by Proxy is a 1919 American silent romantic comedy film produced by Famous Players-Lasky and distributed by Paramount Pictures . It is based on a 1913 Broadway play by Catherine Chisholm Cushing and starred May Irwin . Julia Crawford Ivers provided the scenario and her son James Van Trees was one of the cinematographers . It is not known whether the film currently survives .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Widow_by_Proxy\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 96790\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Walnut Tree Records Content: Walnut Tree Records established in 2007 and closed in 2012 , was a British independent record label which specialised in limited run releases from new and upcoming bands from around the United Kingdom .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Walnut_Tree_Records\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 96756\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Decca tree Content: The Decca Tree is a spaced microphone array most commonly used for orchestral recording . It was originally developed as a sort of stereo A -- B recording method adding a center fill . The technique was developed in the early 1950s and first commercially used in 1954 by Arthur Haddy , Roy Wallace , and later refined by engineer Kenneth Wilkinson , and his team at Decca Records , to provide a strong stereo image .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Decca_tree\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 96724\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Dendrochronology Content: Dendrochronology ( or tree-ring dating ) is the scientific method of dating tree rings ( also called growth rings ) to the exact year they were formed in order to analyze atmospheric conditions during different periods in history . Dendrochronology is useful for determining the timing of events and rates of change in the environment ( most prominently climate ) and also in works of art and architecture , such as old panel paintings on wood , buildings , etc. . It is also used in radiocarbon dating to calibrate radiocarbon ages . New growth in trees occurs in a layer of cells near the bark . A tree 's growth rate changes in a predictable pattern throughout the year in response to seasonal climate changes , resulting in visible growth rings . Each ring marks a complete cycle of seasons , or one year , in the tree 's life . , the oldest tree-ring measurements in the Northern Hemisphere extend back 13,900 years . Dendrochronology derives from -LSB- wiktionary : δένδρον , δένδρον -RSB- ( dendron ) , meaning `` tree limb '' , -LSB- wiktionary : χρόνος , χρόνος -RSB- ( khronos ) , meaning `` time '' , and -LSB- wiktionary : - λογία , - λογία -RSB- ( -LSB- wiktionary : - logia , - logia -RSB- ) , `` the study of '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Dendrochronology\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 95442\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tree Machine Records Content: Tree Machine Records is an independent record label out of Bloomington , Indiana . It was founded in the summer of 2010 by students at Indiana University working to sign new artists and expand Tree Machine 's outreach . It follows no specific genre and has connected with artists across the globe . Notable artists include Living Hour , ! mindparade , co-manager Eazy , Blimp Rock , Jon Dice , Vows , and Living Body . The first production under the label , was co-signed to Gulcher Records and has since received instant recognition in the underground , indie rock world , helping with the founding and early progression of the label . The label is now co-managed across the Atlantic in both Johannesburg , South Africa and Bloomington , Indiana in the U.S. . The genre focus is mostly eclectic with a balance between diverse indie rock and experimental electronic music .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Tree_Machine_Records\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 94248\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Proxy (novel) Content: Proxy is a 2013 sci-fi , dystopian young adult novel by Alex London . The novel , which was released on June 18 , 2013 , features a gay adolescent as its action-hero protagonist . A sequel to the novel has been released in 2014 , Guardian . The novel utilizes a third-person , subjective narration structure that alternates between Knox Brindle and Sydney Carton . London states that he drew inspiration for Proxy from the 1987 book The Whipping Boy , `` where the rich pay for the poor to take their punishments . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Proxy_(novel)\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 93712\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Family Tree Records Content: Family Tree is a South African independent record label started in 2014 by Cassper Nyovest , who currently operates as its CEO . The label 's A&R is handled by Sebastian `` Bash Vision '' Jameson & Jude Oratile Mmolawa .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Family_Tree_Records\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 93601\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wesley Ferguson Content: Wesley Ferguson ( 1922 -- March 24 , 1986 ) was an American academic at the Tree-Ring Research Laboratory at the University of Arizona at Tucson who studied tree-rings . He built a tree-ring sequence from bristlecone pines which was used by Hans Suess to create a calibration curve for radiocarbon dating .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Wesley_Ferguson\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 92900\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: YAD06 Content: YAD06 is a tree located in the Yamal Peninsula of Siberia . A core sample from this tree , YADO61 , provided data used to support hockey stick interpretation of global climate history . The data was originally published in 1995 a paper by Keith Briffa of the Climate Research Unit at the University of East Anglia . The paper asserted that the late Middle Ages , previously described as a `` Medieval Warm Period , '' was actually quite cold . Steve McIntyre has described this tree as possibly `` the most influential tree in the world '' , and publicly accused Briffa of cherry-picking certain tree ring records in order to get a specific result , creating what Michael E. Mann described as a `` manufactured scandal . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"YAD06\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 92035\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Dendroarchaeology Content: Dendroarchaeology is a term used for the study of vegetation remains , old buildings , artifacts , furniture , art and musical instruments using the techniques of dendrochronology ( tree-ring dating ) . It refers to dendrochronological research of wood from the past regardless of its current physical context ( in or above the soil ) . This form of dating is the most accurate and precise absolute dating method available to archaeologists , as the last ring that grew is the first year the tree could have been incorporated into an archaeological structure . Tree-ring dating is useful in that it can contribute to `` chronometric '' , `` environmental '' , and `` behavioral '' archaeological research . The utility of tree-ring dating in an environmental sense is the most applicable of the three in today 's world . Tree rings can be used to `` reconstruct numerous environmental variables '' such as `` temperature '' , `` precipitation '' , `` stream flow '' , `` drought society '' , `` fire frequency and intensity '' , `` insect infestation '' , `` atmospheric circulation patterns '' , among others .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Dendroarchaeology\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 90839\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: T-REX (webserver) Content: T-REX ( website ) ( Tree and Reticulogram Reconstruction ) is a freely available webserver , developed at the department of Computer Science of the Université du Québec à Montréal , dedicated to the inference , validation and visualization of phylogenetic trees and phylogenetic networks . The T-REX web server allows the users to perform several popular methods of phylogenetic analysis as well as some new phylogenetic applications for inferring , drawing and validating phylogenetic trees and networks .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"T-REX_(webserver)\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 90774\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Reconstruction (Hugh Masekela album) Content: Reconstruction is the twelfth studio album by South African jazz trumpeter Hugh Masekela released via Chisa Records label in July 1970 . The album was re-released on CD in 1994 via MoJazz label .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Reconstruction_(Hugh_Masekela_album)\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 90710\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Beta-lactam Ring Records Content: Beta-lactam Ring Records is an American independent record label founded by Chris McBeth in 2000 . The label relocated from its founding city of Austin , Texas to Portland , Oregon in 2001 . The aesthetic focus of the label is psychedelic and experimental music with a global roster of artists representing these genres including Legendary Pink Dots ( including solo work by members of the band such as Edward Ka-spel ) , Nurse With Wound , Current 93 , Green Milk from the Planet Orange , LSD March , Volcano The Bear , Daniel Menche , Eyeless in Gaza , and Vas Deferens Organization . The label specializes in elaborately packaged releases including vinyl albums on 180 to 220 gram high quality vinyl , and cds with highly artistic sleeves and box sets . There have been few if any BLR Records releases in traditional plastic cd jewelcases .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Beta-lactam_Ring_Records\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 90414\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Proxomitron Content: Proxomitron , the Universal Web Filter , is a filtering web proxy written by Scott R. Lemmon . This program was originally designed to run under Windows 95 . All future development of the program was ceased in 2003 just one year before its author 's death on 1 May 2004 ; even so , Proxomitron is still viable and used on modern Windows platforms such as Vista and Windows 7 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Proxomitron\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 89198\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Proxyon Content: Proxyon is a Dutch synthpop project founded by Michiel van der Kuy ( who also worked in similar synthdance projects as Laserdance , Koto , Rygar and Area 51 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Proxyon\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 88907\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Louisiana gubernatorial election, 1979 Content: The Louisiana gubernatorial election of 1979 resulted in the election of David Treen as the first Republican governor of Louisiana since Reconstruction .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Louisiana_gubernatorial_election,_1979\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 88611\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Hudsucker Proxy Content: The Hudsucker Proxy is a 1994 comedy film co-written , produced , and directed by Joel and Ethan Coen . Sam Raimi co-wrote the script and served as second unit director . The film stars Tim Robbins as a naïve business-school graduate who is installed as president of a manufacturing company , Jennifer Jason Leigh as a newspaper reporter , and Paul Newman as a company director who hires the young man as part of a stock scam . The script was finished in 1985 , but production did not start until 1991 , when Joel Silver acquired the script for Silver Pictures . Warner Bros. subsequently agreed to distribute the film , with further financing from PolyGram Filmed Entertainment and Working Title Films . Filming at Carolco Studios in Wilmington , North Carolina lasted from November 1992 to March 1993 . The New York City scale model set was designed by Micheal J. McAlister and Mark Stetson , with further effects provided by The Computer Film Company . Upon its release in March 1994 , The Hudsucker Proxy received mixed reviews from critics .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Hudsucker_Proxy\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 88399\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Strictly Instrumental (album) Content: Recorded over the span of more than 18 months , Strictly Instrumental was the ninth rock and roll album by Bill Haley & His Comets , and their final album of new material for Decca Records ( although Decca would release previously unissued recordings during the 1960s ) . Produced by Milt Gabler ( the last full album he would produce for Haley ) , the album collects instrumental recordings made by Haley and the Comets between June 1958 and their final Decca recording sessions in September 1959 . ( The band subsequently began recording for Warner Bros. . Records in January 1960 . ) As the title of the album suggests , all of the songs on this album were instrumentals , with the exception of some ensemble singing on the track `` Chiquita Linda '' . Bill Haley 's involvement in the recordings was a matter of conjecture until research for the Bear Family Records box set The Decca Years and More in the early 1990s confirmed his presence . Recording session information compiled by music historian Chris Gardner reveals that three different bass guitar players are heard on the varying tracks : Al Rex , Al Pompilli and Al Rappa . The album contains the Franny Beecher and Billy Williamson composition `` The Catwalk '' , `` Shaky '' , also composed by Franny Beecher and Billy Williamson , and `` Two Shadows '' , composed by pianist Johnny Grande and Billy Williamson . The album contained two chart hits : `` Joey 's Song '' , which made the charts in 1959 , reaching no. 35 on Cashbox , no. 46 on Billboard , no. 26 on the Canadian charts , and which was no. 1 for 8 weeks on the Australian charts ( December 12 , 1959-January 30 , 1960 ) based on the Kent Music Report , and `` Skokiaan '' , which became one of the band 's last new Decca North American charting recordings when it was released as a single in 1960 . The Warner Brothers release `` Tamiami '' would reach no. 79 on Cashbox on March 12 , 1960 . `` Joey 's Song '' was no. 2 on the year-end Top 25 Singles of 1959 list in Australia based on the Kent Music Report . `` Shaky '' , written by Franny Beecher and Billy Williamson , was also released as a single from the album by Decca in 1959 . This album also featured Haley 's last recordings to be produced by Milt Gabler , with the exception of a single ( `` The Green Door '' / `` Yeah , She 's Evil ! '' ) recorded for Decca in 1964 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Strictly_Instrumental_(album)\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 88081\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Alan Mitchell Content: Alan F. Mitchell ( 4 November 1922 -- 3 August 1995 ) was a British forester , dendrologist and botanist , and author of several books on trees . He almost single-handedly measured every notable tree in the British Isles , founding the Tree Register of the British Isles ( T.R.O.B.I. ) , which held records of over 100,000 individual notable trees at the time of his death . During the Second World War , he served with the Fleet Air Arm in the Far East . Returning by troop ship in the Red Sea at the end of the war , he pondered his future and decided it would be trees . In 1976 , the Royal Forestry Society of England , Wales , and Northern Ireland awarded him its Medal for Distinguished Service to Forestry ( Gold Medal ) during a Society meeting at Westonbirt . ( From a tribute by Esmond Harris , Quarterly Journal of Forestry , January 1996 , page 67 ) . His 1987 book The Guide to Trees of Canada and North America is dedicated to his sister Christine . The book makes occasional oblique reference to a trip to North America in 1976 . Mitchell 's Rule states : `` If there are tree stumps or felled trunks nearby , count the annual growth rings and measure the trunk circumference to find local growth rates '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Alan_Mitchell\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 88044\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Gordon Manley Content: Gordon Valentine Manley , FRGS ( 3 January 1902 -- 29 January 1980 ) was an English climatologist who has been described as `` probably the best known , most prolific and most expert on the climate of Britain of his generation '' . He assembled the Central England temperature ( CET ) series of monthly mean temperatures stretching back to 1659 , which is the longest standardised instrumental record available for anywhere in the world . It provides a benchmark for proxy records of climatic change for the period covered , and is a notable example of scientific scholarship and perseverance ( it took over thirty years to complete ) . His two papers describing the work are available online .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Gordon_Manley\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 88014\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: TLS termination proxy Content: A TLS termination proxy ( or SSL termination proxy ) is a proxy server that is used by an institution to handle incoming TLS connections , decrypting the TLS and passing on the unencrypted request to the institution 's other servers ( it is assumed that the institution 's own network is secure so the user 's session data does not need to be encrypted on that part of the link ) . TLS termination proxies are used to reduce the load on the main servers by offloading the cryptographic processing to another machine , and to support servers that do not support TLS , like Varnish .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"TLS_termination_proxy\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 87501\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Delerium Records Content: Delerium Records was a British independent record label , that specialised in psychedelic music and which existed from 1991 to 2003 , and was notable in promoting the careers of bands including Porcupine Tree , Ozric Tentacles , Kava Kava , Mandragora , Sons of Selina and Moom and for starting the Freak Emporium and Molten Records .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Delerium_Records\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 87353\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Proxy Networks, Inc. Content: Proxy Networks , Inc. is a provider of Remote Desktop Software and remote collaboration software designed for help desk technicians , network administrators , and IT managers . Proxy Networks software has been used by US government agencies , multinational corporations , and is distributed worldwide by vendors ; the company 's remote access , remote control , and remote management tools are especially geared towards SMBs and enterprises in the legal , healthcare , education , government , financial services , and professional services sectors . Proxy Networks produces the PROXY Pro software series , which consists of four editions . The company was formed in 2006 by a venture capital-backed acquisition from Juniper Networks . Headquartered in Boston , Massachusetts , Proxy Networks is led by CEO Andy Kim .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Proxy_Networks,_Inc.\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 86952\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of oldest trees Content: This is a list of the oldest known trees , as reported in reliable sources . Definitions of what constitutes an individual tree vary . In addition , tree ages are derived from a variety of sources , including documented `` tree-ring '' count core samples , and from estimates . For these reasons , this article presents three lists of `` oldest trees , '' each using varying criteria . There are three tables of trees , which are listed by age and species . The first table includes trees for which a minimum age has been directly determined , either through counting or cross-referencing tree rings or through radiocarbon dating . Many of these trees may be even older than their listed ages , but the oldest wood in the tree has rotted away . For some old trees , so much of the centre is missing that their age can not be directly determined . Instead , estimates are made based on the tree 's size and presumed growth rate . The second table includes trees with these estimated ages . The last table lists clonal colonies in which no individual tree trunks may be remarkably old but in which the organism as a whole is thought to be very old . The current record-holders for individual , non-clonal trees are the Great Basin bristlecone pine trees from California and Nevada , in the United States . Through tree-ring cross-referencing , they have been shown to be more than five millennia old . A clonal colony can survive for much longer than an individual tree . A colony of 47,000 quaking aspen trees ( nicknamed `` Pando '' ) , covering 106 acre in the Fishlake National Forest of Utah , is considered one of the oldest and largest organisms in the world . The colony has been estimated to be 80,000 years old , although tree ring samples date individual , above-ground , trees at only an average of about 130 years . A colony of Huon pine trees covering 2.5 acre on Mount Read , Tasmania is estimated to be around 10,000 years old , as determined by DNA samples taken from pollen collected from the sediment of a nearby lake . Individual trees in this group date to no more than 4,000 years old , as determined by tree ring samples .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_oldest_trees\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 86920\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Instrumental temperature record Content: The instrumental temperature record provides the temperature of Earth 's climate system from the historical network of in situ measurements of surface air temperatures and ocean surface temperatures . Data are collected at thousands of meteorological stations , buoys and ships around the globe . The longest-running temperature record is the Central England temperature data series , that starts in 1659 . The longest-running quasi-global record starts in 1850 . In recent decades more extensive sampling of ocean temperatures at various depths have begun allowing estimates of ocean heat content but these do not form part of the global surface temperature datasets .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Instrumental_temperature_record\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 86232\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: CoDeeN Content: CoDeeN is a proxy server system created at Princeton University in 2003 and deployed for general use on PlanetLab . It operates as per the following : Users set their internet caches to a nearby high bandwidth proxy that participates in the system . Requests to that proxy are then forwarded to an appropriate member of the system that is in charge of the file ( should be caching it ) and that has sent recent updates showing that it is still alive . The file is forwarded to the proxy and thence to the client . What this means for normal users is that if you use this and a server is slow , however the content is cached on the system , then ( after the first upload ) requests to that file will be fast . It also means that the request will not be satisfied by the original server , equivalent to free bandwidth . For rare files this system could be slightly slower than downloading the file itself . Especially for non-cacheable content , you may as well go to the origin host . The system 's speed is also subject to the constraint of number of participating proxies . For the case of large files requested by many peers , it uses a kind of ` multi-cast stream ' from one peer to the others , which then distribute out to their respective proxies . CoBlitz , a CDN technology firm ( 2006 -- 2009 ) , was a take-off of this , in that files are not saved in the web cache of a single member of the proxy-system , but are instead saved piece-wise across several members , and ` gathered up ' when they are requested . This allows for more sharing of disk space among proxies , and for higher fault tolerance . To access this system , URLs were prefixed with http://coblitz.codeen.org/ . Verivue Inc. acquired CoBlitz in October 2010 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"CoDeeN\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 86046\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 774–775 carbon-14 spike Content: The 774 -- 775 Carbon-14 Spike is an observed increase of 1.2 % in the concentration of carbon-14 isotope in tree rings dated to the years 774 or 775 AD , which is about 20 times as high as the normal background rate of variation . It was discovered during a study of Japanese cedar trees , with the year of occurrence determined through dendrochronology . A surge in beryllium isotope 10Be , detected in Antarctic ice cores , has also been associated with the 774 -- 775 event . The event appears to have been global , with the same carbon-14 signal found in tree rings from Germany , Russia , the United States , and New Zealand . The signal exhibits a sharp increase of ~ 1.2 % followed by a slow decline ( see Figure 1 ) , which is typical for an instant production of carbon-14 in the atmosphere , indicating that the event was short in duration . The globally averaged production of carbon-14 for this event is calculated as Q = ( 1.1-1 .5 ) × 108 atoms/cm2 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"774–775_carbon-14_spike\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 85983\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Labour party proxy and undeclared donations (2007) Content: The Labour party proxy and undeclared donations was a political scandal involving the British Labour Party in November and December 2007 , when it was discovered that , contrary to legislation passed during the Blair Government , the Party had been receiving significant financial donations made anonymously via third parties . The careers of Labour Party treasurer Peter Watt and the leader of the Scottish Labour Party , Wendy Alexander , were curtailed as a consequence . In May 2009 the Crown Prosecution Service decided there was insufficient evidence for any prosecution relating to these events .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Labour_party_proxy_and_undeclared_donations_(2007)\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 85194\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: United States gubernatorial elections, 1979 Content: United States gubernatorial elections were held in the fall of 1979 , in three states and one territory . Republicans gained one gubernatorial seat in this year with Dave Treen 's victory in Louisiana who as a result became the first Republican Governor of that state since Reconstruction . Treen led a field of six major candidates in the October 27 primary , and narrowly edged state senator Louis Lambert in the December 8 general election ( or `` runoff '' ) . Democrats held control of the governor 's mansions in Kentucky and Mississippi in the November 6 general elections .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"United_States_gubernatorial_elections,_1979\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 85184\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pdnsd Content: pdnsd is a caching DNS proxy server created originally by Thomas Moestl and currently maintained by Paul Rombouts . pdnsd is configurable by a config file or using the program pdns-ctl that comes with the package . Unlike BIND , pdnsd stores cached DNS records on disk for long term retention and will not purge the cache upon program startup or shutdown . pdnsd is designed to be highly adaptable to situations where net connectivity is slow , unreliable , unavailable , or highly dynamic , as is the case with Wi-Fi hotspots or dialup internet . This program also has limited capability of acting as an authoritative nameserver for a local DNS zone within a private network . The program is released under the GNU General Public License ( GPL ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Pdnsd\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 85174\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: No.6 Records Content: No. 6 Records was an independent record label , started in 1989 as a subsidiary of Rough Trade Records by A&R representative and booking agent Terry Tolkin . Their early releases of note include The Bridge : A Tribute to Neil Young , which received a four star review in Rolling Stone , featuring exclusive tracks from highly influential indie and grunge bands Psychic TV , Sonic Youth , The Flaming Lips , Soul Asylum , and The Pixies , and Guitarrorists featuring members of Dinosaur Jr. , Babes in Toyland , and Big Black . No. 6 Records later became associated with Elektra Records , continuing to release albums and EPs by alternative rock bands including Luna , Vegetarian Meat ( band ) , Afghan Whigs , Tindersticks , Charles Douglas , Unrest , Jennyanykind , Jule Brown , and Nada Surf . The label was disbanded in 1999 after ten years and fifty releases . In April 2009 Teenbeat Records released a compilation of all the No. 6 Records 7 '' singles , entitled Speed Dating : The No. 6 Records Compendium . Category : American independent record labels Category : Record labels established in 1989\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"No.6_Records\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 85102\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Jade Tree (record label) Content: Jade Tree International , Inc. is an independent record label formed by Darren Walters and Tim Owen in 1990 in Wilmington , Delaware .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Jade_Tree_(record_label)\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 85000\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Big Tree Records Content: Big Tree Records was a record label founded by current Sony Music Entertainment chairman Doug Morris in 1970 . They were best known for releases by Lobo , England Dan & John Ford Coley , Brownsville Station , Johnny Rivers , Dave and Ansel Collins , and British R&B group Hot Chocolate . The label was initially distributed by Ampex Records from 1970 to 1971 , and then by Bell Records from 1972 to 1973 . Morris sold the label to Atlantic Records in 1974 , and became co-chairman of Atlantic . The label continued to operate as a subsidiary of Atlantic , until Atlantic shut the label down in 1980 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Big_Tree_Records\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 84847\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: DR Class 52.80 Content: The Rekolokomotives of DR Class 52.80 first appeared in 1960 in service with the Deutsche Reichsbahn in East Germany as extensive rebuilds of the wartime locomotives or Kriegslokomotiven of DRB Class 52 . This modernisation , described as ` reconstruction ' ( Rekonstruktion , hence Rekolokomotive ) , extended to almost all of the components and systems on the engine .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"DR_Class_52.80\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 84837\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: A. E. Douglass Content: A. E. ( Andrew Ellicott ) Douglass ( July 5 , 1867 in Windsor , Vermont -- March 20 , 1962 in Tucson , Arizona ) was an American astronomer . He discovered a correlation between tree rings and the sunspot cycle , and founded the discipline of dendrochronology , which is a method of dating wood by analyzing the growth ring pattern . He started his discoveries in this field in 1894 when he was working at the Lowell Observatory . During this time he was an assistant to Percival Lowell , but fell out with him when his experiments made him doubt the existence of artificial `` canals '' on Mars and visible cusps on Venus . Craters on the Moon and Mars are named in his honor .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"A._E._Douglass\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 84823\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Dave Treen Content: David Conner `` Dave '' Treen , Sr. ( July 16 , 1928 -- October 29 , 2009 ) , was an American attorney and politician from Mandeville , St. Tammany Parish , Louisiana . In 1979 he was elected as the first Republican Governor of the U.S. state of Louisiana since Reconstruction . It was a sign of changing party affiliations among white conservatives in the state , who have comprised a majority of the population since at least 1900 . In 1972 Treen was the first Republican elected in modern times from this state to the U.S. House of Representatives . The long absence of Republicans from state positions , from the turn of the century through much of the 1960s , was due to the party having been hollowed out by the Democrats passing a new constitution in 1898 that disenfranchised most African Americans in the state , who made up 47 % of the population in 1900 . But by 1900 , two years after the new constitution , only 5,320 black voters were registered in the state , despite their advances in education and literacy . They had constituted the majority of Republican Party members in the 19th century after gaining the franchise as freedmen and citizens in the post-Civil War years . Treen served as governor from 1980 -- 84 . He lost his bid in 1983 for reelection to his popular long-time rival , Democrat Edwin Edwards , who was returning after two previous terms . Treen had earlier been elected to Congress in 1972 , serving from 1973-80 . Treen grew up as a Democrat , but joined the Republican Party in 1962 . At the time , there were about 10,000 registered Republicans in the state ; African Americans , who had previously made up most of the party members , were still mostly disenfranchised . By the time of Treen 's death in 2009 , only a few other living Louisiana Republicans had exceeded his length of tenure in the Republican Party .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Dave_Treen\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 84269\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Reconstruction (band) Content: Reconstruction was a band formed in 1978 by John Kahn initially to occupy him while Jerry Garcia , his long-time musical collaborator , was busy with the Grateful Dead . The band 's original guitar player was Jerry Miller , best known for performing with Moby Grape . In March 1979 , Garcia took over guitar duties officially . The band performed while the Grateful Dead was on a brief hiatus , switching keyboard players from Keith Godchaux to Brent Mydland , and continued well into 1979 . The band varied its styles from previous Garcia/Kahn/Saunders collaborations to more of a disco and jazz sound .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Reconstruction_(band)\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 84163\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coronary Reconstruction Content: Coronary Reconstruction is an EP by the Belgian death metal band Aborted , released on March 2 , 2010 through Century Media Records . The album is the first to be recorded with the band 's new 2009 line-up , and was released mainly as a digital EP , with only 1,000 physical copies made . The song `` Coronary Reconstruction '' contains audio samples from the film Hellbound : Hellraiser II .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Coronary_Reconstruction\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 83699\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Magic Christmas Tree Content: The Magic Christmas Tree is a 1964 American Christmas-themed fantasy-adventure film about a boy who uses a magic ring to bring a Christmas tree to life . The tree then grants the boy three wishes .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Magic_Christmas_Tree\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 83402\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Imaginary Records Content: Imaginary Records was an independent record label based in Heywood , Greater Manchester , England , which specialised mainly in indie rock and post-punk . It was started in 1985 by Alan Duffy , known for his lyrical contributions to Porcupine Tree 's first two albums , On the Sunday of Life and Up the Downstair , and Andy Hopkins . The label released many albums by the Chameleons and related bands , including the Reegs , and Mark Burgess ' Zima Junction . The label also released a number of artist tribute albums , on which contemporary acts recorded cover versions of influential artists such as Captain Beefheart , the Velvet Underground , the Byrds , Syd Barrett , the Kinks , and Nick Drake , leading to Duffy being described as a `` tribute entrepreneur '' . Contributors to this series of albums included Sonic Youth , the Membranes , Nirvana , Echo & the Bunnymen , XTC , Dinosaur Jr. , Ride , Screaming Trees and Buffalo Tom . The albums were released in the US by Communion Records .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Imaginary_Records\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 83364\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ice core Content: An ice core is a core sample that is typically removed from an ice sheet , most commonly from the polar ice caps of Antarctica , Greenland or from high mountain glaciers elsewhere . As the ice forms from the incremental buildup of annual layers of snow , lower layers are older than upper , and an ice core contains ice formed over a range of years . The properties of the ice and the recrystallized inclusions within the ice can then be used to reconstruct a climatic record over the age range of the core , normally through isotopic analysis . This enables the reconstruction of local temperature records and the history of atmospheric composition . Ice cores contain an abundance of information about climate . Inclusions in the snow of each year remain in the ice , such as wind-blown dust , ash , pollen , bubbles of atmospheric gas and radioactive substances . The variety of climatic proxies is greater than in any other natural recorder of climate , such as tree rings or sediment layers . These include ( proxies for ) temperature , ocean volume , precipitation , chemistry and gas composition of the lower atmosphere , volcanic eruptions , solar variability , sea-surface productivity , desert extent and forest fires . The length of the record depends on the depth of the ice core and varies from a few years up to 800 kyr ( 800,000 years ) for the EPICA core . The time resolution ( i.e. the shortest time period which can be accurately distinguished ) depends on the amount of annual snowfall , and reduces with depth as the ice compacts under the weight of layers accumulating on top of it . Upper layers of ice in a core correspond to a single year or sometimes a single season . Deeper into the ice the layers thin and annual layers become indistinguishable . An ice core from the right site can be used to reconstruct an uninterrupted and detailed climate record extending over hundreds of thousands of years , providing information on a wide variety of aspects of climate at each point in time . It is the simultaneity of these properties recorded in the ice that makes ice cores such a powerful tool in paleoclimate research .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Ice_core\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 83299\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Reconstruction (album) Content: Reconstruction is an album by Max Romeo , released in 1977 . Shortly after recording critically acclaimed War ina Babylon , Max Romeo broke up with his producer Lee `` Scratch '' Perry on professional ground , what prompted him to self-produce his next album . Reconstruction did not match the success of its predecessor and in 1978 Romeo left Jamaica .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Reconstruction_(album)\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 83244\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: John S. Treen Content: John Speir Treen ( born February 5 , 1926 ) is a retired homebuilder from Metairie in Jefferson Parish , Louisiana , who lost a 1989 special election for the Louisiana House of Representatives to the former Ku Klux Klansman David Duke . Treen is the older brother of David C. Treen , the first Republican governor of Louisiana since Reconstruction .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"John_S._Treen\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 83071\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: What Are Records? Content: What Are Records ? ( or W.A.R. ? ) is an independent record label located in Boulder , CO. . Founded in New York City in 1991 by owner Rob Gordon ( former director of A&R at EMI . ) , the company relocated to Boulder in 1994 . W.A.R. ? has released over 100 records of a diverse group of artists including Frank Black ( of the Pixies ) , Bill Burr , Stephen Lynch , The Samples , Maceo Parker , Melissa Ferrick , and Whitest Kids U ' Know . The mission of W.A.R. ? is to sign few acts to devote the company 's resources to them , be truly independent , and to be aligned with the company 's artists in every aspect of career development .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"What_Are_Records?\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 83050\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bibliography of the Reconstruction Era Content: This is a selected bibliography of the main scholarly books and articles of Reconstruction , the period after the American Civil War , 1863 -- 1877 ( or 1865 to 1877 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Bibliography_of_the_Reconstruction_Era\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 82936\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Napkin ring cylinder Content: A napkin ring cylinder is a format of phonograph cylinder manufactured and marketed by the Columbia Phonograph Company in 1904 and 1905 . They were of standard diameter , but only measured 1.5 inches in length . Primarily they were marketed for home recordings , at one-third the price of a standard-length cylinder , to be placed in an `` voice album '' , where family members or visitors to a home could leave a 30-second message , and a place was made on the container lid in which a photograph of the individual making the recording could be placed . The napkin ring cylinders were also used as a marketing tool at the 1904 St. Louis Exposition and the 1905 Lewis and Clark Centennial Exposition where visitors to Columbia 's booth were given the opportunity to make and be given a record without charge . On occasion , a record made by an entertainer at the booth could be acquired instead . Surviving examples are very scarce . Some of the very earliest wax cylinder records were also noted to have been similar in dimension to a napkin ring .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Napkin_ring_cylinder\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 82766\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Proxy Governance, Inc. Content: Proxy Governance , Inc. , was one of four prominent independent proxy advisory services ( proxy firm ) in the United States . ( The others are Glass Lewis & Co. , Egan-Jones Proxy Services and Institutional Shareholder Services , Inc. ) As such , it provided proxy voting recommendations on U.S. and non-U.S. publicly reporting companies . Additionally , it provided an online voting platform that permits clients to vote their shares . The company was often quoted in the media when they issue recommendations to shareholders during high-profile proxy fights , and in cases involving proposed mergers and acquisitions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Proxy_Governance,_Inc.\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 82529\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Reconstruction (2001 film) Content: Reconstruction is a 2001 documentary made by Irene Lusztig that investigates the Ioanid Gang bank heist committed in 1959 in Communist Romania . The film focuses on Monica Sevianu , Lusztig 's grandmother , and the only female involved in the heist . The documentary gets its name from a propaganda film that was made by the Romanian government three years after the robbery was committed . The original Reconstruction was a strange blend of documentary and fiction , where the criminals played themselves in a crime-film whose plot was driven by clues that self-congratulatory detectives pieced together . The propaganda film was only screened to journalists and high-ranking communist officials before being buried beneath government files . Lusztig managed to find a copy and incorporates clips into her documentary .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Reconstruction_(2001_film)\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 82528\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Resolution by Proxy Content: Resolution by Proxy ( ResProx ) is a method for assessing the equivalent X-ray resolution of NMR-derived protein structures . ResProx calculates resolution from coordinate data rather than from electron density or other experimental inputs . This makes it possible to calculate the resolution of a structure regardless of how it was solved ( X-ray , NMR , EM , modeling , ab initio prediction ) . ResProx was originally designed to serve as a simple , single-number evaluation that allows straightforward comparison between the quality/resolution of X-ray structures and the quality of a given NMR structure . However , it can also be used to assess the reliability of an experimentally reported X-ray structure resolution , to evaluate protein structures solved by unconventional or hybrid means and to identify fraudulent structures deposited in the PDB . ResProx incorporates more than 25 different structural features to determine a single resolution-like value . ResProx values are reported in Angstroms . Tests on thousands of X-ray structures show that ResProx values match very closely to resolution values reported by X-ray crystallographers . Resolution-by-proxy values can be calculated for newly determined protein structures using a freely accessible ResProx web server . This server accepts protein coordinate data ( in PDB format ) and generates a resolution estimate ( in Angstroms ) for that input structure .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Resolution_by_Proxy\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 82432\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Push Proxy Gateway Content: A Push Proxy Gateway is a component of WAP Gateways that pushes URL notifications to mobile handsets . Notifications typically include MMS , email , IM , ringtone downloads , and new device firmware notifications . Most notifications will have an audible alert to the user of the device . The notification will typically be a text string with a URL link . Note that only a notification is pushed to the device ; the device must do something with the notification in order to download or view the content associated with it .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Push_Proxy_Gateway\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 82387\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Reconstruction Finance Corporation Content: The Reconstruction Finance Corporation ( RFC ) was a government corporation in the United States between 1932 and 1957 that provided financial support to state and local governments and made loans to banks , railroads , mortgage associations , and other businesses . Its purpose was to boost the country 's confidence and help banks resume daily functions after the start of the Great Depression . The RFC became more prominent under the New Deal and continued to operate through World War II . It was disbanded in 1957 , when the US government concluded that it no longer needed to stimulate lending . The RFC was an independent agency of the United States government , and fully owned and operated by the government . The idea was suggested by Eugene Meyer of the Federal Reserve Board of Governors , recommended by President Hoover , and established by Congress in 1932 . It was modeled after the War Finance Corporation of World War I . In total , it gave $ 2 billion in aid to state and local governments and made a large number of loans , nearly all of which were repaid . The agency played a major role in recapitalizing banks in the 1930s and it was effective in reducing bank failures and stimulating bank lending . It also helped to set up relief programs that were taken over by the New Deal in 1933 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Reconstruction_Finance_Corporation\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 82294\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tree (TVXQ album) Content: Tree ( stylized as TREE ) is the seventh Japanese studio album ( fourteenth overall ) by South Korean pop duo Tohoshinki , released by Avex Trax on March 5 , 2014 . The record was released in four physical versions , each with a seasonal theme cover -- Version A ( Spring/Summer ) , a CD+DVD version with music videos ; Version B ( Autumn ) , another CD+DVD version with off-shot movies ; Version C ( Winter ) , a CD only version with two bonus tracks ; and Version D , a fan club limited edition with a CD-Extra . Musically , Tree is a varied pop music album that is influenced by a broad range of musical genres , such as electronic dance music , hip hop , R&B , swing jazz , rock music , power ballads , and reggae . Recording for the album began well before the launch of their sixth Japanese studio album Time in early 2013 . Tree was Tohoshinki 's fourth consecutive album to debut at number one on the Oricon Albums Chart and the Billboard Japan Top Albums , selling 225,000 copies on its first week of release . With Tree , Tohoshinki became the first foreign group in Japan to have three consecutive studio albums with first-week sales of over 200,000 copies , breaking Bon Jovi 's thirteen-year record . Less than four weeks after release , the album earned a platinum certification by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) for shipments of over 250,000 copies . All four of the album 's commercially successful singles -- `` Ocean '' , `` Scream '' , `` Very Merry Xmas '' , and `` Hide & Seek / Something '' -- debuted at number two on the Oricon Singles Chart and achieved gold certifications by the RIAJ . To promote the album , Tohoshinki embarked on their seventh nationwide tour , Tree : Live Tour 2014 from April to June 2014 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Tree_(TVXQ_album)\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 82067\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Proxyfan Content: Proxyfan is a histamine H3 receptor ligand which is a `` protean agonist '' , producing different effects ranging from full agonist , to antagonist , to inverse agonist in different tissues , depending on the level of constitutive activity of the histamine H3 receptor . This gives it a complex activity profile in vivo which has proven useful for scientific research .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Proxyfan\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 82030\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Roxy by Proxy Content: Roxy by Proxy is a live album by Frank Zappa , recorded in 1973 and released posthumously in 2014 by The Zappa Family Trust on Zappa Records . Ruth Underwood takes the listener on stage at the performances in her song by song liner notes .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Roxy_by_Proxy\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 82028\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Singing Ringing Tree Content: The Singing Ringing Tree ( Das singende , klingende Bäumchen ) was a children 's film made by East German studio DEFA in 1957 and shown in the form of a television series by the BBC . It was a story in the style of the Brothers Grimm , directed by Francesco Stefani .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Singing_Ringing_Tree\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 81874\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Trees (folk band) Content: Trees was an English folk rock band that existed between 1970 and 1973 . Although the group met with little commercial success in their time , the reputation of the band has grown over the years . Like other folk contemporaries , Trees ' music was influenced by Fairport Convention , but with a heavier and more psychedelic edge . The group 's material was divided between adaptations of traditional songs and original compositions . Trees produced two studio albums , both in 1970 , The Garden of Jane Delawney and On The Shore . The latter featured cover artwork by the Hipgnosis studio . The original band disbanded after recording the two albums . A second Trees incarnation formed and played until 1973 ; this group featured Celia Humphris , Barry Clarke , David Costa , Barry Lyons ( ex-Mr Fox ) , Alun Eden ( also ex-Mr Fox ) and Chuck Fleming ( ex-JSD Band ) . Recordings by this line-up can be found on bootleg releases . Both studio albums have been released on CD . In addition , a deluxe two disc edition of On the Shore was released in 2007 , containing previously unreleased material . A new edition of the debut album followed in 2008 , also containing previously unreleased material as well as some new recordings . Celia Humphris went on to become a voice artist and has provided vocals for Dodson and Fogg , a folk-rock project released in 2012 and most recently , been guest vocalist on Galley Beggar 's 2017 album ` Heathen Hymns ' , released on Rise Above Records .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Trees_(folk_band)\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 81782\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 993–994 carbon-14 spike Content: The 993 -- 994 carbon-14 spike was a rapid increase in carbon-14 content from tree rings , and followed the 774 -- 775 carbon-14 spike . This event is also confirmed by a sharp increase of beryllium-10 and hence considered as solar-origin . It may have come from a massive solar storm as a series of auroral observations are known to be observed in late 992 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"993–994_carbon-14_spike\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 81652\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Brass Ring Content: The Brass Ring was a group of American studio musicians led by saxophonist and arranger Phil Bodner . They were based in New York City and were stylistically similar to The Tijuana Brass , The Brass Buttons , the Baja Marimba Band and other `` Now Sound '' instrumental pop groups from the 1960s , although the twin-sax sound more closely resembles Billy Vaughn , whose biggest hits were in the 1950s . In addition to several successful albums , they had two hit singles . The first , `` The Phoenix Love Theme ( Senza Fine ) '' , was used in the movie The Flight of the Phoenix , and hit # 32 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 in 1966 . The second , `` The Dis-Advantages of You '' , written by Mitch Leigh , was used in a series of commercials for Benson & Hedges cigarettes , and hit # 36 in March 1967 . Numerous other singles hit Billboard 's Easy Listening chart , and a non-chart single , `` Love In The Open Air '' , is prized by collectors , as it is a cover of a little-known composition by Paul McCartney . The group recorded until at least 1972 on Enoch Light 's Project 3 label .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Brass_Ring\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 81638\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Instrumentals (T-Pain album) Content: The Instrumentals is a compilation album containing instrumentals of select songs composed and performed by musician T-Pain . It was first released for digital download at Amazon.com on August 21 , 2009 . The tracks were available for purchase on iTunes just four days later . The songs that are released as instrumentals come from all albums by T-Pain , including Rappa Ternt Sanga , Epiphany , and Thr33 Ringz . The songs are uploaded on T-Pain 's official MySpace profile .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Instrumentals_(T-Pain_album)\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 81224\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Recordings (album) Content: Recordings is a compilation album by British progressive rock band Porcupine Tree , first released in May 2001 . It is mainly a collection of b-sides and unreleased songs from the Stupid Dream and Lightbulb Sun albums ' recording sessions . Recordings was originally a limited release , limited to only 20,000 copies worldwide . It was later reissued on CD in September , 2010 , and as double vinyl ( 2000 copies only ) in January 2011 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Recordings_(album)\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 81141\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 30° Everywhere Content: 30 ° Everywhere is the debut full-length album from the American emo band The Promise Ring . Released in 1996 on Jade Tree Records . It was released on CD and a limited pressing of 500 copies each on colored gray and white vinyl .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"30°_Everywhere\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 80879\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cool tropics paradox Content: The cool tropics paradox refers to an apparent difference between modeled estimates of tropical temperatures during warm , ice-free periods of the Cretaceous and Eocene , and the colder temperatures which proxies suggested were present . The long-standing paradox was resolved when novel proxy derived temperatures showed significantly warmer tropics during past greenhouse climates . The low-gradient problem , i.e. the very warm polar regions with respect to present day , is still an issue for state-of-the-art climate models .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Cool_tropics_paradox\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 80755\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Proxy Husband Content: Proxy Husband is a 1919 American silent short film directed by and starring William Garwood .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Proxy_Husband\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 80682\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Family Health Care Decisions Act Content: The Family Health Care Decisions Act is a statute adopted in New York state in 2010 that had been pending before the legislature since 1994 . The statute was approved by the New York State Senate in July , 2009 . The legislation was introduced by state senator Thomas Duane of Manhattan . It was signed into law by Gov. David Paterson on March 16 , 2010 . The law adds new Articles 29-CC and 29-CCC to the Public Health Law and amends other existing sections of the laws of the State . It allows the relatives of incapacitated patients to make medical decisions for their family members in the absence of a living will or health care proxy . Currently , all other states except for Missouri permit such surrogacy . Advocates have called the bill the `` most important piece of medical legislation since lawmakers legalized health care proxies in 1990 . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Family_Health_Care_Decisions_Act\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 80634\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sky and Trees Records Content: Sky and Trees Records is a record label set up by United Kingdom band Chumbawamba in 1983 . The band used the label to release and distribute a number of cassettes and booklets by themselves ( see also Cassette Culture ) , including their early demo recordings Be Happy Despite It All ( 1983 ) , Another Year Of The same Old Shit ( 1984 ) and the ` cassette single ' `` Common Ground '' ( 1984 ) , which was a benefit for striking miners ( see UK miners ' strike ( 1984-1985 ) ) . They also released material by other anarcho-punk performers , including their ` sister ' band The Passion Killers , Antidote and an animal rights benefit compilation , The Animals Packet . The only vinyl release on Sky and Trees was Chumbawamba singer Danbert Nobacon 's solo album The Unfairy Tale ( 1985 ) . In 1985 Chumbawamba founded Agit-Prop Records , which served as the vehicle for their future releases until they gained a record contract with One Little Indian , and later , controversially , signed to EMI .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Sky_and_Trees_Records\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 80580\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Reconstruction Agency Content: The is an administrative body of the Cabinet of Japan established on February 2 , 2012 to coordinate reconstruction activities related to the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami and Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Reconstruction_Agency\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 80437\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Smoke Ring (novel) Content: The Smoke Ring is a 1987 science fiction novel by Larry Niven . Like much of Niven 's work , the story is heavily influenced by the setting : a gas torus , a ring of air around a neutron star . It is a sequel to The Integral Trees '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Smoke_Ring_(novel)\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 80271\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Artemis Complex Content: The Artemis Complex is the debut album for Interface , released in January 1999 . Originally self-pressed and intended to be sold independently , it was n't long before Tinman Records signed Interface to a distribution deal . Between the album 's release and the band 's increasing marketing presence on the internet , Interface 's fanbase grew accordingly . Tinman also lifted the track `` Frantic '' for their compilation CD Ringworm V1 in early 1999 . It received favorable reviews in publications like `` DAMN ! '' magazine and the Long Island Press . Overall , the album 's raw , gritty sound is reminiscent of mid 1990 's electro-industrial , combining definitive recordings of tracks heard on earlier demo tapes with newer dance tracks and atmospheric instrumentals . The album was mainly performed , produced , and recorded by Eric Eldredge in the fall of 1998 . It includes two of the band 's most enduring songs , `` Metalstorm '' and `` The Softest Blade '' . The album 's name comes from an article in a psychology magazine about women 's behavior patterns when expecting negative results from romantic relationships before they occur . The cover was designed by photo artist Kim Lauer , and depicts a heavily manipulated image of the Greek goddess Artemis . With the now-defunct Tinman label 's quantities depleted , the original album is now out of print .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Artemis_Complex\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 80133\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Rural Reconstruction Movement Content: The Rural Reconstruction Movement was started in China in the 1920s by Y.C. James Yen , Liang Shuming and others to revive the Chinese village . They strove for a middle way , independent of the Nationalist government but in competition with the radical revolutionary approach to the village espoused by Mao Zedong and the Chinese Communist Party .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Rural_Reconstruction_Movement\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 80010\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Treehouse Records Content: Treehouse Records may refer to : Treehouse Records , a Nashville-based record label established in 2009 by Morris Management Group 's Dale Morris , Clint Higham and Mike Betterton , through a partnership with Front Line Management CEO Irving Azoff . First major artist signed : Blaine Larsen . Oar Folkjokeopus , a former Minneapolis . Minnesota record store which served as headquarters for 1980s-1990s indie record label `` Treehouse Records ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"Treehouse_Records\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 79998\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Tree Register Content: The Tree Register , or more fully , the Tree Register of the British Isles ( T.R.O.B.I. ) , is a registered charity collating and updating a database of notable trees throughout Britain and Ireland . It comprises a computer database with details of more than 150,000 trees . It contains data from the original hand-written records of the late and internationally acclaimed dendrologist Alan Mitchell , and other historical records taken from reference works going back more than 200 years . Recent height and girth measurements can be compared to those recorded by the likes of Loudon ( 1830s ) , Elwes and Henry ( early 1900s ) and the Hon. Maynard Greville ( 1950s ) , providing a valuable record of growth rates . The Tree Register was one of the founders of the Ancient Tree Hunt campaign .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Tree_Register\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 79929\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Sweetheart Tree Content: The Sweetheart Tree is an album by American pop singer Johnny Mathis that was released by Mercury Records on September 30 , 1965 , and included songs associated with Italy ( `` Arrivederci Roma '' ) , France ( `` Clopin Clopant '' ) , Ireland ( `` Danny Boy '' ) , and Scotland ( `` The Skye Boat Song '' ) as well as several selections , such as `` I 'll Close My Eyes '' and `` The Very Thought of You '' , from English composers . The title song from the album had its first chart appearance on Billboard magazine 's list of the 40 most popular Easy Listening songs in the US in the issue dated July 24 of that year and got as high as number 21 over the course of 10 weeks . It also bubbled under -LSB- -LSB- Billboard Hot 100 | Billboard '' 's Hot 100 -RSB- -RSB- for six weeks beginning in the August 7 issue , during which time it peaked at number 108 . The album debuted on the magazine 's Top LP 's chart shortly after its release , in the issue dated October 16 , 1965 , and reached number 71 during its 26 weeks there . The album The Sweetheart Tree was released for the first time on compact disc on November 6 , 2012 , as one of two albums on one CD , the second of the two being his 1966 follow-up , The Shadow of Your Smile . Both were also included in Sony 's Mathis box set The Complete Global Albums Collection '' , which was released on November 17 , 2014 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2773\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Sweetheart_Tree\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 79841\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":1366,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"Actual reconstructions \"diverge\" from the instrumental series in the last part of 20th century."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Divergence problem Content: The divergence problem is an anomaly from the field of dendroclimatology , the study of past climate through observations of old trees , primarily the properties of their annual growth rings . It is the disagreement between the temperatures measured by the thermometers ( instrumental temperatures ) and the temperatures reconstructed from the latewood densities or , in some cases , widths of tree rings in the far northern forests . While the thermometer records indicate a substantial late 20th century warming trend , many tree rings from such sites do not display a corresponding change in their maximum latewood density . In some studies this issue has also been found with tree ring width . A temperature trend extracted from tree rings alone would not show any substantial warming since the 1950s . The temperature graphs calculated in these two ways thus `` diverge '' from one another , which is the origin of the term .","qid":"2774","docid":"Divergence_problem","rank":1,"score":140716},{"content":"Title: Temperature record of the past 1000 years Content: For information on the description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in various IPCC reports see MWP and LIA in IPCC reportsThe temperature record of the past 1,000 years is reconstructed using data from climate proxy records in conjunction with the modern instrumental temperature record which only covers the last 150 years at a global scale . Large-scale reconstructions covering part or all of the 1st millennium and 2nd millennium have shown that recent temperatures are exceptional : the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report of 2007 concluded that `` Average Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the second half of the 20th century were very likely higher than during any other 50-year period in the last 500 years and likely '' the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . '' The curve shown in graphs of these reconstructions is widely known as the hockey stick graph because of the sharp increase in temperatures during the last century . As of 2010 this broad pattern was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th-century `` shaft '' appears . Sparseness of proxy records results in considerable uncertainty for earlier periods . Individual proxy records , such as tree ring widths and densities used in dendroclimatology , are calibrated against the instrumental record for the period of overlap . Networks of such records are used to reconstruct past temperatures for regions : tree ring proxies have been used to reconstruct Northern Hemisphere extratropical temperatures ( within the tropics trees do not form rings ) but are confined to land areas and are scarce in the Southern Hemisphere which is largely ocean . Wider coverage is provided by multiproxy reconstructions , incorporating proxies such as lake sediments , ice cores and corals which are found in different regions , and using statistical methods to relate these sparser proxies to the greater numbers of tree ring records . The `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method is widely used for large-scale multiproxy reconstructions of hemispheric or global average temperatures ; this is complemented by Climate Field Reconstruction ( CFR ) methods which show how climate patterns have developed over large spatial areas , making the reconstruction useful for investigating natural variability and long-term oscillations as well as for comparisons with patterns produced by climate models . During the 1,900 years before the 20th century , it is likely that the next warmest period was from 950 to 1100 , with peaks at different times in different regions . This has been called the Medieval Warm Period , and some evidence suggests widespread cooler conditions during a period around the 17th century known as the Little Ice Age . In the hockey stick controversy , contrarians have asserted that the Medieval Warm Period was warmer than at present , and have disputed the data and methods of climate reconstructions .","qid":"2774","docid":"Temperature_record_of_the_past_1000_years","rank":2,"score":120294},{"content":"Title: List of large-scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years Content: This list of large scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years includes climate reconstructions which have contributed significantly to the modern consensus on the temperature record of the past 2000 years . The instrumental temperature record only covers the last 150 years at a hemispheric or global scale , and reconstructions of earlier periods are based on climate proxies . In an early attempt to show that climate had changed , Hubert Lamb 's 1965 paper generalised from temperature records of central England together with historical , botanical and archeological evidence to produce a qualitative estimate of temperatures in the north Atlantic region . Subsequent quantitative reconstructions used statistical techniques with various climate proxies to produce larger scale reconstructions . Tree ring proxies can give an annual resolution of extratropical regions of the northern hemisphere , and can be statistically combined with other sparser proxies to produce multiproxy hemispherical or global reconstructions . Quantitative reconstructions have consistently shown earlier temperatures below the temperature levels reached in the late 20th century . This pattern as seen in was dubbed the hockey stick graph , and as of 2010 this broad conclusion was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears .","qid":"2774","docid":"List_of_large-scale_temperature_reconstructions_of_the_last_2,000_years","rank":3,"score":116978},{"content":"Title: Hockey stick controversy Content: In the hockey stick controversy , the data and methods used in reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years have been disputed . Reconstructions have consistently shown that the rise in the instrumental temperature record of the past 150 years is not matched in earlier centuries , and the name `` hockey stick graph '' was coined for figures showing a long-term decline followed by an abrupt rise in temperatures . These graphs were publicised to explain the scientific findings of climatology , and in addition to scientific debate over the reconstructions , they have been the topic of political dispute . The issue is part of the global warming controversy and has been one focus of political responses to reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . The use of proxy indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed from the 1990s onwards , and found indications that recent warming was exceptional . The reconstruction introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large-scale reconstructions , and its findings were disputed by Patrick Michaels at the United States House Committee on Science . In 1998 , Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 . In ( MBH99 ) the methodology was extended back to 1000 . The term hockey stick was coined by the climatologist Jerry D. Mahlman , to describe the pattern this showed , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' , followed by a sharp increase corresponding to the `` blade '' . A version of this graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , along with four other reconstructions supporting the same conclusion . The graph was publicised , and became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th-century warmth was exceptional . Those disputing the graph included Pat Michaels , the George C. Marshall Institute and Fred Singer . A paper by Willie Soon and Sallie Baliunas claiming greater medieval warmth was used by the Bush administration chief of staff Philip Cooney to justify altering the first Environmental Protection Agency Report on the Environment . The paper was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy , but on July 28 , Republican Jim Inhofe spoke in the Senate citing it to claim `` that man-made global warming is the greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American people '' . Later in 2003 , a paper by Steve McIntyre and Ross McKitrick disputing the data used in MBH98 paper was publicised by the George C. Marshall Institute and the Competitive Enterprise Institute . In 2004 , Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 , McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal component analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . The analysis therein was subsequently disputed by published papers , including and , which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . In June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton launched what Sherwood Boehlert , chairman of the House Science Committee , called a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into the data , methods and personal information of Mann , Bradley and Hughes . At Boehlert 's request , a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council was set up , which reported in 2006 , supporting Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . Barton and U.S. Rep. Ed Whitfield requested Edward Wegman to set up a team of statisticians to investigate , and they supported McIntyre and McKitrick 's view that there were statistical failings , although they did not quantify whether there was any significant effect . They also produced an extensive network analysis which has been discredited by expert opinion and found to have issues of plagiarism . Arguments against the MBH studies were reintroduced as part of the Climatic Research Unit email controversy , but dismissed by eight independent investigations . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , have supported the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Over a dozen subsequent reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .","qid":"2774","docid":"Hockey_stick_controversy","rank":4,"score":107024},{"content":"Title: Reconstruction (band) Content: Reconstruction was a band formed in 1978 by John Kahn initially to occupy him while Jerry Garcia , his long-time musical collaborator , was busy with the Grateful Dead . The band 's original guitar player was Jerry Miller , best known for performing with Moby Grape . In March 1979 , Garcia took over guitar duties officially . The band performed while the Grateful Dead was on a brief hiatus , switching keyboard players from Keith Godchaux to Brent Mydland , and continued well into 1979 . The band varied its styles from previous Garcia/Kahn/Saunders collaborations to more of a disco and jazz sound .","qid":"2774","docid":"Reconstruction_(band)","rank":5,"score":105567},{"content":"Title: Hockey stick graph Content: Hockey stick graphs present the global or hemispherical mean temperature record of the past 500 to 2000 years as shown by quantitative climate reconstructions based on climate proxy records . These reconstructions have consistently shown a slow long term cooling trend changing into relatively rapid warming in the 20th century , with the instrumental temperature record by 2000 exceeding earlier temperatures . The term `` hockey stick graph '' was coined by the climatologist Jerry Mahlman , to describe the pattern shown by the ( MBH99 ) reconstruction , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat with a downward trend to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' followed by a sharp , steady increase corresponding to the `` blade '' portion . The reconstructions have featured in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports as evidence of global warming . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . Paleoclimatology dates back to the 19th century , and the concept of examining varves in lake beds and tree rings to track local climatic changes was suggested in the 1930s . In the 1960s , Hubert Lamb generalised from historical documents and temperature records of central England to propose a Medieval Warm Period from around 900 to 1300 , followed by Little Ice Age . This was the basis of a `` schematic diagram '' featured in the IPCC First Assessment Report of 1990 beside cautions that the medieval warming might not have been global . The use of indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed , and by the late 1990s a number of competing teams of climatologists found indications that recent warming was exceptional . introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large scale reconstructions . Their study was featured in the IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . In 1998 Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 with shading emphasising that uncertainties ( to two standard error limits ) were much greater in earlier centuries . independently produced a CPS reconstruction extending back for a thousand years , and ( MBH99 ) used the MBH98 methodology to extend their study back to 1000 . A version of the MBH99 graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , which also drew on Jones et al. 1998 and three other reconstructions to support the conclusion that , in the Northern Hemisphere , the 1990s was likely to have been the warmest decade and 1998 the warmest year during the past 1,000 years . The graph became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th century warmth was exceptional . In 2003 , as lobbying over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol intensified , a paper claiming greater medieval warmth was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy . Later in 2003 , Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick published disputing the data used in MBH98 paper . In 2004 Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal components analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . Their analysis was subsequently disputed by published papers including and which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . Political disputes led to the formation of a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council , their North Report in 2006 supported Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , support the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Further reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .","qid":"2774","docid":"Hockey_stick_graph","rank":6,"score":104392},{"content":"Title: 20th century (disambiguation) Content: The 20th century of the Common Era began on 1 January 1901 and ended on 31 December 2000 , according to the Gregorian calendar . 20th century may also refer to : Twentieth Century ( play ) , a 1932 Broadway play Twentieth Century ( film ) , a 1934 American comedy Twentieth Century Pictures , a 1930s film studio The 20th Century , the 1950s television series Twentieth Century ( Cold Chisel album ) , 1984 Twentieth Century ( Alabama album ) , 1999 Twentieth Century ( typeface ) , a sans-serif typeface 20th Century ( album ) , an album 3X Krazy 20th Century ( cocktail ) , a gin cocktail 20th Century Fox , a movie and television production company 20th Century Limited , the flagship passenger train of the New York Central Railroad 20th Century Records , a record label begun as a soundtrack division of Twentieth Century Pictures 20th Century with Mike Wallace , the 1990s-2000s television series 20th Century , a sub-unit of Japanese boyband V6 `` Twentieth Century '' , a song from the 2006 album , Fundamental by the Pet Shop Boys","qid":"2774","docid":"20th_century_(disambiguation)","rank":7,"score":102079},{"content":"Title: Coronary Reconstruction Content: Coronary Reconstruction is an EP by the Belgian death metal band Aborted , released on March 2 , 2010 through Century Media Records . The album is the first to be recorded with the band 's new 2009 line-up , and was released mainly as a digital EP , with only 1,000 physical copies made . The song `` Coronary Reconstruction '' contains audio samples from the film Hellbound : Hellraiser II .","qid":"2774","docid":"Coronary_Reconstruction","rank":8,"score":99655},{"content":"Title: Divergence (Star Trek: Enterprise) Content: `` Divergence '' is the sixteenth episode of the fourth season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : Enterprise . It originally aired on February 25 , 2005 in the United States on UPN . It was the fourth episode of Enterprise to be written by Judith and Garfield Reeves-Stevens , and was the first episode of a Star Trek series directed by David Barrett . `` Divergence '' is the second part of a two part story , following on from `` Affliction '' . Set in the 22nd century , the series follows the adventures of the first Starfleet starship Enterprise , registration NX-01 . In this episode , Columbia arrives so that Commander Tucker can be transferred to conduct repairs on Enterprises warp engine before it overloads . The two ships then pursue a lead to a Klingon research outpost where Phlox is under pressure to cure the virus that the Klingons created from augmented human DNA . Filming took eight days , with a two-week seasonal hiatus towards the end of December . In addition to the guest stars who appeared in `` Affliction '' , they were joined by Wayne Grace as Admiral Krell . The episode received Nielsen ratings of 1.7 / 3 percent , which were lower than the previous week 's episode . The critical response was negative , directed mainly at plot holes and characterisation . However , the two part story has been named as one of the best storylines seen in Enterprise .","qid":"2774","docid":"Divergence_(Star_Trek:_Enterprise)","rank":9,"score":99437},{"content":"Title: List of 20th-century earthquakes Content: This list of 20th-century earthquakes is a global list of notable earthquakes that occurred in the 20th century . After 1900 most earthquakes have some degree of instrumental records and this means that the locations and magnitudes are more reliable than for earlier events . To prevent this list becoming unmanageable , only those of magnitude 6 and above are included unless they are notable for some other reason .","qid":"2774","docid":"List_of_20th-century_earthquakes","rank":10,"score":98934},{"content":"Title: Divercia Content: Divercia was a Finnish Heavy Metal band , influenced by death metal , progressive metal , and other styles . Established in the late 1990s under the name `` Lost In Twilight '' , the band received their first record deal in 1999 , and soon set about recording their first EP , Planeteer . After signing a new contract in 2000 , the group recorded and released their first full-length , Modus Operandi . Two years later , the band returned with their second full-length studio effort , Cycle Of Zero .","qid":"2774","docid":"Divercia","rank":11,"score":96259},{"content":"Title: Holy Diver (song) Content: `` Holy Diver '' is a song recorded by heavy metal band Dio . It was released in August 1983 as the lead single from the band 's debut album of the same name . Although it only reached number 40 on the Mainstream Rock chart at that time , today it is one of Dio 's most popular songs . When played on the radio , many stations cut the extended instrumental intro sequence . Following the terrorist attacks on September 11 , 2001 , the song was placed on the list of post-9 / 11 inappropriate titles distributed by Clear Channel . In 2009 , Holy Diver placed 43rd on VH1 's Top 100 Hard Rock Songs .","qid":"2774","docid":"Holy_Diver_(song)","rank":12,"score":95850},{"content":"Title: Memorial reconstruction Content: The term memorial reconstruction refers to the hypothesis that the scripts of some 17th century plays were written down from memory by actors who had played parts in them , and that those transcriptions were published . The theory is suggested as an explanation for the so-called `` bad quarto '' versions of plays , in which the texts differ dramatically from later published versions , or appear to be corrupted or confused . The theory however is facing growing criticism by a number of scholars for being overly applied , and for being an elaborate theory , yet with little evidence to support it . In 1623 , the preface to the First Folio of Shakespeare 's works specifically marketed its content as correct , in contrast to the garbled texts of `` stolen and surreptitious copies '' published previously . Memorial reconstruction has been supposed to be one of the ways in which texts were `` stolen '' . Examples of possible memorial reconstructions are early editions of Shakespeare , including the second quarto ( 1598 ) of Richard III and the 1603 first quarto of Hamlet . It has been theorized that the only version to survive of Christopher Marlowe 's The Massacre at Paris is a text obtained in this way , although there is no persuasive evidence to support this assertion . The theory has been used to explain the content of some quartos , and also to suggest identities of the actors responsible , on the assumption that they would get their own parts right , along with cue-lines and possibly other lines performed when they were onstage , but would most likely make more errors when reconstructing scenes in which their character was not present . The cast members of an Elizabethan dramatic production had their own parts written out for them , with relevant entrances and cues , but they did not have their own individual copies of the play text as a whole . The theory has , however , been criticised on various grounds ; that it is not based on serious research into the way actors actually remember or misremember lines ; that texts may have been `` stolen '' by other means ; and that the so-called `` bad '' quartos are early or alternative versions of plays that were later revised .","qid":"2774","docid":"Memorial_reconstruction","rank":13,"score":95731},{"content":"Title: Divergent series Content: For an elementary calculus-based introduction , see Divergent series on Wikiversity . In mathematics , a divergent series is an infinite series that is not convergent , meaning that the infinite sequence of the partial sums of the series does not have a finite limit . If a series converges , the individual terms of the series must approach zero . Thus any series in which the individual terms do not approach zero diverges . However , convergence is a stronger condition : not all series whose terms approach zero converge . A counterexample is the harmonic series The divergence of the harmonic series was proven by the medieval mathematician Nicole Oresme . In specialized mathematical contexts , values can be objectively assigned to certain series whose sequence of partial sums diverges , this is to make meaning of the divergence of the series . A summability method or summation method is a partial function from the set of series to values . For example , Cesàro summation assigns Grandi 's divergent series the value . Cesàro summation is an averaging method , in that it relies on the arithmetic mean of the sequence of partial sums . Other methods involve analytic continuations of related series . In physics , there are a wide variety of summability methods ; these are discussed in greater detail in the article on regularization .","qid":"2774","docid":"Divergent_series","rank":14,"score":95415},{"content":"Title: The Divergent Series Content: The Divergent Series is a feature film series based on the Divergent novels by the American author Veronica Roth . Distributed by Summit Entertainment and Lionsgate Films , the series consists of four science fiction films set in a dystopian society . They have been produced by Lucy Fisher , Pouya Shabazian , and Douglas Wick and star Shailene Woodley and Theo James as lead characters Beatrice Prior ( Tris ) and Tobias Eaton ( Four ) , respectively . The supporting cast includes Ansel Elgort , Zoë Kravitz and Miles Teller . The first film in the series was directed by Neil Burger , while the second and third films were directed by Robert Schwentke . Development began in 2011 following Summit 's acquisition of the film rights to the Divergent novel in partnership with production company Red Wagon Entertainment . The studios announced production on the sequel following the first film 's strong performance in Thursday late-night screenings , where it grossed $ 4.9 million . They acquired film rights to the Allegiant novel in December 2013 , deciding in April 2014 to split the third novel into a two-part film adaptation . The first installment , Divergent ( 2014 ) , grossed over $ 288 million worldwide , while the second installment , The Divergent Series : Insurgent ( 2015 ) , grossed over $ 297 million worldwide . Insurgent was also the first Divergent film to be released in IMAX 3D . The third installment , The Divergent Series : Allegiant ( 2016 ) , grossed $ 179 million . The first three films of the series have grossed over $ 765 million worldwide .","qid":"2774","docid":"The_Divergent_Series","rank":15,"score":94174},{"content":"Title: Reconstruction (Hugh Masekela album) Content: Reconstruction is the twelfth studio album by South African jazz trumpeter Hugh Masekela released via Chisa Records label in July 1970 . The album was re-released on CD in 1994 via MoJazz label .","qid":"2774","docid":"Reconstruction_(Hugh_Masekela_album)","rank":16,"score":94096},{"content":"Title: Divergence (novel) Content: Divergence ( 1991 ) is a science fiction novel by American writer Charles Sheffield , part of his Heritage Universe series . The book , the sequel to Summertide , takes place millennia in the future when most of the Orion Arm of the galaxy has been colonized by humans and other races . Among the various star systems of this arm of the galaxy , a number of million-year-old artifacts have been discovered , remnants of a mysterious race called the Builders . The characters of this book start just a few days after the previous book left off to go in search of a newly discovered artifact . This book introduces a few new characters that become important throughout the rest of the series . The characters work together to discover a new theory about the origins and current condition of the Builders . During this process , they discover that an old menace to the universe , thought to be extinct , has been unleashed upon the Orion Arm of the Milky Way once again . The novel includes excerpts from the Lang Universal Artifact Catalog ( Fourth Edition ) , and from the Universal Species Catalog ( Subclass : Sapients ) . The sequel to Divergence is Transcendence . Category :1991 American novels Category : Novels by Charles Sheffield Category :1990 s science fiction novels","qid":"2774","docid":"Divergence_(novel)","rank":17,"score":93526},{"content":"Title: Reconstruction (2001 film) Content: Reconstruction is a 2001 documentary made by Irene Lusztig that investigates the Ioanid Gang bank heist committed in 1959 in Communist Romania . The film focuses on Monica Sevianu , Lusztig 's grandmother , and the only female involved in the heist . The documentary gets its name from a propaganda film that was made by the Romanian government three years after the robbery was committed . The original Reconstruction was a strange blend of documentary and fiction , where the criminals played themselves in a crime-film whose plot was driven by clues that self-congratulatory detectives pieced together . The propaganda film was only screened to journalists and high-ranking communist officials before being buried beneath government files . Lusztig managed to find a copy and incorporates clips into her documentary .","qid":"2774","docid":"Reconstruction_(2001_film)","rank":18,"score":93092},{"content":"Title: 20th-century classical music Content: 20th-century classical music describes orchestral works , chamber music , solo instrumental works ( including keyboard music ) , electronic music , choral music , songs , operas , ballets , concertos , symphonies , and related forms , as well as fantasies , rhapsodies , fugues , passacaglias and chaconnes , variations , oratorios , cantatas , suites , improvisational and newly developed formal concepts such as variable and mobile forms , that have been written and performed since 1900 . This era was without a dominant style and composers have created highly diverse kinds of music . Modernism , impressionism , post-romanticism , neoclassicism , expressionism , and , later , minimalism were all important movements . Atonality , serialism , musique concrète and electronic music were all developed during this period . Jazz was an important influence on many composers in this period .","qid":"2774","docid":"20th-century_classical_music","rank":19,"score":93020},{"content":"Title: Reconstruction (2003 film) Content: Reconstruction is a psychological romantic drama film and the debut of Christoffer Boe , who also wrote the screenplay together with Mogens Rukov . It was filmed in Copenhagen and won the Camera D'Or at the Cannes Film Festival in 2003 Golden Plaque for Manuel Alberto Claro 's luminous wide-screen cinematography .","qid":"2774","docid":"Reconstruction_(2003_film)","rank":20,"score":92730},{"content":"Title: Divergence (computer science) Content: In computer science , a computation is said to diverge if it does not terminate or terminates in an ( unobservable ) exceptional state . Otherwise it is said to converge . In domains where computations are expected to be infinite , such as process calculi , a computation is said to diverge if it fails to be productive ( always produces an action within a finite amount of time . )","qid":"2774","docid":"Divergence_(computer_science)","rank":21,"score":92566},{"content":"Title: The 20th Century Content: The Twentieth Century was a documentary television program sponsored by the Prudential Insurance Company that ran on the CBS network from 20 October 1957 until 4 January 1970 . It was hosted by Walter Cronkite . The opening and closing theme music was written by composer George Antheil . The program presented filmed reports on news and cultural events that were important for the development of the 20th century . The show did not just present the events but also interpreted them . Such subjects as World War I and major assassinations were presented in context . On 20 January 1967 the show , sponsored by Union Carbide ( `` The Discovery Company '' ) , was renamed The 21st Century . The show 's focus changed to the future and to what mankind could look forward to . The 21st Century was cancelled after three seasons ( its final broadcast was on 4 January 1970 ) . The reason given was that the writers had run out of things to talk about . However , it is possible that CBS may have wished to replace it with a more commercially successful program .","qid":"2774","docid":"The_20th_Century","rank":22,"score":92498},{"content":"Title: Divergence of the sum of the reciprocals of the primes Content: The sum of the reciprocals of all prime numbers diverges ; that is : This was proved by Leonhard Euler in 1737 , and strengthens Euclid 's 3rd-century-BC result that there are infinitely many prime numbers . There are a variety of proofs of Euler 's result , including a lower bound for the partial sums stating that for all natural numbers . The double natural logarithm ( ln ln ) indicates that the divergence might be very slow , which is indeed the case . See Meissel -- Mertens constant .","qid":"2774","docid":"Divergence_of_the_sum_of_the_reciprocals_of_the_primes","rank":23,"score":92481},{"content":"Title: Reconstruction (album) Content: Reconstruction is an album by Max Romeo , released in 1977 . Shortly after recording critically acclaimed War ina Babylon , Max Romeo broke up with his producer Lee `` Scratch '' Perry on professional ground , what prompted him to self-produce his next album . Reconstruction did not match the success of its predecessor and in 1978 Romeo left Jamaica .","qid":"2774","docid":"Reconstruction_(album)","rank":24,"score":92205},{"content":"Title: Divergence (album) Content: Divergence is the second album by the Dutch progressive rock group Solution . It was released in 1972 on the EMI subsidiary Harvest Records .","qid":"2774","docid":"Divergence_(album)","rank":25,"score":91690},{"content":"Title: Twentieth century (disambiguation) Content: Twentieth century may refer to : The 20th century AD , the period between the years 1901 and 2000 of the Gregorian calendar The 20th century BC 20th Century Fox 20th Century Limited , a passenger train between Chicago and New York City that operated from 1902 to 1967 Twentieth Century ( play ) , a 1932 play Twentieth Century ( film ) , a 1934 film On the Twentieth Century , a 1978 musical based on the play and film Twentieth Century ( typeface ) , a geometric sans-serif typeface . 20th Century ( cocktail ) , a cocktail Twentieth Century ( TV series ) , a long-running TV documentary series telecast on CBS from 1957 to 1970 , and hosted by Walter Cronkite","qid":"2774","docid":"Twentieth_century_(disambiguation)","rank":26,"score":90958},{"content":"Title: 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + ⋯ Content: In mathematics , 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + · · · is the infinite series whose terms are the successive positive integers , given alternating signs . Using sigma summation notation the sum of the first m terms of the series can be expressed as The infinite series diverges , meaning that its sequence of partial sums , , does not tend towards any finite limit . Nonetheless , in the mid-18th century , Leonhard Euler wrote what he admitted to be a paradoxical equation : A rigorous explanation of this equation would not arrive until much later . Starting in 1890 , Ernesto Cesàro , Émile Borel and others investigated well-defined methods to assign generalized sums to divergent series -- including new interpretations of Euler 's attempts . Many of these summability methods easily assign to a `` value '' of . Cesàro summation is one of the few methods that do not sum , so the series is an example where a slightly stronger method , such as Abel summation , is required . The series 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + ... is closely related to Grandi 's series . Euler treated these two as special cases of for arbitrary n , a line of research extending his work on the Basel problem and leading towards the functional equations of what are now known as the Dirichlet eta function and the Riemann zeta function .","qid":"2774","docid":"1_−_2_+_3_−_4_+_⋯","rank":27,"score":90583},{"content":"Title: Reconstruction Site Content: Reconstruction Site is a 2003 album by The Weakerthans . A song cycle about grief , regret , loss and eventual hope , the album is thematically framed by three tracks , '' ( Manifest ) '' , '' ( Hospital Vespers ) '' and '' ( Past-Due ) '' , which set three different sonnets following a terminally ill hospital patient into the aftermath of his death to the same melody . Other songs examine the album 's themes from different angles : `` Plea from a Cat Named Virtute '' is written from the perspective of a depressed person 's cat , `` One Great City ! '' is about Samson 's love -- hate relationship with his hometown of Winnipeg , and `` Our Retired Explorer '' imagines a dinner date between philosopher Michel Foucault and a hopelessly nostalgic member of Ernest Shackleton 's expedition to Antarctica . Guest musicians on the album include Sarah Harmer and Christine Fellows . The album 's cover art was designed by Canadian artist and fellow Winnipegger Marcel Dzama . The song `` One Great City ! '' serves as the theme song to the Canadian television comedy-drama series Less Than Kind . In 2013 , the album made Ballast 's list of top 50 Canadian albums of all time .","qid":"2774","docid":"Reconstruction_Site","rank":28,"score":90216},{"content":"Title: Diver (EP) Content: Diver is a 7 '' vinyl EP A Wilhelm Scream released in early 2006 . The song `` Diver '' was recorded during the Mute Print sessions , but the song did n't make it to the full length . Later the band decided to release the song on this 7 '' vinyl EP .","qid":"2774","docid":"Diver_(EP)","rank":29,"score":89750},{"content":"Title: The Diver (play) Content: The Diver is a dramatic play written in 2008 by Hideki Noda and Colin Teevan . It premiered in London in 2008 at the Soho Theatre and the US premiere occurred in 2010 at The University of Michigan . The play combines a modern psychiatric case with traditional Japanese Noh theatre and includes elements of the world 's first novel , The Tale of Genji and a Noh play , Ama ( also the term for Japanese pearl divers ) .","qid":"2774","docid":"The_Diver_(play)","rank":30,"score":89535},{"content":"Title: Great Divergence Content: `` Great Divergence '' is a term coined by Samuel Huntington ( also known as the European miracle , a term coined by Eric Jones in 1981 ) referring to the process by which the Western world ( i.e. Western Europe and the parts of the New World where its people became the dominant populations ) overcame pre-modern growth constraints and emerged during the 19th century as the most powerful and wealthy world civilization of all time , eclipsing Qing China , Mughal India , Tokugawa Japan , Joseon Korea and Ottoman Turkey . The process was accompanied and reinforced by the Age of Discovery and the subsequent rise of the colonial empires , the Age of Enlightenment , the Commercial Revolution , the Scientific Revolution and finally the Industrial Revolution . Scholars have proposed a wide variety of theories to explain why the Great Divergence happened , including geography , colonialism , resources , and customary traditions . Before the Great Divergence , the core developed areas included Western Europe , East Asia , the Indian subcontinent , and the Middle East . In each of these core areas , differing political and cultural institutions allowed varying degrees of development . Western Europe , China , Korea and Japan had developed to a relatively high level and began to face constraints on energy and land use , while India still possessed large amounts of unused resources . Technological advances , such as railroads , steamboats , mining , and agriculture were embraced to a higher degree in the West than the East during the Great Divergence . Technology led to increased industrialization and economic complexity in the areas of agriculture , trade , fuel and resources , further separating the East and the West . Western Europe 's use of coal as an energy substitute for wood in the mid-19th century gave it a major head start in modern energy production . Although China had used coal earlier during the Song Dynasty , its use declined due to the shift of Chinese industry to the south , far from major deposits , during the destruction of Mongol and Jurchen invasions between 1100 and 1400 . The Western powers also had the advantage of larger quantities of raw materials and substantial captive trading markets , particularly in their colonies . China and the rest of Asia participated in trading , but colonization of Africa and the Americas brought a distinct advantage to the West . `` In the twentieth century , the Great Divergence peaked before the First World War and continued until the early 1970s , then , after two decades of indeterminate fluctuations , in the late 1980s it was replaced by the Great Convergence as the majority of Third World countries reached economic growth rates significantly higher than those in most First World countries '' .","qid":"2774","docid":"Great_Divergence","rank":31,"score":89493},{"content":"Title: Great Divergence (inequality) Content: The Great Divergence is a term given to a period in late 1970s , when income differences increased in the US and , to a lesser extent , in other countries . The term originated with Nobel laureate , Princeton economist and New York Times columnist Paul Krugman , and is a reference to the `` Great Compression '' , an earlier era in the 1930s and the 1940s when incomes became more equal in the US and elsewhere . A 2011 study by the Congressional Budget Office on the distribution of income in the US , from 1979 to 2007 , found that after federal taxes and income transfers , the top earning 1 % of households gained about 275 % and that the bottom 20 % grew by only 18 % . As of 2006 , the US had one of the highest levels of income inequality , as measured through the Gini index , among similar developed or First World countries . Scholars and others differ as the causes and significance of the divergence , which , in 2011 , helped ignite the `` Occupy '' protest movement . While education and increased demand for skilled labor is often cited as a cause of increased inequality , especially among conservatives , many social scientists point to conservative politics , neoliberal economic and social policies and public policy as an important cause of inequality ; others believe its causes are not well understood . Inequality has been described both as irrelevant in the face of economic opportunity ( or social mobility ) in America and as a cause of the decline in that opportunity . Journalist James Surowiecki points out the changes in the US economy in the last 50 years and how important low wages are now to big employers in the US . In 1960 , the country 's biggest employer , General Motors , was also its most profitable company and one of its best-paying . It had high profit margins and real pricing power , even as it was paying its workers union wages . And it was not alone : firms like Ford , Standard Oil , and Bethlehem Steel employed huge numbers of well-paid workers while earning big profits . Today , the country 's biggest employers are retailers and fast-food chains , almost all of which have built their businesses on low pay -- they 've striven to keep wages down and unions out -- and low prices . While these retailers and fast-food chains are profitable , their profit margins are not large , which limits their ability to follow the lead of successful companies in high-growth industries that pay relatively generous salaries , such as Apple Inc. . The combined profits of all the major retailers , restaurant chains , and supermarkets in the Fortune 50 -RSB- are smaller than the profits of Apple alone . Yet Apple employs just 76,000 people , while the retailers , supermarkets , and restaurant chains employ 5.6 million . The International Labour Organisation 's annual `` World of Work Report '' , predicted that the intensification of extremes between the wealthy and poor continues to widen in the European Union , where it is the highest in the world and that the `` gap is the major trigger for social unrest . ''","qid":"2774","docid":"Great_Divergence_(inequality)","rank":32,"score":89471},{"content":"Title: Bibliography of the Reconstruction Era Content: This is a selected bibliography of the main scholarly books and articles of Reconstruction , the period after the American Civil War , 1863 -- 1877 ( or 1865 to 1877 ) .","qid":"2774","docid":"Bibliography_of_the_Reconstruction_Era","rank":33,"score":89075},{"content":"Title: Reconstructions (Kerry Livgren album) Content: Reconstructions is the second studio album by the Christian rock group AD . It was re-released and remastered with the title Reconstructions : Reconstructed , with a different order of songs .","qid":"2774","docid":"Reconstructions_(Kerry_Livgren_album)","rank":34,"score":88920},{"content":"Title: 20th century Content: The 20th century was a century that began on January 1 , 1901 and ended on December 31 , 2000 . It was the tenth and final century of the 2nd millennium . It is distinct from the century known as the 1900s which began on January 1 , 1900 , and ended on December 31 , 1999 . The 20th century was dominated by a chain of events that heralded significant changes in world history as to redefine the era : World War I and World War II , nuclear power and space exploration , nationalism and decolonization , the Cold War and post-Cold War conflicts ; intergovernmental organizations and cultural homogenization through developments in emerging transportation and communications technology ; poverty reduction and world population growth , awareness of environmental degradation , ecological extinction ; and the birth of the Digital Revolution . It saw great advances in communication and medical technology that by the late 1980s allowed for near-instantaneous worldwide computer communication and genetic modification of life . The term `` short twentieth century '' was coined to represent the events from 1914 to 1991 . Global total fertility rates , sea level rise and ecological collapses increased ; the resulting competition for land and dwindling resources accelerated deforestation , water depletion . and the mass extinction of half the world 's estimated nine million unique species and wildlife population ; consequences which are now being dealt with . It took all of human history up to 1804 for the world 's population to reach 1 billion ; world population reached an estimated 2 billion in 1927 ; by late 1999 , the global population reached 6 billion . Global literacy averaged 80 % ; global lifespan-averages exceeded 40 + years for the first time in history , with over half achieving 70 + years ( three decades longer than it was a century ago ) .","qid":"2774","docid":"20th_century","rank":35,"score":88875},{"content":"Title: Polytheistic reconstructionism Content: Polytheistic reconstructionism ( Reconstructionism ) is an approach to paganism first emerging in the late 1960s to early 1970s , which gathered momentum starting in the 1990s . Reconstructionism attempts to re-establish historical polytheistic religions in the modern world , in contrast with neopagan syncretic movements like Wicca , and `` channeled '' movements like Germanic mysticism or Theosophy . While the emphasis on historical accuracy may imply historical reenactment , the desire for continuity in ritual traditions ( orthopraxy ) is a common characteristic of religion in general , as seen in Anglican ritualism , or in much Christian liturgy .","qid":"2774","docid":"Polytheistic_reconstructionism","rank":36,"score":88715},{"content":"Title: White House Reconstruction Content: The White House Reconstruction , also known as the Truman Reconstruction , was a comprehensive dismantling and rebuilding of the interior of the White House between 1949-1952 . A century-and-a-half of wartime destruction and rebuilding , hurried renovations , additions of new services , technologies , an added Third Floor , and inadequate foundations brought the Executive Residence portion of the White House Complex to near-imminent collapse . In 1948 architectural and engineering investigations deemed it unsafe for occupancy and President Harry S. Truman , his family , and the entire residence staff were relocated across the street . For over three years the White House was gutted , expanded , and rebuilt . The scope , costs , and historical authenticity of the work were controversial , with the reconstruction being called both structurally essential , and a disaster .","qid":"2774","docid":"White_House_Reconstruction","rank":37,"score":88630},{"content":"Title: Ghost Diver Content: Ghost Diver is a 1957 American adventure film written and directed by Richard Einfeld and Merrill G. White . The film stars James Craig , Audrey Totter , Nico Minardos , Lowell Brown , Rodolfo Hoyos Jr. and Pira Louis . The film was released in October 1957 , by 20th Century Fox .","qid":"2774","docid":"Ghost_Diver","rank":38,"score":88556},{"content":"Title: Jumpgate Evolution Content: Jumpgate Evolution , commonly abbreviated as JGE , was an unreleased massively multiplayer online game having been in development by NetDevil intended to be published by Codemasters . The game is a sequel to Jumpgate : The Reconstruction Initiative and features a new graphics engine , all new assets and more accessible game play . Originally scheduled for a June 2009 release , it has since been delayed . Official information about the game is no longer being released . NetDevil 's website is no longer online , and the owner Gazillion Entertainment does not mention the game on their website . All of NetDevil 's employees not working on the LEGO Universe project were laid off in February 2011 , at which time the game was effectively terminated . As of July 2012 or before , the website for the game has been shut down .","qid":"2774","docid":"Jumpgate_Evolution","rank":39,"score":88487},{"content":"Title: Reconstruction Era Content: The term Reconstruction Era , in the context of the history of the United States , has two senses : the first covers the complete history of the entire country from 1865 to 1877 following the American Civil War ( 1861 to 1865 ) ; the second sense focuses on the attempted transformation of the Southern United States from 1863 to 1877 , as directed by Congress , with the reconstruction of state and society . Three visions of Civil War memory appeared during Reconstruction : the reconciliationist vision , which was rooted in coping with the death and devastation the war had brought ; the white supremacist vision , which included terror and violence ; and the emancipationist vision , which sought full freedom , citizenship and Constitutional equality for African Americans . Presidents Abraham Lincoln and Andrew Johnson both took moderate positions designed to bring the South back into the union as quickly as possible , while Radical Republicans in Congress sought stronger measures to upgrade the rights of African Americans , including the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution , while curtailing the rights of former Confederates , such as through the provisions of the Wade -- Davis Bill . Johnson followed a lenient policy toward ex-Confederates . Lincoln 's last speeches show that he was leaning toward supporting the enfranchisement of all freedmen , whereas Johnson was opposed to this . Johnson 's interpretations of Lincoln 's policies prevailed until the Congressional elections of 1866 in the North , which enabled the Radicals to take control of policy , remove former Confederates from power , and enfranchise the freedmen . A Republican coalition came to power in nearly all the southern states and set out to transform the society by setting up a free labor economy , using the U.S. Army and the Freedmen 's Bureau . The Bureau protected the legal rights of freedmen , negotiated labor contracts , and set up schools and churches for them . Thousands of Northerners came south as missionaries , teachers , businessmen and politicians . Some also entered politics . Hostile whites called them `` Carpetbaggers '' . In early 1866 , Congress passed the Freedmen 's Bureau and Civil Rights Bills and sent them to Johnson for his signature . The first bill extended the life of the bureau , originally established as a temporary organization charged with assisting refugees and freed slaves , while the second defined all persons born in the United States as national citizens with equality before the law . After Johnson vetoed the bills , Congress overrode his veto , making the Civil Rights Act the first major bill in the history of the United States to become law through an override of a presidential veto . The Radicals in the House of Representatives , frustrated by Johnson 's opposition to Congressional Reconstruction , filed impeachment charges . The action failed by one vote in the Senate . Elected in 1868 , Republican President Ulysses S. Grant supported Congressional Reconstruction and enforced the protection of African Americans in the South through the use of the Enforcement Acts passed by Congress . Grant used the Enforcement Acts to effectively combat the Ku Klux Klan , which was essentially wiped out ( although a new incarnation of the Klan eventually would again come to national prominence in the 1920s ) , but was unable to resolve the escalating tensions inside the Republican party between the northerners on the one hand , and those Republicans originally hailing from the South on the other ( this latter group would be labelled `` Scalawags '' by those opposing Reconstruction ) . Meanwhile , self-styled Conservatives ( in close cooperation with the Democratic Party ) strongly opposed reconstruction . They alleged widespread corruption by the Carpetbaggers , excessive state spending and ruinous taxes . Meanwhile , public support for Reconstruction policies , requiring continued supervision of the South , faded in the North , largely due to concerns over the Panic of 1873 . The Democrats , who strongly opposed Reconstruction , regained control of the House of Representatives in 1874 . In 1877 , as part of a Congressional bargain to elect Republican Rutherford B. Hayes as president following the close 1876 presidential election , U.S. Army troops were removed from the South , ending Reconstruction and allowing Democrats to return to power . Reconstruction was a significant chapter in the history of civil rights in the United States , and in economic history . After Reconstruction ended , the South remained a poverty-stricken `` backwater '' dependent on agriculture . White Southerners soon succeeded in re-establishing legal and political dominance over blacks through violence , intimidation and discrimination . Historian Eric Foner argues , `` What remains certain is that Reconstruction failed , and that for blacks its failure was a disaster whose magnitude can not be obscured by the genuine accomplishments that did endure . ''","qid":"2774","docid":"Reconstruction_Era","rank":40,"score":88067},{"content":"Title: Two Roads Diverge Content: Two Roads Diverge is a graphic novel written in conjunction with the film Southland Tales . It is Part One of the Southland Tales saga . The novel was written by Richard Kelly - who also directed the film - and illustrated by Brett Weldele . The graphic novel was published by Graphitti Designs . Southland Tales was initially planned to be a nine-part `` interactive experience '' , with the first six parts published in six 100-page graphic novels that would be released in a six-month period up to the film 's release in 2007 . The feature film comprises the final three parts of the experience . A website was also developed to intertwine with the graphic novels and the film itself . The idea of six graphic novels was later narrowed down to three . The novels were written by Kelly and illustrated by Brett Weldele .","qid":"2774","docid":"Two_Roads_Diverge","rank":41,"score":88027},{"content":"Title: Black Reconstruction Content: Black Reconstruction in America : An Essay Toward a History of the Part Which Black Folk Played in the Attempt to Reconstruct Democracy in America , 1860 -- 1880 is a history of the Reconstruction era by W. E. B. Du Bois , first published in 1935 . It marked a significant break with the standard academic view of Reconstruction at the time , marked by the Dunning School , which contended that the period was a failure and downplayed the contributions of African Americans . Du Bois argued directly against these accounts , emphasizing the role and agency of blacks during the Civil War and Reconstruction and framing it as a period that held promise for a worker-ruled democracy to replace a slavery-based plantation economy . He noted that the southern working class , i.e. black freedmen and poor whites , were divided after the Civil War along the lines of race , and did not unite against the white propertied class , i.e. the former planters . He believed this failure enabled the white Democrats to regain control of state legislatures , pass Jim Crow laws , and disfranchise most blacks and many poor whites in the late 19th and early 20th centuries . Du Bois ' extensive use of data and primary source material on the postwar political economy of the former Confederate States is notable , as is the literary style of this 750-page essay . He notes major achievements , such as establishing public education in the South for the first time , the founding of charitable institutions to care for all citizens , the extension of the vote to the landless whites , and investment in public infrastructure .","qid":"2774","docid":"Black_Reconstruction","rank":42,"score":88006},{"content":"Title: 1 − 1 + 2 − 6 + 24 − 120 + ... Content: In mathematics , the divergent series was first considered by Euler , who applied summability methods to assign a finite value to the series . The series is a sum of factorials that alternatingly are added or subtracted . A way to assign a value to the divergent series is by using Borel summation , where one formally writes If summation and integration are interchanged ( ignoring that neither side converges ) , one obtains : The summation in the square brackets converges and equals if x < 1 . If we analytically continue this for all real x , one obtains a convergent integral for the summation : where E1 ( z ) is the exponential integral . This is by definition the Borel sum of the series .","qid":"2774","docid":"1_−_1_+_2_−_6_+_24_−_120_+_...","rank":43,"score":87940},{"content":"Title: The Reenactment Content: The Reenactment ( Reconstituirea ) , also known as Reconstruction , is a 1968 black-and-white film by Romanian director Lucian Pintilie . It is based on a novel by Horia Pătraşcu , which in turn reflects real-life events witnessed by the author . Produced under the communist regime , which it indirectly criticizes , it is a tragicomedy about incompetence , indifference and misuse of power . Structured as a film within a film and largely shot as a mockumentary , The Reenactment stars George Constantin as a prosecutor who keeps in custody two minor delinquents , Vuică and Nicu , played respectively by George Mihăiţă and Vladimir Găitan . He makes them reenact their drunken brawl at a restaurant , and is helped in this effort by the militiaman Dumitrescu ( played by Ernest Maftei ) and a film crew . Two bystanders watch upon the youngsters ' degradation at the hands of the prosecutor . They are The Miss ( Domnişoara in the original ) , played by Ileana Popovici , who is amused by the succession of events , and the pedantic alcoholic Paveliu ( Emil Botta ) . The recipient of much critical acclaim and considered in retrospect one of the most notable contributions to 1960s Romanian cinema , The Reenactment was released at a time when the communist regime was in its liberalization phase , coinciding with the first decade of rule by Nicolae Ceauşescu . Nevertheless , its political implications irritated communist officials , and the censorship apparatus decided to withdraw the film from cinemas only months after its premiere . In 1969 , Pintilie was pressured to work outside Romania , and focused mainly on stage production for the following twenty years of his career . The Reenactment was again screened at home in 1990 , one year after the Romanian Revolution toppled communism .","qid":"2774","docid":"The_Reenactment","rank":44,"score":87647},{"content":"Title: People's Century Content: People 's Century is a television documentary series examining the 20th century . It was a joint production of the BBC in the United Kingdom and PBS member station WGBH Boston in the United States . The series was first shown on BBC in the 1995 , 1996 and 1997 television seasons before being shown elsewhere in the world and before being broadcast in the USA in 1998 .","qid":"2774","docid":"People's_Century","rank":45,"score":87643},{"content":"Title: The Divergent Series: Allegiant Content: The Divergent Series : Allegiant is a 2016 American action adventure film directed by Robert Schwentke with a screenplay by Bill Collage , Adam Cooper , and Noah Oppenheim . It is the first of two cinematic parts based on the novel Allegiant , the final book in the Divergent trilogy by Veronica Roth , and the third installment in The Divergent Series . The film stars Shailene Woodley , Theo James , Jeff Daniels , Miles Teller , Ansel Elgort , Zoë Kravitz , Maggie Q , Ray Stevenson , Bill Skarsgard , Octavia Spencer and Naomi Watts , and is the sequel to Insurgent and could be followed by the concluding entry , Ascendant ( Allegiant and Ascendant were originally to be titled Allegiant -- Part 1 and Allegiant -- Part 2 ) . Allegiant was released on March 18 , 2016 , in theaters and IMAX and received mainly negative reviews . The film was a financial disappointment , grossing $ 179 million worldwide , becoming the lowest-grossing Divergent film . This led to budget cuts on the fourth and the possibility that the final installment in the series , Ascendant , would be released as a TV movie instead of a theatrical one .","qid":"2774","docid":"The_Divergent_Series:_Allegiant","rank":46,"score":87484},{"content":"Title: Reconstructed newsreels by Georges Méliès Content: Between 1897 and 1902 , the French filmmaker Georges Méliès ( 1861 -- 1938 ) made numerous actualités reconstituées , a term that can be translated as `` reconstructed newsreels '' or `` reconstructed actualities . '' Unlike conventional actuality films , which presented real-life events or simple naturalistic scenes filmed in a documentary style , these reconstructed newsreels were dramatically staged reenactments of current events , employing miniature models and theatrical techniques . Méliès particularly focused on capturing the spectacular nature of the events he recreated . While little is known of the release dates for many of Méliès 's films , it appears that the reconstructed newsreels were released soon after the events they portrayed , when the news was still fresh in viewers ' minds . These reconstructed newsreels are part of a wider tradition of `` faked '' news film , a genre very popular in the early years of cinema ; between 1894 and 1900 , every major film studio regularly produced reenactments of current events . Some of these films were deliberate hoaxes , intended to be misconstrued as actual footage of the events they portrayed ; others were made with no intention to mislead audiences , and were designed simply as illustrations of the events . In the case of Méliès , the reconstructed newsreels were deliberately described as reenactments , and were not intended to be misconstrued as real . However , contemporary accounts suggest that some viewers assumed the films were genuine , and a few exhibitors even advertised the films falsely as such . After a sustained period of popularity , the genre fell out of favor in the 1910s , apparently due to growing public distaste for artificiality in film reportage . Méliès 's reconstructed newsreels have been described as an early form of docudrama . They can also be compared to the newspaper and magazine engravings of Méliès 's time , many of which made a similar attempt to capture the essence of a news event rather than to simulate it realistically .","qid":"2774","docid":"Reconstructed_newsreels_by_Georges_Méliès","rank":47,"score":87463},{"content":"Title: Reconstruction Acts Content: The Reconstruction Acts , or Military Reconstruction Acts , ( March 2 , 1867 , 14 Stat . 428-430 , c. 153 ; March 23 , 1867 , 15 Stat . 2-5 , c. 6 ; July 19 , 1867 , 15 Stat . 14-16 , c. 30 ; and March 11 , 1868 , 15 Stat . 41 , c. 25 ) were four statutes passed during the Reconstruction Era by the 40th United States Congress . The actual title of the initial legislation was `` An act to provide for the more efficient government of the Rebel States '' and it was passed on March 2 , 1867 . Fulfillment of the requirements of the Acts was necessary for the former Confederate States to be re-admitted to the Union . The Acts included Tennessee , which had already ratified the 14th Amendment and had been readmitted to the Union .","qid":"2774","docid":"Reconstruction_Acts","rank":48,"score":87126},{"content":"Title: Stonehenge in its landscape Content: Stonehenge in its landscape : Twentieth century excavations by R. M. J. Cleal , K. E. Walker and R. Montague is an archaeological report on Stonehenge published in 1995 . It presented the results of a two year intensive study of all the known records of the various excavations at Stonehenge in the twentieth century , including a rephasing of the development of the monument . Unlike popular books on the subject , Stonehenge in its landscape details the complex archaeological stratigraphy of the site . It has been described as `` an essential reference work for the specialist '' .","qid":"2774","docid":"Stonehenge_in_its_landscape","rank":49,"score":86884},{"content":"Title: Divergent (film) Content: Divergent is a 2014 American science fiction action film directed by Neil Burger , based on the novel of the same name by Veronica Roth . The film is the first installment in The Divergent Series and was produced by Lucy Fisher , Pouya Shabazian , and Douglas Wick , with a screenplay by Evan Daugherty and Vanessa Taylor . It stars Shailene Woodley , Theo James , Ashley Judd , Jai Courtney , Ray Stevenson , Zoë Kravitz , Miles Teller , Tony Goldwyn , Ansel Elgort , Maggie Q and Kate Winslet . The story takes place in a dystopian and post-apocalyptic Chicago where people are divided into distinct factions based on human virtues . Beatrice Prior is warned that she is Divergent and thus will never fit into any one of the factions . She soon learns that a sinister plot is brewing in the seemingly perfect society . Development of Divergent began in March 2011 when Summit Entertainment picked up the film rights to the novel with Douglas Wick and Lucy Fisher 's production company Red Wagon Entertainment . Principal photography began April 16 , 2013 , and concluded on July 16 , 2013 , with reshoots taking place from January 24 -- 26 , 2014 . Production mostly took place in Chicago . Divergent was released on March 21 , 2014 , in the United States . The film received mixed reviews from critics , with praise going towards its concepts and action , and criticism focused on its execution . Reviewers found the film to be generic and unoriginal , comparing it unfavorably to other young adult fiction adaptations . Despite this , the film was a financial success as it reached the # 1 spot at the box office during its opening weekend . After its release , the film earned over US$ 288 million worldwide against its budget of US$ 85 million . It was released on DVD and Blu-ray on August 5 , 2014 . A sequel , Insurgent , was released on March 20 , 2015 in the United States .","qid":"2774","docid":"Divergent_(film)","rank":50,"score":86465},{"content":"Title: Divergent (novel) Content: Divergent is the debut novel of American novelist Veronica Roth , published by HarperCollins Children 's Books in 2011 . The novel is the first of the Divergent trilogy , a series of young adult dystopian novels set in the Divergent Universe . The novel Divergent features a post-apocalyptic version of Chicago and follows Beatrice `` Tris '' Prior as she explores her identity within a society that defines its citizens by their social and personality-related affiliation with five factions , which removes the threat of anyone exercising independent will and re-threatening the population 's safety . Underlying the action and dystopian focused main plot is a romantic subplot between Tris and one of her instructors in the Dauntless faction , nicknamed Four . The novel has been compared to other young adult books such as The Hunger Games and The Maze Runner because of its similar themes and target audience . In particular , the novel explores the themes common to young adult fiction , such as adult authority and the transition from childhood to maturity , as well as such broader motifs as the place of violence and social structures within a post-apocalyptic society . Its major plot device , the division of society into personality types , is one used in other science fiction works . Beyond its literary context , Roth 's open declaration of her religion as a Christian has brought commentary from Christian communities both endorsing and challenging the novel . Roth wrote Divergent while working on a Creative Writing degree at Northwestern University , and it was quickly purchased for publication alongside the subsequent books in the trilogy ( completed in October 2013 ) . Summit Entertainment purchased the media rights to the book in 2011 and subsequently produced a film adaptation titled Divergent which was released March 21 , 2014 . The film , a success amongst audiences , generated $ 288,747,895 at the box office despite mixed reviews from critics .","qid":"2774","docid":"Divergent_(novel)","rank":51,"score":86443},{"content":"Title: Divergence (film) Content: Divergence is a 2005 Hong Kong action-crime film produced and directed by Benny Chan , from a screenplay by Ivy Ho . The film stars Aaron Kwok , Ekin Cheng and Daniel Wu .","qid":"2774","docid":"Divergence_(film)","rank":52,"score":86209},{"content":"Title: Instrumental temperature record Content: The instrumental temperature record provides the temperature of Earth 's climate system from the historical network of in situ measurements of surface air temperatures and ocean surface temperatures . Data are collected at thousands of meteorological stations , buoys and ships around the globe . The longest-running temperature record is the Central England temperature data series , that starts in 1659 . The longest-running quasi-global record starts in 1850 . In recent decades more extensive sampling of ocean temperatures at various depths have begun allowing estimates of ocean heat content but these do not form part of the global surface temperature datasets .","qid":"2774","docid":"Instrumental_temperature_record","rank":53,"score":86156},{"content":"Title: Term test Content: In mathematics , the nth-term test for divergence is a simple test for the divergence of an infinite series : If or if the limit does not exist , then diverges . Many authors do not name this test or give it a shorter name .","qid":"2774","docid":"Term_test","rank":54,"score":85861},{"content":"Title: History of Swedish Content: In the 9th century , Old Norse began to diverge into Old West Norse ( Norway and Iceland ) and Old East Norse ( Sweden and Denmark ) . In the 12th century , the dialects of Denmark and Sweden began to diverge , becoming Old Danish and Old Swedish in the 13th century . All were heavily influenced by Middle Low German during the medieval period . Though stages of language development are never as sharply delimited as implied here , and should not be taken too literally , the system of subdivisions used in this article is the most commonly used by Swedish linguists and is used for the sake of practicality .","qid":"2774","docid":"History_of_Swedish","rank":55,"score":85569},{"content":"Title: Proto-Austronesian language Content: The Proto-Austronesian language ( PAN ) is the reconstructed ancestor of the Austronesian languages , one of the world 's major language families . However , Ross ( 2009 ) notes that what may be the most divergent languages , Tsou , Rukai , and Puyuma , are not addressed by the reconstructions , which therefore can not claim to be the protolanguage of the entire family . He calls the unit which has been reconstructed Nuclear Austronesian . Lower-level reconstructions have also been made , and include Proto-Malayo-Polynesian , Proto-Oceanic , and Proto-Polynesian . Recently , linguists such as Malcolm Ross and Andrew Pawley have built large lexicons for Proto-Oceanic and Proto-Polynesian .","qid":"2774","docid":"Proto-Austronesian_language","rank":56,"score":85559},{"content":"Title: Divergent: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack Content: Divergent : Original Motion Picture Soundtrack is the soundtrack album to the 2014 film Divergent , based on the book series of the same name . The soundtrack for the film was chosen by music supervisor Randall Poster . The Divergent : Original Motion Picture Soundtrack album released on March 11 , 2014 while the Original Score of the film released on March 18 , 2014 by Interscope Records . The soundtrack album sold 10,000 copies in its first week of release . The first single from the soundtrack album , `` Find You '' by Zedd featuring Matthew Koma and Miriam Bryant , was released on January 26 , 2014 . `` Beating Heart '' by Ellie Goulding was released on May 9 , 2014 as the second single from the soundtrack .","qid":"2774","docid":"Divergent:_Original_Motion_Picture_Soundtrack","rank":57,"score":85472},{"content":"Title: Divergent trilogy Content: The Divergent trilogy is a series of young adult science fiction adventure novels by American novelist Veronica Roth set in a post-apocalyptic dystopian Chicago . The trilogy consists of Divergent ( 2011 ) , Insurgent ( 2012 ) and Allegiant ( 2013 ) . A related book , Four '' , presents a series of short stories told from the perspective of one of the trilogy 's characters . The society of the trilogy defines its citizens by their social and personality-related affiliation with five different factions , which removes the threat of anyone exercising independent will and threatening the population 's safety . Beatrice Prior , who later changes her name to Tris , an Abnegation-born and Dauntless transfer , must figure out her life as a Divergent , while concealing her true nature , and living with the danger of being killed if it is discovered by the Erudite and Dauntless leaders .","qid":"2774","docid":"Divergent_trilogy","rank":58,"score":85433},{"content":"Title: American Century Content: American Century is a characterization of the period since the middle of the 20th century as being largely dominated by the United States in political , economic , and cultural terms . It is comparable to the description of the period 1815 -- 1914 as Britain 's Imperial Century . The United States ' influence grew throughout the 20th century , but became especially dominant after the end of World War II , when only two superpowers remained , the United States and the Soviet Union . After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 , the United States remained the world 's only superpower , and became the hegemon , or what some have termed a hyperpower .","qid":"2774","docid":"American_Century","rank":59,"score":85403},{"content":"Title: Arc of a Diver Content: Arc of a Diver is the second solo studio album by singer/multi-instrumentalist Steve Winwood , released in 1980 . All of the instruments featured on the album were played by Winwood . Featuring his first solo hit , `` While You See a Chance '' ( which peaked at number 7 on the Billboard Hot 100 in the United States ) , this was Winwood 's breakthrough album as a solo artist . It peaked at number 3 on the Billboard 200 album chart , establishing him as a commercially viable act . The cover artwork for the album is by Tony Wright .","qid":"2774","docid":"Arc_of_a_Diver","rank":60,"score":85213},{"content":"Title: Diver Down Content: Diver Down is the fifth studio album by American hard rock band Van Halen , released in 1982 . It spent 65 weeks on the album chart in the United States and had , by 1998 , sold four million copies in the US .","qid":"2774","docid":"Diver_Down","rank":61,"score":85116},{"content":"Title: Don't Forget the Diver Content: Do n't Forget the Diver is the second episode of the fourth series of the British comedy series Dad 's Army that was originally transmitted on Friday 2 October 1970 .","qid":"2774","docid":"Don't_Forget_the_Diver","rank":62,"score":85067},{"content":"Title: Der Taucher Content: `` Der Taucher '' ( The Diver ) is a ballad by Friedrich Schiller , written in 1797 , the year of his friendly ballad competition with Goethe .","qid":"2774","docid":"Der_Taucher","rank":63,"score":85052},{"content":"Title: Diver (Nico Touches the Walls song) Content: `` Diver '' is the eighth single by Japanese rock band Nico Touches the Walls , released on January 12 , 2011 , from their third studio album Passenger . The song was featured as the 8th opening of the anime Naruto Shippuden , from October 2010 .","qid":"2774","docid":"Diver_(Nico_Touches_the_Walls_song)","rank":64,"score":85021},{"content":"Title: 20th Anniversary Series Content: The 20th Anniversary Series is a series of singles released by the American punk rock band The Bouncing Souls in 2009 to mark the twentieth year of the band 's career . Over the course of the year , a total of 16 songs were released by the band 's label Chunksaah Records as 7 '' singles and music downloads . The digital singles were released once a month , from January 1 to December 1 , with 4 bonus songs being given out at the end of the year to those that purchased a subscription of the singles . The 7 '' EPs were released once every three months , and included 3 of the main songs and 1 bonus song on each . The 12 main songs were collected for a proper album , titled Ghosts on the Boardwalk .","qid":"2774","docid":"20th_Anniversary_Series","rank":65,"score":84726},{"content":"Title: Surfin' Guitars: Instrumental Surf Bands of the Sixties Content: Surfin ' Guitars : Instrumental Surf Bands of the Sixties is a book by Robert J. Dalley which covers the instrumental side of the surf genre in the 1960s and looks at groups and artists from that era . It has been published three times with the first version published in 1988 and the third in 2015 . It has been quoted and referred to multiple times in books relating to surf music .","qid":"2774","docid":"Surfin'_Guitars:_Instrumental_Surf_Bands_of_the_Sixties","rank":66,"score":84709},{"content":"Title: Divers (album) Content: Divers is the fourth studio album by American musician Joanna Newsom , released on October 23 , 2015 via Drag City . The album was revealed on August 10 , 2015 , along with its first song , `` Sapokanikan '' , which was released digitally as the first single . The cover art , album packaging , and music video for the album 's title track feature the work of artist Kim Keever . The music video was directed by Paul Thomas Anderson with whom Newsom worked for the film Inherent Vice . Speaking about the album 's creative process in an interview with Entertainment Weekly , she said `` I ... spent a year or two on the instrumental arrangements and overdubs . I wanted the character and colors of the instrumentation to shift definitively , from song to song , which entailed a wide pool of collaborators and a lengthy collaborative process with each person . '' She further described the process of making the album as `` probably the most fun I 've had making a record '' . Entertainment Weekly also reported Newsom `` as using an arsenal of nearly a dozen keyboards and synths including clavichords , Mellotrons and Marxophones '' for the album while members of the City of Prague Philharmonic Orchestra feature as players on the album .","qid":"2774","docid":"Divers_(album)","rank":67,"score":84707},{"content":"Title: Holy Diver (video game) Content: For the album Holy Diver by the band Dio , and its title track , see Dio . is a platforming video game software developed and published by Irem on April 28 , 1989 for the Famicom ( Japanese version of the Nintendo Entertainment System ) . The game was scheduled for a North American release in the same year , and even received a brief write-up in Electronic Gaming Monthly . However , possibly for licensing reasons , the game was never released outside Japan .","qid":"2774","docid":"Holy_Diver_(video_game)","rank":68,"score":83868},{"content":"Title: Holy Diver Content: Holy Diver is the debut album by American heavy metal band Dio , released in 1983 . Vocalist Ronnie James Dio had just finished his first tenure in Black Sabbath , whose drummer Vinny Appice he took with him to put together his own band . The roster was completed by his former band mate in Rainbow Jimmy Bain on bass and by the young guitarist Vivian Campbell , coming from the NWOBHM band Sweet Savage . The album was acclaimed by the music press and is the most successful of the band .","qid":"2774","docid":"Holy_Diver","rank":69,"score":83861},{"content":"Title: Divergent geometric series Content: In mathematics , an infinite geometric series of the form is divergent if and only if | r | ≥ 1 . Methods for summation of divergent series are sometimes useful , and usually evaluate divergent geometric series to a sum that agrees with the formula for the convergent case This is true of any summation method that possesses the properties of regularity , linearity , and stability .","qid":"2774","docid":"Divergent_geometric_series","rank":70,"score":83819},{"content":"Title: The Divergent Series: Insurgent – Original Motion Picture Soundtrack Content: The Divergent Series : Insurgent -- Original Motion Picture Soundtrack is the official soundtrack album of the 2015 American science-fiction action film The Divergent Series : Insurgent , based on the second book of the Divergent trilogy . The score of the film was composed by Joseph Trapanese , while Randall Poster reprised his role as music supervisor . The soundtrack album along with the film 's score were released exclusively as digital albums by Interscope Records on March 17 , 2015 .","qid":"2774","docid":"The_Divergent_Series:_Insurgent_–_Original_Motion_Picture_Soundtrack","rank":71,"score":83756},{"content":"Title: 20th century in the United States Content: The 20th century in the United States refers to the period in the United States from 1901 through 2000 in the Gregorian calendar . For information on this period , see : : Category :20 th century in the United States History of the United States series : History of the United States ( 1865 -- 1918 ) History of the United States ( 1918 -- 1945 ) History of the United States ( 1945 -- 1964 ) History of the United States ( 1964 -- 1980 ) History of the United States ( 1980 -- 1991 ) History of the United States ( 1991 -- present ) Timeline of the United States *","qid":"2774","docid":"20th_century_in_the_United_States","rank":72,"score":83467},{"content":"Title: Ultraviolet catastrophe Content: The ultraviolet catastrophe , also called the Rayleigh -- Jeans catastrophe , was the prediction of late 19th century/early 20th century classical physics that an ideal black body at thermal equilibrium will emit radiation in all frequency ranges , emitting more energy as the frequency increases . By calculating the total amount of radiated energy ( i.e. , the sum of emissions in all frequency ranges ) , it can be shown that a blackbody would release an infinite amount of energy , contradicting the principles of conservation of energy and indicating that a new model for the behaviour of blackbodies was needed . The term `` ultraviolet catastrophe '' was first used in 1911 by Paul Ehrenfest , but the concept originated with the 1900 derivation of the Rayleigh -- Jeans law . The phrase refers to the fact that the Rayleigh-Jeans law accurately predicts experimental results at radiative frequencies below 105 GHz , but begins to diverge with empirical observations as these frequencies reach the ultraviolet region of the electromagnetic spectrum . Since the first appearance of the term , it has also been used for other predictions of a similar nature , as in quantum electrodynamics and such cases as ultraviolet divergence .","qid":"2774","docid":"Ultraviolet_catastrophe","rank":73,"score":83413},{"content":"Title: The Diver (film) Content: The Diver is a 1911 American silent documentary produced by Kalem Company and directed by Sidney Olcott . It was shot in Florida . It shows a diver who works in Saint John river in Jacksonville , Fla. .","qid":"2774","docid":"The_Diver_(film)","rank":74,"score":83383},{"content":"Title: Air Diver Content: is a combat flight simulator video game released by Seismic ( Asmik Ace Entertainment in Japan ) in April 1990 for the Sega Genesis/Mega Drive console . It is notable as being one of the two first third party published titles for the console in North America . A follow-up , Super Air Diver was released exclusively for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System years later .","qid":"2774","docid":"Air_Diver","rank":75,"score":82940},{"content":"Title: William Diver Content: William Diver ( July 20 , 1921 -- August 31 , 1995 ) was the founder of the Columbia School of Linguistics , named after the university in New York where he taught linguistics from 1955 through 1989 , and where he received his Ph.D. in comparative Indo-European linguistics . Although his background lay mainly in the linguistics of ancient languages , Diver 's approach to linguistics was uniquely modern and scientific . His lectures were sprinkled with references to the history and methodology of science . He believed that science is explanation , not description or prediction , and he compared the explanatory power of the Copernican astronomical system with the explanatory weakness of the epicycles of the Ptolemaic system , both of which had equal descriptive and predictive power . He also believed that the purpose of language was chiefly communication , and his linguistic analyses reflected that orientation , along with that of human psychology and physiology . In other words , these orientations helped him to explain why languages take the forms they do . During Diver 's career , most popular schools of linguistic thought tended towards pure formalism , based on traditional categories and entities , such as the parts of speech and the sentence . While these schools rejected prescriptivism and the idealization of the standard language , Diver stood almost alone in rejecting traditional entities that had no specific function , such as the syllable and the mechanistic interpretation of `` government '' or `` agreement . '' He analyzed language as a form of human behavior , rather than as an idealized expression of truth . See article on the Columbia School for more details and successful application of Diver 's methodology . William Diver was born in Chicago and served in the US Navy during World War II earning the Legion of Merit . He died aged 74 while on a sailing vacation in Nantucket . Some of his works are listed below .","qid":"2774","docid":"William_Diver","rank":76,"score":82680},{"content":"Title: Instrumental rock Content: Instrumental rock is rock music that emphasizes musical instruments and features very little or no singing . Examples of instrumental rock can be found in practically every subgenre of rock , often from musicians who specialize in the style . Instrumental rock was most popular from the mid-1950s to mid-1960s , with artists such as Bill Doggett Combo , Jimmy Reed , Earl Bostic , The Fireballs , The Shadows , and The Ventures . Surf music had many instrumental songs . Many instrumental hits came from the R&B world . Funk and disco produced several instrumental hit singles during the 1970s . The Allman Brothers Band have many instrumentals . Jeff Beck also recorded two instrumental albums in the 1970s . Progressive rock and art rock performers of the 1960s and 1970s did many virtuosic instrumental performances . During the 1980s and 1990s , the instrumental rock genre was dominated by several guitar soloists , including Joe Satriani , Yngwie Malmsteen and Steve Vai . The 2000s gave way for a new style of instrumental performer . For example , John Lowery ( a.k.a. John 5 ) , released a solo instrumental album . The 2000s also saw the rise of instrumental music by bands that have been labeled post-rock .","qid":"2774","docid":"Instrumental_rock","rank":77,"score":82638},{"content":"Title: Reconstructionist Judaism Content: Reconstructionist Judaism ( , yahadút rekonstruktívit , or יהדות מתחדשת , yahadút mitkhadéshet ) is a modern Jewish movement that views Judaism as a progressively evolving civilization and is based on the conceptions developed by Mordecai Kaplan ( 1881 -- 1983 ) . The movement originated as a semi-organized stream within Conservative Judaism and developed from the late 1920s to 1940s , before it seceded in 1955 and established a rabbinical college in 1967 . There is substantial theological diversity within the movement . Halakha , the collective body of Jewish Law , is not considered binding , but is treated as a valuable cultural remnant that should be upheld unless there is reason for the contrary . The movement also emphasizes positive views toward modernity , and has an approach to Jewish custom which aims toward communal decision making through a process of education and distillation of values from traditional Jewish sources .","qid":"2774","docid":"Reconstructionist_Judaism","rank":78,"score":82631},{"content":"Title: Diver Dan Content: Diver Dan was a series of 104 seven-minute live-action shorts made for children 's television . Made by Brian Cartoons , it was syndicated ( mainly to NBC affiliates ) and distributed by ITC Entertainment . The shows were sometimes re-edited into half-hour ( including commercials ) blocks by local stations . The series featured the adventures of a diver in an old-fashioned diving suit who talked to the passing fish . The series was filmed in live action with puppet fish ; the underwater effect was achieved by shooting through an aquarium .","qid":"2774","docid":"Diver_Dan","rank":79,"score":82570},{"content":"Title: 20th Century Boys Content: is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Naoki Urasawa . It was originally serialized in Big Comic Spirits from 1999 to 2006 , with the 249 chapters published into 22 tankōbon volumes by Shogakukan . In January 2007 , a sixteen chapter continuation titled ran until July , and was gathered into two tankōbon . It tells the story of Kenji Endō and his friends , who notice a cult-leader known only as `` Friend '' is out to destroy the world , and it has something to do with their childhood memories . The series makes many references to a number of manga and anime from the 1960s-1970s , as well as to classic rock music , its title being taken from T.Rex 's song `` 20th Century Boy '' . A trilogy of live-action film adaptations , directed by Yukihiko Tsutsumi , were released in 2008 and 2009 . The manga was licensed and released in English by Viz Media from 2009 to 2012 , and distributed in Australasia by Madman Entertainment . The films were also licensed by Viz in North America and by 4Digital Media in the United Kingdom . 20th Century Boys has received critical acclaim and has 36 million copies in circulation .","qid":"2774","docid":"20th_Century_Boys","rank":80,"score":82533},{"content":"Title: Harmonic series (mathematics) Content: In mathematics , the harmonic series is the divergent infinite series : Its name derives from the concept of overtones , or harmonics in music : the wavelengths of the overtones of a vibrating string are , , , etc. , of the string 's fundamental wavelength . Every term of the series after the first is the harmonic mean of the neighboring terms ; the phrase harmonic mean likewise derives from music .","qid":"2774","docid":"Harmonic_series_(mathematics)","rank":81,"score":82489},{"content":"Title: 1870s Content: The 1870s continued the trends of the previous decade , as new empires , imperialism and militarism rose in Europe and Asia . The United States was recovering from the American Civil War . Germany unified in 1871 and began its Second Reich . Labor unions and strikes occurred worldwide in the later part of the decade , and continued until World War I . The Reconstruction era of the United States brought a legacy of bitterness and segregation that lasted until the 1960s .","qid":"2774","docid":"1870s","rank":82,"score":82364},{"content":"Title: Sounds of the 20th Century Content: Sounds of the 20th Century is a BBC Radio 2 documentary series originally broadcast in the UK between April 2011 and April 2012 . Each 60-minute programme is dedicated to one year from 1951 to 2000 and features a montage of audio relating to that year . Featuring nothing that was n't heard , seen or read at the time , other than brief introduction to each episode by Jeremy Vine , the series does not feature any explanations , reminiscenses or reflections upon the clips . Instead , the series ' website provided a list and description of the audio items , which was also supplied in real time by the show 's Twitter feed . It is described as an ` audio journey through five decades of triumph , tragedy and trivia . ' The first part of the series was first broadcast at 10pm on Thursday 7 April . Focussing upon 1951 , it featured the real King 's Speech ( as he opens the Festival of Britain ) , a General Election victory for the Conservatives and their Liberal allies , the first hit single with multi-tracking ( Les Paul 's `` How High The Moon '' ) , the first rock 'n' roll record ( Jackie Brentson 's `` Rocket 88 '' ) , screen heroes from Marlon Brando to The Lone Ranger . The series was produced by Trevor Dann 's Company , and there is a series blog available at sottc.wordpress.com . The critical reception was generally positive . Comparing the show to BBC One 's The Rock 'n' Roll Years , The Independents Chris Maume asked if `` commissioning Sounds of the 20th Century -LSB- was -RSB- the first thing the 6 Music/Radio 2 controller Bob Shennan has got right in his short but deeply unsatisfactory tenure ? '' . More critically , The Guardians Elisabeth Mahoney identified parallels between the archive clips and the contemporary world , but was frustrated at the lack of a narrative , arguing that `` the jaunty mix is frustratingly hard-going . ''","qid":"2774","docid":"Sounds_of_the_20th_Century","rank":83,"score":82243},{"content":"Title: James May's 20th Century Content: James May 's 20th Century is a television series first aired on 10 July 2007 on the British terrestrial channel BBC Two . The series is a co-production by the BBC and the Open University . The series covers various inventions and discoveries over the past century with some reference to discoveries made before the past century . The show features the eponymous James May , exhibiting and discussing the implications of many of the major advances and inventions made during this period . Each episode features some theme , which was discussed in depth during the show , often following sequential advances in chronological order . The programme is now shown on Eden , Yesterday and Dave . The theme tune is called `` The Long Boot '' , by Jeff Knowler .","qid":"2774","docid":"James_May's_20th_Century","rank":84,"score":82240},{"content":"Title: Reconstruction Amendments Content: The Reconstruction Amendments are the Thirteenth , Fourteenth , and Fifteenth amendments to the United States Constitution , adopted between 1865 and 1870 , the five years immediately following the Civil War . The amendments were important in implementing the Reconstruction of the American South after the war . Their proponents saw them as transforming the United States from a country that was ( in Abraham Lincoln 's words ) `` half slave and half free '' to one in which the constitutionally guaranteed `` blessings of liberty '' would be extended to the entire populace , including the former slaves and their descendants . The Thirteenth Amendment ( proposed and ratified in 1865 ) abolished slavery . The Fourteenth Amendment ( proposed in 1866 and ratified in 1868 ) addresses citizenship rights and equal protection of the laws for all persons . The Fifteenth Amendment ( proposed in 1869 and ratified in 1870 ) prohibits discrimination in voting rights of citizens on the basis of `` race , color , or previous condition of servitude . '' This amendment did not include a specific prohibition on discrimination on the basis of sex ; it took another amendment -- the Nineteenth , ratified in 1920 -- to prohibit such discrimination explicitly . Men and women of all races , regardless of prior slavery , could vote in some states of the early United States , such as New Jersey , provided that they could meet other requirements , such as property ownership . These amendments were intended to guarantee freedom to former slaves and to establish and prevent discrimination in civil rights to former slaves and all citizens of the United States . The promise of these amendments was eroded by state laws and federal court decisions over the course of the 19th century . Women were prohibited by some state constitutions and laws from voting , leading to Susan B. Anthony attempting to vote in New York in the 1872 Presidential election as an act of civil disobedience . In 1876 and later , some states passed Jim Crow laws that limited the rights of African-Americans . Important Supreme Court decisions that undermined these amendments were the Slaughter-House Cases in 1873 , which prevented rights guaranteed under the Fourteenth Amendment 's privileges or immunities clause from being extended to rights under state law ; and Plessy v. Ferguson in 1896 which originated the phrase `` separate but equal '' and gave federal approval to Jim Crow laws . The full benefits of the Thirteenth , Fourteenth , and Fifteenth amendments were not realized until the Supreme Court decision in Brown v. Board of Education in 1954 and laws such as the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 .","qid":"2774","docid":"Reconstruction_Amendments","rank":85,"score":82058},{"content":"Title: The In Instrumentals Content: The In Instrumentals is an album by jazz trombonist and arranger Kai Winding recorded in 1965 for the Verve label .","qid":"2774","docid":"The_In_Instrumentals","rank":86,"score":82047},{"content":"Title: Great Rebuilding Content: A Great Rebuilding is a period in which a heightened level of building work , architectural change , building or rebuilding occurred . More specifically , W. G. Hoskins defined the term `` The Great Rebuilding '' in England as the period from the mid-16th century until 1640 . Hoskins ' initial theory held that during this period , improved economic conditions in England led to the expansion , rebuilding or architectural improvement of a large number of rural buildings . The precise time period , extent and impact of `` The Great Rebuilding '' is contested . Ronald Brunskill accepts that in much of England it spanned the period 1570 -- 1640 but that the period varied both by region and by social class . It was earliest in South East England , later in South West England and Cornwall , about 1670 -- 1720 in Northern England and later still in Wales . In each region it affected higher-income social classes first and then progressed to lower-income classes .","qid":"2774","docid":"Great_Rebuilding","rank":87,"score":82040},{"content":"Title: Strictly Instrumental Content: Strictly Instrumental is the title of a recording by American folk music artists Doc Watson , Lester Flatt and Earl Scruggs , released in 1967 .","qid":"2774","docid":"Strictly_Instrumental","rank":88,"score":82020},{"content":"Title: Instrumentals Vol. 1 Content: Instrumentals Vol . 1 is an instrumental album compiled by American hip hop musician Necro , released on September 19 , 2001 by Psycho + Logical-Records . It features 18 digitally remastered instrumental versions of tracks by Necro , Non Phixion , Al Tariq , Ill Bill , and Cage , all of which were produced by Necro . It is the first installment of the Instrumentals album collection .","qid":"2774","docid":"Instrumentals_Vol._1","rank":89,"score":81760},{"content":"Title: Nadir of American race relations Content: The `` nadir of American race relations '' was the period in the history of the Southern United States from the end of Reconstruction in 1877 through the early 20th century , when racism in the country was worse than in any other period after the American Civil War . During this period , African Americans lost many civil rights gains made during Reconstruction . Anti-black violence , lynchings , segregation , legal racial discrimination , and expressions of white supremacy increased . Historian Rayford Logan coined the term in his 1954 book The Negro in American Life and Thought : The Nadir , 1877 -- 1901 . Logan tried to determine the year when `` the Negro 's status in American society '' reached its lowest point . He argued for 1901 , suggesting that relations improved after then . Others , such as John Hope Franklin and Henry Arthur Callis , argued for dates as late as 1923 . ( Logan , p. xxi ) The term continues to be used , most notably in the books of James Loewen , but also by other scholars . Loewen chooses later dates , arguing that the post-Reconstruction era was in fact one of widespread hope for racial equity due to idealistic Northern support for civil rights . In Loewen 's view the true nadir began only when northern Republicans ceased supporting Southern blacks ' rights around 1890 , and lasted until the Second World War . This period followed the financial Panic of 1873 and a continuing decline in cotton prices . It overlapped with both the Gilded Age and the Progressive Era , and was characterized by the nationwide sundown town phenomenon . Logan 's focus was exclusively African American and principally the American South . But the time period he identified also represents the worst period of anti-Chinese discrimination , harassment and violence on the west coast of the U.S. ( and Canada ) , particularly after the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 .","qid":"2774","docid":"Nadir_of_American_race_relations","rank":90,"score":81569},{"content":"Title: Operation Diver Content: Operation Diver was the British codename for countermeasures against the V-1 flying bomb campaign launched by the German Luftwaffe in 1944 against London and other parts of Britain . `` Diver '' was the codename for the V-1 itself . Modes of defence used against V-1s included anti-aircraft guns , barrage balloons , and fighter aircraft ; also double agents planted false information about the success of targeting . Anti-aircraft guns proved the most effective form of defence in the later stages of the campaign , with the aid of radar-based technology and the proximity fuse . The bombing campaigns ended by the middle of 1944 .","qid":"2774","docid":"Operation_Diver","rank":91,"score":81533},{"content":"Title: Terra Diver Content: , also known as Terra Diver , is a vertical-scrolling shooting game by Raizing originally released as an arcade game for the ST-V platform in 1996 . The game was ported to the Sega Saturn and PlayStation in 1997","qid":"2774","docid":"Terra_Diver","rank":92,"score":81495},{"content":"Title: Instrumentals (Nels Cline Singers album) Content: Instrumentals is the debut album by The Nels Cline Singers led by American guitarist Nels Cline which was released in March 2002 on the Cryptogramophone label .","qid":"2774","docid":"Instrumentals_(Nels_Cline_Singers_album)","rank":93,"score":81382},{"content":"Title: Alfred Diver Content: Alfred John Day Diver ( born 6 July 1823 in Cambridge ; died 25 March 1876 in Rugby ) was an English first-class cricketer whose career spanned the 1843 season to the 1866 season . Diver played mainly for Cambridge Town Club ( aka Cambridgeshire ) and also played for Middlesex and Nottinghamshire . Popularly known as `` Ducky '' , Diver is best known as a reliable batsman for various All-England Eleven teams . Following the 1859 English cricket season , he was one of the 12-strong party of English players who toured North America . Led by George Parr , this was the first ever overseas cricket tour . His nephew , Edwin Diver , played over 200 first-class games , mostly for Surrey and Warwickshire .","qid":"2774","docid":"Alfred_Diver","rank":94,"score":81336},{"content":"Title: Dyson series Content: In scattering theory , a part of mathematical physics , the Dyson series , formulated by Freeman Dyson , is a perturbative series , and each term is represented by Feynman diagrams . This series diverges asymptotically , but in quantum electrodynamics ( QED ) at the second order the difference from experimental data is in the order of 10 − 10 . This close agreement holds because the coupling constant ( also known as the fine structure constant ) of QED is much less than 1 . Notice that in this article Planck units are used , so that ħ = 1 ( where ħ is the reduced Planck constant ) .","qid":"2774","docid":"Dyson_series","rank":95,"score":81316},{"content":"Title: Reconstruction Agency Content: The is an administrative body of the Cabinet of Japan established on February 2 , 2012 to coordinate reconstruction activities related to the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami and Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster .","qid":"2774","docid":"Reconstruction_Agency","rank":96,"score":81221},{"content":"Title: Moon Diver Content: , formerly known as Necromachina , is a side-scrolling platforming video game developed by feelplus and published by Square Enix . It was released for the PSN on March 29 , 2011 , and the Xbox Live Arcade on May 4 , 2011 .","qid":"2774","docid":"Moon_Diver","rank":97,"score":81150},{"content":"Title: Navy Divers Content: Navy Divers is a four-episode Australian observational documentary series that debuted on the ABC1 on 28 October 2008 . The program follows 27 men training to enter the clearance diver branch of the Royal Australian Navy , into which only 14 will be accepted .","qid":"2774","docid":"Navy_Divers","rank":98,"score":81084},{"content":"Title: ReConStruction Content: ReConStruction was the tenth occasional North American Science Fiction Convention . It was held in Raleigh , North Carolina , on August 5 -- 8 , 2010 , at the Raleigh Convention Center , Marriott City Center , and the Downtown Raleigh Sheraton . This NASFiC was held because Melbourne , Australia , was selected as the location for the 2010 Worldcon .","qid":"2774","docid":"ReConStruction","rank":99,"score":81063},{"content":"Title: Jewish Cultural Reconstruction, Inc. Content: Jewish Cultural Reconstruction , Inc. ( JCR ) was an organization established in 1947 to collect and distribute heirless Jewish property in the American occupied zone of Germany after World War II . Shortly after its founding , it became the cultural arm of the Jewish Restitution Successor Organization ( JRSO ) . About 150,000 heirless items ( mostly books from the Offenbach Archival Depot whose owners could not be identified ) were distributed by the JCR to libraries in the United States and abroad , among others to the library of the Israelitische Cultusgemeinde Zürich ( ICZ ) in Switzerland.Hannah Arendt , then managing director of the Jewish Cultural Reconstruction , Inc. , handed over parts of the library of the Breslau Rabbinical Seminary in Germany which was suppressed by the Nazis in 1938 . The oldest books of the Breslau collection date back to the 16th century , among them a 1595 print of Flavius Josephus ' Antiquities of the Jews . Funding for the JCR 's operations was provided by the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee and the Jewish Agency for Palestine . Among the leaders and officers of the organization were Salo Baron , Hannah Arendt , Leo Baeck , and Gershom Scholem . The JCR ceased operations in 1952 .","qid":"2774","docid":"Jewish_Cultural_Reconstruction,_Inc.","rank":100,"score":80935}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Divergence problem Content: The divergence problem is an anomaly from the field of dendroclimatology , the study of past climate through observations of old trees , primarily the properties of their annual growth rings . It is the disagreement between the temperatures measured by the thermometers ( instrumental temperatures ) and the temperatures reconstructed from the latewood densities or , in some cases , widths of tree rings in the far northern forests . While the thermometer records indicate a substantial late 20th century warming trend , many tree rings from such sites do not display a corresponding change in their maximum latewood density . In some studies this issue has also been found with tree ring width . A temperature trend extracted from tree rings alone would not show any substantial warming since the 1950s . The temperature graphs calculated in these two ways thus `` diverge '' from one another , which is the origin of the term .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Divergence_problem\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 140716\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Temperature record of the past 1000 years Content: For information on the description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in various IPCC reports see MWP and LIA in IPCC reportsThe temperature record of the past 1,000 years is reconstructed using data from climate proxy records in conjunction with the modern instrumental temperature record which only covers the last 150 years at a global scale . Large-scale reconstructions covering part or all of the 1st millennium and 2nd millennium have shown that recent temperatures are exceptional : the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report of 2007 concluded that `` Average Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the second half of the 20th century were very likely higher than during any other 50-year period in the last 500 years and likely '' the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . '' The curve shown in graphs of these reconstructions is widely known as the hockey stick graph because of the sharp increase in temperatures during the last century . As of 2010 this broad pattern was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th-century `` shaft '' appears . Sparseness of proxy records results in considerable uncertainty for earlier periods . Individual proxy records , such as tree ring widths and densities used in dendroclimatology , are calibrated against the instrumental record for the period of overlap . Networks of such records are used to reconstruct past temperatures for regions : tree ring proxies have been used to reconstruct Northern Hemisphere extratropical temperatures ( within the tropics trees do not form rings ) but are confined to land areas and are scarce in the Southern Hemisphere which is largely ocean . Wider coverage is provided by multiproxy reconstructions , incorporating proxies such as lake sediments , ice cores and corals which are found in different regions , and using statistical methods to relate these sparser proxies to the greater numbers of tree ring records . The `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method is widely used for large-scale multiproxy reconstructions of hemispheric or global average temperatures ; this is complemented by Climate Field Reconstruction ( CFR ) methods which show how climate patterns have developed over large spatial areas , making the reconstruction useful for investigating natural variability and long-term oscillations as well as for comparisons with patterns produced by climate models . During the 1,900 years before the 20th century , it is likely that the next warmest period was from 950 to 1100 , with peaks at different times in different regions . This has been called the Medieval Warm Period , and some evidence suggests widespread cooler conditions during a period around the 17th century known as the Little Ice Age . In the hockey stick controversy , contrarians have asserted that the Medieval Warm Period was warmer than at present , and have disputed the data and methods of climate reconstructions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Temperature_record_of_the_past_1000_years\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 120294\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of large-scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years Content: This list of large scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years includes climate reconstructions which have contributed significantly to the modern consensus on the temperature record of the past 2000 years . The instrumental temperature record only covers the last 150 years at a hemispheric or global scale , and reconstructions of earlier periods are based on climate proxies . In an early attempt to show that climate had changed , Hubert Lamb 's 1965 paper generalised from temperature records of central England together with historical , botanical and archeological evidence to produce a qualitative estimate of temperatures in the north Atlantic region . Subsequent quantitative reconstructions used statistical techniques with various climate proxies to produce larger scale reconstructions . Tree ring proxies can give an annual resolution of extratropical regions of the northern hemisphere , and can be statistically combined with other sparser proxies to produce multiproxy hemispherical or global reconstructions . Quantitative reconstructions have consistently shown earlier temperatures below the temperature levels reached in the late 20th century . This pattern as seen in was dubbed the hockey stick graph , and as of 2010 this broad conclusion was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_large-scale_temperature_reconstructions_of_the_last_2,000_years\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 116978\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hockey stick controversy Content: In the hockey stick controversy , the data and methods used in reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years have been disputed . Reconstructions have consistently shown that the rise in the instrumental temperature record of the past 150 years is not matched in earlier centuries , and the name `` hockey stick graph '' was coined for figures showing a long-term decline followed by an abrupt rise in temperatures . These graphs were publicised to explain the scientific findings of climatology , and in addition to scientific debate over the reconstructions , they have been the topic of political dispute . The issue is part of the global warming controversy and has been one focus of political responses to reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . The use of proxy indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed from the 1990s onwards , and found indications that recent warming was exceptional . The reconstruction introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large-scale reconstructions , and its findings were disputed by Patrick Michaels at the United States House Committee on Science . In 1998 , Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 . In ( MBH99 ) the methodology was extended back to 1000 . The term hockey stick was coined by the climatologist Jerry D. Mahlman , to describe the pattern this showed , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' , followed by a sharp increase corresponding to the `` blade '' . A version of this graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , along with four other reconstructions supporting the same conclusion . The graph was publicised , and became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th-century warmth was exceptional . Those disputing the graph included Pat Michaels , the George C. Marshall Institute and Fred Singer . A paper by Willie Soon and Sallie Baliunas claiming greater medieval warmth was used by the Bush administration chief of staff Philip Cooney to justify altering the first Environmental Protection Agency Report on the Environment . The paper was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy , but on July 28 , Republican Jim Inhofe spoke in the Senate citing it to claim `` that man-made global warming is the greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American people '' . Later in 2003 , a paper by Steve McIntyre and Ross McKitrick disputing the data used in MBH98 paper was publicised by the George C. Marshall Institute and the Competitive Enterprise Institute . In 2004 , Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 , McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal component analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . The analysis therein was subsequently disputed by published papers , including and , which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . In June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton launched what Sherwood Boehlert , chairman of the House Science Committee , called a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into the data , methods and personal information of Mann , Bradley and Hughes . At Boehlert 's request , a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council was set up , which reported in 2006 , supporting Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . Barton and U.S. Rep. Ed Whitfield requested Edward Wegman to set up a team of statisticians to investigate , and they supported McIntyre and McKitrick 's view that there were statistical failings , although they did not quantify whether there was any significant effect . They also produced an extensive network analysis which has been discredited by expert opinion and found to have issues of plagiarism . Arguments against the MBH studies were reintroduced as part of the Climatic Research Unit email controversy , but dismissed by eight independent investigations . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , have supported the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Over a dozen subsequent reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Hockey_stick_controversy\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 107024\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Reconstruction (band) Content: Reconstruction was a band formed in 1978 by John Kahn initially to occupy him while Jerry Garcia , his long-time musical collaborator , was busy with the Grateful Dead . The band 's original guitar player was Jerry Miller , best known for performing with Moby Grape . In March 1979 , Garcia took over guitar duties officially . The band performed while the Grateful Dead was on a brief hiatus , switching keyboard players from Keith Godchaux to Brent Mydland , and continued well into 1979 . The band varied its styles from previous Garcia/Kahn/Saunders collaborations to more of a disco and jazz sound .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Reconstruction_(band)\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 105567\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hockey stick graph Content: Hockey stick graphs present the global or hemispherical mean temperature record of the past 500 to 2000 years as shown by quantitative climate reconstructions based on climate proxy records . These reconstructions have consistently shown a slow long term cooling trend changing into relatively rapid warming in the 20th century , with the instrumental temperature record by 2000 exceeding earlier temperatures . The term `` hockey stick graph '' was coined by the climatologist Jerry Mahlman , to describe the pattern shown by the ( MBH99 ) reconstruction , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat with a downward trend to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' followed by a sharp , steady increase corresponding to the `` blade '' portion . The reconstructions have featured in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports as evidence of global warming . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . Paleoclimatology dates back to the 19th century , and the concept of examining varves in lake beds and tree rings to track local climatic changes was suggested in the 1930s . In the 1960s , Hubert Lamb generalised from historical documents and temperature records of central England to propose a Medieval Warm Period from around 900 to 1300 , followed by Little Ice Age . This was the basis of a `` schematic diagram '' featured in the IPCC First Assessment Report of 1990 beside cautions that the medieval warming might not have been global . The use of indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed , and by the late 1990s a number of competing teams of climatologists found indications that recent warming was exceptional . introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large scale reconstructions . Their study was featured in the IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . In 1998 Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 with shading emphasising that uncertainties ( to two standard error limits ) were much greater in earlier centuries . independently produced a CPS reconstruction extending back for a thousand years , and ( MBH99 ) used the MBH98 methodology to extend their study back to 1000 . A version of the MBH99 graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , which also drew on Jones et al. 1998 and three other reconstructions to support the conclusion that , in the Northern Hemisphere , the 1990s was likely to have been the warmest decade and 1998 the warmest year during the past 1,000 years . The graph became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th century warmth was exceptional . In 2003 , as lobbying over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol intensified , a paper claiming greater medieval warmth was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy . Later in 2003 , Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick published disputing the data used in MBH98 paper . In 2004 Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal components analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . Their analysis was subsequently disputed by published papers including and which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . Political disputes led to the formation of a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council , their North Report in 2006 supported Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , support the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Further reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Hockey_stick_graph\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 104392\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 20th century (disambiguation) Content: The 20th century of the Common Era began on 1 January 1901 and ended on 31 December 2000 , according to the Gregorian calendar . 20th century may also refer to : Twentieth Century ( play ) , a 1932 Broadway play Twentieth Century ( film ) , a 1934 American comedy Twentieth Century Pictures , a 1930s film studio The 20th Century , the 1950s television series Twentieth Century ( Cold Chisel album ) , 1984 Twentieth Century ( Alabama album ) , 1999 Twentieth Century ( typeface ) , a sans-serif typeface 20th Century ( album ) , an album 3X Krazy 20th Century ( cocktail ) , a gin cocktail 20th Century Fox , a movie and television production company 20th Century Limited , the flagship passenger train of the New York Central Railroad 20th Century Records , a record label begun as a soundtrack division of Twentieth Century Pictures 20th Century with Mike Wallace , the 1990s-2000s television series 20th Century , a sub-unit of Japanese boyband V6 `` Twentieth Century '' , a song from the 2006 album , Fundamental by the Pet Shop Boys\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"20th_century_(disambiguation)\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 102079\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coronary Reconstruction Content: Coronary Reconstruction is an EP by the Belgian death metal band Aborted , released on March 2 , 2010 through Century Media Records . The album is the first to be recorded with the band 's new 2009 line-up , and was released mainly as a digital EP , with only 1,000 physical copies made . The song `` Coronary Reconstruction '' contains audio samples from the film Hellbound : Hellraiser II .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Coronary_Reconstruction\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 99655\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Divergence (Star Trek: Enterprise) Content: `` Divergence '' is the sixteenth episode of the fourth season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : Enterprise . It originally aired on February 25 , 2005 in the United States on UPN . It was the fourth episode of Enterprise to be written by Judith and Garfield Reeves-Stevens , and was the first episode of a Star Trek series directed by David Barrett . `` Divergence '' is the second part of a two part story , following on from `` Affliction '' . Set in the 22nd century , the series follows the adventures of the first Starfleet starship Enterprise , registration NX-01 . In this episode , Columbia arrives so that Commander Tucker can be transferred to conduct repairs on Enterprises warp engine before it overloads . The two ships then pursue a lead to a Klingon research outpost where Phlox is under pressure to cure the virus that the Klingons created from augmented human DNA . Filming took eight days , with a two-week seasonal hiatus towards the end of December . In addition to the guest stars who appeared in `` Affliction '' , they were joined by Wayne Grace as Admiral Krell . The episode received Nielsen ratings of 1.7 / 3 percent , which were lower than the previous week 's episode . The critical response was negative , directed mainly at plot holes and characterisation . However , the two part story has been named as one of the best storylines seen in Enterprise .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Divergence_(Star_Trek:_Enterprise)\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 99437\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of 20th-century earthquakes Content: This list of 20th-century earthquakes is a global list of notable earthquakes that occurred in the 20th century . After 1900 most earthquakes have some degree of instrumental records and this means that the locations and magnitudes are more reliable than for earlier events . To prevent this list becoming unmanageable , only those of magnitude 6 and above are included unless they are notable for some other reason .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_20th-century_earthquakes\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 98934\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Divercia Content: Divercia was a Finnish Heavy Metal band , influenced by death metal , progressive metal , and other styles . Established in the late 1990s under the name `` Lost In Twilight '' , the band received their first record deal in 1999 , and soon set about recording their first EP , Planeteer . After signing a new contract in 2000 , the group recorded and released their first full-length , Modus Operandi . Two years later , the band returned with their second full-length studio effort , Cycle Of Zero .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Divercia\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 96259\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Holy Diver (song) Content: `` Holy Diver '' is a song recorded by heavy metal band Dio . It was released in August 1983 as the lead single from the band 's debut album of the same name . Although it only reached number 40 on the Mainstream Rock chart at that time , today it is one of Dio 's most popular songs . When played on the radio , many stations cut the extended instrumental intro sequence . Following the terrorist attacks on September 11 , 2001 , the song was placed on the list of post-9 / 11 inappropriate titles distributed by Clear Channel . In 2009 , Holy Diver placed 43rd on VH1 's Top 100 Hard Rock Songs .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Holy_Diver_(song)\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 95850\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Memorial reconstruction Content: The term memorial reconstruction refers to the hypothesis that the scripts of some 17th century plays were written down from memory by actors who had played parts in them , and that those transcriptions were published . The theory is suggested as an explanation for the so-called `` bad quarto '' versions of plays , in which the texts differ dramatically from later published versions , or appear to be corrupted or confused . The theory however is facing growing criticism by a number of scholars for being overly applied , and for being an elaborate theory , yet with little evidence to support it . In 1623 , the preface to the First Folio of Shakespeare 's works specifically marketed its content as correct , in contrast to the garbled texts of `` stolen and surreptitious copies '' published previously . Memorial reconstruction has been supposed to be one of the ways in which texts were `` stolen '' . Examples of possible memorial reconstructions are early editions of Shakespeare , including the second quarto ( 1598 ) of Richard III and the 1603 first quarto of Hamlet . It has been theorized that the only version to survive of Christopher Marlowe 's The Massacre at Paris is a text obtained in this way , although there is no persuasive evidence to support this assertion . The theory has been used to explain the content of some quartos , and also to suggest identities of the actors responsible , on the assumption that they would get their own parts right , along with cue-lines and possibly other lines performed when they were onstage , but would most likely make more errors when reconstructing scenes in which their character was not present . The cast members of an Elizabethan dramatic production had their own parts written out for them , with relevant entrances and cues , but they did not have their own individual copies of the play text as a whole . The theory has , however , been criticised on various grounds ; that it is not based on serious research into the way actors actually remember or misremember lines ; that texts may have been `` stolen '' by other means ; and that the so-called `` bad '' quartos are early or alternative versions of plays that were later revised .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Memorial_reconstruction\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 95731\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Divergent series Content: For an elementary calculus-based introduction , see Divergent series on Wikiversity . In mathematics , a divergent series is an infinite series that is not convergent , meaning that the infinite sequence of the partial sums of the series does not have a finite limit . If a series converges , the individual terms of the series must approach zero . Thus any series in which the individual terms do not approach zero diverges . However , convergence is a stronger condition : not all series whose terms approach zero converge . A counterexample is the harmonic series The divergence of the harmonic series was proven by the medieval mathematician Nicole Oresme . In specialized mathematical contexts , values can be objectively assigned to certain series whose sequence of partial sums diverges , this is to make meaning of the divergence of the series . A summability method or summation method is a partial function from the set of series to values . For example , Cesàro summation assigns Grandi 's divergent series the value . Cesàro summation is an averaging method , in that it relies on the arithmetic mean of the sequence of partial sums . Other methods involve analytic continuations of related series . In physics , there are a wide variety of summability methods ; these are discussed in greater detail in the article on regularization .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Divergent_series\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 95415\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Divergent Series Content: The Divergent Series is a feature film series based on the Divergent novels by the American author Veronica Roth . Distributed by Summit Entertainment and Lionsgate Films , the series consists of four science fiction films set in a dystopian society . They have been produced by Lucy Fisher , Pouya Shabazian , and Douglas Wick and star Shailene Woodley and Theo James as lead characters Beatrice Prior ( Tris ) and Tobias Eaton ( Four ) , respectively . The supporting cast includes Ansel Elgort , Zoë Kravitz and Miles Teller . The first film in the series was directed by Neil Burger , while the second and third films were directed by Robert Schwentke . Development began in 2011 following Summit 's acquisition of the film rights to the Divergent novel in partnership with production company Red Wagon Entertainment . The studios announced production on the sequel following the first film 's strong performance in Thursday late-night screenings , where it grossed $ 4.9 million . They acquired film rights to the Allegiant novel in December 2013 , deciding in April 2014 to split the third novel into a two-part film adaptation . The first installment , Divergent ( 2014 ) , grossed over $ 288 million worldwide , while the second installment , The Divergent Series : Insurgent ( 2015 ) , grossed over $ 297 million worldwide . Insurgent was also the first Divergent film to be released in IMAX 3D . The third installment , The Divergent Series : Allegiant ( 2016 ) , grossed $ 179 million . The first three films of the series have grossed over $ 765 million worldwide .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Divergent_Series\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 94174\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Reconstruction (Hugh Masekela album) Content: Reconstruction is the twelfth studio album by South African jazz trumpeter Hugh Masekela released via Chisa Records label in July 1970 . The album was re-released on CD in 1994 via MoJazz label .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Reconstruction_(Hugh_Masekela_album)\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 94096\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Divergence (novel) Content: Divergence ( 1991 ) is a science fiction novel by American writer Charles Sheffield , part of his Heritage Universe series . The book , the sequel to Summertide , takes place millennia in the future when most of the Orion Arm of the galaxy has been colonized by humans and other races . Among the various star systems of this arm of the galaxy , a number of million-year-old artifacts have been discovered , remnants of a mysterious race called the Builders . The characters of this book start just a few days after the previous book left off to go in search of a newly discovered artifact . This book introduces a few new characters that become important throughout the rest of the series . The characters work together to discover a new theory about the origins and current condition of the Builders . During this process , they discover that an old menace to the universe , thought to be extinct , has been unleashed upon the Orion Arm of the Milky Way once again . The novel includes excerpts from the Lang Universal Artifact Catalog ( Fourth Edition ) , and from the Universal Species Catalog ( Subclass : Sapients ) . The sequel to Divergence is Transcendence . Category :1991 American novels Category : Novels by Charles Sheffield Category :1990 s science fiction novels\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Divergence_(novel)\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 93526\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Reconstruction (2001 film) Content: Reconstruction is a 2001 documentary made by Irene Lusztig that investigates the Ioanid Gang bank heist committed in 1959 in Communist Romania . The film focuses on Monica Sevianu , Lusztig 's grandmother , and the only female involved in the heist . The documentary gets its name from a propaganda film that was made by the Romanian government three years after the robbery was committed . The original Reconstruction was a strange blend of documentary and fiction , where the criminals played themselves in a crime-film whose plot was driven by clues that self-congratulatory detectives pieced together . The propaganda film was only screened to journalists and high-ranking communist officials before being buried beneath government files . Lusztig managed to find a copy and incorporates clips into her documentary .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Reconstruction_(2001_film)\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 93092\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 20th-century classical music Content: 20th-century classical music describes orchestral works , chamber music , solo instrumental works ( including keyboard music ) , electronic music , choral music , songs , operas , ballets , concertos , symphonies , and related forms , as well as fantasies , rhapsodies , fugues , passacaglias and chaconnes , variations , oratorios , cantatas , suites , improvisational and newly developed formal concepts such as variable and mobile forms , that have been written and performed since 1900 . This era was without a dominant style and composers have created highly diverse kinds of music . Modernism , impressionism , post-romanticism , neoclassicism , expressionism , and , later , minimalism were all important movements . Atonality , serialism , musique concrète and electronic music were all developed during this period . Jazz was an important influence on many composers in this period .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"20th-century_classical_music\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 93020\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Reconstruction (2003 film) Content: Reconstruction is a psychological romantic drama film and the debut of Christoffer Boe , who also wrote the screenplay together with Mogens Rukov . It was filmed in Copenhagen and won the Camera D'Or at the Cannes Film Festival in 2003 Golden Plaque for Manuel Alberto Claro 's luminous wide-screen cinematography .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Reconstruction_(2003_film)\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 92730\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Divergence (computer science) Content: In computer science , a computation is said to diverge if it does not terminate or terminates in an ( unobservable ) exceptional state . Otherwise it is said to converge . In domains where computations are expected to be infinite , such as process calculi , a computation is said to diverge if it fails to be productive ( always produces an action within a finite amount of time . )\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Divergence_(computer_science)\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 92566\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The 20th Century Content: The Twentieth Century was a documentary television program sponsored by the Prudential Insurance Company that ran on the CBS network from 20 October 1957 until 4 January 1970 . It was hosted by Walter Cronkite . The opening and closing theme music was written by composer George Antheil . The program presented filmed reports on news and cultural events that were important for the development of the 20th century . The show did not just present the events but also interpreted them . Such subjects as World War I and major assassinations were presented in context . On 20 January 1967 the show , sponsored by Union Carbide ( `` The Discovery Company '' ) , was renamed The 21st Century . The show 's focus changed to the future and to what mankind could look forward to . The 21st Century was cancelled after three seasons ( its final broadcast was on 4 January 1970 ) . The reason given was that the writers had run out of things to talk about . However , it is possible that CBS may have wished to replace it with a more commercially successful program .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"The_20th_Century\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 92498\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Divergence of the sum of the reciprocals of the primes Content: The sum of the reciprocals of all prime numbers diverges ; that is : This was proved by Leonhard Euler in 1737 , and strengthens Euclid 's 3rd-century-BC result that there are infinitely many prime numbers . There are a variety of proofs of Euler 's result , including a lower bound for the partial sums stating that for all natural numbers . The double natural logarithm ( ln ln ) indicates that the divergence might be very slow , which is indeed the case . See Meissel -- Mertens constant .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Divergence_of_the_sum_of_the_reciprocals_of_the_primes\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 92481\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Reconstruction (album) Content: Reconstruction is an album by Max Romeo , released in 1977 . Shortly after recording critically acclaimed War ina Babylon , Max Romeo broke up with his producer Lee `` Scratch '' Perry on professional ground , what prompted him to self-produce his next album . Reconstruction did not match the success of its predecessor and in 1978 Romeo left Jamaica .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Reconstruction_(album)\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 92205\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Divergence (album) Content: Divergence is the second album by the Dutch progressive rock group Solution . It was released in 1972 on the EMI subsidiary Harvest Records .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Divergence_(album)\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 91690\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Twentieth century (disambiguation) Content: Twentieth century may refer to : The 20th century AD , the period between the years 1901 and 2000 of the Gregorian calendar The 20th century BC 20th Century Fox 20th Century Limited , a passenger train between Chicago and New York City that operated from 1902 to 1967 Twentieth Century ( play ) , a 1932 play Twentieth Century ( film ) , a 1934 film On the Twentieth Century , a 1978 musical based on the play and film Twentieth Century ( typeface ) , a geometric sans-serif typeface . 20th Century ( cocktail ) , a cocktail Twentieth Century ( TV series ) , a long-running TV documentary series telecast on CBS from 1957 to 1970 , and hosted by Walter Cronkite\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Twentieth_century_(disambiguation)\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 90958\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + ⋯ Content: In mathematics , 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + · · · is the infinite series whose terms are the successive positive integers , given alternating signs . Using sigma summation notation the sum of the first m terms of the series can be expressed as The infinite series diverges , meaning that its sequence of partial sums , , does not tend towards any finite limit . Nonetheless , in the mid-18th century , Leonhard Euler wrote what he admitted to be a paradoxical equation : A rigorous explanation of this equation would not arrive until much later . Starting in 1890 , Ernesto Cesàro , Émile Borel and others investigated well-defined methods to assign generalized sums to divergent series -- including new interpretations of Euler 's attempts . Many of these summability methods easily assign to a `` value '' of . Cesàro summation is one of the few methods that do not sum , so the series is an example where a slightly stronger method , such as Abel summation , is required . The series 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + ... is closely related to Grandi 's series . Euler treated these two as special cases of for arbitrary n , a line of research extending his work on the Basel problem and leading towards the functional equations of what are now known as the Dirichlet eta function and the Riemann zeta function .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"1_−_2_+_3_−_4_+_⋯\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 90583\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Reconstruction Site Content: Reconstruction Site is a 2003 album by The Weakerthans . A song cycle about grief , regret , loss and eventual hope , the album is thematically framed by three tracks , '' ( Manifest ) '' , '' ( Hospital Vespers ) '' and '' ( Past-Due ) '' , which set three different sonnets following a terminally ill hospital patient into the aftermath of his death to the same melody . Other songs examine the album 's themes from different angles : `` Plea from a Cat Named Virtute '' is written from the perspective of a depressed person 's cat , `` One Great City ! '' is about Samson 's love -- hate relationship with his hometown of Winnipeg , and `` Our Retired Explorer '' imagines a dinner date between philosopher Michel Foucault and a hopelessly nostalgic member of Ernest Shackleton 's expedition to Antarctica . Guest musicians on the album include Sarah Harmer and Christine Fellows . The album 's cover art was designed by Canadian artist and fellow Winnipegger Marcel Dzama . The song `` One Great City ! '' serves as the theme song to the Canadian television comedy-drama series Less Than Kind . In 2013 , the album made Ballast 's list of top 50 Canadian albums of all time .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Reconstruction_Site\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 90216\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Diver (EP) Content: Diver is a 7 '' vinyl EP A Wilhelm Scream released in early 2006 . The song `` Diver '' was recorded during the Mute Print sessions , but the song did n't make it to the full length . Later the band decided to release the song on this 7 '' vinyl EP .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Diver_(EP)\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 89750\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Diver (play) Content: The Diver is a dramatic play written in 2008 by Hideki Noda and Colin Teevan . It premiered in London in 2008 at the Soho Theatre and the US premiere occurred in 2010 at The University of Michigan . The play combines a modern psychiatric case with traditional Japanese Noh theatre and includes elements of the world 's first novel , The Tale of Genji and a Noh play , Ama ( also the term for Japanese pearl divers ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Diver_(play)\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 89535\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Great Divergence Content: `` Great Divergence '' is a term coined by Samuel Huntington ( also known as the European miracle , a term coined by Eric Jones in 1981 ) referring to the process by which the Western world ( i.e. Western Europe and the parts of the New World where its people became the dominant populations ) overcame pre-modern growth constraints and emerged during the 19th century as the most powerful and wealthy world civilization of all time , eclipsing Qing China , Mughal India , Tokugawa Japan , Joseon Korea and Ottoman Turkey . The process was accompanied and reinforced by the Age of Discovery and the subsequent rise of the colonial empires , the Age of Enlightenment , the Commercial Revolution , the Scientific Revolution and finally the Industrial Revolution . Scholars have proposed a wide variety of theories to explain why the Great Divergence happened , including geography , colonialism , resources , and customary traditions . Before the Great Divergence , the core developed areas included Western Europe , East Asia , the Indian subcontinent , and the Middle East . In each of these core areas , differing political and cultural institutions allowed varying degrees of development . Western Europe , China , Korea and Japan had developed to a relatively high level and began to face constraints on energy and land use , while India still possessed large amounts of unused resources . Technological advances , such as railroads , steamboats , mining , and agriculture were embraced to a higher degree in the West than the East during the Great Divergence . Technology led to increased industrialization and economic complexity in the areas of agriculture , trade , fuel and resources , further separating the East and the West . Western Europe 's use of coal as an energy substitute for wood in the mid-19th century gave it a major head start in modern energy production . Although China had used coal earlier during the Song Dynasty , its use declined due to the shift of Chinese industry to the south , far from major deposits , during the destruction of Mongol and Jurchen invasions between 1100 and 1400 . The Western powers also had the advantage of larger quantities of raw materials and substantial captive trading markets , particularly in their colonies . China and the rest of Asia participated in trading , but colonization of Africa and the Americas brought a distinct advantage to the West . `` In the twentieth century , the Great Divergence peaked before the First World War and continued until the early 1970s , then , after two decades of indeterminate fluctuations , in the late 1980s it was replaced by the Great Convergence as the majority of Third World countries reached economic growth rates significantly higher than those in most First World countries '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Great_Divergence\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 89493\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Great Divergence (inequality) Content: The Great Divergence is a term given to a period in late 1970s , when income differences increased in the US and , to a lesser extent , in other countries . The term originated with Nobel laureate , Princeton economist and New York Times columnist Paul Krugman , and is a reference to the `` Great Compression '' , an earlier era in the 1930s and the 1940s when incomes became more equal in the US and elsewhere . A 2011 study by the Congressional Budget Office on the distribution of income in the US , from 1979 to 2007 , found that after federal taxes and income transfers , the top earning 1 % of households gained about 275 % and that the bottom 20 % grew by only 18 % . As of 2006 , the US had one of the highest levels of income inequality , as measured through the Gini index , among similar developed or First World countries . Scholars and others differ as the causes and significance of the divergence , which , in 2011 , helped ignite the `` Occupy '' protest movement . While education and increased demand for skilled labor is often cited as a cause of increased inequality , especially among conservatives , many social scientists point to conservative politics , neoliberal economic and social policies and public policy as an important cause of inequality ; others believe its causes are not well understood . Inequality has been described both as irrelevant in the face of economic opportunity ( or social mobility ) in America and as a cause of the decline in that opportunity . Journalist James Surowiecki points out the changes in the US economy in the last 50 years and how important low wages are now to big employers in the US . In 1960 , the country 's biggest employer , General Motors , was also its most profitable company and one of its best-paying . It had high profit margins and real pricing power , even as it was paying its workers union wages . And it was not alone : firms like Ford , Standard Oil , and Bethlehem Steel employed huge numbers of well-paid workers while earning big profits . Today , the country 's biggest employers are retailers and fast-food chains , almost all of which have built their businesses on low pay -- they 've striven to keep wages down and unions out -- and low prices . While these retailers and fast-food chains are profitable , their profit margins are not large , which limits their ability to follow the lead of successful companies in high-growth industries that pay relatively generous salaries , such as Apple Inc. . The combined profits of all the major retailers , restaurant chains , and supermarkets in the Fortune 50 -RSB- are smaller than the profits of Apple alone . Yet Apple employs just 76,000 people , while the retailers , supermarkets , and restaurant chains employ 5.6 million . The International Labour Organisation 's annual `` World of Work Report '' , predicted that the intensification of extremes between the wealthy and poor continues to widen in the European Union , where it is the highest in the world and that the `` gap is the major trigger for social unrest . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Great_Divergence_(inequality)\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 89471\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bibliography of the Reconstruction Era Content: This is a selected bibliography of the main scholarly books and articles of Reconstruction , the period after the American Civil War , 1863 -- 1877 ( or 1865 to 1877 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Bibliography_of_the_Reconstruction_Era\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 89075\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Reconstructions (Kerry Livgren album) Content: Reconstructions is the second studio album by the Christian rock group AD . It was re-released and remastered with the title Reconstructions : Reconstructed , with a different order of songs .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Reconstructions_(Kerry_Livgren_album)\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 88920\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 20th century Content: The 20th century was a century that began on January 1 , 1901 and ended on December 31 , 2000 . It was the tenth and final century of the 2nd millennium . It is distinct from the century known as the 1900s which began on January 1 , 1900 , and ended on December 31 , 1999 . The 20th century was dominated by a chain of events that heralded significant changes in world history as to redefine the era : World War I and World War II , nuclear power and space exploration , nationalism and decolonization , the Cold War and post-Cold War conflicts ; intergovernmental organizations and cultural homogenization through developments in emerging transportation and communications technology ; poverty reduction and world population growth , awareness of environmental degradation , ecological extinction ; and the birth of the Digital Revolution . It saw great advances in communication and medical technology that by the late 1980s allowed for near-instantaneous worldwide computer communication and genetic modification of life . The term `` short twentieth century '' was coined to represent the events from 1914 to 1991 . Global total fertility rates , sea level rise and ecological collapses increased ; the resulting competition for land and dwindling resources accelerated deforestation , water depletion . and the mass extinction of half the world 's estimated nine million unique species and wildlife population ; consequences which are now being dealt with . It took all of human history up to 1804 for the world 's population to reach 1 billion ; world population reached an estimated 2 billion in 1927 ; by late 1999 , the global population reached 6 billion . Global literacy averaged 80 % ; global lifespan-averages exceeded 40 + years for the first time in history , with over half achieving 70 + years ( three decades longer than it was a century ago ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"20th_century\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 88875\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Polytheistic reconstructionism Content: Polytheistic reconstructionism ( Reconstructionism ) is an approach to paganism first emerging in the late 1960s to early 1970s , which gathered momentum starting in the 1990s . Reconstructionism attempts to re-establish historical polytheistic religions in the modern world , in contrast with neopagan syncretic movements like Wicca , and `` channeled '' movements like Germanic mysticism or Theosophy . While the emphasis on historical accuracy may imply historical reenactment , the desire for continuity in ritual traditions ( orthopraxy ) is a common characteristic of religion in general , as seen in Anglican ritualism , or in much Christian liturgy .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Polytheistic_reconstructionism\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 88715\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: White House Reconstruction Content: The White House Reconstruction , also known as the Truman Reconstruction , was a comprehensive dismantling and rebuilding of the interior of the White House between 1949-1952 . A century-and-a-half of wartime destruction and rebuilding , hurried renovations , additions of new services , technologies , an added Third Floor , and inadequate foundations brought the Executive Residence portion of the White House Complex to near-imminent collapse . In 1948 architectural and engineering investigations deemed it unsafe for occupancy and President Harry S. Truman , his family , and the entire residence staff were relocated across the street . For over three years the White House was gutted , expanded , and rebuilt . The scope , costs , and historical authenticity of the work were controversial , with the reconstruction being called both structurally essential , and a disaster .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"White_House_Reconstruction\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 88630\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ghost Diver Content: Ghost Diver is a 1957 American adventure film written and directed by Richard Einfeld and Merrill G. White . The film stars James Craig , Audrey Totter , Nico Minardos , Lowell Brown , Rodolfo Hoyos Jr. and Pira Louis . The film was released in October 1957 , by 20th Century Fox .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Ghost_Diver\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 88556\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Jumpgate Evolution Content: Jumpgate Evolution , commonly abbreviated as JGE , was an unreleased massively multiplayer online game having been in development by NetDevil intended to be published by Codemasters . The game is a sequel to Jumpgate : The Reconstruction Initiative and features a new graphics engine , all new assets and more accessible game play . Originally scheduled for a June 2009 release , it has since been delayed . Official information about the game is no longer being released . NetDevil 's website is no longer online , and the owner Gazillion Entertainment does not mention the game on their website . All of NetDevil 's employees not working on the LEGO Universe project were laid off in February 2011 , at which time the game was effectively terminated . As of July 2012 or before , the website for the game has been shut down .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Jumpgate_Evolution\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 88487\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Reconstruction Era Content: The term Reconstruction Era , in the context of the history of the United States , has two senses : the first covers the complete history of the entire country from 1865 to 1877 following the American Civil War ( 1861 to 1865 ) ; the second sense focuses on the attempted transformation of the Southern United States from 1863 to 1877 , as directed by Congress , with the reconstruction of state and society . Three visions of Civil War memory appeared during Reconstruction : the reconciliationist vision , which was rooted in coping with the death and devastation the war had brought ; the white supremacist vision , which included terror and violence ; and the emancipationist vision , which sought full freedom , citizenship and Constitutional equality for African Americans . Presidents Abraham Lincoln and Andrew Johnson both took moderate positions designed to bring the South back into the union as quickly as possible , while Radical Republicans in Congress sought stronger measures to upgrade the rights of African Americans , including the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution , while curtailing the rights of former Confederates , such as through the provisions of the Wade -- Davis Bill . Johnson followed a lenient policy toward ex-Confederates . Lincoln 's last speeches show that he was leaning toward supporting the enfranchisement of all freedmen , whereas Johnson was opposed to this . Johnson 's interpretations of Lincoln 's policies prevailed until the Congressional elections of 1866 in the North , which enabled the Radicals to take control of policy , remove former Confederates from power , and enfranchise the freedmen . A Republican coalition came to power in nearly all the southern states and set out to transform the society by setting up a free labor economy , using the U.S. Army and the Freedmen 's Bureau . The Bureau protected the legal rights of freedmen , negotiated labor contracts , and set up schools and churches for them . Thousands of Northerners came south as missionaries , teachers , businessmen and politicians . Some also entered politics . Hostile whites called them `` Carpetbaggers '' . In early 1866 , Congress passed the Freedmen 's Bureau and Civil Rights Bills and sent them to Johnson for his signature . The first bill extended the life of the bureau , originally established as a temporary organization charged with assisting refugees and freed slaves , while the second defined all persons born in the United States as national citizens with equality before the law . After Johnson vetoed the bills , Congress overrode his veto , making the Civil Rights Act the first major bill in the history of the United States to become law through an override of a presidential veto . The Radicals in the House of Representatives , frustrated by Johnson 's opposition to Congressional Reconstruction , filed impeachment charges . The action failed by one vote in the Senate . Elected in 1868 , Republican President Ulysses S. Grant supported Congressional Reconstruction and enforced the protection of African Americans in the South through the use of the Enforcement Acts passed by Congress . Grant used the Enforcement Acts to effectively combat the Ku Klux Klan , which was essentially wiped out ( although a new incarnation of the Klan eventually would again come to national prominence in the 1920s ) , but was unable to resolve the escalating tensions inside the Republican party between the northerners on the one hand , and those Republicans originally hailing from the South on the other ( this latter group would be labelled `` Scalawags '' by those opposing Reconstruction ) . Meanwhile , self-styled Conservatives ( in close cooperation with the Democratic Party ) strongly opposed reconstruction . They alleged widespread corruption by the Carpetbaggers , excessive state spending and ruinous taxes . Meanwhile , public support for Reconstruction policies , requiring continued supervision of the South , faded in the North , largely due to concerns over the Panic of 1873 . The Democrats , who strongly opposed Reconstruction , regained control of the House of Representatives in 1874 . In 1877 , as part of a Congressional bargain to elect Republican Rutherford B. Hayes as president following the close 1876 presidential election , U.S. Army troops were removed from the South , ending Reconstruction and allowing Democrats to return to power . Reconstruction was a significant chapter in the history of civil rights in the United States , and in economic history . After Reconstruction ended , the South remained a poverty-stricken `` backwater '' dependent on agriculture . White Southerners soon succeeded in re-establishing legal and political dominance over blacks through violence , intimidation and discrimination . Historian Eric Foner argues , `` What remains certain is that Reconstruction failed , and that for blacks its failure was a disaster whose magnitude can not be obscured by the genuine accomplishments that did endure . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Reconstruction_Era\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 88067\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Two Roads Diverge Content: Two Roads Diverge is a graphic novel written in conjunction with the film Southland Tales . It is Part One of the Southland Tales saga . The novel was written by Richard Kelly - who also directed the film - and illustrated by Brett Weldele . The graphic novel was published by Graphitti Designs . Southland Tales was initially planned to be a nine-part `` interactive experience '' , with the first six parts published in six 100-page graphic novels that would be released in a six-month period up to the film 's release in 2007 . The feature film comprises the final three parts of the experience . A website was also developed to intertwine with the graphic novels and the film itself . The idea of six graphic novels was later narrowed down to three . The novels were written by Kelly and illustrated by Brett Weldele .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Two_Roads_Diverge\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 88027\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Black Reconstruction Content: Black Reconstruction in America : An Essay Toward a History of the Part Which Black Folk Played in the Attempt to Reconstruct Democracy in America , 1860 -- 1880 is a history of the Reconstruction era by W. E. B. Du Bois , first published in 1935 . It marked a significant break with the standard academic view of Reconstruction at the time , marked by the Dunning School , which contended that the period was a failure and downplayed the contributions of African Americans . Du Bois argued directly against these accounts , emphasizing the role and agency of blacks during the Civil War and Reconstruction and framing it as a period that held promise for a worker-ruled democracy to replace a slavery-based plantation economy . He noted that the southern working class , i.e. black freedmen and poor whites , were divided after the Civil War along the lines of race , and did not unite against the white propertied class , i.e. the former planters . He believed this failure enabled the white Democrats to regain control of state legislatures , pass Jim Crow laws , and disfranchise most blacks and many poor whites in the late 19th and early 20th centuries . Du Bois ' extensive use of data and primary source material on the postwar political economy of the former Confederate States is notable , as is the literary style of this 750-page essay . He notes major achievements , such as establishing public education in the South for the first time , the founding of charitable institutions to care for all citizens , the extension of the vote to the landless whites , and investment in public infrastructure .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Black_Reconstruction\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 88006\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1 − 1 + 2 − 6 + 24 − 120 + ... Content: In mathematics , the divergent series was first considered by Euler , who applied summability methods to assign a finite value to the series . The series is a sum of factorials that alternatingly are added or subtracted . A way to assign a value to the divergent series is by using Borel summation , where one formally writes If summation and integration are interchanged ( ignoring that neither side converges ) , one obtains : The summation in the square brackets converges and equals if x < 1 . If we analytically continue this for all real x , one obtains a convergent integral for the summation : where E1 ( z ) is the exponential integral . This is by definition the Borel sum of the series .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"1_−_1_+_2_−_6_+_24_−_120_+_...\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 87940\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Reenactment Content: The Reenactment ( Reconstituirea ) , also known as Reconstruction , is a 1968 black-and-white film by Romanian director Lucian Pintilie . It is based on a novel by Horia Pătraşcu , which in turn reflects real-life events witnessed by the author . Produced under the communist regime , which it indirectly criticizes , it is a tragicomedy about incompetence , indifference and misuse of power . Structured as a film within a film and largely shot as a mockumentary , The Reenactment stars George Constantin as a prosecutor who keeps in custody two minor delinquents , Vuică and Nicu , played respectively by George Mihăiţă and Vladimir Găitan . He makes them reenact their drunken brawl at a restaurant , and is helped in this effort by the militiaman Dumitrescu ( played by Ernest Maftei ) and a film crew . Two bystanders watch upon the youngsters ' degradation at the hands of the prosecutor . They are The Miss ( Domnişoara in the original ) , played by Ileana Popovici , who is amused by the succession of events , and the pedantic alcoholic Paveliu ( Emil Botta ) . The recipient of much critical acclaim and considered in retrospect one of the most notable contributions to 1960s Romanian cinema , The Reenactment was released at a time when the communist regime was in its liberalization phase , coinciding with the first decade of rule by Nicolae Ceauşescu . Nevertheless , its political implications irritated communist officials , and the censorship apparatus decided to withdraw the film from cinemas only months after its premiere . In 1969 , Pintilie was pressured to work outside Romania , and focused mainly on stage production for the following twenty years of his career . The Reenactment was again screened at home in 1990 , one year after the Romanian Revolution toppled communism .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Reenactment\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 87647\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: People's Century Content: People 's Century is a television documentary series examining the 20th century . It was a joint production of the BBC in the United Kingdom and PBS member station WGBH Boston in the United States . The series was first shown on BBC in the 1995 , 1996 and 1997 television seasons before being shown elsewhere in the world and before being broadcast in the USA in 1998 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"People's_Century\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 87643\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Divergent Series: Allegiant Content: The Divergent Series : Allegiant is a 2016 American action adventure film directed by Robert Schwentke with a screenplay by Bill Collage , Adam Cooper , and Noah Oppenheim . It is the first of two cinematic parts based on the novel Allegiant , the final book in the Divergent trilogy by Veronica Roth , and the third installment in The Divergent Series . The film stars Shailene Woodley , Theo James , Jeff Daniels , Miles Teller , Ansel Elgort , Zoë Kravitz , Maggie Q , Ray Stevenson , Bill Skarsgard , Octavia Spencer and Naomi Watts , and is the sequel to Insurgent and could be followed by the concluding entry , Ascendant ( Allegiant and Ascendant were originally to be titled Allegiant -- Part 1 and Allegiant -- Part 2 ) . Allegiant was released on March 18 , 2016 , in theaters and IMAX and received mainly negative reviews . The film was a financial disappointment , grossing $ 179 million worldwide , becoming the lowest-grossing Divergent film . This led to budget cuts on the fourth and the possibility that the final installment in the series , Ascendant , would be released as a TV movie instead of a theatrical one .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Divergent_Series:_Allegiant\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 87484\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Reconstructed newsreels by Georges Méliès Content: Between 1897 and 1902 , the French filmmaker Georges Méliès ( 1861 -- 1938 ) made numerous actualités reconstituées , a term that can be translated as `` reconstructed newsreels '' or `` reconstructed actualities . '' Unlike conventional actuality films , which presented real-life events or simple naturalistic scenes filmed in a documentary style , these reconstructed newsreels were dramatically staged reenactments of current events , employing miniature models and theatrical techniques . Méliès particularly focused on capturing the spectacular nature of the events he recreated . While little is known of the release dates for many of Méliès 's films , it appears that the reconstructed newsreels were released soon after the events they portrayed , when the news was still fresh in viewers ' minds . These reconstructed newsreels are part of a wider tradition of `` faked '' news film , a genre very popular in the early years of cinema ; between 1894 and 1900 , every major film studio regularly produced reenactments of current events . Some of these films were deliberate hoaxes , intended to be misconstrued as actual footage of the events they portrayed ; others were made with no intention to mislead audiences , and were designed simply as illustrations of the events . In the case of Méliès , the reconstructed newsreels were deliberately described as reenactments , and were not intended to be misconstrued as real . However , contemporary accounts suggest that some viewers assumed the films were genuine , and a few exhibitors even advertised the films falsely as such . After a sustained period of popularity , the genre fell out of favor in the 1910s , apparently due to growing public distaste for artificiality in film reportage . Méliès 's reconstructed newsreels have been described as an early form of docudrama . They can also be compared to the newspaper and magazine engravings of Méliès 's time , many of which made a similar attempt to capture the essence of a news event rather than to simulate it realistically .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Reconstructed_newsreels_by_Georges_Méliès\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 87463\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Reconstruction Acts Content: The Reconstruction Acts , or Military Reconstruction Acts , ( March 2 , 1867 , 14 Stat . 428-430 , c. 153 ; March 23 , 1867 , 15 Stat . 2-5 , c. 6 ; July 19 , 1867 , 15 Stat . 14-16 , c. 30 ; and March 11 , 1868 , 15 Stat . 41 , c. 25 ) were four statutes passed during the Reconstruction Era by the 40th United States Congress . The actual title of the initial legislation was `` An act to provide for the more efficient government of the Rebel States '' and it was passed on March 2 , 1867 . Fulfillment of the requirements of the Acts was necessary for the former Confederate States to be re-admitted to the Union . The Acts included Tennessee , which had already ratified the 14th Amendment and had been readmitted to the Union .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Reconstruction_Acts\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 87126\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Stonehenge in its landscape Content: Stonehenge in its landscape : Twentieth century excavations by R. M. J. Cleal , K. E. Walker and R. Montague is an archaeological report on Stonehenge published in 1995 . It presented the results of a two year intensive study of all the known records of the various excavations at Stonehenge in the twentieth century , including a rephasing of the development of the monument . Unlike popular books on the subject , Stonehenge in its landscape details the complex archaeological stratigraphy of the site . It has been described as `` an essential reference work for the specialist '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Stonehenge_in_its_landscape\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 86884\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Divergent (film) Content: Divergent is a 2014 American science fiction action film directed by Neil Burger , based on the novel of the same name by Veronica Roth . The film is the first installment in The Divergent Series and was produced by Lucy Fisher , Pouya Shabazian , and Douglas Wick , with a screenplay by Evan Daugherty and Vanessa Taylor . It stars Shailene Woodley , Theo James , Ashley Judd , Jai Courtney , Ray Stevenson , Zoë Kravitz , Miles Teller , Tony Goldwyn , Ansel Elgort , Maggie Q and Kate Winslet . The story takes place in a dystopian and post-apocalyptic Chicago where people are divided into distinct factions based on human virtues . Beatrice Prior is warned that she is Divergent and thus will never fit into any one of the factions . She soon learns that a sinister plot is brewing in the seemingly perfect society . Development of Divergent began in March 2011 when Summit Entertainment picked up the film rights to the novel with Douglas Wick and Lucy Fisher 's production company Red Wagon Entertainment . Principal photography began April 16 , 2013 , and concluded on July 16 , 2013 , with reshoots taking place from January 24 -- 26 , 2014 . Production mostly took place in Chicago . Divergent was released on March 21 , 2014 , in the United States . The film received mixed reviews from critics , with praise going towards its concepts and action , and criticism focused on its execution . Reviewers found the film to be generic and unoriginal , comparing it unfavorably to other young adult fiction adaptations . Despite this , the film was a financial success as it reached the # 1 spot at the box office during its opening weekend . After its release , the film earned over US$ 288 million worldwide against its budget of US$ 85 million . It was released on DVD and Blu-ray on August 5 , 2014 . A sequel , Insurgent , was released on March 20 , 2015 in the United States .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Divergent_(film)\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 86465\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Divergent (novel) Content: Divergent is the debut novel of American novelist Veronica Roth , published by HarperCollins Children 's Books in 2011 . The novel is the first of the Divergent trilogy , a series of young adult dystopian novels set in the Divergent Universe . The novel Divergent features a post-apocalyptic version of Chicago and follows Beatrice `` Tris '' Prior as she explores her identity within a society that defines its citizens by their social and personality-related affiliation with five factions , which removes the threat of anyone exercising independent will and re-threatening the population 's safety . Underlying the action and dystopian focused main plot is a romantic subplot between Tris and one of her instructors in the Dauntless faction , nicknamed Four . The novel has been compared to other young adult books such as The Hunger Games and The Maze Runner because of its similar themes and target audience . In particular , the novel explores the themes common to young adult fiction , such as adult authority and the transition from childhood to maturity , as well as such broader motifs as the place of violence and social structures within a post-apocalyptic society . Its major plot device , the division of society into personality types , is one used in other science fiction works . Beyond its literary context , Roth 's open declaration of her religion as a Christian has brought commentary from Christian communities both endorsing and challenging the novel . Roth wrote Divergent while working on a Creative Writing degree at Northwestern University , and it was quickly purchased for publication alongside the subsequent books in the trilogy ( completed in October 2013 ) . Summit Entertainment purchased the media rights to the book in 2011 and subsequently produced a film adaptation titled Divergent which was released March 21 , 2014 . The film , a success amongst audiences , generated $ 288,747,895 at the box office despite mixed reviews from critics .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Divergent_(novel)\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 86443\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Divergence (film) Content: Divergence is a 2005 Hong Kong action-crime film produced and directed by Benny Chan , from a screenplay by Ivy Ho . The film stars Aaron Kwok , Ekin Cheng and Daniel Wu .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Divergence_(film)\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 86209\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Instrumental temperature record Content: The instrumental temperature record provides the temperature of Earth 's climate system from the historical network of in situ measurements of surface air temperatures and ocean surface temperatures . Data are collected at thousands of meteorological stations , buoys and ships around the globe . The longest-running temperature record is the Central England temperature data series , that starts in 1659 . The longest-running quasi-global record starts in 1850 . In recent decades more extensive sampling of ocean temperatures at various depths have begun allowing estimates of ocean heat content but these do not form part of the global surface temperature datasets .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Instrumental_temperature_record\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 86156\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Term test Content: In mathematics , the nth-term test for divergence is a simple test for the divergence of an infinite series : If or if the limit does not exist , then diverges . Many authors do not name this test or give it a shorter name .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Term_test\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 85861\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: History of Swedish Content: In the 9th century , Old Norse began to diverge into Old West Norse ( Norway and Iceland ) and Old East Norse ( Sweden and Denmark ) . In the 12th century , the dialects of Denmark and Sweden began to diverge , becoming Old Danish and Old Swedish in the 13th century . All were heavily influenced by Middle Low German during the medieval period . Though stages of language development are never as sharply delimited as implied here , and should not be taken too literally , the system of subdivisions used in this article is the most commonly used by Swedish linguists and is used for the sake of practicality .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"History_of_Swedish\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 85569\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Proto-Austronesian language Content: The Proto-Austronesian language ( PAN ) is the reconstructed ancestor of the Austronesian languages , one of the world 's major language families . However , Ross ( 2009 ) notes that what may be the most divergent languages , Tsou , Rukai , and Puyuma , are not addressed by the reconstructions , which therefore can not claim to be the protolanguage of the entire family . He calls the unit which has been reconstructed Nuclear Austronesian . Lower-level reconstructions have also been made , and include Proto-Malayo-Polynesian , Proto-Oceanic , and Proto-Polynesian . Recently , linguists such as Malcolm Ross and Andrew Pawley have built large lexicons for Proto-Oceanic and Proto-Polynesian .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Proto-Austronesian_language\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 85559\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Divergent: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack Content: Divergent : Original Motion Picture Soundtrack is the soundtrack album to the 2014 film Divergent , based on the book series of the same name . The soundtrack for the film was chosen by music supervisor Randall Poster . The Divergent : Original Motion Picture Soundtrack album released on March 11 , 2014 while the Original Score of the film released on March 18 , 2014 by Interscope Records . The soundtrack album sold 10,000 copies in its first week of release . The first single from the soundtrack album , `` Find You '' by Zedd featuring Matthew Koma and Miriam Bryant , was released on January 26 , 2014 . `` Beating Heart '' by Ellie Goulding was released on May 9 , 2014 as the second single from the soundtrack .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Divergent:_Original_Motion_Picture_Soundtrack\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 85472\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Divergent trilogy Content: The Divergent trilogy is a series of young adult science fiction adventure novels by American novelist Veronica Roth set in a post-apocalyptic dystopian Chicago . The trilogy consists of Divergent ( 2011 ) , Insurgent ( 2012 ) and Allegiant ( 2013 ) . A related book , Four '' , presents a series of short stories told from the perspective of one of the trilogy 's characters . The society of the trilogy defines its citizens by their social and personality-related affiliation with five different factions , which removes the threat of anyone exercising independent will and threatening the population 's safety . Beatrice Prior , who later changes her name to Tris , an Abnegation-born and Dauntless transfer , must figure out her life as a Divergent , while concealing her true nature , and living with the danger of being killed if it is discovered by the Erudite and Dauntless leaders .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Divergent_trilogy\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 85433\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: American Century Content: American Century is a characterization of the period since the middle of the 20th century as being largely dominated by the United States in political , economic , and cultural terms . It is comparable to the description of the period 1815 -- 1914 as Britain 's Imperial Century . The United States ' influence grew throughout the 20th century , but became especially dominant after the end of World War II , when only two superpowers remained , the United States and the Soviet Union . After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 , the United States remained the world 's only superpower , and became the hegemon , or what some have termed a hyperpower .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"American_Century\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 85403\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Arc of a Diver Content: Arc of a Diver is the second solo studio album by singer/multi-instrumentalist Steve Winwood , released in 1980 . All of the instruments featured on the album were played by Winwood . Featuring his first solo hit , `` While You See a Chance '' ( which peaked at number 7 on the Billboard Hot 100 in the United States ) , this was Winwood 's breakthrough album as a solo artist . It peaked at number 3 on the Billboard 200 album chart , establishing him as a commercially viable act . The cover artwork for the album is by Tony Wright .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Arc_of_a_Diver\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 85213\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Diver Down Content: Diver Down is the fifth studio album by American hard rock band Van Halen , released in 1982 . It spent 65 weeks on the album chart in the United States and had , by 1998 , sold four million copies in the US .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Diver_Down\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 85116\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Don't Forget the Diver Content: Do n't Forget the Diver is the second episode of the fourth series of the British comedy series Dad 's Army that was originally transmitted on Friday 2 October 1970 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Don't_Forget_the_Diver\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 85067\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Der Taucher Content: `` Der Taucher '' ( The Diver ) is a ballad by Friedrich Schiller , written in 1797 , the year of his friendly ballad competition with Goethe .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Der_Taucher\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 85052\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Diver (Nico Touches the Walls song) Content: `` Diver '' is the eighth single by Japanese rock band Nico Touches the Walls , released on January 12 , 2011 , from their third studio album Passenger . The song was featured as the 8th opening of the anime Naruto Shippuden , from October 2010 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Diver_(Nico_Touches_the_Walls_song)\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 85021\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 20th Anniversary Series Content: The 20th Anniversary Series is a series of singles released by the American punk rock band The Bouncing Souls in 2009 to mark the twentieth year of the band 's career . Over the course of the year , a total of 16 songs were released by the band 's label Chunksaah Records as 7 '' singles and music downloads . The digital singles were released once a month , from January 1 to December 1 , with 4 bonus songs being given out at the end of the year to those that purchased a subscription of the singles . The 7 '' EPs were released once every three months , and included 3 of the main songs and 1 bonus song on each . The 12 main songs were collected for a proper album , titled Ghosts on the Boardwalk .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"20th_Anniversary_Series\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 84726\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Surfin' Guitars: Instrumental Surf Bands of the Sixties Content: Surfin ' Guitars : Instrumental Surf Bands of the Sixties is a book by Robert J. Dalley which covers the instrumental side of the surf genre in the 1960s and looks at groups and artists from that era . It has been published three times with the first version published in 1988 and the third in 2015 . It has been quoted and referred to multiple times in books relating to surf music .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Surfin'_Guitars:_Instrumental_Surf_Bands_of_the_Sixties\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 84709\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Divers (album) Content: Divers is the fourth studio album by American musician Joanna Newsom , released on October 23 , 2015 via Drag City . The album was revealed on August 10 , 2015 , along with its first song , `` Sapokanikan '' , which was released digitally as the first single . The cover art , album packaging , and music video for the album 's title track feature the work of artist Kim Keever . The music video was directed by Paul Thomas Anderson with whom Newsom worked for the film Inherent Vice . Speaking about the album 's creative process in an interview with Entertainment Weekly , she said `` I ... spent a year or two on the instrumental arrangements and overdubs . I wanted the character and colors of the instrumentation to shift definitively , from song to song , which entailed a wide pool of collaborators and a lengthy collaborative process with each person . '' She further described the process of making the album as `` probably the most fun I 've had making a record '' . Entertainment Weekly also reported Newsom `` as using an arsenal of nearly a dozen keyboards and synths including clavichords , Mellotrons and Marxophones '' for the album while members of the City of Prague Philharmonic Orchestra feature as players on the album .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Divers_(album)\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 84707\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Holy Diver (video game) Content: For the album Holy Diver by the band Dio , and its title track , see Dio . is a platforming video game software developed and published by Irem on April 28 , 1989 for the Famicom ( Japanese version of the Nintendo Entertainment System ) . The game was scheduled for a North American release in the same year , and even received a brief write-up in Electronic Gaming Monthly . However , possibly for licensing reasons , the game was never released outside Japan .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Holy_Diver_(video_game)\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 83868\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Holy Diver Content: Holy Diver is the debut album by American heavy metal band Dio , released in 1983 . Vocalist Ronnie James Dio had just finished his first tenure in Black Sabbath , whose drummer Vinny Appice he took with him to put together his own band . The roster was completed by his former band mate in Rainbow Jimmy Bain on bass and by the young guitarist Vivian Campbell , coming from the NWOBHM band Sweet Savage . The album was acclaimed by the music press and is the most successful of the band .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Holy_Diver\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 83861\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Divergent geometric series Content: In mathematics , an infinite geometric series of the form is divergent if and only if | r | ≥ 1 . Methods for summation of divergent series are sometimes useful , and usually evaluate divergent geometric series to a sum that agrees with the formula for the convergent case This is true of any summation method that possesses the properties of regularity , linearity , and stability .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Divergent_geometric_series\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 83819\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Divergent Series: Insurgent – Original Motion Picture Soundtrack Content: The Divergent Series : Insurgent -- Original Motion Picture Soundtrack is the official soundtrack album of the 2015 American science-fiction action film The Divergent Series : Insurgent , based on the second book of the Divergent trilogy . The score of the film was composed by Joseph Trapanese , while Randall Poster reprised his role as music supervisor . The soundtrack album along with the film 's score were released exclusively as digital albums by Interscope Records on March 17 , 2015 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Divergent_Series:_Insurgent_–_Original_Motion_Picture_Soundtrack\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 83756\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 20th century in the United States Content: The 20th century in the United States refers to the period in the United States from 1901 through 2000 in the Gregorian calendar . For information on this period , see : : Category :20 th century in the United States History of the United States series : History of the United States ( 1865 -- 1918 ) History of the United States ( 1918 -- 1945 ) History of the United States ( 1945 -- 1964 ) History of the United States ( 1964 -- 1980 ) History of the United States ( 1980 -- 1991 ) History of the United States ( 1991 -- present ) Timeline of the United States *\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"20th_century_in_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 83467\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ultraviolet catastrophe Content: The ultraviolet catastrophe , also called the Rayleigh -- Jeans catastrophe , was the prediction of late 19th century/early 20th century classical physics that an ideal black body at thermal equilibrium will emit radiation in all frequency ranges , emitting more energy as the frequency increases . By calculating the total amount of radiated energy ( i.e. , the sum of emissions in all frequency ranges ) , it can be shown that a blackbody would release an infinite amount of energy , contradicting the principles of conservation of energy and indicating that a new model for the behaviour of blackbodies was needed . The term `` ultraviolet catastrophe '' was first used in 1911 by Paul Ehrenfest , but the concept originated with the 1900 derivation of the Rayleigh -- Jeans law . The phrase refers to the fact that the Rayleigh-Jeans law accurately predicts experimental results at radiative frequencies below 105 GHz , but begins to diverge with empirical observations as these frequencies reach the ultraviolet region of the electromagnetic spectrum . Since the first appearance of the term , it has also been used for other predictions of a similar nature , as in quantum electrodynamics and such cases as ultraviolet divergence .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Ultraviolet_catastrophe\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 83413\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Diver (film) Content: The Diver is a 1911 American silent documentary produced by Kalem Company and directed by Sidney Olcott . It was shot in Florida . It shows a diver who works in Saint John river in Jacksonville , Fla. .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Diver_(film)\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 83383\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Air Diver Content: is a combat flight simulator video game released by Seismic ( Asmik Ace Entertainment in Japan ) in April 1990 for the Sega Genesis/Mega Drive console . It is notable as being one of the two first third party published titles for the console in North America . A follow-up , Super Air Diver was released exclusively for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System years later .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Air_Diver\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 82940\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: William Diver Content: William Diver ( July 20 , 1921 -- August 31 , 1995 ) was the founder of the Columbia School of Linguistics , named after the university in New York where he taught linguistics from 1955 through 1989 , and where he received his Ph.D. in comparative Indo-European linguistics . Although his background lay mainly in the linguistics of ancient languages , Diver 's approach to linguistics was uniquely modern and scientific . His lectures were sprinkled with references to the history and methodology of science . He believed that science is explanation , not description or prediction , and he compared the explanatory power of the Copernican astronomical system with the explanatory weakness of the epicycles of the Ptolemaic system , both of which had equal descriptive and predictive power . He also believed that the purpose of language was chiefly communication , and his linguistic analyses reflected that orientation , along with that of human psychology and physiology . In other words , these orientations helped him to explain why languages take the forms they do . During Diver 's career , most popular schools of linguistic thought tended towards pure formalism , based on traditional categories and entities , such as the parts of speech and the sentence . While these schools rejected prescriptivism and the idealization of the standard language , Diver stood almost alone in rejecting traditional entities that had no specific function , such as the syllable and the mechanistic interpretation of `` government '' or `` agreement . '' He analyzed language as a form of human behavior , rather than as an idealized expression of truth . See article on the Columbia School for more details and successful application of Diver 's methodology . William Diver was born in Chicago and served in the US Navy during World War II earning the Legion of Merit . He died aged 74 while on a sailing vacation in Nantucket . Some of his works are listed below .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"William_Diver\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 82680\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Instrumental rock Content: Instrumental rock is rock music that emphasizes musical instruments and features very little or no singing . Examples of instrumental rock can be found in practically every subgenre of rock , often from musicians who specialize in the style . Instrumental rock was most popular from the mid-1950s to mid-1960s , with artists such as Bill Doggett Combo , Jimmy Reed , Earl Bostic , The Fireballs , The Shadows , and The Ventures . Surf music had many instrumental songs . Many instrumental hits came from the R&B world . Funk and disco produced several instrumental hit singles during the 1970s . The Allman Brothers Band have many instrumentals . Jeff Beck also recorded two instrumental albums in the 1970s . Progressive rock and art rock performers of the 1960s and 1970s did many virtuosic instrumental performances . During the 1980s and 1990s , the instrumental rock genre was dominated by several guitar soloists , including Joe Satriani , Yngwie Malmsteen and Steve Vai . The 2000s gave way for a new style of instrumental performer . For example , John Lowery ( a.k.a. John 5 ) , released a solo instrumental album . The 2000s also saw the rise of instrumental music by bands that have been labeled post-rock .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Instrumental_rock\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 82638\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Reconstructionist Judaism Content: Reconstructionist Judaism ( , yahadút rekonstruktívit , or יהדות מתחדשת , yahadút mitkhadéshet ) is a modern Jewish movement that views Judaism as a progressively evolving civilization and is based on the conceptions developed by Mordecai Kaplan ( 1881 -- 1983 ) . The movement originated as a semi-organized stream within Conservative Judaism and developed from the late 1920s to 1940s , before it seceded in 1955 and established a rabbinical college in 1967 . There is substantial theological diversity within the movement . Halakha , the collective body of Jewish Law , is not considered binding , but is treated as a valuable cultural remnant that should be upheld unless there is reason for the contrary . The movement also emphasizes positive views toward modernity , and has an approach to Jewish custom which aims toward communal decision making through a process of education and distillation of values from traditional Jewish sources .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Reconstructionist_Judaism\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 82631\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Diver Dan Content: Diver Dan was a series of 104 seven-minute live-action shorts made for children 's television . Made by Brian Cartoons , it was syndicated ( mainly to NBC affiliates ) and distributed by ITC Entertainment . The shows were sometimes re-edited into half-hour ( including commercials ) blocks by local stations . The series featured the adventures of a diver in an old-fashioned diving suit who talked to the passing fish . The series was filmed in live action with puppet fish ; the underwater effect was achieved by shooting through an aquarium .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Diver_Dan\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 82570\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 20th Century Boys Content: is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Naoki Urasawa . It was originally serialized in Big Comic Spirits from 1999 to 2006 , with the 249 chapters published into 22 tankōbon volumes by Shogakukan . In January 2007 , a sixteen chapter continuation titled ran until July , and was gathered into two tankōbon . It tells the story of Kenji Endō and his friends , who notice a cult-leader known only as `` Friend '' is out to destroy the world , and it has something to do with their childhood memories . The series makes many references to a number of manga and anime from the 1960s-1970s , as well as to classic rock music , its title being taken from T.Rex 's song `` 20th Century Boy '' . A trilogy of live-action film adaptations , directed by Yukihiko Tsutsumi , were released in 2008 and 2009 . The manga was licensed and released in English by Viz Media from 2009 to 2012 , and distributed in Australasia by Madman Entertainment . The films were also licensed by Viz in North America and by 4Digital Media in the United Kingdom . 20th Century Boys has received critical acclaim and has 36 million copies in circulation .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"20th_Century_Boys\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 82533\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Harmonic series (mathematics) Content: In mathematics , the harmonic series is the divergent infinite series : Its name derives from the concept of overtones , or harmonics in music : the wavelengths of the overtones of a vibrating string are , , , etc. , of the string 's fundamental wavelength . Every term of the series after the first is the harmonic mean of the neighboring terms ; the phrase harmonic mean likewise derives from music .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Harmonic_series_(mathematics)\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 82489\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1870s Content: The 1870s continued the trends of the previous decade , as new empires , imperialism and militarism rose in Europe and Asia . The United States was recovering from the American Civil War . Germany unified in 1871 and began its Second Reich . Labor unions and strikes occurred worldwide in the later part of the decade , and continued until World War I . The Reconstruction era of the United States brought a legacy of bitterness and segregation that lasted until the 1960s .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"1870s\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 82364\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sounds of the 20th Century Content: Sounds of the 20th Century is a BBC Radio 2 documentary series originally broadcast in the UK between April 2011 and April 2012 . Each 60-minute programme is dedicated to one year from 1951 to 2000 and features a montage of audio relating to that year . Featuring nothing that was n't heard , seen or read at the time , other than brief introduction to each episode by Jeremy Vine , the series does not feature any explanations , reminiscenses or reflections upon the clips . Instead , the series ' website provided a list and description of the audio items , which was also supplied in real time by the show 's Twitter feed . It is described as an ` audio journey through five decades of triumph , tragedy and trivia . ' The first part of the series was first broadcast at 10pm on Thursday 7 April . Focussing upon 1951 , it featured the real King 's Speech ( as he opens the Festival of Britain ) , a General Election victory for the Conservatives and their Liberal allies , the first hit single with multi-tracking ( Les Paul 's `` How High The Moon '' ) , the first rock 'n' roll record ( Jackie Brentson 's `` Rocket 88 '' ) , screen heroes from Marlon Brando to The Lone Ranger . The series was produced by Trevor Dann 's Company , and there is a series blog available at sottc.wordpress.com . The critical reception was generally positive . Comparing the show to BBC One 's The Rock 'n' Roll Years , The Independents Chris Maume asked if `` commissioning Sounds of the 20th Century -LSB- was -RSB- the first thing the 6 Music/Radio 2 controller Bob Shennan has got right in his short but deeply unsatisfactory tenure ? '' . More critically , The Guardians Elisabeth Mahoney identified parallels between the archive clips and the contemporary world , but was frustrated at the lack of a narrative , arguing that `` the jaunty mix is frustratingly hard-going . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Sounds_of_the_20th_Century\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 82243\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: James May's 20th Century Content: James May 's 20th Century is a television series first aired on 10 July 2007 on the British terrestrial channel BBC Two . The series is a co-production by the BBC and the Open University . The series covers various inventions and discoveries over the past century with some reference to discoveries made before the past century . The show features the eponymous James May , exhibiting and discussing the implications of many of the major advances and inventions made during this period . Each episode features some theme , which was discussed in depth during the show , often following sequential advances in chronological order . The programme is now shown on Eden , Yesterday and Dave . The theme tune is called `` The Long Boot '' , by Jeff Knowler .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"James_May's_20th_Century\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 82240\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Reconstruction Amendments Content: The Reconstruction Amendments are the Thirteenth , Fourteenth , and Fifteenth amendments to the United States Constitution , adopted between 1865 and 1870 , the five years immediately following the Civil War . The amendments were important in implementing the Reconstruction of the American South after the war . Their proponents saw them as transforming the United States from a country that was ( in Abraham Lincoln 's words ) `` half slave and half free '' to one in which the constitutionally guaranteed `` blessings of liberty '' would be extended to the entire populace , including the former slaves and their descendants . The Thirteenth Amendment ( proposed and ratified in 1865 ) abolished slavery . The Fourteenth Amendment ( proposed in 1866 and ratified in 1868 ) addresses citizenship rights and equal protection of the laws for all persons . The Fifteenth Amendment ( proposed in 1869 and ratified in 1870 ) prohibits discrimination in voting rights of citizens on the basis of `` race , color , or previous condition of servitude . '' This amendment did not include a specific prohibition on discrimination on the basis of sex ; it took another amendment -- the Nineteenth , ratified in 1920 -- to prohibit such discrimination explicitly . Men and women of all races , regardless of prior slavery , could vote in some states of the early United States , such as New Jersey , provided that they could meet other requirements , such as property ownership . These amendments were intended to guarantee freedom to former slaves and to establish and prevent discrimination in civil rights to former slaves and all citizens of the United States . The promise of these amendments was eroded by state laws and federal court decisions over the course of the 19th century . Women were prohibited by some state constitutions and laws from voting , leading to Susan B. Anthony attempting to vote in New York in the 1872 Presidential election as an act of civil disobedience . In 1876 and later , some states passed Jim Crow laws that limited the rights of African-Americans . Important Supreme Court decisions that undermined these amendments were the Slaughter-House Cases in 1873 , which prevented rights guaranteed under the Fourteenth Amendment 's privileges or immunities clause from being extended to rights under state law ; and Plessy v. Ferguson in 1896 which originated the phrase `` separate but equal '' and gave federal approval to Jim Crow laws . The full benefits of the Thirteenth , Fourteenth , and Fifteenth amendments were not realized until the Supreme Court decision in Brown v. Board of Education in 1954 and laws such as the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Reconstruction_Amendments\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 82058\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The In Instrumentals Content: The In Instrumentals is an album by jazz trombonist and arranger Kai Winding recorded in 1965 for the Verve label .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"The_In_Instrumentals\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 82047\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Great Rebuilding Content: A Great Rebuilding is a period in which a heightened level of building work , architectural change , building or rebuilding occurred . More specifically , W. G. Hoskins defined the term `` The Great Rebuilding '' in England as the period from the mid-16th century until 1640 . Hoskins ' initial theory held that during this period , improved economic conditions in England led to the expansion , rebuilding or architectural improvement of a large number of rural buildings . The precise time period , extent and impact of `` The Great Rebuilding '' is contested . Ronald Brunskill accepts that in much of England it spanned the period 1570 -- 1640 but that the period varied both by region and by social class . It was earliest in South East England , later in South West England and Cornwall , about 1670 -- 1720 in Northern England and later still in Wales . In each region it affected higher-income social classes first and then progressed to lower-income classes .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Great_Rebuilding\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 82040\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Strictly Instrumental Content: Strictly Instrumental is the title of a recording by American folk music artists Doc Watson , Lester Flatt and Earl Scruggs , released in 1967 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Strictly_Instrumental\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 82020\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Instrumentals Vol. 1 Content: Instrumentals Vol . 1 is an instrumental album compiled by American hip hop musician Necro , released on September 19 , 2001 by Psycho + Logical-Records . It features 18 digitally remastered instrumental versions of tracks by Necro , Non Phixion , Al Tariq , Ill Bill , and Cage , all of which were produced by Necro . It is the first installment of the Instrumentals album collection .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Instrumentals_Vol._1\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 81760\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Nadir of American race relations Content: The `` nadir of American race relations '' was the period in the history of the Southern United States from the end of Reconstruction in 1877 through the early 20th century , when racism in the country was worse than in any other period after the American Civil War . During this period , African Americans lost many civil rights gains made during Reconstruction . Anti-black violence , lynchings , segregation , legal racial discrimination , and expressions of white supremacy increased . Historian Rayford Logan coined the term in his 1954 book The Negro in American Life and Thought : The Nadir , 1877 -- 1901 . Logan tried to determine the year when `` the Negro 's status in American society '' reached its lowest point . He argued for 1901 , suggesting that relations improved after then . Others , such as John Hope Franklin and Henry Arthur Callis , argued for dates as late as 1923 . ( Logan , p. xxi ) The term continues to be used , most notably in the books of James Loewen , but also by other scholars . Loewen chooses later dates , arguing that the post-Reconstruction era was in fact one of widespread hope for racial equity due to idealistic Northern support for civil rights . In Loewen 's view the true nadir began only when northern Republicans ceased supporting Southern blacks ' rights around 1890 , and lasted until the Second World War . This period followed the financial Panic of 1873 and a continuing decline in cotton prices . It overlapped with both the Gilded Age and the Progressive Era , and was characterized by the nationwide sundown town phenomenon . Logan 's focus was exclusively African American and principally the American South . But the time period he identified also represents the worst period of anti-Chinese discrimination , harassment and violence on the west coast of the U.S. ( and Canada ) , particularly after the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Nadir_of_American_race_relations\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 81569\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Operation Diver Content: Operation Diver was the British codename for countermeasures against the V-1 flying bomb campaign launched by the German Luftwaffe in 1944 against London and other parts of Britain . `` Diver '' was the codename for the V-1 itself . Modes of defence used against V-1s included anti-aircraft guns , barrage balloons , and fighter aircraft ; also double agents planted false information about the success of targeting . Anti-aircraft guns proved the most effective form of defence in the later stages of the campaign , with the aid of radar-based technology and the proximity fuse . The bombing campaigns ended by the middle of 1944 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Operation_Diver\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 81533\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Terra Diver Content: , also known as Terra Diver , is a vertical-scrolling shooting game by Raizing originally released as an arcade game for the ST-V platform in 1996 . The game was ported to the Sega Saturn and PlayStation in 1997\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Terra_Diver\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 81495\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Instrumentals (Nels Cline Singers album) Content: Instrumentals is the debut album by The Nels Cline Singers led by American guitarist Nels Cline which was released in March 2002 on the Cryptogramophone label .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Instrumentals_(Nels_Cline_Singers_album)\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 81382\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Alfred Diver Content: Alfred John Day Diver ( born 6 July 1823 in Cambridge ; died 25 March 1876 in Rugby ) was an English first-class cricketer whose career spanned the 1843 season to the 1866 season . Diver played mainly for Cambridge Town Club ( aka Cambridgeshire ) and also played for Middlesex and Nottinghamshire . Popularly known as `` Ducky '' , Diver is best known as a reliable batsman for various All-England Eleven teams . Following the 1859 English cricket season , he was one of the 12-strong party of English players who toured North America . Led by George Parr , this was the first ever overseas cricket tour . His nephew , Edwin Diver , played over 200 first-class games , mostly for Surrey and Warwickshire .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Alfred_Diver\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 81336\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Dyson series Content: In scattering theory , a part of mathematical physics , the Dyson series , formulated by Freeman Dyson , is a perturbative series , and each term is represented by Feynman diagrams . This series diverges asymptotically , but in quantum electrodynamics ( QED ) at the second order the difference from experimental data is in the order of 10 − 10 . This close agreement holds because the coupling constant ( also known as the fine structure constant ) of QED is much less than 1 . Notice that in this article Planck units are used , so that ħ = 1 ( where ħ is the reduced Planck constant ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Dyson_series\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 81316\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Reconstruction Agency Content: The is an administrative body of the Cabinet of Japan established on February 2 , 2012 to coordinate reconstruction activities related to the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami and Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Reconstruction_Agency\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 81221\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Moon Diver Content: , formerly known as Necromachina , is a side-scrolling platforming video game developed by feelplus and published by Square Enix . It was released for the PSN on March 29 , 2011 , and the Xbox Live Arcade on May 4 , 2011 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Moon_Diver\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 81150\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Navy Divers Content: Navy Divers is a four-episode Australian observational documentary series that debuted on the ABC1 on 28 October 2008 . The program follows 27 men training to enter the clearance diver branch of the Royal Australian Navy , into which only 14 will be accepted .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Navy_Divers\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 81084\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: ReConStruction Content: ReConStruction was the tenth occasional North American Science Fiction Convention . It was held in Raleigh , North Carolina , on August 5 -- 8 , 2010 , at the Raleigh Convention Center , Marriott City Center , and the Downtown Raleigh Sheraton . This NASFiC was held because Melbourne , Australia , was selected as the location for the 2010 Worldcon .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"ReConStruction\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 81063\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Jewish Cultural Reconstruction, Inc. Content: Jewish Cultural Reconstruction , Inc. ( JCR ) was an organization established in 1947 to collect and distribute heirless Jewish property in the American occupied zone of Germany after World War II . Shortly after its founding , it became the cultural arm of the Jewish Restitution Successor Organization ( JRSO ) . About 150,000 heirless items ( mostly books from the Offenbach Archival Depot whose owners could not be identified ) were distributed by the JCR to libraries in the United States and abroad , among others to the library of the Israelitische Cultusgemeinde Zürich ( ICZ ) in Switzerland.Hannah Arendt , then managing director of the Jewish Cultural Reconstruction , Inc. , handed over parts of the library of the Breslau Rabbinical Seminary in Germany which was suppressed by the Nazis in 1938 . The oldest books of the Breslau collection date back to the 16th century , among them a 1595 print of Flavius Josephus ' Antiquities of the Jews . Funding for the JCR 's operations was provided by the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee and the Jewish Agency for Palestine . Among the leaders and officers of the organization were Salo Baron , Hannah Arendt , Leo Baeck , and Gershom Scholem . The JCR ceased operations in 1952 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2774\",\n \"docid\": \"Jewish_Cultural_Reconstruction,_Inc.\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 80935\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":1367,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"For instance, in the original hockey stick (ending 1980) the last 30-40 years of data points slightly downwards."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Hockey stick graph Content: Hockey stick graphs present the global or hemispherical mean temperature record of the past 500 to 2000 years as shown by quantitative climate reconstructions based on climate proxy records . These reconstructions have consistently shown a slow long term cooling trend changing into relatively rapid warming in the 20th century , with the instrumental temperature record by 2000 exceeding earlier temperatures . The term `` hockey stick graph '' was coined by the climatologist Jerry Mahlman , to describe the pattern shown by the ( MBH99 ) reconstruction , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat with a downward trend to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' followed by a sharp , steady increase corresponding to the `` blade '' portion . The reconstructions have featured in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports as evidence of global warming . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . Paleoclimatology dates back to the 19th century , and the concept of examining varves in lake beds and tree rings to track local climatic changes was suggested in the 1930s . In the 1960s , Hubert Lamb generalised from historical documents and temperature records of central England to propose a Medieval Warm Period from around 900 to 1300 , followed by Little Ice Age . This was the basis of a `` schematic diagram '' featured in the IPCC First Assessment Report of 1990 beside cautions that the medieval warming might not have been global . The use of indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed , and by the late 1990s a number of competing teams of climatologists found indications that recent warming was exceptional . introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large scale reconstructions . Their study was featured in the IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . In 1998 Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 with shading emphasising that uncertainties ( to two standard error limits ) were much greater in earlier centuries . independently produced a CPS reconstruction extending back for a thousand years , and ( MBH99 ) used the MBH98 methodology to extend their study back to 1000 . A version of the MBH99 graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , which also drew on Jones et al. 1998 and three other reconstructions to support the conclusion that , in the Northern Hemisphere , the 1990s was likely to have been the warmest decade and 1998 the warmest year during the past 1,000 years . The graph became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th century warmth was exceptional . In 2003 , as lobbying over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol intensified , a paper claiming greater medieval warmth was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy . Later in 2003 , Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick published disputing the data used in MBH98 paper . In 2004 Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal components analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . Their analysis was subsequently disputed by published papers including and which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . Political disputes led to the formation of a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council , their North Report in 2006 supported Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , support the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Further reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .","qid":"2775","docid":"Hockey_stick_graph","rank":1,"score":154807},{"content":"Title: Hockey stick controversy Content: In the hockey stick controversy , the data and methods used in reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years have been disputed . Reconstructions have consistently shown that the rise in the instrumental temperature record of the past 150 years is not matched in earlier centuries , and the name `` hockey stick graph '' was coined for figures showing a long-term decline followed by an abrupt rise in temperatures . These graphs were publicised to explain the scientific findings of climatology , and in addition to scientific debate over the reconstructions , they have been the topic of political dispute . The issue is part of the global warming controversy and has been one focus of political responses to reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . The use of proxy indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed from the 1990s onwards , and found indications that recent warming was exceptional . The reconstruction introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large-scale reconstructions , and its findings were disputed by Patrick Michaels at the United States House Committee on Science . In 1998 , Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 . In ( MBH99 ) the methodology was extended back to 1000 . The term hockey stick was coined by the climatologist Jerry D. Mahlman , to describe the pattern this showed , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' , followed by a sharp increase corresponding to the `` blade '' . A version of this graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , along with four other reconstructions supporting the same conclusion . The graph was publicised , and became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th-century warmth was exceptional . Those disputing the graph included Pat Michaels , the George C. Marshall Institute and Fred Singer . A paper by Willie Soon and Sallie Baliunas claiming greater medieval warmth was used by the Bush administration chief of staff Philip Cooney to justify altering the first Environmental Protection Agency Report on the Environment . The paper was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy , but on July 28 , Republican Jim Inhofe spoke in the Senate citing it to claim `` that man-made global warming is the greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American people '' . Later in 2003 , a paper by Steve McIntyre and Ross McKitrick disputing the data used in MBH98 paper was publicised by the George C. Marshall Institute and the Competitive Enterprise Institute . In 2004 , Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 , McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal component analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . The analysis therein was subsequently disputed by published papers , including and , which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . In June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton launched what Sherwood Boehlert , chairman of the House Science Committee , called a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into the data , methods and personal information of Mann , Bradley and Hughes . At Boehlert 's request , a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council was set up , which reported in 2006 , supporting Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . Barton and U.S. Rep. Ed Whitfield requested Edward Wegman to set up a team of statisticians to investigate , and they supported McIntyre and McKitrick 's view that there were statistical failings , although they did not quantify whether there was any significant effect . They also produced an extensive network analysis which has been discredited by expert opinion and found to have issues of plagiarism . Arguments against the MBH studies were reintroduced as part of the Climatic Research Unit email controversy , but dismissed by eight independent investigations . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , have supported the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Over a dozen subsequent reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .","qid":"2775","docid":"Hockey_stick_controversy","rank":2,"score":138727},{"content":"Title: Temperature record of the past 1000 years Content: For information on the description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in various IPCC reports see MWP and LIA in IPCC reportsThe temperature record of the past 1,000 years is reconstructed using data from climate proxy records in conjunction with the modern instrumental temperature record which only covers the last 150 years at a global scale . Large-scale reconstructions covering part or all of the 1st millennium and 2nd millennium have shown that recent temperatures are exceptional : the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report of 2007 concluded that `` Average Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the second half of the 20th century were very likely higher than during any other 50-year period in the last 500 years and likely '' the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . '' The curve shown in graphs of these reconstructions is widely known as the hockey stick graph because of the sharp increase in temperatures during the last century . As of 2010 this broad pattern was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th-century `` shaft '' appears . Sparseness of proxy records results in considerable uncertainty for earlier periods . Individual proxy records , such as tree ring widths and densities used in dendroclimatology , are calibrated against the instrumental record for the period of overlap . Networks of such records are used to reconstruct past temperatures for regions : tree ring proxies have been used to reconstruct Northern Hemisphere extratropical temperatures ( within the tropics trees do not form rings ) but are confined to land areas and are scarce in the Southern Hemisphere which is largely ocean . Wider coverage is provided by multiproxy reconstructions , incorporating proxies such as lake sediments , ice cores and corals which are found in different regions , and using statistical methods to relate these sparser proxies to the greater numbers of tree ring records . The `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method is widely used for large-scale multiproxy reconstructions of hemispheric or global average temperatures ; this is complemented by Climate Field Reconstruction ( CFR ) methods which show how climate patterns have developed over large spatial areas , making the reconstruction useful for investigating natural variability and long-term oscillations as well as for comparisons with patterns produced by climate models . During the 1,900 years before the 20th century , it is likely that the next warmest period was from 950 to 1100 , with peaks at different times in different regions . This has been called the Medieval Warm Period , and some evidence suggests widespread cooler conditions during a period around the 17th century known as the Little Ice Age . In the hockey stick controversy , contrarians have asserted that the Medieval Warm Period was warmer than at present , and have disputed the data and methods of climate reconstructions .","qid":"2775","docid":"Temperature_record_of_the_past_1000_years","rank":3,"score":126639},{"content":"Title: Mic-Mac hockey stick Content: The Mic-Mac hockey stick was made originally by the Mi ` kmaq people of Nova Scotia , who dominated the international ice hockey market in the early twentieth century . It was first marketed by the Starr Manufacturing Company of Dartmouth , Nova Scotia , in the 1860s . The Mi ` kmaq practice of playing hockey appears in recorded colonial histories beginning in the 18th century , and beginning in the 19th century they were credited with inventing the ice hockey stick . The oldest known hockey stick , now owned by the Canadian Museum of History , dates to the mid-1830s and is made of sugar maple wood ; it may have been made by a Mi ` kmaq . ( In 2006 , a stick made by Mi ` kmaq in the 1850s , at the time the oldest known , was sold at auction for $ 2.2 million ; it had been appraised at US$ 4.25 million . In 1863 , the Starr Manufacturing Company in Dartmouth , Nova Scotia , began to sell the Mic-Mac Hockey Stick nationally and internationally . Hockey became a popular sport in Canada in the 1890s , and through the first decade of the 20th century , the Mic-Mac was the best-selling hockey stick in Canada . By 1903 , apart from farming , producing them was the primary occupation of the Mi ` kmaq on reserves throughout Nova Scotia , particularly Shubenacadie , Indian Brook and Millbrook . In 1927 the department of Indian Affairs for Nova Scotia noted that the Mi ` kmaq remained the `` experts '' at making hockey sticks . Mi ` kmaq continued to make hockey sticks until the 1930s , when the product was industrialized .","qid":"2775","docid":"Mic-Mac_hockey_stick","rank":4,"score":125235},{"content":"Title: 1996–97 NHL season Content: The 1996 -- 97 NHL season was the 80th regular season of the National Hockey League . The Stanley Cup winners were the Detroit Red Wings , who swept the Philadelphia Flyers in four games and won the Stanley Cup for the first time in 42 years . The regular season saw a decline in scoring and rise in the number of shutouts to an all-time record of 127 . This trend continued into the playoffs , during which an all-time record of 18 shutouts were recorded . Only two players , Mario Lemieux and Teemu Selanne , reached the 100-point plateau during the regular season ( compared with 12 who reached the plateau in 1995 -- 96 ) . Many factors , including fewer power plays , more calls of the skate-in-the-crease rule , fewer shots on goal and more injuries to star players than the season before , contributed to the reduction in scoring and skyrocketing in shutouts . Paradoxically , teams averaged more even-strength goals scored ( 174 ) than in 1995 -- 96 ( 172 ) . This was the first time in 30 years -- and in the entire expansion era -- that the Boston Bruins had either a losing record or missed the playoffs , ending a still-unsurpassed North American professional sports streak of 29-straight seasons in the playoffs .","qid":"2775","docid":"1996–97_NHL_season","rank":5,"score":118734},{"content":"Title: Ice hockey stick Content: An ice hockey stick is a piece of equipment used in ice hockey to shoot , pass , and carry the puck across the ice . Ice hockey sticks are approximately 150 -- 200 cm long , composed of a long , slender shaft with a flat extension at one end called the blade . The blade is the part of the stick used to contact the puck , and is typically 25 to 40 cm long . Stick dimensions can vary widely , as they are usually built to suit a particular player 's size and preference . The blade is positioned at roughly a 135 ° angle from the axis of the shaft , giving the stick a partly ` L-shaped ' appearance . The shaft of the stick is fairly rigid , but it has some flexibility to benefit some shots . The blade is slightly curved in one direction , either way , to aid in retaining or lifting the puck off the playing surface . This can be to the left or right , depending on the player 's shooting orientation . The goaltender has a slightly modified stick . The lower part of the stick is wider , the angle is smaller , and the blade is slightly curved towards the direction of the play . New goalie sticks also are made of the same composite technology as used in regular sticks .","qid":"2775","docid":"Ice_hockey_stick","rank":6,"score":115815},{"content":"Title: History of the National Hockey League (1942–67) Content: The Original Six era of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) began in 1942 with the demise of the Brooklyn Americans , reducing the league to six teams : Boston Bruins , Chicago Black Hawks , Detroit Red Wings , Montreal Canadiens , New York Rangers , and Toronto Maple Leafs . This structure remained stable for a quarter century ; the era ended in 1967 when the NHL doubled in size adding six expansion teams . The Stanley Cup , was the de facto championship since 1926 , becoming the de jure championship in 1947 , when the NHL completed a deal with the Stanley Cup trustees to gain control of the Cup . Toronto and Montreal evidenced dynasties , as the Maple Leafs won the Stanley Cup nine times from 1942 onwards , while the Canadiens won ten times , including five consecutive titles between 1956 and 1960 . The 1967 championship is the last Maple Leafs title to date . Remarkably , Maurice Richard became the first player to score 50 goals in a season in 1944 -- 45 . In 1955 , Richard was suspended for assaulting a linesman , leading to the Richard Riot . Gordie Howe made his debut in 1946 , retiring 32 years later as the NHL 's all-time leader in both goals and points . Willie O'Ree broke the NHL 's colour barrier when he dressed for the Bruins in 1958 . The NHL continued to develop throughout the era . In 1943 , in an attempt to ` open up ' the game , the league introduced the centre-ice red line allowing players for the first time to pass out of their defensive zone . In 1959 , Jacques Plante became the first goaltender to regularly wear a face mask for protection . Off the ice , the business of hockey was changing as well . The first amateur draft was held in 1963 as part of efforts to balance talent distribution within the league . The National Hockey League Players Association was formed in 1967 , ten years after Ted Lindsay 's attempts at unionization failed .","qid":"2775","docid":"History_of_the_National_Hockey_League_(1942–67)","rank":7,"score":115333},{"content":"Title: Field hockey stick Content: In field hockey , each player carries a stick and can not take part in the game without it . The stick for an adult is usually in the range 89 -- 95 cm ( 35 -- 38 in ) long . A maximum length of 105 cm ( 41 '' ) was stipulated from 2016 . The maximum permitted weight is 737 grams.The majority of players use a stick in the range 19 oz to 22 oz ( 538 g - 623 g ) . Traditionally hockey sticks were made of hickory , ash or mulberry wood with the head of the sticks being hand carved and therefore required skilled craftsmen to produce . Sticks made of wood continue to be made but the higher grade sticks are now manufactured from composite materials which were first permitted after 1992 . These sticks usually contain a combination of fibreglass , aramid fiber and carbon fibre in varying proportions according to the characteristics ( flexibility ; stiffness ; resistance to impact and abrasion ) required .","qid":"2775","docid":"Field_hockey_stick","rank":8,"score":114057},{"content":"Title: Saab hockey stick Content: The hockey stick is an automotive design feature seen on nearly all Saab automobiles . It is a C-pillar curve from the base of the rear passenger window that resembles the shape of an ice hockey stick or the Nike swoosh symbol . The distinctive design cue first appeared on the Saab 92 and was kept in the Saab 93 and Saab 96 . When the Saab 99 was launched in the late 1960s it kept this design feature . and has since appeared on most Saab models , including the classic Saab 900 , and later models such as the Saab 9-5 and the 9-3 SportCombi . Saab designers later experimented with evolving the styling feature into what has been referred to as reverse hockey stick , where the angle of the rear passenger window extends out toward the rear end instead of curving forward towards the B-pillar . The reverse hockey stick design can be seen on the Saab 9-X Biohybrid concept car .","qid":"2775","docid":"Saab_hockey_stick","rank":9,"score":112988},{"content":"Title: 1980 in ice hockey Content:","qid":"2775","docid":"1980_in_ice_hockey","rank":10,"score":111214},{"content":"Title: The Hockey Stick and the Climate Wars Content: The Hockey Stick and the Climate Wars : Dispatches from the Front Lines is a 2012 book about climate change by the American climatologist and geophysicist Michael E. Mann . In the book Mann describes how he became a researcher investigating the temperature record of the past 1000 years and was lead author , with Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes , on the 1999 reconstruction that was the first to be dubbed the hockey stick graph . He concisely explains the basics of climate science including statistical methodology dealing with paleoclimate proxy data , and examines the tactics which opponents of action on climate change use to distort the science and attack the reputations of climate scientists . The book describes both the hockey stick controversy and the broader context of skepticism in science and contrarians rejecting evidence of human influence on climate . The book was picked by Physics Today books editor Jermey Matthews as one of the five top books of the 49 they had reviewed in 2012 .","qid":"2775","docid":"The_Hockey_Stick_and_the_Climate_Wars","rank":11,"score":110694},{"content":"Title: Original Six Content: The Original Six is a term for the group of six teams that made up the National Hockey League ( NHL ) for the 25 seasons between the 1942 -- 43 season and the 1967 NHL Expansion . These six teams are the Boston Bruins , Chicago Black Hawks , Detroit Red Wings , Montreal Canadiens , New York Rangers , and the Toronto Maple Leafs , all of which are still active franchises in the league . Of the Original Six , only the Toronto Maple Leafs have not advanced to the Stanley Cup Finals since the expansion , while the other five have appeared in at least three Finals since 1967 and have each won a championship at least once during the most recent 25 seasons ( Toronto last won the Stanley Cup during the 1966 -- 67 season when a team only had to win two rounds to secure the title ) . The term was not used during the era , having originated after 1967 expansion . Only Montreal and Toronto are actual original charter members of the NHL in 1917 , but all six joined the NHL in the league 's first decade , and are commonly considered as a traditional set .","qid":"2775","docid":"Original_Six","rank":12,"score":108539},{"content":"Title: List of all-time NHL standings Content: The following is a list of the all-time standings records for each of the 30 active National Hockey League ( NHL ) teams , beginning with the first NHL season ( 1917 -- 18 ) , and accurate as of the end of the 2015 -- 16 NHL season . Teams are sorted by the overall percentage of points accumulated out of points available ( 2 times the amount of games played ) throughout NHL history . In the NHL 's standings system , a team is awarded 2 points for a win ( regardless if earned in regulation or overtime ) , 1 point for a tie , 1 point for an overtime loss , and 0 points for a loss . The overtime loss statistic ( abbreviated as OT or OTL ) was introduced into the NHL 's standings in the 1999 -- 00 season . The term for the point in standings awarded to a team for an overtime loss is the Bettman point , named after Gary Bettman , the NHL Commissioner at the time of its introduction . It is more commonly referred to as a loser point by media outlets and fans alike . As a result of the 2004 -- 05 NHL lockout , which canceled the entire 2004 -- 05 season , the league adopted a shootout featuring shots on goals , in order to determine the winner of a game which is still tied after an overtime period . This adoption , introduced in the 2005 -- 06 season , eliminated ties from the game .","qid":"2775","docid":"List_of_all-time_NHL_standings","rank":13,"score":107399},{"content":"Title: First indoor hockey game Content: On March 3 , 1875 , the first recorded indoor ice hockey game took place at the Victoria Skating Rink in Montreal , Quebec , Canada . Organized by James Creighton , who captained one of the teams , the game was between two nine-member teams , using a wooden ` puck ' . Members used skates and sticks used for outdoor hockey and shinny games in Nova Scotia , where Creighton was born and raised . It is recognized as the first organized ice hockey game .","qid":"2775","docid":"First_indoor_hockey_game","rank":14,"score":106952},{"content":"Title: Golden Hockey Stick Content: The Golden Hockey Stick ( Zlatá hokejka ) is an award given to the top Czech ice hockey player . It was originally awarded to the top player in the Czechoslovak First Ice Hockey League , beginning in the 1968 -- 69 season . After the Czech Republic and Slovakia became separate countries in 1993 , it was awarded to the top Czech player anywhere in the world . Jaromír Jágr has won this award 12 times , more than any other player . Dominik Hašek won it five times .","qid":"2775","docid":"Golden_Hockey_Stick","rank":15,"score":106810},{"content":"Title: Description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in IPCC reports Content: The description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in IPCC reports has changed since the first report in 1990 as scientific understanding of the temperature record of the past 1000 years has improved . The Medieval Warm Period ( MWP ) and Little Ice Age ( LIA ) are the best-known temperature fluctuations in the last millennium . Critics of the `` hockey stick graph '' of all subsequent reports have claimed that the record of the MWP and LIA were suppressed in the IPCC Third Assessment Report , although every report has discussed the phenomena .","qid":"2775","docid":"Description_of_the_Medieval_Warm_Period_and_Little_Ice_Age_in_IPCC_reports","rank":16,"score":106449},{"content":"Title: 1979–80 NHL season Content: The 1979 -- 80 NHL season was the 63rd season of the National Hockey League . This season saw the addition of four teams from the disbanded World Hockey Association as expansion franchises . The Edmonton Oilers , Winnipeg Jets , New England Whalers ( later renamed `` Hartford Whalers '' at the insistence of the Boston Bruins ) , and Quebec Nordiques joined the NHL , bringing the total to 21 teams . The other two WHA teams ( Birmingham Bulls and Cincinnati Stingers ) were paid to disband . The season also marked the eighth and final season for the Flames in Atlanta before the franchise relocated to Calgary . The NHL would return to the Georgia capital in 1999 with the Thrashers , but that team would ultimately relocate away from Atlanta as well becoming the second ( and current ) incarnation of the Winnipeg Jets . The collapse of the WHA also saw the much hyped super-star rookie Wayne Gretzky come to the NHL with the Edmonton Oilers . Gretzky would tie Marcel Dionne for the scoring lead with 137 points and capture the Hart Memorial Trophy as the most valuable player while Dionne took home the Art Ross Trophy as the leading scorer by virtue of having scored two more goals . Gretzky aside , many players made their debut in the NHL this season , both due to the WHA merger and to a change in the rules for the Entry Draft allowing eighteen - and nineteen-year-olds to be drafted for the first time ; no fewer than seven Hall of Famers ( Gretzky , Ray Bourque , Mark Messier , Mike Gartner , Michel Goulet , Mark Howe , and Joe Mullen ; Mullen was undrafted ) debuted this season along with numerous other perennial stars . The big story of the regular season was the record-breaking undefeated streak compiled by the Philadelphia Flyers . After starting the season with a 5 -- 2 win over the New York Islanders and a 9 -- 2 loss to the Atlanta Flames , the Flyers did not lose again for nearly three months , earning at least one point in every game between a 4 -- 3 win over Toronto on October 14 , 1979 , and a 4 -- 2 win over Buffalo on January 6 , 1980 , a span of 35 games . This stands as the longest undefeated streak in North American professional sports history .","qid":"2775","docid":"1979–80_NHL_season","rank":17,"score":105794},{"content":"Title: Ice Hockey (1988 video game) Content: is a 1988 video game published and developed by Nintendo for the Nintendo Entertainment System video game console , based on the sport of the same name . It was released in Japan , and was later released in North America and in some PAL regions . It was originally released for the Family Computer Disk System , It was later re-released for the Wii 's Virtual Console service in Japan , North America , and some PAL regions . Ice Hockey is based on the sport of the same name , with the objective of the game being to get more points than the opposing player by hitting round , black pucks into the opposing goal with a hockey stick .","qid":"2775","docid":"Ice_Hockey_(1988_video_game)","rank":18,"score":105303},{"content":"Title: 1999–2000 European Hockey League Content: The 1999 -- 2000 European Hockey League was the fourth and last edition of the European Hockey League . The season started on September 21 , 1999 , and finished on February 6 , 2000 . The tournament was won by Metallurg Magnitogorsk , who beat HC Sparta Praha in the final . The points system used in the first round of the tournament was : the winner in regular time won 3 points ; in case of a tie , an overtime is played , the winner in overtime won 2 points and the loser in overtime won 1 point .","qid":"2775","docid":"1999–2000_European_Hockey_League","rank":19,"score":105134},{"content":"Title: YAD06 Content: YAD06 is a tree located in the Yamal Peninsula of Siberia . A core sample from this tree , YADO61 , provided data used to support hockey stick interpretation of global climate history . The data was originally published in 1995 a paper by Keith Briffa of the Climate Research Unit at the University of East Anglia . The paper asserted that the late Middle Ages , previously described as a `` Medieval Warm Period , '' was actually quite cold . Steve McIntyre has described this tree as possibly `` the most influential tree in the world '' , and publicly accused Briffa of cherry-picking certain tree ring records in order to get a specific result , creating what Michael E. Mann described as a `` manufactured scandal . ''","qid":"2775","docid":"YAD06","rank":20,"score":104727},{"content":"Title: Tom McVie Content: Tom McVie ( born June 6 , 1935 in Trail , British Columbia ) is a former coach in the National Hockey League . McVie grew up in a poor family , and , upon signing his first junior league contract , is said to have left home with a single used stick and pair of skates . After his junior career ended , McVie signed with the Seattle Totems of the Western Hockey League and began a long career with this league that included stops with the Portland Buckaroos , Los Angeles Blades , and Phoenix Roadrunners . He scored a career-high 85 points during the 1961 -- 62 season , earning a tryout with the New York Rangers but failing to secure a training camp invitation . After three years behind the bench in the International Hockey League , McVie coached the Washington Capitals from the 1975 -- 76 season to the middle of the 1978 -- 79 season . After being released by the Capitals , he moved to the Winnipeg Jets , then in the World Hockey Association , and coached the team to an Avco Cup championship . He then coached with Bill Sutherland in the Jets first two NHL seasons , 1979 -- 80 and 1980 -- 81 . He replaced Bill MacMillan as head coach of the New Jersey Devils midway through the 1983 -- 84 season , in which the team posted the worst record in its history . McVie returned as an NHL head coach with the Devils in 1991 -- 92 after coaching the AHL Utica Devils . He has served in the Boston Bruins organization for 21 years , 16 of them as a scout . He finally had his name etched on the Stanley Cup in 2011 , as the Bruins won their first championship in 39 years .","qid":"2775","docid":"Tom_McVie","rank":21,"score":104538},{"content":"Title: Hockey-stick identity Content: In combinatorial mathematics , the identity is known as the hockey-stick or Christmas stocking identity . That name stems from the graphical representation of the identity on Pascal 's triangle : when the addends represented in the summation and the sum itself are highlighted , the shape revealed is vaguely reminiscent of those objects .","qid":"2775","docid":"Hockey-stick_identity","rank":22,"score":104361},{"content":"Title: 1980–81 Montreal Canadiens season Content: The 1980 -- 81 Montreal Canadiens season was the club 's 72nd season of play . The Canadiens lost just once in their last twenty-seven home games . The Canadiens would earn at least 100 regular season points for the seventh consecutive season . Montreal qualified for the playoffs and were eliminated in the NHL 's Preliminary round by the Edmonton Oilers three games to none . Four days after the Canadiens were eliminated , head coach Claude Ruel resigned .","qid":"2775","docid":"1980–81_Montreal_Canadiens_season","rank":23,"score":103948},{"content":"Title: 2015 Stanley Cup playoffs Content: The 2015 Stanley Cup playoffs of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) began on April 15 , 2015 , and ended on June 15 , 2015 , with the Chicago Blackhawks defeating the Tampa Bay Lightning four games to two in the 2015 Stanley Cup Finals . The New York Rangers made the playoffs as the Presidents ' Trophy winners with the most points ( i.e. best record ) during the regular season . They also came back from a 3 -- 1 series deficit for the second consecutive year . The Detroit Red Wings increased their consecutive post-season appearance streak to 24 seasons , the longest current streak at the time and tied for the fourth-longest streak in NHL history . The Winnipeg Jets qualified for the playoffs for the first time since the former Atlanta Thrashers franchise relocated to Winnipeg in 2011 ; the only time that the Thrashers/Jets franchise made the post-season was in 2007 , and the last time that the city of Winnipeg hosted a playoff game was in 1996 , the season before the previous Winnipeg Jets team relocated to Phoenix , Arizona , to become the Coyotes . The Ottawa Senators became the first team in the NHL 's modern era ( since 1943 -- 44 ) to overcome a 14-point deficit in the standings to clinch a playoff spot . Also , the Calgary Flames returned to the playoffs after a six-year absence . In total , five Canadian NHL teams qualified for the post-season , the most since 2004 . The Los Angeles Kings became the first defending Stanley Cup champions since the Carolina Hurricanes in 2007 to fail to make the playoffs . The Boston Bruins failed to make the playoffs for the first time since 2007 and became the first reigning Presidents ' Trophy winners to miss the post-season since the Buffalo Sabres in 2008 ( and the third overall ) . In addition , the San Jose Sharks failed to make the post-season for the first time since 2003 , ending the NHL 's second-longest active playoff streak . For the first time since 2000 , both the Eastern and Western Conference Finals went the full seven games . The Tampa Bay Lightning became the first team in league history to face an Original Six team in all four rounds of the playoffs in the same year , as they played against the Detroit Red Wings , Montreal Canadiens , New York Rangers and Chicago Blackhawks , respectively . They also became the fourth team to defeat three consecutive Original Six teams . The Lightning also tied the 1987 Philadelphia Flyers , 2004 Calgary Flames and 2014 Los Angeles Kings , for playing the most playoff games ( 26 ) in a post season .","qid":"2775","docid":"2015_Stanley_Cup_playoffs","rank":24,"score":103946},{"content":"Title: 1980–81 NHL season Content: The 1980 -- 81 NHL season was the 64th season of the National Hockey League . The New York Islanders were the top regular season team and the top playoff team , winning their second consecutive Stanley Cup .","qid":"2775","docid":"1980–81_NHL_season","rank":25,"score":103332},{"content":"Title: International Hockey League (1992–96) Content: The International Hockey League ( IHL ) lasted from 1992 to 1996 . It replaced the Soviet Union 's Championship league . The last season was in 1995 -- 96 , as the league was replaced by the Russian Superleague the following season . There were two awards in the league . One was the regular season winner , and the other was the winner of the cup .","qid":"2775","docid":"International_Hockey_League_(1992–96)","rank":26,"score":103331},{"content":"Title: Leon Stickle Content: Leon Stickle ( born April 20 , 1948 in Toronto , Ontario ) is a retired National Hockey League linesman . His career started in 1969 and ended in 1998 . During his career ( in which he wore a helmet from the mid-1980s until his retirement ) , he officiated six Stanley Cup finals , 2,069 regular season games , 206 playoff games , two Canada Cups , and four All-Star games , including the 1979 Challenge Cup and Rendez-vous ' 87 . He may be best known for missing an offside call which led to the New York Islanders first Stanley Cup in 1980 against the Philadelphia Flyers . He later admitted to missing the call . From the 1994-95 season until his retirement , he wore uniform number 33 .","qid":"2775","docid":"Leon_Stickle","rank":27,"score":103025},{"content":"Title: 2004–05 NHL lockout Content: The 2004 -- 05 NHL lockout was a lockout that resulted in the cancellation of what would have been the 88th season of play of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . It was the first time the Stanley Cup was not awarded since 1919 , and the first time a major professional sports league in North America canceled a complete season because of a labor dispute and the second time after the 1994 -- 1995 MLB strike that the Playoffs of a major professional sports league in North America were cancelled . The lockout lasted 10 months and 6 days starting September 16 , 2004 , the day after the collective bargaining agreement ( CBA ) between the NHL and the NHL Players Association ( NHLPA ) that resolved the 1994 -- 95 lockout expired . The lockout of the 2004 -- 2005 season resulted in 1,230 unplayed games . The negotiating teams reached an agreement on July 13 , 2005 , and the lockout officially ended 9 days later on July 22 , after both the NHL owners and players ratified the CBA .","qid":"2775","docid":"2004–05_NHL_lockout","rank":28,"score":102950},{"content":"Title: NHL Entry Draft Content: The NHL Entry Draft ( Repêchage d'entrée dans la LNH ) is an annual meeting in which every franchise of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) systematically select the rights to available ice hockey players who meet draft eligibility requirements ( North American players 18 -- 20 years old and Europeans of all ages entering the league for the first time , all others enter league as unrestricted free agents ) . The NHL Entry Draft is held once every year , generally within two to three months after the conclusion of the previous season . During the draft , teams take turns selecting amateur players from junior or collegiate leagues and professional players from European leagues . The first draft was held in 1963 , and has been held every year since . The NHL Entry Draft was known as the NHL Amateur Draft until 1979 . The entry draft has only been a public event since 1980 , and a televised event since 1984 . Up to 1994 , the order was solely determined by the standings at the end of the regular season . In 1995 , the NHL Draft Lottery was introduced where only teams who had missed the playoffs could participate . The one lottery winner would move up the draft order a maximum of four places , meaning only the top five-placed teams could pick first in the draft , and no team in the non-playoff group could move down more than one place . The chances of winning the lottery were weighted towards the teams at the bottom of the regular season standings . Beginning in 2013 , the limit of moving up a maximum of four places in the draft order was eliminated , so the lottery winner would automatically receive the first overall pick , and any teams above it in the draft order would still move down one spot .","qid":"2775","docid":"NHL_Entry_Draft","rank":29,"score":102692},{"content":"Title: Field hockey at the 1980 Summer Olympics Content: Hockey at the 1980 Summer Olympics was represented by two events : men 's team event and women 's team event . For the first time a women 's Olympic Games hockey tournament was organized . Both events were held in two venues , located in the north-western part of Moscow : the Minor Arena of the Central Dynamo Stadium the Young Pioneers Stadium The schedule started on July 20 and ended on July 31 . The 33 matches of hockey events at stadiums were watched by 177,880 spectators .","qid":"2775","docid":"Field_hockey_at_the_1980_Summer_Olympics","rank":30,"score":102590},{"content":"Title: ESPN25 Content: ESPN25 was a special event conducted to mark the 25th anniversary of ESPN . During the run-up to the anniversary date of September 7 , 2004 , the network counted down the top sports moments of the last 25 years ( the `` ESPN era '' ) . Each Tuesday , a new 25-to-1 list was unveiled , as was the next headline in that 25-to-1 countdown . In addition , each day during SportsCenter , the next moment in the list of the top 100 moments of the ESPN era was shown . The celebration concluded by declaring the Miracle on Ice hockey game between the United States and the Soviet Union at the 1980 Winter Olympic Games the # 1 moment , game , and headline of the last 25 years .","qid":"2775","docid":"ESPN25","rank":31,"score":102384},{"content":"Title: Rink bandy Content: Not to be confused with Rink hockey , which is another name for Roller hockey on quad skates . Rink bandy and rinkball are two very similar team sports , both developed from bandy but played on a significantly smaller ice rink . While a bandy rink is about the same size as a football pitch , rink bandy and rinkball are played on ice hockey rinks . Rink bandy originated in Sweden in the 1960s and was originally called hockey-bockey . As indoor ice hockey arenas started coming , it was a way for bandy players to practice on ice a longer time of the year ; as bandy fields are larger , they were still only made outdoors in the wintertime when artificial freezing was not necessary . Gradually rinkball developed as a sport of its own after being introduced to Finland later that decade . Both games use a bandy ball , but in rinkball it is blue instead of cerise . Rink bandy uses bandy sticks and rinkball uses ice hockey sticks . The rink bandy goalkeeper has no stick , whereas the rinkball counterpart has . Similar to hockey , a game lasts 60 minutes , but is composed of either two 30 minute halves or three 20 minute periods . They use similar rules to normal bandy , but simplifies them to increase the pace of the game . Checking is prohibited , making the sport relatively safer than its relatives . Because of the smaller playing area , fewer players are used . Normally it 's six a side . In the USA Rink Bandy League , five players are used because of the smaller ice hockey rinks there . As artficially frozen and indoor bandy arenas has become more prevalent , the interest for rink bandy has dwindled in the main bandy countries ( Russia , Sweden , Finland , Norway ) . In many countries where bandy is still new and the infrastructure for large ices is not in place , rink bandy is the main form of bandy .","qid":"2775","docid":"Rink_bandy","rank":32,"score":102332},{"content":"Title: 1979–80 Quebec Nordiques season Content: The 1979 -- 80 Quebec Nordiques season was the Nordiques eighth season overall , however , it marked as their expansion season in the National Hockey League . Quebec had played their previous seven seasons in the now defunct World Hockey Association . In 1978 -- 79 , their last season in the WHA , Quebec finished the year with the second best record , as they had a 41-34-5 record , earning 87 points . The Nordiques were then swept by the Winnipeg Jets in the WHA semi-finals . In the NHL , the team finished out of the playoffs .","qid":"2775","docid":"1979–80_Quebec_Nordiques_season","rank":33,"score":102301},{"content":"Title: 1906–07 FAHL season Content: The 1906 -- 07 Federal Amateur Hockey League ( FAHL ) season lasted from December 28 until March 6 . The four teams were to play a twelve game schedule , but the season ended early when two teams resigned from the league -- the Montreal Montagnards over a dispute with a league ruling , and Cornwall HC when their top scorer , Owen ` Bud ' McCourt , died following an on-ice brawl with the Ottawa Victorias . Ottawa were awarded the season championship .","qid":"2775","docid":"1906–07_FAHL_season","rank":34,"score":102259},{"content":"Title: 2013 Stanley Cup playoffs Content: The 2013 Stanley Cup playoffs of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) began on April 30 , 2013 , following the conclusion of the 2012 -- 13 NHL regular season . The regular season was shortened to 48 games , and the playoffs pushed to a later date , due to a lockout . The playoffs ended on June 24 , 2013 , with the Chicago Blackhawks defeating the Boston Bruins in six games to win the Stanley Cup . Patrick Kane won the Conn Smythe trophy as the playoffs MVP , with 19 points ( 9 goals and 10 assists ) . The Toronto Maple Leafs made the playoffs for the first time since 2004 , breaking one of the NHL 's longest playoff droughts . Since the 1967 expansion , only the Colorado Rockies/New Jersey Devils ( 1979 -- 1987 ) and the Florida Panthers ( 2001 -- 2011 ) had longer playoff droughts . The 2013 Stanley Cup playoffs marked the first time since 1996 that every Original Six team has advanced to the playoffs in the same year . Also , this year marks the first time since 2004 that two Canadian teams have played each other in the playoffs . In all , four Canadian teams qualified for the playoffs ( Montreal , Ottawa , Toronto , and Vancouver ) , the most since 2006 . For the second time in three years , all three teams from California made the playoffs . For the first time since 2007 , and for only the third time in history , all four former WHA teams ; Carolina ( formerly the Hartford Whalers ) , Colorado ( formerly the Quebec Nordiques ) , Edmonton , and Phoenix ( formerly the Winnipeg Jets ) missed the playoffs in the same year . For the first time ever , the final five teams remaining in the playoffs were the previous five Stanley Cup champions : Detroit ( 2008 ) , Pittsburgh ( 2009 ) , Chicago ( 2010 ) , Boston ( 2011 ) , and Los Angeles ( 2012 ) ; and , indeed , with the Detroit Red Wings being the first of these teams eliminated from the playoffs , the final four teams were the previous four Cup champions . - for the first time since 1945 . The 2013 Stanley Cup Finals was contested between Chicago Blackhawks and Boston Bruins , the first meeting in the Final between the two teams , and the first time that two Original Six teams competed in the Final since Montreal defeated the New York Rangers in the 1979 Stanley Cup Finals . The Blackhawks also became the first Presidents ' Trophy winners to win the Stanley Cup since the Red Wings in 2008 . As of 2016 , they are the last NHL team to accomplish this feat . These playoffs featured 27 overtime games , the most since 1993 and the second-most in NHL history .","qid":"2775","docid":"2013_Stanley_Cup_playoffs","rank":35,"score":102083},{"content":"Title: 1980–81 Edmonton Oilers season Content: The 1980 -- 81 Edmonton Oilers season was the Oilers ' second season in the NHL , and they finished with 74 points , a 5-point improvement from their 1st season . Wayne Gretzky would run away with the Art Ross Trophy , awarded to the leading scorer , as he finished with 164 points , 29 points ahead of runner-up Marcel Dionne of the Los Angeles Kings . Gretzky would also win his 2nd straight Hart Trophy , awarded to the MVP of the NHL . His 164 points were an NHL record , previously held by Phil Esposito of the Boston Bruins in the 1970 -- 71 NHL season when he scored 152 points . Youngsters Jari Kurri and Mark Messier would have very good offensive seasons , finishing 2nd and 3rd on the Oilers scoring list . Eddie Mio would get the majority of action in the Oilers goal , playing in a team high 43 games and having 16 wins , which set a franchise record . In the playoffs , the Oilers would face the heavily favoured Montreal Canadiens in the opening round , and they would shock the hockey world by sweeping Montreal in 3 games . In the quarter-finals , the Oilers would play the defending Stanley Cup Champion New York Islanders , and would take them to 6 games before being eliminated .","qid":"2775","docid":"1980–81_Edmonton_Oilers_season","rank":36,"score":101892},{"content":"Title: List of Stanley Cup playoffs broadcasters (Original Six era) Content: The Original Six are the six teams ( Boston Bruins , Chicago Black Hawks , Detroit Red Wings , Montreal Canadiens , New York Rangers , and Toronto Maple Leafs ) that composed the National Hockey League ( NHL ) for the 25 seasons between the 1942 -- 43 season and the 1967 NHL Expansion . The name is something of a misnomer , since there were other NHL franchises that ceased operations before 1942 , including some that were founded before some of the Original Six . The term dates from the 1967 expansion which added six new franchises ; hence the six expansion teams and the `` Original Six '' .","qid":"2775","docid":"List_of_Stanley_Cup_playoffs_broadcasters_(Original_Six_era)","rank":37,"score":101640},{"content":"Title: 1979–80 NCAA Division I men's ice hockey season Content: The 1979 -- 80 NCAA Division I men 's ice hockey season began in October 1979 and concluded with the 1980 NCAA Division I Men 's Ice Hockey Tournament 's championship game on March 29 , 1980 at the Providence Civic Center in Providence , Rhode Island . This was the 33rd season in which an NCAA ice hockey championship was held and is the 85th year overall where an NCAA school fielded a team .","qid":"2775","docid":"1979–80_NCAA_Division_I_men's_ice_hockey_season","rank":38,"score":101616},{"content":"Title: Wegman Report Content: The Wegman Report ( officially called the Ad Hoc Committee Report on the ` Hockey Stick ' Global Climate Reconstruction ) was prepared in 2006 by three statisticians led by Edward Wegman at the request of Rep. Joe Barton of the United States House Committee on Energy and Commerce to validate criticisms made by Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick of reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years , in particular the reconstructions by Mann , Bradley and Hughes which had become the focus of the hockey stick controversy .","qid":"2775","docid":"Wegman_Report","rank":39,"score":101483},{"content":"Title: Ice hockey at the Winter Olympics Content: Ice hockey tournaments have been staged at the Olympic Games since 1920 . The men 's tournament was introduced at the 1920 Summer Olympics and was transferred permanently to the Winter Olympic Games program in 1924 , in France . The women 's tournament was first held at the 1998 Winter Olympics . The Olympic Games were originally intended for amateur athletes until 1988 , and the National Hockey League ( NHL ) did not allow its players to compete until 1998 . From 1924 to 1988 , the tournament started with a round-robin series of games and ended with the medal round . Medals were awarded based on points accumulated during that round . The games of the tournament follow the rules of the International Ice Hockey Federation ( IIHF ) , which differ slightly from the rules used in the NHL . The tournament follows the World Anti-Doping Agency 's ( WADA ) rules on performance-enhancing drugs and the IIHF maintains a Registered Testing Pool , a list of top players who are subjected to random in-competition and out-of-competition drug tests . Several players have tested positive for banned substances since the 1972 Winter Olympics . In the men 's tournament , Canada was the most successful team of the first three decades , winning six of seven gold medals . Czechoslovakia , Sweden and the United States were also competitive during this period and won multiple medals . Between 1920 and 1968 , the Olympic hockey tournament was also counted as the Ice Hockey World Championship for that year . The Soviet Union first participated in 1956 and overtook Canada as the dominant international team , winning seven of the nine tournaments in which they participated . The United States won gold medals in 1960 and in 1980 , which included their `` Miracle on Ice '' upset of the Soviet Union . Canada went 50 years without a gold medal , before winning one in 2002 , and following it with back-to-back wins in 2010 and 2014 . Other nations to win gold include Great Britain in 1936 , the Unified Team in 1992 , Sweden in 1994 and 2006 and the Czech Republic in 1998 . Other medal-winning nations include Switzerland , Germany , Finland and Russia . In 1986 , the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) voted to allow all athletes to compete in Olympic Games starting in 1988 . The NHL was initially reluctant to allow its players to compete because the Olympics are held in the middle of the NHL season , and the league would have to halt play if many of its players participated . However , NHL players were allowed to compete starting in 1998 . The format of the tournament was adjusted to accommodate the NHL schedule ; a preliminary round was played without NHL players or the top six teams -- Canada , the Czech Republic , Finland , Russia , Sweden and the United States -- followed by a final round which included them . The tournament format was changed again in 2006 ; every team played five preliminary games with the full use of NHL players . In July 1992 , the IOC voted to approve women 's hockey as an Olympic event ; it was first held at the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano . The Nagano Organizing Committee was hesitant to include the event because of the additional costs of staging the tournament , but an agreement was reached that limited the field to six teams , and ensured that no additional facilities would be built . The Canadian and American teams have dominated the event , typically losing only to each other . The United States won the first tournament in 1998 . Canada won in 2002 , 2006 , 2010 and 2014 .","qid":"2775","docid":"Ice_hockey_at_the_Winter_Olympics","rank":40,"score":101462},{"content":"Title: 1980–81 NCAA Division I men's ice hockey season Content: The 1980 -- 81 NCAA Division I men 's ice hockey season began in October 1980 and concluded with the 1981 NCAA Division I Men 's Ice Hockey Tournament 's championship game on March 28 , 1981 at the Duluth Arena in Duluth , Minnesota . This was the 34th season in which an NCAA ice hockey championship was held and is the 86th year overall where an NCAA school fielded a team . For the first time the Hobey Baker Award was conferred after the conclusion of the regular season . After the season four teams from the WCHA left to join the CCHA . As a result of dividing the four Big Ten schools that had previously been in the WCHA the Big Ten stopped declaring a conference ice hockey champion until the formation of a separate conference in 2013 -- 14 .","qid":"2775","docid":"1980–81_NCAA_Division_I_men's_ice_hockey_season","rank":41,"score":101168},{"content":"Title: 1998–99 European Hockey League Content: The 1998-1999 European Hockey League was the third edition of the European Hockey League . The season started on September 15 , 1998 , and finished on February 14 , 1999 . The tournament was won by Metallurg Magnitogorsk , who beat HC Dynamo Moscow in the final . The points system used in the first round of the tournament was : the winner in regular time won 3 points ; in case of a tie , an overtime is played , the winner in overtime won 2 points and the loser in overtime won 1 point .","qid":"2775","docid":"1998–99_European_Hockey_League","rank":42,"score":101078},{"content":"Title: Vladimír Martinec Content: Vladimír Martinec ( born December 22 , 1949 in Lomnice nad Popelkou , Czechoslovakia ) was a Czech ice hockey right wing in the 1970s . He won the Golden Hockey Stick award as top player in Czechoslovakia four times , in 1973 , 1975 , 1976 , and 1979 . Martinec played for Pardubice in the Czechoslovak Elite League from 1967 to 1981 except for 1978-79 , when he played for Jihlava . Nicknamed `` The Fox '' due to the unpredicatability of his offensive manoevres , he scored 343 goals in 539 games in the elite league . Martinec was a key player on Czechoslovak national teams in the 1970s . Known for his technical skills , he scored 155 goals in 289 international games . He played in the World Championships every year in the 1970s and in 1981 ( on the winning side in 1972 , 1976 , and 1977 , and making the all-star team in 1974 , 1975 , 1976 and 1977 ) ; he is 7th all-time leading scorer in World Championships , with 110 points ( 52 goals and 58 assists ) in 102 games ( top scorer in '76 with 20 points in 10 games ) . He also played on the 1972 , 1976 , and 1980 Olympic teams , and in the 1976 Canada Cup where he scored 7 points ( 3 +4 ) in 7 games . He coached ESV Kaufbeuren in Germany ( also coming back to play for this team in 1985 ) , and then coached his old team Tesla Pardubice between 1986 and 1989 .","qid":"2775","docid":"Vladimír_Martinec","rank":43,"score":100417},{"content":"Title: Hockey stick (disambiguation) Content: A hockey stick is : a stick used to propel the ball or puck in hockey . In particular : Field hockey stick , used to propel the ball in field hockey Ice hockey stick , used to propel the puck in ice hockey something shaped like an ice hockey stick Saab hockey stick , styling cue on Saab cars Hockey stick graphs present the global or hemispherical mean temperature record of the past 1000 years Hockey stick controversy about the `` hockey stick '' graph which shows a sharp recent rise in global temperature a Hockey Stick diagram is a diagram that shows the payoff of a call option or a put option with respect to the price of the underlying asset . a hockey stick procedure turn is the standard way to reverse direction during an instrument landing in aviation . Other uses : the name of a step in Cha-cha-cha .","qid":"2775","docid":"Hockey_stick_(disambiguation)","rank":44,"score":100184},{"content":"Title: Ice hockey Content: Ice hockey is a contact team sport played on ice , usually in a rink , in which two teams of skaters use their sticks to shoot a vulcanized rubber puck into their opponent 's net to score points . The sport is known to be fast-paced and physical , with teams usually consisting of six players each : one goaltender , and five players who skate up and down the ice trying to take the puck and score a goal against the opposing team . Ice hockey is most popular in Canada , central and eastern Europe , Scandinavia , and the northern regions of the United States . Ice hockey is the official national winter sport of Canada , where the modern version of the sport was created , and enjoys immense popularity ; alongside Canada , hockey is the most popular winter sport in Finland , Latvia , the Czech Republic , Sweden , Slovakia , Belarus and Switzerland . In North America , the National Hockey League ( NHL ) is the highest level for men 's hockey and the most popular . The Kontinental Hockey League ( KHL ) is the highest league in Russia and much of Eastern Europe . The International Ice Hockey Federation ( IIHF ) is the formal governing body for international ice hockey , with the IIHF managing international tournaments and maintaining the IIHF World Ranking . Worldwide , there are ice hockey federations in 74 countries . Ice hockey is believed to have evolved from simple stick and ball games played in the 18th and 19th century United Kingdom and elsewhere . These games were brought to North America and several similar winter games using informal rules were developed , such as `` shinny '' and `` ice polo '' . The contemporary sport of ice hockey was developed in Canada , most notably in Montreal , where the first indoor hockey game was played on March 3 , 1875 . Some characteristics of that game , such as the length of the ice rink and the use of a puck , have been retained to this day . Amateur ice hockey leagues began in the 1880s , and professional ice hockey originated around 1900 . The Stanley Cup , emblematic of ice hockey club supremacy , was first awarded in 1893 to recognize the Canadian amateur champion and later became the championship trophy of the NHL . In the early 1900s , the Canadian rules were adopted by the Ligue Internationale de Hockey sur Glace , the precursor of the IIHF and the sport was played for the first time in the Olympics in the Olympic Games of 1920 . In international competitions , the national teams of six countries ( the `` Big Six '' ) predominate : Canada , Czech Republic , Finland , Russia , Sweden and the United States . Of the 69 medals awarded all-time in men 's competition at the Olympics , only six medals were not awarded to one of those countries . In the annual Ice Hockey World Championships , 177 of 201 medals have been awarded to the six nations . Teams outside the `` Big Six '' have won only five medals in either competition since 1953 : All 12 Women 's Olympic and 36 IIHF World Women 's Championships medals have been awarded to one of these six countries , and every gold medal in both competitions has been won by either the Canadian national team or the United States national team . In Canada , the United States , and some European countries it is known simply as hockey ; the name `` ice hockey '' is used in places where `` hockey '' more often refers to field hockey , such as South America , Asia , Africa , Australasia , and some European countries . In Russia and Ukraine , where `` hockey '' can also refer to bandy , ice hockey is often called `` hockey with puck '' .","qid":"2775","docid":"Ice_hockey","rank":45,"score":100161},{"content":"Title: 1980 Stanley Cup playoffs Content: The 1980 Stanley Cup playoffs , the championship of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) began on April 8 , after the conclusion of the 1979 -- 80 NHL season . The playoffs concluded on May 24 when the New York Islanders defeated the Philadelphia Flyers 5 -- 4 to win the Final series four games to two and win the Stanley Cup . It was the Islanders ' first Stanley Cup win and was the first of four consecutive Stanley Cup wins .","qid":"2775","docid":"1980_Stanley_Cup_playoffs","rank":46,"score":100150},{"content":"Title: North Report Content: The North Report was a 2006 report evaluating reconstructions of the temperature record of the past two millennia , providing an overview of the state of the science and the implications for understanding of global warming . It was produced by a National Research Council committee , chaired by Gerald North , at the request of Representative Sherwood Boehlert as chairman of the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Science . These reconstructions had been dubbed `` hockey stick graphs '' after the 1999 reconstruction by Mann , Bradley and Hughes ( MBH99 ) , which used the methodology of their 1998 reconstruction covering 600 years ( MBH98 ) . A graph based on MBH99 was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , and became a focus of the global warming controversy over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol . It was disputed by various contrarians , and in the politicisation of this hockey stick controversy the New York Times of 14 February 2005 hailed a paper by businessman Stephen McIntyre and economist Ross McKitrick ( MM05 ) as undermining the scientific consensus behind the Kyoto agreement . On 23 June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton , chairman of the House Committee on Energy and Commerce , with Ed Whitfield , Chairman of the Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations , wrote joint letters referring to issues raised by the Wall Street Journal article , and demanding that Mann , Bradley and Hughes provide full records on their data and methods , finances and careers , information about grants provided to the institutions they had worked for , and the exact computer codes used to generate their results . Boehlert said this was a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into something that should properly be under the jurisdiction of the Science Committee , and in November 2005 after Barton dismissed the offer of an independent investigation organised by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences , Boehlert requested the review , which became the North Report . The North Report went through a rigorous review process , and was published on 22 June 2006 . It concluded `` with a high level of confidence that global mean surface temperature was higher during the last few decades of the 20th century than during any comparable period during the preceding four centuries '' , justified by consistent evidence from a wide variety of geographically diverse proxies , but `` Less confidence can be placed in large-scale surface temperature reconstructions for the period from 900 to 1600 '' . It broadly agreed with the basic findings of the original MBH studies , which subsequently been supported by other reconstructions and proxy records , while emphasising uncertainties over earlier periods . The principal component analysis methodology that McIntyre and McKitrick had contested had a small tendency to bias results so was not recommended -- but it had little influence on the final reconstructions , and other methods produced similar results .","qid":"2775","docid":"North_Report","rank":47,"score":99918},{"content":"Title: 1980–81 New York Rangers season Content: The 1980 -- 81 New York Rangers season was the 55th season for the team in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . In the regular season , the Rangers finished in fourth place in the Patrick Division with 74 points and earned a berth in the playoffs . New York won series with the Los Angeles Kings and St. Louis Blues to reach the NHL semi-finals , where the team was defeated by the New York Islanders in a four-game sweep .","qid":"2775","docid":"1980–81_New_York_Rangers_season","rank":48,"score":99866},{"content":"Title: List of large-scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years Content: This list of large scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years includes climate reconstructions which have contributed significantly to the modern consensus on the temperature record of the past 2000 years . The instrumental temperature record only covers the last 150 years at a hemispheric or global scale , and reconstructions of earlier periods are based on climate proxies . In an early attempt to show that climate had changed , Hubert Lamb 's 1965 paper generalised from temperature records of central England together with historical , botanical and archeological evidence to produce a qualitative estimate of temperatures in the north Atlantic region . Subsequent quantitative reconstructions used statistical techniques with various climate proxies to produce larger scale reconstructions . Tree ring proxies can give an annual resolution of extratropical regions of the northern hemisphere , and can be statistically combined with other sparser proxies to produce multiproxy hemispherical or global reconstructions . Quantitative reconstructions have consistently shown earlier temperatures below the temperature levels reached in the late 20th century . This pattern as seen in was dubbed the hockey stick graph , and as of 2010 this broad conclusion was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears .","qid":"2775","docid":"List_of_large-scale_temperature_reconstructions_of_the_last_2,000_years","rank":49,"score":99702},{"content":"Title: The Hockey Stick Illusion Content: The Hockey Stick Illusion : Climategate and the Corruption of Science is a book written by Andrew Montford and published by Stacey International in 2010 . Montford , an accountant and science publisher who publishes a blog called ` Bishop Hill ' provides his analysis of the history of the `` hockey stick graph '' of global temperatures for the last 1000 years and the controversy promoted by mining exploration company director Steve McIntyre about the research which produced the graph . The book describes the history of the graph from its inception to the beginning of the Climatic Research Unit email controversy ( `` Climategate '' ) . The book was Amazon UK 's second bestselling environment book of 2010 .","qid":"2775","docid":"The_Hockey_Stick_Illusion","rank":50,"score":99539},{"content":"Title: NGC 4656 and NGC 4657 Content: NGC 4656/57 is a highly warped barred spiral galaxy located in the constellation Canes Venatici and is sometimes informally called the Hockey Stick Galaxies or the Crowbar Galaxy . In the Catalogue of Named Galaxies , it is called Pilamalleus Canum Venaticorum , after a Latin neologism for hockey stick . The galaxy is a member of the NGC 4631 Group . A Luminous Blue Variable in `` super-outburst '' was discovered in NGC 4656/57 on March 21 , 2005 .","qid":"2775","docid":"NGC_4656_and_NGC_4657","rank":51,"score":99386},{"content":"Title: H-E Double Hockey Sticks Content: H-E Double Hockey Sticks is a 1999 American comedy movie directed by Randall Miller starring Will Friedle and Matthew Lawrence . The film is based on the opera Griffelkin by Lukas Foss . The film 's title is a common euphemism for the word hell .","qid":"2775","docid":"H-E_Double_Hockey_Sticks","rank":52,"score":99178},{"content":"Title: History of the National Hockey League (1967–92) Content: The expansion era of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) began when six new teams were added for the 1967 -- 68 season , ending the Original Six era . The six existing teams were grouped into the newly created East Division , and the expansion teams -- the Los Angeles Kings , Minnesota North Stars , Oakland Seals , Philadelphia Flyers , Pittsburgh Penguins and St. Louis Blues -- formed the West Division . The NHL added another six teams by 1974 to bring the league to 18 teams . This continued expansion was partially brought about by the creation of the World Hockey Association ( WHA ) , which operated from 1972 until 1979 and sought to compete with the NHL for markets and players . Bobby Hull was the most famous player to defect to the rival league , signing a $ 2.75 million contract with the Winnipeg Jets . When the WHA ceased operations in 1979 , the NHL absorbed four of the league 's teams -- the Edmonton Oilers , Hartford Whalers , Quebec Nordiques and Winnipeg Jets . This brought the NHL to 21 teams ( the Cleveland Barons had ceased operations in 1978 ) , a figure that remained constant until the San Jose Sharks joined as an expansion franchise in 1991 . The NHL became involved in international play , starting with the Summit Series in 1972 , which pitted the top Canadian players of the NHL against the top players of the Soviet Union . Canada won the eight-game series four wins to three with one tie . The success of the series led to the creation of the Canada Cup , held five times between 1976 and 1991 . NHL teams also faced Soviet League teams that toured North America between 1975 and 1991 in what was known as the Super Series . The fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989 saw many former Soviet-Bloc players stream into the NHL , joining several players who had defected in the 1980s . This was the highest scoring period in NHL history . It was led in the 1980s by the Edmonton Oilers and Wayne Gretzky , who scored 200 points or more four times , including a current league-record 215 in 1985 -- 86 . Gretzky 's 92 goals in 1981 -- 82 also remains a league record . No other player in NHL history has scored 200 points , although Mario Lemieux came close in 1988 -- 89 with 199 .","qid":"2775","docid":"History_of_the_National_Hockey_League_(1967–92)","rank":53,"score":99032},{"content":"Title: 1940–41 Boston Bruins season Content: The 1940 -- 41 Boston Bruins season was the Bruins ' 17th season in the National Hockey League , and they were coming off of a successful season in 1939 -- 40 , leading the NHL in points for the third season in a row , as they finished with a 31 -- 12 -- 5 record , accumulating 67 points . However , the Bruins lost to the New York Rangers in the NHL semi-finals , ending their chances for a second-straight Stanley Cup . This year , the Bruins repeated as regular-season champs and returned to the Final , and defeated the Detroit Red Wings four games to none to win the organization 's third Stanley Cup .","qid":"2775","docid":"1940–41_Boston_Bruins_season","rank":54,"score":98621},{"content":"Title: 1956–57 Chicago Black Hawks season Content: The 1956 -- 57 Chicago Black Hawks season was the team 's 31st season in the NHL , and the club was coming off their third consecutive last place finish in the league in 1955 -- 56 , as they had a 19 -- 39 -- 12 record , earning 50 points . The struggling Black Hawks had finished in last eight times in the past ten seasons , and only one playoff appearance since 1946 . On October 1 , the Hawks announced that head coach Dick Irvin resigned as head coach of the club due to ill health . Irvin was suffering from bone cancer and had been ill for the past two years , and was hospitalized in Montreal . Tommy Ivan took over for Irvin . On May 15 , 1957 , Dick Irvin died at the age of 64 . The Black Hawks got off to a miserable start to the season , as they had a 2 -- 12 -- 1 record in their first 15 games , and sat in last place in the league . The team could never overcome their bad start , and slumped all season long , finishing the year with a 16 -- 39 -- 15 record , earning 47 points , and finishing in last place for the fourth straight season , and the ninth time in eleven years . Offensively , Chicago was led by Ed Litzenberger , who led the club in goals with 32 , and assists with 32 , recording 64 points , which was good for fifth in the NHL . His 32 goals was the teams highest total since 1943 -- 44 . Johnny Wilson had a solid year , scoring 18 goals and 48 points , while Glen Skov also cracked the 40 point barrier , as he earned 42 points . Jack McIntyre led the defense with 18 goals and 32 points , while fellow defenceman and team captain Gus Mortson had 5 goals , 23 points , and a team high 147 penalty minutes . In goal , Al Rollins had all the playing time , winning 16 games , while posting a 3.20 GAA , and recording 3 shutouts .","qid":"2775","docid":"1956–57_Chicago_Black_Hawks_season","rank":55,"score":98559},{"content":"Title: 1997–98 European Hockey League Content: The 1997-1998 European Hockey League was the second edition of the European Hockey League . The season started on September 16 , 1997 , and finished on January 25 , 1998 . The tournament was won by VEU Feldkirch , who beat HC Dynamo Moscow in the final . A new points system was used in the first round of the tournament . The winner in regular time won 3 points ; in case of a tie , an overtime is played , the winner in overtime won 2 points and the loser in overtime won 1 point .","qid":"2775","docid":"1997–98_European_Hockey_League","rank":56,"score":98482},{"content":"Title: Hockey stick Content: A hockey stick is a piece of equipment used in field hockey , ice hockey , roller hockey or underwater hockey to move the ball or puck .","qid":"2775","docid":"Hockey_stick","rank":57,"score":98380},{"content":"Title: East Division (NHL) Content: The East Division of the National Hockey League existed from 1967 until 1974 when the league realigned into two conferences of two divisions each . In 1967 , the NHL doubled in size , going from six teams to twelve . The Original Six , as the pre-1967 teams became retroactively known , were grouped into the East Division , while the expansion teams were placed into the new West Division . This was done in order to keep teams of similar competitive strength in the same division , regardless of geographic distance , and to ensure playoff revenue for the new franchises . This competitive imbalance would lead to East Division teams winning the Stanley Cup in six of the seven years the league was divided into two divisions . Another consequence was that in 1969 -- 70 , the Montreal Canadiens , who had finished the season with 92 points ( more than any team in the West Division ) , missed the playoffs -- the only time between 1948 -- 49 and 1993 -- 94 that they did so . When the NHL expanded again in 1970 , the two new teams , the Vancouver Canucks and Buffalo Sabres , were placed into the stronger East Division . In an effort to create more balanced competition , the Chicago Black Hawks were transferred into the West Division . When the NHL expanded again in 1972 , each division was given one of the expansion clubs , with the New York Islanders joining the East Division and the Atlanta Flames joining the West Division . By 1974 , another two teams ( the Washington Capitals and Kansas City Scouts ) entered the NHL , and as a result the league underwent a major overhaul . The East and West Divisions were renamed the Prince of Wales and Clarence Campbell Conferences , respectively , composed of nine teams each . The conferences were further divided into two divisions : the Norris and Adams Divisions for the Wales Conference , and the Patrick and Smythe Divisions for the Campbell Conference . Because the Conferences were not geographically based , the league opted to name the conferences and divisions after notable persons associated with the NHL .","qid":"2775","docid":"East_Division_(NHL)","rank":58,"score":98277},{"content":"Title: 2012–13 Elitserien season Content: The 2012 -- 13 Elitserien season was the 38th season of Elitserien . The regular season began on 13 September 2012 and ended on 5 March 2013 . The playoffs began on 12 March 2013 and ended on 18 April 2013 . The 2012 -- 13 Elitserien season was the last season under the name `` Elitserien '' ; on 17 June 2013 , the league was renamed `` Swedish Hockey League '' ( SHL ) . Skellefteå AIK clinched the Swedish Championship for the first time since 1978 , defeating Luleå HF 4 -- 0 in the Finals . It was the team 's second Swedish Championship in club history . Skellefteå also won the regular season for the first time since the 1980 -- 81 season , and the second time in club history . Their 114-point finish is the highest amount of points since Färjestad BK won the 2001 -- 02 regular season with 118 points . Luleå HF improved on the record for fewest goals surrendered in a 55-game regular season that they set last season by only having 102 goals scored against them . In Kvalserien , Örebro HK ( first SHL season ) and Leksands IF qualified for the 2013 -- 14 SHL season at the expense of Timrå IK and Rögle BK .","qid":"2775","docid":"2012–13_Elitserien_season","rank":59,"score":98134},{"content":"Title: Ron Murphy Content: Robert Ronald Murphy ( April 10 , 1933 -- March 6 , 2014 ) was a professional ice hockey player who played for the New York Rangers , Chicago Black Hawks , Detroit Red Wings and Boston Bruins over the course of an 889-game NHL career . He played the better part of 18 years between 1952 and 1970 , most notably being on a line with Phil Esposito and Ken Hodge which broke the league record for scoring by a forward line in the 1968 -- 69 NHL season with 263 points ( subsequently broken two years later by Esposito , Hodge and Wayne Cashman ) . That season represented a comeback year for Murphy , who had missed most of the preceding two seasons following multiple operations on a chronically bad shoulder , and he initially retired after that season . His health improving over the summer , he rejoined the Bruins for the beginning of the 1970 season , but recurrences of his chronic injuries reduced him to spot duty over 20 games , and he retired for good in March 1970 . Murphy 's career was nearly cut short late in the second period of a New York Rangers ' 3 -- 1 victory over the Montreal Canadiens at Madison Square Garden on December 20 , 1953 . Then a 20-year-old left wing for the Rangers , he sustained a broken jaw and concussion after Boom Boom Geoffrion took a two-handed swing with his stick , which made contact with the left side of Murphy 's face . Murphy was suspended for five games , but the injuries from the incident resulted in costing him the remainder of the season . Geoffrion was banned from all matches between the two teams for the rest of the campaign . The incident was recorded on black-and-white film which was used by Rangers coach Frank Boucher . The well-preserved footage was discovered in 2011 when MSG Media moved its film and videotape archive out of its arena while the building was undergoing renovations . After his retirement he coached the Kitchener Rangers of the Ontario Hockey League . He was with Stanley Cup-winning teams with the Black Hawks in 1961 and the Bruins in 1970 . Murphy died on March 6 , 2014 at the age of 80 .","qid":"2775","docid":"Ron_Murphy","rank":60,"score":98078},{"content":"Title: Violence in ice hockey Content: Violence has been a part of ice hockey since at least the early 1900s . According to the book Hockey : A People 's History , in 1904 alone , four players were killed during hockey games from the frequent brawls and violent stickwork . More modern examples of violence include brawls , fan involvement , physical abuse of officials and deliberately injuring opponents . Violent actions such as kicking , hitting from behind and prohibited stickwork , are penalized with suspensions or fines . Fighting , or fisticuffs , is also penalized but is considered by many hockey enthusiasts , particularly in North America , to be quite distinct from stick-swinging or other violent acts . They regard fighting as an entrenched , acceptable and an integral part of the game . On the ice , referees may impose penalties for prohibited activities . Off the ice , the National Hockey League ( NHL ) sometimes fines , suspends or expels players . The criminal justice system has also been known to investigate , charge and convict players . As a result , hockey has become much more regulated and the violent element much more controlled . This has been aided , in no small part , by dramatic increases in disciplinary processes and technology allowing for a high level of scrutiny of any event which occurs .","qid":"2775","docid":"Violence_in_ice_hockey","rank":61,"score":97846},{"content":"Title: 2012–13 Florida Panthers season Content: The 2012 -- 13 Florida Panthers season was the 20th season for the National Hockey League ( NHL ) franchise that was established on June 14 , 1993 . The season was partially cancelled due to a labor dispute , which ended on January 6 , 2013 . The campaign for the Panthers then commenced as a shortened , 48-game season beginning on January 19 . The shortened season will feature only intra-conference games . The Panthers were eliminated from Stanley Cup playoff contention , failing to make the post-season for the 11th time in their past 12 seasons . Florida earned the least points of any NHL team in 2012 -- 13 , finishing with a 15 -- 27 -- 6 record for last in both the Eastern Conference and 30-team NHL .","qid":"2775","docid":"2012–13_Florida_Panthers_season","rank":62,"score":97798},{"content":"Title: List of WHA seasons Content: The World Hockey Association ( WHA ) operated for seven seasons from 1972 until 1979 . The WHA ceased operations after the 1978 -- 79 season . As part of the NHL-WHA merger , four WHA franchises moved to the National Hockey League for the 1979 -- 80 NHL season : Edmonton , New England ( renamed Hartford Whalers ) , Quebec , and Winnipeg . The other two WHA-enfranchised teams , Birmingham and Cincinnati , folded .","qid":"2775","docid":"List_of_WHA_seasons","rank":63,"score":97770},{"content":"Title: 1966–67 NHL season Content: The 1966 -- 67 NHL season was the 50th season of the National Hockey League . Six teams each played 70 games . Since the 1942 -- 43 season , there had only been six teams in the NHL , but this was to be the last season of the Original Six as six more teams were added for the 1967 -- 68 season . This season saw the debut of one of the greatest players in hockey history , defenceman Bobby Orr of the Boston Bruins . The Toronto Maple Leafs won the Stanley Cup over the Montreal Canadiens ; this would be the Leafs ' most recent Stanley Cup , .","qid":"2775","docid":"1966–67_NHL_season","rank":64,"score":97690},{"content":"Title: NHL 11 Content: NHL 11 is an ice hockey video game , which celebrated the twentieth anniversary of the NHL series . The game was developed by EA Canada , published by EA Sports , and released in North America on September 7 , 2010 , with the game releasing in all other regions within two weeks . The game features a physics-based game engine , which replaced the old animation-based system , and was touted by NHL 11 producer , Sean Ramjagsingh , as `` the biggest change in NHL 11 '' . Other significant changes include broken sticks , which means the stick may now break when the player shoots . NHL 11 does not use official International Ice Hockey Federation jerseys , as the game does n't have the IIHF license . The cover of NHL 11 features Chicago Blackhawks captain Jonathan Toews , who helped the team win their first Stanley Cup title in 49 years in 2010 . On January 11 , 2013 , all online services for NHL 11 were discontinued .","qid":"2775","docid":"NHL_11","rank":65,"score":97689},{"content":"Title: List of first overall NHL draft picks Content: The NHL Entry Draft , originally known as the NHL Amateur Draft , is a collective meeting in which the franchises of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) systematically select the exclusive rights to available amateur players who meet the eligibility requirements to play professional hockey in the NHL . First held in 1963 , the draft prior to 1969 was a shorter affair . Any amateur player who was 17 years of age and older and was not already sponsored by an NHL club was eligible to be drafted . In 1969 the rules were changed so that any amateur player between the ages of 17 and 20 was eligible to be drafted . The draft has grown and in 2010 210 players were selected over seven rounds . A total of 50 different players have been selected first . Of those , 39 have been Canadian , seven Americans , three Russians , two Czechs and one Swedish player have also been taken first . Every first overall pick taken between 1968 and 2010 has played in at least 299 NHL games . Three players retired without ever having played an NHL game . The Montreal Canadiens have had the most first overall picks of any other team , selecting five players first between 1963 and 1980 . Five players have come from the London Knights of the Ontario Hockey League , more than any other team . Ten players have won the Calder Memorial Trophy as the NHL 's rookie of the year : Gilbert Perreault , Denis Potvin , Bobby Smith , Dale Hawerchuk , Mario Lemieux , Bryan Berard , Alexander Ovechkin , Patrick Kane , Nathan MacKinnon and Aaron Ekblad . Eight have been inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame : Perreault , Potvin , Guy Lafleur , Eric Lindros , Hawerchuk , Lemieux , Mats Sundin and Mike Modano .","qid":"2775","docid":"List_of_first_overall_NHL_draft_picks","rank":66,"score":97635},{"content":"Title: 1978–79 NHL season Content: The 1978 -- 79 NHL season was the 62nd season of the National Hockey League . The Montreal Canadiens beat the New York Rangers in the Stanley Cup finals four games to one for their fourth Cup in a row . This was the last time that two of the `` Original Six '' teams met in the Finals until 2013 . With the Boston Bruins joining the Canadiens and Rangers in the semifinals , this was the last time that three of the final four teams were Original six teams until 2014 .","qid":"2775","docid":"1978–79_NHL_season","rank":67,"score":97531},{"content":"Title: 1980–81 Winnipeg Jets season Content: The 1980 -- 81 Winnipeg Jets season was the Winnipeg Jets ' second season in the National Hockey League . In the 1980-81 season they finished fifth ( and last ) in the NHL 's Smythe Division . The team scored 246 goals and conceded 400 goals . The Jets won 9 games , lost 57 games and tied 14 games . They scored 32 points . The Jets were coached by Tom McVie ( 1 win , 20 losses and 7 ties ) , Bill Sutherland ( 6 wins , 20 losses and 3 ties ) , and Mike Smith ( 2 wins , 17 losses and 4 ties ) .","qid":"2775","docid":"1980–81_Winnipeg_Jets_season","rank":68,"score":97344},{"content":"Title: 1939–40 NHL season Content: The 1939 -- 40 NHL season was the 23rd season for the National Hockey League . Of the league 's seven teams , the Boston Bruins were the best in the 48-game regular season , but the Stanley Cup winners were the New York Rangers , who defeated the Toronto Maple Leafs in the best-of-seven final series 4 -- 2 for their third Stanley Cup in 14 seasons of existence . It would be another 54 years before their fourth .","qid":"2775","docid":"1939–40_NHL_season","rank":69,"score":97284},{"content":"Title: 1942–43 NHL season Content: The 1942 -- 43 NHL season was the 26th season of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . The Brooklyn Americans were dropped , leaving six teams to play a schedule of 50 games . This is the first season of the `` Original Six '' era of the NHL . The league 's long-time president Frank Calder died due to heart disease . The Detroit Red Wings defeated the Boston Bruins to win the Stanley Cup .","qid":"2775","docid":"1942–43_NHL_season","rank":70,"score":97119},{"content":"Title: 1980–81 England Hockey League season Content: The 1980 -- 81 English Hockey League season took place from September 1980 until May 1981 . The principal event for men was the National Inter League Championship which brought together the winners of their respective regional leagues . The Men 's championship was won by Slough The Men 's Cup was won by Slough and the Women 's Cup was won by Sutton Coldfield .","qid":"2775","docid":"1980–81_England_Hockey_League_season","rank":71,"score":97064},{"content":"Title: Krivokrasov stick incident Content: This scandal , involving Sergei Krivokrasov , occurred during 3rd game of 2003 -- 04 Russian Hockey Super League playoff semifinals between Avangard Omsk and HC Lada Togliatti . At 3:05 left in the third period , Lada Head coach , Petr Vorobiev , asked for Krivokrasov 's stick measurement . The referee for the game , Sergei Gusev , accepted the request , however delayed the procedure by several minutes . Stick was measured and proved legal , so Lada was given a minor penalty for delaying the game . However , it was witnessed by several Lada staff members , that Krivokrasov had changed his stick during the delay -- and reported immediately to game officials . This appeal was denied , so Vorobiev ordered his team to leave the ice as a protest . After the short consultation with game inspector , referee finally called minor and misconduct penalties against Krivokrasov , but Lada refused to return , since their minor penalty for delaying the game stayed intact . 1:0 victory ( the score before the incident ) was awarded then to Avangard . Several days later , game officials for this game were suspended until the end of the season for `` critical mistakes in measurement procedures '' . Lada was fined , and Petr Vorobiev served a 5-game suspension for League regulations violation .","qid":"2775","docid":"Krivokrasov_stick_incident","rank":72,"score":97059},{"content":"Title: Upward Sports Content: Upward Sports is a non-profit 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) organization based in Spartanburg , South Carolina , United States . It is a Christian sports league designed for kids in grades K5 -- 8 offering four sports programs : basketball , flag football , soccer and cheerleading ; in Canada , it also offers ball hockey . Upwards Sports was founded in 1995 by Caz McCaslin to provide children with `` skills for the sports arena and values for life . '' While training children with the athletic skills needed to participate at the next level , Upward Sports stresses biblical values -- such as leadership , teamwork , integrity and respect -- as much as winning .","qid":"2775","docid":"Upward_Sports","rank":73,"score":96948},{"content":"Title: Phillip Burrows Content: Phillip Ross Burrows MNZM ( born 25 April 1980 in Wellington ) is a field hockey player from New Zealand , who earned his first cap for the national team , nicknamed The Black Sticks , in January 2000 . The striker is New Zealand 's top field goal scorer and was named 2003 New Zealand Player of the Year . Since his debut , he has competed in over 120 international games for his country and appeared in three Summer Olympics : in 2004 in Athens , in 2008 in Beijing and in 2012 in London . He has played club hockey in The Netherlands since 2004 , initially for Breda and since the summer of 2005 , for HC Rotterdam .","qid":"2775","docid":"Phillip_Burrows","rank":74,"score":96860},{"content":"Title: 1989 Stanley Cup playoffs Content: The 1989 Stanley Cup playoffs , the championship of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) began on April 5 , after the conclusion of the 1988 -- 89 NHL season . This was the final year that all of the Division Semifinals began with teams playing the first four games in a span of five days . The playoffs concluded on May 25 with the champion Calgary Flames defeating the Montreal Canadiens 4 -- 2 to win the Stanley Cup Final series four games to two . The 1989 Stanley Cup playoffs featured two Canadian hockey teams , the Montreal Canadiens and the Calgary Flames . Montreal finished the regular season with 115 points , only two behind the league leader Calgary . They had last faced each other in 1986 , with Montreal winning in five games . Calgary was only the second opposing team in NHL history to win a Stanley Cup at the Montreal Forum ( the New York Rangers defeated the Montreal Maroons in 1928 ) and the first to do so against the Canadiens . Flames defenceman Al MacInnis won the Conn Smythe Trophy as playoff MVP , while Lanny McDonald , who ended the regular season with exactly 500 goals , got his name on the Cup in his last ever NHL game . Flames co-owner Sonia Scurfield became the first Canadian woman to have her name inscribed on the Stanley Cup . Wayne Gretzky and the Los Angeles Kings met the defending champion Oilers in the first round . Gretzky and the Kings defeated the defending Stanley Cup champions after falling behind 3 games to 1 . In the second round the Kings were swept by the eventual champion Calgary Flames in four games . Philadelphia Flyers goaltender Ron Hextall became the first netminder to shoot and score a goal in the playoffs , a shorthanded , empty-net score in Game 5 of the Patrick Division Semifinal against the Washington Capitals . One round later Mario Lemieux equaled four NHL-records ( most goals in a game , most goals in a period , most points in a game and most points in a period ) by scoring five goals and eight points in a 10 -- 7 Pittsburgh win in game five of the Patrick Division Finals . Hextall then made headlines in the Wales Conference Finals , attacking Montreal 's Chris Chelios in the late stages of game six as retribution for Chelios ' unpenalized hit on Flyers forward Brian Propp in game one . Hextall received a 12-game suspension at the start of the 1989 -- 90 NHL season for his actions . Former Flyers head coach Mike Keenan led Chicago to the Campbell Conference finals in his first year behind the bench . The Blackhawks had the fewest points of any playoff team this season yet they upset first place Detroit and then St. Louis before bowing to Calgary .","qid":"2775","docid":"1989_Stanley_Cup_playoffs","rank":75,"score":96686},{"content":"Title: 1960–61 NHL season Content: The 1960 -- 61 NHL season was the 44th season of the National Hockey League . The Chicago Black Hawks defeated the Detroit Red Wings in the 1961 Stanley Cup Final four games to two to win the Stanley Cup . It was the first series since with two American-based teams . It was Chicago 's first Cup win since ; they would not win another until . Gordie Howe of the Red Wings became the first player in NHL history to achieve the career mark of 1000 regular-season points . It would be seven more seasons before the Montreal Canadiens ' Jean Béliveau would match the feat .","qid":"2775","docid":"1960–61_NHL_season","rank":76,"score":96645},{"content":"Title: Ice hockey at the 1980 Winter Olympics Content: The men 's ice hockey tournament at the 1980 Winter Olympics in Lake Placid , U.S.A. , was the 14th Olympic Championship . Twelve teams competed in the tournament , which was held from February 12 to 24 . The United States won its second gold medal , including a win over the heavily favored Soviet Union that became known as the `` Miracle on Ice '' . Games were held at the Olympic Arena and the Olympic Fieldhouse .","qid":"2775","docid":"Ice_hockey_at_the_1980_Winter_Olympics","rank":77,"score":96522},{"content":"Title: Le Mat Trophy Content: The Le Mat Trophy ( Le Mat-pokalen ) is the trophy awarded to Swedish champions in ice hockey , which since 1975 has been the winners of the SHL playoffs . The Le Mat is the oldest trophy competed for by professional athletes in Sweden . The trophy was donated by the founding father of ice hockey in Sweden , Raoul Le Mat , and Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Inc. in 1926 . Since then , the silver cup has been modified and features now a lid with two crossed ice hockey sticks and an oak base . The cup is 20.5 inches ( 52 cm ) high and weighs 118 ounces ( 3.34 kg ) . The cup used today is a copy of the original trophy due to the theft of the original in the beginning of the 1950s . The current cup is an exact copy of the original and was made by Juvelerare Markström in Uppsala , Sweden , right after the theft .","qid":"2775","docid":"Le_Mat_Trophy","rank":78,"score":96482},{"content":"Title: Ice Hockey Varsity Match Content: The Ice Hockey Varsity Match is a longstanding competition between the Cambridge and Oxford University Ice Hockey Clubs . Tradition places the origin of the match in 1885 , when a game is said to have been played in St Moritz . This date is recognised by the Hockey Hall of Fame , and prior to the 1985 Varsity Match , the International Ice Hockey Federation formally recognised the game played a century earlier as having been the first ice hockey match played in Europe . However , there is no contemporary evidence that the 1885 match took place , and Oxford now claim that it was a bandy match . If the 1885 date is accepted , this is the oldest rivalry in ice hockey . The oldest surviving evidence of the competition is a team photo and roster from 1895 , for a game played on Blenheim Lake in Oxford , although this was definitely a bandy match . The first match usually counted as an ice hockey contest is that of 16 March 1900 at Princes Skating Club , although at Oxford 's insistence , it was played using bandy sticks and a lacrosse ball . The following year , another Varsity Match was played at Princes , this time with hockey skates and a puck . However , a 1902 match at Blenheim Lake was again a bandy match . The competition became established in 1909 ; the two universities then met each other on a European rink each year until World War I. From 1927 , the match has been played for the Patton Cup , named for Peter Patton , the first President of the British Ice Hockey Association . It was then played most years until 1932 , when it returned to England , being played at Richmond Ice Rink . The annual matches of the 1930s may no longer have been of professional standard , but they were able to attract crowds up to 10,000 strong . In 2016 , the Patton Cup was replaced by the King Edward VII Cup . Other than a gap during World War II , the matches have continued annually ever since , and since 1996 have alternated between Oxford Ice Rink and a rink nominated by Cambridge ( who do not have a home rink ) . Oxford , often strengthened by Rhodes Scholars have won more than two-thirds of the encounters .","qid":"2775","docid":"Ice_Hockey_Varsity_Match","rank":79,"score":96352},{"content":"Title: 1947–48 NHL season Content: The 1947 -- 48 NHL season was the 31st season of the National Hockey League . Six teams each played 60 games . The Toronto Maple Leafs were the Stanley Cup winners . They defeated the Detroit Red Wings four games to none . This season saw the introduction of a new trophy -- Art Ross Trophy -- that would be handed out to the player who scored the most points during the regular season .","qid":"2775","docid":"1947–48_NHL_season","rank":80,"score":96323},{"content":"Title: Field hockey Content: Field hockey is a team sport of the hockey family . The earliest origins of the game date back to the Middle Ages in England , Scotland , France and the Netherlands . The game can be played on a grass field or a turf field as well as an indoor board surface . Each team plays with eleven players , including the goalie . Players use sticks made out of wood , carbon fibre , fibre glass or a combination of carbon fibre and fibre glass in different quantities ( with the higher carbon fibre stick being more expensive and less likely to break ) to hit a round , hard , plastic ball . The length of the stick depends on the player 's individual height . Only one end of the stick is allowed to be used . Goalies often have a different kind of stick , however they can also use an ordinary field hockey stick . The specific goal-keeping sticks have another curve at the end of the stick , this is to give them more surface area to save the ball . The uniform consists of shin guards , shoes , shorts , a mouth guard and a jersey . Today , the game is played globally , with particular popularity throughout Western Europe , the Indian subcontinent , Southern Africa , Australia , New Zealand , Argentina , and parts of the United States ( primarily New England and the Mid-Atlantic states ) . Field Hockey is the national game of Pakistan . The term `` field hockey '' is used primarily in Canada and the United States where ice hockey is more popular . In Sweden the term `` landhockey '' is used and to some degree also in Norway . It is a section of Norway 's Bandy Association . Until recently they called it `` hockey '' , when it was changed to `` landhockey '' . During play , goal keepers are the only players who are allowed to touch the ball with any part of their body ( the player 's hand is considered ` part of the stick ' if on the stick ) , while field players play the ball with the flat side of their stick . Goal keepers also can not play the ball with the back of their stick . Whoever scores the most goals by the end of the match wins . If the score is tied at the end of the game , either a draw is declared or the game goes into extra time or a penalty shootout , depending on the competition 's format . There are many variations to overtime play that depend on the league and tournament play . In college play , a seven-aside overtime period consists of a 10-minute golden goal period with seven players for each team . If a tie still remains , the game enters a one-on-one competition where each team chooses 5 players to dribble from the 25 yard line down to the circle against the opposing goalie . The player has 8 seconds to score on the goalie keeping it in bounds . The play ends after a goal is scored , the ball goes out of bounds , a foul is committed ( ending in either a penalty stroke or flick or the end of the one on one ) or time expires . If the tie still persists extra rounds thereafter until one team has scored . The governing body of hockey is the International Hockey Federation ( FIH , in French ) , with men and women being represented internationally in competitions including the Olympic Games , World Cup , World League , Champions Trophy and Junior World Cup , with many countries running extensive junior , senior , and masters club competitions . The FIH is also responsible for organising the Hockey Rules Board and developing the rules for the game . A popular variant of field hockey is indoor field hockey , which differs in a number of respects while embodying the primary principles of hockey . Indoor hockey is a 5-a-side variant , with a field which is reduced to approximately 40 x. With many of the rules remaining the same , including obstruction and feet , there are several key variations : Players may not raise the ball unless shooting on goal , players may not hit the ball ( instead using pushes to transfer the ball ) , and the sidelines are replaced with solid barriers which the ball will rebound off .","qid":"2775","docid":"Field_hockey","rank":81,"score":96316},{"content":"Title: 1905–06 FAHL season Content: The 1905 -- 06 Federal Amateur Hockey League ( FAHL ) season lasted from December 27 , 1905 , until February 28 , 1906 . Teams were to play an eight-game schedule , but due to the failure of the Montagnards , some teams played only 6 or 7 games .","qid":"2775","docid":"1905–06_FAHL_season","rank":82,"score":96252},{"content":"Title: 2003–04 NHL season Content: The 2003 -- 04 NHL season was the 87th regular season of the National Hockey League . The Stanley Cup champions were the Tampa Bay Lightning , who won the best of seven series four games to three against the Calgary Flames . For the fourth time in eight years , the all-time record for total shutouts in a season was shattered , as 192 shutouts were recorded . The 2003 -- 04 regular season was also the first one ( excluding the lockout-shortened 1994 -- 95 season ) since 1967 -- 68 in which there was neither a 50-goal scorer , nor a 100-point scorer . This was the final season that ABC and ESPN televised NHL games . It was also the final NHL season before the 2004 -- 05 NHL lockout , and the final season in which games could end in ties .","qid":"2775","docid":"2003–04_NHL_season","rank":83,"score":96178},{"content":"Title: 2016 Stanley Cup playoffs Content: The 2016 Stanley Cup playoffs of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) began on April 13 , 2016 and ended on June 12 , 2016 , with the Pittsburgh Penguins defeating the San Jose Sharks four games to two in the 2016 Stanley Cup Finals . For only the second time in league history ( 1970 being the only other time ) , none of the NHL 's Canadian-based teams , seven in total , qualified for the postseason . The Washington Capitals made the playoffs as the Presidents ' Trophy winners with the most points ( i.e. best record ) during the regular season . This was the final season of the Detroit Red Wings ' 25-season playoff appearance streak , the longest streak at the time and tied for third longest in NHL history . The Florida Panthers qualified for the playoffs for only the second time since the 1999 -- 2000 season -- both times winning their division -- and fifth time in franchise history . For the fourth time in six years , all three California-based teams made the playoffs in the same season . And , for only the second time ever ( 1996 being the only other time ) , both Florida-based teams made the playoffs in the same season . In addition , for the second season in a row and only the fifth time since joining the league in 1979 , all four former WHA teams ( the Edmonton Oilers , Arizona Coyotes , Carolina Hurricanes and Colorado Avalanche ) missed the playoffs . For the first time since 2006 , and only the third time in league history , all Original Six teams who made the playoffs ( three in total ) were eliminated in the first round . The New York Islanders won their first post-season series since the 1993 Stanley Cup playoffs , ending the second longest post-season win drought in NHL history . For the seventh consecutive season and eleventh out of thirteen seasons , a team from California was in the Western Conference Final . For the first time since 2002 , no team lost in a four-game sweep in a playoff series .","qid":"2775","docid":"2016_Stanley_Cup_playoffs","rank":84,"score":95910},{"content":"Title: 2007–08 NHL season Content: The 2007 -- 08 NHL season was the 91st season of operation ( 90th season of play ) of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . It began on September 29 , 2007 , and the regular season ended April 6 , 2008 . The Stanley Cup playoffs ended on June 4 , with the Detroit Red Wings taking the championship . The 56th NHL All-Star Game was held in Atlanta , Georgia , as the Atlanta Thrashers hosted the event at Philips Arena on January 27 , 2008 . The hosting by Atlanta was rescheduled from 2005 , when a lockout cancelled the entire 2004 -- 05 season .","qid":"2775","docid":"2007–08_NHL_season","rank":85,"score":95878},{"content":"Title: 1993–94 Ottawa Senators season Content: The 1993 -- 94 Ottawa Senators season was the National Hockey League ( NHL ) club 's second season . It was an improvement by the club , as they finished with 13 more points than in the 1992 -- 93 expansion season , as the club ended the season with a 14 -- 61 -- 9 record for 37 points . Even so , they had the worst record in hockey for the second consecutive year .","qid":"2775","docid":"1993–94_Ottawa_Senators_season","rank":86,"score":95790},{"content":"Title: History of the National Hockey League (1992–present) Content: The National Hockey League ( NHL ) has endured a tumultuous period of history in recent years . It has grown from 22 teams in 1992 to 30 today as the league expanded across the United States . Repeated labour conflicts interrupted play in 1992 , 1994 -- 95 , 2004 -- 05 and 2012 -- 13 ; the second lockout caused the entire 2004 -- 05 NHL season to be canceled , the first time in North American history that a sports league has canceled an entire season in a labour dispute . Five franchises have relocated during this time : the Minnesota North Stars became the Dallas Stars ( 1993 ) , the Quebec Nordiques became the Colorado Avalanche ( 1995 ) , the Winnipeg Jets became the Phoenix Coyotes ( 1996 ) , the Hartford Whalers became the Carolina Hurricanes ( 1997 ) , and the Atlanta Thrashers became the second franchise known as the Winnipeg Jets ( 2011 ) . The Coyotes would later rebrand themselves as the Arizona Coyotes following the 2013 -- 14 season . In 1993 , the Montreal Canadiens celebrated the Stanley Cup 's 100th anniversary with their 24th championship . They remain the last Canadian team to capture the trophy . The 1994 New York Rangers broke the Curse of 1940 , winning their first title in 54 years . The renaissance of the Original Six would continue as the Detroit Red Wings ( Stanley Cup winners in , , and ) , Chicago Blackhawks ( winners in , and ) and Boston Bruins ( winners in ) broke lengthy Cup droughts of 42 , 49 and 39 seasons , respectively . Meanwhile , the NHL 's southern expansion , often maligned by Canadians and fans in the Northeastern United States , has led to championships by the Dallas Stars , Tampa Bay Lightning , Carolina Hurricanes and Anaheim Ducks in the last decade , with the Los Angeles Kings following suit . Manon Rheaume became the first female player in the NHL when she suited up for the Lightning in a 1992 pre-season game . Wayne Gretzky passed Gordie Howe as the NHL 's all-time leading scorer in 1994 when he scored his 802nd career goal . Mario Lemieux overcame Hodgkin 's lymphoma to finish his NHL career with more than 1,700 points and two championships , and now owns the Pittsburgh Penguins . Today 's NHL is led by arguably its two biggest young stars : Sidney Crosby of the Pittsburgh Penguins and Alexander Ovechkin of the Washington Capitals . The Canada Cup gave way to the World Cup of Hockey in 1996 , while NHL players first competed in the 1998 Winter Olympics . To promote itself worldwide , the NHL played regular season games in Japan in 1996 , and throughout Europe since 2007 . The league played its first outdoor regular season game between the Canadiens and the host Edmonton Oilers in 2003 and which led to the creation of three series of outdoor games : the Heritage Classic , Winter Classic and Stadium Series . Increased use of defence-focused systems contributed to decreased scoring in the late 1990s , leading some to argue that the NHL 's talent pool had been diluted by the 1990 expansion plan . The league has attempted several times to alter its rules to increase scoring . It began awarding teams a single point for losing in overtime in 1999 , hoping to reduce the number of tie games . In 2005 , ties were eliminated altogether as the penalty shootout was introduced to ensure that all games have a winner .","qid":"2775","docid":"History_of_the_National_Hockey_League_(1992–present)","rank":87,"score":95654},{"content":"Title: Box hockey Content: Box hockey is an active hand game played between two people with sticks , a puck and a compartmented box ( typically 5 - long ) , and typically played outdoors . The object of the game is to move a hockey puck through the center dividers , of the box , out through a hole placed at each end of the box , also known as the goal . The two players face one another on either side of the box , and each attempts to move the puck to their left . If a player succeeds in getting the puck to exit the box through the goal , the player scores one point ( or goal ) . The first player to score the predetermined number of goals wins the game .","qid":"2775","docid":"Box_hockey","rank":88,"score":95577},{"content":"Title: 1980–81 St. Louis Blues season Content: The 1980 -- 81 St. Louis Blues season was the 14th for the franchise in St. Louis , Missouri . The Blues won the Smythe Division for the first time in four seasons , with a record of 45 wins , 18 losses and 17 ties , good for 107 points , and second place overall in the entire NHL . This was the first time that the Blues had ever accumulated 100 or more points in a season . The Blues defeated the Pittsburgh Penguins in a five-game Preliminary Round , before losing the Quarter-finals in six games to the New York Rangers .","qid":"2775","docid":"1980–81_St._Louis_Blues_season","rank":89,"score":95518},{"content":"Title: 1979–80 IIHF European Cup Content: The 1979-1980 European Cup was the 15th edition of the European Cup , IIHF 's premier European club ice hockey tournament . The season started on October 11 , 1979 , and finished on August 24 , 1980 . The tournament was won by CSKA Moscow , who won the final group .","qid":"2775","docid":"1979–80_IIHF_European_Cup","rank":90,"score":95380},{"content":"Title: Hockey at the 1980 Olympics Content: Hockey at the 1980 Olympics may refer to : Ice hockey at the 1980 Winter Olympics Field hockey at the 1980 Summer Olympics","qid":"2775","docid":"Hockey_at_the_1980_Olympics","rank":91,"score":95380},{"content":"Title: 1979–80 England Hockey League season Content: The 1979 -- 80 English Hockey League season took place from September 1979 until May 1980 . The Men 's Cup was won by Slough and the Women 's Cup was won by Norton . The Men 's National Inter League Championship brought together the winners of their respective regional leagues . The championship ( held in September 1980 ) was won by Slough . As from the 1980-81 season the National Inter League Championship would be held in the spring of the same season instead of the Autumn of the following season .","qid":"2775","docid":"1979–80_England_Hockey_League_season","rank":92,"score":95338},{"content":"Title: Steve Ulseth Content: Steve Ulseth ( born February 22 , 1959 ) is a retired American professional ice hockey player . Ulseth attended the University of Minnesota where he played four seasons ( 1977 -- 1981 ) of NCAA Division I college hockey with the Minnesota Golden Gophers , scoring 84 goals and 118 assists for 202 points , while earning 48 penalty minutes , in 148 games played . In his senior year he was recognized for his outstanding play when he was named the WCHA Most Valuable Player and was selected as a finalist for the 1981 Hobey Baker Award . Ulseth went on to play the 1981 -- 82 season with the Springfield Indians of the American Hockey League , and then played the 1982 -- 83 season with the Tulsa Oilers and Peoria Prancers before retiring from professional hockey . Ulseth is now employed as a sales representative for Miken hockey sticks .","qid":"2775","docid":"Steve_Ulseth","rank":93,"score":94887},{"content":"Title: 1980–81 Vancouver Canucks season Content: The 1980-1981 was the tenth season in the National Hockey League for the Vancouver Canucks who finished 3rd in the NHL 's Smythe Division , scoring 289 goals and allowing 301 .","qid":"2775","docid":"1980–81_Vancouver_Canucks_season","rank":94,"score":94828},{"content":"Title: New Zealand men's national field hockey team Content: The New Zealand men 's national field hockey team , also known as the Black Sticks Men , represents New Zealand in international men 's field hockey . They upset Australia to win gold at the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal , becoming the first non-Asian/European team to clinch the gold medal . They have also won silver and bronze at the 2002 and 2010 Commonwealth Games .","qid":"2775","docid":"New_Zealand_men's_national_field_hockey_team","rank":95,"score":94777},{"content":"Title: 1980–81 National Hurling League Content: The 1980 -- 81 National Hurling League was the 50th season of the National Hurling League ( NHL ) , an annual hurling competition for the GAA county teams . It was won by .","qid":"2775","docid":"1980–81_National_Hurling_League","rank":96,"score":94766},{"content":"Title: 1979 NHL Entry Draft Content: The 1979 NHL Entry Draft took place on August 9 , 1979 , at the Queen Elizabeth Hotel in Montreal , Quebec . The National Hockey League ( NHL ) teams selected 126 players eligible for entry into professional ranks , in the reverse order of the 1978 -- 79 NHL season and playoff standings . The draft was the first to be conducted after the NHL-WHA merger . As part of the terms of the merger , the four former WHA teams had joined the NHL on the condition that they be placed at the bottom of the draft order , as opposed to the top of the order as is usually the case for expansion teams . In addition , the minimum draft age was lowered from 20 to 18 . The NHL had been considering lowering the draft age for some time ( the WHA did not have a minimum age ) , and timed the decision to lower the draft age at least in part to coincide with the merger . The lowering of the draft age caused three years ' worth of draft picks to go in the same draft , resulting in what is generally considered one of the best draft classes in NHL Entry Draft history , which included future Hall of Famers Ray Bourque , Mike Gartner and Michel Goulet in the first round alone . Hall of Famers Mark Messier and Glenn Anderson would be drafted in later rounds . 12 of the 21 players selected in the first round would play in at least one All-Star game , 19 of the 21 would play at least 450 career NHL games , and all 21 had NHL careers of at least 235 games . The lowering of the draft age also made rising superstar Wayne Gretzky eligible to play in the NHL , although special circumstances as noted below prevented Gretzky from entering the draft . Under the old rules , Gretzky would not have been eligible to enter the NHL until the 1981 draft . On the other hand , the NHL shortened the draft to only six rounds , whereas some previous drafts ran for more than twenty rounds . As a result , in spite of the larger number of teams participating the 1979 Draft had 108 fewer selections than the previous draft and was the shortest draft since 1971 . As of 2015 , it is the last Entry Draft to have fewer than 200 selections . Due to the strength of the class and fewer selections , there are many undrafted players who were eligible to be drafted who went on to have notable NHL careers , including Hall of Famer Dino Ciccarelli , five-time Stanley Cup champion Charlie Huddy and four-time 50-goal scorer Tim Kerr .","qid":"2775","docid":"1979_NHL_Entry_Draft","rank":97,"score":94751},{"content":"Title: 2017 Stanley Cup playoffs Content: The 2017 Stanley Cup playoffs of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) began on April 12 , 2017 . The Washington Capitals made the playoffs as the Presidents ' Trophy winners for the second consecutive year with the most points ( i.e. best record ) during the regular season . The Detroit Red Wings failed to make the playoffs for the first time since the 1989 -- 90 season , ending the NHL 's longest active playoff streak at 25 consecutive seasons ; the streak was also tied for the third-longest streak in NHL history . The longest active playoff streak moved to the Pittsburgh Penguins with eleven consecutive appearances . The Edmonton Oilers made the playoffs for the first time since 2006 , ending a record-tying playoff drought for a team with ten years missed ( the Florida Panthers also missed the playoffs between 2001 and 2011 inclusively ) . For the first time since 2006 , both Alberta teams , the Oilers and the Calgary Flames , qualified for the postseason in the same year . For the first time since 2013 , and the fourth time since 2002 , all three Eastern Canadian teams ( Montreal Canadiens , Ottawa Senators , and Toronto Maple Leafs ) qualified for the playoffs . In all , five Canadian-based teams made the playoffs , matching 2015 , after a season in which none of the seven teams in Canada contended . The first round saw eighteen overtime games , eclipsing the previous record of seventeen overtime games in the first round set in 2013 . It was also the first time since 2001 that no first round series went the full seven games . For the eighth season in a row ( and the twelfth time in the last fourteen seasons ) , a California-based team was in the Western Conference Final .","qid":"2775","docid":"2017_Stanley_Cup_playoffs","rank":98,"score":94661},{"content":"Title: 1992 NHL strike Content: The 1992 NHL strike was the first strike action initiated by the National Hockey League Players ' Association ( NHLPA ) against the National Hockey League 's ( NHL ) owners . It was called on April 1 , 1992 , and lasted ten days . The settlement saw the players earn a large increase in their playoff bonuses , increased control over the licensing of their likenesses and changes to the free agency system . In addition , the season was expanded to 84 games and included provisions for each team to play two games per season in non-NHL cities . As a result of the strike , the owners removed John Ziegler as President , replacing him with Gil Stein . The strike fundamentally altered the relationship between the league and its players .","qid":"2775","docid":"1992_NHL_strike","rank":99,"score":94623},{"content":"Title: Cambridge University Ice Hockey Club Content: Cambridge University Ice Hockey Club at the University of Cambridge , Cambridge , England , is one of the oldest ice hockey teams in the world . While the team claims a history dating back to 1885 , the first strong evidence for their existence comes on 16 March 1900 , when they played Oxford University Ice Hockey Club in the first Ice Hockey Varsity Match , at Princes Skating Club in London , losing 7 -- 6 . This match was played , on Oxford 's insistence , with bandy sticks and a lacrosse ball . The Cambridge team was led by J. J. Cawthra , who later played for England . The following day , the two universities joined together to play Princes Ice Hockey Club . Cambridge played a second varsity match at Princes in 1901 , this time winning 6 -- 5 . In 1903 , they entered the first ice hockey league in Europe , but came last out of the five teams competing . The squad then switched to playing European tours , popularising the sport , and from 1909 to 1913 and 1920 onwards playing an annual varsity match . From 1932 , these matches were played in England , and although no longer able to compete with the top professional sides , they were watched by over 10,000 supporters . In 1931 , the club joined the English League , but when it finished in 1936 they did not follow most of the teams into the English National League , instead joining the lower-level London and Provincial League in 1938 . In 1948 , they played a season in the Southern Intermediate League , and in the 1970s they played two seasons in the Southern League . They then joined the Inter-City League and finally played in the inaugural season of the British Hockey League . Since then , they have contested an annual varsity match and compete in Division One of the British Universities Ice Hockey Association although continue to be at a disadvantage in lacking a home rink in Cambridge , although plans for a permanent ice-skating rink are at an advanced stage , after a number of years of Parker 's Piece hosting a yearly temporary one around Christmas time , and this new rink will be the first permanent home for the team , adjacent to the Newmarket Road Park & Ride site .","qid":"2775","docid":"Cambridge_University_Ice_Hockey_Club","rank":100,"score":94481}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hockey stick graph Content: Hockey stick graphs present the global or hemispherical mean temperature record of the past 500 to 2000 years as shown by quantitative climate reconstructions based on climate proxy records . These reconstructions have consistently shown a slow long term cooling trend changing into relatively rapid warming in the 20th century , with the instrumental temperature record by 2000 exceeding earlier temperatures . The term `` hockey stick graph '' was coined by the climatologist Jerry Mahlman , to describe the pattern shown by the ( MBH99 ) reconstruction , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat with a downward trend to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' followed by a sharp , steady increase corresponding to the `` blade '' portion . The reconstructions have featured in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports as evidence of global warming . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . Paleoclimatology dates back to the 19th century , and the concept of examining varves in lake beds and tree rings to track local climatic changes was suggested in the 1930s . In the 1960s , Hubert Lamb generalised from historical documents and temperature records of central England to propose a Medieval Warm Period from around 900 to 1300 , followed by Little Ice Age . This was the basis of a `` schematic diagram '' featured in the IPCC First Assessment Report of 1990 beside cautions that the medieval warming might not have been global . The use of indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed , and by the late 1990s a number of competing teams of climatologists found indications that recent warming was exceptional . introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large scale reconstructions . Their study was featured in the IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . In 1998 Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 with shading emphasising that uncertainties ( to two standard error limits ) were much greater in earlier centuries . independently produced a CPS reconstruction extending back for a thousand years , and ( MBH99 ) used the MBH98 methodology to extend their study back to 1000 . A version of the MBH99 graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , which also drew on Jones et al. 1998 and three other reconstructions to support the conclusion that , in the Northern Hemisphere , the 1990s was likely to have been the warmest decade and 1998 the warmest year during the past 1,000 years . The graph became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th century warmth was exceptional . In 2003 , as lobbying over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol intensified , a paper claiming greater medieval warmth was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy . Later in 2003 , Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick published disputing the data used in MBH98 paper . In 2004 Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal components analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . Their analysis was subsequently disputed by published papers including and which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . Political disputes led to the formation of a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council , their North Report in 2006 supported Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , support the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Further reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"Hockey_stick_graph\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 154807\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hockey stick controversy Content: In the hockey stick controversy , the data and methods used in reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years have been disputed . Reconstructions have consistently shown that the rise in the instrumental temperature record of the past 150 years is not matched in earlier centuries , and the name `` hockey stick graph '' was coined for figures showing a long-term decline followed by an abrupt rise in temperatures . These graphs were publicised to explain the scientific findings of climatology , and in addition to scientific debate over the reconstructions , they have been the topic of political dispute . The issue is part of the global warming controversy and has been one focus of political responses to reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . The use of proxy indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed from the 1990s onwards , and found indications that recent warming was exceptional . The reconstruction introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large-scale reconstructions , and its findings were disputed by Patrick Michaels at the United States House Committee on Science . In 1998 , Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 . In ( MBH99 ) the methodology was extended back to 1000 . The term hockey stick was coined by the climatologist Jerry D. Mahlman , to describe the pattern this showed , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' , followed by a sharp increase corresponding to the `` blade '' . A version of this graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , along with four other reconstructions supporting the same conclusion . The graph was publicised , and became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th-century warmth was exceptional . Those disputing the graph included Pat Michaels , the George C. Marshall Institute and Fred Singer . A paper by Willie Soon and Sallie Baliunas claiming greater medieval warmth was used by the Bush administration chief of staff Philip Cooney to justify altering the first Environmental Protection Agency Report on the Environment . The paper was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy , but on July 28 , Republican Jim Inhofe spoke in the Senate citing it to claim `` that man-made global warming is the greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American people '' . Later in 2003 , a paper by Steve McIntyre and Ross McKitrick disputing the data used in MBH98 paper was publicised by the George C. Marshall Institute and the Competitive Enterprise Institute . In 2004 , Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 , McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal component analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . The analysis therein was subsequently disputed by published papers , including and , which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . In June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton launched what Sherwood Boehlert , chairman of the House Science Committee , called a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into the data , methods and personal information of Mann , Bradley and Hughes . At Boehlert 's request , a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council was set up , which reported in 2006 , supporting Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . Barton and U.S. Rep. Ed Whitfield requested Edward Wegman to set up a team of statisticians to investigate , and they supported McIntyre and McKitrick 's view that there were statistical failings , although they did not quantify whether there was any significant effect . They also produced an extensive network analysis which has been discredited by expert opinion and found to have issues of plagiarism . Arguments against the MBH studies were reintroduced as part of the Climatic Research Unit email controversy , but dismissed by eight independent investigations . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , have supported the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Over a dozen subsequent reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"Hockey_stick_controversy\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 138727\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Temperature record of the past 1000 years Content: For information on the description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in various IPCC reports see MWP and LIA in IPCC reportsThe temperature record of the past 1,000 years is reconstructed using data from climate proxy records in conjunction with the modern instrumental temperature record which only covers the last 150 years at a global scale . Large-scale reconstructions covering part or all of the 1st millennium and 2nd millennium have shown that recent temperatures are exceptional : the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report of 2007 concluded that `` Average Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the second half of the 20th century were very likely higher than during any other 50-year period in the last 500 years and likely '' the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . '' The curve shown in graphs of these reconstructions is widely known as the hockey stick graph because of the sharp increase in temperatures during the last century . As of 2010 this broad pattern was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th-century `` shaft '' appears . Sparseness of proxy records results in considerable uncertainty for earlier periods . Individual proxy records , such as tree ring widths and densities used in dendroclimatology , are calibrated against the instrumental record for the period of overlap . Networks of such records are used to reconstruct past temperatures for regions : tree ring proxies have been used to reconstruct Northern Hemisphere extratropical temperatures ( within the tropics trees do not form rings ) but are confined to land areas and are scarce in the Southern Hemisphere which is largely ocean . Wider coverage is provided by multiproxy reconstructions , incorporating proxies such as lake sediments , ice cores and corals which are found in different regions , and using statistical methods to relate these sparser proxies to the greater numbers of tree ring records . The `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method is widely used for large-scale multiproxy reconstructions of hemispheric or global average temperatures ; this is complemented by Climate Field Reconstruction ( CFR ) methods which show how climate patterns have developed over large spatial areas , making the reconstruction useful for investigating natural variability and long-term oscillations as well as for comparisons with patterns produced by climate models . During the 1,900 years before the 20th century , it is likely that the next warmest period was from 950 to 1100 , with peaks at different times in different regions . This has been called the Medieval Warm Period , and some evidence suggests widespread cooler conditions during a period around the 17th century known as the Little Ice Age . In the hockey stick controversy , contrarians have asserted that the Medieval Warm Period was warmer than at present , and have disputed the data and methods of climate reconstructions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"Temperature_record_of_the_past_1000_years\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 126639\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mic-Mac hockey stick Content: The Mic-Mac hockey stick was made originally by the Mi ` kmaq people of Nova Scotia , who dominated the international ice hockey market in the early twentieth century . It was first marketed by the Starr Manufacturing Company of Dartmouth , Nova Scotia , in the 1860s . The Mi ` kmaq practice of playing hockey appears in recorded colonial histories beginning in the 18th century , and beginning in the 19th century they were credited with inventing the ice hockey stick . The oldest known hockey stick , now owned by the Canadian Museum of History , dates to the mid-1830s and is made of sugar maple wood ; it may have been made by a Mi ` kmaq . ( In 2006 , a stick made by Mi ` kmaq in the 1850s , at the time the oldest known , was sold at auction for $ 2.2 million ; it had been appraised at US$ 4.25 million . In 1863 , the Starr Manufacturing Company in Dartmouth , Nova Scotia , began to sell the Mic-Mac Hockey Stick nationally and internationally . Hockey became a popular sport in Canada in the 1890s , and through the first decade of the 20th century , the Mic-Mac was the best-selling hockey stick in Canada . By 1903 , apart from farming , producing them was the primary occupation of the Mi ` kmaq on reserves throughout Nova Scotia , particularly Shubenacadie , Indian Brook and Millbrook . In 1927 the department of Indian Affairs for Nova Scotia noted that the Mi ` kmaq remained the `` experts '' at making hockey sticks . Mi ` kmaq continued to make hockey sticks until the 1930s , when the product was industrialized .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"Mic-Mac_hockey_stick\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 125235\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1996–97 NHL season Content: The 1996 -- 97 NHL season was the 80th regular season of the National Hockey League . The Stanley Cup winners were the Detroit Red Wings , who swept the Philadelphia Flyers in four games and won the Stanley Cup for the first time in 42 years . The regular season saw a decline in scoring and rise in the number of shutouts to an all-time record of 127 . This trend continued into the playoffs , during which an all-time record of 18 shutouts were recorded . Only two players , Mario Lemieux and Teemu Selanne , reached the 100-point plateau during the regular season ( compared with 12 who reached the plateau in 1995 -- 96 ) . Many factors , including fewer power plays , more calls of the skate-in-the-crease rule , fewer shots on goal and more injuries to star players than the season before , contributed to the reduction in scoring and skyrocketing in shutouts . Paradoxically , teams averaged more even-strength goals scored ( 174 ) than in 1995 -- 96 ( 172 ) . This was the first time in 30 years -- and in the entire expansion era -- that the Boston Bruins had either a losing record or missed the playoffs , ending a still-unsurpassed North American professional sports streak of 29-straight seasons in the playoffs .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"1996–97_NHL_season\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 118734\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ice hockey stick Content: An ice hockey stick is a piece of equipment used in ice hockey to shoot , pass , and carry the puck across the ice . Ice hockey sticks are approximately 150 -- 200 cm long , composed of a long , slender shaft with a flat extension at one end called the blade . The blade is the part of the stick used to contact the puck , and is typically 25 to 40 cm long . Stick dimensions can vary widely , as they are usually built to suit a particular player 's size and preference . The blade is positioned at roughly a 135 ° angle from the axis of the shaft , giving the stick a partly ` L-shaped ' appearance . The shaft of the stick is fairly rigid , but it has some flexibility to benefit some shots . The blade is slightly curved in one direction , either way , to aid in retaining or lifting the puck off the playing surface . This can be to the left or right , depending on the player 's shooting orientation . The goaltender has a slightly modified stick . The lower part of the stick is wider , the angle is smaller , and the blade is slightly curved towards the direction of the play . New goalie sticks also are made of the same composite technology as used in regular sticks .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"Ice_hockey_stick\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 115815\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: History of the National Hockey League (1942–67) Content: The Original Six era of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) began in 1942 with the demise of the Brooklyn Americans , reducing the league to six teams : Boston Bruins , Chicago Black Hawks , Detroit Red Wings , Montreal Canadiens , New York Rangers , and Toronto Maple Leafs . This structure remained stable for a quarter century ; the era ended in 1967 when the NHL doubled in size adding six expansion teams . The Stanley Cup , was the de facto championship since 1926 , becoming the de jure championship in 1947 , when the NHL completed a deal with the Stanley Cup trustees to gain control of the Cup . Toronto and Montreal evidenced dynasties , as the Maple Leafs won the Stanley Cup nine times from 1942 onwards , while the Canadiens won ten times , including five consecutive titles between 1956 and 1960 . The 1967 championship is the last Maple Leafs title to date . Remarkably , Maurice Richard became the first player to score 50 goals in a season in 1944 -- 45 . In 1955 , Richard was suspended for assaulting a linesman , leading to the Richard Riot . Gordie Howe made his debut in 1946 , retiring 32 years later as the NHL 's all-time leader in both goals and points . Willie O'Ree broke the NHL 's colour barrier when he dressed for the Bruins in 1958 . The NHL continued to develop throughout the era . In 1943 , in an attempt to ` open up ' the game , the league introduced the centre-ice red line allowing players for the first time to pass out of their defensive zone . In 1959 , Jacques Plante became the first goaltender to regularly wear a face mask for protection . Off the ice , the business of hockey was changing as well . The first amateur draft was held in 1963 as part of efforts to balance talent distribution within the league . The National Hockey League Players Association was formed in 1967 , ten years after Ted Lindsay 's attempts at unionization failed .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"History_of_the_National_Hockey_League_(1942–67)\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 115333\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Field hockey stick Content: In field hockey , each player carries a stick and can not take part in the game without it . The stick for an adult is usually in the range 89 -- 95 cm ( 35 -- 38 in ) long . A maximum length of 105 cm ( 41 '' ) was stipulated from 2016 . The maximum permitted weight is 737 grams.The majority of players use a stick in the range 19 oz to 22 oz ( 538 g - 623 g ) . Traditionally hockey sticks were made of hickory , ash or mulberry wood with the head of the sticks being hand carved and therefore required skilled craftsmen to produce . Sticks made of wood continue to be made but the higher grade sticks are now manufactured from composite materials which were first permitted after 1992 . These sticks usually contain a combination of fibreglass , aramid fiber and carbon fibre in varying proportions according to the characteristics ( flexibility ; stiffness ; resistance to impact and abrasion ) required .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"Field_hockey_stick\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 114057\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Saab hockey stick Content: The hockey stick is an automotive design feature seen on nearly all Saab automobiles . It is a C-pillar curve from the base of the rear passenger window that resembles the shape of an ice hockey stick or the Nike swoosh symbol . The distinctive design cue first appeared on the Saab 92 and was kept in the Saab 93 and Saab 96 . When the Saab 99 was launched in the late 1960s it kept this design feature . and has since appeared on most Saab models , including the classic Saab 900 , and later models such as the Saab 9-5 and the 9-3 SportCombi . Saab designers later experimented with evolving the styling feature into what has been referred to as reverse hockey stick , where the angle of the rear passenger window extends out toward the rear end instead of curving forward towards the B-pillar . The reverse hockey stick design can be seen on the Saab 9-X Biohybrid concept car .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"Saab_hockey_stick\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 112988\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1980 in ice hockey Content:\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"1980_in_ice_hockey\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 111214\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Hockey Stick and the Climate Wars Content: The Hockey Stick and the Climate Wars : Dispatches from the Front Lines is a 2012 book about climate change by the American climatologist and geophysicist Michael E. Mann . In the book Mann describes how he became a researcher investigating the temperature record of the past 1000 years and was lead author , with Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes , on the 1999 reconstruction that was the first to be dubbed the hockey stick graph . He concisely explains the basics of climate science including statistical methodology dealing with paleoclimate proxy data , and examines the tactics which opponents of action on climate change use to distort the science and attack the reputations of climate scientists . The book describes both the hockey stick controversy and the broader context of skepticism in science and contrarians rejecting evidence of human influence on climate . The book was picked by Physics Today books editor Jermey Matthews as one of the five top books of the 49 they had reviewed in 2012 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Hockey_Stick_and_the_Climate_Wars\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 110694\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Original Six Content: The Original Six is a term for the group of six teams that made up the National Hockey League ( NHL ) for the 25 seasons between the 1942 -- 43 season and the 1967 NHL Expansion . These six teams are the Boston Bruins , Chicago Black Hawks , Detroit Red Wings , Montreal Canadiens , New York Rangers , and the Toronto Maple Leafs , all of which are still active franchises in the league . Of the Original Six , only the Toronto Maple Leafs have not advanced to the Stanley Cup Finals since the expansion , while the other five have appeared in at least three Finals since 1967 and have each won a championship at least once during the most recent 25 seasons ( Toronto last won the Stanley Cup during the 1966 -- 67 season when a team only had to win two rounds to secure the title ) . The term was not used during the era , having originated after 1967 expansion . Only Montreal and Toronto are actual original charter members of the NHL in 1917 , but all six joined the NHL in the league 's first decade , and are commonly considered as a traditional set .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"Original_Six\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 108539\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of all-time NHL standings Content: The following is a list of the all-time standings records for each of the 30 active National Hockey League ( NHL ) teams , beginning with the first NHL season ( 1917 -- 18 ) , and accurate as of the end of the 2015 -- 16 NHL season . Teams are sorted by the overall percentage of points accumulated out of points available ( 2 times the amount of games played ) throughout NHL history . In the NHL 's standings system , a team is awarded 2 points for a win ( regardless if earned in regulation or overtime ) , 1 point for a tie , 1 point for an overtime loss , and 0 points for a loss . The overtime loss statistic ( abbreviated as OT or OTL ) was introduced into the NHL 's standings in the 1999 -- 00 season . The term for the point in standings awarded to a team for an overtime loss is the Bettman point , named after Gary Bettman , the NHL Commissioner at the time of its introduction . It is more commonly referred to as a loser point by media outlets and fans alike . As a result of the 2004 -- 05 NHL lockout , which canceled the entire 2004 -- 05 season , the league adopted a shootout featuring shots on goals , in order to determine the winner of a game which is still tied after an overtime period . This adoption , introduced in the 2005 -- 06 season , eliminated ties from the game .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_all-time_NHL_standings\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 107399\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: First indoor hockey game Content: On March 3 , 1875 , the first recorded indoor ice hockey game took place at the Victoria Skating Rink in Montreal , Quebec , Canada . Organized by James Creighton , who captained one of the teams , the game was between two nine-member teams , using a wooden ` puck ' . Members used skates and sticks used for outdoor hockey and shinny games in Nova Scotia , where Creighton was born and raised . It is recognized as the first organized ice hockey game .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"First_indoor_hockey_game\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 106952\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Golden Hockey Stick Content: The Golden Hockey Stick ( Zlatá hokejka ) is an award given to the top Czech ice hockey player . It was originally awarded to the top player in the Czechoslovak First Ice Hockey League , beginning in the 1968 -- 69 season . After the Czech Republic and Slovakia became separate countries in 1993 , it was awarded to the top Czech player anywhere in the world . Jaromír Jágr has won this award 12 times , more than any other player . Dominik Hašek won it five times .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"Golden_Hockey_Stick\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 106810\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in IPCC reports Content: The description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in IPCC reports has changed since the first report in 1990 as scientific understanding of the temperature record of the past 1000 years has improved . The Medieval Warm Period ( MWP ) and Little Ice Age ( LIA ) are the best-known temperature fluctuations in the last millennium . Critics of the `` hockey stick graph '' of all subsequent reports have claimed that the record of the MWP and LIA were suppressed in the IPCC Third Assessment Report , although every report has discussed the phenomena .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"Description_of_the_Medieval_Warm_Period_and_Little_Ice_Age_in_IPCC_reports\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 106449\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1979–80 NHL season Content: The 1979 -- 80 NHL season was the 63rd season of the National Hockey League . This season saw the addition of four teams from the disbanded World Hockey Association as expansion franchises . The Edmonton Oilers , Winnipeg Jets , New England Whalers ( later renamed `` Hartford Whalers '' at the insistence of the Boston Bruins ) , and Quebec Nordiques joined the NHL , bringing the total to 21 teams . The other two WHA teams ( Birmingham Bulls and Cincinnati Stingers ) were paid to disband . The season also marked the eighth and final season for the Flames in Atlanta before the franchise relocated to Calgary . The NHL would return to the Georgia capital in 1999 with the Thrashers , but that team would ultimately relocate away from Atlanta as well becoming the second ( and current ) incarnation of the Winnipeg Jets . The collapse of the WHA also saw the much hyped super-star rookie Wayne Gretzky come to the NHL with the Edmonton Oilers . Gretzky would tie Marcel Dionne for the scoring lead with 137 points and capture the Hart Memorial Trophy as the most valuable player while Dionne took home the Art Ross Trophy as the leading scorer by virtue of having scored two more goals . Gretzky aside , many players made their debut in the NHL this season , both due to the WHA merger and to a change in the rules for the Entry Draft allowing eighteen - and nineteen-year-olds to be drafted for the first time ; no fewer than seven Hall of Famers ( Gretzky , Ray Bourque , Mark Messier , Mike Gartner , Michel Goulet , Mark Howe , and Joe Mullen ; Mullen was undrafted ) debuted this season along with numerous other perennial stars . The big story of the regular season was the record-breaking undefeated streak compiled by the Philadelphia Flyers . After starting the season with a 5 -- 2 win over the New York Islanders and a 9 -- 2 loss to the Atlanta Flames , the Flyers did not lose again for nearly three months , earning at least one point in every game between a 4 -- 3 win over Toronto on October 14 , 1979 , and a 4 -- 2 win over Buffalo on January 6 , 1980 , a span of 35 games . This stands as the longest undefeated streak in North American professional sports history .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"1979–80_NHL_season\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 105794\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ice Hockey (1988 video game) Content: is a 1988 video game published and developed by Nintendo for the Nintendo Entertainment System video game console , based on the sport of the same name . It was released in Japan , and was later released in North America and in some PAL regions . It was originally released for the Family Computer Disk System , It was later re-released for the Wii 's Virtual Console service in Japan , North America , and some PAL regions . Ice Hockey is based on the sport of the same name , with the objective of the game being to get more points than the opposing player by hitting round , black pucks into the opposing goal with a hockey stick .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"Ice_Hockey_(1988_video_game)\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 105303\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1999–2000 European Hockey League Content: The 1999 -- 2000 European Hockey League was the fourth and last edition of the European Hockey League . The season started on September 21 , 1999 , and finished on February 6 , 2000 . The tournament was won by Metallurg Magnitogorsk , who beat HC Sparta Praha in the final . The points system used in the first round of the tournament was : the winner in regular time won 3 points ; in case of a tie , an overtime is played , the winner in overtime won 2 points and the loser in overtime won 1 point .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"1999–2000_European_Hockey_League\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 105134\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: YAD06 Content: YAD06 is a tree located in the Yamal Peninsula of Siberia . A core sample from this tree , YADO61 , provided data used to support hockey stick interpretation of global climate history . The data was originally published in 1995 a paper by Keith Briffa of the Climate Research Unit at the University of East Anglia . The paper asserted that the late Middle Ages , previously described as a `` Medieval Warm Period , '' was actually quite cold . Steve McIntyre has described this tree as possibly `` the most influential tree in the world '' , and publicly accused Briffa of cherry-picking certain tree ring records in order to get a specific result , creating what Michael E. Mann described as a `` manufactured scandal . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"YAD06\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 104727\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tom McVie Content: Tom McVie ( born June 6 , 1935 in Trail , British Columbia ) is a former coach in the National Hockey League . McVie grew up in a poor family , and , upon signing his first junior league contract , is said to have left home with a single used stick and pair of skates . After his junior career ended , McVie signed with the Seattle Totems of the Western Hockey League and began a long career with this league that included stops with the Portland Buckaroos , Los Angeles Blades , and Phoenix Roadrunners . He scored a career-high 85 points during the 1961 -- 62 season , earning a tryout with the New York Rangers but failing to secure a training camp invitation . After three years behind the bench in the International Hockey League , McVie coached the Washington Capitals from the 1975 -- 76 season to the middle of the 1978 -- 79 season . After being released by the Capitals , he moved to the Winnipeg Jets , then in the World Hockey Association , and coached the team to an Avco Cup championship . He then coached with Bill Sutherland in the Jets first two NHL seasons , 1979 -- 80 and 1980 -- 81 . He replaced Bill MacMillan as head coach of the New Jersey Devils midway through the 1983 -- 84 season , in which the team posted the worst record in its history . McVie returned as an NHL head coach with the Devils in 1991 -- 92 after coaching the AHL Utica Devils . He has served in the Boston Bruins organization for 21 years , 16 of them as a scout . He finally had his name etched on the Stanley Cup in 2011 , as the Bruins won their first championship in 39 years .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"Tom_McVie\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 104538\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hockey-stick identity Content: In combinatorial mathematics , the identity is known as the hockey-stick or Christmas stocking identity . That name stems from the graphical representation of the identity on Pascal 's triangle : when the addends represented in the summation and the sum itself are highlighted , the shape revealed is vaguely reminiscent of those objects .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"Hockey-stick_identity\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 104361\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1980–81 Montreal Canadiens season Content: The 1980 -- 81 Montreal Canadiens season was the club 's 72nd season of play . The Canadiens lost just once in their last twenty-seven home games . The Canadiens would earn at least 100 regular season points for the seventh consecutive season . Montreal qualified for the playoffs and were eliminated in the NHL 's Preliminary round by the Edmonton Oilers three games to none . Four days after the Canadiens were eliminated , head coach Claude Ruel resigned .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"1980–81_Montreal_Canadiens_season\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 103948\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2015 Stanley Cup playoffs Content: The 2015 Stanley Cup playoffs of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) began on April 15 , 2015 , and ended on June 15 , 2015 , with the Chicago Blackhawks defeating the Tampa Bay Lightning four games to two in the 2015 Stanley Cup Finals . The New York Rangers made the playoffs as the Presidents ' Trophy winners with the most points ( i.e. best record ) during the regular season . They also came back from a 3 -- 1 series deficit for the second consecutive year . The Detroit Red Wings increased their consecutive post-season appearance streak to 24 seasons , the longest current streak at the time and tied for the fourth-longest streak in NHL history . The Winnipeg Jets qualified for the playoffs for the first time since the former Atlanta Thrashers franchise relocated to Winnipeg in 2011 ; the only time that the Thrashers/Jets franchise made the post-season was in 2007 , and the last time that the city of Winnipeg hosted a playoff game was in 1996 , the season before the previous Winnipeg Jets team relocated to Phoenix , Arizona , to become the Coyotes . The Ottawa Senators became the first team in the NHL 's modern era ( since 1943 -- 44 ) to overcome a 14-point deficit in the standings to clinch a playoff spot . Also , the Calgary Flames returned to the playoffs after a six-year absence . In total , five Canadian NHL teams qualified for the post-season , the most since 2004 . The Los Angeles Kings became the first defending Stanley Cup champions since the Carolina Hurricanes in 2007 to fail to make the playoffs . The Boston Bruins failed to make the playoffs for the first time since 2007 and became the first reigning Presidents ' Trophy winners to miss the post-season since the Buffalo Sabres in 2008 ( and the third overall ) . In addition , the San Jose Sharks failed to make the post-season for the first time since 2003 , ending the NHL 's second-longest active playoff streak . For the first time since 2000 , both the Eastern and Western Conference Finals went the full seven games . The Tampa Bay Lightning became the first team in league history to face an Original Six team in all four rounds of the playoffs in the same year , as they played against the Detroit Red Wings , Montreal Canadiens , New York Rangers and Chicago Blackhawks , respectively . They also became the fourth team to defeat three consecutive Original Six teams . The Lightning also tied the 1987 Philadelphia Flyers , 2004 Calgary Flames and 2014 Los Angeles Kings , for playing the most playoff games ( 26 ) in a post season .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"2015_Stanley_Cup_playoffs\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 103946\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1980–81 NHL season Content: The 1980 -- 81 NHL season was the 64th season of the National Hockey League . The New York Islanders were the top regular season team and the top playoff team , winning their second consecutive Stanley Cup .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"1980–81_NHL_season\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 103332\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: International Hockey League (1992–96) Content: The International Hockey League ( IHL ) lasted from 1992 to 1996 . It replaced the Soviet Union 's Championship league . The last season was in 1995 -- 96 , as the league was replaced by the Russian Superleague the following season . There were two awards in the league . One was the regular season winner , and the other was the winner of the cup .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"International_Hockey_League_(1992–96)\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 103331\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Leon Stickle Content: Leon Stickle ( born April 20 , 1948 in Toronto , Ontario ) is a retired National Hockey League linesman . His career started in 1969 and ended in 1998 . During his career ( in which he wore a helmet from the mid-1980s until his retirement ) , he officiated six Stanley Cup finals , 2,069 regular season games , 206 playoff games , two Canada Cups , and four All-Star games , including the 1979 Challenge Cup and Rendez-vous ' 87 . He may be best known for missing an offside call which led to the New York Islanders first Stanley Cup in 1980 against the Philadelphia Flyers . He later admitted to missing the call . From the 1994-95 season until his retirement , he wore uniform number 33 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"Leon_Stickle\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 103025\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2004–05 NHL lockout Content: The 2004 -- 05 NHL lockout was a lockout that resulted in the cancellation of what would have been the 88th season of play of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . It was the first time the Stanley Cup was not awarded since 1919 , and the first time a major professional sports league in North America canceled a complete season because of a labor dispute and the second time after the 1994 -- 1995 MLB strike that the Playoffs of a major professional sports league in North America were cancelled . The lockout lasted 10 months and 6 days starting September 16 , 2004 , the day after the collective bargaining agreement ( CBA ) between the NHL and the NHL Players Association ( NHLPA ) that resolved the 1994 -- 95 lockout expired . The lockout of the 2004 -- 2005 season resulted in 1,230 unplayed games . The negotiating teams reached an agreement on July 13 , 2005 , and the lockout officially ended 9 days later on July 22 , after both the NHL owners and players ratified the CBA .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"2004–05_NHL_lockout\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 102950\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: NHL Entry Draft Content: The NHL Entry Draft ( Repêchage d'entrée dans la LNH ) is an annual meeting in which every franchise of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) systematically select the rights to available ice hockey players who meet draft eligibility requirements ( North American players 18 -- 20 years old and Europeans of all ages entering the league for the first time , all others enter league as unrestricted free agents ) . The NHL Entry Draft is held once every year , generally within two to three months after the conclusion of the previous season . During the draft , teams take turns selecting amateur players from junior or collegiate leagues and professional players from European leagues . The first draft was held in 1963 , and has been held every year since . The NHL Entry Draft was known as the NHL Amateur Draft until 1979 . The entry draft has only been a public event since 1980 , and a televised event since 1984 . Up to 1994 , the order was solely determined by the standings at the end of the regular season . In 1995 , the NHL Draft Lottery was introduced where only teams who had missed the playoffs could participate . The one lottery winner would move up the draft order a maximum of four places , meaning only the top five-placed teams could pick first in the draft , and no team in the non-playoff group could move down more than one place . The chances of winning the lottery were weighted towards the teams at the bottom of the regular season standings . Beginning in 2013 , the limit of moving up a maximum of four places in the draft order was eliminated , so the lottery winner would automatically receive the first overall pick , and any teams above it in the draft order would still move down one spot .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"NHL_Entry_Draft\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 102692\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Field hockey at the 1980 Summer Olympics Content: Hockey at the 1980 Summer Olympics was represented by two events : men 's team event and women 's team event . For the first time a women 's Olympic Games hockey tournament was organized . Both events were held in two venues , located in the north-western part of Moscow : the Minor Arena of the Central Dynamo Stadium the Young Pioneers Stadium The schedule started on July 20 and ended on July 31 . The 33 matches of hockey events at stadiums were watched by 177,880 spectators .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"Field_hockey_at_the_1980_Summer_Olympics\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 102590\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: ESPN25 Content: ESPN25 was a special event conducted to mark the 25th anniversary of ESPN . During the run-up to the anniversary date of September 7 , 2004 , the network counted down the top sports moments of the last 25 years ( the `` ESPN era '' ) . Each Tuesday , a new 25-to-1 list was unveiled , as was the next headline in that 25-to-1 countdown . In addition , each day during SportsCenter , the next moment in the list of the top 100 moments of the ESPN era was shown . The celebration concluded by declaring the Miracle on Ice hockey game between the United States and the Soviet Union at the 1980 Winter Olympic Games the # 1 moment , game , and headline of the last 25 years .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"ESPN25\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 102384\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Rink bandy Content: Not to be confused with Rink hockey , which is another name for Roller hockey on quad skates . Rink bandy and rinkball are two very similar team sports , both developed from bandy but played on a significantly smaller ice rink . While a bandy rink is about the same size as a football pitch , rink bandy and rinkball are played on ice hockey rinks . Rink bandy originated in Sweden in the 1960s and was originally called hockey-bockey . As indoor ice hockey arenas started coming , it was a way for bandy players to practice on ice a longer time of the year ; as bandy fields are larger , they were still only made outdoors in the wintertime when artificial freezing was not necessary . Gradually rinkball developed as a sport of its own after being introduced to Finland later that decade . Both games use a bandy ball , but in rinkball it is blue instead of cerise . Rink bandy uses bandy sticks and rinkball uses ice hockey sticks . The rink bandy goalkeeper has no stick , whereas the rinkball counterpart has . Similar to hockey , a game lasts 60 minutes , but is composed of either two 30 minute halves or three 20 minute periods . They use similar rules to normal bandy , but simplifies them to increase the pace of the game . Checking is prohibited , making the sport relatively safer than its relatives . Because of the smaller playing area , fewer players are used . Normally it 's six a side . In the USA Rink Bandy League , five players are used because of the smaller ice hockey rinks there . As artficially frozen and indoor bandy arenas has become more prevalent , the interest for rink bandy has dwindled in the main bandy countries ( Russia , Sweden , Finland , Norway ) . In many countries where bandy is still new and the infrastructure for large ices is not in place , rink bandy is the main form of bandy .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"Rink_bandy\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 102332\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1979–80 Quebec Nordiques season Content: The 1979 -- 80 Quebec Nordiques season was the Nordiques eighth season overall , however , it marked as their expansion season in the National Hockey League . Quebec had played their previous seven seasons in the now defunct World Hockey Association . In 1978 -- 79 , their last season in the WHA , Quebec finished the year with the second best record , as they had a 41-34-5 record , earning 87 points . The Nordiques were then swept by the Winnipeg Jets in the WHA semi-finals . In the NHL , the team finished out of the playoffs .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"1979–80_Quebec_Nordiques_season\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 102301\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1906–07 FAHL season Content: The 1906 -- 07 Federal Amateur Hockey League ( FAHL ) season lasted from December 28 until March 6 . The four teams were to play a twelve game schedule , but the season ended early when two teams resigned from the league -- the Montreal Montagnards over a dispute with a league ruling , and Cornwall HC when their top scorer , Owen ` Bud ' McCourt , died following an on-ice brawl with the Ottawa Victorias . Ottawa were awarded the season championship .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"1906–07_FAHL_season\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 102259\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2013 Stanley Cup playoffs Content: The 2013 Stanley Cup playoffs of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) began on April 30 , 2013 , following the conclusion of the 2012 -- 13 NHL regular season . The regular season was shortened to 48 games , and the playoffs pushed to a later date , due to a lockout . The playoffs ended on June 24 , 2013 , with the Chicago Blackhawks defeating the Boston Bruins in six games to win the Stanley Cup . Patrick Kane won the Conn Smythe trophy as the playoffs MVP , with 19 points ( 9 goals and 10 assists ) . The Toronto Maple Leafs made the playoffs for the first time since 2004 , breaking one of the NHL 's longest playoff droughts . Since the 1967 expansion , only the Colorado Rockies/New Jersey Devils ( 1979 -- 1987 ) and the Florida Panthers ( 2001 -- 2011 ) had longer playoff droughts . The 2013 Stanley Cup playoffs marked the first time since 1996 that every Original Six team has advanced to the playoffs in the same year . Also , this year marks the first time since 2004 that two Canadian teams have played each other in the playoffs . In all , four Canadian teams qualified for the playoffs ( Montreal , Ottawa , Toronto , and Vancouver ) , the most since 2006 . For the second time in three years , all three teams from California made the playoffs . For the first time since 2007 , and for only the third time in history , all four former WHA teams ; Carolina ( formerly the Hartford Whalers ) , Colorado ( formerly the Quebec Nordiques ) , Edmonton , and Phoenix ( formerly the Winnipeg Jets ) missed the playoffs in the same year . For the first time ever , the final five teams remaining in the playoffs were the previous five Stanley Cup champions : Detroit ( 2008 ) , Pittsburgh ( 2009 ) , Chicago ( 2010 ) , Boston ( 2011 ) , and Los Angeles ( 2012 ) ; and , indeed , with the Detroit Red Wings being the first of these teams eliminated from the playoffs , the final four teams were the previous four Cup champions . - for the first time since 1945 . The 2013 Stanley Cup Finals was contested between Chicago Blackhawks and Boston Bruins , the first meeting in the Final between the two teams , and the first time that two Original Six teams competed in the Final since Montreal defeated the New York Rangers in the 1979 Stanley Cup Finals . The Blackhawks also became the first Presidents ' Trophy winners to win the Stanley Cup since the Red Wings in 2008 . As of 2016 , they are the last NHL team to accomplish this feat . These playoffs featured 27 overtime games , the most since 1993 and the second-most in NHL history .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"2013_Stanley_Cup_playoffs\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 102083\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1980–81 Edmonton Oilers season Content: The 1980 -- 81 Edmonton Oilers season was the Oilers ' second season in the NHL , and they finished with 74 points , a 5-point improvement from their 1st season . Wayne Gretzky would run away with the Art Ross Trophy , awarded to the leading scorer , as he finished with 164 points , 29 points ahead of runner-up Marcel Dionne of the Los Angeles Kings . Gretzky would also win his 2nd straight Hart Trophy , awarded to the MVP of the NHL . His 164 points were an NHL record , previously held by Phil Esposito of the Boston Bruins in the 1970 -- 71 NHL season when he scored 152 points . Youngsters Jari Kurri and Mark Messier would have very good offensive seasons , finishing 2nd and 3rd on the Oilers scoring list . Eddie Mio would get the majority of action in the Oilers goal , playing in a team high 43 games and having 16 wins , which set a franchise record . In the playoffs , the Oilers would face the heavily favoured Montreal Canadiens in the opening round , and they would shock the hockey world by sweeping Montreal in 3 games . In the quarter-finals , the Oilers would play the defending Stanley Cup Champion New York Islanders , and would take them to 6 games before being eliminated .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"1980–81_Edmonton_Oilers_season\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 101892\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of Stanley Cup playoffs broadcasters (Original Six era) Content: The Original Six are the six teams ( Boston Bruins , Chicago Black Hawks , Detroit Red Wings , Montreal Canadiens , New York Rangers , and Toronto Maple Leafs ) that composed the National Hockey League ( NHL ) for the 25 seasons between the 1942 -- 43 season and the 1967 NHL Expansion . The name is something of a misnomer , since there were other NHL franchises that ceased operations before 1942 , including some that were founded before some of the Original Six . The term dates from the 1967 expansion which added six new franchises ; hence the six expansion teams and the `` Original Six '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_Stanley_Cup_playoffs_broadcasters_(Original_Six_era)\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 101640\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1979–80 NCAA Division I men's ice hockey season Content: The 1979 -- 80 NCAA Division I men 's ice hockey season began in October 1979 and concluded with the 1980 NCAA Division I Men 's Ice Hockey Tournament 's championship game on March 29 , 1980 at the Providence Civic Center in Providence , Rhode Island . This was the 33rd season in which an NCAA ice hockey championship was held and is the 85th year overall where an NCAA school fielded a team .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"1979–80_NCAA_Division_I_men's_ice_hockey_season\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 101616\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wegman Report Content: The Wegman Report ( officially called the Ad Hoc Committee Report on the ` Hockey Stick ' Global Climate Reconstruction ) was prepared in 2006 by three statisticians led by Edward Wegman at the request of Rep. Joe Barton of the United States House Committee on Energy and Commerce to validate criticisms made by Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick of reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years , in particular the reconstructions by Mann , Bradley and Hughes which had become the focus of the hockey stick controversy .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"Wegman_Report\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 101483\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ice hockey at the Winter Olympics Content: Ice hockey tournaments have been staged at the Olympic Games since 1920 . The men 's tournament was introduced at the 1920 Summer Olympics and was transferred permanently to the Winter Olympic Games program in 1924 , in France . The women 's tournament was first held at the 1998 Winter Olympics . The Olympic Games were originally intended for amateur athletes until 1988 , and the National Hockey League ( NHL ) did not allow its players to compete until 1998 . From 1924 to 1988 , the tournament started with a round-robin series of games and ended with the medal round . Medals were awarded based on points accumulated during that round . The games of the tournament follow the rules of the International Ice Hockey Federation ( IIHF ) , which differ slightly from the rules used in the NHL . The tournament follows the World Anti-Doping Agency 's ( WADA ) rules on performance-enhancing drugs and the IIHF maintains a Registered Testing Pool , a list of top players who are subjected to random in-competition and out-of-competition drug tests . Several players have tested positive for banned substances since the 1972 Winter Olympics . In the men 's tournament , Canada was the most successful team of the first three decades , winning six of seven gold medals . Czechoslovakia , Sweden and the United States were also competitive during this period and won multiple medals . Between 1920 and 1968 , the Olympic hockey tournament was also counted as the Ice Hockey World Championship for that year . The Soviet Union first participated in 1956 and overtook Canada as the dominant international team , winning seven of the nine tournaments in which they participated . The United States won gold medals in 1960 and in 1980 , which included their `` Miracle on Ice '' upset of the Soviet Union . Canada went 50 years without a gold medal , before winning one in 2002 , and following it with back-to-back wins in 2010 and 2014 . Other nations to win gold include Great Britain in 1936 , the Unified Team in 1992 , Sweden in 1994 and 2006 and the Czech Republic in 1998 . Other medal-winning nations include Switzerland , Germany , Finland and Russia . In 1986 , the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) voted to allow all athletes to compete in Olympic Games starting in 1988 . The NHL was initially reluctant to allow its players to compete because the Olympics are held in the middle of the NHL season , and the league would have to halt play if many of its players participated . However , NHL players were allowed to compete starting in 1998 . The format of the tournament was adjusted to accommodate the NHL schedule ; a preliminary round was played without NHL players or the top six teams -- Canada , the Czech Republic , Finland , Russia , Sweden and the United States -- followed by a final round which included them . The tournament format was changed again in 2006 ; every team played five preliminary games with the full use of NHL players . In July 1992 , the IOC voted to approve women 's hockey as an Olympic event ; it was first held at the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano . The Nagano Organizing Committee was hesitant to include the event because of the additional costs of staging the tournament , but an agreement was reached that limited the field to six teams , and ensured that no additional facilities would be built . The Canadian and American teams have dominated the event , typically losing only to each other . The United States won the first tournament in 1998 . Canada won in 2002 , 2006 , 2010 and 2014 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"Ice_hockey_at_the_Winter_Olympics\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 101462\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1980–81 NCAA Division I men's ice hockey season Content: The 1980 -- 81 NCAA Division I men 's ice hockey season began in October 1980 and concluded with the 1981 NCAA Division I Men 's Ice Hockey Tournament 's championship game on March 28 , 1981 at the Duluth Arena in Duluth , Minnesota . This was the 34th season in which an NCAA ice hockey championship was held and is the 86th year overall where an NCAA school fielded a team . For the first time the Hobey Baker Award was conferred after the conclusion of the regular season . After the season four teams from the WCHA left to join the CCHA . As a result of dividing the four Big Ten schools that had previously been in the WCHA the Big Ten stopped declaring a conference ice hockey champion until the formation of a separate conference in 2013 -- 14 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"1980–81_NCAA_Division_I_men's_ice_hockey_season\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 101168\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1998–99 European Hockey League Content: The 1998-1999 European Hockey League was the third edition of the European Hockey League . The season started on September 15 , 1998 , and finished on February 14 , 1999 . The tournament was won by Metallurg Magnitogorsk , who beat HC Dynamo Moscow in the final . The points system used in the first round of the tournament was : the winner in regular time won 3 points ; in case of a tie , an overtime is played , the winner in overtime won 2 points and the loser in overtime won 1 point .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"1998–99_European_Hockey_League\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 101078\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Vladimír Martinec Content: Vladimír Martinec ( born December 22 , 1949 in Lomnice nad Popelkou , Czechoslovakia ) was a Czech ice hockey right wing in the 1970s . He won the Golden Hockey Stick award as top player in Czechoslovakia four times , in 1973 , 1975 , 1976 , and 1979 . Martinec played for Pardubice in the Czechoslovak Elite League from 1967 to 1981 except for 1978-79 , when he played for Jihlava . Nicknamed `` The Fox '' due to the unpredicatability of his offensive manoevres , he scored 343 goals in 539 games in the elite league . Martinec was a key player on Czechoslovak national teams in the 1970s . Known for his technical skills , he scored 155 goals in 289 international games . He played in the World Championships every year in the 1970s and in 1981 ( on the winning side in 1972 , 1976 , and 1977 , and making the all-star team in 1974 , 1975 , 1976 and 1977 ) ; he is 7th all-time leading scorer in World Championships , with 110 points ( 52 goals and 58 assists ) in 102 games ( top scorer in '76 with 20 points in 10 games ) . He also played on the 1972 , 1976 , and 1980 Olympic teams , and in the 1976 Canada Cup where he scored 7 points ( 3 +4 ) in 7 games . He coached ESV Kaufbeuren in Germany ( also coming back to play for this team in 1985 ) , and then coached his old team Tesla Pardubice between 1986 and 1989 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"Vladimír_Martinec\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 100417\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hockey stick (disambiguation) Content: A hockey stick is : a stick used to propel the ball or puck in hockey . In particular : Field hockey stick , used to propel the ball in field hockey Ice hockey stick , used to propel the puck in ice hockey something shaped like an ice hockey stick Saab hockey stick , styling cue on Saab cars Hockey stick graphs present the global or hemispherical mean temperature record of the past 1000 years Hockey stick controversy about the `` hockey stick '' graph which shows a sharp recent rise in global temperature a Hockey Stick diagram is a diagram that shows the payoff of a call option or a put option with respect to the price of the underlying asset . a hockey stick procedure turn is the standard way to reverse direction during an instrument landing in aviation . Other uses : the name of a step in Cha-cha-cha .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"Hockey_stick_(disambiguation)\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 100184\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ice hockey Content: Ice hockey is a contact team sport played on ice , usually in a rink , in which two teams of skaters use their sticks to shoot a vulcanized rubber puck into their opponent 's net to score points . The sport is known to be fast-paced and physical , with teams usually consisting of six players each : one goaltender , and five players who skate up and down the ice trying to take the puck and score a goal against the opposing team . Ice hockey is most popular in Canada , central and eastern Europe , Scandinavia , and the northern regions of the United States . Ice hockey is the official national winter sport of Canada , where the modern version of the sport was created , and enjoys immense popularity ; alongside Canada , hockey is the most popular winter sport in Finland , Latvia , the Czech Republic , Sweden , Slovakia , Belarus and Switzerland . In North America , the National Hockey League ( NHL ) is the highest level for men 's hockey and the most popular . The Kontinental Hockey League ( KHL ) is the highest league in Russia and much of Eastern Europe . The International Ice Hockey Federation ( IIHF ) is the formal governing body for international ice hockey , with the IIHF managing international tournaments and maintaining the IIHF World Ranking . Worldwide , there are ice hockey federations in 74 countries . Ice hockey is believed to have evolved from simple stick and ball games played in the 18th and 19th century United Kingdom and elsewhere . These games were brought to North America and several similar winter games using informal rules were developed , such as `` shinny '' and `` ice polo '' . The contemporary sport of ice hockey was developed in Canada , most notably in Montreal , where the first indoor hockey game was played on March 3 , 1875 . Some characteristics of that game , such as the length of the ice rink and the use of a puck , have been retained to this day . Amateur ice hockey leagues began in the 1880s , and professional ice hockey originated around 1900 . The Stanley Cup , emblematic of ice hockey club supremacy , was first awarded in 1893 to recognize the Canadian amateur champion and later became the championship trophy of the NHL . In the early 1900s , the Canadian rules were adopted by the Ligue Internationale de Hockey sur Glace , the precursor of the IIHF and the sport was played for the first time in the Olympics in the Olympic Games of 1920 . In international competitions , the national teams of six countries ( the `` Big Six '' ) predominate : Canada , Czech Republic , Finland , Russia , Sweden and the United States . Of the 69 medals awarded all-time in men 's competition at the Olympics , only six medals were not awarded to one of those countries . In the annual Ice Hockey World Championships , 177 of 201 medals have been awarded to the six nations . Teams outside the `` Big Six '' have won only five medals in either competition since 1953 : All 12 Women 's Olympic and 36 IIHF World Women 's Championships medals have been awarded to one of these six countries , and every gold medal in both competitions has been won by either the Canadian national team or the United States national team . In Canada , the United States , and some European countries it is known simply as hockey ; the name `` ice hockey '' is used in places where `` hockey '' more often refers to field hockey , such as South America , Asia , Africa , Australasia , and some European countries . In Russia and Ukraine , where `` hockey '' can also refer to bandy , ice hockey is often called `` hockey with puck '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"Ice_hockey\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 100161\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1980 Stanley Cup playoffs Content: The 1980 Stanley Cup playoffs , the championship of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) began on April 8 , after the conclusion of the 1979 -- 80 NHL season . The playoffs concluded on May 24 when the New York Islanders defeated the Philadelphia Flyers 5 -- 4 to win the Final series four games to two and win the Stanley Cup . It was the Islanders ' first Stanley Cup win and was the first of four consecutive Stanley Cup wins .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"1980_Stanley_Cup_playoffs\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 100150\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: North Report Content: The North Report was a 2006 report evaluating reconstructions of the temperature record of the past two millennia , providing an overview of the state of the science and the implications for understanding of global warming . It was produced by a National Research Council committee , chaired by Gerald North , at the request of Representative Sherwood Boehlert as chairman of the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Science . These reconstructions had been dubbed `` hockey stick graphs '' after the 1999 reconstruction by Mann , Bradley and Hughes ( MBH99 ) , which used the methodology of their 1998 reconstruction covering 600 years ( MBH98 ) . A graph based on MBH99 was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , and became a focus of the global warming controversy over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol . It was disputed by various contrarians , and in the politicisation of this hockey stick controversy the New York Times of 14 February 2005 hailed a paper by businessman Stephen McIntyre and economist Ross McKitrick ( MM05 ) as undermining the scientific consensus behind the Kyoto agreement . On 23 June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton , chairman of the House Committee on Energy and Commerce , with Ed Whitfield , Chairman of the Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations , wrote joint letters referring to issues raised by the Wall Street Journal article , and demanding that Mann , Bradley and Hughes provide full records on their data and methods , finances and careers , information about grants provided to the institutions they had worked for , and the exact computer codes used to generate their results . Boehlert said this was a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into something that should properly be under the jurisdiction of the Science Committee , and in November 2005 after Barton dismissed the offer of an independent investigation organised by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences , Boehlert requested the review , which became the North Report . The North Report went through a rigorous review process , and was published on 22 June 2006 . It concluded `` with a high level of confidence that global mean surface temperature was higher during the last few decades of the 20th century than during any comparable period during the preceding four centuries '' , justified by consistent evidence from a wide variety of geographically diverse proxies , but `` Less confidence can be placed in large-scale surface temperature reconstructions for the period from 900 to 1600 '' . It broadly agreed with the basic findings of the original MBH studies , which subsequently been supported by other reconstructions and proxy records , while emphasising uncertainties over earlier periods . The principal component analysis methodology that McIntyre and McKitrick had contested had a small tendency to bias results so was not recommended -- but it had little influence on the final reconstructions , and other methods produced similar results .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"North_Report\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 99918\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1980–81 New York Rangers season Content: The 1980 -- 81 New York Rangers season was the 55th season for the team in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . In the regular season , the Rangers finished in fourth place in the Patrick Division with 74 points and earned a berth in the playoffs . New York won series with the Los Angeles Kings and St. Louis Blues to reach the NHL semi-finals , where the team was defeated by the New York Islanders in a four-game sweep .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"1980–81_New_York_Rangers_season\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 99866\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of large-scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years Content: This list of large scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years includes climate reconstructions which have contributed significantly to the modern consensus on the temperature record of the past 2000 years . The instrumental temperature record only covers the last 150 years at a hemispheric or global scale , and reconstructions of earlier periods are based on climate proxies . In an early attempt to show that climate had changed , Hubert Lamb 's 1965 paper generalised from temperature records of central England together with historical , botanical and archeological evidence to produce a qualitative estimate of temperatures in the north Atlantic region . Subsequent quantitative reconstructions used statistical techniques with various climate proxies to produce larger scale reconstructions . Tree ring proxies can give an annual resolution of extratropical regions of the northern hemisphere , and can be statistically combined with other sparser proxies to produce multiproxy hemispherical or global reconstructions . Quantitative reconstructions have consistently shown earlier temperatures below the temperature levels reached in the late 20th century . This pattern as seen in was dubbed the hockey stick graph , and as of 2010 this broad conclusion was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_large-scale_temperature_reconstructions_of_the_last_2,000_years\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 99702\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Hockey Stick Illusion Content: The Hockey Stick Illusion : Climategate and the Corruption of Science is a book written by Andrew Montford and published by Stacey International in 2010 . Montford , an accountant and science publisher who publishes a blog called ` Bishop Hill ' provides his analysis of the history of the `` hockey stick graph '' of global temperatures for the last 1000 years and the controversy promoted by mining exploration company director Steve McIntyre about the research which produced the graph . The book describes the history of the graph from its inception to the beginning of the Climatic Research Unit email controversy ( `` Climategate '' ) . The book was Amazon UK 's second bestselling environment book of 2010 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Hockey_Stick_Illusion\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 99539\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: NGC 4656 and NGC 4657 Content: NGC 4656/57 is a highly warped barred spiral galaxy located in the constellation Canes Venatici and is sometimes informally called the Hockey Stick Galaxies or the Crowbar Galaxy . In the Catalogue of Named Galaxies , it is called Pilamalleus Canum Venaticorum , after a Latin neologism for hockey stick . The galaxy is a member of the NGC 4631 Group . A Luminous Blue Variable in `` super-outburst '' was discovered in NGC 4656/57 on March 21 , 2005 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"NGC_4656_and_NGC_4657\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 99386\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: H-E Double Hockey Sticks Content: H-E Double Hockey Sticks is a 1999 American comedy movie directed by Randall Miller starring Will Friedle and Matthew Lawrence . The film is based on the opera Griffelkin by Lukas Foss . The film 's title is a common euphemism for the word hell .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"H-E_Double_Hockey_Sticks\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 99178\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: History of the National Hockey League (1967–92) Content: The expansion era of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) began when six new teams were added for the 1967 -- 68 season , ending the Original Six era . The six existing teams were grouped into the newly created East Division , and the expansion teams -- the Los Angeles Kings , Minnesota North Stars , Oakland Seals , Philadelphia Flyers , Pittsburgh Penguins and St. Louis Blues -- formed the West Division . The NHL added another six teams by 1974 to bring the league to 18 teams . This continued expansion was partially brought about by the creation of the World Hockey Association ( WHA ) , which operated from 1972 until 1979 and sought to compete with the NHL for markets and players . Bobby Hull was the most famous player to defect to the rival league , signing a $ 2.75 million contract with the Winnipeg Jets . When the WHA ceased operations in 1979 , the NHL absorbed four of the league 's teams -- the Edmonton Oilers , Hartford Whalers , Quebec Nordiques and Winnipeg Jets . This brought the NHL to 21 teams ( the Cleveland Barons had ceased operations in 1978 ) , a figure that remained constant until the San Jose Sharks joined as an expansion franchise in 1991 . The NHL became involved in international play , starting with the Summit Series in 1972 , which pitted the top Canadian players of the NHL against the top players of the Soviet Union . Canada won the eight-game series four wins to three with one tie . The success of the series led to the creation of the Canada Cup , held five times between 1976 and 1991 . NHL teams also faced Soviet League teams that toured North America between 1975 and 1991 in what was known as the Super Series . The fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989 saw many former Soviet-Bloc players stream into the NHL , joining several players who had defected in the 1980s . This was the highest scoring period in NHL history . It was led in the 1980s by the Edmonton Oilers and Wayne Gretzky , who scored 200 points or more four times , including a current league-record 215 in 1985 -- 86 . Gretzky 's 92 goals in 1981 -- 82 also remains a league record . No other player in NHL history has scored 200 points , although Mario Lemieux came close in 1988 -- 89 with 199 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"History_of_the_National_Hockey_League_(1967–92)\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 99032\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1940–41 Boston Bruins season Content: The 1940 -- 41 Boston Bruins season was the Bruins ' 17th season in the National Hockey League , and they were coming off of a successful season in 1939 -- 40 , leading the NHL in points for the third season in a row , as they finished with a 31 -- 12 -- 5 record , accumulating 67 points . However , the Bruins lost to the New York Rangers in the NHL semi-finals , ending their chances for a second-straight Stanley Cup . This year , the Bruins repeated as regular-season champs and returned to the Final , and defeated the Detroit Red Wings four games to none to win the organization 's third Stanley Cup .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"1940–41_Boston_Bruins_season\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 98621\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1956–57 Chicago Black Hawks season Content: The 1956 -- 57 Chicago Black Hawks season was the team 's 31st season in the NHL , and the club was coming off their third consecutive last place finish in the league in 1955 -- 56 , as they had a 19 -- 39 -- 12 record , earning 50 points . The struggling Black Hawks had finished in last eight times in the past ten seasons , and only one playoff appearance since 1946 . On October 1 , the Hawks announced that head coach Dick Irvin resigned as head coach of the club due to ill health . Irvin was suffering from bone cancer and had been ill for the past two years , and was hospitalized in Montreal . Tommy Ivan took over for Irvin . On May 15 , 1957 , Dick Irvin died at the age of 64 . The Black Hawks got off to a miserable start to the season , as they had a 2 -- 12 -- 1 record in their first 15 games , and sat in last place in the league . The team could never overcome their bad start , and slumped all season long , finishing the year with a 16 -- 39 -- 15 record , earning 47 points , and finishing in last place for the fourth straight season , and the ninth time in eleven years . Offensively , Chicago was led by Ed Litzenberger , who led the club in goals with 32 , and assists with 32 , recording 64 points , which was good for fifth in the NHL . His 32 goals was the teams highest total since 1943 -- 44 . Johnny Wilson had a solid year , scoring 18 goals and 48 points , while Glen Skov also cracked the 40 point barrier , as he earned 42 points . Jack McIntyre led the defense with 18 goals and 32 points , while fellow defenceman and team captain Gus Mortson had 5 goals , 23 points , and a team high 147 penalty minutes . In goal , Al Rollins had all the playing time , winning 16 games , while posting a 3.20 GAA , and recording 3 shutouts .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"1956–57_Chicago_Black_Hawks_season\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 98559\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1997–98 European Hockey League Content: The 1997-1998 European Hockey League was the second edition of the European Hockey League . The season started on September 16 , 1997 , and finished on January 25 , 1998 . The tournament was won by VEU Feldkirch , who beat HC Dynamo Moscow in the final . A new points system was used in the first round of the tournament . The winner in regular time won 3 points ; in case of a tie , an overtime is played , the winner in overtime won 2 points and the loser in overtime won 1 point .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"1997–98_European_Hockey_League\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 98482\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hockey stick Content: A hockey stick is a piece of equipment used in field hockey , ice hockey , roller hockey or underwater hockey to move the ball or puck .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"Hockey_stick\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 98380\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: East Division (NHL) Content: The East Division of the National Hockey League existed from 1967 until 1974 when the league realigned into two conferences of two divisions each . In 1967 , the NHL doubled in size , going from six teams to twelve . The Original Six , as the pre-1967 teams became retroactively known , were grouped into the East Division , while the expansion teams were placed into the new West Division . This was done in order to keep teams of similar competitive strength in the same division , regardless of geographic distance , and to ensure playoff revenue for the new franchises . This competitive imbalance would lead to East Division teams winning the Stanley Cup in six of the seven years the league was divided into two divisions . Another consequence was that in 1969 -- 70 , the Montreal Canadiens , who had finished the season with 92 points ( more than any team in the West Division ) , missed the playoffs -- the only time between 1948 -- 49 and 1993 -- 94 that they did so . When the NHL expanded again in 1970 , the two new teams , the Vancouver Canucks and Buffalo Sabres , were placed into the stronger East Division . In an effort to create more balanced competition , the Chicago Black Hawks were transferred into the West Division . When the NHL expanded again in 1972 , each division was given one of the expansion clubs , with the New York Islanders joining the East Division and the Atlanta Flames joining the West Division . By 1974 , another two teams ( the Washington Capitals and Kansas City Scouts ) entered the NHL , and as a result the league underwent a major overhaul . The East and West Divisions were renamed the Prince of Wales and Clarence Campbell Conferences , respectively , composed of nine teams each . The conferences were further divided into two divisions : the Norris and Adams Divisions for the Wales Conference , and the Patrick and Smythe Divisions for the Campbell Conference . Because the Conferences were not geographically based , the league opted to name the conferences and divisions after notable persons associated with the NHL .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"East_Division_(NHL)\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 98277\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2012–13 Elitserien season Content: The 2012 -- 13 Elitserien season was the 38th season of Elitserien . The regular season began on 13 September 2012 and ended on 5 March 2013 . The playoffs began on 12 March 2013 and ended on 18 April 2013 . The 2012 -- 13 Elitserien season was the last season under the name `` Elitserien '' ; on 17 June 2013 , the league was renamed `` Swedish Hockey League '' ( SHL ) . Skellefteå AIK clinched the Swedish Championship for the first time since 1978 , defeating Luleå HF 4 -- 0 in the Finals . It was the team 's second Swedish Championship in club history . Skellefteå also won the regular season for the first time since the 1980 -- 81 season , and the second time in club history . Their 114-point finish is the highest amount of points since Färjestad BK won the 2001 -- 02 regular season with 118 points . Luleå HF improved on the record for fewest goals surrendered in a 55-game regular season that they set last season by only having 102 goals scored against them . In Kvalserien , Örebro HK ( first SHL season ) and Leksands IF qualified for the 2013 -- 14 SHL season at the expense of Timrå IK and Rögle BK .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"2012–13_Elitserien_season\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 98134\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ron Murphy Content: Robert Ronald Murphy ( April 10 , 1933 -- March 6 , 2014 ) was a professional ice hockey player who played for the New York Rangers , Chicago Black Hawks , Detroit Red Wings and Boston Bruins over the course of an 889-game NHL career . He played the better part of 18 years between 1952 and 1970 , most notably being on a line with Phil Esposito and Ken Hodge which broke the league record for scoring by a forward line in the 1968 -- 69 NHL season with 263 points ( subsequently broken two years later by Esposito , Hodge and Wayne Cashman ) . That season represented a comeback year for Murphy , who had missed most of the preceding two seasons following multiple operations on a chronically bad shoulder , and he initially retired after that season . His health improving over the summer , he rejoined the Bruins for the beginning of the 1970 season , but recurrences of his chronic injuries reduced him to spot duty over 20 games , and he retired for good in March 1970 . Murphy 's career was nearly cut short late in the second period of a New York Rangers ' 3 -- 1 victory over the Montreal Canadiens at Madison Square Garden on December 20 , 1953 . Then a 20-year-old left wing for the Rangers , he sustained a broken jaw and concussion after Boom Boom Geoffrion took a two-handed swing with his stick , which made contact with the left side of Murphy 's face . Murphy was suspended for five games , but the injuries from the incident resulted in costing him the remainder of the season . Geoffrion was banned from all matches between the two teams for the rest of the campaign . The incident was recorded on black-and-white film which was used by Rangers coach Frank Boucher . The well-preserved footage was discovered in 2011 when MSG Media moved its film and videotape archive out of its arena while the building was undergoing renovations . After his retirement he coached the Kitchener Rangers of the Ontario Hockey League . He was with Stanley Cup-winning teams with the Black Hawks in 1961 and the Bruins in 1970 . Murphy died on March 6 , 2014 at the age of 80 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"Ron_Murphy\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 98078\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Violence in ice hockey Content: Violence has been a part of ice hockey since at least the early 1900s . According to the book Hockey : A People 's History , in 1904 alone , four players were killed during hockey games from the frequent brawls and violent stickwork . More modern examples of violence include brawls , fan involvement , physical abuse of officials and deliberately injuring opponents . Violent actions such as kicking , hitting from behind and prohibited stickwork , are penalized with suspensions or fines . Fighting , or fisticuffs , is also penalized but is considered by many hockey enthusiasts , particularly in North America , to be quite distinct from stick-swinging or other violent acts . They regard fighting as an entrenched , acceptable and an integral part of the game . On the ice , referees may impose penalties for prohibited activities . Off the ice , the National Hockey League ( NHL ) sometimes fines , suspends or expels players . The criminal justice system has also been known to investigate , charge and convict players . As a result , hockey has become much more regulated and the violent element much more controlled . This has been aided , in no small part , by dramatic increases in disciplinary processes and technology allowing for a high level of scrutiny of any event which occurs .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"Violence_in_ice_hockey\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 97846\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2012–13 Florida Panthers season Content: The 2012 -- 13 Florida Panthers season was the 20th season for the National Hockey League ( NHL ) franchise that was established on June 14 , 1993 . The season was partially cancelled due to a labor dispute , which ended on January 6 , 2013 . The campaign for the Panthers then commenced as a shortened , 48-game season beginning on January 19 . The shortened season will feature only intra-conference games . The Panthers were eliminated from Stanley Cup playoff contention , failing to make the post-season for the 11th time in their past 12 seasons . Florida earned the least points of any NHL team in 2012 -- 13 , finishing with a 15 -- 27 -- 6 record for last in both the Eastern Conference and 30-team NHL .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"2012–13_Florida_Panthers_season\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 97798\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of WHA seasons Content: The World Hockey Association ( WHA ) operated for seven seasons from 1972 until 1979 . The WHA ceased operations after the 1978 -- 79 season . As part of the NHL-WHA merger , four WHA franchises moved to the National Hockey League for the 1979 -- 80 NHL season : Edmonton , New England ( renamed Hartford Whalers ) , Quebec , and Winnipeg . The other two WHA-enfranchised teams , Birmingham and Cincinnati , folded .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_WHA_seasons\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 97770\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1966–67 NHL season Content: The 1966 -- 67 NHL season was the 50th season of the National Hockey League . Six teams each played 70 games . Since the 1942 -- 43 season , there had only been six teams in the NHL , but this was to be the last season of the Original Six as six more teams were added for the 1967 -- 68 season . This season saw the debut of one of the greatest players in hockey history , defenceman Bobby Orr of the Boston Bruins . The Toronto Maple Leafs won the Stanley Cup over the Montreal Canadiens ; this would be the Leafs ' most recent Stanley Cup , .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"1966–67_NHL_season\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 97690\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: NHL 11 Content: NHL 11 is an ice hockey video game , which celebrated the twentieth anniversary of the NHL series . The game was developed by EA Canada , published by EA Sports , and released in North America on September 7 , 2010 , with the game releasing in all other regions within two weeks . The game features a physics-based game engine , which replaced the old animation-based system , and was touted by NHL 11 producer , Sean Ramjagsingh , as `` the biggest change in NHL 11 '' . Other significant changes include broken sticks , which means the stick may now break when the player shoots . NHL 11 does not use official International Ice Hockey Federation jerseys , as the game does n't have the IIHF license . The cover of NHL 11 features Chicago Blackhawks captain Jonathan Toews , who helped the team win their first Stanley Cup title in 49 years in 2010 . On January 11 , 2013 , all online services for NHL 11 were discontinued .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"NHL_11\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 97689\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of first overall NHL draft picks Content: The NHL Entry Draft , originally known as the NHL Amateur Draft , is a collective meeting in which the franchises of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) systematically select the exclusive rights to available amateur players who meet the eligibility requirements to play professional hockey in the NHL . First held in 1963 , the draft prior to 1969 was a shorter affair . Any amateur player who was 17 years of age and older and was not already sponsored by an NHL club was eligible to be drafted . In 1969 the rules were changed so that any amateur player between the ages of 17 and 20 was eligible to be drafted . The draft has grown and in 2010 210 players were selected over seven rounds . A total of 50 different players have been selected first . Of those , 39 have been Canadian , seven Americans , three Russians , two Czechs and one Swedish player have also been taken first . Every first overall pick taken between 1968 and 2010 has played in at least 299 NHL games . Three players retired without ever having played an NHL game . The Montreal Canadiens have had the most first overall picks of any other team , selecting five players first between 1963 and 1980 . Five players have come from the London Knights of the Ontario Hockey League , more than any other team . Ten players have won the Calder Memorial Trophy as the NHL 's rookie of the year : Gilbert Perreault , Denis Potvin , Bobby Smith , Dale Hawerchuk , Mario Lemieux , Bryan Berard , Alexander Ovechkin , Patrick Kane , Nathan MacKinnon and Aaron Ekblad . Eight have been inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame : Perreault , Potvin , Guy Lafleur , Eric Lindros , Hawerchuk , Lemieux , Mats Sundin and Mike Modano .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_first_overall_NHL_draft_picks\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 97635\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1978–79 NHL season Content: The 1978 -- 79 NHL season was the 62nd season of the National Hockey League . The Montreal Canadiens beat the New York Rangers in the Stanley Cup finals four games to one for their fourth Cup in a row . This was the last time that two of the `` Original Six '' teams met in the Finals until 2013 . With the Boston Bruins joining the Canadiens and Rangers in the semifinals , this was the last time that three of the final four teams were Original six teams until 2014 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"1978–79_NHL_season\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 97531\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1980–81 Winnipeg Jets season Content: The 1980 -- 81 Winnipeg Jets season was the Winnipeg Jets ' second season in the National Hockey League . In the 1980-81 season they finished fifth ( and last ) in the NHL 's Smythe Division . The team scored 246 goals and conceded 400 goals . The Jets won 9 games , lost 57 games and tied 14 games . They scored 32 points . The Jets were coached by Tom McVie ( 1 win , 20 losses and 7 ties ) , Bill Sutherland ( 6 wins , 20 losses and 3 ties ) , and Mike Smith ( 2 wins , 17 losses and 4 ties ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"1980–81_Winnipeg_Jets_season\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 97344\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1939–40 NHL season Content: The 1939 -- 40 NHL season was the 23rd season for the National Hockey League . Of the league 's seven teams , the Boston Bruins were the best in the 48-game regular season , but the Stanley Cup winners were the New York Rangers , who defeated the Toronto Maple Leafs in the best-of-seven final series 4 -- 2 for their third Stanley Cup in 14 seasons of existence . It would be another 54 years before their fourth .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"1939–40_NHL_season\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 97284\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1942–43 NHL season Content: The 1942 -- 43 NHL season was the 26th season of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . The Brooklyn Americans were dropped , leaving six teams to play a schedule of 50 games . This is the first season of the `` Original Six '' era of the NHL . The league 's long-time president Frank Calder died due to heart disease . The Detroit Red Wings defeated the Boston Bruins to win the Stanley Cup .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"1942–43_NHL_season\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 97119\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1980–81 England Hockey League season Content: The 1980 -- 81 English Hockey League season took place from September 1980 until May 1981 . The principal event for men was the National Inter League Championship which brought together the winners of their respective regional leagues . The Men 's championship was won by Slough The Men 's Cup was won by Slough and the Women 's Cup was won by Sutton Coldfield .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"1980–81_England_Hockey_League_season\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 97064\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Krivokrasov stick incident Content: This scandal , involving Sergei Krivokrasov , occurred during 3rd game of 2003 -- 04 Russian Hockey Super League playoff semifinals between Avangard Omsk and HC Lada Togliatti . At 3:05 left in the third period , Lada Head coach , Petr Vorobiev , asked for Krivokrasov 's stick measurement . The referee for the game , Sergei Gusev , accepted the request , however delayed the procedure by several minutes . Stick was measured and proved legal , so Lada was given a minor penalty for delaying the game . However , it was witnessed by several Lada staff members , that Krivokrasov had changed his stick during the delay -- and reported immediately to game officials . This appeal was denied , so Vorobiev ordered his team to leave the ice as a protest . After the short consultation with game inspector , referee finally called minor and misconduct penalties against Krivokrasov , but Lada refused to return , since their minor penalty for delaying the game stayed intact . 1:0 victory ( the score before the incident ) was awarded then to Avangard . Several days later , game officials for this game were suspended until the end of the season for `` critical mistakes in measurement procedures '' . Lada was fined , and Petr Vorobiev served a 5-game suspension for League regulations violation .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"Krivokrasov_stick_incident\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 97059\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Upward Sports Content: Upward Sports is a non-profit 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) organization based in Spartanburg , South Carolina , United States . It is a Christian sports league designed for kids in grades K5 -- 8 offering four sports programs : basketball , flag football , soccer and cheerleading ; in Canada , it also offers ball hockey . Upwards Sports was founded in 1995 by Caz McCaslin to provide children with `` skills for the sports arena and values for life . '' While training children with the athletic skills needed to participate at the next level , Upward Sports stresses biblical values -- such as leadership , teamwork , integrity and respect -- as much as winning .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"Upward_Sports\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 96948\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Phillip Burrows Content: Phillip Ross Burrows MNZM ( born 25 April 1980 in Wellington ) is a field hockey player from New Zealand , who earned his first cap for the national team , nicknamed The Black Sticks , in January 2000 . The striker is New Zealand 's top field goal scorer and was named 2003 New Zealand Player of the Year . Since his debut , he has competed in over 120 international games for his country and appeared in three Summer Olympics : in 2004 in Athens , in 2008 in Beijing and in 2012 in London . He has played club hockey in The Netherlands since 2004 , initially for Breda and since the summer of 2005 , for HC Rotterdam .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"Phillip_Burrows\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 96860\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1989 Stanley Cup playoffs Content: The 1989 Stanley Cup playoffs , the championship of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) began on April 5 , after the conclusion of the 1988 -- 89 NHL season . This was the final year that all of the Division Semifinals began with teams playing the first four games in a span of five days . The playoffs concluded on May 25 with the champion Calgary Flames defeating the Montreal Canadiens 4 -- 2 to win the Stanley Cup Final series four games to two . The 1989 Stanley Cup playoffs featured two Canadian hockey teams , the Montreal Canadiens and the Calgary Flames . Montreal finished the regular season with 115 points , only two behind the league leader Calgary . They had last faced each other in 1986 , with Montreal winning in five games . Calgary was only the second opposing team in NHL history to win a Stanley Cup at the Montreal Forum ( the New York Rangers defeated the Montreal Maroons in 1928 ) and the first to do so against the Canadiens . Flames defenceman Al MacInnis won the Conn Smythe Trophy as playoff MVP , while Lanny McDonald , who ended the regular season with exactly 500 goals , got his name on the Cup in his last ever NHL game . Flames co-owner Sonia Scurfield became the first Canadian woman to have her name inscribed on the Stanley Cup . Wayne Gretzky and the Los Angeles Kings met the defending champion Oilers in the first round . Gretzky and the Kings defeated the defending Stanley Cup champions after falling behind 3 games to 1 . In the second round the Kings were swept by the eventual champion Calgary Flames in four games . Philadelphia Flyers goaltender Ron Hextall became the first netminder to shoot and score a goal in the playoffs , a shorthanded , empty-net score in Game 5 of the Patrick Division Semifinal against the Washington Capitals . One round later Mario Lemieux equaled four NHL-records ( most goals in a game , most goals in a period , most points in a game and most points in a period ) by scoring five goals and eight points in a 10 -- 7 Pittsburgh win in game five of the Patrick Division Finals . Hextall then made headlines in the Wales Conference Finals , attacking Montreal 's Chris Chelios in the late stages of game six as retribution for Chelios ' unpenalized hit on Flyers forward Brian Propp in game one . Hextall received a 12-game suspension at the start of the 1989 -- 90 NHL season for his actions . Former Flyers head coach Mike Keenan led Chicago to the Campbell Conference finals in his first year behind the bench . The Blackhawks had the fewest points of any playoff team this season yet they upset first place Detroit and then St. Louis before bowing to Calgary .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"1989_Stanley_Cup_playoffs\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 96686\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1960–61 NHL season Content: The 1960 -- 61 NHL season was the 44th season of the National Hockey League . The Chicago Black Hawks defeated the Detroit Red Wings in the 1961 Stanley Cup Final four games to two to win the Stanley Cup . It was the first series since with two American-based teams . It was Chicago 's first Cup win since ; they would not win another until . Gordie Howe of the Red Wings became the first player in NHL history to achieve the career mark of 1000 regular-season points . It would be seven more seasons before the Montreal Canadiens ' Jean Béliveau would match the feat .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"1960–61_NHL_season\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 96645\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ice hockey at the 1980 Winter Olympics Content: The men 's ice hockey tournament at the 1980 Winter Olympics in Lake Placid , U.S.A. , was the 14th Olympic Championship . Twelve teams competed in the tournament , which was held from February 12 to 24 . The United States won its second gold medal , including a win over the heavily favored Soviet Union that became known as the `` Miracle on Ice '' . Games were held at the Olympic Arena and the Olympic Fieldhouse .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"Ice_hockey_at_the_1980_Winter_Olympics\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 96522\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Le Mat Trophy Content: The Le Mat Trophy ( Le Mat-pokalen ) is the trophy awarded to Swedish champions in ice hockey , which since 1975 has been the winners of the SHL playoffs . The Le Mat is the oldest trophy competed for by professional athletes in Sweden . The trophy was donated by the founding father of ice hockey in Sweden , Raoul Le Mat , and Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Inc. in 1926 . Since then , the silver cup has been modified and features now a lid with two crossed ice hockey sticks and an oak base . The cup is 20.5 inches ( 52 cm ) high and weighs 118 ounces ( 3.34 kg ) . The cup used today is a copy of the original trophy due to the theft of the original in the beginning of the 1950s . The current cup is an exact copy of the original and was made by Juvelerare Markström in Uppsala , Sweden , right after the theft .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"Le_Mat_Trophy\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 96482\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ice Hockey Varsity Match Content: The Ice Hockey Varsity Match is a longstanding competition between the Cambridge and Oxford University Ice Hockey Clubs . Tradition places the origin of the match in 1885 , when a game is said to have been played in St Moritz . This date is recognised by the Hockey Hall of Fame , and prior to the 1985 Varsity Match , the International Ice Hockey Federation formally recognised the game played a century earlier as having been the first ice hockey match played in Europe . However , there is no contemporary evidence that the 1885 match took place , and Oxford now claim that it was a bandy match . If the 1885 date is accepted , this is the oldest rivalry in ice hockey . The oldest surviving evidence of the competition is a team photo and roster from 1895 , for a game played on Blenheim Lake in Oxford , although this was definitely a bandy match . The first match usually counted as an ice hockey contest is that of 16 March 1900 at Princes Skating Club , although at Oxford 's insistence , it was played using bandy sticks and a lacrosse ball . The following year , another Varsity Match was played at Princes , this time with hockey skates and a puck . However , a 1902 match at Blenheim Lake was again a bandy match . The competition became established in 1909 ; the two universities then met each other on a European rink each year until World War I. From 1927 , the match has been played for the Patton Cup , named for Peter Patton , the first President of the British Ice Hockey Association . It was then played most years until 1932 , when it returned to England , being played at Richmond Ice Rink . The annual matches of the 1930s may no longer have been of professional standard , but they were able to attract crowds up to 10,000 strong . In 2016 , the Patton Cup was replaced by the King Edward VII Cup . Other than a gap during World War II , the matches have continued annually ever since , and since 1996 have alternated between Oxford Ice Rink and a rink nominated by Cambridge ( who do not have a home rink ) . Oxford , often strengthened by Rhodes Scholars have won more than two-thirds of the encounters .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"Ice_Hockey_Varsity_Match\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 96352\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1947–48 NHL season Content: The 1947 -- 48 NHL season was the 31st season of the National Hockey League . Six teams each played 60 games . The Toronto Maple Leafs were the Stanley Cup winners . They defeated the Detroit Red Wings four games to none . This season saw the introduction of a new trophy -- Art Ross Trophy -- that would be handed out to the player who scored the most points during the regular season .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"1947–48_NHL_season\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 96323\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Field hockey Content: Field hockey is a team sport of the hockey family . The earliest origins of the game date back to the Middle Ages in England , Scotland , France and the Netherlands . The game can be played on a grass field or a turf field as well as an indoor board surface . Each team plays with eleven players , including the goalie . Players use sticks made out of wood , carbon fibre , fibre glass or a combination of carbon fibre and fibre glass in different quantities ( with the higher carbon fibre stick being more expensive and less likely to break ) to hit a round , hard , plastic ball . The length of the stick depends on the player 's individual height . Only one end of the stick is allowed to be used . Goalies often have a different kind of stick , however they can also use an ordinary field hockey stick . The specific goal-keeping sticks have another curve at the end of the stick , this is to give them more surface area to save the ball . The uniform consists of shin guards , shoes , shorts , a mouth guard and a jersey . Today , the game is played globally , with particular popularity throughout Western Europe , the Indian subcontinent , Southern Africa , Australia , New Zealand , Argentina , and parts of the United States ( primarily New England and the Mid-Atlantic states ) . Field Hockey is the national game of Pakistan . The term `` field hockey '' is used primarily in Canada and the United States where ice hockey is more popular . In Sweden the term `` landhockey '' is used and to some degree also in Norway . It is a section of Norway 's Bandy Association . Until recently they called it `` hockey '' , when it was changed to `` landhockey '' . During play , goal keepers are the only players who are allowed to touch the ball with any part of their body ( the player 's hand is considered ` part of the stick ' if on the stick ) , while field players play the ball with the flat side of their stick . Goal keepers also can not play the ball with the back of their stick . Whoever scores the most goals by the end of the match wins . If the score is tied at the end of the game , either a draw is declared or the game goes into extra time or a penalty shootout , depending on the competition 's format . There are many variations to overtime play that depend on the league and tournament play . In college play , a seven-aside overtime period consists of a 10-minute golden goal period with seven players for each team . If a tie still remains , the game enters a one-on-one competition where each team chooses 5 players to dribble from the 25 yard line down to the circle against the opposing goalie . The player has 8 seconds to score on the goalie keeping it in bounds . The play ends after a goal is scored , the ball goes out of bounds , a foul is committed ( ending in either a penalty stroke or flick or the end of the one on one ) or time expires . If the tie still persists extra rounds thereafter until one team has scored . The governing body of hockey is the International Hockey Federation ( FIH , in French ) , with men and women being represented internationally in competitions including the Olympic Games , World Cup , World League , Champions Trophy and Junior World Cup , with many countries running extensive junior , senior , and masters club competitions . The FIH is also responsible for organising the Hockey Rules Board and developing the rules for the game . A popular variant of field hockey is indoor field hockey , which differs in a number of respects while embodying the primary principles of hockey . Indoor hockey is a 5-a-side variant , with a field which is reduced to approximately 40 x. With many of the rules remaining the same , including obstruction and feet , there are several key variations : Players may not raise the ball unless shooting on goal , players may not hit the ball ( instead using pushes to transfer the ball ) , and the sidelines are replaced with solid barriers which the ball will rebound off .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"Field_hockey\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 96316\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1905–06 FAHL season Content: The 1905 -- 06 Federal Amateur Hockey League ( FAHL ) season lasted from December 27 , 1905 , until February 28 , 1906 . Teams were to play an eight-game schedule , but due to the failure of the Montagnards , some teams played only 6 or 7 games .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"1905–06_FAHL_season\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 96252\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2003–04 NHL season Content: The 2003 -- 04 NHL season was the 87th regular season of the National Hockey League . The Stanley Cup champions were the Tampa Bay Lightning , who won the best of seven series four games to three against the Calgary Flames . For the fourth time in eight years , the all-time record for total shutouts in a season was shattered , as 192 shutouts were recorded . The 2003 -- 04 regular season was also the first one ( excluding the lockout-shortened 1994 -- 95 season ) since 1967 -- 68 in which there was neither a 50-goal scorer , nor a 100-point scorer . This was the final season that ABC and ESPN televised NHL games . It was also the final NHL season before the 2004 -- 05 NHL lockout , and the final season in which games could end in ties .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"2003–04_NHL_season\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 96178\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2016 Stanley Cup playoffs Content: The 2016 Stanley Cup playoffs of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) began on April 13 , 2016 and ended on June 12 , 2016 , with the Pittsburgh Penguins defeating the San Jose Sharks four games to two in the 2016 Stanley Cup Finals . For only the second time in league history ( 1970 being the only other time ) , none of the NHL 's Canadian-based teams , seven in total , qualified for the postseason . The Washington Capitals made the playoffs as the Presidents ' Trophy winners with the most points ( i.e. best record ) during the regular season . This was the final season of the Detroit Red Wings ' 25-season playoff appearance streak , the longest streak at the time and tied for third longest in NHL history . The Florida Panthers qualified for the playoffs for only the second time since the 1999 -- 2000 season -- both times winning their division -- and fifth time in franchise history . For the fourth time in six years , all three California-based teams made the playoffs in the same season . And , for only the second time ever ( 1996 being the only other time ) , both Florida-based teams made the playoffs in the same season . In addition , for the second season in a row and only the fifth time since joining the league in 1979 , all four former WHA teams ( the Edmonton Oilers , Arizona Coyotes , Carolina Hurricanes and Colorado Avalanche ) missed the playoffs . For the first time since 2006 , and only the third time in league history , all Original Six teams who made the playoffs ( three in total ) were eliminated in the first round . The New York Islanders won their first post-season series since the 1993 Stanley Cup playoffs , ending the second longest post-season win drought in NHL history . For the seventh consecutive season and eleventh out of thirteen seasons , a team from California was in the Western Conference Final . For the first time since 2002 , no team lost in a four-game sweep in a playoff series .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"2016_Stanley_Cup_playoffs\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 95910\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2007–08 NHL season Content: The 2007 -- 08 NHL season was the 91st season of operation ( 90th season of play ) of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . It began on September 29 , 2007 , and the regular season ended April 6 , 2008 . The Stanley Cup playoffs ended on June 4 , with the Detroit Red Wings taking the championship . The 56th NHL All-Star Game was held in Atlanta , Georgia , as the Atlanta Thrashers hosted the event at Philips Arena on January 27 , 2008 . The hosting by Atlanta was rescheduled from 2005 , when a lockout cancelled the entire 2004 -- 05 season .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"2007–08_NHL_season\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 95878\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1993–94 Ottawa Senators season Content: The 1993 -- 94 Ottawa Senators season was the National Hockey League ( NHL ) club 's second season . It was an improvement by the club , as they finished with 13 more points than in the 1992 -- 93 expansion season , as the club ended the season with a 14 -- 61 -- 9 record for 37 points . Even so , they had the worst record in hockey for the second consecutive year .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"1993–94_Ottawa_Senators_season\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 95790\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: History of the National Hockey League (1992–present) Content: The National Hockey League ( NHL ) has endured a tumultuous period of history in recent years . It has grown from 22 teams in 1992 to 30 today as the league expanded across the United States . Repeated labour conflicts interrupted play in 1992 , 1994 -- 95 , 2004 -- 05 and 2012 -- 13 ; the second lockout caused the entire 2004 -- 05 NHL season to be canceled , the first time in North American history that a sports league has canceled an entire season in a labour dispute . Five franchises have relocated during this time : the Minnesota North Stars became the Dallas Stars ( 1993 ) , the Quebec Nordiques became the Colorado Avalanche ( 1995 ) , the Winnipeg Jets became the Phoenix Coyotes ( 1996 ) , the Hartford Whalers became the Carolina Hurricanes ( 1997 ) , and the Atlanta Thrashers became the second franchise known as the Winnipeg Jets ( 2011 ) . The Coyotes would later rebrand themselves as the Arizona Coyotes following the 2013 -- 14 season . In 1993 , the Montreal Canadiens celebrated the Stanley Cup 's 100th anniversary with their 24th championship . They remain the last Canadian team to capture the trophy . The 1994 New York Rangers broke the Curse of 1940 , winning their first title in 54 years . The renaissance of the Original Six would continue as the Detroit Red Wings ( Stanley Cup winners in , , and ) , Chicago Blackhawks ( winners in , and ) and Boston Bruins ( winners in ) broke lengthy Cup droughts of 42 , 49 and 39 seasons , respectively . Meanwhile , the NHL 's southern expansion , often maligned by Canadians and fans in the Northeastern United States , has led to championships by the Dallas Stars , Tampa Bay Lightning , Carolina Hurricanes and Anaheim Ducks in the last decade , with the Los Angeles Kings following suit . Manon Rheaume became the first female player in the NHL when she suited up for the Lightning in a 1992 pre-season game . Wayne Gretzky passed Gordie Howe as the NHL 's all-time leading scorer in 1994 when he scored his 802nd career goal . Mario Lemieux overcame Hodgkin 's lymphoma to finish his NHL career with more than 1,700 points and two championships , and now owns the Pittsburgh Penguins . Today 's NHL is led by arguably its two biggest young stars : Sidney Crosby of the Pittsburgh Penguins and Alexander Ovechkin of the Washington Capitals . The Canada Cup gave way to the World Cup of Hockey in 1996 , while NHL players first competed in the 1998 Winter Olympics . To promote itself worldwide , the NHL played regular season games in Japan in 1996 , and throughout Europe since 2007 . The league played its first outdoor regular season game between the Canadiens and the host Edmonton Oilers in 2003 and which led to the creation of three series of outdoor games : the Heritage Classic , Winter Classic and Stadium Series . Increased use of defence-focused systems contributed to decreased scoring in the late 1990s , leading some to argue that the NHL 's talent pool had been diluted by the 1990 expansion plan . The league has attempted several times to alter its rules to increase scoring . It began awarding teams a single point for losing in overtime in 1999 , hoping to reduce the number of tie games . In 2005 , ties were eliminated altogether as the penalty shootout was introduced to ensure that all games have a winner .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"History_of_the_National_Hockey_League_(1992–present)\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 95654\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Box hockey Content: Box hockey is an active hand game played between two people with sticks , a puck and a compartmented box ( typically 5 - long ) , and typically played outdoors . The object of the game is to move a hockey puck through the center dividers , of the box , out through a hole placed at each end of the box , also known as the goal . The two players face one another on either side of the box , and each attempts to move the puck to their left . If a player succeeds in getting the puck to exit the box through the goal , the player scores one point ( or goal ) . The first player to score the predetermined number of goals wins the game .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"Box_hockey\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 95577\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1980–81 St. Louis Blues season Content: The 1980 -- 81 St. Louis Blues season was the 14th for the franchise in St. Louis , Missouri . The Blues won the Smythe Division for the first time in four seasons , with a record of 45 wins , 18 losses and 17 ties , good for 107 points , and second place overall in the entire NHL . This was the first time that the Blues had ever accumulated 100 or more points in a season . The Blues defeated the Pittsburgh Penguins in a five-game Preliminary Round , before losing the Quarter-finals in six games to the New York Rangers .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"1980–81_St._Louis_Blues_season\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 95518\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1979–80 IIHF European Cup Content: The 1979-1980 European Cup was the 15th edition of the European Cup , IIHF 's premier European club ice hockey tournament . The season started on October 11 , 1979 , and finished on August 24 , 1980 . The tournament was won by CSKA Moscow , who won the final group .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"1979–80_IIHF_European_Cup\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 95380\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hockey at the 1980 Olympics Content: Hockey at the 1980 Olympics may refer to : Ice hockey at the 1980 Winter Olympics Field hockey at the 1980 Summer Olympics\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"Hockey_at_the_1980_Olympics\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 95380\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1979–80 England Hockey League season Content: The 1979 -- 80 English Hockey League season took place from September 1979 until May 1980 . The Men 's Cup was won by Slough and the Women 's Cup was won by Norton . The Men 's National Inter League Championship brought together the winners of their respective regional leagues . The championship ( held in September 1980 ) was won by Slough . As from the 1980-81 season the National Inter League Championship would be held in the spring of the same season instead of the Autumn of the following season .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"1979–80_England_Hockey_League_season\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 95338\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Steve Ulseth Content: Steve Ulseth ( born February 22 , 1959 ) is a retired American professional ice hockey player . Ulseth attended the University of Minnesota where he played four seasons ( 1977 -- 1981 ) of NCAA Division I college hockey with the Minnesota Golden Gophers , scoring 84 goals and 118 assists for 202 points , while earning 48 penalty minutes , in 148 games played . In his senior year he was recognized for his outstanding play when he was named the WCHA Most Valuable Player and was selected as a finalist for the 1981 Hobey Baker Award . Ulseth went on to play the 1981 -- 82 season with the Springfield Indians of the American Hockey League , and then played the 1982 -- 83 season with the Tulsa Oilers and Peoria Prancers before retiring from professional hockey . Ulseth is now employed as a sales representative for Miken hockey sticks .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"Steve_Ulseth\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 94887\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1980–81 Vancouver Canucks season Content: The 1980-1981 was the tenth season in the National Hockey League for the Vancouver Canucks who finished 3rd in the NHL 's Smythe Division , scoring 289 goals and allowing 301 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"1980–81_Vancouver_Canucks_season\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 94828\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: New Zealand men's national field hockey team Content: The New Zealand men 's national field hockey team , also known as the Black Sticks Men , represents New Zealand in international men 's field hockey . They upset Australia to win gold at the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal , becoming the first non-Asian/European team to clinch the gold medal . They have also won silver and bronze at the 2002 and 2010 Commonwealth Games .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"New_Zealand_men's_national_field_hockey_team\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 94777\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1980–81 National Hurling League Content: The 1980 -- 81 National Hurling League was the 50th season of the National Hurling League ( NHL ) , an annual hurling competition for the GAA county teams . It was won by .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"1980–81_National_Hurling_League\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 94766\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1979 NHL Entry Draft Content: The 1979 NHL Entry Draft took place on August 9 , 1979 , at the Queen Elizabeth Hotel in Montreal , Quebec . The National Hockey League ( NHL ) teams selected 126 players eligible for entry into professional ranks , in the reverse order of the 1978 -- 79 NHL season and playoff standings . The draft was the first to be conducted after the NHL-WHA merger . As part of the terms of the merger , the four former WHA teams had joined the NHL on the condition that they be placed at the bottom of the draft order , as opposed to the top of the order as is usually the case for expansion teams . In addition , the minimum draft age was lowered from 20 to 18 . The NHL had been considering lowering the draft age for some time ( the WHA did not have a minimum age ) , and timed the decision to lower the draft age at least in part to coincide with the merger . The lowering of the draft age caused three years ' worth of draft picks to go in the same draft , resulting in what is generally considered one of the best draft classes in NHL Entry Draft history , which included future Hall of Famers Ray Bourque , Mike Gartner and Michel Goulet in the first round alone . Hall of Famers Mark Messier and Glenn Anderson would be drafted in later rounds . 12 of the 21 players selected in the first round would play in at least one All-Star game , 19 of the 21 would play at least 450 career NHL games , and all 21 had NHL careers of at least 235 games . The lowering of the draft age also made rising superstar Wayne Gretzky eligible to play in the NHL , although special circumstances as noted below prevented Gretzky from entering the draft . Under the old rules , Gretzky would not have been eligible to enter the NHL until the 1981 draft . On the other hand , the NHL shortened the draft to only six rounds , whereas some previous drafts ran for more than twenty rounds . As a result , in spite of the larger number of teams participating the 1979 Draft had 108 fewer selections than the previous draft and was the shortest draft since 1971 . As of 2015 , it is the last Entry Draft to have fewer than 200 selections . Due to the strength of the class and fewer selections , there are many undrafted players who were eligible to be drafted who went on to have notable NHL careers , including Hall of Famer Dino Ciccarelli , five-time Stanley Cup champion Charlie Huddy and four-time 50-goal scorer Tim Kerr .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"1979_NHL_Entry_Draft\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 94751\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2017 Stanley Cup playoffs Content: The 2017 Stanley Cup playoffs of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) began on April 12 , 2017 . The Washington Capitals made the playoffs as the Presidents ' Trophy winners for the second consecutive year with the most points ( i.e. best record ) during the regular season . The Detroit Red Wings failed to make the playoffs for the first time since the 1989 -- 90 season , ending the NHL 's longest active playoff streak at 25 consecutive seasons ; the streak was also tied for the third-longest streak in NHL history . The longest active playoff streak moved to the Pittsburgh Penguins with eleven consecutive appearances . The Edmonton Oilers made the playoffs for the first time since 2006 , ending a record-tying playoff drought for a team with ten years missed ( the Florida Panthers also missed the playoffs between 2001 and 2011 inclusively ) . For the first time since 2006 , both Alberta teams , the Oilers and the Calgary Flames , qualified for the postseason in the same year . For the first time since 2013 , and the fourth time since 2002 , all three Eastern Canadian teams ( Montreal Canadiens , Ottawa Senators , and Toronto Maple Leafs ) qualified for the playoffs . In all , five Canadian-based teams made the playoffs , matching 2015 , after a season in which none of the seven teams in Canada contended . The first round saw eighteen overtime games , eclipsing the previous record of seventeen overtime games in the first round set in 2013 . It was also the first time since 2001 that no first round series went the full seven games . For the eighth season in a row ( and the twelfth time in the last fourteen seasons ) , a California-based team was in the Western Conference Final .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"2017_Stanley_Cup_playoffs\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 94661\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1992 NHL strike Content: The 1992 NHL strike was the first strike action initiated by the National Hockey League Players ' Association ( NHLPA ) against the National Hockey League 's ( NHL ) owners . It was called on April 1 , 1992 , and lasted ten days . The settlement saw the players earn a large increase in their playoff bonuses , increased control over the licensing of their likenesses and changes to the free agency system . In addition , the season was expanded to 84 games and included provisions for each team to play two games per season in non-NHL cities . As a result of the strike , the owners removed John Ziegler as President , replacing him with Gil Stein . The strike fundamentally altered the relationship between the league and its players .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"1992_NHL_strike\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 94623\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cambridge University Ice Hockey Club Content: Cambridge University Ice Hockey Club at the University of Cambridge , Cambridge , England , is one of the oldest ice hockey teams in the world . While the team claims a history dating back to 1885 , the first strong evidence for their existence comes on 16 March 1900 , when they played Oxford University Ice Hockey Club in the first Ice Hockey Varsity Match , at Princes Skating Club in London , losing 7 -- 6 . This match was played , on Oxford 's insistence , with bandy sticks and a lacrosse ball . The Cambridge team was led by J. J. Cawthra , who later played for England . The following day , the two universities joined together to play Princes Ice Hockey Club . Cambridge played a second varsity match at Princes in 1901 , this time winning 6 -- 5 . In 1903 , they entered the first ice hockey league in Europe , but came last out of the five teams competing . The squad then switched to playing European tours , popularising the sport , and from 1909 to 1913 and 1920 onwards playing an annual varsity match . From 1932 , these matches were played in England , and although no longer able to compete with the top professional sides , they were watched by over 10,000 supporters . In 1931 , the club joined the English League , but when it finished in 1936 they did not follow most of the teams into the English National League , instead joining the lower-level London and Provincial League in 1938 . In 1948 , they played a season in the Southern Intermediate League , and in the 1970s they played two seasons in the Southern League . They then joined the Inter-City League and finally played in the inaugural season of the British Hockey League . Since then , they have contested an annual varsity match and compete in Division One of the British Universities Ice Hockey Association although continue to be at a disadvantage in lacking a home rink in Cambridge , although plans for a permanent ice-skating rink are at an advanced stage , after a number of years of Parker 's Piece hosting a yearly temporary one around Christmas time , and this new rink will be the first permanent home for the team , adjacent to the Newmarket Road Park & Ride site .\",\n \"qid\": \"2775\",\n \"docid\": \"Cambridge_University_Ice_Hockey_Club\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 94481\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":1368,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"Europe and Asia emit most of the soot from burning coal, wood, dung, and diesel in open fires or without particulate filters in stoves, chimneys, smokestacks, and exhaust pipes."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Rolling coal Content: Rolling coal is the practice of modifying a diesel engine to increase the amount of fuel entering the engine in order to emit an under-aspirated sooty exhaust that visibly pollutes the air . It also may include the intentional removal of the particulate filter . Practitioners often additionally modify their vehicles by installing smoke switches and smoke stacks . Modifications to a vehicle to enable rolling coal may cost from $ 200 to $ 5,000 .","qid":"2779","docid":"Rolling_coal","rank":1,"score":209544},{"content":"Title: Soot Content: Soot -LSB- ˈsʊt -RSB- is a mass of impure carbon particles resulting from the incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons . It is more properly restricted to the product of the gas-phase combustion process but is commonly extended to include the residual pyrolysed fuel particles such as coal , cenospheres , charred wood , and petroleum coke that may become airborne during pyrolysis and that are more properly identified as cokes or chars . Soot causes cancer and lung disease , and is the second-biggest human cause of global warming .","qid":"2779","docid":"Soot","rank":2,"score":193606},{"content":"Title: Chimney fire Content: A chimney fire is the combustion ( burning ) of residue deposits referred to as soot or creosote , on the inner surfaces of chimney tiles , flue liners , stove pipes , etc. .","qid":"2779","docid":"Chimney_fire","rank":3,"score":190284},{"content":"Title: Zero-emissions vehicle Content: A zero-emissions vehicle , or ZEV , is a vehicle that emits no tailpipe pollutants from the onboard source of power . Harmful pollutants to the health and the environment include particulates ( soot ) , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , ozone , lead , and various oxides of nitrogen . Although not considered emission pollutants by the original California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) or U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) definitions , the most recent common use of the term also includes volatile organic compounds , several air toxics ( most notably 1,3-Butadiene ) , and global pollutants such as carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases . Examples of zero emission vehicles include muscle-powered vehicles such as bicycles ; gravity racers ; battery electric vehicles , which typically shift emissions to the location where the electricity is generated e.g. coal or natural gas power plant ; and fuel cell vehicles powered by hydrogen , which typically shift emissions to the location where the hydrogen is generated . Hydrogen-powered vehicles are not strictly zero-emissions , as they do emit water or water vapor , although they are still usually included in this category . Emissions from the manufacturing process are ignored in this definition , although the emissions that are created during manufacture are of an order of magnitude that is comparable to the one of the emissions that are created during a vehicle 's operating lifetime .","qid":"2779","docid":"Zero-emissions_vehicle","rank":4,"score":180304},{"content":"Title: Diesel particulate filter Content: A diesel particulate filter ( or DPF ) is a device designed to remove diesel particulate matter or soot from the exhaust gas of a diesel engine .","qid":"2779","docid":"Diesel_particulate_filter","rank":5,"score":176960},{"content":"Title: Flue-gas stack Content: A flue-gas stack is a type of chimney , a vertical pipe , channel or similar structure through which combustion product gases called flue gases are exhausted to the outside air . Flue gases are produced when coal , oil , natural gas , wood or any other fuel is combusted in an industrial furnace , a power plant 's steam-generating boiler , or other large combustion device . Flue gas is usually composed of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor as well as nitrogen and excess oxygen remaining from the intake combustion air . It also contains a small percentage of pollutants such as particulate matter , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides . The flue gas stacks are often quite tall , up to 400 metres ( 1300 feet ) or more , so as to disperse the exhaust pollutants over a greater area and thereby reduce the concentration of the pollutants to the levels required by governmental environmental policy and environmental regulation . When the flue gases are exhausted from stoves , ovens , fireplaces , or other small sources within residential abodes , restaurants , hotels , or other public buildings and small commercial enterprises , their flue gas stacks are referred to as chimneys .","qid":"2779","docid":"Flue-gas_stack","rank":6,"score":172250},{"content":"Title: Chimney sweep Content: A chimney sweep is a worker who clears ash and soot from chimneys . The chimney uses the pressure difference caused by a hot column of gas to create a draught and draw air over the hot coals or wood enabling continued combustion . Chimneys may be straight or contain many changes of direction . During normal operation , a layer of creosote builds up on the inside of the chimney , restricting the flow . The creosote can also catch fire , setting the chimney and the building alight . The chimney must be swept to remove the soot . This was done by the master sweep . In the United Kingdom , the master sweeps took apprentices , typically workhouse or orphan boys , and trained them to climb chimneys . In the German States , master sweeps belonged to trade guilds and did not use climbing boys . In Italy , Belgium , and France climbing boys were used .","qid":"2779","docid":"Chimney_sweep","rank":7,"score":170391},{"content":"Title: Exhaust gas Content: Exhaust gas or flue gas is emitted as a result of the combustion of fuels such as natural gas , gasoline , petrol , biodiesel blends , diesel fuel , fuel oil , or coal . According to the type of engine , it is discharged into the atmosphere through an exhaust pipe , flue gas stack , or propelling nozzle . It often disperses downwind in a pattern called an exhaust plume . It is a major component of motor vehicle emissions ( and from stationary internal combustion engines ) , which can also include : Crankcase blow-by Evaporation of unused gasoline Motor vehicle emissions contribute to air pollution and are a major ingredient in the creation of smog in some large cities . A 2013 study by MIT indicates that 53,000 early deaths occur per year in the United States alone because of vehicle emissions . According to another study from the same university , traffic fumes alone cause the death of 5,000 people every year just in the United Kingdom .","qid":"2779","docid":"Exhaust_gas","rank":8,"score":164403},{"content":"Title: Black sugar Content: Black sugar is a form of crystalline precipitate or a particulate pollution by-product unique from creosote caused by the burning of low grade coal in the 1940 -- 1960s . The outgas from burning coal would be a by-product ( burning coal was used in residential forced hot air furnaces ) for the heating of family housing . Black sugar was often found on porches and the cold ductwork and caused the high carbon , soot-loaded gas to precipitate on the floors and walls and crystallize . Outward appearance was that of very fine , shiny coal , but would not combust when exposed to flames . After a time , the crystalline material would become powdered , to the consistency of white cane sugar , but retain a fine , shiny , black texture , thus the name `` black sugar '' . The material would often be cleaned from duct work by chimney sweeps or cleaning staff on a regular basis in the Beaver-Ambridge-Monaca area of Pennsylvania along the Ohio River near Pittsburgh .","qid":"2779","docid":"Black_sugar","rank":9,"score":164312},{"content":"Title: Smoke Content: Smoke is a collection of airborne solid and liquid particulates and gases emitted when a material undergoes combustion or pyrolysis , together with the quantity of air that is entrained or otherwise mixed into the mass . It is commonly an unwanted by-product of fires ( including stoves , candles , oil lamps , and fireplaces ) , but may also be used for pest control ( fumigation ) , communication ( smoke signals ) , defensive and offensive capabilities in the military ( smoke-screen ) , cooking , or smoking ( tobacco , cannabis , etc. ) . Smoke is used in rituals where incense , sage , or resin is burned to produce a smell for spiritual purposes . Smoke is sometimes used as a flavoring agent , and preservative for various foodstuffs . Smoke is also a component of internal combustion engine exhaust gas , particularly diesel exhaust . Smoke inhalation is the primary cause of death in victims of indoor fires . The smoke kills by a combination of thermal damage , poisoning and pulmonary irritation caused by carbon monoxide , hydrogen cyanide and other combustion products . Smoke is an aerosol ( or mist ) of solid particles and liquid droplets that are close to the ideal range of sizes for Mie scattering of visible light . This effect has been likened to three-dimensional textured privacy glass -- a smoke cloud does not obstruct an image , but thoroughly scrambles it .","qid":"2779","docid":"Smoke","rank":10,"score":163289},{"content":"Title: Flue gas Content: Flue gas is the gas exiting to the atmosphere via a flue , which is a pipe or channel for conveying exhaust gases from a fireplace , oven , furnace , boiler or steam generator . Quite often , the flue gas refers to the combustion exhaust gas produced at power plants . Its composition depends on what is being burned , but it will usually consist of mostly nitrogen ( typically more than two-thirds ) derived from the combustion of air , carbon dioxide , and water vapor as well as excess oxygen ( also derived from the combustion air ) . It further contains a small percentage of a number of pollutants , such as particulate matter ( like soot ) , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , and sulfur oxides .","qid":"2779","docid":"Flue_gas","rank":11,"score":162965},{"content":"Title: Indoor air pollution in developing nations Content: Indoor air pollution in developing nations is a significant form of indoor air pollution ( IAP ) that is little known to those in the developed world . Three billion people in developing nations across the globe rely on biomass , in the form of wood , charcoal , dung , and crop residue , as their domestic cooking fuel . Because much of the cooking is carried out indoors in environments that lack proper ventilation , millions of people , primarily poor women and children face serious health risks . Globally , 4.3 million deaths were attributed to exposure to IAP in developing countries in 2012 , almost all in low and middle income countries . The South East Asian and Western Pacific regions bear most of the burden with 1.69 and 1.62 million deaths , respectively . Almost 600,000 deaths occur in Africa , 200,000 in the Eastern Mediterranean region , 99,000 in Europe and 81,000 in the Americas . The remaining 19,000 deaths occur in high income countries . Even though the rate of dependence on biomass fuel is declining , this dwindling resource will not keep up with population growth which could ultimately put environments at even greater risk . Over the past several decades , there have been numerous studies investigating the air pollution generated by traditional household solid fuel combustion for space heating , lighting , and cooking in developing countries . It is now well established that , throughout much of the developing world , indoor burning of solid fuels ( biomass , coal , etc. ) by inefficient , often insufficiently vented , combustion devices results in elevated exposures to household air pollutants . This is due to the poor combustion efficiency of the combustion devices and the elevated nature of the emissions . In addition , they are often released directly into living areas . Smoke from traditional household solid fuel combustion commonly contains a range of incomplete combustion products , including both fine and coarse particulate matter ( e.g. , PM2 .5 , PM10 ) , carbon monoxide ( CO ) , nitrogen dioxide ( NO2 ) , sulfur dioxide ( SO2 ) , and a variety of organic air pollutants ( e.g. , formaldehyde , 1,3-butadiene , benzene , acetaldehyde , acrolein , phenols , pyrene , benzopyrene , benzo ( a ) pyrene , dibenzopyrenes , dibenzocarbazoles , and cresols ) . In a typical solid fuel stove , about 6 -- 20 % of the solid fuel is converted into toxic emissions ( by mass ) . The exact quantity and relative composition is determined by factors such as the fuel type and moisture content , stove type and operation influencing the amount . While many pollutants can evolve , most measurements have been focused on breathing-zone exposure levels of particulate matter ( PM ) and carbon monoxide ( CO ) , which are the main products of incomplete combustion and are considered to pose the greatest health risks . Indoor PM2 .5 exposure levels have been consistently reported to be in the range of hundreds to thousands of micrograms per cubic meter ( μg / m3 ) . Similarly , CO exposure levels have been measured to be as high as hundreds to greater than 1000 milligrams per cubic meter ( mg/m3 ) . A recent study of 163 households in two rural Chinese counties reported geometric mean indoor PM2 .5 concentrations of 276 μg / m3 ( combinations of different plant materials , including wood , tobacco stems , and corncobs ) , 327 μg / m3 ( wood ) , 144 μg / m3 ( smoky coal ) , and 96 μg / m3 ( smokeless coal ) for homes using a variety of different fuel types and stove configurations ( e.g. , vented , unvented , portable , fire pit , mixed ventilation stove ) .","qid":"2779","docid":"Indoor_air_pollution_in_developing_nations","rank":12,"score":155894},{"content":"Title: Creosote Content: Creosotes are a category of carbonaceous chemicals formed by the distillation of various tars and by pyrolysis of plant-derived material , such as wood or fossil fuel . They are typically used as preservatives or antiseptics . Some creosote types were used historically as a treatment for components of seagoing and outdoor wood structures to prevent rot ( e.g. , bridgework and railroad ties , see image ) . Samples may be commonly found inside chimney flues , where the coal or wood burns under variable conditions , producing soot and tarry smoke . Creosotes are the principal chemicals responsible for the stability , scent , and flavor characteristic of smoked meat ; the name is derived . The two main kinds recognized in industry are coal-tar creosote and wood-tar creosote . The coal-tar variety , having stronger and more toxic properties , has chiefly been used as a preservative for wood ; coal-tar creosote was also formerly used as an escharotic , to burn malignant skin tissue , and in dentistry , to prevent necrosis , before its carcinogenic properties became known . The wood-tar variety has been used for meat preservation , ship treatment , and such medical purposes as an anaesthetic , antiseptic , astringent , expectorant , and laxative , though these have mostly been replaced by modern medicines . Varieties of creosote have also been made from both oil shale and petroleum , and are known as oil-tar creosote when derived from oil tar , and as water-gas-tar creosote when derived from the tar of water gas . Creosote also has been made from pre-coal formations such as lignite , yielding lignite-tar creosote , and peat , yielding peat-tar creosote .","qid":"2779","docid":"Creosote","rank":13,"score":153583},{"content":"Title: Chimney Content: A chimney is a structure that provides ventilation for hot flue gases or smoke from a boiler , stove , furnace or fireplace to the outside atmosphere . Chimneys are typically vertical , or as near as possible to vertical , to ensure that the gases flow smoothly , drawing air into the combustion in what is known as the stack , or chimney effect . The space inside a chimney is called a flue . Chimneys may be found in buildings , steam locomotives and ships . In the United States , the term smokestack ( colloquially , stack ) is also used when referring to locomotive chimneys or ship chimneys , and the term funnel can also be used . The height of a chimney influences its ability to transfer flue gases to the external environment via stack effect . Additionally , the dispersion of pollutants at higher altitudes can reduce their impact on the immediate surroundings . In the case of chemically aggressive output , a sufficiently tall chimney can allow for partial or complete self-neutralization of airborne chemicals before they reach ground level . The dispersion of pollutants over a greater area can reduce their concentrations and facilitate compliance with regulatory limits .","qid":"2779","docid":"Chimney","rank":14,"score":152467},{"content":"Title: Chimney (locomotive) Content: The chimney ( smokestack or stack in American and Canadian English ) is the part of a steam locomotive through which smoke leaves the boiler . Steam locomotive exhaust systems typically vent cylinder exhaust through the chimney to enhance draught through the boiler . Chimneys are designed to carry exhaust steam and smoke clear of the driver 's line of sight while remaining short enough to clear overhead structures . Some chimneys included features to avoid dispersing sparks .","qid":"2779","docid":"Chimney_(locomotive)","rank":15,"score":151219},{"content":"Title: Air pollution in India Content: Air pollution in India is quite a serious issue with the major sources being fuelwood and biomass burning , fuel adulteration , vehicle emission and traffic congestion . In autumn and winter months , large scale crop residue burning in agriculture fields -- a low cost alternative to mechanical tilling -- is a major source of smoke , smog and particulate pollution . India has a low per capita emissions of greenhouse gases but the country as a whole is the third largest after China and the United States . A 2013 study on non-smokers has found that Indians have 30 % lower lung function compared to Europeans . The Air ( Prevention and Control of Pollution ) Act was passed in 1981 to regulate air pollution and there have been some measurable improvements . However , the 2016 Environmental Performance Index ranked India 141 out of 180 countries . In 2015 , Government of India , together with IIT Kanpur launched the National Air Quality Index .","qid":"2779","docid":"Air_pollution_in_India","rank":16,"score":148794},{"content":"Title: Cook stove Content: A biomass cook stove is heated by burning wood , charcoal , animal dung or crop residue . Cook stoves are commonly used for cooking and heating food in developing countries . Households in developing countries consume significantly less energy than those in developed countries ; however , over 50 % of the energy is for cooking food . The average rural family spends 20 % or more of its income purchasing wood or charcoal for cooking . The urban poor also frequently spend a significant portion of their income on the purchase of wood or charcoal . Cooking over a traditional open fire or mud stove can cause increased health problems brought on from the smoke , particularly lung and eye ailments , but also birth defects . The health problems associated with cooking using biomass in traditional stoves affect women and children most strongly , as they spend the most time near the domestic hearth . Replacing the traditional 3-rock cook stove or mud stove with an improved one and venting the smoke out of the house through a chimney can significantly improve a family 's health . Deforestation and erosion often result from harvesting wood for cooking fuel . The main goal of most improved cooking stoves is to reduce the pressure placed on local forests by reducing the amount of wood the stoves consume , and to reduce the negative health impacts associated with exposure to toxic smoke from traditional stoves .","qid":"2779","docid":"Cook_stove","rank":17,"score":148693},{"content":"Title: Pea soup fog Content: Pea soup , or a pea souper , also known as a black fog , killer fog or smog is a very thick and often yellowish , greenish , or blackish fog caused by air pollution that contains soot particulates and the poisonous gas sulfur dioxide . This very thick smog occurs in cities and is derived from the smoke given off by the burning of soft coal for home heating and in industrial processes . Smog of this intensity is often lethal to vulnerable people such as the elderly , the very young and those with respiratory problems . The result of these phenomena was commonly known as a London particular or London fog , which then , in a reversal of the idiom , became the name for a thick pea and ham soup .","qid":"2779","docid":"Pea_soup_fog","rank":18,"score":146504},{"content":"Title: Coal combustion products Content: Coal combustion products ( CCPs ) , also called coal combustion wastes ( CCW ) or coal combustion residuals ( CCR ) , are categorized in four groups , each based on physical and chemical forms derived from coal combustion methods and emission controls : Fly ash is captured after coal combustion by filters Bag Houses , electrostatic precipitators and other air pollution control devices . It comprises 60 percent of all coal combustion waste ( labeled here as coal combustion products ) . It is most commonly used as a high-performance substitute for portland cement or as clinker for portland cement production . Cements blended with fly ash are becoming more common . Building material applications range from grouts and masonry products to cellular concrete and roofing tiles . Many asphaltic concrete pavements contain fly ash . Geotechnical applications include soil stabilization , road base , structural fill , embankments and mine reclamation . Fly ash also serves as filler in wood and plastic products , paints and metal castings . Flue-gas desulfurization ( FGD ) materials are produced by chemical `` scrubber '' emission control systems that remove sulfur and oxides from power plant flue gas streams . FGD comprises 24 percent of all coal combustion waste . Residues vary , but the most common are FGD gypsum ( or `` synthetic '' gypsum ) and spray dryer absorbents . FGD gypsum is used in almost thirty percent of the gypsum panel products manufactured in the U.S. . It is also used in agricultural applications to treat undesirable soil conditions and to improve crop performance . Other FGD materials are used in mining and land reclamation activities . Bottom ash and boiler slag can be used as a raw feed for manufacturing portland cement clinker , as well as for skid control on icy roads . The two materials comprise 12 and 4 percent of coal combustion waste respectively . These materials are also suitable for geotechnical applications such as structural fills and land reclamation . The physical characteristics of bottom ash and boiler slag lend themselves as replacements for aggregate in flowable fill and in concrete masonry products . Boiler slag is also used for roofing granules and as blasting grit . The majority of CCPs are landfilled , placed in mine shafts or stored on site at coal-fired power plants . About 43 percent of CCPs were recycled for `` beneficial uses , '' in 2008 , according to the American Coal Ash Association . The chief benefit of recycling is to stabilize the environmental harmful components of the CCPs such as arsenic , beryllium , boron , cadmium , chromium , chromium VI , cobalt , lead , manganese , mercury , molybdenum , selenium , strontium , thallium , and vanadium , along with dioxins and PAH compounds .","qid":"2779","docid":"Coal_combustion_products","rank":19,"score":146427},{"content":"Title: DPF Content: DPF may refer to : Deadly Physical Force , a legal term determining the type of physical force used in self-defense Defence Police Federation , a British Police union Dense plasma focus , a plasma machine that produces , by electromagnetic acceleration and compression , short-lived plasma that is so hot and dense that it becomes a copious multi-radiation source Diesel Particulate Filter is a device designed to remove diesel particulate matter or soot from the exhaust gas of a diesel engine Digital photo frame or digital picture frame , a picture frame that displays digital photos using a digital screen without the need for printing Departamento de Polícia Federal , the Brazilian federal police","qid":"2779","docid":"DPF","rank":20,"score":143101},{"content":"Title: Wood-burning stove Content: A wood-burning stove ( or wood burner or log burner ) is a heating appliance capable of burning wood fuel and wood-derived biomass fuel , such as wood pellets . Generally the appliance consists of a solid metal ( usually cast iron or steel ) closed fire chamber , a fire brick base and an adjustable air control . The first wood burning stove was patented in Strasbourg in 1557 , two centuries before the Industrial Revolution would make iron an inexpensive and common material , so such stoves were high end consumer items and only gradually spread in use . The stove is connected by ventilating stove pipes to a suitable chimney or flue , which will fill with hot combustion gases once the fuel is ignited . The chimney or flue gases must be hotter than the outside temperature to ensure combustion gases are drawn out of the fire chamber and up the chimney . Many wood-burning stoves are engineered such that they can be converted to multi-fuel stoves with the addition of a grate .","qid":"2779","docid":"Wood-burning_stove","rank":21,"score":142601},{"content":"Title: Wood gas Content: Wood gas is a syngas fuel which can be used as a fuel for furnaces , stoves and vehicles in place of gasoline , diesel or other fuels . During the production process biomass or other carbon-containing materials are gasified within the oxygen-limited environment of a wood gas generator to produce hydrogen and carbon monoxide . These gases can then be burnt as a fuel within an oxygen rich environment to produce carbon dioxide , water and heat . In some gasifiers this process is preceded by pyrolysis , where the biomass or coal is first converted to char , releasing methane and tar rich in polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons .","qid":"2779","docid":"Wood_gas","rank":22,"score":141443},{"content":"Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions Content: -RSB- This is a list of sovereign states and territories by carbon dioxide emissions due to certain forms of human activity , based on the EDGAR database created by European Commission and Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency released in 2015 . The following table lists the 2015 annual emissions estimates ( in thousands of tonnes ) along with a list of emissions per capita ( in tonnes of per year ) from same source . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use , land-use change and forestry . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The top 10 largest emitter countries account for 67.6 % of the world total . Other powerful , more potent greenhouse gases , including methane , are not included in this data .","qid":"2779","docid":"List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions","rank":23,"score":139396},{"content":"Title: Soot (disambiguation) Content: Soot is the black , impure carbon particles resulting from the incomplete combustion of a hydrocarbon . Soot may also refer to : Engebret Soot ( 1786-1859 ) , Norwegian engineer Soot ( software ) , a language manipulation and optimization framework","qid":"2779","docid":"Soot_(disambiguation)","rank":24,"score":137413},{"content":"Title: Clean-burning stove Content: A clean-burning stove is a stove with reduced toxic emissions . The term commonly refers to wood-burning stoves for domestic heating , although it is also applied to cooking stoves . It is distinct from a clean-burning-fuel stove , which typically burns clean fuels such as ethanol , biogas , LPG , or kerosene . Studies into clean-burning stoves have shown that they reduce the emissions of dangerous particulates and carbon monoxide significantly , use less fuel than regular stoves , and result in fewer burn injuries . However , the emissions they produce are still much greater than the safe limits , and they do not appear to be effective at reducing illnesses such as pneumonia induced by breathing polluted air , which may have many sources .","qid":"2779","docid":"Clean-burning_stove","rank":25,"score":137244},{"content":"Title: Diesel emissions scandal Content: Scandals relating to the emissions from diesel engines began in 2014 when emissions discrepancies between European and US models of vehicles were highlighted by the International Council on Clean Transportation ( ICCT ) . The scandal raised awareness over the higher levels of pollution being emitted by all vehicles built by a wide range of car makers , which under real world driving conditions are prone to exceed legal emission limits . A study conducted by ICCT and the German car club ADAC showed the biggest deviations from Volvo , Renault , Jeep , Hyundai , Citroën and Fiat . A discussion was sparked that software-controlled machinery will generally be prone to cheating , and a way out would be to make the software source code accessible to the public . The VW scandal more generally raised awareness over the high levels of pollution being emitted by diesel vehicles built by a wide range of carmakers , including Volvo , Renault , Mercedes , Jeep , Hyundai , Citroen , BMW , Mazda , Fiat , Ford and Peugeot . Independent tests carried out by ADAC proved that , under normal driving conditions , diesel vehicles including the Volvo S60 , Renault 's Espace Energy and the Jeep Renegade , exceeded legal European emission limits for nitrogen oxide by more than 10 times . Researchers have criticized the inadequacy of current regulations and called for the use of a UN-sanctioned test called Worldwide harmonized Light vehicles Test Procedures that better reflects real-life driving conditions . The test is not due to come into force until 2017 , with critics saying that car firms have lobbied fiercely to delay its implementation due to the high cost of meeting stricter environmental controls . 38 out of 40 tested diesel cars failed a - test since 2016 .","qid":"2779","docid":"Diesel_emissions_scandal","rank":26,"score":137137},{"content":"Title: Stove Content: A stove is an enclosed space in which fuel is burned to provide heating , either to heat the space in which the stove is situated , or to heat the stove itself and items placed on it . This article is principally concerned with enclosed stoves burning solid fuels for room heating . A kitchen stove is used to cook food . A wood-burning stove or a coal stove is typically used for heating a dwelling . Enclosed stoves are more efficient and prevents air from being sucked from the room into the chimney . Due to concerns about air pollution , efforts have been made to improve stove design . Pellet stoves , for example are a type of clean-burning stove . Air-tight stoves more completely combust wood and eliminate polluting combustion products . In the U.S. since 1992 , all wood stoves being manufactured must limit particulate emission .","qid":"2779","docid":"Stove","rank":27,"score":136399},{"content":"Title: Flue-gas emissions from fossil-fuel combustion Content: Flue-gas emissions from fossil-fuel combustion refers to the combustion-product gas resulting from the burning of fossil fuels . Most fossil fuels are combusted with ambient air ( as differentiated from combustion with pure oxygen ) . Since ambient air contains about 79 volume percent gaseous nitrogen ( N2 ) , which is essentially non-combustible , the largest part of the flue gas from most fossil-fuel combustion is uncombusted nitrogen . Carbon dioxide , the next largest part of flue gas , can be as much as 10 − 25 volume percent or more of the flue gas . This is closely followed in volume by water vapor ( H2O ) created by the combustion of the hydrogen in the fuel with atmospheric oxygen . Much of the ` smoke ' seen pouring from flue gas stacks is this water vapor forming a cloud as it contacts cool air . A typical flue gas from the combustion of fossil fuels contains very small amounts of nitrogen oxides ( NOx ) , sulfur dioxide ( SO2 ) and particulate matter . The nitrogen oxides are derived from the nitrogen in the ambient air as well as from any nitrogen-containing compounds in the fossil fuel . The sulfur dioxide is derived from any sulfur-containing compounds in the fuels . The particulate matter is composed of very small particles of solid materials and very small liquid droplets which give flue gases their smoky appearance . The steam generators in large power plants and the process furnaces in large refineries , petrochemical and chemical plants , and incinerators burn considerable amounts of fossil fuels and therefore emit large amounts of flue gas to the ambient atmosphere . The table below presents the total amounts of flue gas typically generated by the burning of fossil fuels such as natural gas , fuel oil and coal . The data were obtained by stoichiometric calculations . It is of interest to note that the total amount of flue gas generated by coal combustion is only 10 percent higher than the flue gas generated by natural-gas combustion . Note : m ³ are standard cubic meters at 0 ° C and 101.325 kPa , and scf is standard cubic feet at 60 ° F and 14.696 psia .","qid":"2779","docid":"Flue-gas_emissions_from_fossil-fuel_combustion","rank":28,"score":136179},{"content":"Title: Diesel exhaust Content: Diesel exhaust is the gaseous exhaust produced by a diesel type of internal combustion engine , plus any contained particulates . Its composition may vary with the fuel type or rate of consumption , or speed of engine operation ( e.g. , idling or at speed or under load ) , and whether the engine is in an on-road vehicle , farm vehicle , locomotive , marine vessel , or stationary generator or other application . Diesel exhaust is a Group 1 carcinogen , which causes lung cancer and has a positive association with bladder cancer . It contains several substances that are also listed individually as human carcinogens by the IARC . Methods exist to reduce nitrogen oxides ( NOx ) and particulate matter ( PM ) in the exhaust .","qid":"2779","docid":"Diesel_exhaust","rank":29,"score":135556},{"content":"Title: Levoglucosan Content: Levoglucosan ( C6H10O5 ) is an organic compound with a six-carbon ring structure formed from the pyrolysis of carbohydrates , such as starch and cellulose . As a result , levoglucosan is often used as a chemical tracer for biomass burning in atmospheric chemistry studies , particularly with respect to airborne particulate matter . Along with other tracers such as potassium , oxalate , and gaseous acetonitrile , levoglucosan has been shown to be highly correlated with regional fires . This is because the gas emitted by the pyrolysis of wood ( biomass ) contains significant amounts of levoglucosan . Levoglucosan has been described as `` an unequivocal biomass burning tracer '' in the context of forest and brush fires . But the anhydrosugar has only been found detectable in low temperature samples ( 150-350 ° C ) , meaning that its value as an indicator for smoke from controlled biomass combustion in , for instance , modern domestic wood stoves which operate at temperatures above 500 ° C , is `` very doubtful '' . The hydrolysis of levoglucosan generates the fermentable sugar glucose . Levoglucosan can be utilized in the synthesis of chiral polymers such as unhydrolysable glucose polymers .","qid":"2779","docid":"Levoglucosan","rank":30,"score":135457},{"content":"Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .","qid":"2779","docid":"Low-carbon_emission","rank":31,"score":132945},{"content":"Title: Volume source (pollution) Content: A Volume source of pollution is a three-dimensional source of pollutant emissions . Essentially , it is an area source with a third dimension . Examples of a volume source of pollution are : Dust emissions from the wind erosion of uncovered gravel piles , sand piles , limestone piles , coal piles , etc. . Fugitive gaseous emissions from pipe flanges , packed valve seals , gas compressor seals , control valve seals , piping and vessel seals within industrial facilities such as oil refineries and petrochemical plants . Buildings , containing air pollutant emission sources , with no singular emission vent ( i.e. , buildings with multiple roof vents or multiple open windows ) .","qid":"2779","docid":"Volume_source_(pollution)","rank":32,"score":132858},{"content":"Title: 2006 Southeast Asian haze Content: The 2006 Southeast Asian haze event was caused by continued uncontrolled burning from `` slash and burn '' cultivation in Indonesia , and affected several countries in the Southeast Asian region and beyond , such as Malaysia , Singapore , southern Thailand , and as far as Saipan ; the effects of the haze may have spread to South Korea . Local sources of pollution partly contributed to the increased toxicity , particularly in high-pollution areas such as ports , oil refineries , and dense urban areas . In the highly urbanised and industrialised Klang Valley of Malaysia in particular , the surrounding terrain acted as a natural retainer of polluted air , aggravating the situation when the haze set in . There is also a link to El Niño . The haze was made worse than during previous occurrences by the El Niño-Southern Oscillation which delayed the year 's monsoon season . Fires in Kalimantan produce great amounts of smoke , burn a long time and are difficult to extinguish because they are on peatland , and once lit the fires can burn for months and release gases that produce sulphuric acid . Air quality across the region appeared to improve in late October as heavy rainfall doused fires in Indonesia .","qid":"2779","docid":"2006_Southeast_Asian_haze","rank":33,"score":132107},{"content":"Title: Fly ash Content: Fly ash , also known as `` pulverised fuel ash '' in the United Kingdom , is a coal combustion product composed of fine particles that are driven out of the boiler with the flue gases . Ash that falls in the bottom of the boiler is called bottom ash . In modern coal-fired power plants , fly ash is generally captured by electrostatic precipitators or other particle filtration equipment before the flue gases reach the chimneys . Together with bottom ash removed from the bottom of the boiler , it is known as coal ash . Depending upon the source and makeup of the coal being burned , the components of fly ash vary considerably , but all fly ash includes substantial amounts of silicon dioxide ( SiO2 ) ( both amorphous and crystalline ) , aluminium oxide ( Al2O3 ) and calcium oxide ( CaO ) , the main mineral compounds in coal-bearing rock strata . Constituents depend upon the specific coal bed makeup but may include one or more of the following elements or substances found in trace concentrations ( up to hundreds ppm ) : arsenic , beryllium , boron , cadmium , chromium , hexavalent chromium , cobalt , lead , manganese , mercury , molybdenum , selenium , strontium , thallium , and vanadium , along with very small concentrations of dioxins and PAH compounds . In the past , fly ash was generally released into the atmosphere , but air pollution control standards now require that it be captured prior to release by fitting pollution control equipment . In the US , fly ash is generally stored at coal power plants or placed in landfills . About 43 % is recycled , often used as a pozzolan to produce hydraulic cement or hydraulic plaster and a replacement or partial replacement for Portland cement in concrete production . Pozzolans ensure the setting of concrete and plaster and provide concrete with more protection from wet conditions and chemical attack . After a long regulatory process , the EPA published a final ruling in December 2014 , which establishes that coal fly ash is regulated on the federal level as `` non-hazardous '' waste according to the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act ( RCRA ) . Coal Combustion Residuals ( CCR 's ) are listed in the subtitle D ( rather than under subtitle C dealing for hazardous waste , which was also considered ) . In the case that fly or bottom ash is not produced from coal , for example when solid waste is used to produce electricity in an incinerator ( see waste-to-energy facilities ) , this kind of ash may contain higher levels of contaminants than coal ash . In that case the ash produced is often classified as hazardous waste .","qid":"2779","docid":"Fly_ash","rank":34,"score":131161},{"content":"Title: Emissions Trading Scheme in South Korea Content: South Korea 's Emissions Trading Scheme ( KETS ) is the second largest in scale after the European Union Emission Trading Scheme and was launched on January 1 , 2015 . South Korea is the second country in Asia to initiate a nation-wide carbon market after Kazakhstan . Complying to the country 's pledge made at the Copenhagen Accord of 2009 , the South Korean government aims to reduce its greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions by 30 % below its business as usual scenario by 2020 . They have officially employed the cap-and-trade system and the operation applies to over 525 companies which are accountable for approximately 68 % of the nation 's GHG output . The operation is divided up into three periods . The first and second phases consist of 3 years each , 2015 to 2017 and 2018 to 2020 . The final phase will spread out over the next 5 years from 2021 to 2025 . The cap-and-trade system is a tool of carbon pricing that has been adapted by several countries to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions through a market mechanism . It entails a market open to the transaction of trade permits , which allow participating businesses or countries to emit a given amount of greenhouse gases . A cap is set by the government which defines the maximum level of total emissions permitted during a certain time period . The South Korean government had set the emissions cap for the first year of implementation ( 2015 ) as 573 MtCO2e . The major objectives of the KETS is to place South Korea at the forefront of the global effort in reducing GHG emissions and to develop its market competitiveness in the clean energy sector . As one of the top 10 largest contributors to global greenhouse gas emissions and a nation with the highest growth rate in GHG emissions , South Korea 's awareness of its carbon footprint has increased over the years . The country grows more vulnerable to climate change as the average temperature has risen by 1.5 degrees Celsius causing frequent natural disasters . Furthermore , the South Korean government aims to cut back its reliance on imported fossil fuel energy which accounts for roughly 97 % of its primary energy consumption . Lastly , by implementing the emissions trading scheme , the government has prospects of developing its green industries and increase its global share of the clean energy market .","qid":"2779","docid":"Emissions_Trading_Scheme_in_South_Korea","rank":35,"score":129588},{"content":"Title: Smoke exhaust ductwork Content: Smoke exhaust ductwork , in Europe , is typically protected via passive fire protection means , subject to fire testing ( typically to NBN EN 1366-8 ) and listing and approval use and compliance . It is used to remove smoke from buildings , ships or offshore structures to enable emergency evacuation as well as improved firefighting . In North America , fireproofed ductwork may be used for the purpose of smoke exhaust , but it is more common to use unfireproofed return air ductwork , whereby no fire testing or listings are employed to qualify the ductwork for this use . Evidence of this North American practice can be found in the 2010 National Building Code of Canada , 3.2.8.8 . Mechanical Exhaust System , as well as Sections 909.16.2 and 910 of the 2015 International Building Code .","qid":"2779","docid":"Smoke_exhaust_ductwork","rank":36,"score":129548},{"content":"Title: Environmental impact of the coal industry Content: The environmental impact of the coal industry includes issues such as land use , waste management , water and air pollution , caused by the coal mining , processing and the use of its products . In addition to atmospheric pollution , coal burning produces hundreds of millions of tons of solid waste products annually , including fly ash , bottom ash , and flue-gas desulfurization sludge , that contain mercury , uranium , thorium , arsenic , and other heavy metals . There are severe health effects caused by burning coal . According to a report by the World Health Organization in 2008 , coal particulates pollution are estimated to shorten approximately 1,000,000 lives annually worldwide . A 2004 study commissioned by environmental groups , but contested by the US EPA , concluded that coal burning costs 24,000 lives a year in the United States . Historically , coal mining has been a very dangerous activity and the list of historical coal mining disasters is a long one . Underground mining hazards include suffocation , gas poisoning , roof collapse and gas explosions . Open cut hazards are principally mine wall failures and vehicle collisions . In the United States , an average of 26 coal miners per year died in the decade 2005-2014 .","qid":"2779","docid":"Environmental_impact_of_the_coal_industry","rank":37,"score":129327},{"content":"Title: Chimney (disambiguation) Content: A chimney is a conduit for exhausting combustion gases up into open air . Chimney or Chimneys may also refer to : Chimney ( locomotive ) , specifically for chimneys fitted to railway locomotives Funnel ( ship ) , chimney or smokestack on a ship Chimney , Oxfordshire , hamlet in England Chimney ( sculpture ) , outside Riley Hospital for Children , Indianapolis Chimneying , rock-climbing technique Chimneys ( play ) by Agatha Christie Chimneys novels , two light-hearted thrillers by Agatha Christie Fairy chimney , tall thin rock formation Methane chimney , underground gas buildup Solar chimney , method of heating a building using passive solar energy Chimney swift , Chaetura pelagica Chimney crayfish , Cambarus diogenes Chimney bellflower , Campanula pyramidalis","qid":"2779","docid":"Chimney_(disambiguation)","rank":38,"score":128834},{"content":"Title: White coal Content: White coal is a form of fuel produced by drying chopped wood over a fire . It differs from charcoal which is carbonised wood . White coal was used in England to smelt lead ore from the mid-sixteenth to the late seventeenth centuries . It produces more heat than green wood but less than charcoal and thus prevents the lead evaporating . White coal could be used mixed with charcoal for other industrial uses than lead smelting . White coal was produced in distinctive circular pits with a channel , known as Q-pits . They are frequently found in the woods of South Yorkshire . Nowadays white coal is made from Groundnut shells Cotton hulls and salks Castor seed shells Forest leaves ; wood chips and shavings Sugarcane bagasse Rice husk and paddy straw Mustard waste Coir dust Coffee husk Sunflower waste Maize stalks Bajra cobs Sesame seeds oil cake Wheat straw Benefits of white coal : White coal is cheaper than coal and fire wood . There is no sulphur in the white coal , therefore no toxic gases . Moisture content is nil . Biomass briquettes have a higher practical thermal value . Briquettes have consistent quality , have high burning efficiency , and are ideally sized for complete combustion . Combustion is more uniform compared to coal and boiler response to changes in steam requirements is faster , due to higher quantity of volatile matter in briquettes . Low ash contents . The calorific value of the finished briquettes is approximately 3500 to 4000 kcal/kg . India is fast becoming a major manufacturer and consumer of white coal . A large number of companies have switched their boiler fuels to use white coal instead of fossil fuels . White Coal manufacturing capacity is coming up in droves in the state of Gujarat , Maharashtra , Tamil Nadu and Rajasthan . The production of White coal ( Briquettes made of Biomass ) using agricultural and forest waste is more common in North India .","qid":"2779","docid":"White_coal","rank":39,"score":128501},{"content":"Title: Wet stacking Content: Wet stacking is a condition in diesel engines in which not all the fuel is burned and passes on into the exhaust system . The word `` stacking '' comes from the term `` stack '' for exhaust pipe or chimney stack . The oily exhaust pipe is therefore a `` wet stack '' . This condition can have several causes . The most common cause is idling the engine for long intervals , which does not generate enough heat in the cylinder for a complete burn . `` Idling '' may be running at full rated operating speed , but with very little load applied . Another is excessive fueling . That may be caused by weak or leaky injectors , fuel settings turned up too high or overfueling for the given rpms . Cold weather running or other causes that prevent the engine from reaching proper operating temperature can cause a buildup of fuel due to incomplete burn that can result in ` wetstacking ' . In diesel generators , it is usually because the diesel engine is running at only a small percentage of its rated output . For efficient combustion , a diesel should be run under at least 60 per cent of its rated power output . It is detectable by the presence of a black ooze around the exhaust manifold , piping and turbocharger , if fitted . It can be mistaken for lubricating oil in some cases , but it consists of the `` heavy ends '' of the diesel fuel which do not burn when combustion temperature is too low . The heavier , more oily components of diesel fuel contain more stored energy than a comparable quantity of , say , gasoline , but diesel requires an adequate loading of the engine in order to keep combustion temperature high enough to make use of it . Often , one can hear a slight miss in the engine due to fuel buildup . When the engine is first placed under a load after long periods of idling and wetstacking it may blow some black exhaust out as it burns that excess fuel off . Continuous black exhaust from the stack when under a constant load is also an indication that all the fuel is not being burned .","qid":"2779","docid":"Wet_stacking","rank":40,"score":127957},{"content":"Title: Health effects of coal ash Content: Coal ash , also known as coal combustion residuals ( CCRs ) , is the particulate residue that remains from burning coal . Depending on the chemical composition of the coal burned , this residue may contain toxic substances and pose a health risk to workers in coal-fired power plants .","qid":"2779","docid":"Health_effects_of_coal_ash","rank":41,"score":127191},{"content":"Title: Cowl (chimney) Content: A cowl is a usually hood-shaped covering used to increase the draft of a chimney and prevent backflow . The cowl , usually made of galvanized iron , is fitted to the chimney pot to prevent wind blowing the smoke back down into the room below . Undoubtedly named after the resemblance of many designs to the cowl garment worn by monks , they have been in use for centuries . When using an open fire to heat a room the smoke rises through a flue to a chimney pot on the roof . Under normal conditions the warm air from the fire will rise up the chimney emitting the smoke with it and dispersing it at rooftop level where it is less of a nuisance . In strong winds the pressure of the wind may overwhelm the updraft and push the airflow in reverse down the flue . Smoke will then fill the room it is intended to heat posing a health and fire risk , causing discomfort and dirtying furnishings in its path . When raw coal rather than smokeless fuel is burnt , the amount of smoke may be considerable and measures to prevent backflow occurring are a necessity . A secondary function is to prevent birds and squirrels from nesting in the chimney . They often also act as a rain guard to keep rain from going down the chimney . A metal wire mesh is sometimes added as a spark arrestor . Wooden cowls were used on oasts to prevent the ingress of rain into kilns , and create a flow of air through the kiln . A H-style cap ( cowl ) is a chimney top constructed from chimney pipes shaped like the letter H . It is an age-old method to regulate draft in situations where prevailing winds or turbulence cause downdraft and backpuffing . Although the H-cap has a distinctive advantage over most other downdraft caps , it fell out of favor because of its bulky looks . It is found mainly in marine use but has been gaining popularity again for its energy saving functionality . The H-cap stabilizes the draft rather than increasing it . Other downdraft caps are based on the Venturi effect , solving downdraft problems by increasing the updraft constantly resulting in much higher fuel consumption .","qid":"2779","docid":"Cowl_(chimney)","rank":42,"score":127076},{"content":"Title: Soothill Content: Soothill is a small village in the town of Batley , West Yorkshire , England . Soothill is 1.5 mi northeast from the town of Dewsbury and directly north of Hanging Heaton . The name derives from the Old English `` sot '' and means a place where wood was burnt . Soothill was on the Great Northern Railway 's Leeds to Batley branch line , although no station was provided . The colliery at Soothill , adjacent to the railway , was the scene of a rail accident in February 1920 between a goods train and a passenger train . The accident was not fatal with only injuries being recorded . The railway was closed in 1953 leaving a disused tunnel ( Soothill Tunnel ) north east of the settlement . This tunnel has been bricked up as it contains toxic gases .","qid":"2779","docid":"Soothill","rank":43,"score":126811},{"content":"Title: Smog Content: Smog is a type of air pollutant . The word `` smog '' was coined in the early 20th century as a portmanteau of the words smoke and fog to refer to smoky fog , its opacity , and odour . The word was then intended to refer to what was sometimes known as pea soup fog , a familiar and serious problem in London from the 19th century to the mid 20th century . This kind of visible air pollution is composed of nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , ozone , smoke or particulates among others ( less visible pollutants include carbon monoxide , CFCs and radioactive sources ) . Human-made smog is derived from coal emissions , vehicular emissions , industrial emissions , forest and agricultural fires and photochemical reactions of these emissions . Modern smog , as found for example in Los Angeles , is a type of air pollution derived from vehicular emission from internal combustion engines and industrial fumes that react in the atmosphere with sunlight to form secondary pollutants that also combine with the primary emissions to form photochemical smog . In certain other cities , such as Delhi , smog severity is often aggravated by stubble burning in neighboring agricultural areas . The atmospheric pollution levels of Los Angeles , Beijing , Delhi , Mexico City , Tehran and other cities are increased by inversion that traps pollution close to the ground . It is usually highly toxic to humans and can cause severe sickness , shortened life or death .","qid":"2779","docid":"Smog","rank":44,"score":126525},{"content":"Title: Motor vehicle emissions and pregnancy Content: In the United States about 10 % of the population , 35 million people , live within 100 meters of a high traffic road High-traffic roads are commonly identified as being host to more than 50,000 vehicles per day , which is a source of toxic vehicle pollutants . Previous studies have found correlations between exposure to vehicle pollutants and certain diseases such as asthma , lung and heart disease , and cancer among others . Car pollutants include carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , particulate matter ( fine dusts and soot ) , and toxic air pollutants While these pollutants affect the general health of populations , they are known to also have specific adverse effects on expectant mothers and their fetuses . The purpose of this article is to outline how vehicular pollutants affect the health of expectant mothers and the adverse health effects these exposure have on the unborn babies .","qid":"2779","docid":"Motor_vehicle_emissions_and_pregnancy","rank":45,"score":126202},{"content":"Title: Briquette Content: A briquette ( or briquet ) is a compressed block of coal dust or other combustible biomass material such as charcoal , sawdust , wood chips , peat , or paper used for fuel and kindling to start a fire . The term comes from the French language and is related to brick .","qid":"2779","docid":"Briquette","rank":46,"score":126135},{"content":"Title: Westerholt Power Station Content: Westerholt Power Station was a coal fired power station in Gelsenkirchen-Westerholt , Germany . The power plant consisted of two units built in the 1960s , each capable of producing 150 MW of electricity . Its smokestack , built in 1981 , was over 300 metres ( 1000 feet ) tall , making it Germany 's tallest chimney at the time . The power station was decommissioned on May 13 , 2005 . The chimney was demolished on Sunday , December 3 , 2006 , at 10:53 a.m. The height of the smokestack , 300 metres , has been confirmed by the former operator of the power plant , E.ON Kraftwerke . It was the tallest structure in North Rhine-Westphalia . Before its erection the Wesel transmitter tower took this claim . After the demolition of the chimney , the Wesel tower once again became the tallest structure in North Rhine-Westphalia . A district heating plant , `` FWK Westerholt '' , has been in operation on this site since the spring of 2004 . There are six boilers there to provide heat for the district heating network of the northern Ruhr Area . The Westerholt coal mine is located only a few hundred metres away . Both the power plant and the mine are on the city limits of Gelsenkirchen in the Hassel neighborhood and were named for the contiguous ( and at that time still independent ) city of Westerholt in what was then the district of Recklinghausen ( today the city is a part of the city of Herten and is named `` Herten-Westerholt '' ) .","qid":"2779","docid":"Westerholt_Power_Station","rank":47,"score":125906},{"content":"Title: Flue Content: A flue is a duct , pipe , or opening in a chimney for conveying exhaust gases from a fireplace , furnace , water heater , boiler , or generator to the outdoors . Historically the term flue meant the chimney itself . In the United States , they are also known as vents for boilers and as breeching for water heaters and modern furnaces . They usually operate by buoyancy , also known as the stack effect , or the combustion products may be ` induced ' via a blower . As combustion products contain carbon monoxide and other dangerous compounds , proper ` draft ' , and admission of replacement air is imperative . Building codes , and other standards , regulate their materials , design , and installation .","qid":"2779","docid":"Flue","rank":48,"score":125896},{"content":"Title: Ultra-low-sulfur diesel Content: Ultra-low-sulfur diesel ( ULSD ) is diesel fuel with substantially lowered sulfur content . Since 2006 , almost all of the petroleum-based diesel fuel available in Europe and North America has been of a ULSD type . The move to lower sulfur content allows for the application of advanced emissions control technologies that substantially lower the harmful emissions from diesel combustion . Testing by engine manufacturers and regulatory bodies have found the use of emissions control devices in conjunction with ULSD can reduce the exhaust output of ozone precursors and particulate matter to near-zero levels . In 1993 the European Union began mandating the reduction of diesel sulfur content and implementing modern ULSD specifications in 1999 . The United States started phasing in ULSD requirements for highway vehicles in 2006 , with implementation for off-highway applications , such as locomotive and marine fuel , beginning in 2007 .","qid":"2779","docid":"Ultra-low-sulfur_diesel","rank":49,"score":125681},{"content":"Title: German response to Kyoto Protocol Content: Germany is Europe 's largest and the world 's 6th greatest single emitter of CO2 . In July 2007 , Germany had the largest European population , with 82.4 million people . Germany imports most of its materials and energy sources , and in 2004 imported 2.135 million barrels of oil and 85.02 billion m ³ ( 2003 ) of natural gas a day . In 2004 , Germany emitted 886 million metric tonnes of CO2 . In 2004 , there were approximately 45 million registered cars in Germany . Between March 1998 and March 1999 , 84 countries including Germany signed the Kyoto Protocol . In March 2002 , the Bundestag unanimously ratified Kyoto . In May 2002 , the European Union submitted the articles of ratification for all 15 of its then member states . As an Annex II nation , Germany 's commitment to the UNFCCC with respect to Kyoto was to reduce emissions as well as to provide an economic crutch to developing nations via Clean Development Mechanisms . In November 2006 , Germany 's planned annual quota was 482 million metric tonnes of CO2 . German Greenhouse Gas Emissions reduced by 17.2 % from 1990 to 2004 , according to UNFCCC . Germany actively promotes government carbon funds and supports multilateral carbon funds that are intent on purchasing Carbon Credits from non-Annex I parties . Government organizations work closely with major utility , energy , oil and gas , and chemicals conglomerates to try to acquire as many Greenhouse Gas Certificates as cheaply as possible . Since signing and ratifying the protocol , Germany has committed to reducing its emissions to 21 % below 1990 levels between 2008 and 2012 . In November 2008 , a study found that Germany had already reduced its greenhouse gas emissions by 22.4 % , which means it already reached its Kyoto Emissions Commitments .","qid":"2779","docid":"German_response_to_Kyoto_Protocol","rank":50,"score":125398},{"content":"Title: Particulates Content: Atmospheric particulate matter -- also known as particulate matter ( PM ) or particulates -- are microscopic solid or liquid matter suspended in the Earth 's atmosphere . The term aerosol commonly refers to the particulate/air mixture , as opposed to the particulate matter alone . Sources of particulate matter can be man-made or natural . They have impacts on climate and precipitation that adversely affect human health . Subtypes of atmospheric particulate matter include suspended particulate matter ( SPM ) , thoracic and respirable particles , inhalable coarse particles , which are -LSB- coarse -RSB- particles with a diameter between 2.5 and 10 micrometers ( μm ) ( PM10 ) , fine particles with a diameter of 2.5 μm or less ( PM2 .5 ) , ultrafine particles , and soot The IARC and WHO designate airborne particulates a Group 1 carcinogen . Particulates are the deadliest form of air pollution due to their ability to penetrate deep into the lungs and blood streams unfiltered , causing permanent DNA mutations , heart attacks , and premature death . In 2013 , a study involving 312,944 people in nine European countries revealed that there was no safe level of particulates and that for every increase of 10 μg / m3 in PM10 , the lung cancer rate rose 22 % . The smaller PM2 .5 were particularly deadly , with a 36 % increase in lung cancer per 10 μg / m3 as it can penetrate deeper into the lungs .","qid":"2779","docid":"Particulates","rank":51,"score":125106},{"content":"Title: Environmental aspects of the electric car Content: Although electric cars have several benefits over conventional internal combustion engine automobiles , they are still subject to environmental regulation due to heavy reliance of rare earth elements such as neodymium , most of which are from China . However , several key environmental benefits includes a significant reduction of local air pollution , especially in cities , as they do not emit harmful tailpipe pollutants such as particulates ( soot ) , volatile organic compounds , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , ozone , lead , and various oxides of nitrogen . The amount of carbon dioxide emitted depends on the emission intensity of the power sources used to charge the vehicle , the efficiency of the said vehicle and the energy wasted in the charging process . For mains electricity the emission intensity varies significantly per country and within a particular country , and on the demand , the availability of renewable sources and the efficiency of the fossil fuel-based generation used at a given time .","qid":"2779","docid":"Environmental_aspects_of_the_electric_car","rank":52,"score":123915},{"content":"Title: Oxygenate Content: Oxygenated chemical compounds contain oxygen as a part of their chemical structure . The term usually refers to oxygenated fuels . Oxygenates are usually employed as gasoline additives to reduce carbon monoxide and soot that is created during the burning of the fuel . Compounds related to soot , like polyaromatic hydrocarbons ( PAHs ) and nitrated PAHs , are reduced also . The oxygenates commonly used are either alcohols or ethers : Alcohols : Methanol ( MeOH ) Ethanol ( EtOH ) Isopropyl alcohol ( IPA ) n-butanol ( BuOH ) Gasoline grade t-butanol ( GTBA ) Ethers : Methyl tert-butyl ether ( MTBE ) Tert-amyl methyl ether ( TAME ) Tert-hexyl methyl ether ( THEME ) Ethyl tert-butyl ether ( ETBE ) Tert-amyl ethyl ether ( TAEE ) Diisopropyl ether ( DIPE ) In the United States , the Environmental Protection Agency had authority to mandate that minimum proportions of oxygenates be added to automotive gasoline on regional and seasonal basis from 1992 until 2006 in an attempt to reduce air pollution , in particular ground-level ozone and smog . In addition to this North American automakers have in 2006 and 2007 promoted a blend of 85 % ethanol and 15 % gasoline , marketed as E85 , and their flex-fuel vehicles , e.g. GM 's '' Live Green , Go Yellow '' campaign . U.S. Corporate Average Fuel Economy ( CAFE ) standards give an artificial 54 % fuel efficiency bonus to vehicles capable of running on 85 % alcohol blends over vehicles not adapted to run on 85 % alcohol blends . There is also alcohols ' intrinsically cleaner combustion , however due to its lower energy density it is not capable of producing as much energy per gallon as gasoline . Much gasoline sold in the United States is blended with up to 10 % of an oxygenating agent . This is known as oxygenated fuel and often ( but not entirely correctly , as there are reformulated gasolines without oxygenate ) as reformulated gasoline . Methyl tert ( iary ) - butyl ether ( MTBE ) was the most popular fuel additive in the US , prior to government mandated use of ethanol .","qid":"2779","docid":"Oxygenate","rank":53,"score":123652},{"content":"Title: Carbon black Content: Carbon black ( subtypes are acetylene black , channel black , furnace black , lamp black and thermal black ) is a material produced by the incomplete combustion of heavy petroleum products such as FCC tar , coal tar , ethylene cracking tar , and a small amount from vegetable oil . Carbon black is a form of paracrystalline carbon that has a high surface-area-to-volume ratio , albeit lower than that of activated carbon . It is dissimilar to soot in its much higher surface-area-to-volume ratio and significantly lower ( negligible and non-bioavailable ) PAH ( polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon ) content . However , carbon black is widely used as a model compound for diesel soot for diesel oxidation experiments . Carbon black is mainly used as a reinforcing filler in tires and other rubber products . In plastics , paints , and inks carbon black is used as a color pigment . The current International Agency for Research on Cancer ( IARC ) evaluation is that , `` Carbon black is possibly carcinogenic to humans ( Group 2B ) '' . Short-term exposure to high concentrations of carbon black dust may produce discomfort to the upper respiratory tract , through mechanical irritation .","qid":"2779","docid":"Carbon_black","rank":54,"score":123050},{"content":"Title: Fugitive emissions Content: Fugitive emissions are emissions of gases or vapors from pressurized equipment due to leaks and other unintended or irregular releases of gases , mostly from industrial activities . As well as the economic cost of lost commodities , fugitive emissions contribute to air pollution and climate change . A detailed inventory of greenhouse gas emissions from upstream oil and gas activities in Canada for the year 2000 estimated that fugitive equipment leaks had a global warming potential equivalent to the release of 17 million metric tonnes of carbon dioxide , or 12 per cent of all greenhouse gases emitted by the sector . Venting of natural gas , flaring , accidental releases and storage losses accounted for an additional 38 per cent . Fugitive emissions present other risks and hazards . Emissions of volatile organic compounds such as benzene from oil refineries and chemical plants pose a long term health risk to workers and local communities . In situations where large amounts of flammable liquids and gases are contained under pressure , leaks also increase the risk of fire and explosion . Leaks from pressurized process equipment generally occur through valves , pipe connections , mechanical seals , or related equipment . Fugitive emissions also occur at evaporative sources such as waste water treatment ponds and storage tanks . Because of the huge number of potential leak sources at large industrial facilities and the difficulties in detecting and repairing some leaks , fugitive emissions can be a significant proportion of total emissions . Though the quantities of leaked gases may be small , gases that have serious health or environmental impacts can cause a significant problem . To minimize and control leaks at process facilities operators carry out regular leak detection and repair activities . Routine inspections of process equipment with gas detectors can be used to identify leaks and estimate the leak rate in order to decide on appropriate corrective action . Proper routine maintenance of equipment reduces the likelihood of leaks . Because of the technical difficulties and costs of detecting and quantifying actual fugitive emissions at a site or facility , and the variability and intermittent nature of emission flow rates , bottom-up estimates based on standard emission factors are generally used for annual reporting purposes . New technologies are under development that could revolutionize the detection and monitoring of fugitive emissions . One technology , known as differential absorption lidar ( DIAL ) , can be used to remotely measure concentration profiles of hydrocarbons in the atmosphere up to several hundred meters from a facility . DIAL has been used for refinery surveys in Europe for over 15 years . A pilot study carried out in 2005 using DIAL found that actual emissions at a refinery were fifteen times higher than those previously reported using the emission factor approach . The fugitive emissions were equivalent to 0.17 % of the refinery throughput . Portable gas leak imaging cameras are also a new technology that can be used to improve leak detection and repair , leading to reduced fugitive emissions . The cameras use infrared imaging technology to produce video images in which invisible gases escaping from leak sources can be clearly identified .","qid":"2779","docid":"Fugitive_emissions","rank":55,"score":123002},{"content":"Title: Coal in Europe Content: Coal in Europe describes coal as energy fuel in Europe today . Coal includes hard coal , brown coal , and lignite . Coal production in Europe is falling , and imports exceed production . If production and consumption continue at the present rate , proven and economically recoverable world reserves would last for about 150 years . According to IEA Coal Information ( 2007 ) world production and use of coal have increased considerably in recent years . There is , however , growing controversy in Europe over the use of coal , as many denounce it for reasons such as health risks and links to global warming .","qid":"2779","docid":"Coal_in_Europe","rank":56,"score":122253},{"content":"Title: Coal in Australia Content: Coal in Australia is mined primarily in Queensland , New South Wales and Victoria . Coal is used to generate electricity and most of the coal mined in Australia is exported , mostly to eastern Asia . In fiscal year 2013/14 , 430.9 million tonnes of coal was mined , and 375.1 million tonnes was exported . Coal provides about 69 % of Australia 's electricity production . In fiscal year 2008/09 , 487 million tonnes of coal was mined , and 261 million tonnes was exported . In 2013 , Australia was the world 's fifth-largest coal producer , after China , the United States , India , and Indonesia . However , in terms of proportion of production exported , Australia was the world 's second largest coal exporter , with exports accounting for roughly 73 % of coal production . Indonesia exports about 87 % of its coal production . Coal mining in Australia has been criticised by members of the environmental movement , due to carbon dioxide emissions during combustion . This criticism is primarily directed at thermal coal , for its connection to coal-fired power stations as a major source of carbon dioxide emissions , and the link to climate change and the effects of global warming on Australia . The burning of coal for electricity produces 29 % of Australia 's total greenhouse gas emissions , based on 2013-2014 Clean Energy Regulator data . Both Greenpeace Australia Pacific ( Energy -LSB- R -RSB- evolution ) and Beyond Zero Emissions ( Zero Carbon Australia 2020 ) have produced reports claiming a transition can be made to renewable energy and Greenpeace has called for a just transition for coal based communities , but others argue at present there is no strong evidence of a viable alternative for the vast majority of Australia 's electricity generation , or for the significant economic and social benefits coal mining delivers to regional communities . Many of these arguments specifically ignore the differentiation between thermal and metallurgical coal , and the different application they play in modern society . Coal Seam Gas , methane-based gas associated with deposits of coal has historically been flared , however over the past 10 years has been recovered and used to generate further electricity . The Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme , which followed the draft report of the Garnaut Climate Change Review , has placed a price on carbon emissions through a reducing cap and trade emissions trading scheme and this would be likely to impact most heavily on brown coal usage within Australia ( particularly in the Latrobe Valley in Victoria ) for power generation .","qid":"2779","docid":"Coal_in_Australia","rank":57,"score":121859},{"content":"Title: Spodium Content: Spodium , ( Latin for ashes or soot ) refers to burned bone ( usually used for medical purposes ) , or the act of divination with ash . Spodium may also refer to other types of ash , such as the scrapings from the inside of a furnace . Spodium has a long history of medical usage , mentioned by Hippocrates and , for example , in the Medical Poem of Salerno '' ... Who knows the cause why Spodium stancheth bleeding ? ... '' ( in this case spodium referring to oxen bone ashes ) . Category : Incineration Category : History of medicine","qid":"2779","docid":"Spodium","rank":58,"score":120412},{"content":"Title: Air filter Content: A particulate air filter is a device composed of fibrous materials which removes solid particulates such as dust , pollen , mould , and bacteria from the air . Filters containing an absorbent or catalyst such as charcoal ( carbon ) may also remove odors and gaseous pollutants such as volatile organic compounds or ozone . Air filters are used in applications where air quality is important , notably in building ventilation systems and in engines . Some buildings , as well as aircraft and other human-made environments ( e.g. , satellites and space shuttles ) use foam , pleated paper , or spun fiberglass filter elements . Another method , air ionisers , use fibers or elements with a static electric charge , which attract dust particles . The air intakes of internal combustion engines and air compressors tend to use either paper , foam , or cotton filters . Oil bath filters have fallen out of favor . The technology of air intake filters of gas turbines has improved significantly in recent years , due to improvements in the aerodynamics and fluid dynamics of the air-compressor part of the gas turbines .","qid":"2779","docid":"Air_filter","rank":59,"score":120296},{"content":"Title: Cyphelium notarisii Content: Cyphelium notarisii or soot lichen is a species of lichenised fungus in the family Caliciaceae . Found in Europe and North America , it grows on wood , often in coastal areas . The species was first described as Acolium notarisii by Charles Tulasne in 1852 .","qid":"2779","docid":"Cyphelium_notarisii","rank":60,"score":119537},{"content":"Title: Smoking (cooking) Content: Smoking is the process of flavoring , browning , cooking , or preserving food by exposing it to smoke from burning or smoldering material , most often wood . Meats and fish are the most common smoked foods , though cheeses , vegetables , and ingredients used to make beverages such as whisky , smoked beer , and lapsang souchong tea are also smoked . In Europe , alder is the traditional smoking wood , but oak is more often used now , and beech to a lesser extent . In North America , hickory , mesquite , oak , pecan , alder , maple , and fruit-tree woods , such as apple , cherry , and plum , are commonly used for smoking . Other biomass besides wood can also be employed , sometimes with the addition of flavoring ingredients . Chinese tea-smoking uses a mixture of uncooked rice , sugar , and tea , heated at the base of a wok . Some North American ham and bacon makers smoke their products over burning corncobs . Peat is burned to dry and smoke the barley malt used to make whisky and some beers . In New Zealand , sawdust from the native manuka ( tea tree ) is commonly used for hot smoking fish . In Iceland , dried sheep dung is used to cold-smoke fish , lamb , mutton and whale . Historically , farms in the Western world included a small building termed the smokehouse , where meats could be smoked and stored . This was generally well-separated from other buildings both because of the fire danger and because of the smoke emanations . The smoking of food directly with wood smoke is known to contaminate the food with carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons .","qid":"2779","docid":"Smoking_(cooking)","rank":61,"score":119498},{"content":"Title: Aethalometer Content: An aethalometer is an instrument for measuring the concentration of optically absorbing ( ` black ' ) suspended particulates in a gas colloid stream ; commonly visualized as smoke or haze , often seen in ambient air under polluted conditions . The word aethalometer is derived from the Classical Greek verb ` aethaloun ' , meaning ` to blacken with soot ' .","qid":"2779","docid":"Aethalometer","rank":62,"score":119381},{"content":"Title: Beehive burner Content: A wood waste burner , known as a teepee burner or wigwam burner in the United States and a beehive burner in Canada , is a free-standing conical steel structure ranging from 30 to 60 feet in height . They are named for their resemblance to beehives , teepees or wigwams . A sawdust burner is cylindrical . They have an opening at the top that is covered with a steel grill or mesh to keep sparks and glowing embers from escaping . Sawdust and wood scraps are delivered to an opening near the top of the cone by means of a conveyor belt or Archimedes ' screw , whereupon they fall onto the fire near the center of the structure . Teepee or beehive burners are used to dispose of waste wood in logging yards and sawdust from sawmills by burning . As a result they produce a large quantity of smoke and ash , which is vented directly into the atmosphere without any sort of scrubbing or cleaning , contributing to poor air conditions wherever they are used . The burners are considered to be a major source of air pollution and are being phased out in most areas . Teepee burners went out of general use in the Northwestern United States in the early 1970s , and are prohibited from operation in Oregon , as well as southwest Washington state . The wood waste is now used as a component in various forest products , such as pellet fuel , particle board and mulch .","qid":"2779","docid":"Beehive_burner","rank":63,"score":118328},{"content":"Title: Southeast Asian haze Content: Southeast Asian haze is a fire-related large-scale air pollution problem that occurs regularly . These haze events have caused adverse health and economic impact on Brunei Darussalam , Indonesia , Malaysia , Singapore , and to a lesser degree , the Philippines and Thailand . The problem flares up every dry season , in varying degrees . Transboundary haze in Southeast Asia has been recorded since 1972 . The haze is largely caused by illegal agricultural fires due to industrial-scale slash-and-burn practices in Indonesia , especially from the provinces of South Sumatra and Riau in Indonesia 's Sumatra island , and Kalimantan on Indonesian Borneo . Burned land can be sold at a higher price illegally , and eventually used for activities including oil palm and pulpwood production . Burning is also cheaper and faster compared to cutting and clearing using excavators or other machines .","qid":"2779","docid":"Southeast_Asian_haze","rank":64,"score":117909},{"content":"Title: 2013 Southeast Asian haze Content: The 2013 Southeast Asian haze was a haze crisis that affected several countries in Southeast Asia , including Brunei , Indonesia , Malaysia , Singapore and Southern Thailand , mainly during June and July 2013 . The haze period was caused by large-scale burning in many parts of Sumatra and Borneo . Satellite imagery from NASA 's Terra and Aqua satellites showed that the haze was mainly due to smoke from fires burning in Riau province , Indonesia . The 2013 Southeast Asian haze was notable for causing record high levels of pollution in Singapore and several parts of Malaysia . The 3-hour Pollution Standards Index in Singapore reached a record high of 401 on 21 June 2013 , surpassing the previous record of 226 set during the 1997 South East Asian Haze . On 23 June , the Air Pollution Index ( API ) in Muar , Johor spiked to 746 at 7 a.m. which was almost 2.5 times above the minimum range of the Hazardous level thus resulting in the declaration of emergency in Muar and Ledang ( which was afterwards lifted on 25 June in the morning ) , leaving the towns in virtual shutdown .","qid":"2779","docid":"2013_Southeast_Asian_haze","rank":65,"score":117871},{"content":"Title: Air Ink Content: Air Ink is an Indian startup brand which produces ink and ink-based art products by condensing soot-based gaseous effluents generated by motor vehicles due to incomplete combustion of fossil fuels . Founded by Graviky Labs , a spin-off group of MIT Media Lab , Air Ink produces its materials through a step-by-step process which primarily involves capturing of emissions , separation of carbon from the soot , and then mixing of this carbon with different types of oils and solutions . It uses a patented device called `` Kaalink '' to carry out the filtration of soot , which contains carbon and other polluting agents like heavy metals and carcinogens . Air Ink is marketed as a solution to air pollution and its disastrous effects on human life . Dubbed as `` the first ink made out of recycled air pollution '' , its products were used in August 2016 in association with Tiger Beer to create street art and murals in Hong Kong 's Sheung Wan district . 30 -- 50 minutes of car pollution is enough to create purified carbon which can fill an Air Ink pen .","qid":"2779","docid":"Air_Ink","rank":66,"score":117519},{"content":"Title: Soot blower Content: A sootblower is a device for removing the soot that is deposited on the furnace tubes of a boiler during combustion . Types of soot blowers : Wall Blowers also known as IRs ( Insertable Rotating ) Long Retractable Soot Blower ( LRSB ) or IK ( Insertable Kinetic ) Air Heater Blower . Steam blowing medium : Steam Air Steam is normally used as a medium for blowing away the soot since capital cost of steam pressure reducing equipment and drain is less than the cost of compressors , motors and control of air systems .","qid":"2779","docid":"Soot_blower","rank":67,"score":116358},{"content":"Title: Coal seam fire Content: A coal seam fire or mine fire is the underground smouldering of a coal deposit , often in a coal mine . Such fires have economic , social and ecological impacts . They are often started by lightning , grass , or forest fires , and are particularly insidious because they continue to smoulder underground after surface fires have been extinguished , sometimes for many years , before flaring up and restarting forest and brush fires nearby . They propagate in a creeping fashion along mine shafts and cracks in geologic structures . Coal fires are a serious health and safety hazard , affecting the environment by releasing toxic fumes , reigniting grass , brush , or forest fires , and causing subsidence of surface infrastructure such as roads , pipelines , electric lines , bridge supports , buildings and homes . Whether started by humans or by natural causes , coal seam fires continue to burn for decades or even centuries until either the fuel source is exhausted , a permanent groundwater table is encountered , the depth of the burn becomes greater than the ground 's capacity to subside and vent , or humans intervene . Because they burn underground , coal seam fires are extremely difficult and costly to extinguish , and are unlikely to be suppressed by rainfall . There are strong similarities between coal fires and peat fires . Across the world , thousands of underground coal fires are burning at any given moment . The problem is most acute in industrializing , coal-rich nations such as China . Global coal fire emissions are estimated to cause 40 tons of mercury to enter the atmosphere annually , and to represent three percent of the world 's annual CO2 emissions .","qid":"2779","docid":"Coal_seam_fire","rank":68,"score":116194},{"content":"Title: Multi-fuel stove Content: A multi-fuel stove is very similar to a wood-burning stove in appearance and design . Multifuel refers to the capability of the stove to burn wood and also coal , wood pellets , or peat . Stoves that have a grate for the fire to burn on and a removable ash pan are generally considered multi-fuel stoves . If the fire simply burns on a bed of ash , it is a wood-only fuelled appliance , and can not be used for coal or peat .","qid":"2779","docid":"Multi-fuel_stove","rank":69,"score":116082},{"content":"Title: Bukhari (heater) Content: A bukhāri ( Kashmiri : बुख़ारी or بُخاری ) is a traditional space heater from the northern areas of the Indian Subcontinent , which is typically a wood-burning stove . Bukharis consist of a wide cylindrical fire-chamber at the base in which wood , charcoal or other fuel is burned and a narrower cylinder on the top that helps in heating the room and acts as a chimney . The base of a Kashmiribukhari is wider than that of most western wood-burning stoves . Bukharis are found in the entire northern belt of the region , i.e. Afghanistan , Kashmir , Nepal , Pakistan , Bhutan and Northeast India .","qid":"2779","docid":"Bukhari_(heater)","rank":70,"score":116031},{"content":"Title: Wood fuel Content: Wood fuel ( or fuelwood ) is a fuel , such as firewood , charcoal , chips , sheets , pellets , and sawdust . The particular form used depends upon factors such as source , quantity , quality and application . In many areas , wood is the most easily available form of fuel , requiring no tools in the case of picking up dead wood , or few tools , although as in any industry , specialized tools , such as skidders and hydraulic wood splitters , have been developed to mechanize production . Sawmill waste and construction industry by-products also include various forms of lumber tailings . The discovery of how to make fire for the purpose of burning wood is regarded as one of humanity 's most important advances . The use of wood as a fuel source for heating is much older than civilization and is assumed to have been used by Neanderthals . Today , burning of wood is the largest use of energy derived from a solid fuel biomass . Wood fuel can be used for cooking and heating , and occasionally for fueling steam engines and steam turbines that generate electricity . Wood may be used indoors in a furnace , stove , or fireplace , or outdoors in a furnace , campfire , or bonfire . In permanent structures and in caves , hearths were constructed or established -- surfaces of stone or another noncombustible material upon which a fire could be built . Smoke escaped through a smoke hole in the roof . In contrast to civilizations in relatively arid regions ( such as Mesopotamia and Egypt ) , the Greeks , Romans , Celts , Britons , and Gauls all had access to forests suitable for using as fuel . Over the centuries there was a partial deforestation of climax forests and the evolution of the remainder to coppice with standards woodland as the primary source of wood fuel . These woodlands involved a continuous cycle of new stems harvested from old stumps , on rotations between seven and thirty years . One of the earliest printed books on woodland management , in English , was John Evelyn 's `` Sylva , or a discourse on forest trees '' ( 1664 ) advising landowners on the proper management of forest estates . H. L. Edlin , in `` Woodland Crafts in Britain '' , 1949 outlines the extraordinary techniques employed , and range of wood products that have been produced from these managed forests since pre-Roman times . And throughout this time the preferred form of wood fuel was the branches of cut coppice stems bundled into faggots . Larger , bent or deformed stems that were of no other use to the woodland craftsmen were converted to the end of World War two . Since then much of these woodlands have been converted to broadscale agriculture . Total demand for fuel increased considerably with the industrial revolution but most of this increased demand was met by the new fuel source coal , which was more compact and more suited to the larger scale of the new industries . During the Edo period of Japan , wood was used for many purposes , and the consumption of wood led Japan to develop a forest management policy during that era . Demand for timber resources was on the rise not only for fuel , but also for construction of ships and buildings , and consequently deforestation was widespread . As a result , forest fires occurred , along with floods and soil erosion . Around 1666 , the shogun made it a policy to reduce logging and increase the planting of trees . This policy decreed that only the shogun , or a daimyō , could authorize the use of wood . By the 18th century , Japan had developed detailed scientific knowledge about silviculture and plantation forestry .","qid":"2779","docid":"Wood_fuel","rank":71,"score":115994},{"content":"Title: Carbon-neutral fuel Content: Carbon-neutral fuels can refer to a variety of energy fuels or energy systems which have no net greenhouse gas emissions or carbon footprint . One class is synthetic fuel ( including methane , gasoline , diesel fuel , jet fuel or ammonia ) produced from sustainable or nuclear energy used to hydrogenate waste carbon dioxide recycled from power plant flue exhaust gas or derived from carbonic acid in seawater . Other types can be produced from renewable energy sources such as wind turbines , solar panels , and hydroelectric power stations . Such fuels are potentially carbon-neutral because they do not result in a net increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases . Until captured carbon is used for plastics feedstock , carbon neutral fuel synthesis is the primary means of carbon capture and utilization or recycling . To the extent that carbon-neutral fuels displace fossil fuels , or if they are produced from waste carbon or seawater carbonic acid , and their combustion is subject to carbon capture at the flue or exhaust pipe , they result in negative carbon dioxide emission and net carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere , and thus constitute a form of greenhouse gas remediation . Such power to gas carbon-neutral and carbon-negative fuels can be produced by the electrolysis of water to make hydrogen used in the Sabatier reaction to produce methane which may then be stored to be burned later in power plants as synthetic natural gas , transported by pipeline , truck , or tanker ship , or be used in gas to liquids processes such as the Fischer -- Tropsch process to make traditional fuels for transportation or heating . Carbon-neutral fuels are used in Germany and Iceland for distributed storage of renewable energy , minimizing problems of wind and solar intermittency , and enabling transmission of wind , water , and solar power through existing natural gas pipelines . Such renewable fuels could alleviate the costs and dependency issues of imported fossil fuels without requiring either electrification of the vehicle fleet or conversion to hydrogen or other fuels , enabling continued compatible and affordable vehicles . A 250 kilowatt synthetic methane plant has been built in Germany and it is being scaled up to 10 megawatts .","qid":"2779","docid":"Carbon-neutral_fuel","rank":72,"score":115206},{"content":"Title: Benzo(a)pyrene Content: Benzo -LSB- a -RSB- pyrene is a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon and the result of incomplete combustion at temperatures between 300 ° C and 600 ° C . The ubiquitous compound can be found in coal tar , tobacco smoke and many foods , especially grilled meats . The substance with the formula C20H12 is one of the benzopyrenes , formed by a benzene ring fused to pyrene . Its diol epoxide metabolites ( more commonly known as BPDE ) react and bind to DNA , resulting in mutations and eventually cancer . It is listed as a Group 1 carcinogen by the IARC . In the 18th century a scrotal cancer of chimney sweepers , the chimney sweeps ' carcinoma , was already connected to soot .","qid":"2779","docid":"Benzo(a)pyrene","rank":73,"score":115034},{"content":"Title: Masonry heater Content: A masonry heater ( or masonry stove , ceramic stove , tile stove ) is a device for warming an interior space through radiant heating , by capturing the heat from periodic burning of fuel ( usually wood ) , and then radiating the heat at a fairly constant temperature for a long period . The technology has existed in different forms , from back into the Neoglacial and Neolithic periods . Archeological digs have revealed excavations of ancient inhabitants utilizing hot smoke from fires in their subterranean dwellings , to radiate into the living spaces . These early forms have evolved into modern systems . Evidence found from 5,000 B.C. of massive blocks of masonry used to retain heat foreshadowed early forms of fire hearths that were used as multifunctional heating sources . Later evolutions came in the Roman hypocaust , Austrian/German ( kachelofen , baths ) using the smoke and exhaust of a single fire . In Eastern and Northern Europe and North Asia , these kachelofens ( or steinofens ) evolved in many different forms and names : for example the Russian Stove/Fireplace ( -LSB- : ru : Русская печь , Русская печь -RSB- ) , the Finnish Stove ( in Finnish : pystyuuni or kaakeliuuni , `` tile oven '' ) and the Swedish Stove ( in Swedish : kakelugn , `` tile stove '' or `` contra-flow stove '' ) associated with Carl Johan Cronstedt . The Chinese developed the same principle into their Kang bed-stove . The masonry heater has gained renewed domestic popularity recently because of its heating efficiency . ASTM International calls a masonry heater `` a vented heating system of predominantly masonry construction having a mass of at least 800 kg ( 1760 lbs ) , excluding the chimney and masonry heater base . In particular , a masonry heater is designed specifically to capture and store a substantial portion of the heat energy from a solid fuel fire in the mass of the masonry heater through internal heat exchange flue channels , enable a charge of solid fuel mixed with an adequate amount of air to burn rapidly and more completely at high temperatures in order to reduce emission of unburned hydrocarbons , and be constructed of sufficient mass and surface area such that under normal operating conditions , the external surface temperature of the masonry heater ( except in the region immediately surrounding the fuel loading door ( s ) ) , does not exceed 110 ° C ( 230 ° F ) . ''","qid":"2779","docid":"Masonry_heater","rank":74,"score":114638},{"content":"Title: Modern chimney cleaning Content: Today , chimney sweeps still maintain a thriving new industry in many parts of the world . The industry has expanded from the maintenance of wood-burning fireplace and appliance venting systems to include venting for many types of heating appliances , such as heating oil , natural gas , wood and pellet burning appliances , building furnaces and space heaters . The standard chimney brush is still used , along with more modern tools ( such as vacuums , cameras and special chimney cleaning tools ) , although most sweeps are done from the bottom of the chimney , rather than the top , to prevent the dispersion of dust and debris . Most modern chimney sweeps are professionals , and are usually trained to diagnose and repair hazards along with maintenance such as removal of flammable creosote , firebox and damper repair , and smoke chamber repair . Some sweeps also offer more complicated repairs such as flue repair and relining , crown repair , and tuckpointing or rebuilding of masonry chimneys .","qid":"2779","docid":"Modern_chimney_cleaning","rank":75,"score":114455},{"content":"Title: Black carbon Content: Chemically , black carbon ( BC ) is a component of fine particulate matter ( PM ≤ 2.5 µm in aerodynamic diameter ) . Black carbon consists of pure carbon in several linked forms . It is formed through the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels , biofuel , and biomass , and is emitted in both anthropogenic and naturally occurring soot . Black carbon causes human morbidity and premature mortality . In climatology , black carbon is a climate forcing agent . Black carbon warms the Earth by absorbing sunlight and heating the atmosphere and by reducing albedo when deposited on snow and ice ( direct effects ) and indirectly by interaction with clouds , with the total forcing of 1.1 W/m2 . Black carbon stays in the atmosphere for only several days to weeks , whereas carbon dioxide has an atmospheric lifetime of more than 100 years . The term black carbon is also used in soil sciences and geology , referring either to deposited atmospheric black carbon or to directly incorporated black carbon from vegetation fires . Especially in the tropics , black carbon in soils significantly contributes to fertility as it is able to absorb important plant nutrients .","qid":"2779","docid":"Black_carbon","rank":76,"score":114428},{"content":"Title: 3-Nitrobenzanthrone Content: 3-Nitrobenzanthrone ( 3-nitro-7H-benz -LSB- de -RSB- anthracen-7-one ) is a chemical compound emitted in diesel exhaust ; it is a potent carcinogen . It produced the highest score ever reported in the Ames test , a standard measure of the cancer-causing potential of toxic chemicals , far greater than the previous known strongest ( 1,8-dinitropyrene , which is also found in diesel exhaust ) .","qid":"2779","docid":"3-Nitrobenzanthrone","rank":77,"score":114275},{"content":"Title: Sonic soot blowers Content: thumb | Sonic soot blower Sonic soot blowers offer a cost-effective and non-destructive means of preventing ash and particulate build-up within the power generation industry . They use high energy -- low frequency sound waves that provide 360 ° particulate de-bonding and at a speed in excess of 344 metres per second . Because they employ non-destructive sound waves , unlike steam soot blowers they eliminate any concerns over corrosion , erosion or mechanical damage and do not produce an effluent stream . The sonic soot blower can in some ways be compared to a musical reed instrument such as an oboe , where the ` base tone ' is created by blowing air over a reed and then converting this ` base tone ' into a particular high or low note , depending on how far the sound wave has to travel along inside the body of the instrument . The sonic soot blower operates in the same manner , the ` base tone ' being produced by passing compressed air into a wave generator which houses a titanium diaphragm causing it to oscillate rapidly . This ` base tone ' is then converted into a range of selected frequencies ranging from 350 Hz down to 60 Hz by the design and length of the horn section , producing the desired sound frequency at a sound level approaching 200 dB . The sonic soot blower is usually ` sounded ' for a few seconds at intervals of between 3 and 10 minutes . This ` sounding ' pattern is normally controlled via the plant 's PLC. . However , it may also be operated by such means as a SCADA system , individual timers on each solenoid valve or via a manual ball valve .","qid":"2779","docid":"Sonic_soot_blowers","rank":78,"score":114232},{"content":"Title: Chimney sweeps' carcinoma Content: Chimney sweep 's cancer , also called Soot wart , is a squamous cell carcinoma of the skin of the scrotum . It has the distinction of being the first reported form of occupational cancer , and was initially identified by Percivall Pott in 1775 . It was initially noticed as being prevalent amongst chimney sweeps .","qid":"2779","docid":"Chimney_sweeps'_carcinoma","rank":79,"score":113812},{"content":"Title: European emission standards Content: European emission standards define the acceptable limits for exhaust emissions of new vehicles sold in EU and EEA member states . The emission standards are defined in a series of European Union directives staging the progressive introduction of increasingly stringent standards .","qid":"2779","docid":"European_emission_standards","rank":80,"score":113498},{"content":"Title: 2016 Southeast Asian haze Content: The 2016 Southeast Asian haze is an air pollution crisis affecting several countries in Southeast Asia , including Indonesia , Malaysia and Singapore . The haze is caused by Indonesian agricultural fires in Sumatra and Kalimantan . The fires are attributed to illegal slash-and-burn practices by companies and individual farmers , which remove vegetation to make way for plantations of palm oil , pulp and paper . On 17 August , 365 hot spots were detected on Indonesia 's Sumatra island , with 278 in the province of Riau . On 18 August , 158 hot spots were detected in the province of West Kalimantan . By 26 August , six Indonesian provinces had declared a state of emergency due to the fires : Central Kalimantan , Jambi , Riau , South Kalimantan , South Sumatra and West Kalimantan . Indonesia has reported arresting around 450 people in 2016 for their connections with the fires . On 17 August 2016 , Malaysia 's Air Pollutant Index first surpassed the ` unhealthy ' level of 100 for the region 's dry season . On 24 August , Malaysia offered to dispatch two Bombardier 415 fire-fighting aircraft if Indonesia would officially request help to tackle the fires . In June of 2016 , Singapore offered Indonesia a Lockheed C-130 Hercules aircraft for cloud seeding , as well as a Singapore Civil Defence Force fire-fighting team , and assistance in providing satellite pictures and determining the coordinates of fires . On 26 August 2016 , Singapore 's 24-hour Pollutant Standards Index ( PSI ) entered the ` unhealthy ' range of above 100 , while its 3-hour PSI reached 215 .","qid":"2779","docid":"2016_Southeast_Asian_haze","rank":81,"score":113286},{"content":"Title: Exhaust system Content: An exhaust system is usually piping used to guide reaction exhaust gases away from a controlled combustion inside an engine or stove . The entire system conveys burnt gases from the engine and includes one or more exhaust pipes . Depending on the overall system design , the exhaust gas may flow through one or more of : Cylinder head and exhaust manifold A turbocharger to increase engine power . A catalytic converter to reduce air pollution . A muffler ( North America ) / silencer ( UK/India ) , to reduce noise .","qid":"2779","docid":"Exhaust_system","rank":82,"score":113268},{"content":"Title: European Pollutant Emission Register Content: The European Pollutant Emission Register ( EPER ) is a Pollutant Release and Transfer Register providing access to information on the annual emissions of industrial facilities in the Member States of the European Union ( EU ) , as well as Norway . This has since been replaced and improved upon by the European Pollutant Release and Transfer Register ( E-PRTR ) . EPER collects data about the emissions of 12,000 facilities in the 25 EU Member States . Data are available by country , by pollutant , by activity ( sector ) , air and water ( direct or via a sewerage system ) .","qid":"2779","docid":"European_Pollutant_Emission_Register","rank":83,"score":113266},{"content":"Title: Clean coal technology Content: Clean coal technology is a collection of technologies being developed to attempt to mitigate the environmental impact of coal energy generation and to mitigate climate change . When coal is used as a fuel source , the gaseous emissions generated by the thermal decomposition of the coal include sulphur dioxide ( SO2 ) , nitrogen oxides ( NOx ) , mercury , and other chemical byproducts that vary depending on the type of the coal being used . These emissions have been established to have a negative impact on the environment and human health , contributing to acid rain , lung cancer and cardiovascular disease . As a result , clean coal technologies are being developed to remove or reduce pollutant emissions to the atmosphere . Some of the techniques that would be used to accomplish this include chemically washing minerals and impurities from the coal , gasification ( see also IGCC ) , improved technology for treating flue gases to remove pollutants to increasingly stringent levels and at higher efficiency , carbon capture and storage technologies to capture the carbon dioxide from the flue gas and dewatering lower rank coals ( brown coals ) to improve the calorific value , and thus the efficiency of the conversion into electricity . Clean coal technology usually addresses atmospheric problems resulting from burning coal . Historically , the primary focus was on SO2 and NOx , the most important gases in causation of acid rain , and particulates which cause visible air pollution and deleterious effects on human health . Concerns exist regarding the economic viability of these technologies and the timeframe of delivery , potentially high hidden economic costs in terms of social and environmental damage , and the costs and viability of disposing of removed carbon and other toxic matter .","qid":"2779","docid":"Clean_coal_technology","rank":84,"score":113139},{"content":"Title: Tire-derived fuel Content: Tire-derived fuel ( TDF ) is composed of shredded scrap tires . Tires may be mixed with coal or other fuels , such as wood or chemical wastes , to be burned in concrete kilns , power plants , or paper mills . An EPA test program concluded that , with the exception of zinc emissions , potential emissions from TDF are not expected to be very much different from other conventional fossil fuels , as long as combustion occurs in a well-designed , well-operated and well-maintained combustion device .","qid":"2779","docid":"Tire-derived_fuel","rank":85,"score":112858},{"content":"Title: Steam locomotive exhaust system Content: The Steam locomotive exhaust system consists of those parts of a steam locomotive which together discharge exhaust steam from the cylinders in order to increase the draught through the fire . It usually consists of the blastpipe ( or first stage nozzle ) , smokebox , and chimney , although later designs also include second and third stage nozzles .","qid":"2779","docid":"Steam_locomotive_exhaust_system","rank":86,"score":112788},{"content":"Title: Coalite Content: Coalite is a brand of low-temperature coke used as a smokeless fuel . The title refers to the residue left behind when coal is carbonised at 640 degrees Celsius . It was invented by Thomas Parker in 1904 . In 1936 the Smoke Abatement Society awarded its inventor a posthumous gold medal . Coalite is darker and more friable than high temperature coke . It is easier to ignite , burns with an attractive flame , and is lighter than coal , making it an ideal fuel for open domestic firegrates . Drawbacks are its tendencies to produce an excessive residual ash , to burn quickly and give off sulphurous fumes .","qid":"2779","docid":"Coalite","rank":87,"score":112777},{"content":"Title: Diffusion flame Content: In combustion , a diffusion flame is a flame in which the oxidizer combines with the fuel by diffusion . As a result , the flame speed is limited by the rate of diffusion . Diffusion flames tend to burn slower and to produce more soot than premixed flames because there may not be sufficient oxidizer for the reaction to go to completion , although there are some exceptions to the rule . The soot typically produced in a diffusion flame becomes incandescent from the heat of the flame and lends the flame its readily identifiable orange-yellow color . Diffusion flames tend to have a less-localized flame front than premixed flames . The contexts for diffusion may vary somewhat . For instance , a candle uses the heat of the flame itself to vaporize its wax fuel and the oxidizer ( oxygen ) diffuses into the flame from the surrounding air , while a gaslight flame ( or the safety flame of a bunsen burner ) uses fuel already in the form of a vapor . Diffusion flames are often studied in counter flow ( also called opposed jet ) burners . Their interest is due to possible application in the flamelet model for turbulent combustion . Furthermore they provide a convenient way to examine strained flames and flames with holes . These are also known under the name of `` edge flames '' , characterized by a local extinction on their axis because of the high strain rates in the vicinity of the stagnation point . Diffusion flames have an entirely different appearance in a microgravity environment . There is no convection to carry the hot combustion products away from the fuel source , which results in a spherical flame front , such as in the candle seen here . This is a rare example of a diffusion flame which does not produce much soot and does not therefore have a typical yellow flame .","qid":"2779","docid":"Diffusion_flame","rank":88,"score":112233},{"content":"Title: Funnel (ship) Content: A funnel is the smokestack or chimney on a ship used to expel boiler steam and smoke or engine exhaust . They are also commonly referred to as stacks .","qid":"2779","docid":"Funnel_(ship)","rank":89,"score":112068},{"content":"Title: Unburned hydrocarbon Content: Unburned hydrocarbons ( UHCs ) are the hydrocarbons emitted after petroleum is burned in an engine . When unburned fuel is emitted from a combustor , the emission is caused by fuel `` avoiding '' the flame zones . For example , in piston engines , some of the fuel-air mixture `` hides '' from the flame in the crevices provided by the piston ring grooves . Further , some regions of the combustion chamber may have a very weak flame , that is , they have either very fuel-lean or very fuel-rich conditions and consequently they have a low combustion temperature . These regions will cause intermediate species such as formaldehyde and alkenes to be emitted . Sometimes the term `` products of incomplete combustion , '' or PICs , is used to describe such species . Category : Fossil fuels Category : Hydrocarbons","qid":"2779","docid":"Unburned_hydrocarbon","rank":90,"score":111511},{"content":"Title: Bottom ash Content: Bottom ash is part of the non-combustible residue of combustion in a furnace or incinerator . In an industrial context , it usually refers to coal combustion and comprises traces of combustibles embedded in forming clinkers and sticking to hot side walls of a coal-burning furnace during its operation . The portion of the ash that escapes up the chimney or stack is , however , referred to as fly ash . The clinkers fall by themselves into the bottom hopper of a coal-burning furnace and are cooled . The above portion of the ash is referred to as bottom ash too .","qid":"2779","docid":"Bottom_ash","rank":91,"score":111262},{"content":"Title: Coal pollution mitigation Content: Coal pollution mitigation , often referred to by the public relations term clean coal , is a series of systems and technologies that seek to mitigate the pollution and other environmental effects normally associated with the burning ( though not the mining or processing ) of coal , which is widely regarded as the dirtiest of the common fuels for industrial processes and power generation . The preferred industry term `` clean coal '' has been described as `` Orwellian '' , an oxymoron , and a myth . Approaches attempt to mitigate emissions of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and other greenhouse gases , and radioactive materials , that arise from the use of coal , mainly for electrical power generation , using various technologies . Historical efforts to reduce coal pollution focused on flue-gas desulfurization starting in the 1850s and clean burn technologies . More recent developments include carbon capture and storage , which pumps and stores CO2 emissions underground , and integrated gasification combined cycle ( IGCC ) involve coal gasification , which provides a basis for increased efficiency and lower cost in capturing CO2 emissions . There are seven technologies deployed or proposed for deployment in the United States : carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) , flue-gas desulfurization , fluidized-bed combustion , integrated gasification combined cycle ( IGCC ) , low nitrogen oxide burners , selective catalytic reduction ( SCR ) , and electrostatic precipitators . Of the 22 demonstration projects funded by the U.S. Department of Energy since 2003 , none are in operation as of February 2017 , having been abandoned or delayed due to capital budget overruns or discontinued because of excessive operating expenses .","qid":"2779","docid":"Coal_pollution_mitigation","rank":92,"score":111032},{"content":"Title: Chinese national carbon trading scheme Content: The Chinese national carbon trading scheme is a cap and trade system for carbon dioxide emissions set to be implemented in July 2017 . This emission trading scheme ( ETS ) creates a carbon market where emitters can buy and sell emission credits . From this scheme , China can limit emissions , but allow economic freedom for emitters to reduce emissions or purchase emission allowances from other emitters . China is currently the largest emitter of greenhouse gases and many major Chinese cities have severe air pollution . With this plan , China will soon be the largest market in carbon trading . The scheme will limit emissions from six of China 's top carbon dioxide emitting industries , including coal-fired power plants . China was able to gain experience in drafting and implementation of an ETS plan from the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , where China was part of the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) . From this experience with carbon markets , and lengthy discussions with the next largest carbon market , the European Union ( EU ) , as well as analysis of small scale pilot markets in major Chinese cities and provinces , China 's national ETS will be the largest of its kind and will help China achieve its Intended Nationally Determined Contribution ( INDC ) from the Paris Agreement in 2016 .","qid":"2779","docid":"Chinese_national_carbon_trading_scheme","rank":93,"score":110942},{"content":"Title: Energy accidents Content: Energy resources bring with them great social and economic promise , providing financial growth for communities and energy services for local economies . However , the infrastructure which delivers energy services can breakdown in an energy accident , sometimes causing much damage , and energy fatalities can occur , and with many systems often deaths will happen even when the systems are working as intended . Historically , coal mining has been the most dangerous energy activity and the list of historical coal mining disasters is a long one . Underground mining hazards include suffocation , gas poisoning , roof collapse and gas explosions . Open cut mining hazards are principally mine wall failures and vehicle collisions . In the US alone , more than 100,000 coal miners have been killed in accidents over the past century , with more than 3,200 dying in 1907 alone . According to Benjamin K. Sovacool , 279 major energy accidents occurred from 1907 to 2007 and they caused 182,156 deaths with $ 41 billion in property damages , with these figures not including deaths from smaller accidents . However , by far the greatest energy fatalities that result from energy generation by humanity , is the creation of air pollution . The most lethal of which , particulate matter , which is primarily generated from the burning of fossil fuels and biomass is ( counting outdoor air pollution effects only ) estimated to cause 2.1 million deaths annually .","qid":"2779","docid":"Energy_accidents","rank":94,"score":110841},{"content":"Title: Volkswagen emissions scandal Content: The Volkswagen emissions scandal ( also called `` emissionsgate '' or `` dieselgate '' ) started on 18 September 2015 , when the United States Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) issued a notice of violation of the Clean Air Act to German automaker Volkswagen Group . The agency had found that Volkswagen had intentionally programmed turbocharged direct injection ( TDI ) diesel engines to activate certain emissions controls only during laboratory emissions testing . The programming caused the vehicles ' output to meet US standards during regulatory testing but emit up to 40 times more in real-world driving . Volkswagen deployed this programming in about eleven million cars worldwide , and 500,000 in the United States , during model years 2009 through 2015 . The findings stemmed from a study on emissions discrepancies between European and US models of vehicles commissioned in 2014 by the International Council on Clean Transportation ( ICCT ) , summing up the data from three different sources on 15 vehicles . Among the research groups was a group of five scientists at West Virginia University , who detected additional emissions during live road tests on two out of three diesel cars . ICCT also purchased data from two other sources . The new road testing data and the purchased data were generated using Portable Emissions Measurement Systems ( PEMS ) developed by multiple individuals in the mid-late 1990 's . The findings were provided to the California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) in May 2014 . Volkswagen became the target of regulatory investigations in multiple countries , and Volkswagen 's stock price fell in value by a third in the days immediately after the news . Volkswagen Group CEO Martin Winterkorn resigned , and the head of brand development Heinz-Jakob Neusser , Audi research and development head Ulrich Hackenberg , and Porsche research and development head Wolfgang Hatz were suspended . Volkswagen announced plans to spend ( later raised to , ) on rectifying the emissions issues , and planned to refit the affected vehicles as part of a recall campaign . The scandal raised awareness over the higher levels of pollution being emitted by all vehicles built by a wide range of car makers , which under real world driving conditions are prone to exceed legal emission limits . A study conducted by ICCT and ADAC showed the biggest deviations from Volvo , Renault , Jeep , Hyundai , Citroën and Fiat , resulting in investigations opening into other potential diesel emissions scandals . A discussion was sparked that software-controlled machinery will generally be prone to cheating , and a way out would be to make the software source code accessible to the public . On April 21 , 2017 , a US federal judge ordered Volkswagen `` to pay a $ 2.8 billion criminal fine for rigging diesel-powered vehicles to cheat on government emissions tests . '' The `` unprecedented '' plea deal formalized a punishment that Volkswagen AG agreed to earlier in 2017 .","qid":"2779","docid":"Volkswagen_emissions_scandal","rank":95,"score":110728},{"content":"Title: Smokebox Content: A smokebox is one of the major basic parts of a steam locomotive exhaust system . Smoke and hot gases pass from the firebox through tubes where they pass heat to the surrounding water in the boiler . The smoke then enters the smokebox , and is exhausted to the atmosphere through the chimney ( or funnel ) . Early locomotives had no smokebox and relied on a long chimney to provide natural draught for the fire but smokeboxes were soon included in the design for two main reasons . Firstly and most importantly , the blast of exhaust steam from the cylinders , when directed upwards through an airtight smokebox with an appropriate design of exhaust nozzle , effectively draws hot gases through the boiler tubes and flues and , consequently , fresh combustion air into the firebox . Secondly , the smokebox provides a convenient collection point for ash and cinders ( `` char '' ) drawn through the boiler tubes , which can be easily cleaned out at the end of a working day . Without a smokebox , all char must pass up the chimney or will collect in the tubes and flues themselves , gradually blocking them . The smokebox appears to be a forward extension of the boiler although it contains no water and is a separate component . Smokeboxes are usually made from riveted or welded steel plate and the floor is lined with concrete to protect the steel from hot char and acid or rainwater attack .","qid":"2779","docid":"Smokebox","rank":96,"score":110571},{"content":"Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .","qid":"2779","docid":"Environmental_impact_of_aviation","rank":97,"score":110468},{"content":"Title: Cigarette filter Content: A cigarette filter is a component of a cigarette , along with cigarette paper , capsules and adhesives . The filter may be made from cellulose acetate fibre , paper or activated charcoal ( either as a cavity filter or embedded into the cellulose acetate ) . Macroporous phenol-formaldehyde resins and asbestos have also been used in cigarette filters . The acetate and paper modify the particulate smoke phase by particle retention ( filtration ) , and finely divided carbon modifies the gaseous phase ( adsorption ) . Filters can reduce `` tar '' and nicotine smoke yields up to 50 % , with a greater removal rate for other classes of compounds ( e.g. , phenols ) , but are ineffective in filtering toxins such as carbon monoxide . Most factory-made cigarettes are equipped with a filter ; those who roll their own can buy them from a tobacconist .","qid":"2779","docid":"Cigarette_filter","rank":98,"score":110293},{"content":"Title: ACEA agreement Content: The ACEA agreement refers to a voluntary agreement between the European Automobile Manufacturers Association ( ACEA ) and the European Commission to limit the amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) emitted by passenger cars sold in Europe . With 18 million cars sold each year , Europe is the last major car market in the world . Signed in 1998 , the agreement sought to achieve an average of 140 g/km of CO2 by 2008 for new passenger vehicles sold by the association 's cars in Europe . This target represents a 25 % reduction from the 1995 level of 186 g/km and is equivalent to a fuel economy of 5.8 L/100 km or 5.25 L/100 km for petrol and diesel engines respectively . However , the average for the whole car market for 2008 was 153.7 g/km , so the target has not been achieved . Besides the agreement with ACEA , the European Commission also closed agreements with the Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association ( JAMA ) and Korea Automobile Manufacturers Association ( KAMA ) . However , for the latter two the target date is 2009 instead of 2008 and as ACEA accounts for 86.4 % of car sales in Europe , the impact of the latter two is much smaller . The ultimate EU target to which these agreements are to contribute , is to reach an average CO2 emission ( as measured according to Commission Directive 93/116/EC ) of 130 g/km for all new passenger cars by 2015 . The European Commission announced in late 2006 that it is working on a proposal for legally binding measures and limits . In February 2007 , the Commission acknowledged the failure of the voluntary agreement . Following this , a proposal of regulation was introduced by the Commission on 19 December 2007 .","qid":"2779","docid":"ACEA_agreement","rank":99,"score":110280},{"content":"Title: Environmental issues in Pristina Content: Pristina is the capital and the most populated city of Kosovo . It is also considered as the most polluted city in Kosovo . Basic reason for Pristina 's air pollution is coal mining and energy emitted by the single producer of energy , Kosovo Energy Corporation J.S.C. KEK operates through two power plants , Kosovo A and B located 5 km near Pristina . Furthermore , the diesel-spitting car traffic highly contributes to the pollution of air , along with the wood and coal household heating system and central coal-heating company `` Termokos '' that operates in Pristina .","qid":"2779","docid":"Environmental_issues_in_Pristina","rank":100,"score":110248}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Rolling coal Content: Rolling coal is the practice of modifying a diesel engine to increase the amount of fuel entering the engine in order to emit an under-aspirated sooty exhaust that visibly pollutes the air . It also may include the intentional removal of the particulate filter . Practitioners often additionally modify their vehicles by installing smoke switches and smoke stacks . Modifications to a vehicle to enable rolling coal may cost from $ 200 to $ 5,000 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Rolling_coal\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 209544\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Soot Content: Soot -LSB- ˈsʊt -RSB- is a mass of impure carbon particles resulting from the incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons . It is more properly restricted to the product of the gas-phase combustion process but is commonly extended to include the residual pyrolysed fuel particles such as coal , cenospheres , charred wood , and petroleum coke that may become airborne during pyrolysis and that are more properly identified as cokes or chars . Soot causes cancer and lung disease , and is the second-biggest human cause of global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Soot\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 193606\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Chimney fire Content: A chimney fire is the combustion ( burning ) of residue deposits referred to as soot or creosote , on the inner surfaces of chimney tiles , flue liners , stove pipes , etc. .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Chimney_fire\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 190284\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Zero-emissions vehicle Content: A zero-emissions vehicle , or ZEV , is a vehicle that emits no tailpipe pollutants from the onboard source of power . Harmful pollutants to the health and the environment include particulates ( soot ) , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , ozone , lead , and various oxides of nitrogen . Although not considered emission pollutants by the original California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) or U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) definitions , the most recent common use of the term also includes volatile organic compounds , several air toxics ( most notably 1,3-Butadiene ) , and global pollutants such as carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases . Examples of zero emission vehicles include muscle-powered vehicles such as bicycles ; gravity racers ; battery electric vehicles , which typically shift emissions to the location where the electricity is generated e.g. coal or natural gas power plant ; and fuel cell vehicles powered by hydrogen , which typically shift emissions to the location where the hydrogen is generated . Hydrogen-powered vehicles are not strictly zero-emissions , as they do emit water or water vapor , although they are still usually included in this category . Emissions from the manufacturing process are ignored in this definition , although the emissions that are created during manufacture are of an order of magnitude that is comparable to the one of the emissions that are created during a vehicle 's operating lifetime .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Zero-emissions_vehicle\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 180304\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Diesel particulate filter Content: A diesel particulate filter ( or DPF ) is a device designed to remove diesel particulate matter or soot from the exhaust gas of a diesel engine .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Diesel_particulate_filter\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 176960\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Flue-gas stack Content: A flue-gas stack is a type of chimney , a vertical pipe , channel or similar structure through which combustion product gases called flue gases are exhausted to the outside air . Flue gases are produced when coal , oil , natural gas , wood or any other fuel is combusted in an industrial furnace , a power plant 's steam-generating boiler , or other large combustion device . Flue gas is usually composed of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor as well as nitrogen and excess oxygen remaining from the intake combustion air . It also contains a small percentage of pollutants such as particulate matter , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides . The flue gas stacks are often quite tall , up to 400 metres ( 1300 feet ) or more , so as to disperse the exhaust pollutants over a greater area and thereby reduce the concentration of the pollutants to the levels required by governmental environmental policy and environmental regulation . When the flue gases are exhausted from stoves , ovens , fireplaces , or other small sources within residential abodes , restaurants , hotels , or other public buildings and small commercial enterprises , their flue gas stacks are referred to as chimneys .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Flue-gas_stack\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 172250\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Chimney sweep Content: A chimney sweep is a worker who clears ash and soot from chimneys . The chimney uses the pressure difference caused by a hot column of gas to create a draught and draw air over the hot coals or wood enabling continued combustion . Chimneys may be straight or contain many changes of direction . During normal operation , a layer of creosote builds up on the inside of the chimney , restricting the flow . The creosote can also catch fire , setting the chimney and the building alight . The chimney must be swept to remove the soot . This was done by the master sweep . In the United Kingdom , the master sweeps took apprentices , typically workhouse or orphan boys , and trained them to climb chimneys . In the German States , master sweeps belonged to trade guilds and did not use climbing boys . In Italy , Belgium , and France climbing boys were used .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Chimney_sweep\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 170391\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Exhaust gas Content: Exhaust gas or flue gas is emitted as a result of the combustion of fuels such as natural gas , gasoline , petrol , biodiesel blends , diesel fuel , fuel oil , or coal . According to the type of engine , it is discharged into the atmosphere through an exhaust pipe , flue gas stack , or propelling nozzle . It often disperses downwind in a pattern called an exhaust plume . It is a major component of motor vehicle emissions ( and from stationary internal combustion engines ) , which can also include : Crankcase blow-by Evaporation of unused gasoline Motor vehicle emissions contribute to air pollution and are a major ingredient in the creation of smog in some large cities . A 2013 study by MIT indicates that 53,000 early deaths occur per year in the United States alone because of vehicle emissions . According to another study from the same university , traffic fumes alone cause the death of 5,000 people every year just in the United Kingdom .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Exhaust_gas\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 164403\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Black sugar Content: Black sugar is a form of crystalline precipitate or a particulate pollution by-product unique from creosote caused by the burning of low grade coal in the 1940 -- 1960s . The outgas from burning coal would be a by-product ( burning coal was used in residential forced hot air furnaces ) for the heating of family housing . Black sugar was often found on porches and the cold ductwork and caused the high carbon , soot-loaded gas to precipitate on the floors and walls and crystallize . Outward appearance was that of very fine , shiny coal , but would not combust when exposed to flames . After a time , the crystalline material would become powdered , to the consistency of white cane sugar , but retain a fine , shiny , black texture , thus the name `` black sugar '' . The material would often be cleaned from duct work by chimney sweeps or cleaning staff on a regular basis in the Beaver-Ambridge-Monaca area of Pennsylvania along the Ohio River near Pittsburgh .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Black_sugar\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 164312\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Smoke Content: Smoke is a collection of airborne solid and liquid particulates and gases emitted when a material undergoes combustion or pyrolysis , together with the quantity of air that is entrained or otherwise mixed into the mass . It is commonly an unwanted by-product of fires ( including stoves , candles , oil lamps , and fireplaces ) , but may also be used for pest control ( fumigation ) , communication ( smoke signals ) , defensive and offensive capabilities in the military ( smoke-screen ) , cooking , or smoking ( tobacco , cannabis , etc. ) . Smoke is used in rituals where incense , sage , or resin is burned to produce a smell for spiritual purposes . Smoke is sometimes used as a flavoring agent , and preservative for various foodstuffs . Smoke is also a component of internal combustion engine exhaust gas , particularly diesel exhaust . Smoke inhalation is the primary cause of death in victims of indoor fires . The smoke kills by a combination of thermal damage , poisoning and pulmonary irritation caused by carbon monoxide , hydrogen cyanide and other combustion products . Smoke is an aerosol ( or mist ) of solid particles and liquid droplets that are close to the ideal range of sizes for Mie scattering of visible light . This effect has been likened to three-dimensional textured privacy glass -- a smoke cloud does not obstruct an image , but thoroughly scrambles it .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Smoke\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 163289\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Flue gas Content: Flue gas is the gas exiting to the atmosphere via a flue , which is a pipe or channel for conveying exhaust gases from a fireplace , oven , furnace , boiler or steam generator . Quite often , the flue gas refers to the combustion exhaust gas produced at power plants . Its composition depends on what is being burned , but it will usually consist of mostly nitrogen ( typically more than two-thirds ) derived from the combustion of air , carbon dioxide , and water vapor as well as excess oxygen ( also derived from the combustion air ) . It further contains a small percentage of a number of pollutants , such as particulate matter ( like soot ) , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , and sulfur oxides .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Flue_gas\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 162965\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Indoor air pollution in developing nations Content: Indoor air pollution in developing nations is a significant form of indoor air pollution ( IAP ) that is little known to those in the developed world . Three billion people in developing nations across the globe rely on biomass , in the form of wood , charcoal , dung , and crop residue , as their domestic cooking fuel . Because much of the cooking is carried out indoors in environments that lack proper ventilation , millions of people , primarily poor women and children face serious health risks . Globally , 4.3 million deaths were attributed to exposure to IAP in developing countries in 2012 , almost all in low and middle income countries . The South East Asian and Western Pacific regions bear most of the burden with 1.69 and 1.62 million deaths , respectively . Almost 600,000 deaths occur in Africa , 200,000 in the Eastern Mediterranean region , 99,000 in Europe and 81,000 in the Americas . The remaining 19,000 deaths occur in high income countries . Even though the rate of dependence on biomass fuel is declining , this dwindling resource will not keep up with population growth which could ultimately put environments at even greater risk . Over the past several decades , there have been numerous studies investigating the air pollution generated by traditional household solid fuel combustion for space heating , lighting , and cooking in developing countries . It is now well established that , throughout much of the developing world , indoor burning of solid fuels ( biomass , coal , etc. ) by inefficient , often insufficiently vented , combustion devices results in elevated exposures to household air pollutants . This is due to the poor combustion efficiency of the combustion devices and the elevated nature of the emissions . In addition , they are often released directly into living areas . Smoke from traditional household solid fuel combustion commonly contains a range of incomplete combustion products , including both fine and coarse particulate matter ( e.g. , PM2 .5 , PM10 ) , carbon monoxide ( CO ) , nitrogen dioxide ( NO2 ) , sulfur dioxide ( SO2 ) , and a variety of organic air pollutants ( e.g. , formaldehyde , 1,3-butadiene , benzene , acetaldehyde , acrolein , phenols , pyrene , benzopyrene , benzo ( a ) pyrene , dibenzopyrenes , dibenzocarbazoles , and cresols ) . In a typical solid fuel stove , about 6 -- 20 % of the solid fuel is converted into toxic emissions ( by mass ) . The exact quantity and relative composition is determined by factors such as the fuel type and moisture content , stove type and operation influencing the amount . While many pollutants can evolve , most measurements have been focused on breathing-zone exposure levels of particulate matter ( PM ) and carbon monoxide ( CO ) , which are the main products of incomplete combustion and are considered to pose the greatest health risks . Indoor PM2 .5 exposure levels have been consistently reported to be in the range of hundreds to thousands of micrograms per cubic meter ( μg / m3 ) . Similarly , CO exposure levels have been measured to be as high as hundreds to greater than 1000 milligrams per cubic meter ( mg/m3 ) . A recent study of 163 households in two rural Chinese counties reported geometric mean indoor PM2 .5 concentrations of 276 μg / m3 ( combinations of different plant materials , including wood , tobacco stems , and corncobs ) , 327 μg / m3 ( wood ) , 144 μg / m3 ( smoky coal ) , and 96 μg / m3 ( smokeless coal ) for homes using a variety of different fuel types and stove configurations ( e.g. , vented , unvented , portable , fire pit , mixed ventilation stove ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Indoor_air_pollution_in_developing_nations\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 155894\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Creosote Content: Creosotes are a category of carbonaceous chemicals formed by the distillation of various tars and by pyrolysis of plant-derived material , such as wood or fossil fuel . They are typically used as preservatives or antiseptics . Some creosote types were used historically as a treatment for components of seagoing and outdoor wood structures to prevent rot ( e.g. , bridgework and railroad ties , see image ) . Samples may be commonly found inside chimney flues , where the coal or wood burns under variable conditions , producing soot and tarry smoke . Creosotes are the principal chemicals responsible for the stability , scent , and flavor characteristic of smoked meat ; the name is derived . The two main kinds recognized in industry are coal-tar creosote and wood-tar creosote . The coal-tar variety , having stronger and more toxic properties , has chiefly been used as a preservative for wood ; coal-tar creosote was also formerly used as an escharotic , to burn malignant skin tissue , and in dentistry , to prevent necrosis , before its carcinogenic properties became known . The wood-tar variety has been used for meat preservation , ship treatment , and such medical purposes as an anaesthetic , antiseptic , astringent , expectorant , and laxative , though these have mostly been replaced by modern medicines . Varieties of creosote have also been made from both oil shale and petroleum , and are known as oil-tar creosote when derived from oil tar , and as water-gas-tar creosote when derived from the tar of water gas . Creosote also has been made from pre-coal formations such as lignite , yielding lignite-tar creosote , and peat , yielding peat-tar creosote .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Creosote\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 153583\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Chimney Content: A chimney is a structure that provides ventilation for hot flue gases or smoke from a boiler , stove , furnace or fireplace to the outside atmosphere . Chimneys are typically vertical , or as near as possible to vertical , to ensure that the gases flow smoothly , drawing air into the combustion in what is known as the stack , or chimney effect . The space inside a chimney is called a flue . Chimneys may be found in buildings , steam locomotives and ships . In the United States , the term smokestack ( colloquially , stack ) is also used when referring to locomotive chimneys or ship chimneys , and the term funnel can also be used . The height of a chimney influences its ability to transfer flue gases to the external environment via stack effect . Additionally , the dispersion of pollutants at higher altitudes can reduce their impact on the immediate surroundings . In the case of chemically aggressive output , a sufficiently tall chimney can allow for partial or complete self-neutralization of airborne chemicals before they reach ground level . The dispersion of pollutants over a greater area can reduce their concentrations and facilitate compliance with regulatory limits .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Chimney\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 152467\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Chimney (locomotive) Content: The chimney ( smokestack or stack in American and Canadian English ) is the part of a steam locomotive through which smoke leaves the boiler . Steam locomotive exhaust systems typically vent cylinder exhaust through the chimney to enhance draught through the boiler . Chimneys are designed to carry exhaust steam and smoke clear of the driver 's line of sight while remaining short enough to clear overhead structures . Some chimneys included features to avoid dispersing sparks .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Chimney_(locomotive)\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 151219\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Air pollution in India Content: Air pollution in India is quite a serious issue with the major sources being fuelwood and biomass burning , fuel adulteration , vehicle emission and traffic congestion . In autumn and winter months , large scale crop residue burning in agriculture fields -- a low cost alternative to mechanical tilling -- is a major source of smoke , smog and particulate pollution . India has a low per capita emissions of greenhouse gases but the country as a whole is the third largest after China and the United States . A 2013 study on non-smokers has found that Indians have 30 % lower lung function compared to Europeans . The Air ( Prevention and Control of Pollution ) Act was passed in 1981 to regulate air pollution and there have been some measurable improvements . However , the 2016 Environmental Performance Index ranked India 141 out of 180 countries . In 2015 , Government of India , together with IIT Kanpur launched the National Air Quality Index .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Air_pollution_in_India\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 148794\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cook stove Content: A biomass cook stove is heated by burning wood , charcoal , animal dung or crop residue . Cook stoves are commonly used for cooking and heating food in developing countries . Households in developing countries consume significantly less energy than those in developed countries ; however , over 50 % of the energy is for cooking food . The average rural family spends 20 % or more of its income purchasing wood or charcoal for cooking . The urban poor also frequently spend a significant portion of their income on the purchase of wood or charcoal . Cooking over a traditional open fire or mud stove can cause increased health problems brought on from the smoke , particularly lung and eye ailments , but also birth defects . The health problems associated with cooking using biomass in traditional stoves affect women and children most strongly , as they spend the most time near the domestic hearth . Replacing the traditional 3-rock cook stove or mud stove with an improved one and venting the smoke out of the house through a chimney can significantly improve a family 's health . Deforestation and erosion often result from harvesting wood for cooking fuel . The main goal of most improved cooking stoves is to reduce the pressure placed on local forests by reducing the amount of wood the stoves consume , and to reduce the negative health impacts associated with exposure to toxic smoke from traditional stoves .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Cook_stove\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 148693\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pea soup fog Content: Pea soup , or a pea souper , also known as a black fog , killer fog or smog is a very thick and often yellowish , greenish , or blackish fog caused by air pollution that contains soot particulates and the poisonous gas sulfur dioxide . This very thick smog occurs in cities and is derived from the smoke given off by the burning of soft coal for home heating and in industrial processes . Smog of this intensity is often lethal to vulnerable people such as the elderly , the very young and those with respiratory problems . The result of these phenomena was commonly known as a London particular or London fog , which then , in a reversal of the idiom , became the name for a thick pea and ham soup .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Pea_soup_fog\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 146504\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coal combustion products Content: Coal combustion products ( CCPs ) , also called coal combustion wastes ( CCW ) or coal combustion residuals ( CCR ) , are categorized in four groups , each based on physical and chemical forms derived from coal combustion methods and emission controls : Fly ash is captured after coal combustion by filters Bag Houses , electrostatic precipitators and other air pollution control devices . It comprises 60 percent of all coal combustion waste ( labeled here as coal combustion products ) . It is most commonly used as a high-performance substitute for portland cement or as clinker for portland cement production . Cements blended with fly ash are becoming more common . Building material applications range from grouts and masonry products to cellular concrete and roofing tiles . Many asphaltic concrete pavements contain fly ash . Geotechnical applications include soil stabilization , road base , structural fill , embankments and mine reclamation . Fly ash also serves as filler in wood and plastic products , paints and metal castings . Flue-gas desulfurization ( FGD ) materials are produced by chemical `` scrubber '' emission control systems that remove sulfur and oxides from power plant flue gas streams . FGD comprises 24 percent of all coal combustion waste . Residues vary , but the most common are FGD gypsum ( or `` synthetic '' gypsum ) and spray dryer absorbents . FGD gypsum is used in almost thirty percent of the gypsum panel products manufactured in the U.S. . It is also used in agricultural applications to treat undesirable soil conditions and to improve crop performance . Other FGD materials are used in mining and land reclamation activities . Bottom ash and boiler slag can be used as a raw feed for manufacturing portland cement clinker , as well as for skid control on icy roads . The two materials comprise 12 and 4 percent of coal combustion waste respectively . These materials are also suitable for geotechnical applications such as structural fills and land reclamation . The physical characteristics of bottom ash and boiler slag lend themselves as replacements for aggregate in flowable fill and in concrete masonry products . Boiler slag is also used for roofing granules and as blasting grit . The majority of CCPs are landfilled , placed in mine shafts or stored on site at coal-fired power plants . About 43 percent of CCPs were recycled for `` beneficial uses , '' in 2008 , according to the American Coal Ash Association . The chief benefit of recycling is to stabilize the environmental harmful components of the CCPs such as arsenic , beryllium , boron , cadmium , chromium , chromium VI , cobalt , lead , manganese , mercury , molybdenum , selenium , strontium , thallium , and vanadium , along with dioxins and PAH compounds .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Coal_combustion_products\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 146427\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: DPF Content: DPF may refer to : Deadly Physical Force , a legal term determining the type of physical force used in self-defense Defence Police Federation , a British Police union Dense plasma focus , a plasma machine that produces , by electromagnetic acceleration and compression , short-lived plasma that is so hot and dense that it becomes a copious multi-radiation source Diesel Particulate Filter is a device designed to remove diesel particulate matter or soot from the exhaust gas of a diesel engine Digital photo frame or digital picture frame , a picture frame that displays digital photos using a digital screen without the need for printing Departamento de Polícia Federal , the Brazilian federal police\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"DPF\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 143101\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wood-burning stove Content: A wood-burning stove ( or wood burner or log burner ) is a heating appliance capable of burning wood fuel and wood-derived biomass fuel , such as wood pellets . Generally the appliance consists of a solid metal ( usually cast iron or steel ) closed fire chamber , a fire brick base and an adjustable air control . The first wood burning stove was patented in Strasbourg in 1557 , two centuries before the Industrial Revolution would make iron an inexpensive and common material , so such stoves were high end consumer items and only gradually spread in use . The stove is connected by ventilating stove pipes to a suitable chimney or flue , which will fill with hot combustion gases once the fuel is ignited . The chimney or flue gases must be hotter than the outside temperature to ensure combustion gases are drawn out of the fire chamber and up the chimney . Many wood-burning stoves are engineered such that they can be converted to multi-fuel stoves with the addition of a grate .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Wood-burning_stove\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 142601\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wood gas Content: Wood gas is a syngas fuel which can be used as a fuel for furnaces , stoves and vehicles in place of gasoline , diesel or other fuels . During the production process biomass or other carbon-containing materials are gasified within the oxygen-limited environment of a wood gas generator to produce hydrogen and carbon monoxide . These gases can then be burnt as a fuel within an oxygen rich environment to produce carbon dioxide , water and heat . In some gasifiers this process is preceded by pyrolysis , where the biomass or coal is first converted to char , releasing methane and tar rich in polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Wood_gas\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 141443\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions Content: -RSB- This is a list of sovereign states and territories by carbon dioxide emissions due to certain forms of human activity , based on the EDGAR database created by European Commission and Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency released in 2015 . The following table lists the 2015 annual emissions estimates ( in thousands of tonnes ) along with a list of emissions per capita ( in tonnes of per year ) from same source . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use , land-use change and forestry . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The top 10 largest emitter countries account for 67.6 % of the world total . Other powerful , more potent greenhouse gases , including methane , are not included in this data .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 139396\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Soot (disambiguation) Content: Soot is the black , impure carbon particles resulting from the incomplete combustion of a hydrocarbon . Soot may also refer to : Engebret Soot ( 1786-1859 ) , Norwegian engineer Soot ( software ) , a language manipulation and optimization framework\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Soot_(disambiguation)\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 137413\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Clean-burning stove Content: A clean-burning stove is a stove with reduced toxic emissions . The term commonly refers to wood-burning stoves for domestic heating , although it is also applied to cooking stoves . It is distinct from a clean-burning-fuel stove , which typically burns clean fuels such as ethanol , biogas , LPG , or kerosene . Studies into clean-burning stoves have shown that they reduce the emissions of dangerous particulates and carbon monoxide significantly , use less fuel than regular stoves , and result in fewer burn injuries . However , the emissions they produce are still much greater than the safe limits , and they do not appear to be effective at reducing illnesses such as pneumonia induced by breathing polluted air , which may have many sources .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Clean-burning_stove\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 137244\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Diesel emissions scandal Content: Scandals relating to the emissions from diesel engines began in 2014 when emissions discrepancies between European and US models of vehicles were highlighted by the International Council on Clean Transportation ( ICCT ) . The scandal raised awareness over the higher levels of pollution being emitted by all vehicles built by a wide range of car makers , which under real world driving conditions are prone to exceed legal emission limits . A study conducted by ICCT and the German car club ADAC showed the biggest deviations from Volvo , Renault , Jeep , Hyundai , Citroën and Fiat . A discussion was sparked that software-controlled machinery will generally be prone to cheating , and a way out would be to make the software source code accessible to the public . The VW scandal more generally raised awareness over the high levels of pollution being emitted by diesel vehicles built by a wide range of carmakers , including Volvo , Renault , Mercedes , Jeep , Hyundai , Citroen , BMW , Mazda , Fiat , Ford and Peugeot . Independent tests carried out by ADAC proved that , under normal driving conditions , diesel vehicles including the Volvo S60 , Renault 's Espace Energy and the Jeep Renegade , exceeded legal European emission limits for nitrogen oxide by more than 10 times . Researchers have criticized the inadequacy of current regulations and called for the use of a UN-sanctioned test called Worldwide harmonized Light vehicles Test Procedures that better reflects real-life driving conditions . The test is not due to come into force until 2017 , with critics saying that car firms have lobbied fiercely to delay its implementation due to the high cost of meeting stricter environmental controls . 38 out of 40 tested diesel cars failed a - test since 2016 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Diesel_emissions_scandal\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 137137\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Stove Content: A stove is an enclosed space in which fuel is burned to provide heating , either to heat the space in which the stove is situated , or to heat the stove itself and items placed on it . This article is principally concerned with enclosed stoves burning solid fuels for room heating . A kitchen stove is used to cook food . A wood-burning stove or a coal stove is typically used for heating a dwelling . Enclosed stoves are more efficient and prevents air from being sucked from the room into the chimney . Due to concerns about air pollution , efforts have been made to improve stove design . Pellet stoves , for example are a type of clean-burning stove . Air-tight stoves more completely combust wood and eliminate polluting combustion products . In the U.S. since 1992 , all wood stoves being manufactured must limit particulate emission .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Stove\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 136399\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Flue-gas emissions from fossil-fuel combustion Content: Flue-gas emissions from fossil-fuel combustion refers to the combustion-product gas resulting from the burning of fossil fuels . Most fossil fuels are combusted with ambient air ( as differentiated from combustion with pure oxygen ) . Since ambient air contains about 79 volume percent gaseous nitrogen ( N2 ) , which is essentially non-combustible , the largest part of the flue gas from most fossil-fuel combustion is uncombusted nitrogen . Carbon dioxide , the next largest part of flue gas , can be as much as 10 − 25 volume percent or more of the flue gas . This is closely followed in volume by water vapor ( H2O ) created by the combustion of the hydrogen in the fuel with atmospheric oxygen . Much of the ` smoke ' seen pouring from flue gas stacks is this water vapor forming a cloud as it contacts cool air . A typical flue gas from the combustion of fossil fuels contains very small amounts of nitrogen oxides ( NOx ) , sulfur dioxide ( SO2 ) and particulate matter . The nitrogen oxides are derived from the nitrogen in the ambient air as well as from any nitrogen-containing compounds in the fossil fuel . The sulfur dioxide is derived from any sulfur-containing compounds in the fuels . The particulate matter is composed of very small particles of solid materials and very small liquid droplets which give flue gases their smoky appearance . The steam generators in large power plants and the process furnaces in large refineries , petrochemical and chemical plants , and incinerators burn considerable amounts of fossil fuels and therefore emit large amounts of flue gas to the ambient atmosphere . The table below presents the total amounts of flue gas typically generated by the burning of fossil fuels such as natural gas , fuel oil and coal . The data were obtained by stoichiometric calculations . It is of interest to note that the total amount of flue gas generated by coal combustion is only 10 percent higher than the flue gas generated by natural-gas combustion . Note : m ³ are standard cubic meters at 0 ° C and 101.325 kPa , and scf is standard cubic feet at 60 ° F and 14.696 psia .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Flue-gas_emissions_from_fossil-fuel_combustion\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 136179\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Diesel exhaust Content: Diesel exhaust is the gaseous exhaust produced by a diesel type of internal combustion engine , plus any contained particulates . Its composition may vary with the fuel type or rate of consumption , or speed of engine operation ( e.g. , idling or at speed or under load ) , and whether the engine is in an on-road vehicle , farm vehicle , locomotive , marine vessel , or stationary generator or other application . Diesel exhaust is a Group 1 carcinogen , which causes lung cancer and has a positive association with bladder cancer . It contains several substances that are also listed individually as human carcinogens by the IARC . Methods exist to reduce nitrogen oxides ( NOx ) and particulate matter ( PM ) in the exhaust .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Diesel_exhaust\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 135556\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Levoglucosan Content: Levoglucosan ( C6H10O5 ) is an organic compound with a six-carbon ring structure formed from the pyrolysis of carbohydrates , such as starch and cellulose . As a result , levoglucosan is often used as a chemical tracer for biomass burning in atmospheric chemistry studies , particularly with respect to airborne particulate matter . Along with other tracers such as potassium , oxalate , and gaseous acetonitrile , levoglucosan has been shown to be highly correlated with regional fires . This is because the gas emitted by the pyrolysis of wood ( biomass ) contains significant amounts of levoglucosan . Levoglucosan has been described as `` an unequivocal biomass burning tracer '' in the context of forest and brush fires . But the anhydrosugar has only been found detectable in low temperature samples ( 150-350 ° C ) , meaning that its value as an indicator for smoke from controlled biomass combustion in , for instance , modern domestic wood stoves which operate at temperatures above 500 ° C , is `` very doubtful '' . The hydrolysis of levoglucosan generates the fermentable sugar glucose . Levoglucosan can be utilized in the synthesis of chiral polymers such as unhydrolysable glucose polymers .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Levoglucosan\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 135457\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Low-carbon_emission\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 132945\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Volume source (pollution) Content: A Volume source of pollution is a three-dimensional source of pollutant emissions . Essentially , it is an area source with a third dimension . Examples of a volume source of pollution are : Dust emissions from the wind erosion of uncovered gravel piles , sand piles , limestone piles , coal piles , etc. . Fugitive gaseous emissions from pipe flanges , packed valve seals , gas compressor seals , control valve seals , piping and vessel seals within industrial facilities such as oil refineries and petrochemical plants . Buildings , containing air pollutant emission sources , with no singular emission vent ( i.e. , buildings with multiple roof vents or multiple open windows ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Volume_source_(pollution)\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 132858\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2006 Southeast Asian haze Content: The 2006 Southeast Asian haze event was caused by continued uncontrolled burning from `` slash and burn '' cultivation in Indonesia , and affected several countries in the Southeast Asian region and beyond , such as Malaysia , Singapore , southern Thailand , and as far as Saipan ; the effects of the haze may have spread to South Korea . Local sources of pollution partly contributed to the increased toxicity , particularly in high-pollution areas such as ports , oil refineries , and dense urban areas . In the highly urbanised and industrialised Klang Valley of Malaysia in particular , the surrounding terrain acted as a natural retainer of polluted air , aggravating the situation when the haze set in . There is also a link to El Niño . The haze was made worse than during previous occurrences by the El Niño-Southern Oscillation which delayed the year 's monsoon season . Fires in Kalimantan produce great amounts of smoke , burn a long time and are difficult to extinguish because they are on peatland , and once lit the fires can burn for months and release gases that produce sulphuric acid . Air quality across the region appeared to improve in late October as heavy rainfall doused fires in Indonesia .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"2006_Southeast_Asian_haze\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 132107\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Fly ash Content: Fly ash , also known as `` pulverised fuel ash '' in the United Kingdom , is a coal combustion product composed of fine particles that are driven out of the boiler with the flue gases . Ash that falls in the bottom of the boiler is called bottom ash . In modern coal-fired power plants , fly ash is generally captured by electrostatic precipitators or other particle filtration equipment before the flue gases reach the chimneys . Together with bottom ash removed from the bottom of the boiler , it is known as coal ash . Depending upon the source and makeup of the coal being burned , the components of fly ash vary considerably , but all fly ash includes substantial amounts of silicon dioxide ( SiO2 ) ( both amorphous and crystalline ) , aluminium oxide ( Al2O3 ) and calcium oxide ( CaO ) , the main mineral compounds in coal-bearing rock strata . Constituents depend upon the specific coal bed makeup but may include one or more of the following elements or substances found in trace concentrations ( up to hundreds ppm ) : arsenic , beryllium , boron , cadmium , chromium , hexavalent chromium , cobalt , lead , manganese , mercury , molybdenum , selenium , strontium , thallium , and vanadium , along with very small concentrations of dioxins and PAH compounds . In the past , fly ash was generally released into the atmosphere , but air pollution control standards now require that it be captured prior to release by fitting pollution control equipment . In the US , fly ash is generally stored at coal power plants or placed in landfills . About 43 % is recycled , often used as a pozzolan to produce hydraulic cement or hydraulic plaster and a replacement or partial replacement for Portland cement in concrete production . Pozzolans ensure the setting of concrete and plaster and provide concrete with more protection from wet conditions and chemical attack . After a long regulatory process , the EPA published a final ruling in December 2014 , which establishes that coal fly ash is regulated on the federal level as `` non-hazardous '' waste according to the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act ( RCRA ) . Coal Combustion Residuals ( CCR 's ) are listed in the subtitle D ( rather than under subtitle C dealing for hazardous waste , which was also considered ) . In the case that fly or bottom ash is not produced from coal , for example when solid waste is used to produce electricity in an incinerator ( see waste-to-energy facilities ) , this kind of ash may contain higher levels of contaminants than coal ash . In that case the ash produced is often classified as hazardous waste .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Fly_ash\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 131161\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Emissions Trading Scheme in South Korea Content: South Korea 's Emissions Trading Scheme ( KETS ) is the second largest in scale after the European Union Emission Trading Scheme and was launched on January 1 , 2015 . South Korea is the second country in Asia to initiate a nation-wide carbon market after Kazakhstan . Complying to the country 's pledge made at the Copenhagen Accord of 2009 , the South Korean government aims to reduce its greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions by 30 % below its business as usual scenario by 2020 . They have officially employed the cap-and-trade system and the operation applies to over 525 companies which are accountable for approximately 68 % of the nation 's GHG output . The operation is divided up into three periods . The first and second phases consist of 3 years each , 2015 to 2017 and 2018 to 2020 . The final phase will spread out over the next 5 years from 2021 to 2025 . The cap-and-trade system is a tool of carbon pricing that has been adapted by several countries to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions through a market mechanism . It entails a market open to the transaction of trade permits , which allow participating businesses or countries to emit a given amount of greenhouse gases . A cap is set by the government which defines the maximum level of total emissions permitted during a certain time period . The South Korean government had set the emissions cap for the first year of implementation ( 2015 ) as 573 MtCO2e . The major objectives of the KETS is to place South Korea at the forefront of the global effort in reducing GHG emissions and to develop its market competitiveness in the clean energy sector . As one of the top 10 largest contributors to global greenhouse gas emissions and a nation with the highest growth rate in GHG emissions , South Korea 's awareness of its carbon footprint has increased over the years . The country grows more vulnerable to climate change as the average temperature has risen by 1.5 degrees Celsius causing frequent natural disasters . Furthermore , the South Korean government aims to cut back its reliance on imported fossil fuel energy which accounts for roughly 97 % of its primary energy consumption . Lastly , by implementing the emissions trading scheme , the government has prospects of developing its green industries and increase its global share of the clean energy market .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Emissions_Trading_Scheme_in_South_Korea\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 129588\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Smoke exhaust ductwork Content: Smoke exhaust ductwork , in Europe , is typically protected via passive fire protection means , subject to fire testing ( typically to NBN EN 1366-8 ) and listing and approval use and compliance . It is used to remove smoke from buildings , ships or offshore structures to enable emergency evacuation as well as improved firefighting . In North America , fireproofed ductwork may be used for the purpose of smoke exhaust , but it is more common to use unfireproofed return air ductwork , whereby no fire testing or listings are employed to qualify the ductwork for this use . Evidence of this North American practice can be found in the 2010 National Building Code of Canada , 3.2.8.8 . Mechanical Exhaust System , as well as Sections 909.16.2 and 910 of the 2015 International Building Code .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Smoke_exhaust_ductwork\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 129548\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental impact of the coal industry Content: The environmental impact of the coal industry includes issues such as land use , waste management , water and air pollution , caused by the coal mining , processing and the use of its products . In addition to atmospheric pollution , coal burning produces hundreds of millions of tons of solid waste products annually , including fly ash , bottom ash , and flue-gas desulfurization sludge , that contain mercury , uranium , thorium , arsenic , and other heavy metals . There are severe health effects caused by burning coal . According to a report by the World Health Organization in 2008 , coal particulates pollution are estimated to shorten approximately 1,000,000 lives annually worldwide . A 2004 study commissioned by environmental groups , but contested by the US EPA , concluded that coal burning costs 24,000 lives a year in the United States . Historically , coal mining has been a very dangerous activity and the list of historical coal mining disasters is a long one . Underground mining hazards include suffocation , gas poisoning , roof collapse and gas explosions . Open cut hazards are principally mine wall failures and vehicle collisions . In the United States , an average of 26 coal miners per year died in the decade 2005-2014 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_impact_of_the_coal_industry\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 129327\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Chimney (disambiguation) Content: A chimney is a conduit for exhausting combustion gases up into open air . Chimney or Chimneys may also refer to : Chimney ( locomotive ) , specifically for chimneys fitted to railway locomotives Funnel ( ship ) , chimney or smokestack on a ship Chimney , Oxfordshire , hamlet in England Chimney ( sculpture ) , outside Riley Hospital for Children , Indianapolis Chimneying , rock-climbing technique Chimneys ( play ) by Agatha Christie Chimneys novels , two light-hearted thrillers by Agatha Christie Fairy chimney , tall thin rock formation Methane chimney , underground gas buildup Solar chimney , method of heating a building using passive solar energy Chimney swift , Chaetura pelagica Chimney crayfish , Cambarus diogenes Chimney bellflower , Campanula pyramidalis\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Chimney_(disambiguation)\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 128834\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: White coal Content: White coal is a form of fuel produced by drying chopped wood over a fire . It differs from charcoal which is carbonised wood . White coal was used in England to smelt lead ore from the mid-sixteenth to the late seventeenth centuries . It produces more heat than green wood but less than charcoal and thus prevents the lead evaporating . White coal could be used mixed with charcoal for other industrial uses than lead smelting . White coal was produced in distinctive circular pits with a channel , known as Q-pits . They are frequently found in the woods of South Yorkshire . Nowadays white coal is made from Groundnut shells Cotton hulls and salks Castor seed shells Forest leaves ; wood chips and shavings Sugarcane bagasse Rice husk and paddy straw Mustard waste Coir dust Coffee husk Sunflower waste Maize stalks Bajra cobs Sesame seeds oil cake Wheat straw Benefits of white coal : White coal is cheaper than coal and fire wood . There is no sulphur in the white coal , therefore no toxic gases . Moisture content is nil . Biomass briquettes have a higher practical thermal value . Briquettes have consistent quality , have high burning efficiency , and are ideally sized for complete combustion . Combustion is more uniform compared to coal and boiler response to changes in steam requirements is faster , due to higher quantity of volatile matter in briquettes . Low ash contents . The calorific value of the finished briquettes is approximately 3500 to 4000 kcal/kg . India is fast becoming a major manufacturer and consumer of white coal . A large number of companies have switched their boiler fuels to use white coal instead of fossil fuels . White Coal manufacturing capacity is coming up in droves in the state of Gujarat , Maharashtra , Tamil Nadu and Rajasthan . The production of White coal ( Briquettes made of Biomass ) using agricultural and forest waste is more common in North India .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"White_coal\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 128501\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wet stacking Content: Wet stacking is a condition in diesel engines in which not all the fuel is burned and passes on into the exhaust system . The word `` stacking '' comes from the term `` stack '' for exhaust pipe or chimney stack . The oily exhaust pipe is therefore a `` wet stack '' . This condition can have several causes . The most common cause is idling the engine for long intervals , which does not generate enough heat in the cylinder for a complete burn . `` Idling '' may be running at full rated operating speed , but with very little load applied . Another is excessive fueling . That may be caused by weak or leaky injectors , fuel settings turned up too high or overfueling for the given rpms . Cold weather running or other causes that prevent the engine from reaching proper operating temperature can cause a buildup of fuel due to incomplete burn that can result in ` wetstacking ' . In diesel generators , it is usually because the diesel engine is running at only a small percentage of its rated output . For efficient combustion , a diesel should be run under at least 60 per cent of its rated power output . It is detectable by the presence of a black ooze around the exhaust manifold , piping and turbocharger , if fitted . It can be mistaken for lubricating oil in some cases , but it consists of the `` heavy ends '' of the diesel fuel which do not burn when combustion temperature is too low . The heavier , more oily components of diesel fuel contain more stored energy than a comparable quantity of , say , gasoline , but diesel requires an adequate loading of the engine in order to keep combustion temperature high enough to make use of it . Often , one can hear a slight miss in the engine due to fuel buildup . When the engine is first placed under a load after long periods of idling and wetstacking it may blow some black exhaust out as it burns that excess fuel off . Continuous black exhaust from the stack when under a constant load is also an indication that all the fuel is not being burned .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Wet_stacking\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 127957\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Health effects of coal ash Content: Coal ash , also known as coal combustion residuals ( CCRs ) , is the particulate residue that remains from burning coal . Depending on the chemical composition of the coal burned , this residue may contain toxic substances and pose a health risk to workers in coal-fired power plants .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Health_effects_of_coal_ash\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 127191\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cowl (chimney) Content: A cowl is a usually hood-shaped covering used to increase the draft of a chimney and prevent backflow . The cowl , usually made of galvanized iron , is fitted to the chimney pot to prevent wind blowing the smoke back down into the room below . Undoubtedly named after the resemblance of many designs to the cowl garment worn by monks , they have been in use for centuries . When using an open fire to heat a room the smoke rises through a flue to a chimney pot on the roof . Under normal conditions the warm air from the fire will rise up the chimney emitting the smoke with it and dispersing it at rooftop level where it is less of a nuisance . In strong winds the pressure of the wind may overwhelm the updraft and push the airflow in reverse down the flue . Smoke will then fill the room it is intended to heat posing a health and fire risk , causing discomfort and dirtying furnishings in its path . When raw coal rather than smokeless fuel is burnt , the amount of smoke may be considerable and measures to prevent backflow occurring are a necessity . A secondary function is to prevent birds and squirrels from nesting in the chimney . They often also act as a rain guard to keep rain from going down the chimney . A metal wire mesh is sometimes added as a spark arrestor . Wooden cowls were used on oasts to prevent the ingress of rain into kilns , and create a flow of air through the kiln . A H-style cap ( cowl ) is a chimney top constructed from chimney pipes shaped like the letter H . It is an age-old method to regulate draft in situations where prevailing winds or turbulence cause downdraft and backpuffing . Although the H-cap has a distinctive advantage over most other downdraft caps , it fell out of favor because of its bulky looks . It is found mainly in marine use but has been gaining popularity again for its energy saving functionality . The H-cap stabilizes the draft rather than increasing it . Other downdraft caps are based on the Venturi effect , solving downdraft problems by increasing the updraft constantly resulting in much higher fuel consumption .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Cowl_(chimney)\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 127076\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Soothill Content: Soothill is a small village in the town of Batley , West Yorkshire , England . Soothill is 1.5 mi northeast from the town of Dewsbury and directly north of Hanging Heaton . The name derives from the Old English `` sot '' and means a place where wood was burnt . Soothill was on the Great Northern Railway 's Leeds to Batley branch line , although no station was provided . The colliery at Soothill , adjacent to the railway , was the scene of a rail accident in February 1920 between a goods train and a passenger train . The accident was not fatal with only injuries being recorded . The railway was closed in 1953 leaving a disused tunnel ( Soothill Tunnel ) north east of the settlement . This tunnel has been bricked up as it contains toxic gases .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Soothill\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 126811\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Smog Content: Smog is a type of air pollutant . The word `` smog '' was coined in the early 20th century as a portmanteau of the words smoke and fog to refer to smoky fog , its opacity , and odour . The word was then intended to refer to what was sometimes known as pea soup fog , a familiar and serious problem in London from the 19th century to the mid 20th century . This kind of visible air pollution is composed of nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , ozone , smoke or particulates among others ( less visible pollutants include carbon monoxide , CFCs and radioactive sources ) . Human-made smog is derived from coal emissions , vehicular emissions , industrial emissions , forest and agricultural fires and photochemical reactions of these emissions . Modern smog , as found for example in Los Angeles , is a type of air pollution derived from vehicular emission from internal combustion engines and industrial fumes that react in the atmosphere with sunlight to form secondary pollutants that also combine with the primary emissions to form photochemical smog . In certain other cities , such as Delhi , smog severity is often aggravated by stubble burning in neighboring agricultural areas . The atmospheric pollution levels of Los Angeles , Beijing , Delhi , Mexico City , Tehran and other cities are increased by inversion that traps pollution close to the ground . It is usually highly toxic to humans and can cause severe sickness , shortened life or death .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Smog\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 126525\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Motor vehicle emissions and pregnancy Content: In the United States about 10 % of the population , 35 million people , live within 100 meters of a high traffic road High-traffic roads are commonly identified as being host to more than 50,000 vehicles per day , which is a source of toxic vehicle pollutants . Previous studies have found correlations between exposure to vehicle pollutants and certain diseases such as asthma , lung and heart disease , and cancer among others . Car pollutants include carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , particulate matter ( fine dusts and soot ) , and toxic air pollutants While these pollutants affect the general health of populations , they are known to also have specific adverse effects on expectant mothers and their fetuses . The purpose of this article is to outline how vehicular pollutants affect the health of expectant mothers and the adverse health effects these exposure have on the unborn babies .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Motor_vehicle_emissions_and_pregnancy\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 126202\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Briquette Content: A briquette ( or briquet ) is a compressed block of coal dust or other combustible biomass material such as charcoal , sawdust , wood chips , peat , or paper used for fuel and kindling to start a fire . The term comes from the French language and is related to brick .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Briquette\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 126135\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Westerholt Power Station Content: Westerholt Power Station was a coal fired power station in Gelsenkirchen-Westerholt , Germany . The power plant consisted of two units built in the 1960s , each capable of producing 150 MW of electricity . Its smokestack , built in 1981 , was over 300 metres ( 1000 feet ) tall , making it Germany 's tallest chimney at the time . The power station was decommissioned on May 13 , 2005 . The chimney was demolished on Sunday , December 3 , 2006 , at 10:53 a.m. The height of the smokestack , 300 metres , has been confirmed by the former operator of the power plant , E.ON Kraftwerke . It was the tallest structure in North Rhine-Westphalia . Before its erection the Wesel transmitter tower took this claim . After the demolition of the chimney , the Wesel tower once again became the tallest structure in North Rhine-Westphalia . A district heating plant , `` FWK Westerholt '' , has been in operation on this site since the spring of 2004 . There are six boilers there to provide heat for the district heating network of the northern Ruhr Area . The Westerholt coal mine is located only a few hundred metres away . Both the power plant and the mine are on the city limits of Gelsenkirchen in the Hassel neighborhood and were named for the contiguous ( and at that time still independent ) city of Westerholt in what was then the district of Recklinghausen ( today the city is a part of the city of Herten and is named `` Herten-Westerholt '' ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Westerholt_Power_Station\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 125906\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Flue Content: A flue is a duct , pipe , or opening in a chimney for conveying exhaust gases from a fireplace , furnace , water heater , boiler , or generator to the outdoors . Historically the term flue meant the chimney itself . In the United States , they are also known as vents for boilers and as breeching for water heaters and modern furnaces . They usually operate by buoyancy , also known as the stack effect , or the combustion products may be ` induced ' via a blower . As combustion products contain carbon monoxide and other dangerous compounds , proper ` draft ' , and admission of replacement air is imperative . Building codes , and other standards , regulate their materials , design , and installation .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Flue\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 125896\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ultra-low-sulfur diesel Content: Ultra-low-sulfur diesel ( ULSD ) is diesel fuel with substantially lowered sulfur content . Since 2006 , almost all of the petroleum-based diesel fuel available in Europe and North America has been of a ULSD type . The move to lower sulfur content allows for the application of advanced emissions control technologies that substantially lower the harmful emissions from diesel combustion . Testing by engine manufacturers and regulatory bodies have found the use of emissions control devices in conjunction with ULSD can reduce the exhaust output of ozone precursors and particulate matter to near-zero levels . In 1993 the European Union began mandating the reduction of diesel sulfur content and implementing modern ULSD specifications in 1999 . The United States started phasing in ULSD requirements for highway vehicles in 2006 , with implementation for off-highway applications , such as locomotive and marine fuel , beginning in 2007 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Ultra-low-sulfur_diesel\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 125681\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: German response to Kyoto Protocol Content: Germany is Europe 's largest and the world 's 6th greatest single emitter of CO2 . In July 2007 , Germany had the largest European population , with 82.4 million people . Germany imports most of its materials and energy sources , and in 2004 imported 2.135 million barrels of oil and 85.02 billion m ³ ( 2003 ) of natural gas a day . In 2004 , Germany emitted 886 million metric tonnes of CO2 . In 2004 , there were approximately 45 million registered cars in Germany . Between March 1998 and March 1999 , 84 countries including Germany signed the Kyoto Protocol . In March 2002 , the Bundestag unanimously ratified Kyoto . In May 2002 , the European Union submitted the articles of ratification for all 15 of its then member states . As an Annex II nation , Germany 's commitment to the UNFCCC with respect to Kyoto was to reduce emissions as well as to provide an economic crutch to developing nations via Clean Development Mechanisms . In November 2006 , Germany 's planned annual quota was 482 million metric tonnes of CO2 . German Greenhouse Gas Emissions reduced by 17.2 % from 1990 to 2004 , according to UNFCCC . Germany actively promotes government carbon funds and supports multilateral carbon funds that are intent on purchasing Carbon Credits from non-Annex I parties . Government organizations work closely with major utility , energy , oil and gas , and chemicals conglomerates to try to acquire as many Greenhouse Gas Certificates as cheaply as possible . Since signing and ratifying the protocol , Germany has committed to reducing its emissions to 21 % below 1990 levels between 2008 and 2012 . In November 2008 , a study found that Germany had already reduced its greenhouse gas emissions by 22.4 % , which means it already reached its Kyoto Emissions Commitments .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"German_response_to_Kyoto_Protocol\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 125398\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Particulates Content: Atmospheric particulate matter -- also known as particulate matter ( PM ) or particulates -- are microscopic solid or liquid matter suspended in the Earth 's atmosphere . The term aerosol commonly refers to the particulate/air mixture , as opposed to the particulate matter alone . Sources of particulate matter can be man-made or natural . They have impacts on climate and precipitation that adversely affect human health . Subtypes of atmospheric particulate matter include suspended particulate matter ( SPM ) , thoracic and respirable particles , inhalable coarse particles , which are -LSB- coarse -RSB- particles with a diameter between 2.5 and 10 micrometers ( μm ) ( PM10 ) , fine particles with a diameter of 2.5 μm or less ( PM2 .5 ) , ultrafine particles , and soot The IARC and WHO designate airborne particulates a Group 1 carcinogen . Particulates are the deadliest form of air pollution due to their ability to penetrate deep into the lungs and blood streams unfiltered , causing permanent DNA mutations , heart attacks , and premature death . In 2013 , a study involving 312,944 people in nine European countries revealed that there was no safe level of particulates and that for every increase of 10 μg / m3 in PM10 , the lung cancer rate rose 22 % . The smaller PM2 .5 were particularly deadly , with a 36 % increase in lung cancer per 10 μg / m3 as it can penetrate deeper into the lungs .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Particulates\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 125106\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental aspects of the electric car Content: Although electric cars have several benefits over conventional internal combustion engine automobiles , they are still subject to environmental regulation due to heavy reliance of rare earth elements such as neodymium , most of which are from China . However , several key environmental benefits includes a significant reduction of local air pollution , especially in cities , as they do not emit harmful tailpipe pollutants such as particulates ( soot ) , volatile organic compounds , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , ozone , lead , and various oxides of nitrogen . The amount of carbon dioxide emitted depends on the emission intensity of the power sources used to charge the vehicle , the efficiency of the said vehicle and the energy wasted in the charging process . For mains electricity the emission intensity varies significantly per country and within a particular country , and on the demand , the availability of renewable sources and the efficiency of the fossil fuel-based generation used at a given time .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_aspects_of_the_electric_car\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 123915\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Oxygenate Content: Oxygenated chemical compounds contain oxygen as a part of their chemical structure . The term usually refers to oxygenated fuels . Oxygenates are usually employed as gasoline additives to reduce carbon monoxide and soot that is created during the burning of the fuel . Compounds related to soot , like polyaromatic hydrocarbons ( PAHs ) and nitrated PAHs , are reduced also . The oxygenates commonly used are either alcohols or ethers : Alcohols : Methanol ( MeOH ) Ethanol ( EtOH ) Isopropyl alcohol ( IPA ) n-butanol ( BuOH ) Gasoline grade t-butanol ( GTBA ) Ethers : Methyl tert-butyl ether ( MTBE ) Tert-amyl methyl ether ( TAME ) Tert-hexyl methyl ether ( THEME ) Ethyl tert-butyl ether ( ETBE ) Tert-amyl ethyl ether ( TAEE ) Diisopropyl ether ( DIPE ) In the United States , the Environmental Protection Agency had authority to mandate that minimum proportions of oxygenates be added to automotive gasoline on regional and seasonal basis from 1992 until 2006 in an attempt to reduce air pollution , in particular ground-level ozone and smog . In addition to this North American automakers have in 2006 and 2007 promoted a blend of 85 % ethanol and 15 % gasoline , marketed as E85 , and their flex-fuel vehicles , e.g. GM 's '' Live Green , Go Yellow '' campaign . U.S. Corporate Average Fuel Economy ( CAFE ) standards give an artificial 54 % fuel efficiency bonus to vehicles capable of running on 85 % alcohol blends over vehicles not adapted to run on 85 % alcohol blends . There is also alcohols ' intrinsically cleaner combustion , however due to its lower energy density it is not capable of producing as much energy per gallon as gasoline . Much gasoline sold in the United States is blended with up to 10 % of an oxygenating agent . This is known as oxygenated fuel and often ( but not entirely correctly , as there are reformulated gasolines without oxygenate ) as reformulated gasoline . Methyl tert ( iary ) - butyl ether ( MTBE ) was the most popular fuel additive in the US , prior to government mandated use of ethanol .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Oxygenate\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 123652\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon black Content: Carbon black ( subtypes are acetylene black , channel black , furnace black , lamp black and thermal black ) is a material produced by the incomplete combustion of heavy petroleum products such as FCC tar , coal tar , ethylene cracking tar , and a small amount from vegetable oil . Carbon black is a form of paracrystalline carbon that has a high surface-area-to-volume ratio , albeit lower than that of activated carbon . It is dissimilar to soot in its much higher surface-area-to-volume ratio and significantly lower ( negligible and non-bioavailable ) PAH ( polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon ) content . However , carbon black is widely used as a model compound for diesel soot for diesel oxidation experiments . Carbon black is mainly used as a reinforcing filler in tires and other rubber products . In plastics , paints , and inks carbon black is used as a color pigment . The current International Agency for Research on Cancer ( IARC ) evaluation is that , `` Carbon black is possibly carcinogenic to humans ( Group 2B ) '' . Short-term exposure to high concentrations of carbon black dust may produce discomfort to the upper respiratory tract , through mechanical irritation .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_black\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 123050\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Fugitive emissions Content: Fugitive emissions are emissions of gases or vapors from pressurized equipment due to leaks and other unintended or irregular releases of gases , mostly from industrial activities . As well as the economic cost of lost commodities , fugitive emissions contribute to air pollution and climate change . A detailed inventory of greenhouse gas emissions from upstream oil and gas activities in Canada for the year 2000 estimated that fugitive equipment leaks had a global warming potential equivalent to the release of 17 million metric tonnes of carbon dioxide , or 12 per cent of all greenhouse gases emitted by the sector . Venting of natural gas , flaring , accidental releases and storage losses accounted for an additional 38 per cent . Fugitive emissions present other risks and hazards . Emissions of volatile organic compounds such as benzene from oil refineries and chemical plants pose a long term health risk to workers and local communities . In situations where large amounts of flammable liquids and gases are contained under pressure , leaks also increase the risk of fire and explosion . Leaks from pressurized process equipment generally occur through valves , pipe connections , mechanical seals , or related equipment . Fugitive emissions also occur at evaporative sources such as waste water treatment ponds and storage tanks . Because of the huge number of potential leak sources at large industrial facilities and the difficulties in detecting and repairing some leaks , fugitive emissions can be a significant proportion of total emissions . Though the quantities of leaked gases may be small , gases that have serious health or environmental impacts can cause a significant problem . To minimize and control leaks at process facilities operators carry out regular leak detection and repair activities . Routine inspections of process equipment with gas detectors can be used to identify leaks and estimate the leak rate in order to decide on appropriate corrective action . Proper routine maintenance of equipment reduces the likelihood of leaks . Because of the technical difficulties and costs of detecting and quantifying actual fugitive emissions at a site or facility , and the variability and intermittent nature of emission flow rates , bottom-up estimates based on standard emission factors are generally used for annual reporting purposes . New technologies are under development that could revolutionize the detection and monitoring of fugitive emissions . One technology , known as differential absorption lidar ( DIAL ) , can be used to remotely measure concentration profiles of hydrocarbons in the atmosphere up to several hundred meters from a facility . DIAL has been used for refinery surveys in Europe for over 15 years . A pilot study carried out in 2005 using DIAL found that actual emissions at a refinery were fifteen times higher than those previously reported using the emission factor approach . The fugitive emissions were equivalent to 0.17 % of the refinery throughput . Portable gas leak imaging cameras are also a new technology that can be used to improve leak detection and repair , leading to reduced fugitive emissions . The cameras use infrared imaging technology to produce video images in which invisible gases escaping from leak sources can be clearly identified .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Fugitive_emissions\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 123002\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coal in Europe Content: Coal in Europe describes coal as energy fuel in Europe today . Coal includes hard coal , brown coal , and lignite . Coal production in Europe is falling , and imports exceed production . If production and consumption continue at the present rate , proven and economically recoverable world reserves would last for about 150 years . According to IEA Coal Information ( 2007 ) world production and use of coal have increased considerably in recent years . There is , however , growing controversy in Europe over the use of coal , as many denounce it for reasons such as health risks and links to global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Coal_in_Europe\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 122253\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coal in Australia Content: Coal in Australia is mined primarily in Queensland , New South Wales and Victoria . Coal is used to generate electricity and most of the coal mined in Australia is exported , mostly to eastern Asia . In fiscal year 2013/14 , 430.9 million tonnes of coal was mined , and 375.1 million tonnes was exported . Coal provides about 69 % of Australia 's electricity production . In fiscal year 2008/09 , 487 million tonnes of coal was mined , and 261 million tonnes was exported . In 2013 , Australia was the world 's fifth-largest coal producer , after China , the United States , India , and Indonesia . However , in terms of proportion of production exported , Australia was the world 's second largest coal exporter , with exports accounting for roughly 73 % of coal production . Indonesia exports about 87 % of its coal production . Coal mining in Australia has been criticised by members of the environmental movement , due to carbon dioxide emissions during combustion . This criticism is primarily directed at thermal coal , for its connection to coal-fired power stations as a major source of carbon dioxide emissions , and the link to climate change and the effects of global warming on Australia . The burning of coal for electricity produces 29 % of Australia 's total greenhouse gas emissions , based on 2013-2014 Clean Energy Regulator data . Both Greenpeace Australia Pacific ( Energy -LSB- R -RSB- evolution ) and Beyond Zero Emissions ( Zero Carbon Australia 2020 ) have produced reports claiming a transition can be made to renewable energy and Greenpeace has called for a just transition for coal based communities , but others argue at present there is no strong evidence of a viable alternative for the vast majority of Australia 's electricity generation , or for the significant economic and social benefits coal mining delivers to regional communities . Many of these arguments specifically ignore the differentiation between thermal and metallurgical coal , and the different application they play in modern society . Coal Seam Gas , methane-based gas associated with deposits of coal has historically been flared , however over the past 10 years has been recovered and used to generate further electricity . The Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme , which followed the draft report of the Garnaut Climate Change Review , has placed a price on carbon emissions through a reducing cap and trade emissions trading scheme and this would be likely to impact most heavily on brown coal usage within Australia ( particularly in the Latrobe Valley in Victoria ) for power generation .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Coal_in_Australia\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 121859\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Spodium Content: Spodium , ( Latin for ashes or soot ) refers to burned bone ( usually used for medical purposes ) , or the act of divination with ash . Spodium may also refer to other types of ash , such as the scrapings from the inside of a furnace . Spodium has a long history of medical usage , mentioned by Hippocrates and , for example , in the Medical Poem of Salerno '' ... Who knows the cause why Spodium stancheth bleeding ? ... '' ( in this case spodium referring to oxen bone ashes ) . Category : Incineration Category : History of medicine\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Spodium\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 120412\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Air filter Content: A particulate air filter is a device composed of fibrous materials which removes solid particulates such as dust , pollen , mould , and bacteria from the air . Filters containing an absorbent or catalyst such as charcoal ( carbon ) may also remove odors and gaseous pollutants such as volatile organic compounds or ozone . Air filters are used in applications where air quality is important , notably in building ventilation systems and in engines . Some buildings , as well as aircraft and other human-made environments ( e.g. , satellites and space shuttles ) use foam , pleated paper , or spun fiberglass filter elements . Another method , air ionisers , use fibers or elements with a static electric charge , which attract dust particles . The air intakes of internal combustion engines and air compressors tend to use either paper , foam , or cotton filters . Oil bath filters have fallen out of favor . The technology of air intake filters of gas turbines has improved significantly in recent years , due to improvements in the aerodynamics and fluid dynamics of the air-compressor part of the gas turbines .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Air_filter\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 120296\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cyphelium notarisii Content: Cyphelium notarisii or soot lichen is a species of lichenised fungus in the family Caliciaceae . Found in Europe and North America , it grows on wood , often in coastal areas . The species was first described as Acolium notarisii by Charles Tulasne in 1852 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Cyphelium_notarisii\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 119537\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Smoking (cooking) Content: Smoking is the process of flavoring , browning , cooking , or preserving food by exposing it to smoke from burning or smoldering material , most often wood . Meats and fish are the most common smoked foods , though cheeses , vegetables , and ingredients used to make beverages such as whisky , smoked beer , and lapsang souchong tea are also smoked . In Europe , alder is the traditional smoking wood , but oak is more often used now , and beech to a lesser extent . In North America , hickory , mesquite , oak , pecan , alder , maple , and fruit-tree woods , such as apple , cherry , and plum , are commonly used for smoking . Other biomass besides wood can also be employed , sometimes with the addition of flavoring ingredients . Chinese tea-smoking uses a mixture of uncooked rice , sugar , and tea , heated at the base of a wok . Some North American ham and bacon makers smoke their products over burning corncobs . Peat is burned to dry and smoke the barley malt used to make whisky and some beers . In New Zealand , sawdust from the native manuka ( tea tree ) is commonly used for hot smoking fish . In Iceland , dried sheep dung is used to cold-smoke fish , lamb , mutton and whale . Historically , farms in the Western world included a small building termed the smokehouse , where meats could be smoked and stored . This was generally well-separated from other buildings both because of the fire danger and because of the smoke emanations . The smoking of food directly with wood smoke is known to contaminate the food with carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Smoking_(cooking)\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 119498\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Aethalometer Content: An aethalometer is an instrument for measuring the concentration of optically absorbing ( ` black ' ) suspended particulates in a gas colloid stream ; commonly visualized as smoke or haze , often seen in ambient air under polluted conditions . The word aethalometer is derived from the Classical Greek verb ` aethaloun ' , meaning ` to blacken with soot ' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Aethalometer\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 119381\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Beehive burner Content: A wood waste burner , known as a teepee burner or wigwam burner in the United States and a beehive burner in Canada , is a free-standing conical steel structure ranging from 30 to 60 feet in height . They are named for their resemblance to beehives , teepees or wigwams . A sawdust burner is cylindrical . They have an opening at the top that is covered with a steel grill or mesh to keep sparks and glowing embers from escaping . Sawdust and wood scraps are delivered to an opening near the top of the cone by means of a conveyor belt or Archimedes ' screw , whereupon they fall onto the fire near the center of the structure . Teepee or beehive burners are used to dispose of waste wood in logging yards and sawdust from sawmills by burning . As a result they produce a large quantity of smoke and ash , which is vented directly into the atmosphere without any sort of scrubbing or cleaning , contributing to poor air conditions wherever they are used . The burners are considered to be a major source of air pollution and are being phased out in most areas . Teepee burners went out of general use in the Northwestern United States in the early 1970s , and are prohibited from operation in Oregon , as well as southwest Washington state . The wood waste is now used as a component in various forest products , such as pellet fuel , particle board and mulch .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Beehive_burner\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 118328\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Southeast Asian haze Content: Southeast Asian haze is a fire-related large-scale air pollution problem that occurs regularly . These haze events have caused adverse health and economic impact on Brunei Darussalam , Indonesia , Malaysia , Singapore , and to a lesser degree , the Philippines and Thailand . The problem flares up every dry season , in varying degrees . Transboundary haze in Southeast Asia has been recorded since 1972 . The haze is largely caused by illegal agricultural fires due to industrial-scale slash-and-burn practices in Indonesia , especially from the provinces of South Sumatra and Riau in Indonesia 's Sumatra island , and Kalimantan on Indonesian Borneo . Burned land can be sold at a higher price illegally , and eventually used for activities including oil palm and pulpwood production . Burning is also cheaper and faster compared to cutting and clearing using excavators or other machines .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Southeast_Asian_haze\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 117909\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2013 Southeast Asian haze Content: The 2013 Southeast Asian haze was a haze crisis that affected several countries in Southeast Asia , including Brunei , Indonesia , Malaysia , Singapore and Southern Thailand , mainly during June and July 2013 . The haze period was caused by large-scale burning in many parts of Sumatra and Borneo . Satellite imagery from NASA 's Terra and Aqua satellites showed that the haze was mainly due to smoke from fires burning in Riau province , Indonesia . The 2013 Southeast Asian haze was notable for causing record high levels of pollution in Singapore and several parts of Malaysia . The 3-hour Pollution Standards Index in Singapore reached a record high of 401 on 21 June 2013 , surpassing the previous record of 226 set during the 1997 South East Asian Haze . On 23 June , the Air Pollution Index ( API ) in Muar , Johor spiked to 746 at 7 a.m. which was almost 2.5 times above the minimum range of the Hazardous level thus resulting in the declaration of emergency in Muar and Ledang ( which was afterwards lifted on 25 June in the morning ) , leaving the towns in virtual shutdown .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"2013_Southeast_Asian_haze\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 117871\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Air Ink Content: Air Ink is an Indian startup brand which produces ink and ink-based art products by condensing soot-based gaseous effluents generated by motor vehicles due to incomplete combustion of fossil fuels . Founded by Graviky Labs , a spin-off group of MIT Media Lab , Air Ink produces its materials through a step-by-step process which primarily involves capturing of emissions , separation of carbon from the soot , and then mixing of this carbon with different types of oils and solutions . It uses a patented device called `` Kaalink '' to carry out the filtration of soot , which contains carbon and other polluting agents like heavy metals and carcinogens . Air Ink is marketed as a solution to air pollution and its disastrous effects on human life . Dubbed as `` the first ink made out of recycled air pollution '' , its products were used in August 2016 in association with Tiger Beer to create street art and murals in Hong Kong 's Sheung Wan district . 30 -- 50 minutes of car pollution is enough to create purified carbon which can fill an Air Ink pen .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Air_Ink\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 117519\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Soot blower Content: A sootblower is a device for removing the soot that is deposited on the furnace tubes of a boiler during combustion . Types of soot blowers : Wall Blowers also known as IRs ( Insertable Rotating ) Long Retractable Soot Blower ( LRSB ) or IK ( Insertable Kinetic ) Air Heater Blower . Steam blowing medium : Steam Air Steam is normally used as a medium for blowing away the soot since capital cost of steam pressure reducing equipment and drain is less than the cost of compressors , motors and control of air systems .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Soot_blower\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 116358\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coal seam fire Content: A coal seam fire or mine fire is the underground smouldering of a coal deposit , often in a coal mine . Such fires have economic , social and ecological impacts . They are often started by lightning , grass , or forest fires , and are particularly insidious because they continue to smoulder underground after surface fires have been extinguished , sometimes for many years , before flaring up and restarting forest and brush fires nearby . They propagate in a creeping fashion along mine shafts and cracks in geologic structures . Coal fires are a serious health and safety hazard , affecting the environment by releasing toxic fumes , reigniting grass , brush , or forest fires , and causing subsidence of surface infrastructure such as roads , pipelines , electric lines , bridge supports , buildings and homes . Whether started by humans or by natural causes , coal seam fires continue to burn for decades or even centuries until either the fuel source is exhausted , a permanent groundwater table is encountered , the depth of the burn becomes greater than the ground 's capacity to subside and vent , or humans intervene . Because they burn underground , coal seam fires are extremely difficult and costly to extinguish , and are unlikely to be suppressed by rainfall . There are strong similarities between coal fires and peat fires . Across the world , thousands of underground coal fires are burning at any given moment . The problem is most acute in industrializing , coal-rich nations such as China . Global coal fire emissions are estimated to cause 40 tons of mercury to enter the atmosphere annually , and to represent three percent of the world 's annual CO2 emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Coal_seam_fire\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 116194\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Multi-fuel stove Content: A multi-fuel stove is very similar to a wood-burning stove in appearance and design . Multifuel refers to the capability of the stove to burn wood and also coal , wood pellets , or peat . Stoves that have a grate for the fire to burn on and a removable ash pan are generally considered multi-fuel stoves . If the fire simply burns on a bed of ash , it is a wood-only fuelled appliance , and can not be used for coal or peat .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Multi-fuel_stove\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 116082\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bukhari (heater) Content: A bukhāri ( Kashmiri : बुख़ारी or بُخاری ) is a traditional space heater from the northern areas of the Indian Subcontinent , which is typically a wood-burning stove . Bukharis consist of a wide cylindrical fire-chamber at the base in which wood , charcoal or other fuel is burned and a narrower cylinder on the top that helps in heating the room and acts as a chimney . The base of a Kashmiribukhari is wider than that of most western wood-burning stoves . Bukharis are found in the entire northern belt of the region , i.e. Afghanistan , Kashmir , Nepal , Pakistan , Bhutan and Northeast India .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Bukhari_(heater)\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 116031\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wood fuel Content: Wood fuel ( or fuelwood ) is a fuel , such as firewood , charcoal , chips , sheets , pellets , and sawdust . The particular form used depends upon factors such as source , quantity , quality and application . In many areas , wood is the most easily available form of fuel , requiring no tools in the case of picking up dead wood , or few tools , although as in any industry , specialized tools , such as skidders and hydraulic wood splitters , have been developed to mechanize production . Sawmill waste and construction industry by-products also include various forms of lumber tailings . The discovery of how to make fire for the purpose of burning wood is regarded as one of humanity 's most important advances . The use of wood as a fuel source for heating is much older than civilization and is assumed to have been used by Neanderthals . Today , burning of wood is the largest use of energy derived from a solid fuel biomass . Wood fuel can be used for cooking and heating , and occasionally for fueling steam engines and steam turbines that generate electricity . Wood may be used indoors in a furnace , stove , or fireplace , or outdoors in a furnace , campfire , or bonfire . In permanent structures and in caves , hearths were constructed or established -- surfaces of stone or another noncombustible material upon which a fire could be built . Smoke escaped through a smoke hole in the roof . In contrast to civilizations in relatively arid regions ( such as Mesopotamia and Egypt ) , the Greeks , Romans , Celts , Britons , and Gauls all had access to forests suitable for using as fuel . Over the centuries there was a partial deforestation of climax forests and the evolution of the remainder to coppice with standards woodland as the primary source of wood fuel . These woodlands involved a continuous cycle of new stems harvested from old stumps , on rotations between seven and thirty years . One of the earliest printed books on woodland management , in English , was John Evelyn 's `` Sylva , or a discourse on forest trees '' ( 1664 ) advising landowners on the proper management of forest estates . H. L. Edlin , in `` Woodland Crafts in Britain '' , 1949 outlines the extraordinary techniques employed , and range of wood products that have been produced from these managed forests since pre-Roman times . And throughout this time the preferred form of wood fuel was the branches of cut coppice stems bundled into faggots . Larger , bent or deformed stems that were of no other use to the woodland craftsmen were converted to the end of World War two . Since then much of these woodlands have been converted to broadscale agriculture . Total demand for fuel increased considerably with the industrial revolution but most of this increased demand was met by the new fuel source coal , which was more compact and more suited to the larger scale of the new industries . During the Edo period of Japan , wood was used for many purposes , and the consumption of wood led Japan to develop a forest management policy during that era . Demand for timber resources was on the rise not only for fuel , but also for construction of ships and buildings , and consequently deforestation was widespread . As a result , forest fires occurred , along with floods and soil erosion . Around 1666 , the shogun made it a policy to reduce logging and increase the planting of trees . This policy decreed that only the shogun , or a daimyō , could authorize the use of wood . By the 18th century , Japan had developed detailed scientific knowledge about silviculture and plantation forestry .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Wood_fuel\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 115994\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon-neutral fuel Content: Carbon-neutral fuels can refer to a variety of energy fuels or energy systems which have no net greenhouse gas emissions or carbon footprint . One class is synthetic fuel ( including methane , gasoline , diesel fuel , jet fuel or ammonia ) produced from sustainable or nuclear energy used to hydrogenate waste carbon dioxide recycled from power plant flue exhaust gas or derived from carbonic acid in seawater . Other types can be produced from renewable energy sources such as wind turbines , solar panels , and hydroelectric power stations . Such fuels are potentially carbon-neutral because they do not result in a net increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases . Until captured carbon is used for plastics feedstock , carbon neutral fuel synthesis is the primary means of carbon capture and utilization or recycling . To the extent that carbon-neutral fuels displace fossil fuels , or if they are produced from waste carbon or seawater carbonic acid , and their combustion is subject to carbon capture at the flue or exhaust pipe , they result in negative carbon dioxide emission and net carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere , and thus constitute a form of greenhouse gas remediation . Such power to gas carbon-neutral and carbon-negative fuels can be produced by the electrolysis of water to make hydrogen used in the Sabatier reaction to produce methane which may then be stored to be burned later in power plants as synthetic natural gas , transported by pipeline , truck , or tanker ship , or be used in gas to liquids processes such as the Fischer -- Tropsch process to make traditional fuels for transportation or heating . Carbon-neutral fuels are used in Germany and Iceland for distributed storage of renewable energy , minimizing problems of wind and solar intermittency , and enabling transmission of wind , water , and solar power through existing natural gas pipelines . Such renewable fuels could alleviate the costs and dependency issues of imported fossil fuels without requiring either electrification of the vehicle fleet or conversion to hydrogen or other fuels , enabling continued compatible and affordable vehicles . A 250 kilowatt synthetic methane plant has been built in Germany and it is being scaled up to 10 megawatts .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon-neutral_fuel\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 115206\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Benzo(a)pyrene Content: Benzo -LSB- a -RSB- pyrene is a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon and the result of incomplete combustion at temperatures between 300 ° C and 600 ° C . The ubiquitous compound can be found in coal tar , tobacco smoke and many foods , especially grilled meats . The substance with the formula C20H12 is one of the benzopyrenes , formed by a benzene ring fused to pyrene . Its diol epoxide metabolites ( more commonly known as BPDE ) react and bind to DNA , resulting in mutations and eventually cancer . It is listed as a Group 1 carcinogen by the IARC . In the 18th century a scrotal cancer of chimney sweepers , the chimney sweeps ' carcinoma , was already connected to soot .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Benzo(a)pyrene\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 115034\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Masonry heater Content: A masonry heater ( or masonry stove , ceramic stove , tile stove ) is a device for warming an interior space through radiant heating , by capturing the heat from periodic burning of fuel ( usually wood ) , and then radiating the heat at a fairly constant temperature for a long period . The technology has existed in different forms , from back into the Neoglacial and Neolithic periods . Archeological digs have revealed excavations of ancient inhabitants utilizing hot smoke from fires in their subterranean dwellings , to radiate into the living spaces . These early forms have evolved into modern systems . Evidence found from 5,000 B.C. of massive blocks of masonry used to retain heat foreshadowed early forms of fire hearths that were used as multifunctional heating sources . Later evolutions came in the Roman hypocaust , Austrian/German ( kachelofen , baths ) using the smoke and exhaust of a single fire . In Eastern and Northern Europe and North Asia , these kachelofens ( or steinofens ) evolved in many different forms and names : for example the Russian Stove/Fireplace ( -LSB- : ru : Русская печь , Русская печь -RSB- ) , the Finnish Stove ( in Finnish : pystyuuni or kaakeliuuni , `` tile oven '' ) and the Swedish Stove ( in Swedish : kakelugn , `` tile stove '' or `` contra-flow stove '' ) associated with Carl Johan Cronstedt . The Chinese developed the same principle into their Kang bed-stove . The masonry heater has gained renewed domestic popularity recently because of its heating efficiency . ASTM International calls a masonry heater `` a vented heating system of predominantly masonry construction having a mass of at least 800 kg ( 1760 lbs ) , excluding the chimney and masonry heater base . In particular , a masonry heater is designed specifically to capture and store a substantial portion of the heat energy from a solid fuel fire in the mass of the masonry heater through internal heat exchange flue channels , enable a charge of solid fuel mixed with an adequate amount of air to burn rapidly and more completely at high temperatures in order to reduce emission of unburned hydrocarbons , and be constructed of sufficient mass and surface area such that under normal operating conditions , the external surface temperature of the masonry heater ( except in the region immediately surrounding the fuel loading door ( s ) ) , does not exceed 110 ° C ( 230 ° F ) . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Masonry_heater\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 114638\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Modern chimney cleaning Content: Today , chimney sweeps still maintain a thriving new industry in many parts of the world . The industry has expanded from the maintenance of wood-burning fireplace and appliance venting systems to include venting for many types of heating appliances , such as heating oil , natural gas , wood and pellet burning appliances , building furnaces and space heaters . The standard chimney brush is still used , along with more modern tools ( such as vacuums , cameras and special chimney cleaning tools ) , although most sweeps are done from the bottom of the chimney , rather than the top , to prevent the dispersion of dust and debris . Most modern chimney sweeps are professionals , and are usually trained to diagnose and repair hazards along with maintenance such as removal of flammable creosote , firebox and damper repair , and smoke chamber repair . Some sweeps also offer more complicated repairs such as flue repair and relining , crown repair , and tuckpointing or rebuilding of masonry chimneys .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Modern_chimney_cleaning\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 114455\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Black carbon Content: Chemically , black carbon ( BC ) is a component of fine particulate matter ( PM ≤ 2.5 µm in aerodynamic diameter ) . Black carbon consists of pure carbon in several linked forms . It is formed through the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels , biofuel , and biomass , and is emitted in both anthropogenic and naturally occurring soot . Black carbon causes human morbidity and premature mortality . In climatology , black carbon is a climate forcing agent . Black carbon warms the Earth by absorbing sunlight and heating the atmosphere and by reducing albedo when deposited on snow and ice ( direct effects ) and indirectly by interaction with clouds , with the total forcing of 1.1 W/m2 . Black carbon stays in the atmosphere for only several days to weeks , whereas carbon dioxide has an atmospheric lifetime of more than 100 years . The term black carbon is also used in soil sciences and geology , referring either to deposited atmospheric black carbon or to directly incorporated black carbon from vegetation fires . Especially in the tropics , black carbon in soils significantly contributes to fertility as it is able to absorb important plant nutrients .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Black_carbon\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 114428\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 3-Nitrobenzanthrone Content: 3-Nitrobenzanthrone ( 3-nitro-7H-benz -LSB- de -RSB- anthracen-7-one ) is a chemical compound emitted in diesel exhaust ; it is a potent carcinogen . It produced the highest score ever reported in the Ames test , a standard measure of the cancer-causing potential of toxic chemicals , far greater than the previous known strongest ( 1,8-dinitropyrene , which is also found in diesel exhaust ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"3-Nitrobenzanthrone\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 114275\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sonic soot blowers Content: thumb | Sonic soot blower Sonic soot blowers offer a cost-effective and non-destructive means of preventing ash and particulate build-up within the power generation industry . They use high energy -- low frequency sound waves that provide 360 ° particulate de-bonding and at a speed in excess of 344 metres per second . Because they employ non-destructive sound waves , unlike steam soot blowers they eliminate any concerns over corrosion , erosion or mechanical damage and do not produce an effluent stream . The sonic soot blower can in some ways be compared to a musical reed instrument such as an oboe , where the ` base tone ' is created by blowing air over a reed and then converting this ` base tone ' into a particular high or low note , depending on how far the sound wave has to travel along inside the body of the instrument . The sonic soot blower operates in the same manner , the ` base tone ' being produced by passing compressed air into a wave generator which houses a titanium diaphragm causing it to oscillate rapidly . This ` base tone ' is then converted into a range of selected frequencies ranging from 350 Hz down to 60 Hz by the design and length of the horn section , producing the desired sound frequency at a sound level approaching 200 dB . The sonic soot blower is usually ` sounded ' for a few seconds at intervals of between 3 and 10 minutes . This ` sounding ' pattern is normally controlled via the plant 's PLC. . However , it may also be operated by such means as a SCADA system , individual timers on each solenoid valve or via a manual ball valve .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Sonic_soot_blowers\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 114232\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Chimney sweeps' carcinoma Content: Chimney sweep 's cancer , also called Soot wart , is a squamous cell carcinoma of the skin of the scrotum . It has the distinction of being the first reported form of occupational cancer , and was initially identified by Percivall Pott in 1775 . It was initially noticed as being prevalent amongst chimney sweeps .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Chimney_sweeps'_carcinoma\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 113812\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: European emission standards Content: European emission standards define the acceptable limits for exhaust emissions of new vehicles sold in EU and EEA member states . The emission standards are defined in a series of European Union directives staging the progressive introduction of increasingly stringent standards .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"European_emission_standards\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 113498\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2016 Southeast Asian haze Content: The 2016 Southeast Asian haze is an air pollution crisis affecting several countries in Southeast Asia , including Indonesia , Malaysia and Singapore . The haze is caused by Indonesian agricultural fires in Sumatra and Kalimantan . The fires are attributed to illegal slash-and-burn practices by companies and individual farmers , which remove vegetation to make way for plantations of palm oil , pulp and paper . On 17 August , 365 hot spots were detected on Indonesia 's Sumatra island , with 278 in the province of Riau . On 18 August , 158 hot spots were detected in the province of West Kalimantan . By 26 August , six Indonesian provinces had declared a state of emergency due to the fires : Central Kalimantan , Jambi , Riau , South Kalimantan , South Sumatra and West Kalimantan . Indonesia has reported arresting around 450 people in 2016 for their connections with the fires . On 17 August 2016 , Malaysia 's Air Pollutant Index first surpassed the ` unhealthy ' level of 100 for the region 's dry season . On 24 August , Malaysia offered to dispatch two Bombardier 415 fire-fighting aircraft if Indonesia would officially request help to tackle the fires . In June of 2016 , Singapore offered Indonesia a Lockheed C-130 Hercules aircraft for cloud seeding , as well as a Singapore Civil Defence Force fire-fighting team , and assistance in providing satellite pictures and determining the coordinates of fires . On 26 August 2016 , Singapore 's 24-hour Pollutant Standards Index ( PSI ) entered the ` unhealthy ' range of above 100 , while its 3-hour PSI reached 215 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"2016_Southeast_Asian_haze\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 113286\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Exhaust system Content: An exhaust system is usually piping used to guide reaction exhaust gases away from a controlled combustion inside an engine or stove . The entire system conveys burnt gases from the engine and includes one or more exhaust pipes . Depending on the overall system design , the exhaust gas may flow through one or more of : Cylinder head and exhaust manifold A turbocharger to increase engine power . A catalytic converter to reduce air pollution . A muffler ( North America ) / silencer ( UK/India ) , to reduce noise .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Exhaust_system\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 113268\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: European Pollutant Emission Register Content: The European Pollutant Emission Register ( EPER ) is a Pollutant Release and Transfer Register providing access to information on the annual emissions of industrial facilities in the Member States of the European Union ( EU ) , as well as Norway . This has since been replaced and improved upon by the European Pollutant Release and Transfer Register ( E-PRTR ) . EPER collects data about the emissions of 12,000 facilities in the 25 EU Member States . Data are available by country , by pollutant , by activity ( sector ) , air and water ( direct or via a sewerage system ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"European_Pollutant_Emission_Register\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 113266\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Clean coal technology Content: Clean coal technology is a collection of technologies being developed to attempt to mitigate the environmental impact of coal energy generation and to mitigate climate change . When coal is used as a fuel source , the gaseous emissions generated by the thermal decomposition of the coal include sulphur dioxide ( SO2 ) , nitrogen oxides ( NOx ) , mercury , and other chemical byproducts that vary depending on the type of the coal being used . These emissions have been established to have a negative impact on the environment and human health , contributing to acid rain , lung cancer and cardiovascular disease . As a result , clean coal technologies are being developed to remove or reduce pollutant emissions to the atmosphere . Some of the techniques that would be used to accomplish this include chemically washing minerals and impurities from the coal , gasification ( see also IGCC ) , improved technology for treating flue gases to remove pollutants to increasingly stringent levels and at higher efficiency , carbon capture and storage technologies to capture the carbon dioxide from the flue gas and dewatering lower rank coals ( brown coals ) to improve the calorific value , and thus the efficiency of the conversion into electricity . Clean coal technology usually addresses atmospheric problems resulting from burning coal . Historically , the primary focus was on SO2 and NOx , the most important gases in causation of acid rain , and particulates which cause visible air pollution and deleterious effects on human health . Concerns exist regarding the economic viability of these technologies and the timeframe of delivery , potentially high hidden economic costs in terms of social and environmental damage , and the costs and viability of disposing of removed carbon and other toxic matter .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Clean_coal_technology\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 113139\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tire-derived fuel Content: Tire-derived fuel ( TDF ) is composed of shredded scrap tires . Tires may be mixed with coal or other fuels , such as wood or chemical wastes , to be burned in concrete kilns , power plants , or paper mills . An EPA test program concluded that , with the exception of zinc emissions , potential emissions from TDF are not expected to be very much different from other conventional fossil fuels , as long as combustion occurs in a well-designed , well-operated and well-maintained combustion device .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Tire-derived_fuel\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 112858\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Steam locomotive exhaust system Content: The Steam locomotive exhaust system consists of those parts of a steam locomotive which together discharge exhaust steam from the cylinders in order to increase the draught through the fire . It usually consists of the blastpipe ( or first stage nozzle ) , smokebox , and chimney , although later designs also include second and third stage nozzles .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Steam_locomotive_exhaust_system\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 112788\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coalite Content: Coalite is a brand of low-temperature coke used as a smokeless fuel . The title refers to the residue left behind when coal is carbonised at 640 degrees Celsius . It was invented by Thomas Parker in 1904 . In 1936 the Smoke Abatement Society awarded its inventor a posthumous gold medal . Coalite is darker and more friable than high temperature coke . It is easier to ignite , burns with an attractive flame , and is lighter than coal , making it an ideal fuel for open domestic firegrates . Drawbacks are its tendencies to produce an excessive residual ash , to burn quickly and give off sulphurous fumes .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Coalite\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 112777\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Diffusion flame Content: In combustion , a diffusion flame is a flame in which the oxidizer combines with the fuel by diffusion . As a result , the flame speed is limited by the rate of diffusion . Diffusion flames tend to burn slower and to produce more soot than premixed flames because there may not be sufficient oxidizer for the reaction to go to completion , although there are some exceptions to the rule . The soot typically produced in a diffusion flame becomes incandescent from the heat of the flame and lends the flame its readily identifiable orange-yellow color . Diffusion flames tend to have a less-localized flame front than premixed flames . The contexts for diffusion may vary somewhat . For instance , a candle uses the heat of the flame itself to vaporize its wax fuel and the oxidizer ( oxygen ) diffuses into the flame from the surrounding air , while a gaslight flame ( or the safety flame of a bunsen burner ) uses fuel already in the form of a vapor . Diffusion flames are often studied in counter flow ( also called opposed jet ) burners . Their interest is due to possible application in the flamelet model for turbulent combustion . Furthermore they provide a convenient way to examine strained flames and flames with holes . These are also known under the name of `` edge flames '' , characterized by a local extinction on their axis because of the high strain rates in the vicinity of the stagnation point . Diffusion flames have an entirely different appearance in a microgravity environment . There is no convection to carry the hot combustion products away from the fuel source , which results in a spherical flame front , such as in the candle seen here . This is a rare example of a diffusion flame which does not produce much soot and does not therefore have a typical yellow flame .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Diffusion_flame\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 112233\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Funnel (ship) Content: A funnel is the smokestack or chimney on a ship used to expel boiler steam and smoke or engine exhaust . They are also commonly referred to as stacks .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Funnel_(ship)\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 112068\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Unburned hydrocarbon Content: Unburned hydrocarbons ( UHCs ) are the hydrocarbons emitted after petroleum is burned in an engine . When unburned fuel is emitted from a combustor , the emission is caused by fuel `` avoiding '' the flame zones . For example , in piston engines , some of the fuel-air mixture `` hides '' from the flame in the crevices provided by the piston ring grooves . Further , some regions of the combustion chamber may have a very weak flame , that is , they have either very fuel-lean or very fuel-rich conditions and consequently they have a low combustion temperature . These regions will cause intermediate species such as formaldehyde and alkenes to be emitted . Sometimes the term `` products of incomplete combustion , '' or PICs , is used to describe such species . Category : Fossil fuels Category : Hydrocarbons\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Unburned_hydrocarbon\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 111511\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bottom ash Content: Bottom ash is part of the non-combustible residue of combustion in a furnace or incinerator . In an industrial context , it usually refers to coal combustion and comprises traces of combustibles embedded in forming clinkers and sticking to hot side walls of a coal-burning furnace during its operation . The portion of the ash that escapes up the chimney or stack is , however , referred to as fly ash . The clinkers fall by themselves into the bottom hopper of a coal-burning furnace and are cooled . The above portion of the ash is referred to as bottom ash too .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Bottom_ash\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 111262\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coal pollution mitigation Content: Coal pollution mitigation , often referred to by the public relations term clean coal , is a series of systems and technologies that seek to mitigate the pollution and other environmental effects normally associated with the burning ( though not the mining or processing ) of coal , which is widely regarded as the dirtiest of the common fuels for industrial processes and power generation . The preferred industry term `` clean coal '' has been described as `` Orwellian '' , an oxymoron , and a myth . Approaches attempt to mitigate emissions of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and other greenhouse gases , and radioactive materials , that arise from the use of coal , mainly for electrical power generation , using various technologies . Historical efforts to reduce coal pollution focused on flue-gas desulfurization starting in the 1850s and clean burn technologies . More recent developments include carbon capture and storage , which pumps and stores CO2 emissions underground , and integrated gasification combined cycle ( IGCC ) involve coal gasification , which provides a basis for increased efficiency and lower cost in capturing CO2 emissions . There are seven technologies deployed or proposed for deployment in the United States : carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) , flue-gas desulfurization , fluidized-bed combustion , integrated gasification combined cycle ( IGCC ) , low nitrogen oxide burners , selective catalytic reduction ( SCR ) , and electrostatic precipitators . Of the 22 demonstration projects funded by the U.S. Department of Energy since 2003 , none are in operation as of February 2017 , having been abandoned or delayed due to capital budget overruns or discontinued because of excessive operating expenses .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Coal_pollution_mitigation\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 111032\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Chinese national carbon trading scheme Content: The Chinese national carbon trading scheme is a cap and trade system for carbon dioxide emissions set to be implemented in July 2017 . This emission trading scheme ( ETS ) creates a carbon market where emitters can buy and sell emission credits . From this scheme , China can limit emissions , but allow economic freedom for emitters to reduce emissions or purchase emission allowances from other emitters . China is currently the largest emitter of greenhouse gases and many major Chinese cities have severe air pollution . With this plan , China will soon be the largest market in carbon trading . The scheme will limit emissions from six of China 's top carbon dioxide emitting industries , including coal-fired power plants . China was able to gain experience in drafting and implementation of an ETS plan from the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , where China was part of the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) . From this experience with carbon markets , and lengthy discussions with the next largest carbon market , the European Union ( EU ) , as well as analysis of small scale pilot markets in major Chinese cities and provinces , China 's national ETS will be the largest of its kind and will help China achieve its Intended Nationally Determined Contribution ( INDC ) from the Paris Agreement in 2016 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Chinese_national_carbon_trading_scheme\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 110942\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Energy accidents Content: Energy resources bring with them great social and economic promise , providing financial growth for communities and energy services for local economies . However , the infrastructure which delivers energy services can breakdown in an energy accident , sometimes causing much damage , and energy fatalities can occur , and with many systems often deaths will happen even when the systems are working as intended . Historically , coal mining has been the most dangerous energy activity and the list of historical coal mining disasters is a long one . Underground mining hazards include suffocation , gas poisoning , roof collapse and gas explosions . Open cut mining hazards are principally mine wall failures and vehicle collisions . In the US alone , more than 100,000 coal miners have been killed in accidents over the past century , with more than 3,200 dying in 1907 alone . According to Benjamin K. Sovacool , 279 major energy accidents occurred from 1907 to 2007 and they caused 182,156 deaths with $ 41 billion in property damages , with these figures not including deaths from smaller accidents . However , by far the greatest energy fatalities that result from energy generation by humanity , is the creation of air pollution . The most lethal of which , particulate matter , which is primarily generated from the burning of fossil fuels and biomass is ( counting outdoor air pollution effects only ) estimated to cause 2.1 million deaths annually .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Energy_accidents\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 110841\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Volkswagen emissions scandal Content: The Volkswagen emissions scandal ( also called `` emissionsgate '' or `` dieselgate '' ) started on 18 September 2015 , when the United States Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) issued a notice of violation of the Clean Air Act to German automaker Volkswagen Group . The agency had found that Volkswagen had intentionally programmed turbocharged direct injection ( TDI ) diesel engines to activate certain emissions controls only during laboratory emissions testing . The programming caused the vehicles ' output to meet US standards during regulatory testing but emit up to 40 times more in real-world driving . Volkswagen deployed this programming in about eleven million cars worldwide , and 500,000 in the United States , during model years 2009 through 2015 . The findings stemmed from a study on emissions discrepancies between European and US models of vehicles commissioned in 2014 by the International Council on Clean Transportation ( ICCT ) , summing up the data from three different sources on 15 vehicles . Among the research groups was a group of five scientists at West Virginia University , who detected additional emissions during live road tests on two out of three diesel cars . ICCT also purchased data from two other sources . The new road testing data and the purchased data were generated using Portable Emissions Measurement Systems ( PEMS ) developed by multiple individuals in the mid-late 1990 's . The findings were provided to the California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) in May 2014 . Volkswagen became the target of regulatory investigations in multiple countries , and Volkswagen 's stock price fell in value by a third in the days immediately after the news . Volkswagen Group CEO Martin Winterkorn resigned , and the head of brand development Heinz-Jakob Neusser , Audi research and development head Ulrich Hackenberg , and Porsche research and development head Wolfgang Hatz were suspended . Volkswagen announced plans to spend ( later raised to , ) on rectifying the emissions issues , and planned to refit the affected vehicles as part of a recall campaign . The scandal raised awareness over the higher levels of pollution being emitted by all vehicles built by a wide range of car makers , which under real world driving conditions are prone to exceed legal emission limits . A study conducted by ICCT and ADAC showed the biggest deviations from Volvo , Renault , Jeep , Hyundai , Citroën and Fiat , resulting in investigations opening into other potential diesel emissions scandals . A discussion was sparked that software-controlled machinery will generally be prone to cheating , and a way out would be to make the software source code accessible to the public . On April 21 , 2017 , a US federal judge ordered Volkswagen `` to pay a $ 2.8 billion criminal fine for rigging diesel-powered vehicles to cheat on government emissions tests . '' The `` unprecedented '' plea deal formalized a punishment that Volkswagen AG agreed to earlier in 2017 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Volkswagen_emissions_scandal\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 110728\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Smokebox Content: A smokebox is one of the major basic parts of a steam locomotive exhaust system . Smoke and hot gases pass from the firebox through tubes where they pass heat to the surrounding water in the boiler . The smoke then enters the smokebox , and is exhausted to the atmosphere through the chimney ( or funnel ) . Early locomotives had no smokebox and relied on a long chimney to provide natural draught for the fire but smokeboxes were soon included in the design for two main reasons . Firstly and most importantly , the blast of exhaust steam from the cylinders , when directed upwards through an airtight smokebox with an appropriate design of exhaust nozzle , effectively draws hot gases through the boiler tubes and flues and , consequently , fresh combustion air into the firebox . Secondly , the smokebox provides a convenient collection point for ash and cinders ( `` char '' ) drawn through the boiler tubes , which can be easily cleaned out at the end of a working day . Without a smokebox , all char must pass up the chimney or will collect in the tubes and flues themselves , gradually blocking them . The smokebox appears to be a forward extension of the boiler although it contains no water and is a separate component . Smokeboxes are usually made from riveted or welded steel plate and the floor is lined with concrete to protect the steel from hot char and acid or rainwater attack .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Smokebox\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 110571\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_impact_of_aviation\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 110468\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cigarette filter Content: A cigarette filter is a component of a cigarette , along with cigarette paper , capsules and adhesives . The filter may be made from cellulose acetate fibre , paper or activated charcoal ( either as a cavity filter or embedded into the cellulose acetate ) . Macroporous phenol-formaldehyde resins and asbestos have also been used in cigarette filters . The acetate and paper modify the particulate smoke phase by particle retention ( filtration ) , and finely divided carbon modifies the gaseous phase ( adsorption ) . Filters can reduce `` tar '' and nicotine smoke yields up to 50 % , with a greater removal rate for other classes of compounds ( e.g. , phenols ) , but are ineffective in filtering toxins such as carbon monoxide . Most factory-made cigarettes are equipped with a filter ; those who roll their own can buy them from a tobacconist .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Cigarette_filter\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 110293\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: ACEA agreement Content: The ACEA agreement refers to a voluntary agreement between the European Automobile Manufacturers Association ( ACEA ) and the European Commission to limit the amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) emitted by passenger cars sold in Europe . With 18 million cars sold each year , Europe is the last major car market in the world . Signed in 1998 , the agreement sought to achieve an average of 140 g/km of CO2 by 2008 for new passenger vehicles sold by the association 's cars in Europe . This target represents a 25 % reduction from the 1995 level of 186 g/km and is equivalent to a fuel economy of 5.8 L/100 km or 5.25 L/100 km for petrol and diesel engines respectively . However , the average for the whole car market for 2008 was 153.7 g/km , so the target has not been achieved . Besides the agreement with ACEA , the European Commission also closed agreements with the Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association ( JAMA ) and Korea Automobile Manufacturers Association ( KAMA ) . However , for the latter two the target date is 2009 instead of 2008 and as ACEA accounts for 86.4 % of car sales in Europe , the impact of the latter two is much smaller . The ultimate EU target to which these agreements are to contribute , is to reach an average CO2 emission ( as measured according to Commission Directive 93/116/EC ) of 130 g/km for all new passenger cars by 2015 . The European Commission announced in late 2006 that it is working on a proposal for legally binding measures and limits . In February 2007 , the Commission acknowledged the failure of the voluntary agreement . Following this , a proposal of regulation was introduced by the Commission on 19 December 2007 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"ACEA_agreement\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 110280\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental issues in Pristina Content: Pristina is the capital and the most populated city of Kosovo . It is also considered as the most polluted city in Kosovo . Basic reason for Pristina 's air pollution is coal mining and energy emitted by the single producer of energy , Kosovo Energy Corporation J.S.C. KEK operates through two power plants , Kosovo A and B located 5 km near Pristina . Furthermore , the diesel-spitting car traffic highly contributes to the pollution of air , along with the wood and coal household heating system and central coal-heating company `` Termokos '' that operates in Pristina .\",\n \"qid\": \"2779\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_issues_in_Pristina\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 110248\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":1369,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"The United States has been restricting soot emissions in Draconian fashion since the Clean Air Act of 1963."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: National Emissions Standards Act Content: The Motor Vehicle Air Pollution Control Act is a 1965 amendment to the U.S. Clean Air Act of 1963 . The amendment set the first federal vehicle emissions standards , beginning with the 1968 models . These standards were reductions from the 1963 emissions : 72 % reduction for hydrocarbons , 56 % reduction for carbon monoxide , and 100 % reduction for crankcase hydrocarbons . The impact the regulatory standards will have on air quality in the future , as well as the potential characteristics of the vehicle fleet can be analyzed with the use of roadway air dispersion models . The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) is a department specific to the Clean Air Act . Its purpose is to make sure the amount of air pollution emitted stays inside the standards set by the U.S. Each state is required to have a state implementation plan ( SIPs ) that clearly indicates how it will enforce the regulations of the Clean Air Act . The states have to create regulations of their own that also adhere to the guidelines of the U.S. regulations ; in order to do so , they must hold hearings so the public can contribute ideas and provide feedback .","qid":"2780","docid":"National_Emissions_Standards_Act","rank":1,"score":187293},{"content":"Title: Regulation of greenhouse gases under the Clean Air Act Content: The United States Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) began regulating greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) under the Clean Air Act ( `` CAA '' or `` Act '' ) from mobile and stationary sources of air pollution for the first time on January 2 , 2011 . Standards for mobile sources have been established pursuant to Section 202 of the CAA , and GHGs from stationary sources are currently controlled under the authority of Part C of Title I of the Act . The basis for regulations was upheld in the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia in June 2012 .","qid":"2780","docid":"Regulation_of_greenhouse_gases_under_the_Clean_Air_Act","rank":2,"score":177889},{"content":"Title: Air Pollution Control Act Content: The Air Pollution Control Act of 1955 ( , ch . 360 , ) was the first Clean Air Act ( United States ) enacted by Congress to address the national environmental problem of air pollution on July 14 , 1955 . This was `` an act to provide research and technical assistance relating to air pollution control '' . The act `` left states principally in charge of prevention and control of air pollution at the source '' . The act declared that air pollution was a danger to public health and welfare , but preserved the `` primary responsibilities and rights of the states and local government in controlling air pollution '' . The act put the federal government in a purely informational role , authorizing the United States Surgeon General to conduct research , investigate , and pass out information `` relating to air pollution and the prevention and abatement thereof '' . Therefore , The Air Pollution Control Act contained no provisions for the federal government to actively combat air pollution by punishing polluters . The next Congressional statement on air pollution would come with the Clean Air Act of 1963 . The Air Pollution Control Act was the culmination of much research done on fuel emissions by the federal government in the 1930s and 1940s . Additional legislation was passed in 1963 to better fully define air quality criteria and give more power in defining what air quality was to the secretary of Health , Education , and Labor . This additional legislation would provide grants to both local and state agencies . A replacement , the United States Clean Air Act ( CAA ) , was enacted to substitute the Air Pollution Control Act of 1955 . A decade later the Motor Vehicle Air Pollution Control Act was enacted to focus more specifically on automotive emission standards . A mere two years later , the Federal Air Quality Act was established to define `` air quality control regions '' scientifically based on topographical and meteorological facets of air pollution . California was the first state to act against air pollution when the metropolis of Los Angeles began to notice deteriorating air quality . The location of Los Angeles furthered the problem as several geographical and meteorological problems unique to the area exacerbated the air pollution problem .","qid":"2780","docid":"Air_Pollution_Control_Act","rank":3,"score":177339},{"content":"Title: Clean Air Act (United States) Content: The Clean Air Act is a United States federal law designed to control air pollution on a national level . It is one of the United States ' first and most influential modern environmental laws , and one of the most comprehensive air quality laws in the world . As with many other major U.S. federal environmental statutes , it is administered by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , in coordination with state , local , and tribal governments . Its implementing regulations are codified at 40 C.F.R. Subchapter C , Parts 50-97 . The 1955 Air Pollution Control Act was the first U.S federal legislation that pertained to air pollution ; it also provided funds for federal government research of air pollution . The first federal legislation to actually pertain to `` controlling '' air pollution was the Clean Air Act of 1963 . The 1963 act accomplished this by establishing a federal program within the U.S. Public Health Service and authorizing research into techniques for monitoring and controlling air pollution . In 1967 , the Air Quality Act enabled the federal government to increase its activities to investigate enforcing interstate air pollution transport , and , for the first time , to perform far-reaching ambient monitoring studies and stationary source inspections . The 1967 act also authorized expanded studies of air pollutant emission inventories , ambient monitoring techniques , and control techniques . Major amendments to the law , requiring regulatory controls for air pollution , passed in 1970 , 1977 and 1990 . The 1970 amendments greatly expanded the federal mandate , requiring comprehensive federal and state regulations for both stationary ( industrial ) pollution sources and mobile sources . It also significantly expanded federal enforcement . Also , the Environmental Protection Agency was established on December 2 , 1970 for the purpose of consolidating pertinent federal research , monitoring , standard-setting and enforcement activities into one agency that ensures environmental protection . The 1990 amendments addressed acid rain , ozone depletion , and toxic air pollution , established a national permits program for stationary sources , and increased enforcement authority . The amendments also established new auto gasoline reformulation requirements , set Reid vapor pressure ( RVP ) standards to control evaporative emissions from gasoline , and mandated new gasoline formulations sold from May to September in many states . Reviewing his tenure as EPA Administrator under President George H. Bush , William K. Reilly characterized passage of the 1990 Clean Air Act as his most notable accomplishment . The Clean Air Act was the first major environmental law in the United States to include a provision for citizen suits . Numerous state and local governments have enacted similar legislation , either implementing federal programs or filling in locally important gaps in federal programs .","qid":"2780","docid":"Clean_Air_Act_(United_States)","rank":4,"score":177258},{"content":"Title: Clean Air Act 1956 Content: The Clean Air Act 1956 was an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom passed in response to London 's Great Smog of 1952 . It was in effect until 1964 , and sponsored by the Ministry of Housing and Local Government in England and the Department of Health for Scotland . The Act introduced a number of measures to reduce air pollution , especially by introducing `` smoke control areas '' in some towns and cities in which only smokeless fuels could be burned . By shifting homes ' sources of heat towards cleaner coals , electricity , and gas , it reduced the amount of smoke pollution and sulphur dioxide from household fires . Reinforcing these changes , the Act also included measures to relocate power stations away from cities , and for the height of some chimneys to be increased . The Act was an important milestone in the development of a legal framework to protect the environment . The Act was repealed in 1993 to consolidate its legislation with other related enactments , especially the Clean Air Act 1968 .","qid":"2780","docid":"Clean_Air_Act_1956","rank":5,"score":176206},{"content":"Title: Timeline of major U.S. environmental and occupational health regulation Content: 1947 -- Los Angeles Air Pollution Control District created ; first air pollution agency in the US . 1948 -- Federal Water Pollution Control Act 1955 -- National Air Pollution Control Act 1959 -- California Motor Vehicle Pollution Control Board created to test automobile emissions and set standards . 1963 -- Clean Air Act ( amended in 1965 , 1966 , 1967 , 1969 , 1970 , 1977 , 1990 ) 1964 -- Wilderness Act 1965 -- National Emissions Standards Act 1965 -- Motor Vehicle Air Pollution Control Act 1965 -- Solid Waste Disposal Act 1967 -- California Air Resources Board established ; set emissions standards predating EPA . 1967 -- Air Quality Act ( amendment to CAA ) 1969 -- Federal Coal Mine Health and Safety Act 1969 -- National Environmental Policy Act ( NEPA ) 1970 -- Reorganization Plan No. 3 created the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) by Presidential Executive Order 1970 -- Clean Air Act ( Extension ) . Major rewrite of CAA , setting National Ambient Air Quality Standards ( NAAQS ) , New Source Performance Standards ( NSPS ) Hazardous Air Pollutant standards , and auto emissions tailpipe standards . 1970 -- Williams-Steiger Occupational Safety and Health Act created OSHA and NIOSH 1970 -- Lead-Based Paint Poisoning Prevention Act 1970 -- Environmental Quality Improvement Act 1972 -- Federal Water Pollution Control Amendments of 1972 ( P.L. 92-500 ) . Major rewrite . 1972 -- Federal Insecticide , Fungicide , and Rodenticide Act ( FIFRA ) ( amended by Food Quality Protection Act of 1996 ) 1972 -- Marine Protection , Research , and Sanctuaries Act of 1972 1973 -- Endangered Species Act 1974 -- Safe Drinking Water Act 1975 -- Hazardous Materials Transportation Act 1976 -- Resource Conservation and Recovery Act ( RCRA ) 1976 -- Toxic Substances Control Act ( TSCA ) 1977 -- Clean Water Act . Amended FWPCA of 1972 . 1977 -- Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act 1978 -- National Energy Conservation Policy Act 1980 -- Comprehensive Environmental Response , Compensation , and Liability Act ( CERCLA ) . Created the Superfund program . 1980 -- Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act 1980 -- Fish and Wildlife Conservation Act 1982 -- Nuclear Waste Policy Act 1986 -- Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1986 1986 -- Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act ( EPCRKA ) 1986 -- Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act ( SARA ) 1987 -- Water Quality Act . Amended FWPCA of 1972 . 1989 -- Basel Convention 1989 -- Montreal Protocol on ozone-depleting chemicals enters into force . 1990 -- Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 . Set new automobile emissions standards , low-sulfur gas , required Best Available Control Technology ( BACT ) for toxins , reduction in CFCs . 1990 -- Oil Pollution Act of 1990 1991 -- Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act ( ISTEA ) 1992 -- Residential Lead-Based Paint Hazard Reduction Act 1993 -- North American Free Trade Agreement Implementation Act 1994 -- Executive Order 12898 on Environmental Justice 1996 -- Mercury-Containing and Rechargeable Battery Management Act ( P.L. 104-19 ) 1996 -- Food Quality Protection Act ( amended FIFRA ) 1996 -- Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1996 1997 - Kyoto Protocol 1998 -- Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century ( TEA-21 ) 2002 -- California AB 1493 sets standards for emissions of CO2 and other greenhouse gases from automobiles and light duty trucks . 2002 -- Small Business Liability Relief and Brownfields Revitalization Act ( amended CERCLA ) 2005 -- Energy Policy Act of 2005 2005 -- Safe , Accountable , Flexible , Efficient Transportation Equity Act : A Legacy for Users ( SAFETEA ) 2007 -- Energy Independence and Security Act ( EISA ) 2016 -- The Frank R. Lautenberg Chemical Safety for the 21st Century Act","qid":"2780","docid":"Timeline_of_major_U.S._environmental_and_occupational_health_regulation","rank":6,"score":169592},{"content":"Title: Startups, shutdowns, and malfunctions Content: Startups , shutdowns , and malfunctions ( SSM ) are periods of non-continuous operation in refineries , chemical plants or similar industrial facilities . During such temporary periods , these plants might emit larger amounts of pollution , and therefore the pollution abatement equipment may be unable to effectively control it . Recognizing this problem , beginning in 1994 the American Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) allowed such facilities to release large amounts of otherwise prohibited air pollution during SSM . However , in 2002 and again in 2003 the EPA made regulatory revisions which seemed to increase the allowable periods of such non-compliance periods , which motivated a coalition of environmental groups to challenge the changes , by suing the EPA . These groups argued that these changes effectively neutralized the United States Clean Air Act . The U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia issued a ruling on the lawsuit ( 19 December 2008 ) , finding that allowing such SSM exemptions does violate requirements of the Clean Air Act , in that the CAA requires that some reasonable limit on a facility 's emissions of hazardous air pollutants must always be in effect . The American Chemistry Council , a trade association of industrial and chemical manufacturing companies , joined the EPA in the court 's defense actions . An EPA spokesman said in late December 2008 that the agency is studying the decision to determine an appropriate course of action .","qid":"2780","docid":"Startups,_shutdowns,_and_malfunctions","rank":7,"score":152536},{"content":"Title: Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 Content: The Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 - a bill to amend the Clean Air Act to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide , and for other purposes . It was proposed in the 110th United States Congress by Senators Bernie Sanders ( I-VT ) and Barbara Boxer ( D-CA ) on January 15 , 2007 . It was referred to the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works . The measure was intended to increase performance standards for electricity generation and motor vehicles with the option of an emissions `` cap and trade '' system . The emissions cap would begin in 2010 with the aim of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 15 percent by 2020 and 83 percent by 2050 . The legislation would also provide funding for R&D on geologic sequestration of carbon dioxide , among other projects ; set emissions standards for new vehicles and a renewable fuels requirement for gasoline beginning in 2016 ; establish energy efficiency and renewable portfolio standards beginning in 2008 and low-carbon electric generation standards beginning in 2016 for electric utilities ; and require periodic evaluations by the National Academy of Sciences to determine whether emissions targets are adequate .","qid":"2780","docid":"Global_Warming_Pollution_Reduction_Act_of_2007","rank":8,"score":151510},{"content":"Title: Oregon Indoor Clean Air Act Content: The Oregon Indoor Clean Air Act , also known as the Smokefree Workplace Law , is a measure passed in 1981 by the US State of Oregon prohibiting smoking in public indoor places except in certain designated smoking areas . The objective is to protect non-smokers in confined areas from second-hand smoke . Beginning on January 1 , 2016 , the law was extended to cover `` inhalant delivery systems '' such as e-cigarettes .","qid":"2780","docid":"Oregon_Indoor_Clean_Air_Act","rank":9,"score":149507},{"content":"Title: American Electric Power Co. v. Connecticut Content: American Electric Power Company v. Connecticut , , was a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court , in an 8 -- 0 decision , held that corporations can not be sued for greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) under federal common law , primarily because the Clean Air Act ( CAA ) delegates the management of carbon dioxide and other GHG emissions to the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) . Brought to court in July 2004 in the Southern District of New York , this was the first global warming case based on a public nuisance claim .","qid":"2780","docid":"American_Electric_Power_Co._v._Connecticut","rank":10,"score":147873},{"content":"Title: Clean Energy Act 2011 Content: The Clean Energy Act 2011 is the main Act in a package of legislation that established an Australian emissions trading scheme , to be preceded by a three-year period of fixed carbon pricing designed to reduce carbon dioxide emissions and limit global warming . The package was introduced by the Gillard Labor Government in February 2011 and repealed on 17 July 2014 by the Abbott Government .","qid":"2780","docid":"Clean_Energy_Act_2011","rank":11,"score":147238},{"content":"Title: Vehicle inspection in the United States Content: In the United States , vehicle safety inspection and emissions inspection are governed by each state individually . 17 states have a periodic ( annual or biennial ) safety inspection program , while Maryland and Alabama require a safety inspection on sale or transfer of vehicles which were previously registered in another state . New Jersey discontinued its passenger vehicle safety inspection program on August 1 , 2010 . In 1977 , the federal Clean Air Act was amended by Congress to require states to implement vehicle emissions inspection programs , known as I/M programs ( for Inspection and Maintenance ) , in all major metropolitan areas whose air quality failed to meet certain federal standards . New York 's program started in 1982 , California 's program ( `` Smog Check '' ) started in 1984 , and Illinois ' program started in 1986 . The Clean Air Act of 1990 required some states to enact vehicle emissions inspection programs . State impacted were those in metropolitan areas where air quality did not meet federal standards . Some states , including Kentucky and Minnesota , have discontinued their testing programs in recent years with approval from the federal government .","qid":"2780","docid":"Vehicle_inspection_in_the_United_States","rank":12,"score":145804},{"content":"Title: Cross-State Air Pollution Rule Content: The Cross-State Air Pollution Rule ( CSAPR ) is a ruling by the United States Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) that requires member states of the United States to reduce power plant emissions that contribute to ozone and/or fine particle pollution in other states . The EPA describes this rule as one that `` protects the health of millions of Americans by helping states reduce air pollution and attain clean air standards . ''","qid":"2780","docid":"Cross-State_Air_Pollution_Rule","rank":13,"score":142618},{"content":"Title: Act to Prevent Pollution from Ships Content: The Act to Prevent Pollution from Ships ( APPS , 33 U.S.C. § § 1905-1915 ) is a United States law that implements the provisions of MARPOL and the annexes to which the United States is a party . The most recent U.S. action concerning MARPOL occurred in April 2006 , when the U.S. Senate approved Annex VI , which regulates air pollution ( Treaty Doc . 108-7 , Exec . Rept . 109-13 ) . Following that approval , in March 2007 , the House of Representatives approved legislation to implement the standards in Annex VI ( H.R. 802 ) , through regulations to be promulgated by Environmental Protection Agency in consultation with the U.S. Coast Guard . APPS applies to all U.S.-flagged ships anywhere in the world and to all foreign-flagged vessels operating in navigable waters of the United States or while at port under U.S. jurisdiction . The Coast Guard has primary responsibility to prescribe and enforce regulations necessary to implement APPS in these waters . The regulatory mechanism established in APPS to implement MARPOL is separate and distinct from the Clean Water Act and other federal environmental laws . The H.R. 6665 legislation was passed by the 96th U.S. Congressional session and signed by the 39th President of the United States Jimmy Carter on October 21 , 1980 .","qid":"2780","docid":"Act_to_Prevent_Pollution_from_Ships","rank":14,"score":141624},{"content":"Title: Utility Air Regulatory Group v. Environmental Protection Agency Content: Utility Air Regulatory Group v. Environmental Protection Agency , , was a United States Supreme Court case regarding the Environmental Protection Agency 's regulation of air pollution under the Clean Air Act . In a fractured decision , the Court largely upheld the ability of the EPA to regulate greenhouse emissions .","qid":"2780","docid":"Utility_Air_Regulatory_Group_v._Environmental_Protection_Agency","rank":15,"score":141602},{"content":"Title: Noise Control Act Content: The Noise Pollution and Abatement Act of 1972 is a statute of the United States initiating a federal program of regulating noise pollution with the intent of protecting human health and minimizing annoyance of noise to the general public . The Act established mechanisms of setting emission standards for virtually every source of noise , including motor vehicles , aircraft , certain types of HVAC ( heating , ventilation , and air-conditioning ) equipment and major appliances . It also put local governments on notice as to their responsibilities in land-use planning to address noise mitigation . This noise regulation framework comprised a broad data base detailing the extent of noise health effects . Congress ended funding of the federal noise control program in 1981 , which curtailed development of further national regulations . Since then , starting in 1982 , the primary responsibility to addressing noise pollution shifted to state and local governments . The Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) retains authority to conduct research and publish information on noise and its effects on the public , which is often included nowadays in environmental impact assessments for new urban developments . The initial EPA regulations and programs provided a basis for development of many state and local government noise control laws across the United States . See Noise regulation .","qid":"2780","docid":"Noise_Control_Act","rank":16,"score":138957},{"content":"Title: Clean Air Act Content: The Clean Air Act may refer to : Clean Air Act 1972 in New Zealand Clean Air Act 1956 in the United Kingdom Clean Air Act ( United States ) , 1963","qid":"2780","docid":"Clean_Air_Act","rank":17,"score":138645},{"content":"Title: Electricity Security and Affordability Act Content: The Electricity Security and Affordability Act is a bill that would repeal a pending rule published by the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) on January 8 , 2014 . The proposed rule would establish uniform national limits on greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions from new electricity-generating facilities that use coal or natural gas . The rule also sets new standards of performance for those power plants , including the requirement to install carbon capture and sequestration technology . The bill passed in the United States House of Representatives during the 113th United States Congress .","qid":"2780","docid":"Electricity_Security_and_Affordability_Act","rank":18,"score":136887},{"content":"Title: Oil Pollution Act of 1924 Content: Oil Pollution Act of 1924 is a United States federal statute establishing regulations for coastal navigable waters with regards to intentional fossil fuel discharges from seagoing vessels . The Act of Congress grants the Secretary of War authority to evaluate the oil volume discharge from a vessel while assessing if coastal navigable waters have a potential toxicity posing a deleterious condition for human health and seafood contamination . The 1924 United States statute provides judicial penalities encompassing civil and criminal punishment for violations of the prescribed regulations as stated in the Act . The legislation was passed by the 68th United States Congressional session and confirmed as a federal law by the 29th President of the United States Warren G. Harding on June 7 , 1924 .","qid":"2780","docid":"Oil_Pollution_Act_of_1924","rank":19,"score":135768},{"content":"Title: Clean Water Act Content: The Clean Water Act ( CWA ) is the primary federal law in the United States governing water pollution . Its objective is to restore and maintain the chemical , physical , and biological integrity of the nation 's waters by preventing point and nonpoint pollution sources , providing assistance to publicly owned treatment works for the improvement of wastewater treatment , and maintaining the integrity of wetlands . It is one of the United States ' first and most influential modern environmental laws . As with many other major U.S. federal environmental statutes , it is administered by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , in coordination with state governments . Its implementing regulations are codified at 40 C.F.R. Subchapters D , N , and O ( Parts 100-140 , 401-471 , and 501-503 ) . Technically , the name of the law is the Federal Water Pollution Control Act . The first FWPCA was enacted in 1948 , but took on its modern form when completely rewritten in 1972 in an act entitled the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972 . Major changes have subsequently been introduced via amendatory legislation including the Clean Water Act of 1977 and the Water Quality Act of 1987 . The Clean Water Act does not directly address groundwater contamination . Groundwater protection provisions are included in the Safe Drinking Water Act , Resource Conservation and Recovery Act , and the Superfund act .","qid":"2780","docid":"Clean_Water_Act","rank":20,"score":135569},{"content":"Title: Zero-emissions vehicle Content: A zero-emissions vehicle , or ZEV , is a vehicle that emits no tailpipe pollutants from the onboard source of power . Harmful pollutants to the health and the environment include particulates ( soot ) , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , ozone , lead , and various oxides of nitrogen . Although not considered emission pollutants by the original California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) or U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) definitions , the most recent common use of the term also includes volatile organic compounds , several air toxics ( most notably 1,3-Butadiene ) , and global pollutants such as carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases . Examples of zero emission vehicles include muscle-powered vehicles such as bicycles ; gravity racers ; battery electric vehicles , which typically shift emissions to the location where the electricity is generated e.g. coal or natural gas power plant ; and fuel cell vehicles powered by hydrogen , which typically shift emissions to the location where the hydrogen is generated . Hydrogen-powered vehicles are not strictly zero-emissions , as they do emit water or water vapor , although they are still usually included in this category . Emissions from the manufacturing process are ignored in this definition , although the emissions that are created during manufacture are of an order of magnitude that is comparable to the one of the emissions that are created during a vehicle 's operating lifetime .","qid":"2780","docid":"Zero-emissions_vehicle","rank":21,"score":134048},{"content":"Title: United States federal register of greenhouse gas emissions Content: The United States federal register of greenhouse gas emissions is established by the United States Department of Energy under the Energy Policy Act 1992 . It is administered by the Energy Information Administration through the Voluntary Reporting of Greenhouse Gases Program . Separately , the Environmental Protection Agency in 2009 commenced implementing a mandatory Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program , which applies to facilities that emit 25,000 metric tons or more per year .","qid":"2780","docid":"United_States_federal_register_of_greenhouse_gas_emissions","rank":22,"score":133090},{"content":"Title: Volkswagen emissions scandal Content: The Volkswagen emissions scandal ( also called `` emissionsgate '' or `` dieselgate '' ) started on 18 September 2015 , when the United States Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) issued a notice of violation of the Clean Air Act to German automaker Volkswagen Group . The agency had found that Volkswagen had intentionally programmed turbocharged direct injection ( TDI ) diesel engines to activate certain emissions controls only during laboratory emissions testing . The programming caused the vehicles ' output to meet US standards during regulatory testing but emit up to 40 times more in real-world driving . Volkswagen deployed this programming in about eleven million cars worldwide , and 500,000 in the United States , during model years 2009 through 2015 . The findings stemmed from a study on emissions discrepancies between European and US models of vehicles commissioned in 2014 by the International Council on Clean Transportation ( ICCT ) , summing up the data from three different sources on 15 vehicles . Among the research groups was a group of five scientists at West Virginia University , who detected additional emissions during live road tests on two out of three diesel cars . ICCT also purchased data from two other sources . The new road testing data and the purchased data were generated using Portable Emissions Measurement Systems ( PEMS ) developed by multiple individuals in the mid-late 1990 's . The findings were provided to the California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) in May 2014 . Volkswagen became the target of regulatory investigations in multiple countries , and Volkswagen 's stock price fell in value by a third in the days immediately after the news . Volkswagen Group CEO Martin Winterkorn resigned , and the head of brand development Heinz-Jakob Neusser , Audi research and development head Ulrich Hackenberg , and Porsche research and development head Wolfgang Hatz were suspended . Volkswagen announced plans to spend ( later raised to , ) on rectifying the emissions issues , and planned to refit the affected vehicles as part of a recall campaign . The scandal raised awareness over the higher levels of pollution being emitted by all vehicles built by a wide range of car makers , which under real world driving conditions are prone to exceed legal emission limits . A study conducted by ICCT and ADAC showed the biggest deviations from Volvo , Renault , Jeep , Hyundai , Citroën and Fiat , resulting in investigations opening into other potential diesel emissions scandals . A discussion was sparked that software-controlled machinery will generally be prone to cheating , and a way out would be to make the software source code accessible to the public . On April 21 , 2017 , a US federal judge ordered Volkswagen `` to pay a $ 2.8 billion criminal fine for rigging diesel-powered vehicles to cheat on government emissions tests . '' The `` unprecedented '' plea deal formalized a punishment that Volkswagen AG agreed to earlier in 2017 .","qid":"2780","docid":"Volkswagen_emissions_scandal","rank":23,"score":132946},{"content":"Title: Smoke-Free Air Act Content: The Smoke-Free Air Act is a law that came into effect in New Jersey , United States , on April 15 , 2006 . This law prohibits smoking in any indoor public place and work place .","qid":"2780","docid":"Smoke-Free_Air_Act","rank":24,"score":131778},{"content":"Title: Oil Pollution Act of 1961 Content: Oil Pollution Act of 1961 , 33 U.S.C. Chapter 20 § § 1001-1011 , established judicial definitions and coastal prohibitions for the United States maritime industry . The Act invoked the accords of the International Convention for the Prevention of the Pollution of the Sea by Oil , 1954 . The international agreement provided provisions to control the discharge of fossil fuel pollutants from nautical vessels on the high seas . The S. 2187 legislation was passed by the United States 87th Congressional session and enacted by the 35th President of the United States John F. Kennedy on August 30 , 1961 .","qid":"2780","docid":"Oil_Pollution_Act_of_1961","rank":25,"score":130694},{"content":"Title: American Clean Energy and Security Act Content: The American Clean Energy and Security Act of 2009 ( ACES ) was an energy bill in the 111th United States Congress that would have established a variant of an emissions trading plan similar to the European Union Emission Trading Scheme . The bill was approved by the House of Representatives on June 26 , 2009 by a vote of 219-212 , but was never brought to the floor of the Senate for discussion or a vote . The House passage of the bill was the `` first time either house of Congress had approved a bill meant to curb the heat-trapping gases scientists have linked to climate change . '' The bill was also known as the Waxman-Markey Bill , after its authors , Representatives Henry A. Waxman of California and Edward J. Markey of Massachusetts , both Democrats . Waxman was at the time the chairman of the Energy and Commerce Committee , and Markey was the chairman of that committee 's Energy and Power Subcommittee .","qid":"2780","docid":"American_Clean_Energy_and_Security_Act","rank":26,"score":130619},{"content":"Title: Clear Skies Act of 2003 Content: The Clear Skies Act of 2003 was a proposed federal law of the United States . The official title as introduced is `` a bill to amend the Clean Air Act to reduce air pollution through expansion of cap-and-trade programs , to provide an alternative regulatory classification for units subject to the cap and trade program , and for other purposes . '' The bill 's Senate version ( S. 485 ) was sponsored by James Inhofe ( R ) of Oklahoma and George Voinovich ( R ) of Ohio ; the House version ( H.R. 999 ) was sponsored by Joe Barton ( R ) of Texas and Billy Tauzin ( R ) of Louisiana . Both versions were introduced on February 27 , 2003 . Upon introduction of the bill , Inhofe said , `` Moving beyond the confusing , command-and-control mandates of the past , Clear Skies cap-and-trade system harnesses the power of technology and innovation to bring about significant reductions in harmful pollutants . '' The Clear Skies Act came about as the result of President Bush 's Clear Skies Initiative . In early March 2005 , the bill did not move out of committee when members were like deadlocked 9-9 . Seven Democrats , James Jeffords ( I ) of Vermont , and Lincoln Chafee ( R ) of Rhode Island voted against the bill ; nine Republicans supported it . Within days , the Bush Administration moved to implement key measures , such as the NOx , SO2 and mercury trading provisions of the bill administratively through EPA . It remains to be seen how resistant these changes will be to court challenges .","qid":"2780","docid":"Clear_Skies_Act_of_2003","rank":27,"score":130128},{"content":"Title: Oil Pollution Act of 1973 Content: The Oil Pollution Act of 1973 or Oil Pollution Act Amendments of 1973 , 33 U.S.C. Chapter 20 § § 1001-1011 , was a United States federal law which amended the United States Statute . The Act of Congress sustained the United States commitment to control the discharge of fossil fuel pollutants from nautical vessels and to acknowledge the embargo of coastal zones in trans-boundary waters . The H.R. 5451 legislation was passed by the United States 93rd Congressional session and enacted by the 37th President of the United States Richard Nixon on October 4 , 1973 .","qid":"2780","docid":"Oil_Pollution_Act_of_1973","rank":28,"score":129520},{"content":"Title: California Senate Bill 32 Content: The California Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 : emissions limit , or SB-32 , is a California Senate bill expanding upon AB-32 to reduce greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions . The lead author is Senator Fran Pavley and the principal co-author is Assemblymember Eduardo Garcia . SB-32 was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 , by Governor Edmund Gerald `` Jerry '' Brown Jr. . SB-32 sets into law the mandated reduction target in GHG emissions as written into Executive Order B-30-15 . The Senate bill requires that there be a reduction in GHG emissions to 40 % below the 1990 levels by 2030 . Greenhouse gas emissions include carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , sulfur hexafluoride , hydrofluorocarbons , and perfluorocarbons . The California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) is responsible for ensuring that California meets this goal . The provisions of SB-32 were added to Section 38566 of the Health and Safety Code subsequent to the bill 's approval . The bill goes into effect January 1 , 2017 . SB-32 builds onto Assembly Bill ( AB ) 32 written by Senator Fran Pavley and Assembly Speaker Fabian Nunez passed into law on September 27 , 2006 . AB-32 required California to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by 2020 and SB-32 continues that timeline to reach the targets set in Executive Order B-30-15 . SB-32 provides another intermediate target between the 2020 and 2050 targets set in Executive Order S-3-05 . SB-32 was contingent on the passing of AB-197 , which increases legislative oversight of CARB and is intended to ensure CARB must report to the Legislature . AB-197 also passed and was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 .","qid":"2780","docid":"California_Senate_Bill_32","rank":29,"score":128230},{"content":"Title: Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act Content: The Air ( Prevention and Control of Pollution ) Act , 1981 an Act of the Parliament of India to control and prevent air pollution in india . It was amended in 1987 .","qid":"2780","docid":"Air_(Prevention_and_Control_of_Pollution)_Act","rank":30,"score":127459},{"content":"Title: Soot Content: Soot -LSB- ˈsʊt -RSB- is a mass of impure carbon particles resulting from the incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons . It is more properly restricted to the product of the gas-phase combustion process but is commonly extended to include the residual pyrolysed fuel particles such as coal , cenospheres , charred wood , and petroleum coke that may become airborne during pyrolysis and that are more properly identified as cokes or chars . Soot causes cancer and lung disease , and is the second-biggest human cause of global warming .","qid":"2780","docid":"Soot","rank":31,"score":127326},{"content":"Title: Air quality law Content: Air quality laws govern the emission of air pollutants into the atmosphere . A specialized subset of air quality laws regulate the quality of air inside buildings . Air quality laws are often designed specifically to protect human health by limiting or eliminating airborne pollutant concentrations . Other initiatives are designed to address broader ecological problems , such as limitations on chemicals that affect the ozone layer , and emissions trading programs to address acid rain or climate change . Regulatory efforts include identifying and categorizing air pollutants , setting limits on acceptable emissions levels , and dictating necessary or appropriate mitigation technologies .","qid":"2780","docid":"Air_quality_law","rank":32,"score":126970},{"content":"Title: Public Health Cigarette Smoking Act Content: The Public Health Cigarette Smoking Act is a United States federal law , passed in 1969 , designed to limit the practice of smoking . It required a stronger health warning on cigarette packages , saying `` Warning : The Surgeon General Has Determined that Cigarette Smoking Is Dangerous to Your Health '' . The Act also banned cigarette advertisements on American radio and television .","qid":"2780","docid":"Public_Health_Cigarette_Smoking_Act","rank":33,"score":126474},{"content":"Title: Air Ink Content: Air Ink is an Indian startup brand which produces ink and ink-based art products by condensing soot-based gaseous effluents generated by motor vehicles due to incomplete combustion of fossil fuels . Founded by Graviky Labs , a spin-off group of MIT Media Lab , Air Ink produces its materials through a step-by-step process which primarily involves capturing of emissions , separation of carbon from the soot , and then mixing of this carbon with different types of oils and solutions . It uses a patented device called `` Kaalink '' to carry out the filtration of soot , which contains carbon and other polluting agents like heavy metals and carcinogens . Air Ink is marketed as a solution to air pollution and its disastrous effects on human life . Dubbed as `` the first ink made out of recycled air pollution '' , its products were used in August 2016 in association with Tiger Beer to create street art and murals in Hong Kong 's Sheung Wan district . 30 -- 50 minutes of car pollution is enough to create purified carbon which can fill an Air Ink pen .","qid":"2780","docid":"Air_Ink","rank":34,"score":125982},{"content":"Title: 21st-century fossil fuel regulations in the United States Content: Fossil fuel regulations are part of the energy policy in the United States and have gained major significance with the strong dependence on fossil fuel based energy . Regulatory processes are established at the federal and state level due to the immense economic , socio-political and environmental impact of fossil fuel extraction and production . Over 80 % of the United States ' energy comes from fossil fuels such as coal , natural gas , and oil . The Bush administration was marked by the Energy Policy Act of 2005 , which provided a monetary incentive for renewable energy adoption and addressed the issue of climate change . The Obama administration was made up of advocates for renewable energy and natural gas , while Donald Trump built his campaign on promises to revive the coal industry . Oil , gas , and coal companies have been at odds with policy makers who have supported a wider implementation of renewable energy , with the former often spending millions of dollars to lobby against cleaner energy . The Washington Post reported on February 22 , 2017 Scott Pruitt 's potential special interests with the fossil fuel industry as he began his term as the appointed head of the EPA under the Trump administration . Fossil fuel emission disproportionately affects working class , poor and minority populations . The people most adversely affected also have the least political influence and least access to health care .","qid":"2780","docid":"21st-century_fossil_fuel_regulations_in_the_United_States","rank":35,"score":125928},{"content":"Title: New Source Performance Standard Content: New Source Performance Standards ( NSPS ) are pollution control standards issued by the United States Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) . The term is used in the Clean Air Act Extension of 1970 ( CAA ) to refer to air pollution emission standards , and in the Clean Water Act ( CWA ) referring to standards for water pollution discharges of industrial wastewater to surface waters .","qid":"2780","docid":"New_Source_Performance_Standard","rank":36,"score":125440},{"content":"Title: Regional Clean Air Incentives Market Content: Regional Clean Air Incentives Market ( RECLAIM ) is an emissions trading program operating in the state of California since 1994 . Under the trading program , hundreds of polluting facilities are required to cut their emissions of nitrogen oxides ( NOx ) and sulfur oxides ( SOx ) . Under the system , which operates as a cap-and-trade program , each participating facility is given a certain number of emission rights ( the ` cap ' ) for free . In each consecutive year , the number of emission rights given is reduced such that the facilities have to either reduce their emissions or buy up emission rights from facilities with enough to trade . The system was designed to reduce emissions of NOx by 70 % from 1994 to 2003 , and it was hoped to achieve this more cheaply than the traditional ` command and control ' regulations it replaced . However , due to the setting of too generous caps , emissions were reduced at only a fraction of the rate expected at the time of the program 's adoption . The US Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) considers RECLAIM a general lesson for market-based systems , namely that market-based programs require significant planning , preparation , and management during development and throughout the life of the program .","qid":"2780","docid":"Regional_Clean_Air_Incentives_Market","rank":37,"score":124443},{"content":"Title: Diesel emissions scandal Content: Scandals relating to the emissions from diesel engines began in 2014 when emissions discrepancies between European and US models of vehicles were highlighted by the International Council on Clean Transportation ( ICCT ) . The scandal raised awareness over the higher levels of pollution being emitted by all vehicles built by a wide range of car makers , which under real world driving conditions are prone to exceed legal emission limits . A study conducted by ICCT and the German car club ADAC showed the biggest deviations from Volvo , Renault , Jeep , Hyundai , Citroën and Fiat . A discussion was sparked that software-controlled machinery will generally be prone to cheating , and a way out would be to make the software source code accessible to the public . The VW scandal more generally raised awareness over the high levels of pollution being emitted by diesel vehicles built by a wide range of carmakers , including Volvo , Renault , Mercedes , Jeep , Hyundai , Citroen , BMW , Mazda , Fiat , Ford and Peugeot . Independent tests carried out by ADAC proved that , under normal driving conditions , diesel vehicles including the Volvo S60 , Renault 's Espace Energy and the Jeep Renegade , exceeded legal European emission limits for nitrogen oxide by more than 10 times . Researchers have criticized the inadequacy of current regulations and called for the use of a UN-sanctioned test called Worldwide harmonized Light vehicles Test Procedures that better reflects real-life driving conditions . The test is not due to come into force until 2017 , with critics saying that car firms have lobbied fiercely to delay its implementation due to the high cost of meeting stricter environmental controls . 38 out of 40 tested diesel cars failed a - test since 2016 .","qid":"2780","docid":"Diesel_emissions_scandal","rank":38,"score":123757},{"content":"Title: Philippine Executive Order 26 Content: Philippine Executive Order 26 , entitled Providing for the Establishment of Smoke-Free Environments in Public and Enclosed Places , was issued by Philippine President Rodrigo Duterte on 16 May 2017 . This executive order invoked the Clean Air Act of 1999 and the Tobacco Regulation Act of 2003 to impose a nationwide ban on smoking in all public places in the Philippines . The ban replicates on a national level an existing ordinance in Davao City that Duterte created as mayor in 2002 . The order takes effect in mid-July 2017 or 60 days after its publication in a newspaper .","qid":"2780","docid":"Philippine_Executive_Order_26","rank":39,"score":123357},{"content":"Title: TA Luft Content: Germany has an air pollution control regulation titled `` Technical Instructions on Air Quality Control '' ( Technische Anleitung zur Reinhaltung der Luft ) and commonly referred to as the TA Luft . The first version of the TA Luft was established in 1964 . It has subsequently been revised in 1974 , 1983 , 1988 and 2002 . Parts of the TA Luft have been adopted by other countries as well . In 1974 , 10 years after the TA Luft was first established , the German government enacted the `` Federal Pollution Control Act '' ( Bundes-Immissionsschutzgesetz ) . It also has subsequently been amended a number of times , the last of which was in 2002 . Although the first version of the TA Luft existed 10 years before the enactment of the `` Federal Pollution Control Act '' , it is often called the `` First General Administrative Regulation '' pertaining to the `` Federal Pollution Control Act '' . The German government created the Federal Ministry for Environment , Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety ( Bundesministerium für Umwelt , Naturschutz und Reaktorsicherheit ) in June , 1986 and it is now responsible for implementing the TA Luft regulation under the `` Federal Air Pollution Control Act '' .","qid":"2780","docid":"TA_Luft","rank":40,"score":122711},{"content":"Title: Air pollutant concentrations Content: Air pollutant concentrations , as measured or as calculated by air pollution dispersion modeling , must often be converted or corrected to be expressed as required by the regulations issued by various governmental agencies . Regulations that define and limit the concentration of pollutants in the ambient air or in gaseous emissions to the ambient air are issued by various national and state ( or provincial ) environmental protection and occupational health and safety agencies . Such regulations involve a number of different expressions of concentration . Some express the concentrations as ppmv ( parts per million by volume ) and some express the concentrations as mg/m3 ( milligrams per cubic meter ) , while others require adjusting or correcting the concentrations to reference conditions of moisture content , oxygen content or carbon dioxide content . This article presents methods for converting concentrations from ppmv to mg/m3 ( and vice versa ) and for correcting the concentrations to the required reference conditions . All of the concentrations and concentration corrections in this article apply only to air and other gases . They are not applicable for liquids .","qid":"2780","docid":"Air_pollutant_concentrations","rank":41,"score":122460},{"content":"Title: Clean Air Act 1972 Content: The Clean Air Act was an Act of Parliament passed in New Zealand in 1972 . It was repealed by the Resource Management Act 1991 .","qid":"2780","docid":"Clean_Air_Act_1972","rank":42,"score":122313},{"content":"Title: California Air Resources Board Content: The California Air Resources Board , also known as CARB or ARB , is the `` clean air agency '' in the government of California . Established in 1967 when then-governor Ronald Reagan signed the Mulford-Carrell Act , combining the Bureau of Air Sanitation and the Motor Vehicle Pollution Control Board , CARB is a department within the cabinet-level California Environmental Protection Agency . The stated goals of CARB include attaining and maintaining healthy air quality ; protecting the public from exposure to toxic air contaminants ; and providing innovative approaches for complying with air pollution rules and regulations . CARB has also been instrumental in driving innovation throughout the global automotive industry through programs such as its ZEV mandate . One of CARB 's responsibilities is to define vehicle emissions standards . California is the only state permitted to issue emissions standards under the federal Clean Air Act , subject to a waiver from the United States Environmental Protection Agency . Other states may choose to follow CARB or federal standards but may not set their own .","qid":"2780","docid":"California_Air_Resources_Board","rank":43,"score":122298},{"content":"Title: Mercury regulation in the United States Content: Mercury regulation in the United States is a set of laws and regulations limiting the maximum concentrations of mercury ( Hg ) that is permitted in air , water , soil , food and drugs . These laws and regulations are promulgated by U.S. Federal Agencies such as the Environmental Protection Agency , ( EPA ) Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) as well as a variety of State and local authorities .","qid":"2780","docid":"Mercury_regulation_in_the_United_States","rank":44,"score":122192},{"content":"Title: Clean Power Plan Content: The Clean Power Plan is an Obama administration policy aimed at combating anthropogenic climate change ( global warming ) that was first proposed by the Environmental Protection Agency in June 2014 . It is widely expected to be eliminated under President Donald Trump , who signed an executive order on March 28 , 2017 mandating the EPA to review the plan . The final version of the plan was unveiled by President Obama on August 3 , 2015 . The 460-page rule ( RIN 2060 -- AR33 ) titled `` Carbon Pollution Emission Guidelines for Existing Stationary Sources : Electric Utility Generating Units '' was published in the Federal Register on October 23 , 2015 . The Obama administration designed the plan to lower the carbon dioxide emitted by power generators .","qid":"2780","docid":"Clean_Power_Plan","rank":45,"score":121611},{"content":"Title: Motor vehicle emissions and pregnancy Content: In the United States about 10 % of the population , 35 million people , live within 100 meters of a high traffic road High-traffic roads are commonly identified as being host to more than 50,000 vehicles per day , which is a source of toxic vehicle pollutants . Previous studies have found correlations between exposure to vehicle pollutants and certain diseases such as asthma , lung and heart disease , and cancer among others . Car pollutants include carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , particulate matter ( fine dusts and soot ) , and toxic air pollutants While these pollutants affect the general health of populations , they are known to also have specific adverse effects on expectant mothers and their fetuses . The purpose of this article is to outline how vehicular pollutants affect the health of expectant mothers and the adverse health effects these exposure have on the unborn babies .","qid":"2780","docid":"Motor_vehicle_emissions_and_pregnancy","rank":46,"score":120975},{"content":"Title: Mobile source air pollution Content: Mobile source air pollution includes any air pollution emitted by motor vehicles , airplanes , locomotives , and other engines and equipment that can be moved from one location to another . Many of these pollutants contribute to environmental degradation and have negative effects on human health . To prevent unnecessary damage to human health and the environment , environmental regulatory agencies such as the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency have established policies to minimize air pollution from mobile sources . Similar agencies exist at the state level . Due to the large number of mobile sources of air pollution , and their ability to move from one location to another , mobile sources are regulated differently from stationary sources , such as power plants . Instead of monitoring individual emitters , such as an individual vehicle , mobile sources are often regulated more broadly through design and fuel standards . Examples of this include corporate average fuel economy standards and laws that ban leaded gasoline in the United States . The increase in the number of motor vehicles driven in the U.S. has made efforts to limit mobile source pollution challenging . As a result , there have been a number of different regulatory instruments implemented to reach the desired emissions goals .","qid":"2780","docid":"Mobile_source_air_pollution","rank":47,"score":120913},{"content":"Title: United States emission standards Content: In the United States , emissions standards are managed nationally by the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) . State and local governments may apply for waivers to enact stricter regulations .","qid":"2780","docid":"United_States_emission_standards","rank":48,"score":120899},{"content":"Title: Spare the Air program Content: Spare the Air is a program established by the Bay Area Air Quality Management District in 1991 to combat air pollution during the summer in the San Francisco Bay Area , the season when clear skies , hot temperatures , lighter winds , and a strong temperature inversion combine and trap air pollutants near the ground . Spare the Air days are declared for days in which levels of ground-level ozone ( a constituent of smog ) are predicted to exceed the EPA 's federal health-based standard of 84 ppb , or an air quality index over 100 . On a Spare the Air day , Bay Area residents are asked through radio and television announcements to reduce their driving , refrain from using gas-powered gardening equipment and curb other air polluting activities such as painting and aerosol spray can usage . People especially sensitive to smog are advised to limit their time outdoors . Spare the Air nights are also issued during the winter when particulate emissions often coming from wood burning and other activities become trapped in stagnant air masses . During winter Spare the Air nights , wood burning is banned and violators may have to attend a class or pay a fine of up to $ 500 . Exceptions are allowed if a household has a power outage . Barbecues are permitted on a Spare the Air Day , but are discouraged to reduce air pollution .","qid":"2780","docid":"Spare_the_Air_program","rank":49,"score":120585},{"content":"Title: AirCare (emissions program) Content: AirCare was an initiative started in 1992 to improve air quality in British Columbia , Canada through the systematic testing of road vehicles in order to reduce their emissions . Light-duty vehicles were suggested to be the biggest contributors to air pollutants that form smog and a small percentage of vehicles were contributing a large percentage of the pollutants . AirCare ran for 22 years and was cancelled on December 31 , 2014 . AirCare was cancelled due to the fact that new vehicles were continuously becoming more eco-friendly , and the percentage of old cars on the road was decreasing .","qid":"2780","docid":"AirCare_(emissions_program)","rank":50,"score":120327},{"content":"Title: Clean Air Conservancy Content: The Clean Air Conservancy was a United States non-profit charity devoted to protecting our planet 's clean air and slowing the pace of climate change by actively participating in pollution markets and participating in emissions trading . The Clean Air Conservancy developed the concept of retiring pollution permanently by transferring pollution rights into a Trust where they are held ( or retired ) permanently rather than being used to pollute . Since 1992 , it has retired nearly 9 billion pounds of pollution . The Cleveland , Ohio based non-profit participated in the first major sale of pollution rights , which involved sulphur dioxide allowances traded on the Chicago Board of Trade under a mandate by the United States Environmental Protection Agency . The Clean Air Conservancy has served as a leader in guiding and directing pollution markets . The Clean Air Conservancy represents the public good in pollution markets and strives to enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of those markets by maximizing economic incentives for retiring pollution permanently . For example , the Clean Air Conservancy encourages companies to donate their pollution rights so that they can be retired rather than selling them to other companies that would use them to pollute . In exchange for the donation to the Clean Air Conservancy , the company is eligible for a tax deduction . With the emergence of markets that enable carbon emissions trading , the Clean Air Conservancy is playing an active role in providing individuals and organizations with a way to use market forces to address global warming . The Clean Air Conservancy enables personal carbon trading and it helps companies benefit from retiring carbon emission credits rather than selling them .","qid":"2780","docid":"Clean_Air_Conservancy","rank":51,"score":119959},{"content":"Title: Freedom to Breathe Act Content: The Freedom to Breathe Act of 2007 is a piece of Minnesota legislation that restricts the act of smoking tobacco products in public places . It amends sections of Minnesota Clean Indoor Air Act ( MCIAA ) of 1975 .","qid":"2780","docid":"Freedom_to_Breathe_Act","rank":52,"score":118581},{"content":"Title: Large Combustion Plant Directive Content: The Large Combustion Plant Directive ( LCPD , 2001/80/EC ) was a European Union directive which required member states of the European Union to legislatively limit flue gas emissions from combustion plant having thermal capacity of 50 MW or greater . The directive applied to fossil-fuel power stations , and other large thermal plant such as petroleum refineries and steelworks . The directive specified emission limits for sulphur dioxide , nitrogen oxides , and dust . The directive was issued in October 2001 . It replaced the earlier EEC directive on large combustion plants , 88/609/EEC , issued in November 1988 . Under the terms of the directive , combustion plant built after 1987 had to comply with specific emissions limits . From 2007 , plant built earlier than that could either opt to comply with the emissions limits , or ` opt out ' . Plant which opted out were limited to a maximum of 20,000 hours of further operation , and had to close completely by the end of 2015 . Across Europe , 205 plants have opted out , with Britain having the largest proportion of opted-out plant in terms of total capacity . The Large Combustion Plant Directive was superseded by the Industrial Emissions Directive on 1 January 2016 .","qid":"2780","docid":"Large_Combustion_Plant_Directive","rank":53,"score":118434},{"content":"Title: United States regulation of point source water pollution Content: Point source water pollution comes from discrete conveyances and alters the chemical , biological , and physical characteristics of water . In the United States , it is largely regulated by the Clean Water Act ( CWA ) . Among other things , the Act requires dischargers to obtain a National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System ( NPDES ) permit to legally discharge pollutants into a water body . However , point source pollution remains an issue in some water bodies , due to some limitations of the Act . Consequently , other regulatory approaches have emerged , such as water quality trading and voluntary community-level efforts .","qid":"2780","docid":"United_States_regulation_of_point_source_water_pollution","rank":54,"score":118329},{"content":"Title: Anti-terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001 Content: The Anti-terrorism , Crime and Security Act 2001 is an Act of Parliament of the United Kingdom , formally introduced into Parliament on 19 November 2001 , two months after the terrorist attacks in the United States on 11 September . It received royal assent and came into force on 14 December 2001 . Many of its measures are not specifically related to terrorism , and a Parliamentary committee was critical of the swift timetable for such a long bill including non-emergency measures . The Act was widely criticized , with one commentator describing it as `` the most draconian legislation Parliament has passed in peacetime in over a century '' . On 16 December 2004 the Law Lords ruled that Section 23 was incompatible with the European Convention on Human Rights , but under the terms of the Human Rights Act 1998 it remained in force . It has since been replaced by the Prevention of Terrorism Act 2005 .","qid":"2780","docid":"Anti-terrorism,_Crime_and_Security_Act_2001","rank":55,"score":118075},{"content":"Title: America's Climate Security Act of 2007 Content: The America 's Climate Security Act of 2007 was a global warming bill that was considered by the United States Senate to reduce the amount of greenhouse gases emitted in the United States . Also known as the Lieberman-Warner bill , bill number , the legislation was introduced by Sens. Joseph Lieberman ( I-CT ) and John Warner ( R-VA ) on October 18 , 2007 . The bill was approved by the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works in December 2007 , and was debated in the Senate during the week of June 2 . The bill would create a national cap-and-trade scheme for greenhouse gas emissions , in which polluters would mostly be allocated right-to-emit credits based on how much greenhouse gas they currently emit . The cap would get tighter over time , until by 2050 , emissions would be reduced to 63 % below 2005 levels . Several environmental groups express their encouragement at the progress in legislation on the global warming issue while at the same time expressing disappointment that the bill does n't reduce emissions enough . On June 6 , 2008 , the bill was killed by Senate Republicans over worries that it would damage the economy .","qid":"2780","docid":"America's_Climate_Security_Act_of_2007","rank":56,"score":118032},{"content":"Title: Emission standard Content: Emission standards are the legal requirements governing air pollutants released into the atmosphere . Emission standards set quantitative limits on the permissible amount of specific air pollutants that may be released from specific sources over specific timeframes . They are generally designed to achieve air quality standards and to protect human health .","qid":"2780","docid":"Emission_standard","rank":57,"score":117582},{"content":"Title: Environmental Defense v. Duke Energy Corp. Content: Environmental Defense v. Duke Energy Corporation , 549 U.S. 561 ( 2007 ) , is a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court held that while a term may be used more than once in a statute , an agency has the discretion to interpret each use of the term in a different way based on the context . In a unanimous decision , the Court held in favor of the plaintiff 's ( Environmental Defense ) argument . This case addressed the Clean Air Act ( CAA ) and two of its programs , Prevention of Significant Deterioration ( PSD ) and New Source Performance Standard ( NSPS ) . PSD applies to regulating annual emissions ; NSPS pertains to regulating hourly emissions . Each section of the Clean Air Act , that outlines the provisions of the PSD and the NSPS , defines `` modification '' differently . As a result , the inconsistency of the term `` modification '' in the CAA becomes the main debate of the case and the main argument for both the plaintiffs and defendants .","qid":"2780","docid":"Environmental_Defense_v._Duke_Energy_Corp.","rank":58,"score":117561},{"content":"Title: Acid Rain Program Content: The Acid Rain Program is a market-based initiative taken by the United States Environmental Protection Agency in an effort to reduce overall atmospheric levels of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides , which cause acid rain . The program is an implementation of emissions trading that primarily targets coal-burning power plants , allowing them to buy and sell emission permits ( called `` allowances '' ) according to individual needs and costs . In 2011 , the trading program that existed since 1995 was supplemented by four separate trading programs under the Cross-State Air Pollution Rule ( CSAPR ) . On August 21 , 2012 , the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia issued its Opinion and Order in the appeal of the Cross State Air Pollution Rule ( CSAPR ) for two independent legal reasons . The stay on CSAPR was lifted in October 2014 , allowing implementation of the law and its trading programs to begin .","qid":"2780","docid":"Acid_Rain_Program","rank":59,"score":117074},{"content":"Title: Arsenic Act 1851 Content: The Arsenic Act 1851 ( 14 & 15 Vict c. 13 ) was passed by the United Kingdom Parliament in 1851 , during the reign of Queen Victoria . Arsenic was at the time widely used as a pigment and in agricultural products such as sheep dressings ; the Act was introduced to address increasing public concern over accidental and deliberate arsenic poisonings . The definition of arsenic for the purposes of the Act included `` Arsenious Acid and the Arsenites , Arsenic Acid and the Arseniates , and all other colourless poisonous Preparations of Arsenic '' . The Act required those selling such products to maintain a written and signed record of those to whom they had sold arsenic , including the quantity and its stated purpose . It also required that unless the arsenic was to be used for a purpose that would make such treatment unsuitable , for example in medical or agricultural applications , it had to be coloured with either soot or indigo . The maximum penalty for breaching the terms of the Act , or providing false information , was # 20 , equivalent to about # 13,000 as of 2014 . The Act did not restrict who was allowed to sell arsenic , as until the 1868 Pharmacy Act there was no legal definition of a pharmacist . The Arsenic Act was repealed by the Pharmacy and Poisons Act 1933 .","qid":"2780","docid":"Arsenic_Act_1851","rank":60,"score":116855},{"content":"Title: Ontario's Drive Clean Content: Ontario 's Drive Clean is an automobile emissions control program introduced by the Government of Ontario and came into effect April 1999 . The program was initially intended to weed out vehicles producing unrestrained amounts of particulate emissions contributing to smog and increasing pollution . It applies only to vehicles registered in southern parts of Ontario from Windsor to Ottawa due to the volume of vehicles in that part of the province . It is administered by privately owned facilities ( such as Canadian Tire and vehicle dealerships ) that have been accredited by Ontario 's Ministry of the Environment and Climate Change ( MOECC ) and the Ministry of Transportation ( MTO ) . At its inception , the program required light duty vehicles under 4,500 kg ( cars , SUV , light trucks ) that were over three years old to have an emissions test completed every two years ( vehicles manufactured on even years are tested on odd years and vehicles manufactured on even years are tested on odd years ) before the vehicle 's owner or lessor can renew their licence plate . Vehicles that were manufactured up to and including 1988 are exempt as new vehicle emissions standards were coming into effect beginning in 1989 . The minimum age for testing has been increased twice since the beginning of the program . As of 2011 , vehicles that are over seven years old require emissions testing , however vehicles manufactured before 1988 are exempt from the test . Heavy duty trucks and buses are also covered by Drive Clean program . They are tested annually once the vehicle is more than one year old , with no age limit to testing ; A 1975 diesel powered truck or bus would still be tested so long as it was still registered . All vehicles on Ontario roads are further monitored by a ` smog patrol ' team for MOECC and can be stopped at random and roadside tested . The Smog Patrol team drive vehicles that are equipped with mobile testing equipment to perform roadside tests . The Smog Patrol can also perform a visual inspection to ensure all emissions control equipment is in place and functioning as originally built ( tampering with or removing this equipment is an offence separate from Drive Clean but under the same Regulation ) . Some registrants circumvent an emissions test by registering their vehicles to addresses outside the Drive Clean testing areas . Circumventing an emissions test in this way is an offence and could result in a ticket or summons and could also result in licence plates being seized . Smog Patrol Officers can also issue a Notice that requires a driver to take a vehicle for a Drive Clean test within a specific time period . Failure to comply with this Notice can also result in a serious fine , summons and/or plate seizure .","qid":"2780","docid":"Ontario's_Drive_Clean","rank":61,"score":116596},{"content":"Title: Climate and Clean Air Coalition to Reduce Short-Lived Climate Pollutants Content: The Climate and Clean Air Coalition to Reduce Short-Lived Climate Pollutants ( CCAC ) was launched by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) and six countries -- Bangladesh , Canada , Ghana , Mexico , Sweden and the United States -- on 16February 2012 . The CCAC aims to catalyze rapid reductions in short-lived climate pollutants to protect human health , agriculture and the environment . To date , more than $ 47million has been pledged to the Climate and Clean Air Coalition from Canada , Denmark , the European Commission , Germany , Japan , the Netherlands , Norway , Sweden , and the United States . The program is managed out of the United Nations Environmental Programme through a Secretariat in Paris , France .","qid":"2780","docid":"Climate_and_Clean_Air_Coalition_to_Reduce_Short-Lived_Climate_Pollutants","rank":62,"score":116578},{"content":"Title: Useful conversions and formulas for air dispersion modeling Content: Various governmental agencies involved with environmental protection and with occupational safety and health have promulgated regulations limiting the allowable concentrations of gaseous pollutants in the ambient air or in emissions to the ambient air . Such regulations involve a number of different expressions of concentration . Some express the concentrations as ppmv and some express the concentrations as mg/m ³ , while others require adjusting or correcting the concentrations to reference conditions of moisture content , oxygen content or carbon dioxide content . This article presents a set of useful conversions and formulas for air dispersion modeling of atmospheric pollutants and for complying with the various regulations as to how to express the concentrations obtained by such modeling .","qid":"2780","docid":"Useful_conversions_and_formulas_for_air_dispersion_modeling","rank":63,"score":116082},{"content":"Title: Regulation of hydraulic fracturing Content: Countries using or considering to use hydraulic fracturing have implemented different regulations , including developing federal and regional legislation , and local zoning limitations . In 2011 , after public pressure France became the first nation to ban hydraulic fracturing , based on the precautionary principle as well as the principal of preventive and corrective action of environmental hazards . The ban was upheld by an October 2013 ruling of the Constitutional Council . Some other countries have placed a temporary moratorium on the practice . Countries like the United Kingdom and South Africa , have lifted their bans , choosing to focus on regulation instead of outright prohibition . Germany has announced draft regulations that would allow using hydraulic fracturing for the exploitation of shale gas deposits with the exception of wetland areas . The European Union has adopted a recommendation for minimum principles for using high-volume hydraulic fracturing . Its regulatory regime requires full disclosure of all additives . In the United States , the Ground Water Protection Council launched FracFocus.org , an online voluntary disclosure database for hydraulic fracturing fluids funded by oil and gas trade groups and the U.S. Department of Energy . Hydraulic fracturing is excluded from the Safe Drinking Water Act 's underground injection control 's regulation , except when diesel fuel is used . The EPA assures surveillance of the issuance of drilling permits when diesel fuel is employed . On 17 December 2014 , New York state issued a statewide ban on hydraulic fracturing , becoming the second state in the United States to issue such a ban after Vermont .","qid":"2780","docid":"Regulation_of_hydraulic_fracturing","rank":64,"score":115873},{"content":"Title: Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 Content: The Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 , or Assembly Bill ( AB ) 32 , is a California State Law that fights global warming by establishing a comprehensive program to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from all sources throughout the state . AB 32 was authored by then-Assembly member Fran Pavley and Assembly Speaker Fabian Nunez ( D-Los Angeles ) and signed into law by Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger on September 27 , 2006 . On June 1 , 2005 , Governor Schwarzenegger signed an executive order known as Executive Order S-3-05 which established greenhouse gas emissions targets for the state . The executive order required the state to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions levels to 2000 levels by 2010 , to 1990 levels by 2020 , and to a level 80 % below 1990 levels by 2050 . However , to implement this measure , the California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) needed authority from the legislature . The California State Legislature passed the Global Warming Solutions Act to address this issue and gave the CARB authority to implement the program . AB 32 requires the California Air Resources Board ( CARB or ARB ) to develop regulations and market mechanisms to reduce California 's greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by the year of 2020 , representing approximately a 30 % reduction statewide , with mandatory caps beginning in 2012 for significant emissions sources . The bill also allows the Governor to suspend the emissions caps for up to a year in case of emergency or significant economic harm . The State of California leads the nation in energy efficiency standards and plays a lead role in environmental protection , but is also the 12th largest emitter of carbon worldwide . Greenhouse gas emissions are defined in the bill to include all of the following : carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , sulfur hexafluoride , hydrofluorocarbons and perfluorocarbons . These are the same greenhouse gases listed in Annex A of the Kyoto Protocol .","qid":"2780","docid":"Global_Warming_Solutions_Act_of_2006","rank":65,"score":115822},{"content":"Title: Nitrogen Oxide Protocol Content: Protocol to the 1979 Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution Concerning the Control of Emissions of Nitrogen Oxides or Their Transboundary Fluxes , opened for signature on 31 October 1988 and entered into force on 14 February 1991 , was to provide for the control or reduction of nitrogen oxides and their transboundary fluxes . It was concluded in Sofia , Bulgaria . Parties ( as of September 2016 ) : ( 36 ) Albania , Austria , Belarus , Belgium , Bulgaria , Canada , Croatia , Cyprus , Czech Republic , Denmark , Estonia , European Union , Finland , France , Germany , Greece , Hungary , Ireland , Italy , Liechtenstein , Lithuania , Luxembourg , Republic of Macedonia , Netherlands , Norway , Poland , Russia , Slovakia , Slovenia . Spain , Sweden , Switzerland , Ukraine , United Kingdom , United States .","qid":"2780","docid":"Nitrogen_Oxide_Protocol","rank":66,"score":115721},{"content":"Title: Chinese national carbon trading scheme Content: The Chinese national carbon trading scheme is a cap and trade system for carbon dioxide emissions set to be implemented in July 2017 . This emission trading scheme ( ETS ) creates a carbon market where emitters can buy and sell emission credits . From this scheme , China can limit emissions , but allow economic freedom for emitters to reduce emissions or purchase emission allowances from other emitters . China is currently the largest emitter of greenhouse gases and many major Chinese cities have severe air pollution . With this plan , China will soon be the largest market in carbon trading . The scheme will limit emissions from six of China 's top carbon dioxide emitting industries , including coal-fired power plants . China was able to gain experience in drafting and implementation of an ETS plan from the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , where China was part of the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) . From this experience with carbon markets , and lengthy discussions with the next largest carbon market , the European Union ( EU ) , as well as analysis of small scale pilot markets in major Chinese cities and provinces , China 's national ETS will be the largest of its kind and will help China achieve its Intended Nationally Determined Contribution ( INDC ) from the Paris Agreement in 2016 .","qid":"2780","docid":"Chinese_national_carbon_trading_scheme","rank":67,"score":114837},{"content":"Title: Clean Water Rule Content: The Clean Water Rule was a 2015 regulation published by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) and the United States Army Corps of Engineers ( USACE ) to clarify water resource management in the United States under a provision of the Clean Water Act of 1972 . The regulation defined the scope of federal water protection in a more consistent manner , particularly over streams and wetlands which have a significant hydrological and ecological connection to traditional navigable waters , interstate waters , and territorial seas . It is also referred to as the Waters of the United States rule , which defines all bodies of water that fall under U.S. federal jurisdiction . The rule was published in response to concerns about lack of clarity over its scope from legislators at multiple levels , industry members , researchers and other science professionals , activists , and citizens . The rule has been contested in litigation . Its implementation has been stayed by court rulings since 2015 . In 2017 the Trump administration announced its intent to review and rescind or revise the rule .","qid":"2780","docid":"Clean_Water_Rule","rank":68,"score":114803},{"content":"Title: Industrial Emissions Directive Content: The Industrial Emissions Directive ( Directive 2010/75/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 24 November 2010 on industrial emissions ( integrated pollution prevention and control ) ) is a European Union directive which commits European Union member states to control and reduce the impact of industrial emissions on the environment .","qid":"2780","docid":"Industrial_Emissions_Directive","rank":69,"score":114425},{"content":"Title: Climate Change Response (Emissions Trading) Amendment Act 2008 Content: The Climate Change Response ( Emissions Trading ) Amendment Act 2008 was a statute enacted in September 2008 by the Fifth Labour Government of New Zealand that established the first version of the New Zealand Emissions Trading Scheme , a national all-sectors all-greenhouse gases uncapped and highly internationally linked emissions trading scheme .","qid":"2780","docid":"Climate_Change_Response_(Emissions_Trading)_Amendment_Act_2008","rank":70,"score":114397},{"content":"Title: Effluent limitation Content: An effluent limitation is a United States Clean Water Act standard of performance reflecting a specified level of discharge reduction achievable by the best available technology or related standards for various sources of water pollution . These sources include all industries , businesses , municipal sewage treatment plants and storm sewer systems , and other facilities that discharge to surface waters . Effluent limitations are implemented in discharge permits issued by the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) and state agencies , through the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System ( NPDES ) .","qid":"2780","docid":"Effluent_limitation","rank":71,"score":113735},{"content":"Title: Clean Energy Regulator Content: The Clean Energy Regulator is an Australian independent statutory authority responsible for administering legislation that will reduce carbon emissions and increase the use of clean energy . The Clean Energy Regulator , based in Canberra , was established on 2 April 2012 as an independent statutory authority under the Clean Energy Regulator Act 2011 . The agency is part of the Environment and Energy portfolio . The Clean Energy Regulator tabled the 2015 Renewable Energy Target Administrative Report and Annual Statement on 3 May 2016 . The report covers the operations of the Renewable Energy ( Electricity ) Act 2000 for the 2015 calendar year and the Renewable Energy Target 2015 Annual statement and supporting information about progress towards meeting the revised 2020 Large-scale Renewable Energy Target .","qid":"2780","docid":"Clean_Energy_Regulator","rank":72,"score":113407},{"content":"Title: 1994 Oslo Protocol on Further Reduction of Sulphur Emissions Content: The Protocol to the 1979 Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution on Further Reduction of Sulphur Emissions is an agreement to provide for a further reduction in sulphur emissions or transboundary fluxes . It is a protocol to the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution and supplements the 1985 Helsinki Protocol on the Reduction of Sulphur Emissions . opened for signature - 14 June 1994 entered into force - 5 August 1998 parties - ( 29 ) Austria , Belgium , Bulgaria , Canada , Croatia , Cyprus , Czech Republic , Denmark , European Union , Finland , France , Germany , Greece , Hungary , Ireland , Italy , Liechtenstein , Lithuania , Luxembourg , Republic of Macedonia , Monaco , Netherlands , Norway , Slovakia , Slovenia , Spain , Sweden , Switzerland , United Kingdom countries that have signed , but not yet ratified - ( 3 ) Poland , Russia , Ukraine","qid":"2780","docid":"1994_Oslo_Protocol_on_Further_Reduction_of_Sulphur_Emissions","rank":73,"score":113402},{"content":"Title: AP 42 Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors Content: The AP 42 Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors , was first published by the US Public Health Service in 1968 . In 1972 , it was revised and issued as the second edition by the US Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) . In 1985 , the subsequent fourth edition was split into two volumes . Volume I includes stationary point and area source emission factors , and Volume II includes mobile source emission factors . Volume I is currently in its fifth edition and is available on the Internet . Volume II is no longer maintained as such , but roadway air dispersion models for estimating emissions from onroad vehicles and from non-road vehicles and mobile equipment are also available on the Internet . In routine common usage , Volume I of the emission factor compilation is very often referred to as simply AP 42 .","qid":"2780","docid":"AP_42_Compilation_of_Air_Pollutant_Emission_Factors","rank":74,"score":112753},{"content":"Title: 1985 Helsinki Protocol on the Reduction of Sulphur Emissions Content: The Protocol to the 1979 Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution on the Reduction of Sulphur Emissions or their Transboundary Fluxes by at least 30 per cent is a 1985 protocol to the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution agreement that provided for a 30 per cent reduction in sulphur emissions or transboundary fluxes by 1993 . The protocol has been supplemented by the 1994 Oslo Protocol on Further Reduction of Sulphur Emissions . opened for signature - July 8 , 1985 entered into force - September 2 , 1987 parties - ( 25 ) Albania , Austria , Belarus , Belgium , Bulgaria , Canada , Czech Republic , Denmark , Estonia , Finland , France , Germany , Hungary , Italy , Liechtenstein , Lithuania , Luxembourg , Republic of Macedonia , Netherlands , Norway , Russia , Slovakia , Sweden , Switzerland , Ukraine","qid":"2780","docid":"1985_Helsinki_Protocol_on_the_Reduction_of_Sulphur_Emissions","rank":75,"score":112389},{"content":"Title: Locomotive Acts Content: The Locomotive Acts ( or Red Flag Acts ) were a series of Acts of Parliament in the United Kingdom regulating the use of mechanically propelled vehicles on British public highways during the latter part of the 19th century . The first three , The Locomotives on Highways Act 1861 , The Locomotive Act 1865 and the Highways and Locomotives ( Amendment ) Act 1878 , contained restrictive measures on the manning and speed of operation of road vehicles ; they also formalised many important road concepts such as vehicle registration , registration plates , speed limits , maximum vehicle weight over structures such as bridges , and the organisation of highway authorities . The most draconic restrictions and speed limits were imposed by the 1865 act ( the `` Red Flag Act '' ) , which required all road locomotives , which included automobiles , to travel at a maximum of 4 mi/h in the country and 2 mi/h in the city , as well as requiring a man carrying a red flag to walk in front of road vehicles hauling multiple wagons . The 1896 Act removed some restrictions of the 1865 act and raised the speed to 14 mi/h . The `` Locomotives on Highways Act 1896 '' provided legislation that allowed the automotive industry in the United Kingdom to develop soon after the development of the first practical automobile ( see History of the automobile ) . The last `` locomotive act '' was the `` Locomotives Act 1898 '' .","qid":"2780","docid":"Locomotive_Acts","rank":76,"score":112359},{"content":"Title: Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act Content: The Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act , is a federal statute in the United States that was signed into law by President Barack Obama on June 22 , 2009 . The Act gives the Food and Drug Administration the power to regulate the tobacco industry . A signature element of the law imposes new warnings and labels on tobacco packaging and their advertisements , with the goal of discouraging minors and young adults from smoking . The Act also bans flavored cigarettes , places limits on the advertising of tobacco products to minors and requires tobacco companies to seek FDA approval for new tobacco products .","qid":"2780","docid":"Family_Smoking_Prevention_and_Tobacco_Control_Act","rank":77,"score":111785},{"content":"Title: Bharat Stage emission standards Content: Bharat stage emission standards ( BSES ) are emission standards instituted by the Government of India to regulate the output of air pollutants from internal combustion engines and Spark-ignition engines equipment , including motor vehicles . The standards and the timeline for implementation are set by the Central Pollution Control Board under the Ministry of Environment & Forests and climate change . The standards , based on European regulations were first introduced in 2000 . Progressively stringent norms have been rolled out since then . All new vehicles manufactured after the implementation of the norms have to be compliant with the regulations . Since October 2010 , Bharat Stage ( BS ) III norms have been enforced across the country . In 13 major cities , Bharat Stage IV emission norms have been in place since April 2010 and It 's enforced for whole country from April 2017 . In 2016 , the Indian government announced that the country would skip the BS-V norms altogether and adopt BS-VI norms by 2020 . The phasing out of 2-stroke engine for two wheelers , the cessation of production of Maruti 800 & introduction of electronic controls have been due to the regulations related to vehicular emissions . While the norms help in bringing down pollution levels , it invariably results in increased vehicle cost due to the improved technology & higher fuel prices . However , this increase in private cost is offset by savings in health costs for the public , as there is lesser amount of disease causing particulate matter and pollution in the air . Exposure to air pollution can lead to respiratory and cardiovascular diseases , which is estimated to be the cause for 6.2 lakh early deaths in 2010 , and the health cost of air pollution in India has been assessed at 3 % of its GDP .","qid":"2780","docid":"Bharat_Stage_emission_standards","rank":78,"score":111538},{"content":"Title: Oil Pollution Act of 1990 Content: The Oil Pollution Act of 1990 ( OPA ) ( 101 H.R. 1465 , P.L. 101-380 ) was passed by the 101st United States Congress and signed by President George H. W. Bush . It works to avoid oil spills from vessels and facilities by enforcing removal of spilled oil and assigning liability for the cost of cleanup and damage , requires specific operating procedures ; defines responsible parties and financial liability ; implements processes for measuring damages ; specifies damages for which violators are liable ; and establishes a fund for damages , cleanup , and removal costs . This statute has resulted in instrumental changes in the oil production , transportation , and distribution industries .","qid":"2780","docid":"Oil_Pollution_Act_of_1990","rank":79,"score":111525},{"content":"Title: Federal Coal Mine Safety Act of 1952 Content: The Federal Coal Mine Safety Act of 1952 is a U.S. law authorizing the federal government to conduct annual inspections of underground coal mines with more than 15 workers , and gave the United States Bureau of Mines the authority to shut down a mine in cases of `` imminent danger . '' The Act authorized the assessment of civil penalties against mine operators for failing to comply with an order to shut down ( a `` withdrawal order '' ) or for refusing to give inspectors access to mine property . The law did not authorize monetary penalties for noncompliance with the safety provisions . In 1966 , Congress extended coverage to all underground coal mines . The Act made ventilation mandatory in mines so as to limit the levels of methane in the air . It also required mine walls to be `` dusted '' with a limestone to limit the levels of coal dust .","qid":"2780","docid":"Federal_Coal_Mine_Safety_Act_of_1952","rank":80,"score":111439},{"content":"Title: Nonpoint source water pollution regulations in the United States Content: Nonpoint source ( NPS ) water pollution regulations are environmental regulations that restrict or limit water pollution from diffuse or nonpoint effluent sources such as polluted runoff from agricultural areas in a river catchments or wind-borne debris blowing out to sea . In the United States , governments have taken a number of legal and regulatory approaches to controlling NPS effluent . Nonpoint water pollution sources include , for example , leakage from underground storage tanks , storm water runoff , atmospheric deposition of contaminants , and golf course , agricultural , and forestry runoff . Nonpoint sources are the most significant single source of water pollution in the United States , accounting for almost half of all water pollution , and agricultural runoff is the single largest source of nonpoint source water pollution . This water pollution has a number of detrimental effects on human health and the environment . Unlike point source pollution , nonpoint source pollution arises from numerous and diverse sources , making identification , monitoring , and regulation more complex .","qid":"2780","docid":"Nonpoint_source_water_pollution_regulations_in_the_United_States","rank":81,"score":110940},{"content":"Title: List of United States federal environmental statutes Content: The laws listed below meet the following criteria : ( 1 ) they were passed by the United States Congress , and ( 2 ) pertain to ( a ) the regulation of the interaction of humans and the natural environment , or ( b ) the conservation and/or management of natural or historic resources . They need not be wholly codified in the United States Code . Antiquities Act Atomic Energy Act of 1946 Atomic Energy Act of 1954 Clean Air Act Clean Water Act Coastal Zone Management Act CERCLA ( Superfund ) Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act Endangered Species Act Energy Policy Act of 1992 Energy Policy Act of 2005 Federal Food , Drug , and Cosmetic Act Federal Land Policy and Management Act Federal Insecticide , Fungicide , and Rodenticide Act Federal Power Act Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act Food Quality Protection Act Fisheries Conservation and Management Act ( Magnuson-Stevens ) Lacey Act Marine Mammal Protection Act Migratory Bird Treaty Act Mineral Leasing Act National Environmental Policy Act National Forest Management Act National Historic Preservation Act National Park Service Organic Act Noise Control Act Nuclear Waste Policy Act Ocean Dumping Act Oil Pollution Act Resource Conservation and Recovery Act Rivers and Harbors Act Safe Drinking Water Act Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act Toxic Substances Control Act Wild and Scenic Rivers Act","qid":"2780","docid":"List_of_United_States_federal_environmental_statutes","rank":82,"score":110906},{"content":"Title: Protocol on Heavy Metals Content: The Protocol on Heavy Metals , a protocol to the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution , was adopted in Aarhus , Denmark in 1998 . As of 2004 , it had 36 signatories . As of 2016 , it had 35 signatories and 33 parties , with no country having become a signatory since 1998 . The protocol addresses the reduction of cadmium , lead and mercury emissions in the interests of environmental protection . Amendments to the Protocol were agreed in 2012 to introduce more stringent emission limits but are not yet in force .","qid":"2780","docid":"Protocol_on_Heavy_Metals","rank":83,"score":110854},{"content":"Title: Energy Tax Prevention Act Content: Energy Tax Prevention Act , also known as H.R. 910 , was a 2011 bill in the United States House of Representatives to prohibit the United States Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) from regulating greenhouse gases to address climate change . On April 7 , 2011 the bill passed the House by a vote of 255 to 172 . The bill died in January 2013 with the ending of the Congressional session . The House vote on the Energy Tax Prevention Act of 2011 was one of five key votes on climate in the House , and one of ten in Congress , from the period 2003 through 2011 , according to the Union of Concerned Scientists and the League of Conservation Voters .","qid":"2780","docid":"Energy_Tax_Prevention_Act","rank":84,"score":110479},{"content":"Title: SPACE Act of 2015 Content: The United States Government updated US commercial space legislation with the passage of the Spurring Private Aerospace Competitiveness and Entrepreneurship ( SPACE ) Act of 2015 in November 2015 . The update to US law explicitly allows US citizens to `` engage in the commercial exploration and exploitation of ` space resources ' -LSB- including ... water and minerals -RSB- . '' The right does not extend to biological life , so anything that is alive may not be exploited commercially . The Act further asserts that `` the United States does not -LSB- ( by this Act ) -RSB- assert sovereignty , or sovereign or exclusive rights or jurisdiction over , or the ownership of , any celestial body . '' Some scholars argue that the United States recognizing ownership of space resources is an act of sovereignty , and that the act violates the Outer Space Treaty . The SPACE Act includes the extension of indemnification of US launch providers for extraordinary catastrophic third-party losses of a failed launch through 2025 , while the previous indemnification law was scheduled to expire in 2016 . The Act also extends , through 2025 , the `` learning period '' restrictions which limit the ability of the Federal Aviation Administration ( FAA ) to enact regulations regarding the safety of spaceflight participants . Indemnification for extraordinary third-party losses has , as of 2015 , been a component of US space law for over 25 years , and during this time , `` has never been invoked in any commercial launch mishap . ''","qid":"2780","docid":"SPACE_Act_of_2015","rank":85,"score":110435},{"content":"Title: Soot (disambiguation) Content: Soot is the black , impure carbon particles resulting from the incomplete combustion of a hydrocarbon . Soot may also refer to : Engebret Soot ( 1786-1859 ) , Norwegian engineer Soot ( software ) , a language manipulation and optimization framework","qid":"2780","docid":"Soot_(disambiguation)","rank":86,"score":110434},{"content":"Title: National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants Content: The National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants , also using the acronym NESHAP , are emissions standards set by the United States Environmental Protection Agency -- EPA . The standards are for air pollutants not covered by National Ambient Air Quality Standards -- NAAQS , that may cause an increase in fatalities or in serious , irreversible , or incapacitating illness .","qid":"2780","docid":"National_Emissions_Standards_for_Hazardous_Air_Pollutants","rank":87,"score":110361},{"content":"Title: Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate Content: The Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate , also known as APP , was an international , voluntary , public-private partnership among Australia , Canada , India , Japan , the People 's Republic of China , South Korea , and the United States announced July 28 , 2005 at an Association of South East Asian Nations ( ASEAN ) Regional Forum meeting and launched on January 12 , 2006 at the Partnership 's inaugural Ministerial meeting in Sydney . As of 5 April 2011 , the Partnership formally concluded although a number of individual projects continue . The conclusion of the APP and cancellation of many of its projects attracted almost no media comment . Foreign , Environment and Energy Ministers from partner countries agreed to co-operate on the development and transfer of technology which enables reduction of greenhouse gas emissions that is consistent with and complementary to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change and other relevant international instruments , and is intended to complement but not replace the Kyoto Protocol. , Ministers agreed to a Charter , Communique and Work Plan that `` outline a ground-breaking new model of private-public task forces to address climate change , energy security and air pollution . '' Member countries account for over 50 % of the world 's greenhouse gas emissions , energy consumption , GDP and population . Unlike the Kyoto Protocol ( currently unratified by the United States ) , which imposes mandatory limits on greenhouse gas emissions , the Partnership engages member countries to accelerate the development and deployment of clean energy technologies , with no mandatory enforcement mechanism . This has led to criticism that the Partnership is worthless , by other governments , climate scientists and environmental groups . Proponents , on the other hand , argue that unrestricted economic growth and emission reductions can only be brought about through active engagement by all major polluters , which includes India and China , within the Kyoto Protocol framework neither India nor China are yet required to reduce emissions . Canada became the 7th member of the APP at the Second Ministerial Meeting in New Delhi on October 15 , 2007 . Canada 's Prime Minister Stephen Harper earlier expressed his intention to join the Partnership in August 2007 , despite some domestic opposition .","qid":"2780","docid":"Asia-Pacific_Partnership_on_Clean_Development_and_Climate","rank":88,"score":110329},{"content":"Title: Firearms Control Regulations Act of 1975 Content: The Firearms Control Regulations Act of 1975 was passed by the District of Columbia city council on September 24 , 1976 . The law banned residents from owning handguns , automatic firearms , or high-capacity semi-automatic firearms , as well as prohibited possession of unregistered firearms . Exceptions to the ban were allowed for police officers and guns registered before 1976 . The law also required firearms kept in the home to be `` unloaded , disassembled , or bound by a trigger lock or similar device '' ; this was deemed to be a prohibition on the use of firearms for self-defense in the home . On June 26 , 2008 , in the historic case of District of Columbia v. Heller , the Supreme Court of the United States determined that the ban and trigger lock provisions violate the Second Amendment .","qid":"2780","docid":"Firearms_Control_Regulations_Act_of_1975","rank":89,"score":110310},{"content":"Title: Noise regulation Content: Noise regulation includes statutes or guidelines relating to sound transmission established by national , state or provincial and municipal levels of government . After the watershed passage of the United States Noise Control Act of 1972 , other local and state governments passed further regulations . A noise regulation restricts the amount of noise , the duration of noise and the source of noise . It usually places restrictions for certain times of the day . Although the UK and Japan enacted national laws in 1960 and 1967 respectively , these laws were not at all comprehensive or fully enforceable as to address generally rising ambient noise , enforceable numerical source limits on aircraft and motor vehicles or comprehensive directives to local government .","qid":"2780","docid":"Noise_regulation","rank":90,"score":110254},{"content":"Title: Carbon pricing in Australia Content: A carbon pricing scheme in Australia , commonly dubbed by its critics as a `` carbon tax '' , was introduced by the Gillard Labor Government in 2011 as the Clean Energy Act 2011 which came into effect on 1 July 2012 . It was in operation until it was repealed on 17 July 2014 , and backdated to 1 July 2014 . In its place the Abbott Government set up the Emission Reduction Fund in December 2014 . As a result of being in place for such a short time , regulated organisations responded in a rather tepid and informal manner , with very few investments in emissions reductions being made . The 2011 scheme required entities which emit over 25,000 tonnes per year of carbon dioxide equivalent greenhouse gases and which were not in the transport or agriculture sectors to obtain emissions permits , called carbon units . Carbon units were either purchased from the government or issued free as part of industry assistance measures . The Department of Climate Change and Energy Efficiency stated that in June 2013 only 260 entities were subject to the scheme , of which approximately 185 were liable to pay for carbon units under the carbon price scheme . The carbon price was part of a broad energy reform package called the Clean Energy Futures Plan , which aimed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in Australia by 5 % below 2000 levels by 2020 and 80 % below 2000 levels by 2050 . The plan set out to achieve these targets by encouraging Australia 's largest emitters to increase energy efficiency and invest in sustainable energy . The scheme was administered by the Clean Energy Regulator . Compensation to industry and households was funded by the revenue derived from the charge . As part of the scheme , personal income tax was reduced for those earning less than $ 80,000 per year and the tax-free threshold was increased from $ 6,000 to $ 18,200 . Initially the price of a permit for one tonne of carbon was fixed at $ 23 for the 2012 -- 13 financial year , with unlimited permits being available from the government . The fixed price rose to $ 24.15 for 2013 -- 14 . The government had announced that the scheme was part of a transition to an emissions trading scheme in 2014 -- 15 , where the available permits will be limited in line with a pollution cap . The scheme primarily applied to electricity generators and industrial sectors . It did not apply to road transport and agriculture . Domestic aviation did not face the carbon price scheme per se , but was subject to an additional fuel excise levy of approximately 6 cents per litre . In February 2012 , the Sydney Morning Herald reported that Clean Energy Future carbon price scheme had not deterred new investment in the coal industry , as spending on exploration had increased by 62 % in 2010-2011 , more than any other mineral commodity . The government agency Geoscience Australia reported that investment in coal prospecting reached $ 520 million in 2010-2011 . Falls in carbon emissions were observed following implementation of this policy . It was noted that emissions from sectors subject to the pricing mechanism were 1.0 % lower and nine months after the introduction of the pricing scheme , Australia 's carbon dioxide emissions from electricity generation had fallen to a 10-year low , with coal generation down 11 % from 2008 to 2009 . However , attribution of these trends to carbon pricing have been disputed , with Frontier Economics claiming trends are largely explained by factors unrelated to the carbon tax . Electricity demand had been falling and in 2012 was at the lowest level seen since 2006 in the National Electricity Market .","qid":"2780","docid":"Carbon_pricing_in_Australia","rank":91,"score":110025},{"content":"Title: Aarhus Protocol on Persistent Organic Pollutants Content: The Aarhus Protocol on Persistent Organic Pollutants , a 1998 protocol on persistent organic pollutants ( POPs ) , is an addition to the 1979 Geneva Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution ( LRTAP ) . The Aarhus POPs Protocol seeks `` to control , reduce or eliminate discharge , emissions and losses of persistent organic pollutants '' in Europe , some former Soviet Union countries , and the United States . The protocol was amended on 18 December 2009 , but the amended version has not yet come into force . As of May 2013 , the protocol has been ratified by 31 states and the European Union . In the United States , the protocol is an executive agreement that does not require Senate approval . However , legislation is needed to resolve inconsistencies between provisions of the protocol and existing U.S. laws ( specifically the Toxic Substances Control Act and the Federal Insecticide , Fungicide , and Rodenticide Act ) .","qid":"2780","docid":"Aarhus_Protocol_on_Persistent_Organic_Pollutants","rank":92,"score":109782},{"content":"Title: Diesel Emissions Reduction Act Content: The Diesel Emissions Reduction Act ( Pub.L . 111-364 ) , or DERA ( as it will be referred to for the remainder of this article ) , is a part of the Energy Policy Act of 2005 ( Pub.L . 109-58 ) . The law appropriated funds to federal and state loan programs to either rebuild diesel-powered vehicle engines to more stringent emission standards or install emission reduction systems , notify affected parties , and share the technological information with countries that have poor air quality standards .","qid":"2780","docid":"Diesel_Emissions_Reduction_Act","rank":93,"score":109562},{"content":"Title: Effluent guidelines Content: Effluent Guidelines ( also referred to as Effluent Limitation Guidelines ( ELGs ) ) are U.S. national standards for wastewater discharges to surface waters and publicly owned treatment works ( POTW ) ( also called municipal sewage treatment plants ) . The United States Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) issues Effluent Guideline regulations for categories of industrial sources of water pollution under Title III of the Clean Water Act ( CWA ) . The standards are technology-based , i.e. they are based on the performance of treatment and control technologies ( e.g. , Best Available Technology ) . Effluent Guidelines are not based on risk or impacts of pollutants upon receiving waters . Regulated pollutants range from acenaphthene to zinc , with maximum allowed contamination levels in discharge water ( wastewater ) varying by industry . The regulations cover pollutants for which there are approved analytical testing methods . EPA has published many methods in its regulations , and has approved the use of other methods published by peer-reviewed sources , such as Standard Methods . In the early years of the program ( 1970s-1980s ) the agency published methods for a list of 126 `` priority pollutants , '' consisting of various toxic pollutants . Subsequently the agency has issued methods and regulated pollutants beyond those in the initial priority list . Since the mid-1970s , the EPA has promulgated ELGs for 58 industrial categories , with over 450 subcategories . Effluent Guidelines currently control pollution from close to 60,000 industrial facilities and annually prohibit the discharge of 700 billion pounds of pollutants into U.S. surface waters . Effluent Guidelines are implemented in water discharge permits issued to facilities through the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System ( NPDES ) .","qid":"2780","docid":"Effluent_guidelines","rank":94,"score":109068},{"content":"Title: Volcker Rule Content: The Volcker Rule refers to § 619 part of the Dodd -- Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act , originally proposed by American economist and former United States Federal Reserve Chairman Paul Volcker to restrict United States banks from making certain kinds of speculative investments that do not benefit their customers . Volcker argued that such speculative activity played a key role in the financial crisis of 2007 -- 2010 . The rule is often referred to as a ban on proprietary trading by commercial banks , whereby deposits are used to trade on the bank 's own accounts , although a number of exceptions to this ban were included in the Dodd-Frank law . The rule 's provisions were scheduled to be implemented as a part of Dodd-Frank on July 21 , 2010 , with preceding ramifications , but were delayed . On December 10 , 2013 , the necessary agencies approved regulations implementing the rule , which were scheduled to go into effect April 1 , 2014 . On January 14 , 2014 , after a lawsuit by community banks over provisions concerning specialized securities , revised final regulations were adopted . The rule came into effect on July 21 , 2015 . On August 11 , 2016 , several large banks requested a 5-year delay to exit illiquid investments .","qid":"2780","docid":"Volcker_Rule","rank":95,"score":108816},{"content":"Title: Department of Transportation v. Public Citizen Content: Department of Transportation v. Public Citizen , 541 U.S. 752 ( 2004 ) , is a case argued in the Supreme Court of the United States on 21 April 2004 . The question the case presented relates to Presidential foreign affairs and foreign trade Actions exempt from environmental-review requirements under the National Environmental Policy Act and the Clean Air Act . Specifically , the question is whether those Actions are subject to those requirements as a result of a rulemaking action concerning motor carrier safety by the federal agency with responsibility for that type of safety .","qid":"2780","docid":"Department_of_Transportation_v._Public_Citizen","rank":96,"score":108541},{"content":"Title: Environmental policy of the United States Content: The environmental policy of the United States is federal governmental action to regulate activities that have an environmental impact in the United States . The goal of environmental policy is to protect the environment for future generations while interfering as little as possible with the efficiency of commerce or the liberty of the people and to limit inequity in who is burdened with environmental costs . This policy grew mainly out of the environmental movement in the United States in the 1960s and 1970s during which several environmental laws were passed , regulating air and water pollution and forming the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) . Partially due to the high costs associated with these regulations , there has been a backlash from business and politically conservative interests , limiting increases to environmental regulatory budgets and slowing efforts to protect the environment . Since the 1970s , despite frequent legislative gridlock , there have been significant achievements in environmental regulation , including increases in air and water quality and , to a lesser degree , control of hazardous waste . Due to increasing scientific consensus on global warming and political pressure from environmental groups , modifications to the United States energy policy and limits on greenhouse gas have been suggested .","qid":"2780","docid":"Environmental_policy_of_the_United_States","rank":97,"score":108541},{"content":"Title: Air pollution in India Content: Air pollution in India is quite a serious issue with the major sources being fuelwood and biomass burning , fuel adulteration , vehicle emission and traffic congestion . In autumn and winter months , large scale crop residue burning in agriculture fields -- a low cost alternative to mechanical tilling -- is a major source of smoke , smog and particulate pollution . India has a low per capita emissions of greenhouse gases but the country as a whole is the third largest after China and the United States . A 2013 study on non-smokers has found that Indians have 30 % lower lung function compared to Europeans . The Air ( Prevention and Control of Pollution ) Act was passed in 1981 to regulate air pollution and there have been some measurable improvements . However , the 2016 Environmental Performance Index ranked India 141 out of 180 countries . In 2015 , Government of India , together with IIT Kanpur launched the National Air Quality Index .","qid":"2780","docid":"Air_pollution_in_India","rank":98,"score":108409},{"content":"Title: Air quality and EU legislation Content: Since the late 1970s , the European Union 's ( EU ) policy has been to develop and drive appropriate measures to improve air quality throughout the EU . The control of emissions from mobile sources , improving fuel quality and promoting and integrating environmental protection requirements into the transport and energy sector are part of these aims . The main advising agency of the EU is the European Environment Agency ( EEA ) . It came into force in late 1993 , after the decision to locate the EEA in Copenhagen . Work started in earnest in 1994 . The EEA 's mandate is to help the community and member countries make informed decisions about improving the environment and integrating environmental considerations into economic policies , and to coordinate the European environment information and observation network ( Eionet ) . Eionet is a partnership network across member states involving approximately 1000 experts and more than 350 national institutions . The network supports the collection and organisation of data and the development and dissemination of information concerning Europe 's environment .","qid":"2780","docid":"Air_quality_and_EU_legislation","rank":99,"score":108318},{"content":"Title: Railroad Safety Appliance Act Content: The Safety Appliance Act is a United States federal law that made air brakes and automatic couplers mandatory on all trains in the United States . It was enacted on March 2 , 1893 , and took effect in 1900 , after a seven-year grace period . The act is credited with a sharp drop in accidents on American railroads in the early 20th century .","qid":"2780","docid":"Railroad_Safety_Appliance_Act","rank":100,"score":107977}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: National Emissions Standards Act Content: The Motor Vehicle Air Pollution Control Act is a 1965 amendment to the U.S. Clean Air Act of 1963 . The amendment set the first federal vehicle emissions standards , beginning with the 1968 models . These standards were reductions from the 1963 emissions : 72 % reduction for hydrocarbons , 56 % reduction for carbon monoxide , and 100 % reduction for crankcase hydrocarbons . The impact the regulatory standards will have on air quality in the future , as well as the potential characteristics of the vehicle fleet can be analyzed with the use of roadway air dispersion models . The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) is a department specific to the Clean Air Act . Its purpose is to make sure the amount of air pollution emitted stays inside the standards set by the U.S. Each state is required to have a state implementation plan ( SIPs ) that clearly indicates how it will enforce the regulations of the Clean Air Act . The states have to create regulations of their own that also adhere to the guidelines of the U.S. regulations ; in order to do so , they must hold hearings so the public can contribute ideas and provide feedback .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"National_Emissions_Standards_Act\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 187293\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Regulation of greenhouse gases under the Clean Air Act Content: The United States Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) began regulating greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) under the Clean Air Act ( `` CAA '' or `` Act '' ) from mobile and stationary sources of air pollution for the first time on January 2 , 2011 . Standards for mobile sources have been established pursuant to Section 202 of the CAA , and GHGs from stationary sources are currently controlled under the authority of Part C of Title I of the Act . The basis for regulations was upheld in the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia in June 2012 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Regulation_of_greenhouse_gases_under_the_Clean_Air_Act\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 177889\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Air Pollution Control Act Content: The Air Pollution Control Act of 1955 ( , ch . 360 , ) was the first Clean Air Act ( United States ) enacted by Congress to address the national environmental problem of air pollution on July 14 , 1955 . This was `` an act to provide research and technical assistance relating to air pollution control '' . The act `` left states principally in charge of prevention and control of air pollution at the source '' . The act declared that air pollution was a danger to public health and welfare , but preserved the `` primary responsibilities and rights of the states and local government in controlling air pollution '' . The act put the federal government in a purely informational role , authorizing the United States Surgeon General to conduct research , investigate , and pass out information `` relating to air pollution and the prevention and abatement thereof '' . Therefore , The Air Pollution Control Act contained no provisions for the federal government to actively combat air pollution by punishing polluters . The next Congressional statement on air pollution would come with the Clean Air Act of 1963 . The Air Pollution Control Act was the culmination of much research done on fuel emissions by the federal government in the 1930s and 1940s . Additional legislation was passed in 1963 to better fully define air quality criteria and give more power in defining what air quality was to the secretary of Health , Education , and Labor . This additional legislation would provide grants to both local and state agencies . A replacement , the United States Clean Air Act ( CAA ) , was enacted to substitute the Air Pollution Control Act of 1955 . A decade later the Motor Vehicle Air Pollution Control Act was enacted to focus more specifically on automotive emission standards . A mere two years later , the Federal Air Quality Act was established to define `` air quality control regions '' scientifically based on topographical and meteorological facets of air pollution . California was the first state to act against air pollution when the metropolis of Los Angeles began to notice deteriorating air quality . The location of Los Angeles furthered the problem as several geographical and meteorological problems unique to the area exacerbated the air pollution problem .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Air_Pollution_Control_Act\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 177339\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Clean Air Act (United States) Content: The Clean Air Act is a United States federal law designed to control air pollution on a national level . It is one of the United States ' first and most influential modern environmental laws , and one of the most comprehensive air quality laws in the world . As with many other major U.S. federal environmental statutes , it is administered by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , in coordination with state , local , and tribal governments . Its implementing regulations are codified at 40 C.F.R. Subchapter C , Parts 50-97 . The 1955 Air Pollution Control Act was the first U.S federal legislation that pertained to air pollution ; it also provided funds for federal government research of air pollution . The first federal legislation to actually pertain to `` controlling '' air pollution was the Clean Air Act of 1963 . The 1963 act accomplished this by establishing a federal program within the U.S. Public Health Service and authorizing research into techniques for monitoring and controlling air pollution . In 1967 , the Air Quality Act enabled the federal government to increase its activities to investigate enforcing interstate air pollution transport , and , for the first time , to perform far-reaching ambient monitoring studies and stationary source inspections . The 1967 act also authorized expanded studies of air pollutant emission inventories , ambient monitoring techniques , and control techniques . Major amendments to the law , requiring regulatory controls for air pollution , passed in 1970 , 1977 and 1990 . The 1970 amendments greatly expanded the federal mandate , requiring comprehensive federal and state regulations for both stationary ( industrial ) pollution sources and mobile sources . It also significantly expanded federal enforcement . Also , the Environmental Protection Agency was established on December 2 , 1970 for the purpose of consolidating pertinent federal research , monitoring , standard-setting and enforcement activities into one agency that ensures environmental protection . The 1990 amendments addressed acid rain , ozone depletion , and toxic air pollution , established a national permits program for stationary sources , and increased enforcement authority . The amendments also established new auto gasoline reformulation requirements , set Reid vapor pressure ( RVP ) standards to control evaporative emissions from gasoline , and mandated new gasoline formulations sold from May to September in many states . Reviewing his tenure as EPA Administrator under President George H. Bush , William K. Reilly characterized passage of the 1990 Clean Air Act as his most notable accomplishment . The Clean Air Act was the first major environmental law in the United States to include a provision for citizen suits . Numerous state and local governments have enacted similar legislation , either implementing federal programs or filling in locally important gaps in federal programs .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Clean_Air_Act_(United_States)\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 177258\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Clean Air Act 1956 Content: The Clean Air Act 1956 was an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom passed in response to London 's Great Smog of 1952 . It was in effect until 1964 , and sponsored by the Ministry of Housing and Local Government in England and the Department of Health for Scotland . The Act introduced a number of measures to reduce air pollution , especially by introducing `` smoke control areas '' in some towns and cities in which only smokeless fuels could be burned . By shifting homes ' sources of heat towards cleaner coals , electricity , and gas , it reduced the amount of smoke pollution and sulphur dioxide from household fires . Reinforcing these changes , the Act also included measures to relocate power stations away from cities , and for the height of some chimneys to be increased . The Act was an important milestone in the development of a legal framework to protect the environment . The Act was repealed in 1993 to consolidate its legislation with other related enactments , especially the Clean Air Act 1968 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Clean_Air_Act_1956\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 176206\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Timeline of major U.S. environmental and occupational health regulation Content: 1947 -- Los Angeles Air Pollution Control District created ; first air pollution agency in the US . 1948 -- Federal Water Pollution Control Act 1955 -- National Air Pollution Control Act 1959 -- California Motor Vehicle Pollution Control Board created to test automobile emissions and set standards . 1963 -- Clean Air Act ( amended in 1965 , 1966 , 1967 , 1969 , 1970 , 1977 , 1990 ) 1964 -- Wilderness Act 1965 -- National Emissions Standards Act 1965 -- Motor Vehicle Air Pollution Control Act 1965 -- Solid Waste Disposal Act 1967 -- California Air Resources Board established ; set emissions standards predating EPA . 1967 -- Air Quality Act ( amendment to CAA ) 1969 -- Federal Coal Mine Health and Safety Act 1969 -- National Environmental Policy Act ( NEPA ) 1970 -- Reorganization Plan No. 3 created the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) by Presidential Executive Order 1970 -- Clean Air Act ( Extension ) . Major rewrite of CAA , setting National Ambient Air Quality Standards ( NAAQS ) , New Source Performance Standards ( NSPS ) Hazardous Air Pollutant standards , and auto emissions tailpipe standards . 1970 -- Williams-Steiger Occupational Safety and Health Act created OSHA and NIOSH 1970 -- Lead-Based Paint Poisoning Prevention Act 1970 -- Environmental Quality Improvement Act 1972 -- Federal Water Pollution Control Amendments of 1972 ( P.L. 92-500 ) . Major rewrite . 1972 -- Federal Insecticide , Fungicide , and Rodenticide Act ( FIFRA ) ( amended by Food Quality Protection Act of 1996 ) 1972 -- Marine Protection , Research , and Sanctuaries Act of 1972 1973 -- Endangered Species Act 1974 -- Safe Drinking Water Act 1975 -- Hazardous Materials Transportation Act 1976 -- Resource Conservation and Recovery Act ( RCRA ) 1976 -- Toxic Substances Control Act ( TSCA ) 1977 -- Clean Water Act . Amended FWPCA of 1972 . 1977 -- Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act 1978 -- National Energy Conservation Policy Act 1980 -- Comprehensive Environmental Response , Compensation , and Liability Act ( CERCLA ) . Created the Superfund program . 1980 -- Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act 1980 -- Fish and Wildlife Conservation Act 1982 -- Nuclear Waste Policy Act 1986 -- Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1986 1986 -- Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act ( EPCRKA ) 1986 -- Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act ( SARA ) 1987 -- Water Quality Act . Amended FWPCA of 1972 . 1989 -- Basel Convention 1989 -- Montreal Protocol on ozone-depleting chemicals enters into force . 1990 -- Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 . Set new automobile emissions standards , low-sulfur gas , required Best Available Control Technology ( BACT ) for toxins , reduction in CFCs . 1990 -- Oil Pollution Act of 1990 1991 -- Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act ( ISTEA ) 1992 -- Residential Lead-Based Paint Hazard Reduction Act 1993 -- North American Free Trade Agreement Implementation Act 1994 -- Executive Order 12898 on Environmental Justice 1996 -- Mercury-Containing and Rechargeable Battery Management Act ( P.L. 104-19 ) 1996 -- Food Quality Protection Act ( amended FIFRA ) 1996 -- Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1996 1997 - Kyoto Protocol 1998 -- Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century ( TEA-21 ) 2002 -- California AB 1493 sets standards for emissions of CO2 and other greenhouse gases from automobiles and light duty trucks . 2002 -- Small Business Liability Relief and Brownfields Revitalization Act ( amended CERCLA ) 2005 -- Energy Policy Act of 2005 2005 -- Safe , Accountable , Flexible , Efficient Transportation Equity Act : A Legacy for Users ( SAFETEA ) 2007 -- Energy Independence and Security Act ( EISA ) 2016 -- The Frank R. Lautenberg Chemical Safety for the 21st Century Act\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Timeline_of_major_U.S._environmental_and_occupational_health_regulation\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 169592\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Startups, shutdowns, and malfunctions Content: Startups , shutdowns , and malfunctions ( SSM ) are periods of non-continuous operation in refineries , chemical plants or similar industrial facilities . During such temporary periods , these plants might emit larger amounts of pollution , and therefore the pollution abatement equipment may be unable to effectively control it . Recognizing this problem , beginning in 1994 the American Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) allowed such facilities to release large amounts of otherwise prohibited air pollution during SSM . However , in 2002 and again in 2003 the EPA made regulatory revisions which seemed to increase the allowable periods of such non-compliance periods , which motivated a coalition of environmental groups to challenge the changes , by suing the EPA . These groups argued that these changes effectively neutralized the United States Clean Air Act . The U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia issued a ruling on the lawsuit ( 19 December 2008 ) , finding that allowing such SSM exemptions does violate requirements of the Clean Air Act , in that the CAA requires that some reasonable limit on a facility 's emissions of hazardous air pollutants must always be in effect . The American Chemistry Council , a trade association of industrial and chemical manufacturing companies , joined the EPA in the court 's defense actions . An EPA spokesman said in late December 2008 that the agency is studying the decision to determine an appropriate course of action .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Startups,_shutdowns,_and_malfunctions\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 152536\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 Content: The Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 - a bill to amend the Clean Air Act to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide , and for other purposes . It was proposed in the 110th United States Congress by Senators Bernie Sanders ( I-VT ) and Barbara Boxer ( D-CA ) on January 15 , 2007 . It was referred to the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works . The measure was intended to increase performance standards for electricity generation and motor vehicles with the option of an emissions `` cap and trade '' system . The emissions cap would begin in 2010 with the aim of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 15 percent by 2020 and 83 percent by 2050 . The legislation would also provide funding for R&D on geologic sequestration of carbon dioxide , among other projects ; set emissions standards for new vehicles and a renewable fuels requirement for gasoline beginning in 2016 ; establish energy efficiency and renewable portfolio standards beginning in 2008 and low-carbon electric generation standards beginning in 2016 for electric utilities ; and require periodic evaluations by the National Academy of Sciences to determine whether emissions targets are adequate .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Warming_Pollution_Reduction_Act_of_2007\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 151510\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Oregon Indoor Clean Air Act Content: The Oregon Indoor Clean Air Act , also known as the Smokefree Workplace Law , is a measure passed in 1981 by the US State of Oregon prohibiting smoking in public indoor places except in certain designated smoking areas . The objective is to protect non-smokers in confined areas from second-hand smoke . Beginning on January 1 , 2016 , the law was extended to cover `` inhalant delivery systems '' such as e-cigarettes .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Oregon_Indoor_Clean_Air_Act\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 149507\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: American Electric Power Co. v. Connecticut Content: American Electric Power Company v. Connecticut , , was a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court , in an 8 -- 0 decision , held that corporations can not be sued for greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) under federal common law , primarily because the Clean Air Act ( CAA ) delegates the management of carbon dioxide and other GHG emissions to the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) . Brought to court in July 2004 in the Southern District of New York , this was the first global warming case based on a public nuisance claim .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"American_Electric_Power_Co._v._Connecticut\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 147873\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Clean Energy Act 2011 Content: The Clean Energy Act 2011 is the main Act in a package of legislation that established an Australian emissions trading scheme , to be preceded by a three-year period of fixed carbon pricing designed to reduce carbon dioxide emissions and limit global warming . The package was introduced by the Gillard Labor Government in February 2011 and repealed on 17 July 2014 by the Abbott Government .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Clean_Energy_Act_2011\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 147238\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Vehicle inspection in the United States Content: In the United States , vehicle safety inspection and emissions inspection are governed by each state individually . 17 states have a periodic ( annual or biennial ) safety inspection program , while Maryland and Alabama require a safety inspection on sale or transfer of vehicles which were previously registered in another state . New Jersey discontinued its passenger vehicle safety inspection program on August 1 , 2010 . In 1977 , the federal Clean Air Act was amended by Congress to require states to implement vehicle emissions inspection programs , known as I/M programs ( for Inspection and Maintenance ) , in all major metropolitan areas whose air quality failed to meet certain federal standards . New York 's program started in 1982 , California 's program ( `` Smog Check '' ) started in 1984 , and Illinois ' program started in 1986 . The Clean Air Act of 1990 required some states to enact vehicle emissions inspection programs . State impacted were those in metropolitan areas where air quality did not meet federal standards . Some states , including Kentucky and Minnesota , have discontinued their testing programs in recent years with approval from the federal government .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Vehicle_inspection_in_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 145804\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cross-State Air Pollution Rule Content: The Cross-State Air Pollution Rule ( CSAPR ) is a ruling by the United States Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) that requires member states of the United States to reduce power plant emissions that contribute to ozone and/or fine particle pollution in other states . The EPA describes this rule as one that `` protects the health of millions of Americans by helping states reduce air pollution and attain clean air standards . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Cross-State_Air_Pollution_Rule\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 142618\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Act to Prevent Pollution from Ships Content: The Act to Prevent Pollution from Ships ( APPS , 33 U.S.C. § § 1905-1915 ) is a United States law that implements the provisions of MARPOL and the annexes to which the United States is a party . The most recent U.S. action concerning MARPOL occurred in April 2006 , when the U.S. Senate approved Annex VI , which regulates air pollution ( Treaty Doc . 108-7 , Exec . Rept . 109-13 ) . Following that approval , in March 2007 , the House of Representatives approved legislation to implement the standards in Annex VI ( H.R. 802 ) , through regulations to be promulgated by Environmental Protection Agency in consultation with the U.S. Coast Guard . APPS applies to all U.S.-flagged ships anywhere in the world and to all foreign-flagged vessels operating in navigable waters of the United States or while at port under U.S. jurisdiction . The Coast Guard has primary responsibility to prescribe and enforce regulations necessary to implement APPS in these waters . The regulatory mechanism established in APPS to implement MARPOL is separate and distinct from the Clean Water Act and other federal environmental laws . The H.R. 6665 legislation was passed by the 96th U.S. Congressional session and signed by the 39th President of the United States Jimmy Carter on October 21 , 1980 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Act_to_Prevent_Pollution_from_Ships\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 141624\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Utility Air Regulatory Group v. Environmental Protection Agency Content: Utility Air Regulatory Group v. Environmental Protection Agency , , was a United States Supreme Court case regarding the Environmental Protection Agency 's regulation of air pollution under the Clean Air Act . In a fractured decision , the Court largely upheld the ability of the EPA to regulate greenhouse emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Utility_Air_Regulatory_Group_v._Environmental_Protection_Agency\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 141602\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Noise Control Act Content: The Noise Pollution and Abatement Act of 1972 is a statute of the United States initiating a federal program of regulating noise pollution with the intent of protecting human health and minimizing annoyance of noise to the general public . The Act established mechanisms of setting emission standards for virtually every source of noise , including motor vehicles , aircraft , certain types of HVAC ( heating , ventilation , and air-conditioning ) equipment and major appliances . It also put local governments on notice as to their responsibilities in land-use planning to address noise mitigation . This noise regulation framework comprised a broad data base detailing the extent of noise health effects . Congress ended funding of the federal noise control program in 1981 , which curtailed development of further national regulations . Since then , starting in 1982 , the primary responsibility to addressing noise pollution shifted to state and local governments . The Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) retains authority to conduct research and publish information on noise and its effects on the public , which is often included nowadays in environmental impact assessments for new urban developments . The initial EPA regulations and programs provided a basis for development of many state and local government noise control laws across the United States . See Noise regulation .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Noise_Control_Act\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 138957\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Clean Air Act Content: The Clean Air Act may refer to : Clean Air Act 1972 in New Zealand Clean Air Act 1956 in the United Kingdom Clean Air Act ( United States ) , 1963\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Clean_Air_Act\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 138645\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Electricity Security and Affordability Act Content: The Electricity Security and Affordability Act is a bill that would repeal a pending rule published by the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) on January 8 , 2014 . The proposed rule would establish uniform national limits on greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions from new electricity-generating facilities that use coal or natural gas . The rule also sets new standards of performance for those power plants , including the requirement to install carbon capture and sequestration technology . The bill passed in the United States House of Representatives during the 113th United States Congress .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Electricity_Security_and_Affordability_Act\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 136887\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Oil Pollution Act of 1924 Content: Oil Pollution Act of 1924 is a United States federal statute establishing regulations for coastal navigable waters with regards to intentional fossil fuel discharges from seagoing vessels . The Act of Congress grants the Secretary of War authority to evaluate the oil volume discharge from a vessel while assessing if coastal navigable waters have a potential toxicity posing a deleterious condition for human health and seafood contamination . The 1924 United States statute provides judicial penalities encompassing civil and criminal punishment for violations of the prescribed regulations as stated in the Act . The legislation was passed by the 68th United States Congressional session and confirmed as a federal law by the 29th President of the United States Warren G. Harding on June 7 , 1924 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Oil_Pollution_Act_of_1924\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 135768\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Clean Water Act Content: The Clean Water Act ( CWA ) is the primary federal law in the United States governing water pollution . Its objective is to restore and maintain the chemical , physical , and biological integrity of the nation 's waters by preventing point and nonpoint pollution sources , providing assistance to publicly owned treatment works for the improvement of wastewater treatment , and maintaining the integrity of wetlands . It is one of the United States ' first and most influential modern environmental laws . As with many other major U.S. federal environmental statutes , it is administered by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , in coordination with state governments . Its implementing regulations are codified at 40 C.F.R. Subchapters D , N , and O ( Parts 100-140 , 401-471 , and 501-503 ) . Technically , the name of the law is the Federal Water Pollution Control Act . The first FWPCA was enacted in 1948 , but took on its modern form when completely rewritten in 1972 in an act entitled the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972 . Major changes have subsequently been introduced via amendatory legislation including the Clean Water Act of 1977 and the Water Quality Act of 1987 . The Clean Water Act does not directly address groundwater contamination . Groundwater protection provisions are included in the Safe Drinking Water Act , Resource Conservation and Recovery Act , and the Superfund act .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Clean_Water_Act\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 135569\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Zero-emissions vehicle Content: A zero-emissions vehicle , or ZEV , is a vehicle that emits no tailpipe pollutants from the onboard source of power . Harmful pollutants to the health and the environment include particulates ( soot ) , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , ozone , lead , and various oxides of nitrogen . Although not considered emission pollutants by the original California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) or U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) definitions , the most recent common use of the term also includes volatile organic compounds , several air toxics ( most notably 1,3-Butadiene ) , and global pollutants such as carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases . Examples of zero emission vehicles include muscle-powered vehicles such as bicycles ; gravity racers ; battery electric vehicles , which typically shift emissions to the location where the electricity is generated e.g. coal or natural gas power plant ; and fuel cell vehicles powered by hydrogen , which typically shift emissions to the location where the hydrogen is generated . Hydrogen-powered vehicles are not strictly zero-emissions , as they do emit water or water vapor , although they are still usually included in this category . Emissions from the manufacturing process are ignored in this definition , although the emissions that are created during manufacture are of an order of magnitude that is comparable to the one of the emissions that are created during a vehicle 's operating lifetime .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Zero-emissions_vehicle\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 134048\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: United States federal register of greenhouse gas emissions Content: The United States federal register of greenhouse gas emissions is established by the United States Department of Energy under the Energy Policy Act 1992 . It is administered by the Energy Information Administration through the Voluntary Reporting of Greenhouse Gases Program . Separately , the Environmental Protection Agency in 2009 commenced implementing a mandatory Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program , which applies to facilities that emit 25,000 metric tons or more per year .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"United_States_federal_register_of_greenhouse_gas_emissions\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 133090\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Volkswagen emissions scandal Content: The Volkswagen emissions scandal ( also called `` emissionsgate '' or `` dieselgate '' ) started on 18 September 2015 , when the United States Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) issued a notice of violation of the Clean Air Act to German automaker Volkswagen Group . The agency had found that Volkswagen had intentionally programmed turbocharged direct injection ( TDI ) diesel engines to activate certain emissions controls only during laboratory emissions testing . The programming caused the vehicles ' output to meet US standards during regulatory testing but emit up to 40 times more in real-world driving . Volkswagen deployed this programming in about eleven million cars worldwide , and 500,000 in the United States , during model years 2009 through 2015 . The findings stemmed from a study on emissions discrepancies between European and US models of vehicles commissioned in 2014 by the International Council on Clean Transportation ( ICCT ) , summing up the data from three different sources on 15 vehicles . Among the research groups was a group of five scientists at West Virginia University , who detected additional emissions during live road tests on two out of three diesel cars . ICCT also purchased data from two other sources . The new road testing data and the purchased data were generated using Portable Emissions Measurement Systems ( PEMS ) developed by multiple individuals in the mid-late 1990 's . The findings were provided to the California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) in May 2014 . Volkswagen became the target of regulatory investigations in multiple countries , and Volkswagen 's stock price fell in value by a third in the days immediately after the news . Volkswagen Group CEO Martin Winterkorn resigned , and the head of brand development Heinz-Jakob Neusser , Audi research and development head Ulrich Hackenberg , and Porsche research and development head Wolfgang Hatz were suspended . Volkswagen announced plans to spend ( later raised to , ) on rectifying the emissions issues , and planned to refit the affected vehicles as part of a recall campaign . The scandal raised awareness over the higher levels of pollution being emitted by all vehicles built by a wide range of car makers , which under real world driving conditions are prone to exceed legal emission limits . A study conducted by ICCT and ADAC showed the biggest deviations from Volvo , Renault , Jeep , Hyundai , Citroën and Fiat , resulting in investigations opening into other potential diesel emissions scandals . A discussion was sparked that software-controlled machinery will generally be prone to cheating , and a way out would be to make the software source code accessible to the public . On April 21 , 2017 , a US federal judge ordered Volkswagen `` to pay a $ 2.8 billion criminal fine for rigging diesel-powered vehicles to cheat on government emissions tests . '' The `` unprecedented '' plea deal formalized a punishment that Volkswagen AG agreed to earlier in 2017 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Volkswagen_emissions_scandal\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 132946\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Smoke-Free Air Act Content: The Smoke-Free Air Act is a law that came into effect in New Jersey , United States , on April 15 , 2006 . This law prohibits smoking in any indoor public place and work place .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Smoke-Free_Air_Act\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 131778\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Oil Pollution Act of 1961 Content: Oil Pollution Act of 1961 , 33 U.S.C. Chapter 20 § § 1001-1011 , established judicial definitions and coastal prohibitions for the United States maritime industry . The Act invoked the accords of the International Convention for the Prevention of the Pollution of the Sea by Oil , 1954 . The international agreement provided provisions to control the discharge of fossil fuel pollutants from nautical vessels on the high seas . The S. 2187 legislation was passed by the United States 87th Congressional session and enacted by the 35th President of the United States John F. Kennedy on August 30 , 1961 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Oil_Pollution_Act_of_1961\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 130694\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: American Clean Energy and Security Act Content: The American Clean Energy and Security Act of 2009 ( ACES ) was an energy bill in the 111th United States Congress that would have established a variant of an emissions trading plan similar to the European Union Emission Trading Scheme . The bill was approved by the House of Representatives on June 26 , 2009 by a vote of 219-212 , but was never brought to the floor of the Senate for discussion or a vote . The House passage of the bill was the `` first time either house of Congress had approved a bill meant to curb the heat-trapping gases scientists have linked to climate change . '' The bill was also known as the Waxman-Markey Bill , after its authors , Representatives Henry A. Waxman of California and Edward J. Markey of Massachusetts , both Democrats . Waxman was at the time the chairman of the Energy and Commerce Committee , and Markey was the chairman of that committee 's Energy and Power Subcommittee .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"American_Clean_Energy_and_Security_Act\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 130619\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Clear Skies Act of 2003 Content: The Clear Skies Act of 2003 was a proposed federal law of the United States . The official title as introduced is `` a bill to amend the Clean Air Act to reduce air pollution through expansion of cap-and-trade programs , to provide an alternative regulatory classification for units subject to the cap and trade program , and for other purposes . '' The bill 's Senate version ( S. 485 ) was sponsored by James Inhofe ( R ) of Oklahoma and George Voinovich ( R ) of Ohio ; the House version ( H.R. 999 ) was sponsored by Joe Barton ( R ) of Texas and Billy Tauzin ( R ) of Louisiana . Both versions were introduced on February 27 , 2003 . Upon introduction of the bill , Inhofe said , `` Moving beyond the confusing , command-and-control mandates of the past , Clear Skies cap-and-trade system harnesses the power of technology and innovation to bring about significant reductions in harmful pollutants . '' The Clear Skies Act came about as the result of President Bush 's Clear Skies Initiative . In early March 2005 , the bill did not move out of committee when members were like deadlocked 9-9 . Seven Democrats , James Jeffords ( I ) of Vermont , and Lincoln Chafee ( R ) of Rhode Island voted against the bill ; nine Republicans supported it . Within days , the Bush Administration moved to implement key measures , such as the NOx , SO2 and mercury trading provisions of the bill administratively through EPA . It remains to be seen how resistant these changes will be to court challenges .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Clear_Skies_Act_of_2003\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 130128\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Oil Pollution Act of 1973 Content: The Oil Pollution Act of 1973 or Oil Pollution Act Amendments of 1973 , 33 U.S.C. Chapter 20 § § 1001-1011 , was a United States federal law which amended the United States Statute . The Act of Congress sustained the United States commitment to control the discharge of fossil fuel pollutants from nautical vessels and to acknowledge the embargo of coastal zones in trans-boundary waters . The H.R. 5451 legislation was passed by the United States 93rd Congressional session and enacted by the 37th President of the United States Richard Nixon on October 4 , 1973 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Oil_Pollution_Act_of_1973\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 129520\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: California Senate Bill 32 Content: The California Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 : emissions limit , or SB-32 , is a California Senate bill expanding upon AB-32 to reduce greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions . The lead author is Senator Fran Pavley and the principal co-author is Assemblymember Eduardo Garcia . SB-32 was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 , by Governor Edmund Gerald `` Jerry '' Brown Jr. . SB-32 sets into law the mandated reduction target in GHG emissions as written into Executive Order B-30-15 . The Senate bill requires that there be a reduction in GHG emissions to 40 % below the 1990 levels by 2030 . Greenhouse gas emissions include carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , sulfur hexafluoride , hydrofluorocarbons , and perfluorocarbons . The California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) is responsible for ensuring that California meets this goal . The provisions of SB-32 were added to Section 38566 of the Health and Safety Code subsequent to the bill 's approval . The bill goes into effect January 1 , 2017 . SB-32 builds onto Assembly Bill ( AB ) 32 written by Senator Fran Pavley and Assembly Speaker Fabian Nunez passed into law on September 27 , 2006 . AB-32 required California to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by 2020 and SB-32 continues that timeline to reach the targets set in Executive Order B-30-15 . SB-32 provides another intermediate target between the 2020 and 2050 targets set in Executive Order S-3-05 . SB-32 was contingent on the passing of AB-197 , which increases legislative oversight of CARB and is intended to ensure CARB must report to the Legislature . AB-197 also passed and was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"California_Senate_Bill_32\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 128230\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act Content: The Air ( Prevention and Control of Pollution ) Act , 1981 an Act of the Parliament of India to control and prevent air pollution in india . It was amended in 1987 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Air_(Prevention_and_Control_of_Pollution)_Act\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 127459\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Soot Content: Soot -LSB- ˈsʊt -RSB- is a mass of impure carbon particles resulting from the incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons . It is more properly restricted to the product of the gas-phase combustion process but is commonly extended to include the residual pyrolysed fuel particles such as coal , cenospheres , charred wood , and petroleum coke that may become airborne during pyrolysis and that are more properly identified as cokes or chars . Soot causes cancer and lung disease , and is the second-biggest human cause of global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Soot\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 127326\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Air quality law Content: Air quality laws govern the emission of air pollutants into the atmosphere . A specialized subset of air quality laws regulate the quality of air inside buildings . Air quality laws are often designed specifically to protect human health by limiting or eliminating airborne pollutant concentrations . Other initiatives are designed to address broader ecological problems , such as limitations on chemicals that affect the ozone layer , and emissions trading programs to address acid rain or climate change . Regulatory efforts include identifying and categorizing air pollutants , setting limits on acceptable emissions levels , and dictating necessary or appropriate mitigation technologies .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Air_quality_law\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 126970\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Public Health Cigarette Smoking Act Content: The Public Health Cigarette Smoking Act is a United States federal law , passed in 1969 , designed to limit the practice of smoking . It required a stronger health warning on cigarette packages , saying `` Warning : The Surgeon General Has Determined that Cigarette Smoking Is Dangerous to Your Health '' . The Act also banned cigarette advertisements on American radio and television .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Public_Health_Cigarette_Smoking_Act\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 126474\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Air Ink Content: Air Ink is an Indian startup brand which produces ink and ink-based art products by condensing soot-based gaseous effluents generated by motor vehicles due to incomplete combustion of fossil fuels . Founded by Graviky Labs , a spin-off group of MIT Media Lab , Air Ink produces its materials through a step-by-step process which primarily involves capturing of emissions , separation of carbon from the soot , and then mixing of this carbon with different types of oils and solutions . It uses a patented device called `` Kaalink '' to carry out the filtration of soot , which contains carbon and other polluting agents like heavy metals and carcinogens . Air Ink is marketed as a solution to air pollution and its disastrous effects on human life . Dubbed as `` the first ink made out of recycled air pollution '' , its products were used in August 2016 in association with Tiger Beer to create street art and murals in Hong Kong 's Sheung Wan district . 30 -- 50 minutes of car pollution is enough to create purified carbon which can fill an Air Ink pen .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Air_Ink\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 125982\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 21st-century fossil fuel regulations in the United States Content: Fossil fuel regulations are part of the energy policy in the United States and have gained major significance with the strong dependence on fossil fuel based energy . Regulatory processes are established at the federal and state level due to the immense economic , socio-political and environmental impact of fossil fuel extraction and production . Over 80 % of the United States ' energy comes from fossil fuels such as coal , natural gas , and oil . The Bush administration was marked by the Energy Policy Act of 2005 , which provided a monetary incentive for renewable energy adoption and addressed the issue of climate change . The Obama administration was made up of advocates for renewable energy and natural gas , while Donald Trump built his campaign on promises to revive the coal industry . Oil , gas , and coal companies have been at odds with policy makers who have supported a wider implementation of renewable energy , with the former often spending millions of dollars to lobby against cleaner energy . The Washington Post reported on February 22 , 2017 Scott Pruitt 's potential special interests with the fossil fuel industry as he began his term as the appointed head of the EPA under the Trump administration . Fossil fuel emission disproportionately affects working class , poor and minority populations . The people most adversely affected also have the least political influence and least access to health care .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"21st-century_fossil_fuel_regulations_in_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 125928\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: New Source Performance Standard Content: New Source Performance Standards ( NSPS ) are pollution control standards issued by the United States Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) . The term is used in the Clean Air Act Extension of 1970 ( CAA ) to refer to air pollution emission standards , and in the Clean Water Act ( CWA ) referring to standards for water pollution discharges of industrial wastewater to surface waters .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"New_Source_Performance_Standard\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 125440\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Regional Clean Air Incentives Market Content: Regional Clean Air Incentives Market ( RECLAIM ) is an emissions trading program operating in the state of California since 1994 . Under the trading program , hundreds of polluting facilities are required to cut their emissions of nitrogen oxides ( NOx ) and sulfur oxides ( SOx ) . Under the system , which operates as a cap-and-trade program , each participating facility is given a certain number of emission rights ( the ` cap ' ) for free . In each consecutive year , the number of emission rights given is reduced such that the facilities have to either reduce their emissions or buy up emission rights from facilities with enough to trade . The system was designed to reduce emissions of NOx by 70 % from 1994 to 2003 , and it was hoped to achieve this more cheaply than the traditional ` command and control ' regulations it replaced . However , due to the setting of too generous caps , emissions were reduced at only a fraction of the rate expected at the time of the program 's adoption . The US Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) considers RECLAIM a general lesson for market-based systems , namely that market-based programs require significant planning , preparation , and management during development and throughout the life of the program .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Regional_Clean_Air_Incentives_Market\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 124443\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Diesel emissions scandal Content: Scandals relating to the emissions from diesel engines began in 2014 when emissions discrepancies between European and US models of vehicles were highlighted by the International Council on Clean Transportation ( ICCT ) . The scandal raised awareness over the higher levels of pollution being emitted by all vehicles built by a wide range of car makers , which under real world driving conditions are prone to exceed legal emission limits . A study conducted by ICCT and the German car club ADAC showed the biggest deviations from Volvo , Renault , Jeep , Hyundai , Citroën and Fiat . A discussion was sparked that software-controlled machinery will generally be prone to cheating , and a way out would be to make the software source code accessible to the public . The VW scandal more generally raised awareness over the high levels of pollution being emitted by diesel vehicles built by a wide range of carmakers , including Volvo , Renault , Mercedes , Jeep , Hyundai , Citroen , BMW , Mazda , Fiat , Ford and Peugeot . Independent tests carried out by ADAC proved that , under normal driving conditions , diesel vehicles including the Volvo S60 , Renault 's Espace Energy and the Jeep Renegade , exceeded legal European emission limits for nitrogen oxide by more than 10 times . Researchers have criticized the inadequacy of current regulations and called for the use of a UN-sanctioned test called Worldwide harmonized Light vehicles Test Procedures that better reflects real-life driving conditions . The test is not due to come into force until 2017 , with critics saying that car firms have lobbied fiercely to delay its implementation due to the high cost of meeting stricter environmental controls . 38 out of 40 tested diesel cars failed a - test since 2016 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Diesel_emissions_scandal\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 123757\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Philippine Executive Order 26 Content: Philippine Executive Order 26 , entitled Providing for the Establishment of Smoke-Free Environments in Public and Enclosed Places , was issued by Philippine President Rodrigo Duterte on 16 May 2017 . This executive order invoked the Clean Air Act of 1999 and the Tobacco Regulation Act of 2003 to impose a nationwide ban on smoking in all public places in the Philippines . The ban replicates on a national level an existing ordinance in Davao City that Duterte created as mayor in 2002 . The order takes effect in mid-July 2017 or 60 days after its publication in a newspaper .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Philippine_Executive_Order_26\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 123357\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: TA Luft Content: Germany has an air pollution control regulation titled `` Technical Instructions on Air Quality Control '' ( Technische Anleitung zur Reinhaltung der Luft ) and commonly referred to as the TA Luft . The first version of the TA Luft was established in 1964 . It has subsequently been revised in 1974 , 1983 , 1988 and 2002 . Parts of the TA Luft have been adopted by other countries as well . In 1974 , 10 years after the TA Luft was first established , the German government enacted the `` Federal Pollution Control Act '' ( Bundes-Immissionsschutzgesetz ) . It also has subsequently been amended a number of times , the last of which was in 2002 . Although the first version of the TA Luft existed 10 years before the enactment of the `` Federal Pollution Control Act '' , it is often called the `` First General Administrative Regulation '' pertaining to the `` Federal Pollution Control Act '' . The German government created the Federal Ministry for Environment , Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety ( Bundesministerium für Umwelt , Naturschutz und Reaktorsicherheit ) in June , 1986 and it is now responsible for implementing the TA Luft regulation under the `` Federal Air Pollution Control Act '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"TA_Luft\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 122711\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Air pollutant concentrations Content: Air pollutant concentrations , as measured or as calculated by air pollution dispersion modeling , must often be converted or corrected to be expressed as required by the regulations issued by various governmental agencies . Regulations that define and limit the concentration of pollutants in the ambient air or in gaseous emissions to the ambient air are issued by various national and state ( or provincial ) environmental protection and occupational health and safety agencies . Such regulations involve a number of different expressions of concentration . Some express the concentrations as ppmv ( parts per million by volume ) and some express the concentrations as mg/m3 ( milligrams per cubic meter ) , while others require adjusting or correcting the concentrations to reference conditions of moisture content , oxygen content or carbon dioxide content . This article presents methods for converting concentrations from ppmv to mg/m3 ( and vice versa ) and for correcting the concentrations to the required reference conditions . All of the concentrations and concentration corrections in this article apply only to air and other gases . They are not applicable for liquids .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Air_pollutant_concentrations\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 122460\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Clean Air Act 1972 Content: The Clean Air Act was an Act of Parliament passed in New Zealand in 1972 . It was repealed by the Resource Management Act 1991 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Clean_Air_Act_1972\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 122313\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: California Air Resources Board Content: The California Air Resources Board , also known as CARB or ARB , is the `` clean air agency '' in the government of California . Established in 1967 when then-governor Ronald Reagan signed the Mulford-Carrell Act , combining the Bureau of Air Sanitation and the Motor Vehicle Pollution Control Board , CARB is a department within the cabinet-level California Environmental Protection Agency . The stated goals of CARB include attaining and maintaining healthy air quality ; protecting the public from exposure to toxic air contaminants ; and providing innovative approaches for complying with air pollution rules and regulations . CARB has also been instrumental in driving innovation throughout the global automotive industry through programs such as its ZEV mandate . One of CARB 's responsibilities is to define vehicle emissions standards . California is the only state permitted to issue emissions standards under the federal Clean Air Act , subject to a waiver from the United States Environmental Protection Agency . Other states may choose to follow CARB or federal standards but may not set their own .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"California_Air_Resources_Board\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 122298\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mercury regulation in the United States Content: Mercury regulation in the United States is a set of laws and regulations limiting the maximum concentrations of mercury ( Hg ) that is permitted in air , water , soil , food and drugs . These laws and regulations are promulgated by U.S. Federal Agencies such as the Environmental Protection Agency , ( EPA ) Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) as well as a variety of State and local authorities .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Mercury_regulation_in_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 122192\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Clean Power Plan Content: The Clean Power Plan is an Obama administration policy aimed at combating anthropogenic climate change ( global warming ) that was first proposed by the Environmental Protection Agency in June 2014 . It is widely expected to be eliminated under President Donald Trump , who signed an executive order on March 28 , 2017 mandating the EPA to review the plan . The final version of the plan was unveiled by President Obama on August 3 , 2015 . The 460-page rule ( RIN 2060 -- AR33 ) titled `` Carbon Pollution Emission Guidelines for Existing Stationary Sources : Electric Utility Generating Units '' was published in the Federal Register on October 23 , 2015 . The Obama administration designed the plan to lower the carbon dioxide emitted by power generators .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Clean_Power_Plan\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 121611\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Motor vehicle emissions and pregnancy Content: In the United States about 10 % of the population , 35 million people , live within 100 meters of a high traffic road High-traffic roads are commonly identified as being host to more than 50,000 vehicles per day , which is a source of toxic vehicle pollutants . Previous studies have found correlations between exposure to vehicle pollutants and certain diseases such as asthma , lung and heart disease , and cancer among others . Car pollutants include carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , particulate matter ( fine dusts and soot ) , and toxic air pollutants While these pollutants affect the general health of populations , they are known to also have specific adverse effects on expectant mothers and their fetuses . The purpose of this article is to outline how vehicular pollutants affect the health of expectant mothers and the adverse health effects these exposure have on the unborn babies .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Motor_vehicle_emissions_and_pregnancy\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 120975\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mobile source air pollution Content: Mobile source air pollution includes any air pollution emitted by motor vehicles , airplanes , locomotives , and other engines and equipment that can be moved from one location to another . Many of these pollutants contribute to environmental degradation and have negative effects on human health . To prevent unnecessary damage to human health and the environment , environmental regulatory agencies such as the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency have established policies to minimize air pollution from mobile sources . Similar agencies exist at the state level . Due to the large number of mobile sources of air pollution , and their ability to move from one location to another , mobile sources are regulated differently from stationary sources , such as power plants . Instead of monitoring individual emitters , such as an individual vehicle , mobile sources are often regulated more broadly through design and fuel standards . Examples of this include corporate average fuel economy standards and laws that ban leaded gasoline in the United States . The increase in the number of motor vehicles driven in the U.S. has made efforts to limit mobile source pollution challenging . As a result , there have been a number of different regulatory instruments implemented to reach the desired emissions goals .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Mobile_source_air_pollution\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 120913\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: United States emission standards Content: In the United States , emissions standards are managed nationally by the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) . State and local governments may apply for waivers to enact stricter regulations .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"United_States_emission_standards\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 120899\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Spare the Air program Content: Spare the Air is a program established by the Bay Area Air Quality Management District in 1991 to combat air pollution during the summer in the San Francisco Bay Area , the season when clear skies , hot temperatures , lighter winds , and a strong temperature inversion combine and trap air pollutants near the ground . Spare the Air days are declared for days in which levels of ground-level ozone ( a constituent of smog ) are predicted to exceed the EPA 's federal health-based standard of 84 ppb , or an air quality index over 100 . On a Spare the Air day , Bay Area residents are asked through radio and television announcements to reduce their driving , refrain from using gas-powered gardening equipment and curb other air polluting activities such as painting and aerosol spray can usage . People especially sensitive to smog are advised to limit their time outdoors . Spare the Air nights are also issued during the winter when particulate emissions often coming from wood burning and other activities become trapped in stagnant air masses . During winter Spare the Air nights , wood burning is banned and violators may have to attend a class or pay a fine of up to $ 500 . Exceptions are allowed if a household has a power outage . Barbecues are permitted on a Spare the Air Day , but are discouraged to reduce air pollution .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Spare_the_Air_program\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 120585\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: AirCare (emissions program) Content: AirCare was an initiative started in 1992 to improve air quality in British Columbia , Canada through the systematic testing of road vehicles in order to reduce their emissions . Light-duty vehicles were suggested to be the biggest contributors to air pollutants that form smog and a small percentage of vehicles were contributing a large percentage of the pollutants . AirCare ran for 22 years and was cancelled on December 31 , 2014 . AirCare was cancelled due to the fact that new vehicles were continuously becoming more eco-friendly , and the percentage of old cars on the road was decreasing .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"AirCare_(emissions_program)\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 120327\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Clean Air Conservancy Content: The Clean Air Conservancy was a United States non-profit charity devoted to protecting our planet 's clean air and slowing the pace of climate change by actively participating in pollution markets and participating in emissions trading . The Clean Air Conservancy developed the concept of retiring pollution permanently by transferring pollution rights into a Trust where they are held ( or retired ) permanently rather than being used to pollute . Since 1992 , it has retired nearly 9 billion pounds of pollution . The Cleveland , Ohio based non-profit participated in the first major sale of pollution rights , which involved sulphur dioxide allowances traded on the Chicago Board of Trade under a mandate by the United States Environmental Protection Agency . The Clean Air Conservancy has served as a leader in guiding and directing pollution markets . The Clean Air Conservancy represents the public good in pollution markets and strives to enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of those markets by maximizing economic incentives for retiring pollution permanently . For example , the Clean Air Conservancy encourages companies to donate their pollution rights so that they can be retired rather than selling them to other companies that would use them to pollute . In exchange for the donation to the Clean Air Conservancy , the company is eligible for a tax deduction . With the emergence of markets that enable carbon emissions trading , the Clean Air Conservancy is playing an active role in providing individuals and organizations with a way to use market forces to address global warming . The Clean Air Conservancy enables personal carbon trading and it helps companies benefit from retiring carbon emission credits rather than selling them .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Clean_Air_Conservancy\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 119959\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Freedom to Breathe Act Content: The Freedom to Breathe Act of 2007 is a piece of Minnesota legislation that restricts the act of smoking tobacco products in public places . It amends sections of Minnesota Clean Indoor Air Act ( MCIAA ) of 1975 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Freedom_to_Breathe_Act\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 118581\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Large Combustion Plant Directive Content: The Large Combustion Plant Directive ( LCPD , 2001/80/EC ) was a European Union directive which required member states of the European Union to legislatively limit flue gas emissions from combustion plant having thermal capacity of 50 MW or greater . The directive applied to fossil-fuel power stations , and other large thermal plant such as petroleum refineries and steelworks . The directive specified emission limits for sulphur dioxide , nitrogen oxides , and dust . The directive was issued in October 2001 . It replaced the earlier EEC directive on large combustion plants , 88/609/EEC , issued in November 1988 . Under the terms of the directive , combustion plant built after 1987 had to comply with specific emissions limits . From 2007 , plant built earlier than that could either opt to comply with the emissions limits , or ` opt out ' . Plant which opted out were limited to a maximum of 20,000 hours of further operation , and had to close completely by the end of 2015 . Across Europe , 205 plants have opted out , with Britain having the largest proportion of opted-out plant in terms of total capacity . The Large Combustion Plant Directive was superseded by the Industrial Emissions Directive on 1 January 2016 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Large_Combustion_Plant_Directive\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 118434\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: United States regulation of point source water pollution Content: Point source water pollution comes from discrete conveyances and alters the chemical , biological , and physical characteristics of water . In the United States , it is largely regulated by the Clean Water Act ( CWA ) . Among other things , the Act requires dischargers to obtain a National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System ( NPDES ) permit to legally discharge pollutants into a water body . However , point source pollution remains an issue in some water bodies , due to some limitations of the Act . Consequently , other regulatory approaches have emerged , such as water quality trading and voluntary community-level efforts .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"United_States_regulation_of_point_source_water_pollution\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 118329\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Anti-terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001 Content: The Anti-terrorism , Crime and Security Act 2001 is an Act of Parliament of the United Kingdom , formally introduced into Parliament on 19 November 2001 , two months after the terrorist attacks in the United States on 11 September . It received royal assent and came into force on 14 December 2001 . Many of its measures are not specifically related to terrorism , and a Parliamentary committee was critical of the swift timetable for such a long bill including non-emergency measures . The Act was widely criticized , with one commentator describing it as `` the most draconian legislation Parliament has passed in peacetime in over a century '' . On 16 December 2004 the Law Lords ruled that Section 23 was incompatible with the European Convention on Human Rights , but under the terms of the Human Rights Act 1998 it remained in force . It has since been replaced by the Prevention of Terrorism Act 2005 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Anti-terrorism,_Crime_and_Security_Act_2001\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 118075\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: America's Climate Security Act of 2007 Content: The America 's Climate Security Act of 2007 was a global warming bill that was considered by the United States Senate to reduce the amount of greenhouse gases emitted in the United States . Also known as the Lieberman-Warner bill , bill number , the legislation was introduced by Sens. Joseph Lieberman ( I-CT ) and John Warner ( R-VA ) on October 18 , 2007 . The bill was approved by the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works in December 2007 , and was debated in the Senate during the week of June 2 . The bill would create a national cap-and-trade scheme for greenhouse gas emissions , in which polluters would mostly be allocated right-to-emit credits based on how much greenhouse gas they currently emit . The cap would get tighter over time , until by 2050 , emissions would be reduced to 63 % below 2005 levels . Several environmental groups express their encouragement at the progress in legislation on the global warming issue while at the same time expressing disappointment that the bill does n't reduce emissions enough . On June 6 , 2008 , the bill was killed by Senate Republicans over worries that it would damage the economy .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"America's_Climate_Security_Act_of_2007\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 118032\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Emission standard Content: Emission standards are the legal requirements governing air pollutants released into the atmosphere . Emission standards set quantitative limits on the permissible amount of specific air pollutants that may be released from specific sources over specific timeframes . They are generally designed to achieve air quality standards and to protect human health .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Emission_standard\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 117582\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental Defense v. Duke Energy Corp. Content: Environmental Defense v. Duke Energy Corporation , 549 U.S. 561 ( 2007 ) , is a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court held that while a term may be used more than once in a statute , an agency has the discretion to interpret each use of the term in a different way based on the context . In a unanimous decision , the Court held in favor of the plaintiff 's ( Environmental Defense ) argument . This case addressed the Clean Air Act ( CAA ) and two of its programs , Prevention of Significant Deterioration ( PSD ) and New Source Performance Standard ( NSPS ) . PSD applies to regulating annual emissions ; NSPS pertains to regulating hourly emissions . Each section of the Clean Air Act , that outlines the provisions of the PSD and the NSPS , defines `` modification '' differently . As a result , the inconsistency of the term `` modification '' in the CAA becomes the main debate of the case and the main argument for both the plaintiffs and defendants .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_Defense_v._Duke_Energy_Corp.\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 117561\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Acid Rain Program Content: The Acid Rain Program is a market-based initiative taken by the United States Environmental Protection Agency in an effort to reduce overall atmospheric levels of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides , which cause acid rain . The program is an implementation of emissions trading that primarily targets coal-burning power plants , allowing them to buy and sell emission permits ( called `` allowances '' ) according to individual needs and costs . In 2011 , the trading program that existed since 1995 was supplemented by four separate trading programs under the Cross-State Air Pollution Rule ( CSAPR ) . On August 21 , 2012 , the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia issued its Opinion and Order in the appeal of the Cross State Air Pollution Rule ( CSAPR ) for two independent legal reasons . The stay on CSAPR was lifted in October 2014 , allowing implementation of the law and its trading programs to begin .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Acid_Rain_Program\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 117074\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Arsenic Act 1851 Content: The Arsenic Act 1851 ( 14 & 15 Vict c. 13 ) was passed by the United Kingdom Parliament in 1851 , during the reign of Queen Victoria . Arsenic was at the time widely used as a pigment and in agricultural products such as sheep dressings ; the Act was introduced to address increasing public concern over accidental and deliberate arsenic poisonings . The definition of arsenic for the purposes of the Act included `` Arsenious Acid and the Arsenites , Arsenic Acid and the Arseniates , and all other colourless poisonous Preparations of Arsenic '' . The Act required those selling such products to maintain a written and signed record of those to whom they had sold arsenic , including the quantity and its stated purpose . It also required that unless the arsenic was to be used for a purpose that would make such treatment unsuitable , for example in medical or agricultural applications , it had to be coloured with either soot or indigo . The maximum penalty for breaching the terms of the Act , or providing false information , was # 20 , equivalent to about # 13,000 as of 2014 . The Act did not restrict who was allowed to sell arsenic , as until the 1868 Pharmacy Act there was no legal definition of a pharmacist . The Arsenic Act was repealed by the Pharmacy and Poisons Act 1933 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Arsenic_Act_1851\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 116855\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ontario's Drive Clean Content: Ontario 's Drive Clean is an automobile emissions control program introduced by the Government of Ontario and came into effect April 1999 . The program was initially intended to weed out vehicles producing unrestrained amounts of particulate emissions contributing to smog and increasing pollution . It applies only to vehicles registered in southern parts of Ontario from Windsor to Ottawa due to the volume of vehicles in that part of the province . It is administered by privately owned facilities ( such as Canadian Tire and vehicle dealerships ) that have been accredited by Ontario 's Ministry of the Environment and Climate Change ( MOECC ) and the Ministry of Transportation ( MTO ) . At its inception , the program required light duty vehicles under 4,500 kg ( cars , SUV , light trucks ) that were over three years old to have an emissions test completed every two years ( vehicles manufactured on even years are tested on odd years and vehicles manufactured on even years are tested on odd years ) before the vehicle 's owner or lessor can renew their licence plate . Vehicles that were manufactured up to and including 1988 are exempt as new vehicle emissions standards were coming into effect beginning in 1989 . The minimum age for testing has been increased twice since the beginning of the program . As of 2011 , vehicles that are over seven years old require emissions testing , however vehicles manufactured before 1988 are exempt from the test . Heavy duty trucks and buses are also covered by Drive Clean program . They are tested annually once the vehicle is more than one year old , with no age limit to testing ; A 1975 diesel powered truck or bus would still be tested so long as it was still registered . All vehicles on Ontario roads are further monitored by a ` smog patrol ' team for MOECC and can be stopped at random and roadside tested . The Smog Patrol team drive vehicles that are equipped with mobile testing equipment to perform roadside tests . The Smog Patrol can also perform a visual inspection to ensure all emissions control equipment is in place and functioning as originally built ( tampering with or removing this equipment is an offence separate from Drive Clean but under the same Regulation ) . Some registrants circumvent an emissions test by registering their vehicles to addresses outside the Drive Clean testing areas . Circumventing an emissions test in this way is an offence and could result in a ticket or summons and could also result in licence plates being seized . Smog Patrol Officers can also issue a Notice that requires a driver to take a vehicle for a Drive Clean test within a specific time period . Failure to comply with this Notice can also result in a serious fine , summons and/or plate seizure .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Ontario's_Drive_Clean\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 116596\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate and Clean Air Coalition to Reduce Short-Lived Climate Pollutants Content: The Climate and Clean Air Coalition to Reduce Short-Lived Climate Pollutants ( CCAC ) was launched by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) and six countries -- Bangladesh , Canada , Ghana , Mexico , Sweden and the United States -- on 16February 2012 . The CCAC aims to catalyze rapid reductions in short-lived climate pollutants to protect human health , agriculture and the environment . To date , more than $ 47million has been pledged to the Climate and Clean Air Coalition from Canada , Denmark , the European Commission , Germany , Japan , the Netherlands , Norway , Sweden , and the United States . The program is managed out of the United Nations Environmental Programme through a Secretariat in Paris , France .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_and_Clean_Air_Coalition_to_Reduce_Short-Lived_Climate_Pollutants\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 116578\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Useful conversions and formulas for air dispersion modeling Content: Various governmental agencies involved with environmental protection and with occupational safety and health have promulgated regulations limiting the allowable concentrations of gaseous pollutants in the ambient air or in emissions to the ambient air . Such regulations involve a number of different expressions of concentration . Some express the concentrations as ppmv and some express the concentrations as mg/m ³ , while others require adjusting or correcting the concentrations to reference conditions of moisture content , oxygen content or carbon dioxide content . This article presents a set of useful conversions and formulas for air dispersion modeling of atmospheric pollutants and for complying with the various regulations as to how to express the concentrations obtained by such modeling .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Useful_conversions_and_formulas_for_air_dispersion_modeling\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 116082\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Regulation of hydraulic fracturing Content: Countries using or considering to use hydraulic fracturing have implemented different regulations , including developing federal and regional legislation , and local zoning limitations . In 2011 , after public pressure France became the first nation to ban hydraulic fracturing , based on the precautionary principle as well as the principal of preventive and corrective action of environmental hazards . The ban was upheld by an October 2013 ruling of the Constitutional Council . Some other countries have placed a temporary moratorium on the practice . Countries like the United Kingdom and South Africa , have lifted their bans , choosing to focus on regulation instead of outright prohibition . Germany has announced draft regulations that would allow using hydraulic fracturing for the exploitation of shale gas deposits with the exception of wetland areas . The European Union has adopted a recommendation for minimum principles for using high-volume hydraulic fracturing . Its regulatory regime requires full disclosure of all additives . In the United States , the Ground Water Protection Council launched FracFocus.org , an online voluntary disclosure database for hydraulic fracturing fluids funded by oil and gas trade groups and the U.S. Department of Energy . Hydraulic fracturing is excluded from the Safe Drinking Water Act 's underground injection control 's regulation , except when diesel fuel is used . The EPA assures surveillance of the issuance of drilling permits when diesel fuel is employed . On 17 December 2014 , New York state issued a statewide ban on hydraulic fracturing , becoming the second state in the United States to issue such a ban after Vermont .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Regulation_of_hydraulic_fracturing\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 115873\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 Content: The Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 , or Assembly Bill ( AB ) 32 , is a California State Law that fights global warming by establishing a comprehensive program to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from all sources throughout the state . AB 32 was authored by then-Assembly member Fran Pavley and Assembly Speaker Fabian Nunez ( D-Los Angeles ) and signed into law by Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger on September 27 , 2006 . On June 1 , 2005 , Governor Schwarzenegger signed an executive order known as Executive Order S-3-05 which established greenhouse gas emissions targets for the state . The executive order required the state to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions levels to 2000 levels by 2010 , to 1990 levels by 2020 , and to a level 80 % below 1990 levels by 2050 . However , to implement this measure , the California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) needed authority from the legislature . The California State Legislature passed the Global Warming Solutions Act to address this issue and gave the CARB authority to implement the program . AB 32 requires the California Air Resources Board ( CARB or ARB ) to develop regulations and market mechanisms to reduce California 's greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by the year of 2020 , representing approximately a 30 % reduction statewide , with mandatory caps beginning in 2012 for significant emissions sources . The bill also allows the Governor to suspend the emissions caps for up to a year in case of emergency or significant economic harm . The State of California leads the nation in energy efficiency standards and plays a lead role in environmental protection , but is also the 12th largest emitter of carbon worldwide . Greenhouse gas emissions are defined in the bill to include all of the following : carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , sulfur hexafluoride , hydrofluorocarbons and perfluorocarbons . These are the same greenhouse gases listed in Annex A of the Kyoto Protocol .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Warming_Solutions_Act_of_2006\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 115822\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Nitrogen Oxide Protocol Content: Protocol to the 1979 Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution Concerning the Control of Emissions of Nitrogen Oxides or Their Transboundary Fluxes , opened for signature on 31 October 1988 and entered into force on 14 February 1991 , was to provide for the control or reduction of nitrogen oxides and their transboundary fluxes . It was concluded in Sofia , Bulgaria . Parties ( as of September 2016 ) : ( 36 ) Albania , Austria , Belarus , Belgium , Bulgaria , Canada , Croatia , Cyprus , Czech Republic , Denmark , Estonia , European Union , Finland , France , Germany , Greece , Hungary , Ireland , Italy , Liechtenstein , Lithuania , Luxembourg , Republic of Macedonia , Netherlands , Norway , Poland , Russia , Slovakia , Slovenia . Spain , Sweden , Switzerland , Ukraine , United Kingdom , United States .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Nitrogen_Oxide_Protocol\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 115721\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Chinese national carbon trading scheme Content: The Chinese national carbon trading scheme is a cap and trade system for carbon dioxide emissions set to be implemented in July 2017 . This emission trading scheme ( ETS ) creates a carbon market where emitters can buy and sell emission credits . From this scheme , China can limit emissions , but allow economic freedom for emitters to reduce emissions or purchase emission allowances from other emitters . China is currently the largest emitter of greenhouse gases and many major Chinese cities have severe air pollution . With this plan , China will soon be the largest market in carbon trading . The scheme will limit emissions from six of China 's top carbon dioxide emitting industries , including coal-fired power plants . China was able to gain experience in drafting and implementation of an ETS plan from the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , where China was part of the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) . From this experience with carbon markets , and lengthy discussions with the next largest carbon market , the European Union ( EU ) , as well as analysis of small scale pilot markets in major Chinese cities and provinces , China 's national ETS will be the largest of its kind and will help China achieve its Intended Nationally Determined Contribution ( INDC ) from the Paris Agreement in 2016 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Chinese_national_carbon_trading_scheme\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 114837\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Clean Water Rule Content: The Clean Water Rule was a 2015 regulation published by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) and the United States Army Corps of Engineers ( USACE ) to clarify water resource management in the United States under a provision of the Clean Water Act of 1972 . The regulation defined the scope of federal water protection in a more consistent manner , particularly over streams and wetlands which have a significant hydrological and ecological connection to traditional navigable waters , interstate waters , and territorial seas . It is also referred to as the Waters of the United States rule , which defines all bodies of water that fall under U.S. federal jurisdiction . The rule was published in response to concerns about lack of clarity over its scope from legislators at multiple levels , industry members , researchers and other science professionals , activists , and citizens . The rule has been contested in litigation . Its implementation has been stayed by court rulings since 2015 . In 2017 the Trump administration announced its intent to review and rescind or revise the rule .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Clean_Water_Rule\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 114803\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Industrial Emissions Directive Content: The Industrial Emissions Directive ( Directive 2010/75/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 24 November 2010 on industrial emissions ( integrated pollution prevention and control ) ) is a European Union directive which commits European Union member states to control and reduce the impact of industrial emissions on the environment .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Industrial_Emissions_Directive\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 114425\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Change Response (Emissions Trading) Amendment Act 2008 Content: The Climate Change Response ( Emissions Trading ) Amendment Act 2008 was a statute enacted in September 2008 by the Fifth Labour Government of New Zealand that established the first version of the New Zealand Emissions Trading Scheme , a national all-sectors all-greenhouse gases uncapped and highly internationally linked emissions trading scheme .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Change_Response_(Emissions_Trading)_Amendment_Act_2008\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 114397\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effluent limitation Content: An effluent limitation is a United States Clean Water Act standard of performance reflecting a specified level of discharge reduction achievable by the best available technology or related standards for various sources of water pollution . These sources include all industries , businesses , municipal sewage treatment plants and storm sewer systems , and other facilities that discharge to surface waters . Effluent limitations are implemented in discharge permits issued by the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) and state agencies , through the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System ( NPDES ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Effluent_limitation\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 113735\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Clean Energy Regulator Content: The Clean Energy Regulator is an Australian independent statutory authority responsible for administering legislation that will reduce carbon emissions and increase the use of clean energy . The Clean Energy Regulator , based in Canberra , was established on 2 April 2012 as an independent statutory authority under the Clean Energy Regulator Act 2011 . The agency is part of the Environment and Energy portfolio . The Clean Energy Regulator tabled the 2015 Renewable Energy Target Administrative Report and Annual Statement on 3 May 2016 . The report covers the operations of the Renewable Energy ( Electricity ) Act 2000 for the 2015 calendar year and the Renewable Energy Target 2015 Annual statement and supporting information about progress towards meeting the revised 2020 Large-scale Renewable Energy Target .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Clean_Energy_Regulator\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 113407\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1994 Oslo Protocol on Further Reduction of Sulphur Emissions Content: The Protocol to the 1979 Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution on Further Reduction of Sulphur Emissions is an agreement to provide for a further reduction in sulphur emissions or transboundary fluxes . It is a protocol to the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution and supplements the 1985 Helsinki Protocol on the Reduction of Sulphur Emissions . opened for signature - 14 June 1994 entered into force - 5 August 1998 parties - ( 29 ) Austria , Belgium , Bulgaria , Canada , Croatia , Cyprus , Czech Republic , Denmark , European Union , Finland , France , Germany , Greece , Hungary , Ireland , Italy , Liechtenstein , Lithuania , Luxembourg , Republic of Macedonia , Monaco , Netherlands , Norway , Slovakia , Slovenia , Spain , Sweden , Switzerland , United Kingdom countries that have signed , but not yet ratified - ( 3 ) Poland , Russia , Ukraine\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"1994_Oslo_Protocol_on_Further_Reduction_of_Sulphur_Emissions\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 113402\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: AP 42 Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors Content: The AP 42 Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors , was first published by the US Public Health Service in 1968 . In 1972 , it was revised and issued as the second edition by the US Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) . In 1985 , the subsequent fourth edition was split into two volumes . Volume I includes stationary point and area source emission factors , and Volume II includes mobile source emission factors . Volume I is currently in its fifth edition and is available on the Internet . Volume II is no longer maintained as such , but roadway air dispersion models for estimating emissions from onroad vehicles and from non-road vehicles and mobile equipment are also available on the Internet . In routine common usage , Volume I of the emission factor compilation is very often referred to as simply AP 42 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"AP_42_Compilation_of_Air_Pollutant_Emission_Factors\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 112753\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1985 Helsinki Protocol on the Reduction of Sulphur Emissions Content: The Protocol to the 1979 Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution on the Reduction of Sulphur Emissions or their Transboundary Fluxes by at least 30 per cent is a 1985 protocol to the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution agreement that provided for a 30 per cent reduction in sulphur emissions or transboundary fluxes by 1993 . The protocol has been supplemented by the 1994 Oslo Protocol on Further Reduction of Sulphur Emissions . opened for signature - July 8 , 1985 entered into force - September 2 , 1987 parties - ( 25 ) Albania , Austria , Belarus , Belgium , Bulgaria , Canada , Czech Republic , Denmark , Estonia , Finland , France , Germany , Hungary , Italy , Liechtenstein , Lithuania , Luxembourg , Republic of Macedonia , Netherlands , Norway , Russia , Slovakia , Sweden , Switzerland , Ukraine\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"1985_Helsinki_Protocol_on_the_Reduction_of_Sulphur_Emissions\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 112389\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Locomotive Acts Content: The Locomotive Acts ( or Red Flag Acts ) were a series of Acts of Parliament in the United Kingdom regulating the use of mechanically propelled vehicles on British public highways during the latter part of the 19th century . The first three , The Locomotives on Highways Act 1861 , The Locomotive Act 1865 and the Highways and Locomotives ( Amendment ) Act 1878 , contained restrictive measures on the manning and speed of operation of road vehicles ; they also formalised many important road concepts such as vehicle registration , registration plates , speed limits , maximum vehicle weight over structures such as bridges , and the organisation of highway authorities . The most draconic restrictions and speed limits were imposed by the 1865 act ( the `` Red Flag Act '' ) , which required all road locomotives , which included automobiles , to travel at a maximum of 4 mi/h in the country and 2 mi/h in the city , as well as requiring a man carrying a red flag to walk in front of road vehicles hauling multiple wagons . The 1896 Act removed some restrictions of the 1865 act and raised the speed to 14 mi/h . The `` Locomotives on Highways Act 1896 '' provided legislation that allowed the automotive industry in the United Kingdom to develop soon after the development of the first practical automobile ( see History of the automobile ) . The last `` locomotive act '' was the `` Locomotives Act 1898 '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Locomotive_Acts\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 112359\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act Content: The Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act , is a federal statute in the United States that was signed into law by President Barack Obama on June 22 , 2009 . The Act gives the Food and Drug Administration the power to regulate the tobacco industry . A signature element of the law imposes new warnings and labels on tobacco packaging and their advertisements , with the goal of discouraging minors and young adults from smoking . The Act also bans flavored cigarettes , places limits on the advertising of tobacco products to minors and requires tobacco companies to seek FDA approval for new tobacco products .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Family_Smoking_Prevention_and_Tobacco_Control_Act\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 111785\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bharat Stage emission standards Content: Bharat stage emission standards ( BSES ) are emission standards instituted by the Government of India to regulate the output of air pollutants from internal combustion engines and Spark-ignition engines equipment , including motor vehicles . The standards and the timeline for implementation are set by the Central Pollution Control Board under the Ministry of Environment & Forests and climate change . The standards , based on European regulations were first introduced in 2000 . Progressively stringent norms have been rolled out since then . All new vehicles manufactured after the implementation of the norms have to be compliant with the regulations . Since October 2010 , Bharat Stage ( BS ) III norms have been enforced across the country . In 13 major cities , Bharat Stage IV emission norms have been in place since April 2010 and It 's enforced for whole country from April 2017 . In 2016 , the Indian government announced that the country would skip the BS-V norms altogether and adopt BS-VI norms by 2020 . The phasing out of 2-stroke engine for two wheelers , the cessation of production of Maruti 800 & introduction of electronic controls have been due to the regulations related to vehicular emissions . While the norms help in bringing down pollution levels , it invariably results in increased vehicle cost due to the improved technology & higher fuel prices . However , this increase in private cost is offset by savings in health costs for the public , as there is lesser amount of disease causing particulate matter and pollution in the air . Exposure to air pollution can lead to respiratory and cardiovascular diseases , which is estimated to be the cause for 6.2 lakh early deaths in 2010 , and the health cost of air pollution in India has been assessed at 3 % of its GDP .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Bharat_Stage_emission_standards\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 111538\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Oil Pollution Act of 1990 Content: The Oil Pollution Act of 1990 ( OPA ) ( 101 H.R. 1465 , P.L. 101-380 ) was passed by the 101st United States Congress and signed by President George H. W. Bush . It works to avoid oil spills from vessels and facilities by enforcing removal of spilled oil and assigning liability for the cost of cleanup and damage , requires specific operating procedures ; defines responsible parties and financial liability ; implements processes for measuring damages ; specifies damages for which violators are liable ; and establishes a fund for damages , cleanup , and removal costs . This statute has resulted in instrumental changes in the oil production , transportation , and distribution industries .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Oil_Pollution_Act_of_1990\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 111525\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Federal Coal Mine Safety Act of 1952 Content: The Federal Coal Mine Safety Act of 1952 is a U.S. law authorizing the federal government to conduct annual inspections of underground coal mines with more than 15 workers , and gave the United States Bureau of Mines the authority to shut down a mine in cases of `` imminent danger . '' The Act authorized the assessment of civil penalties against mine operators for failing to comply with an order to shut down ( a `` withdrawal order '' ) or for refusing to give inspectors access to mine property . The law did not authorize monetary penalties for noncompliance with the safety provisions . In 1966 , Congress extended coverage to all underground coal mines . The Act made ventilation mandatory in mines so as to limit the levels of methane in the air . It also required mine walls to be `` dusted '' with a limestone to limit the levels of coal dust .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Federal_Coal_Mine_Safety_Act_of_1952\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 111439\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Nonpoint source water pollution regulations in the United States Content: Nonpoint source ( NPS ) water pollution regulations are environmental regulations that restrict or limit water pollution from diffuse or nonpoint effluent sources such as polluted runoff from agricultural areas in a river catchments or wind-borne debris blowing out to sea . In the United States , governments have taken a number of legal and regulatory approaches to controlling NPS effluent . Nonpoint water pollution sources include , for example , leakage from underground storage tanks , storm water runoff , atmospheric deposition of contaminants , and golf course , agricultural , and forestry runoff . Nonpoint sources are the most significant single source of water pollution in the United States , accounting for almost half of all water pollution , and agricultural runoff is the single largest source of nonpoint source water pollution . This water pollution has a number of detrimental effects on human health and the environment . Unlike point source pollution , nonpoint source pollution arises from numerous and diverse sources , making identification , monitoring , and regulation more complex .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Nonpoint_source_water_pollution_regulations_in_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 110940\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of United States federal environmental statutes Content: The laws listed below meet the following criteria : ( 1 ) they were passed by the United States Congress , and ( 2 ) pertain to ( a ) the regulation of the interaction of humans and the natural environment , or ( b ) the conservation and/or management of natural or historic resources . They need not be wholly codified in the United States Code . Antiquities Act Atomic Energy Act of 1946 Atomic Energy Act of 1954 Clean Air Act Clean Water Act Coastal Zone Management Act CERCLA ( Superfund ) Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act Endangered Species Act Energy Policy Act of 1992 Energy Policy Act of 2005 Federal Food , Drug , and Cosmetic Act Federal Land Policy and Management Act Federal Insecticide , Fungicide , and Rodenticide Act Federal Power Act Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act Food Quality Protection Act Fisheries Conservation and Management Act ( Magnuson-Stevens ) Lacey Act Marine Mammal Protection Act Migratory Bird Treaty Act Mineral Leasing Act National Environmental Policy Act National Forest Management Act National Historic Preservation Act National Park Service Organic Act Noise Control Act Nuclear Waste Policy Act Ocean Dumping Act Oil Pollution Act Resource Conservation and Recovery Act Rivers and Harbors Act Safe Drinking Water Act Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act Toxic Substances Control Act Wild and Scenic Rivers Act\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_United_States_federal_environmental_statutes\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 110906\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Protocol on Heavy Metals Content: The Protocol on Heavy Metals , a protocol to the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution , was adopted in Aarhus , Denmark in 1998 . As of 2004 , it had 36 signatories . As of 2016 , it had 35 signatories and 33 parties , with no country having become a signatory since 1998 . The protocol addresses the reduction of cadmium , lead and mercury emissions in the interests of environmental protection . Amendments to the Protocol were agreed in 2012 to introduce more stringent emission limits but are not yet in force .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Protocol_on_Heavy_Metals\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 110854\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Energy Tax Prevention Act Content: Energy Tax Prevention Act , also known as H.R. 910 , was a 2011 bill in the United States House of Representatives to prohibit the United States Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) from regulating greenhouse gases to address climate change . On April 7 , 2011 the bill passed the House by a vote of 255 to 172 . The bill died in January 2013 with the ending of the Congressional session . The House vote on the Energy Tax Prevention Act of 2011 was one of five key votes on climate in the House , and one of ten in Congress , from the period 2003 through 2011 , according to the Union of Concerned Scientists and the League of Conservation Voters .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Energy_Tax_Prevention_Act\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 110479\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: SPACE Act of 2015 Content: The United States Government updated US commercial space legislation with the passage of the Spurring Private Aerospace Competitiveness and Entrepreneurship ( SPACE ) Act of 2015 in November 2015 . The update to US law explicitly allows US citizens to `` engage in the commercial exploration and exploitation of ` space resources ' -LSB- including ... water and minerals -RSB- . '' The right does not extend to biological life , so anything that is alive may not be exploited commercially . The Act further asserts that `` the United States does not -LSB- ( by this Act ) -RSB- assert sovereignty , or sovereign or exclusive rights or jurisdiction over , or the ownership of , any celestial body . '' Some scholars argue that the United States recognizing ownership of space resources is an act of sovereignty , and that the act violates the Outer Space Treaty . The SPACE Act includes the extension of indemnification of US launch providers for extraordinary catastrophic third-party losses of a failed launch through 2025 , while the previous indemnification law was scheduled to expire in 2016 . The Act also extends , through 2025 , the `` learning period '' restrictions which limit the ability of the Federal Aviation Administration ( FAA ) to enact regulations regarding the safety of spaceflight participants . Indemnification for extraordinary third-party losses has , as of 2015 , been a component of US space law for over 25 years , and during this time , `` has never been invoked in any commercial launch mishap . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"SPACE_Act_of_2015\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 110435\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Soot (disambiguation) Content: Soot is the black , impure carbon particles resulting from the incomplete combustion of a hydrocarbon . Soot may also refer to : Engebret Soot ( 1786-1859 ) , Norwegian engineer Soot ( software ) , a language manipulation and optimization framework\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Soot_(disambiguation)\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 110434\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants Content: The National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants , also using the acronym NESHAP , are emissions standards set by the United States Environmental Protection Agency -- EPA . The standards are for air pollutants not covered by National Ambient Air Quality Standards -- NAAQS , that may cause an increase in fatalities or in serious , irreversible , or incapacitating illness .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"National_Emissions_Standards_for_Hazardous_Air_Pollutants\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 110361\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate Content: The Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate , also known as APP , was an international , voluntary , public-private partnership among Australia , Canada , India , Japan , the People 's Republic of China , South Korea , and the United States announced July 28 , 2005 at an Association of South East Asian Nations ( ASEAN ) Regional Forum meeting and launched on January 12 , 2006 at the Partnership 's inaugural Ministerial meeting in Sydney . As of 5 April 2011 , the Partnership formally concluded although a number of individual projects continue . The conclusion of the APP and cancellation of many of its projects attracted almost no media comment . Foreign , Environment and Energy Ministers from partner countries agreed to co-operate on the development and transfer of technology which enables reduction of greenhouse gas emissions that is consistent with and complementary to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change and other relevant international instruments , and is intended to complement but not replace the Kyoto Protocol. , Ministers agreed to a Charter , Communique and Work Plan that `` outline a ground-breaking new model of private-public task forces to address climate change , energy security and air pollution . '' Member countries account for over 50 % of the world 's greenhouse gas emissions , energy consumption , GDP and population . Unlike the Kyoto Protocol ( currently unratified by the United States ) , which imposes mandatory limits on greenhouse gas emissions , the Partnership engages member countries to accelerate the development and deployment of clean energy technologies , with no mandatory enforcement mechanism . This has led to criticism that the Partnership is worthless , by other governments , climate scientists and environmental groups . Proponents , on the other hand , argue that unrestricted economic growth and emission reductions can only be brought about through active engagement by all major polluters , which includes India and China , within the Kyoto Protocol framework neither India nor China are yet required to reduce emissions . Canada became the 7th member of the APP at the Second Ministerial Meeting in New Delhi on October 15 , 2007 . Canada 's Prime Minister Stephen Harper earlier expressed his intention to join the Partnership in August 2007 , despite some domestic opposition .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Asia-Pacific_Partnership_on_Clean_Development_and_Climate\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 110329\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Firearms Control Regulations Act of 1975 Content: The Firearms Control Regulations Act of 1975 was passed by the District of Columbia city council on September 24 , 1976 . The law banned residents from owning handguns , automatic firearms , or high-capacity semi-automatic firearms , as well as prohibited possession of unregistered firearms . Exceptions to the ban were allowed for police officers and guns registered before 1976 . The law also required firearms kept in the home to be `` unloaded , disassembled , or bound by a trigger lock or similar device '' ; this was deemed to be a prohibition on the use of firearms for self-defense in the home . On June 26 , 2008 , in the historic case of District of Columbia v. Heller , the Supreme Court of the United States determined that the ban and trigger lock provisions violate the Second Amendment .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Firearms_Control_Regulations_Act_of_1975\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 110310\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Noise regulation Content: Noise regulation includes statutes or guidelines relating to sound transmission established by national , state or provincial and municipal levels of government . After the watershed passage of the United States Noise Control Act of 1972 , other local and state governments passed further regulations . A noise regulation restricts the amount of noise , the duration of noise and the source of noise . It usually places restrictions for certain times of the day . Although the UK and Japan enacted national laws in 1960 and 1967 respectively , these laws were not at all comprehensive or fully enforceable as to address generally rising ambient noise , enforceable numerical source limits on aircraft and motor vehicles or comprehensive directives to local government .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Noise_regulation\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 110254\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon pricing in Australia Content: A carbon pricing scheme in Australia , commonly dubbed by its critics as a `` carbon tax '' , was introduced by the Gillard Labor Government in 2011 as the Clean Energy Act 2011 which came into effect on 1 July 2012 . It was in operation until it was repealed on 17 July 2014 , and backdated to 1 July 2014 . In its place the Abbott Government set up the Emission Reduction Fund in December 2014 . As a result of being in place for such a short time , regulated organisations responded in a rather tepid and informal manner , with very few investments in emissions reductions being made . The 2011 scheme required entities which emit over 25,000 tonnes per year of carbon dioxide equivalent greenhouse gases and which were not in the transport or agriculture sectors to obtain emissions permits , called carbon units . Carbon units were either purchased from the government or issued free as part of industry assistance measures . The Department of Climate Change and Energy Efficiency stated that in June 2013 only 260 entities were subject to the scheme , of which approximately 185 were liable to pay for carbon units under the carbon price scheme . The carbon price was part of a broad energy reform package called the Clean Energy Futures Plan , which aimed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in Australia by 5 % below 2000 levels by 2020 and 80 % below 2000 levels by 2050 . The plan set out to achieve these targets by encouraging Australia 's largest emitters to increase energy efficiency and invest in sustainable energy . The scheme was administered by the Clean Energy Regulator . Compensation to industry and households was funded by the revenue derived from the charge . As part of the scheme , personal income tax was reduced for those earning less than $ 80,000 per year and the tax-free threshold was increased from $ 6,000 to $ 18,200 . Initially the price of a permit for one tonne of carbon was fixed at $ 23 for the 2012 -- 13 financial year , with unlimited permits being available from the government . The fixed price rose to $ 24.15 for 2013 -- 14 . The government had announced that the scheme was part of a transition to an emissions trading scheme in 2014 -- 15 , where the available permits will be limited in line with a pollution cap . The scheme primarily applied to electricity generators and industrial sectors . It did not apply to road transport and agriculture . Domestic aviation did not face the carbon price scheme per se , but was subject to an additional fuel excise levy of approximately 6 cents per litre . In February 2012 , the Sydney Morning Herald reported that Clean Energy Future carbon price scheme had not deterred new investment in the coal industry , as spending on exploration had increased by 62 % in 2010-2011 , more than any other mineral commodity . The government agency Geoscience Australia reported that investment in coal prospecting reached $ 520 million in 2010-2011 . Falls in carbon emissions were observed following implementation of this policy . It was noted that emissions from sectors subject to the pricing mechanism were 1.0 % lower and nine months after the introduction of the pricing scheme , Australia 's carbon dioxide emissions from electricity generation had fallen to a 10-year low , with coal generation down 11 % from 2008 to 2009 . However , attribution of these trends to carbon pricing have been disputed , with Frontier Economics claiming trends are largely explained by factors unrelated to the carbon tax . Electricity demand had been falling and in 2012 was at the lowest level seen since 2006 in the National Electricity Market .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_pricing_in_Australia\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 110025\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Aarhus Protocol on Persistent Organic Pollutants Content: The Aarhus Protocol on Persistent Organic Pollutants , a 1998 protocol on persistent organic pollutants ( POPs ) , is an addition to the 1979 Geneva Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution ( LRTAP ) . The Aarhus POPs Protocol seeks `` to control , reduce or eliminate discharge , emissions and losses of persistent organic pollutants '' in Europe , some former Soviet Union countries , and the United States . The protocol was amended on 18 December 2009 , but the amended version has not yet come into force . As of May 2013 , the protocol has been ratified by 31 states and the European Union . In the United States , the protocol is an executive agreement that does not require Senate approval . However , legislation is needed to resolve inconsistencies between provisions of the protocol and existing U.S. laws ( specifically the Toxic Substances Control Act and the Federal Insecticide , Fungicide , and Rodenticide Act ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Aarhus_Protocol_on_Persistent_Organic_Pollutants\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 109782\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Diesel Emissions Reduction Act Content: The Diesel Emissions Reduction Act ( Pub.L . 111-364 ) , or DERA ( as it will be referred to for the remainder of this article ) , is a part of the Energy Policy Act of 2005 ( Pub.L . 109-58 ) . The law appropriated funds to federal and state loan programs to either rebuild diesel-powered vehicle engines to more stringent emission standards or install emission reduction systems , notify affected parties , and share the technological information with countries that have poor air quality standards .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Diesel_Emissions_Reduction_Act\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 109562\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effluent guidelines Content: Effluent Guidelines ( also referred to as Effluent Limitation Guidelines ( ELGs ) ) are U.S. national standards for wastewater discharges to surface waters and publicly owned treatment works ( POTW ) ( also called municipal sewage treatment plants ) . The United States Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) issues Effluent Guideline regulations for categories of industrial sources of water pollution under Title III of the Clean Water Act ( CWA ) . The standards are technology-based , i.e. they are based on the performance of treatment and control technologies ( e.g. , Best Available Technology ) . Effluent Guidelines are not based on risk or impacts of pollutants upon receiving waters . Regulated pollutants range from acenaphthene to zinc , with maximum allowed contamination levels in discharge water ( wastewater ) varying by industry . The regulations cover pollutants for which there are approved analytical testing methods . EPA has published many methods in its regulations , and has approved the use of other methods published by peer-reviewed sources , such as Standard Methods . In the early years of the program ( 1970s-1980s ) the agency published methods for a list of 126 `` priority pollutants , '' consisting of various toxic pollutants . Subsequently the agency has issued methods and regulated pollutants beyond those in the initial priority list . Since the mid-1970s , the EPA has promulgated ELGs for 58 industrial categories , with over 450 subcategories . Effluent Guidelines currently control pollution from close to 60,000 industrial facilities and annually prohibit the discharge of 700 billion pounds of pollutants into U.S. surface waters . Effluent Guidelines are implemented in water discharge permits issued to facilities through the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System ( NPDES ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Effluent_guidelines\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 109068\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Volcker Rule Content: The Volcker Rule refers to § 619 part of the Dodd -- Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act , originally proposed by American economist and former United States Federal Reserve Chairman Paul Volcker to restrict United States banks from making certain kinds of speculative investments that do not benefit their customers . Volcker argued that such speculative activity played a key role in the financial crisis of 2007 -- 2010 . The rule is often referred to as a ban on proprietary trading by commercial banks , whereby deposits are used to trade on the bank 's own accounts , although a number of exceptions to this ban were included in the Dodd-Frank law . The rule 's provisions were scheduled to be implemented as a part of Dodd-Frank on July 21 , 2010 , with preceding ramifications , but were delayed . On December 10 , 2013 , the necessary agencies approved regulations implementing the rule , which were scheduled to go into effect April 1 , 2014 . On January 14 , 2014 , after a lawsuit by community banks over provisions concerning specialized securities , revised final regulations were adopted . The rule came into effect on July 21 , 2015 . On August 11 , 2016 , several large banks requested a 5-year delay to exit illiquid investments .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Volcker_Rule\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 108816\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Department of Transportation v. Public Citizen Content: Department of Transportation v. Public Citizen , 541 U.S. 752 ( 2004 ) , is a case argued in the Supreme Court of the United States on 21 April 2004 . The question the case presented relates to Presidential foreign affairs and foreign trade Actions exempt from environmental-review requirements under the National Environmental Policy Act and the Clean Air Act . Specifically , the question is whether those Actions are subject to those requirements as a result of a rulemaking action concerning motor carrier safety by the federal agency with responsibility for that type of safety .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Department_of_Transportation_v._Public_Citizen\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 108541\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental policy of the United States Content: The environmental policy of the United States is federal governmental action to regulate activities that have an environmental impact in the United States . The goal of environmental policy is to protect the environment for future generations while interfering as little as possible with the efficiency of commerce or the liberty of the people and to limit inequity in who is burdened with environmental costs . This policy grew mainly out of the environmental movement in the United States in the 1960s and 1970s during which several environmental laws were passed , regulating air and water pollution and forming the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) . Partially due to the high costs associated with these regulations , there has been a backlash from business and politically conservative interests , limiting increases to environmental regulatory budgets and slowing efforts to protect the environment . Since the 1970s , despite frequent legislative gridlock , there have been significant achievements in environmental regulation , including increases in air and water quality and , to a lesser degree , control of hazardous waste . Due to increasing scientific consensus on global warming and political pressure from environmental groups , modifications to the United States energy policy and limits on greenhouse gas have been suggested .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_policy_of_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 108541\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Air pollution in India Content: Air pollution in India is quite a serious issue with the major sources being fuelwood and biomass burning , fuel adulteration , vehicle emission and traffic congestion . In autumn and winter months , large scale crop residue burning in agriculture fields -- a low cost alternative to mechanical tilling -- is a major source of smoke , smog and particulate pollution . India has a low per capita emissions of greenhouse gases but the country as a whole is the third largest after China and the United States . A 2013 study on non-smokers has found that Indians have 30 % lower lung function compared to Europeans . The Air ( Prevention and Control of Pollution ) Act was passed in 1981 to regulate air pollution and there have been some measurable improvements . However , the 2016 Environmental Performance Index ranked India 141 out of 180 countries . In 2015 , Government of India , together with IIT Kanpur launched the National Air Quality Index .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Air_pollution_in_India\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 108409\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Air quality and EU legislation Content: Since the late 1970s , the European Union 's ( EU ) policy has been to develop and drive appropriate measures to improve air quality throughout the EU . The control of emissions from mobile sources , improving fuel quality and promoting and integrating environmental protection requirements into the transport and energy sector are part of these aims . The main advising agency of the EU is the European Environment Agency ( EEA ) . It came into force in late 1993 , after the decision to locate the EEA in Copenhagen . Work started in earnest in 1994 . The EEA 's mandate is to help the community and member countries make informed decisions about improving the environment and integrating environmental considerations into economic policies , and to coordinate the European environment information and observation network ( Eionet ) . Eionet is a partnership network across member states involving approximately 1000 experts and more than 350 national institutions . The network supports the collection and organisation of data and the development and dissemination of information concerning Europe 's environment .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Air_quality_and_EU_legislation\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 108318\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Railroad Safety Appliance Act Content: The Safety Appliance Act is a United States federal law that made air brakes and automatic couplers mandatory on all trains in the United States . It was enacted on March 2 , 1893 , and took effect in 1900 , after a seven-year grace period . The act is credited with a sharp drop in accidents on American railroads in the early 20th century .\",\n \"qid\": \"2780\",\n \"docid\": \"Railroad_Safety_Appliance_Act\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 107977\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":1370,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"\"NASA satellite data from the years 2000 through 2011 show the Earth's atmosphere is allowing far more heat to be released into space than alarmist computer models have predicted, reports a new study in the peer-reviewed science journal Remote Sensing."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Remote Sensing Systems Content: Remote Sensing Systems ( RSS ) is a private research company founded in 1974 by Frank Wentz . It processes microwave data from a variety of NASA satellites . Most of their research is supported by the Earth Science Enterprise program . The company is based in Santa Rosa , California . They are a widely cited source of data , on the satellite temperature record . Their data is one source of evidence for global warming . Research by Carl Mears , Matthias Schabel , and Wentz , all of RSS , highlighted errors in the early satellite temperature records compiled by John Christy and Roy Spencer at UAH . The UAH data had previously showed no significant temperature trend , bringing the derived satellite data into closer agreement with surface temperature trends , radiosonde data and computer models . The UAH data is now closer to the RSS data but differences remain , for example the Lower Troposphere global average trend since 1979 , RSS currently have +0.133 K/decade while UAH have 0.140 K/decade , while the mid troposphere difference is even more marked at 0.079 K/decade and 0.052 K/decade respectively . However , in a recent online YouTube video , Dr. Carl Mears , a senior scientist with the team behind the satellite data , explained how he believes his data set needed correction . I would have to say that the surface data seems that it 's more accurate , because a number of groups analyze the surface data , including some who set out to prove the other ones wrong , and they all get more or less the same answer .","qid":"2782","docid":"Remote_Sensing_Systems","rank":1,"score":202608},{"content":"Title: List of climate research satellites Content: The invention of climate research through the use of satellite remote telemetry began in the 1960s through development of space probes to study other planets . During the U.S. economic decline in 1977 , with much of NASA 's money going toward the Shuttle program , the Reagan Administration proposed to reduce spending on planetary exploration . During this time , new scientific evidence emerged from ice and sediment cores that Earth 's climate had experienced rapid changes in temperature , running contrary to the previously held belief that the climate changed on a geological time scale . These changes increased political interest in gathering remote-sensing data on the Earth itself and stimulated the science of climatology .","qid":"2782","docid":"List_of_climate_research_satellites","rank":2,"score":182017},{"content":"Title: Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite Content: The Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite ( UARS ) was a NASA-operated orbital observatory whose mission was to study the Earth 's atmosphere , particularly the protective ozone layer . The 5900 kg satellite was deployed from Space Shuttle Discovery during the STS-48 mission on 15 September 1991 . It entered Earth orbit at an operational altitude of 600 km , with an orbital inclination of 57 degrees . The original mission duration was to be only three years , but was extended several times . When the mission finally ended in June 2005 due to funding cuts , 14 years after the satellite 's launch , six of its ten instruments were still operational . A final orbit-lowering burn was performed in early December 2005 to prepare the satellite for deorbit . On 26 October 2010 , the International Space Station performed a debris-avoidance maneuver in response to a conjunction with UARS . The decommissioned satellite re-entered Earth 's atmosphere on 24 September 2011 . Considerable media attention surrounded the event , largely due to NASA 's predictions that substantial parts of the satellite might reach the ground , potentially endangering inhabited areas . However , the satellite ultimately impacted in a remote area of the Pacific Ocean .","qid":"2782","docid":"Upper_Atmosphere_Research_Satellite","rank":3,"score":176519},{"content":"Title: David Lary Content: David Lary ( born 7 December 1965 ) is an atmospheric scientist interested in applying computational and information systems to facilitate discovery and decision support in Earth system science . His main contributions have been to highlight the role of carbonaceous aerosols in atmospheric chemistry , heterogeneous bromine reactions , and to employ chemical data assimilation for satellite validation , and the use of machine learning for remote sensing applications . He is author of AutoChem , NASA release software that constitutes an automatic computer code generator and documentor for chemically reactive systems . It was designed primarily for modeling atmospheric chemistry , and in particular , for chemical data assimilation . AutoChem has won five NASA awards and has been used to perform long term chemical data assimilation of atmospheric chemistry and in the validation of observations from the NASA Aura satellite . It has been used in numerous peer reviewed articles . David Lary completed his education in the United Kingdom . He received a first class double honors BSc in physics and chemistry from King 's College London ( 1987 ) with the Sambrooke Exhibition Prize in Natural Science , and a PhD in atmospheric chemistry from the University of Cambridge , Department of Chemistry while at Churchill College ( 1991 ) . His thesis described the first chemical scheme for the ECMWF numerical weather prediction model . He then held post-doctoral research assistant and associate positions at the University of Cambridge until receiving a Royal Society research fellowship in 1996 ( also at Cambridge ) . From 1998 to 2000 he held a joint position at Cambridge and the University of Tel-Aviv as a senior lecturer and Alon fellow . In 2001 he joined UMBC/GEST as the first distinguished Goddard fellow in earth science . Between 2001 and 2010 he was part of various branches at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center including the Global Modeling and Assimilation Office , the Atmospheric Chemistry and Dynamics Branch , the Software Integration and Visualization Office , and the Goddard Earth Sciences ( GES ) Data and Information Services Center ( DISC ) . In 2010 he moved to the William B. Hanson Center for Space Sciences at the University of Texas at Dallas , where he has focused on the health effects of atmospheric particulates , and developing a fleet of unmanned aerial vehicles for a variety of agricultural , environmental , and meteorological applications .","qid":"2782","docid":"David_Lary","rank":4,"score":175098},{"content":"Title: Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment Content: The Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment ( SORCE ) is a NASA-sponsored satellite mission that measures incoming X-ray , ultraviolet , visible , near-infrared , and total solar radiation . These measurements specifically address long-term climate change , natural variability and enhanced climate prediction , and atmospheric ozone and UV-B radiation . These measurements are critical to studies of the Sun , its effect on our Earth system and its influence on humankind . The SORCE spacecraft launched on January 25 , 2003 on a Pegasus XL launch vehicle to provide NASA 's Earth Science Enterprise ( ESE ) with precise measurements of solar radiation . SORCE measures the Sun 's output using radiometers , spectrometers , photodiodes , detectors , and bolometers mounted on a satellite observatory . The SORCE satellite orbits the Earth accumulating solar data . Spectral measurements identify the irradiance of the Sun by characterizing the Sun 's energy and emissions in the form of color that can then be translated into quantities and elements of matter . Data obtained by the SORCE experiment can be used to model the Sun 's output and to explain and predict the effect of the Sun 's radiation on the Earth 's atmosphere and climate . Flying in a 645 km , 40 degree orbit , SORCE is operated by the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics ( LASP ) at the University of Colorado at Boulder , Colorado . It will continue the precise measurements of total solar irradiance that began with the ERB instrument in 1979 and has continued to the present with the ACRIM series of measurements . SORCE will also provide the measurements of the solar spectral irradiance from 1 nm to 2000 nm , accounting for 95 % of the spectral contribution to the total solar irradiance . SORCE carries four instruments including the Total Irradiance Monitor ( TIM ) , Solar Stellar Irradiance Comparison Experiment ( SOLSTICE ) , Spectral Irradiance Monitor ( SIM ) , and the XUV Photometer System ( XPS ) .","qid":"2782","docid":"Solar_Radiation_and_Climate_Experiment","rank":5,"score":173668},{"content":"Title: Iris hypothesis Content: The iris hypothesis is a hypothesis proposed by Richard Lindzen et al. in 2001 that suggested increased sea surface temperature in the tropics would result in reduced cirrus clouds and thus more infrared radiation leakage from Earth 's atmosphere . His study of observed changes in cloud coverage and modeled effects on infrared radiation released to space as a result supported the hypothesis . This suggested infrared radiation leakage was hypothesized to be a negative feedback in which an initial warming would result in an overall cooling of the surface . The consensus view is that increased sea surface temperature would result in increased cirrus clouds and reduced infrared radiation leakage and therefore a positive feedback . Other scientists subsequently tested the hypothesis . Some concluded that there was no evidence supporting the hypothesis . Others found evidence suggesting that increased sea surface temperature in the tropics did indeed reduce cirrus clouds but found that the effect was nonetheless a positive feedback rather than the negative feedback that Lindzen had hypothesized . A later 2007 study conducted by Roy Spencer et al. using updated satellite data potentially supported the iris hypothesis . In 2011 , Lindzen published a rebuttal to the main criticisms . In 2015 a paper was published which again suggested the possibility of an `` Iris Effect '' . It also proposed what it called a `` plausible physical mechanism for an iris effect . ''","qid":"2782","docid":"Iris_hypothesis","rank":6,"score":172910},{"content":"Title: Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer Content: ASTER ( Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer ) is a Japanese sensor which is one of five remote sensory devices on board the Terra satellite launched into Earth orbit by NASA in 1999 . The instrument has been collecting data since February 2000 . ASTER provides high-resolution images of the planet Earth in 14 different bands of the electromagnetic spectrum , ranging from visible to thermal infrared light . The resolution of images ranges between 15 and 90 meters . ASTER data are used to create detailed maps of surface temperature of land , emissivity , reflectance , and elevation . The ASTER Global Digital Elevation Model ( GDEM ) is available at no charge to users worldwide via electronic download .","qid":"2782","docid":"Advanced_Spaceborne_Thermal_Emission_and_Reflection_Radiometer","rank":7,"score":170456},{"content":"Title: Atmospheric Infrared Sounder Content: The Atmospheric Infrared Sounder ( AIRS ) is one of six instruments flying on board NASA 's Aqua satellite , launched on May 4 , 2002 . The instrument is designed to support climate research and improve weather forecasting . Working in combination with its partner microwave instrument , the Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit ( AMSU-A ) , AIRS observes the global water and energy cycles , climate variation and trends , and the response of the climate system to increased greenhouse gases . AIRS uses infrared technology to create three-dimensional maps of air and surface temperature , water vapor , and cloud properties . AIRS can also measure trace greenhouse gases such as ozone , carbon monoxide , carbon dioxide , and methane . AIRS and AMSU-A share the Aqua satellite with the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer ( MODIS ) , Clouds and the Earth 's Radiant Energy System ( CERES ) , and the Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer-EOS ( AMSR-E ) . Aqua is part of NASA 's `` A-train , '' a series of high-inclination , Sun-synchronous satellites in low Earth orbit designed to make long-term global observations of the land surface , biosphere , solid Earth , atmosphere , and ocean . AIRS data is free and available to the public through the Goddard Earth Sciences Data Information and Services Center . NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena , California , manages AIRS for NASA 's Science Mission Directorate in Washington , D.C.","qid":"2782","docid":"Atmospheric_Infrared_Sounder","rank":8,"score":165272},{"content":"Title: Explorer 7 Content: Explorer 7 was launched October 13 , 1959 at 10:36 a.m. Eastern Time by a Juno II rocket from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station to an orbit of 573 km by 1073 km and inclination of 50.27 ° . It was designed to measure solar x-ray and Lyman-alpha flux , trapped energetic particles , and heavy primary cosmic rays . Also Secondary objectives included collecting data on micrometeoroid penetration and molecular sputtering and studying the Earth-atmosphere heat balance . Launch was originally scheduled for late September 1959 , but the mission was delayed for a week after a Jupiter IRBM test on an adjacent pad failed shortly after liftoff , causing flying debris to hit Explorer 7 's launch vehicle . However , the damage to the booster was minor and could be easily repaired . Significantly , it also carried Verner Suomi 's flat-plate radiometer , improved with the help of Robert Parent , that took the first Earth radiation budget measurements from space and initiated the era of satellite studies of the climate . Using both satellite observations of the Earth 's heat balance and atmospheric cooling rates measured by net flux radiosondes , Suomi established the important role played by clouds in absorbing radiated solar energy . These observations established that Earth 's energy budget varies markedly due to the effect of clouds , the surface albedo , and other absorbing constituents . Using these instruments , Suomi and his team discovered that the Earth absorbed more of the Sun 's energy than originally thought and demonstrated that it was possible to measure and quantify seasonal changes in the global heat budget . The satellite weighed 41.5 kg , was 75 cm high and 75 cm wide . Powered by solar cells it also carried 15 nickel-cadmium batteries around its equator . It transmitted data continuously through to February 1961 and went dead on August 24 , 1961 . It is still in orbit .","qid":"2782","docid":"Explorer_7","rank":9,"score":165269},{"content":"Title: Petr Chýlek Content: Petr Chýlek is a researcher for Space and Remote Sensing Sciences at Los Alamos National Laboratory . Prior to becoming a government researcher in 2001 , Chýlek was a Professor at several US and Canadian universities including SUNY Albany , Purdue University , University of Oklahoma and Dalhousie University in Halifax , Canada . Chýlek has published over 100 first authored scientific papers in remote sensing , atmospheric radiation , climate change , cloud and aerosol physics , applied laser physics and ice core analysis . His work has been cited more than 4000 times . Chylek is best known for his work in remote sensing , aerosols and climate change . In 2006 , Chýlek served as Chairman , Scientific Program Committee for The Second International Conference on Global Warming and the Next Ice Age held at Los Alamos National Laboratory in Santa Fe , NM . Speakers included Venkatachalam Ramaswamy , Chris Folland , Gerald North , Roger A. Pielke , William M. Gray and Jan Veizer . The conference included a two-day workshop on climate prediction uncertainties . The papers presented at the 2006 Conference were published in a special section of the Journal of Geophysical Research - Atmospheres in 2007 . In 2007 , Chýlek and co-authors published a peer-reviewed paper estimating climate sensitivity to doubled atmospheric CO2 to be significantly less than the IPCC estimate . Chýlek received his diploma in theoretical physics from Charles University in Prague , Czech Republic . He received his Ph.D. in physics from UC Riverside in 1970 .","qid":"2782","docid":"Petr_Chýlek","rank":10,"score":164354},{"content":"Title: James Taranik Content: James Vladimir Taranik ( April 23 , 1940 -- June 21 , 2011 ) was an American scientist and educator who worked in the area of earth-observation satellite remote sensing . He was Chief of NASA 's Non-Renewable Resources Branch and Program Scientist of the Space Shuttle 's first scientific flights with cargo that included experiments related to geology , atmospheric chemistry , meteorology , marine biology , and plant physiology in the earth and life sciences . He also held various positions in the Nevada System of Higher Education , including the Desert Research Institute and the Mackay School of Earth Sciences and Engineering .","qid":"2782","docid":"James_Taranik","rank":11,"score":164281},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite Content: The Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite ( GOSat ) , also known as , is an Earth observation satellite and the world 's first satellite dedicated to greenhouse-gas-monitoring . It measures the densities of carbon dioxide and methane from 56,000 locations on the Earth 's atmosphere . The GOSAT was developed by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency ( JAXA ) and launched on 23 January 2009 , from the Tanegashima Space Center . Japan 's Ministry of the Environment , and the National Institute for Environmental Studies ( NIES ) use the data to track gases causing the greenhouse effect , and share the data with NASA and other international scientific organizations .","qid":"2782","docid":"Greenhouse_Gases_Observing_Satellite","rank":12,"score":164139},{"content":"Title: Glory (satellite) Content: The Glory satellite was a planned NASA satellite mission that would have collected data on the chemical , micro-physical and optical properties -- and the spatial and temporal distributions -- of sulfate and other aerosols , and would have collected solar irradiance data for the long-term climate record . The science focus areas served by Glory included : atmospheric composition ; carbon cycle , ecosystems , and biogeochemistry ; climate variability and change ; and water and energy cycles . The US$ 424 million satellite was lost on March 4 , 2011 , when its Taurus XL carrier rocket malfunctioned . A subsequent investigation revealed that the fairing system failed to open fully , causing the satellite to reenter the atmosphere at which point it likely broke up and burned .","qid":"2782","docid":"Glory_(satellite)","rank":13,"score":163786},{"content":"Title: CRRES Content: The Combined Release and Radiation Effects Satellite ( CRRES ) was launched on July 25 , 1990 into a geosynchronous transfer orbit ( GTO ) for a nominal three-year mission to investigate fields , plasmas , and energetic particles inside the Earth 's magnetosphere . As part of the CRRES program , the SPACERAD ( Space Radiation Effects ) project , managed by Air Force Geophysics Laboratory , investigated the radiation environment of the inner and outer radiation belts and measured radiation effects on state-of-the-art microelectronics devices . Other magnetospheric , ionospheric , and cosmic ray experiments were also included onboard CRRES and supported by NASA or the Office of Naval Research . The chemical release project was managed by NASA/MSFC and utilized the release of chemicals from onboard canisters at low altitudes near dawn and dusk perigee times and at high altitudes near local midnight . The chemical releases were monitored with optical and radar instrumentation by ground-based observers to measure the bulk properties and movement of the expanding clouds of photo-ionized plasma along field lines after the releases occurred . In order to study the magnetosphere at different local times during the mission , the satellite orbit was designed to precess with respect to the Earth-Sun line such that the local time at apogee decreased by 2.5 minutes/day from 08:00 ( LT ) just after launch and returned to this position in nineteen month cycles . The CRRES spacecraft had the shape of an octagonal prism with solar arrays on the top side . The prism is 1 m high and 3 m between opposite faces . Four of the eight compartments were for the chemical canisters and the other four housed the SPACERAD and other experiments . The spacecraft body was spun at 2.2 rpm about a spin axis in the ecliptic plane and kept pointed about 12 degrees ahead of the Sun 's apparent motion in celestial coordinates . Pre-launch and in-flight operations were supported by the Space Test and Transportation Program Office of the U.S. Air Force Space Division . Contact with the CRRES spacecraft was lost on October 12 , 1991 and was presumed to be due to onboard battery failure . Taken From NASA .","qid":"2782","docid":"CRRES","rank":14,"score":162558},{"content":"Title: Seasat Content: Seasat was the first Earth-orbiting satellite designed for remote sensing of the Earth 's oceans and had on board the first spaceborne synthetic aperture radar ( SAR ) . The mission was designed to demonstrate the feasibility of global satellite monitoring of oceanographic phenomena and to help determine the requirements for an operational ocean remote sensing satellite system . Specific objectives were to collect data on sea-surface winds , sea-surface temperatures , wave heights , internal waves , atmospheric water , sea ice features and ocean topography . Seasat was managed by NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory and was launched on 27 June 1978 into a nearly circular 800 km orbit with an inclination of 108 ° . Seasat operated for 106 days until 10 October 1978 , when a massive short circuit in the satellite 's electrical system ended the mission . Seasat carried five major instruments designed to return the maximum information from ocean surfaces : Radar altimeter to measure spacecraft height above the ocean surface Microwave scatterometer to measure wind speed and direction Scanning multichannel microwave radiometer to measure sea surface temperature Visible and infrared radiometer to identify cloud , land and water features Synthetic Aperture Radar ( SAR ) L-band , HH polarization , fixed look angle to monitor the global surface wave field and polar sea ice conditions -LCB- the antenna is the light parallelogram in the picture -RCB- . The SAR support structure was designed and manufactured by Northrop Grumman Astro Aerospace in Carpinteria , CA . The structure deployed on orbit . Many later remote sensing missions owe their legacy to Seasat . These include imaging radars flown on NASA 's Space Shuttle , altimeters on Earth-orbiting satellites such as TOPEX/Poseidon , and scatterometers on NASA Scatterometer ( NSCAT ) , QuikSCAT , and Jason 1 .","qid":"2782","docid":"Seasat","rank":15,"score":161907},{"content":"Title: Idealized greenhouse model Content: The surface of the Sun radiates light and heat at approximately 5,500 ° C . The Earth is much cooler and so radiates heat back away from itself at much longer wavelengths , mostly in the infrared range . The idealized greenhouse model is based on the fact that certain gases in the Earth 's atmosphere , including carbon dioxide and water vapour , are transparent to the high-frequency , high-energy solar radiation , but are much more opaque to the lower frequency infrared radiation leaving the surface of the earth . Thus heat is easily let in , but is partially trapped by these gases as it tries to leave . Rather than get hotter and hotter , Kirchhoff 's law of thermal radiation says that the gases of the atmosphere also have to re-emit the infrared energy that they absorb , and they do so , also at long infrared wavelengths , both upwards into space as well as downwards back towards the Earth 's surface . In the long-term , thermal equilibrium is reached when all the heat energy arriving on the planet is leaving again at the same rate . In this idealized model , the greenhouse gases cause the surface of the planet to be warmer than it would be without them , in order for the required amount of heat energy finally to be radiated out into space from the top of the atmosphere . The greenhouse effect can be illustrated with an idealized planet . This is a common `` textbook model '' : the planet will have a constant surface temperature Ts and an atmosphere with constant temperature Ta . For diagrammatic clarity , a gap can be depicted between the atmosphere and the surface . Alternatively , Ts could be interpreted as a temperature representative of the surface and the lower atmosphere , and Ta could be interpreted as the temperature of the upper atmosphere . In order to justify that Ta and Ts remain constant over the planet , strong ocean and atmospheric currents can be imagined to provide plentiful lateral mixing . Furthermore , any daily or seasonal cycles in temperature are assumed to be insignificant .","qid":"2782","docid":"Idealized_greenhouse_model","rank":16,"score":156765},{"content":"Title: Earth Radiation Budget Satellite Content: The Earth Radiation Budget Satellite ( ERBS ) was a NASA scientific research satellite launched on October 5 , 1984 , to study the Earth radiation budget and stratospheric aerosol and gases . It was carried into low Earth orbit and deployed by the during the STS-41-G mission . The spacecraft was expected to have a two-year operation life , but ultimately , the mission provided scientific data about the Earth 's ozone layer for more than two decades . Data on the ozone layer provided by ERBS was key in the international community 's decision-making process during the Montreal Protocol Agreement , which has resulted in a near elimination of CFCs in industrialized countries . ERBS was one of three satellites in the Earth Radiation Budget Experiment and carried two instruments as part of that endeavor : the ERBE scanner ( three detectors that study longwave radiation , shortwave radiation and total energy radiating from the Earth along a line of the satellite 's path ) and the ERBE non-scanner ( five detectors measuring the total energy from the Sun , and the shortwave and total energy from the entire Earth disk and the area beneath the satellite ) . The second ERBE Instrument was aboard the NOAA-9 satellite when it was launched in January 1985 , and the third was aboard the NOAA-10 satellite when it was launched in October 1986 . In addition , it carried the Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment ( SAGE II ) . It was retired for budgetary reasons on October 14 , 2005 , as one of the longest-running spacecraft missions to date .","qid":"2782","docid":"Earth_Radiation_Budget_Satellite","rank":17,"score":155246},{"content":"Title: SUPARCO Satellite Ground Station Content: The SUPARCO Satellite Ground Station is an earth observation and remote sensing satellite control center . The SUPARCO 's SGS center is a major space research centre of the Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission ( SUPARCO ) , focusing on the earth observational and remote sensing technology . The space center is currently controlled by the SUPARCO . It is located at Rawat near Islamabad , has an acquisition zone of approximately 2500 km radius and covers Pakistan and 25 other countries , wholly or partially , in the South Asian , Central Asian and Western Asia and Middle East regions . The SUPARCO 's SGS center acquires and archives satellite data from different earth resources satellites . The data products and related services are offered to different user agencies within and outside Pakistan .","qid":"2782","docid":"SUPARCO_Satellite_Ground_Station","rank":18,"score":154519},{"content":"Title: Television Infrared Observation Satellite Content: TIROS , or Television Infrared Observation Satellite , is a series of early weather satellites launched by the United States , beginning with TIROS-1 in 1960 . TIROS was the first satellite that was capable of remote sensing of the Earth , enabling scientists to view the Earth from a new perspective : space . The program , promoted by Harry Wexler , proved the usefulness of satellite weather observation , at a time when military reconnaissance satellites were secretly in development or use . TIROS demonstrated at that time that `` the key to genius is often simplicity . '' TIROS is an acronym of `` Television InfraRed Observation Satellite '' and is also the plural of `` tiro '' which means `` a young soldier , a beginner '' . Participants in the TIROS project included the National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA ) , United States Army Signal Research and Development Laboratory , Radio Corporation of America , the United States Weather Bureau , the United States Naval Photographic Interpretation Center ( NPIC ) , the Environmental Science Services Administration ( ESSA ) , and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) .","qid":"2782","docid":"Television_Infrared_Observation_Satellite","rank":19,"score":153509},{"content":"Title: Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment Content: The Gravity Recovery And Climate Experiment ( GRACE ) , a joint mission of NASA and the German Aerospace Center , has been making detailed measurements of Earth 's gravity field anomalies since its launch in March 2002 . By measuring gravity anomalies , GRACE shows how mass is distributed around the planet and how it varies over time . Data from the GRACE satellites is an important tool for studying Earth 's ocean , geology , and climate . GRACE is a collaborative endeavor involving the Center for Space Research at the University of Texas , Austin ; NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory , Pasadena , Calif. ; the German Space Agency and Germany 's National Research Center for Geosciences , Potsdam . The Jet Propulsion Laboratory is responsible for the overall mission management under the NASA ESSP program . The principal investigator is Dr. Byron Tapley of the University of Texas Center for Space Research , and the co-principal investigator is Dr. Christoph Reigber of the GeoForschungsZentrum ( GFZ ) Potsdam . The GRACE satellites were launched from Plesetsk Cosmodrome , Russia on a Rockot ( SS-19 + Breeze upper stage ) launch vehicle , on 17 March 2002 . The spacecraft were launched to an initial altitude of approximately 500 km at a near-polar inclination of 89 ° . The satellites are separated by approximately 200 km along their orbit track . GRACE has far exceeded its designed five-year lifespan . the GRACE spacecrafts orbit has decayed by 150 km , and is continuing to decay at 30 km/year . Its successor , GRACE Follow-On , is expected to launch in 2017/18","qid":"2782","docid":"Gravity_Recovery_and_Climate_Experiment","rank":20,"score":153314},{"content":"Title: Badr-B Content: The Badr-B ( -LSB- ; also known as Badr-II , meaning Full Moon-2 ) is the second spacecraft and the first earth observation satellite launched into Earth orbit on 10 December 2001 at 09:15 by the SUPARCO -- Pakistan 's national space agency . Badr-B is a microsatellite , with a mass of ~ 70 kg , and contained the supercomputerized system to conduct the studies on the gravity gradient . Badr-B is a research satellite to explore the upper atmosphere and the near space , and carried a large array of instruments for geophysical research . The Badr-B payload was equipped with several CCD cameras , compact dosimeter , a telemetry system , charge detector and a temperature control unit . It is intended to complete and update the Islamabad Mission Control Center ( IMCC ) , and to test the remote sensing CCD instruments .","qid":"2782","docid":"Badr-B","rank":21,"score":152970},{"content":"Title: Heat Capacity Mapping Mission Content: The Heat Capacity Mapping Mission ( HCMM ) was the first Applications Explorer Mission . HCMM provided comprehensive , accurate , high-spatial-resolution thermal surveys of the surface of the Earth . HCCM was launched from Vandenberg Air Force Base on April 26 , 1978 by a Scout-F rocket . Its mass was 117.0 kg . The HCMM spacecraft was placed in a circular sun-synchronous orbit , allowing the spacecraft to sense surface temperatures near the maximum and minimum of the diurnal cycle . There was no on-board data storage capability , so only real-time data were transmitted when the satellite came within reception range of seven ground stations . During February 21 -- 23 , 1980 , the HCMM orbital altitude was lowered from 620 km to 540 km to stop the drift of the orbit plane to unfavorable sun angles which in turn reduced the power collection capability of the solar panels . The operations of the spacecraft were terminated on September 30 , 1980 .","qid":"2782","docid":"Heat_Capacity_Mapping_Mission","rank":22,"score":152887},{"content":"Title: Gravity Probe B Content: Gravity Probe B ( GP-B ) was a satellite-based mission which launched on 20 April 2004 on a Delta II rocket . The spaceflight phase lasted until 2005 ; its aim was to measure spacetime curvature near Earth , and thereby the stress -- energy tensor ( which is related to the distribution and the motion of matter in space ) in and near Earth . This provided a test of general relativity , gravitomagnetism and related models . The principal investigator was Francis Everitt . Initial results confirmed the expected geodetic effect to an accuracy of about 1 % . The expected frame-dragging effect was similar in magnitude to the current noise level ( the noise being dominated by initially unmodeled effects due to nonuniform coatings on the gyroscopes ) . Work continued to model and account for these sources of error , thus permitting extraction of the frame-dragging signal . By August 2008 , the frame-dragging effect had been confirmed to within 15 % of the expected result , and the December 2008 NASA report indicated that the geodetic effect was confirmed to better than 0.5 % . In an article published in the journal Physical Review Letters in 2011 , the authors reported analysis of the data from all four gyroscopes results in a geodetic drift rate of and a frame-dragging drift rate of , in good agreement with the general relativity predictions of and , respectively .","qid":"2782","docid":"Gravity_Probe_B","rank":23,"score":152242},{"content":"Title: Equatorial Vortex Experiment Content: The Equatorial Vortex Experiment ( EVEX ) is a NASA-funded sounding rocket mission to better understand and predict the electrical storms in Earth 's upper atmosphere . As part of this experiment , two rockets were launched for a twelve-minute journey through the equatorial ionosphere above the South Pacific . These rockets were launched from Kwajalein Atoll in the Marshall Islands during a period of April 27 to May 10 , 2013 . The principal investigator for this mission is Erhan Kudeki of the University of Illinois . The purpose of this experiment is to study what disrupts Radio waves . A NASA Terrier Oriole sounding rocket was launched at 3:39 a.m. EDT on 7 May 2013 from Roi Namur , Republic of the Marshall Islands . Ninety seconds later a Terrier-Improved Malemute sounding rocket also was launches successfully . This experiment will help scientists better understand and predict the electrical storms in Earth 's upper atmosphere . The electrical storms can interfere with satellite communication and global positioning signals . Payload for each rocket included two canisters of samarium and a dual frequency RF Beacon ( NRL CERTO ) . These two rockets released vapor clouds of lithium ( trimethyl aluminum ) , and were observed from various locations in the area . All scientific instruments on the rockets worked as planned . These two rockets were the second and third rockets of four planned for launch during 2013 's campaign in the Marshall Islands .","qid":"2782","docid":"Equatorial_Vortex_Experiment","rank":24,"score":151433},{"content":"Title: Frank Wentz Content: Frank Wentz is the CEO and director of Remote Sensing Systems , a company he founded in 1974 . Remote Sensing Systems specializes in satellite microwave remote sensing research . Together with Carl Mears , he is best known for developing a satellite temperature record from MSU and AMSU . Intercomparison of this record with the earlier UAH satellite temperature record , developed by John Christy and Roy Spencer , revealed deficiencies in the earlier work ; specifically , the warming trend in the RSS version is larger than the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) one . From 1978 to 1982 Frank was a member of NASA 's SeaSat Experiment Team involved in the development of physically based retrieval methods for microwave scatterometers and radiometers . He has also investigated the effect of climate change on satellite-derived evaporation , precipitation and surface wind values . His findings are different from most climate change model predictions .","qid":"2782","docid":"Frank_Wentz","rank":25,"score":151172},{"content":"Title: European Remote-Sensing Satellite Content: European remote sensing satellite ( ERS ) was the European Space Agency 's first Earth-observing satellite programme using a polar orbit . The first satellite was launched on 17 July 1991 into a Sun-synchronous polar orbit at an altitude of 782 -- 785 km .","qid":"2782","docid":"European_Remote-Sensing_Satellite","rank":26,"score":151062},{"content":"Title: NRLMSISE-00 Content: NRLMSISE-00 is an empirical , global model of the Earth 's atmosphere from ground to space . It models the temperatures and densities of the atmosphere 's components . A primary use of this model is to aid predictions of satellite orbital decay due to atmospheric drag . This model has also been used by astronomers to calculate the mass of air between telescopes and laser beams in order to assess the impact of laser guide stars on the non-lasing telescopes .","qid":"2782","docid":"NRLMSISE-00","rank":27,"score":150685},{"content":"Title: EgyptSat 1 Content: EgyptSat 1 or MisrSat-1 is Egypt 's first Earth remote sensing satellite . This satellite was jointly built by Egypt 's National Authority for Remote Sensing and Space Sciences together with the Yuzhnoye Design Bureau in Ukraine and was launched on board a Dnepr rocket on 17 April 2007 from the Baikonur Cosmodrome . The effort was spearheaded by Dr. Aly Sadek , chairman of the Egyptian Council for Space Science and Technology Research . It in many ways was considered a huge step for the Egyptians since it marked the first time they opted for technology transfer during the manufacturing the satellite rather than simply purchasing one ( as in case of the Nilesat satellites ) . On 23 October 2010 , the National Authority for Remote Sensing and Space Sciences announced that control and communication with the satellite had been lost since July 2010 .","qid":"2782","docid":"EgyptSat_1","rank":28,"score":149464},{"content":"Title: Nimbus program Content: The Nimbus satellites were second-generation U.S. robotic spacecraft used for meteorological research and development . The spacecraft were designed to serve as stabilized , Earth-oriented platforms for the testing of advanced systems to sense and collect atmospheric science data . Seven Nimbus spacecraft have been launched into near-polar , sun-synchronous orbits beginning with Nimbus 1 on August 28 , 1964 . On board the Nimbus satellites are various instrumentation for imaging , sounding , and other studies in different spectral regions . The Nimbus satellites were launched aboard Thor-Agena rockets ( Nimbus 1-4 ) and Delta rockets ( Nimbus 5-7 ) . Over a 20-year period from the launch of the first satellite , the Nimbus series of missions was the United States ' primary research and development platform for satellite remote-sensing of the Earth . The seven Nimbus satellites , launched over a fourteen-year period , shared their space-based observations of the planet for thirty years . NASA transferred the technology tested and refined by the Nimbus missions to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) for its operational satellite instruments . The technology and lessons learned from the Nimbus missions are the heritage of most of the Earth-observing satellites NASA and NOAA have launched over the past three decades .","qid":"2782","docid":"Nimbus_program","rank":29,"score":148690},{"content":"Title: Land Remote-Sensing Commercialization Act of 1984 Content: The Land Remote-Sensing Commercialization Act of 1984 is a United States statute establishing a system to further the utilization of satellite imagery data obtained from Earth observation satellites located in a geocentric orbit above the atmosphere of Earth . The H.R. 5155 legislation was passed by the 98th U.S. Congressional session and enacted into law by the 40th President of the United States Ronald Reagan on July 17 , 1984 .","qid":"2782","docid":"Land_Remote-Sensing_Commercialization_Act_of_1984","rank":30,"score":147892},{"content":"Title: Akebono (satellite) Content: Akebono ( known as EXOS-D before launch ) is a satellite to study aurora and Earth 's magnetosphere environment . It was developed by Institute of Space and Astronautical Science and launched by M-3SII rocket on February 22 , 1989 . After 26 years of successful observation , operation was terminated on April 23 , 2015 , due to the degradation of solar cells and the decay of orbit .","qid":"2782","docid":"Akebono_(satellite)","rank":31,"score":146980},{"content":"Title: Aura (satellite) Content: Aura ( EOS CH-1 ) is a multi-national NASA scientific research satellite in orbit around the Earth , studying the Earth 's ozone layer , air quality and climate . It is the third major component of the Earth Observing System ( EOS ) following on Terra ( launched 1999 ) and Aqua ( launched 2002 ) . Aura follows on from the Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite ( UARS ) . The name `` Aura '' comes from the Latin word for air . The satellite was launched from Vandenberg Air Force Base on July 15 , 2004 , aboard a Delta II 7920-10L rocket . The Aura spacecraft has a mass of about 1765 kg . The body is 6.9 m long with the extended single solar panel about 15 m long . Aura flies in a sun-synchronous orbit , in formation with 6 other satellites , collectively known as the `` A Train '' . The other satellites in the formation are : Aqua CALIPSO CloudSat GCOM-W1 OCO-2 PARASOL All satellites have an equatorial crossing time at about 1:30 in the afternoon , thus the name ' A ( Afternoon ) Train ' .","qid":"2782","docid":"Aura_(satellite)","rank":32,"score":144885},{"content":"Title: Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System Content: Clouds and the Earth 's Radiant Energy System ( CERES ) is NASA climatological experiment from Earth orbit . The CERES are scientific satellite instruments , part of the NASA 's Earth Observing System ( EOS ) , designed to measure both solar-reflected and Earth-emitted radiation from the top of the atmosphere ( TOA ) to the Earth 's surface . Cloud properties are determined using simultaneous measurements by other EOS instruments such as the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer ( MODIS ) . Results from the CERES and other NASA missions , such as the Earth Radiation Budget Experiment ( ERBE ) , could lead to a better understanding of the role of clouds and the energy cycle in global climate change .","qid":"2782","docid":"Clouds_and_the_Earth's_Radiant_Energy_System","rank":33,"score":144569},{"content":"Title: Kitsat-3 Content: Kitsat-3 was a South Korean remote sensing minisatellite which carried MEIS ( Multispectral Earth Imaging System ) and SENSE ( Space ENvironment Scientific Experiment ) instruments to Low Earth orbit . Launched on 26 May 1999 by Indian space agency ISRO , on orbit the satellite was renamed to Uribyol 3 . Manufactured by KAIST Satellite Technology Research Center ( SaTReC ) , Kitsat-3 was developed with experience from Kitsat-1 and Kitsat-2 ( no heritage to the Kitsat-1 and Kitsat-2 bus ) and was the first independently designed South Korean satellite .","qid":"2782","docid":"Kitsat-3","rank":34,"score":144318},{"content":"Title: C/NOFS Content: C/NOFS , or Communications/Navigation Outage Forecasting System was an American satellite developed by the Air Force Research Laboratory Space Vehicles Directorate to investigate and forecast scintillations in the Earth 's ionosphere . It was launched by an Orbital Sciences Corporation Pegasus-XL rocket at 17:01 GMT on 16 April 2008 . It decayed on 28 November 2015 . The satellite , which was operated by the USAF STP , allowed the US military to predict the effects of ionospheric activity on signals from communication and navigation satellites , outages of which could potentially cause problems in battlefield situations . C/NOFS had a three-axis stabilisation system , and was equipped with seven sensors . It was placed into a low Earth orbit with orbital inclination of 13 ° , a perigee of 400 km and an apogee of 850 km . It carried the CINDI experiment for NASA . Launch was originally scheduled for 2003 , but was delayed due to a number of issues .","qid":"2782","docid":"C/NOFS","rank":35,"score":144231},{"content":"Title: Giovanni (meteorology) Content: Giovanni ( meteorology ) - Web interface that allows users to analyze NASA 's gridded data from various satellite and surface observations . Giovanni provides researchers with the capability to examine data on atmospheric chemistry , atmospheric temperature , water vapor and clouds , atmospheric aerosols , precipitation , and ocean chlorophyll and surface temperature . The primary data consist of global gridded data sets with reduced spatial resolution . Basic analytical functions performed by Giovanni currently are carried out by the Grid Analysis and Display System ( GrADS ) . The GES-DISC Interactive Online Visualization ANd aNalysis Infrastructure ( Giovanni ) allows to explore satellite data using sophisticated analyses and visualizations . Giovanni allows access to data from multiple remote sites , supports multiple data formats including Hierarchical Data Format ( HDF ) , HDF-EOS , network Common Data Form ( netCDF ) , GRIdded Binary ( GRIB ) , and binary , and multiple plot types including area , time , Hovmoller , and image animation .","qid":"2782","docid":"Giovanni_(meteorology)","rank":36,"score":144021},{"content":"Title: GRACE and GRACE-FO Content: The Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) was a joint mission of NASA and the German Aerospace Center (DLR). Twin satellites took detailed measurements of Earth's gravity field anomalies from its launch in March 2002 to the end of its science mission in October 2017. The Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment Follow-On (GRACE-FO) is a continuation of the mission on near-identical hardware, launched in May 2018. By measuring gravity anomalies, GRACE showed how mass is distributed around the planet and how it varies over time. Data from the GRACE satellites is an important tool for studying Earth's ocean, geology, and climate. GRACE was a collaborative endeavor involving the Center for Space Research at the University of Texas at Austin, NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, the German Aerospace Center and Germany's National Research Center for Geosciences, Potsdam. The Jet Propulsion Laboratory was responsible for the overall mission management under the NASA ESSP (Earth System Science Pathfinder) program. The principal investigator is Byron Tapley of the University of Texas Center for Space Research, and the co-principal investigator is Christoph Reigber of the GeoForschungsZentrum (GFZ) Potsdam.The two GRACE satellites (GRACE-1 and GRACE-2) were launched from Plesetsk Cosmodrome, Russia, on a Rockot (SS-19 + Breeze upper stage) launch vehicle on 17 March 2002. The spacecraft were launched to an initial altitude of approximately 500 km at a near-polar inclination of 89°. During normal operations, the satellites were separated by 220 km along their orbit track. This system was able to gather global coverage every 30 days. GRACE far exceeded its 5-year design lifespan, operating for 15 years until the decommissioning of GRACE-2 on 27 October 2017. Its successor, GRACE-FO, was successfully launched on 22 May 2018. In 2019, a glacier in West Antarctica was named after the GRACE mission.","qid":"2782","docid":"GRACE_and_GRACE-FO","rank":37,"score":143818},{"content":"Title: Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment Content: The Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment ( SAGE ) is a series of remote sensing satellite instruments used to study the chemical composition of earth 's atmosphere . Specifically , SAGE has been used to study the Earth 's ozone layer and aerosols at the troposphere through the stratosphere . The SAGE instruments use solar occultation measurement technique to determine chemical concentrations in the atmosphere . Solar occultation measurement technique measures sunlight through the atmosphere and ratios that measurement with a sunlight measurement without atmospheric attenuation . This is achieved by observing sunrises and sunsets during a satellite orbit . Physically , the SAGE instruments measure ultraviolet/visible energy and this is converted via algorithms to determine chemical concentrations . SAGE data has been used to study the atmospheres aerosols , ozone , water vapor , and other trace gases .","qid":"2782","docid":"Stratospheric_Aerosol_and_Gas_Experiment","rank":38,"score":143625},{"content":"Title: Earth Observing System Content: The Earth Observing System ( EOS ) is a program of NASA comprising a series of artificial satellite missions and scientific instruments in Earth orbit designed for long-term global observations of the land surface , biosphere , atmosphere , and oceans of the Earth . The satellite component of the program was launched in 1997 . The program is centerpiece of NASA 's Earth Science Enterprise ( ESE ) .","qid":"2782","docid":"Earth_Observing_System","rank":39,"score":143187},{"content":"Title: Multi-angle Imaging SpectroRadiometer Content: The Multi-angle Imaging SpectroRadiometer ( MISR ) is a scientific instrument on the Terra satellite launched by NASA on December 18 , 1999 . This device is designed to measure the intensity of solar radiation reflected by the Earth system ( planetary surface and atmosphere ) in various directions and spectral bands ; it became operational in February 2000 . Data generated by this sensor have been proven useful in a variety of applications including atmospheric sciences , climatology and monitoring terrestrial processes . The MISR instrument consists of an innovative configuration of nine separate digital cameras that gather data in four different spectral bands of the solar spectrum . One camera points toward the nadir , while the others provide forward and aftward view angles at 26.1 ° , 45.6 ° , 60.0 ° , and 70.5 ° . As the instrument flies overhead , each region of the Earth 's surface is successively imaged by all nine cameras in each of four wavelengths ( blue , green , red , and near-infrared ) . The data gathered by MISR are useful in climatological studies concerning the disposition of the solar radiation flux in the Earth 's system . MISR is specifically designed to monitor the monthly , seasonal , and long-term trends of atmospheric aerosol particle concentrations including those formed by natural sources and by human activities , upper air winds and cloud cover , type , height , as well as the characterization of land surface properties , including the structure of vegetation canopies , the distribution of land cover types , or the properties of snow and ice fields , amongst many other biogeophysical variables .","qid":"2782","docid":"Multi-angle_Imaging_SpectroRadiometer","rank":40,"score":143002},{"content":"Title: Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide Content: Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide are used to help answer questions about Earth 's carbon cycle . There are a variety of active and planned instruments for measuring carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere from space . The first satellite mission designed to measure was the Interferometric Monitor for Greenhouse Gases ( IMG ) on board the ADEOS I satellite in 1996 . This mission lasted less than a year . Since then , additional space-based measurements have begun , including those from two high-precision ( better than 0.3 % or 1 ppm ) satellites ( GOSAT and OCO-2 ) . Different instrument designs may reflect different primary missions .","qid":"2782","docid":"Space-based_measurements_of_carbon_dioxide","rank":41,"score":142915},{"content":"Title: Thermopause Content: The thermopause is the atmospheric boundary of Earth 's energy system , located at the top of the thermosphere . The temperature of the thermopause could range up to absolute zero to 987.548 C. Below this , the atmosphere is defined to be active on the insolation received , due to the increased presence of heavier gases such as monatomic oxygen . The solar constant is thus expressed at the thermopause . Beyond ( above ) this , the exosphere describes the thinnest remainder of atmospheric particles with large mean free path , mostly hydrogen and helium . As a limit for the exosphere this boundary is also called exobase . The exact altitude varies by the energy inputs of location , time of day , solar flux , season , etc. and can be between 500 and high at a given place and time because of these . A portion of the magnetosphere dips below this layer as well . Although these are all named layers of the atmosphere , the pressure is so negligible that the chiefly-used definitions of outer space are actually below this altitude . Orbiting satellites do not experience significant atmospheric heating , but their orbits do decay over time , depending on orbit altitude . Space missions such as the ISS , space shuttle , and Soyuz operate under this layer .","qid":"2782","docid":"Thermopause","rank":42,"score":142394},{"content":"Title: Earth's energy budget Content: Earth 's energy budget accounts for the energy Earth receives from the Sun . Much of this energy is lost when the earth re-radiates it back into outer space , and the rest of the energy is distributed throughout the five components of Earth 's climate system . This system is made up of earth 's water , ice , atmosphere , rocky crust , and all living things . Quantifying changes in these amounts is required to accurately model the Earth 's climate . Received radiation is unevenly distributed over the planet , because the Sun heats equatorial regions more than polar regions . Energy is absorbed by the atmosphere , hydrosphere , and lithosphere , and , in a process informally described as Earth 's heat engine , the solar heating is redistributed through evaporation of surface water , convection , rainfall , winds , and ocean circulation . When the incoming solar energy is balanced by an equal flow of heat to space , the Earth is said to be in radiative equilibrium and under that condition , global temperatures will be stable . Disturbances of Earth 's radiative equilibrium , such as an increase of greenhouse gases , will change global temperatures in response . However , Earth 's energy balance and heat fluxes depend on many factors , such as atmospheric composition ( mainly aerosols and greenhouse gases ) , the albedo ( reflectivity ) of surface properties , cloud cover and vegetation and land use patterns . Changes in surface temperature due to Earth 's energy budget do not occur instantaneously , due to the inertia of the oceans and the cryosphere . The net heat flux is buffered primarily by becoming part of the ocean 's heat content , until a new equilibrium state is established between radiative forcings and the climate response .","qid":"2782","docid":"Earth's_energy_budget","rank":43,"score":142383},{"content":"Title: Satellite temperature measurements Content: The temperature of the atmosphere at various altitudes as well as sea and land surface temperatures can be inferred from satellite measurements . These measurements can be used to locate weather fronts , monitor the El Niño-Southern Oscillation , determine the strength of tropical cyclones , study urban heat islands and monitor the global climate . Wildfires , volcanos , and industrial hot spots can also be found via thermal imaging from weather satellites . Weather satellites do not measure temperature directly . They measure radiances in various wavelength bands . Since 1978 microwave sounding units ( MSUs ) on National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration polar orbiting satellites have measured the intensity of upwelling microwave radiation from atmospheric oxygen , which is related to the temperature of broad vertical layers of the atmosphere . Measurements of infrared radiation pertaining to sea surface temperature have been collected since 1967 . Satellite datasets show that over the past four decades the troposphere has warmed and the stratosphere has cooled . Both of these trends are consistent with the influence of increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases .","qid":"2782","docid":"Satellite_temperature_measurements","rank":44,"score":141789},{"content":"Title: Space programme 2040 Content: The Space Programme 2040 is a satellite development and launch programme of the Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission ( Suparco ) , Pakistan 's supreme space research authority . The Space programme 2040 intends to replace the Badr satellite programme and geo-stationary communication satellite . On 11 August , Paksat-IR was launched from Xichang Satellite Launch Center by China , making it first satellite to be launched under this programme . According to Suparco , five GEO satellites and six low earth orbit ( LEO ) satellites will be launched between 2011 and 2040 . The stated goals of the program are expected to gain significant experience in satellite development , practising of space medicine , and to promote socio-economic sector in the country . While the programme intends to learn to develop the military and space technologies and to conduct experiments on fundamental sciences in space frontier , the government maintained that Space programme-2040 's prime purpose is to bring the benefits of the full spectrum of space technology to the people of Pakistan . On 15 July 2011 , Prime minister Yousaf Gillani gave official approval of the programme with the 2011 Pakistan fiscal year budget .","qid":"2782","docid":"Space_programme_2040","rank":45,"score":141643},{"content":"Title: Science Mission Directorate Content: The Science Mission Directorate ( SMD ) of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA ) engages the United States ' science community , sponsors scientific research , and develops and deploys satellites and probes in collaboration with NASA 's partners around the world to answer fundamental questions requiring the view from and into space . The Science Mission Directorate also sponsors research that both enables , and is enabled by , NASA 's exploration activities . The SMD portfolio is contributing to NASA 's achievement of the Vision for Space Exploration by striving to : Understand the history of Mars and the formation of the solar system . By understanding the formation of diverse terrestrial planets ( with atmospheres ) in the solar system , researchers learn more about Earth 's future and the most promising opportunities for habitation beyond our planet . For example , differences in the impacts of collisional processes on Earth , the Moon , and Mars can provide clues about differences in origin and evolution of each of these bodies . Search for Earth-like planets and habitable environments around other stars . SMD pursues multiple research strategies with the goal of developing effective astronomically-detectable signatures of biological processes . The study of the Earth-Sun system may help researchers identify atmospheric biosignatures that distinguish Earth-like ( and potentially habitable ) planets around nearby stars . An understanding of the origin of life and the time evolution of the atmosphere on Earth may reveal likely signatures of life on extrasolar planets . Explore the solar system for scientific purposes while supporting safe robotic and human exploration of space . For example , large-scale coronal mass ejections from the Sun can cause potentially lethal consequences for improperly shielded human flight systems , as well as some types of robotic systems . SMD 's pursuit of interdisciplinary scientific research focus areas will help predict potentially harmful conditions in space and protect NASA 's robotic and human explorers .","qid":"2782","docid":"Science_Mission_Directorate","rank":46,"score":140872},{"content":"Title: Moderate-resolution imaging spectroradiometer Content: The moderate-resolution imaging spectroradiometer ( MODIS ) is a payload scientific instrument built by Santa Barbara Remote Sensing that was launched into Earth orbit by NASA in 1999 on board the Terra ( EOS AM ) Satellite , and in 2002 on board the Aqua ( EOS PM ) satellite . The instruments capture data in 36 spectral bands ranging in wavelength from 0.4 µm to 14.4 µm and at varying spatial resolutions ( 2 bands at 250 m , 5 bands at 500 m and 29 bands at 1 km ) . Together the instruments image the entire Earth every 1 to 2 days . They are designed to provide measurements in large-scale global dynamics including changes in Earth 's cloud cover , radiation budget and processes occurring in the oceans , on land , and in the lower atmosphere . MODIS utilizes four on-board calibrators in addition to the space view in order to provide in-flight calibration : solar diffuser ( SD ) , solar diffuser stability monitor ( SDSM ) , spectral radiometric calibration assembly ( SRCA ) , and a v-groove black body . MODIS has used the marine optical buoy for vicarious calibration . MODIS is succeeded by the VIIRS instrument on board the Suomi NPP satellite launched in 2011 and future Joint Polar Satellite System ( JPSS ) satellites . The MODIS characterization support team ( MCST ) is dedicated to the production of high-quality MODIS calibrated product which is a precursor to every geophysical science product . A detailed description of the MCST mission statement and other details can be found at MCST Web .","qid":"2782","docid":"Moderate-resolution_imaging_spectroradiometer","rank":47,"score":140813},{"content":"Title: GROVER Content: GROVER or Goddard Remotely Operated Vehicle for Exploration and Research is an Earth-bound autonomous student-designed rover developed by the Goddard Space Flight Center . With this solar-powered rover , scientists hope to get cheaper data about the Greenland ice sheet that lies in a rapidly warming region . The test drive started in Summit Camp in Greenland on a three kilometer thick ice sheet , which is the highest spot on the largest island of the World . The science team is led by the glaciologist Lora Koenig from NASA 's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt , Md. . The test began on 3 May 2013 at temperatures as low as -30 ° C and is planned to continue till 8 June 2013 .","qid":"2782","docid":"GROVER","rank":48,"score":140762},{"content":"Title: Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics Content: Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics is an open access peer-reviewed scientific journal published by the European Geosciences Union . It covers research on the Earth 's atmosphere and the underlying chemical and physical processes , including the altitude range from the land and ocean surface up to the turbopause , including the troposphere , stratosphere , and mesosphere . The main subject areas comprise atmospheric modelling , field measurements , remote sensing , and laboratory studies of gases , aerosols , clouds and precipitation , isotopes , radiation , dynamics , and biosphere and hydrosphere interactions . Article types published are research and review articles , technical notes , and commentaries . The journal has a two-stage publication process . In the first stage , papers that pass a rapid access peer-review are immediately published on the Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics Discussions forum website . They are then subject to interactive public peer review , including the referees ' comments ( anonymous or attributed ) , additional comments by other members of the scientific community ( attributed ) , and the authors ' replies . In the second stage , if accepted , the final revised papers are published in the journal . To ensure publication precedence for authors , and to provide a lasting record of the scientific discussion , both the journal and the forum are permanently archived and fully citable .","qid":"2782","docid":"Atmospheric_Chemistry_and_Physics","rank":49,"score":140428},{"content":"Title: NASA DEVELOP National Program Content: DEVELOP is a training and development program sponsored by NASA 's Earth Science Applied Sciences Program . Headquartered at Langley Research Center , DEVELOP has teams at twelve locations around the country , one in Nepal and one in Mexico . Participants work with advisers and mentors to learn about the application of NASA Earth Science and remote sensing during three 10-week terms each year . DEVELOP is based in the Earth Science Mission , which has the goal to `` Develop a scientific understanding of Earth 's system and its response to natural or human-induced changes , and to improve prediction of climate , weather , and natural hazards . '' With a unique focus on community concerns , DEVELOP offers participants the chance to work with remote sensing to research real-world problems .","qid":"2782","docid":"NASA_DEVELOP_National_Program","rank":50,"score":140209},{"content":"Title: Explorer 32 Content: Explorer 32 , also known as Atmosphere Explorer-B ( AE-B ) , was a satellite launched by the United States to study the Earth 's upper atmosphere . It was launched from Cape Canaveral on a Delta-C1 rocket , on May 25 , 1966 . It was the second of five Atmosphere Explorers , the first being Explorer 17 .","qid":"2782","docid":"Explorer_32","rank":51,"score":140195},{"content":"Title: E-CORCE Content: E-Corce was a planned remote sensing satellite constellation of CNES , slated for launch in 2014 . Designed by an engineer from CNES , JP Antikidis , in the frame of a prospective unit led by JJ Favier , this project is revolutionizing satellite Earth observation methodologies by allowing at acceptable cost a rapid coverage of the entire planet ( 1 day to 1 week ) with high resolution ( metric ) color pictures . The solutions use image compression ( psycho-visual ) coupled with new methods of receiving and processing information distributed across the planet . The project aims by 2014 to photograph all of the continents in color at a resolution of 1 meter , every week , with a constellation of 13 Earth-orbiting microsatellites at 600 km , imaging everything in their path and down-linking compressed data to processing centers on the world . Definition : `` e-Constellation of Observation by Recurrent Cellular Environment '' combining of three technological `` cells '' ( space , telecom , Grid ) to produce a multi-spectral image of the Earth . `` e '' as intended to feed the new vectors of the mass-based Internet , `` Constellation '' because relying on a constellation of satellites observing the earth in `` saturation '' REcurrent `` because based on a systematic information delivery high resolution refreshed daily to weekly `` Cellular '' because using the combined virtues of new technology based on cellular processing ( Wide Area Grid ) distributed across the full globe .","qid":"2782","docid":"E-CORCE","rank":52,"score":139830},{"content":"Title: Polar amplification Content: Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict . In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .","qid":"2782","docid":"Polar_amplification","rank":53,"score":139408},{"content":"Title: Dove-2 Content: Dove-2 is an Earth observation satellite launched as part of a private , commercial , space-based , remote sensing system , licensed to collect images of the Earth . It is currently undertaking an experimental mission in a 575 km circular orbit at an inclination of 64.9 degrees . The Commercial Remote Sensing Regulatory Affairs Office of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration , an agency of the United States Department of Commerce , granted a license to Cosmogia Inc. to operate the Dove-2 mission . Cosmogia later changed its name to Planet Labs and started operating flocks of Dove satellites commercially . The Dove-2 mission is an internal company technology demonstration experiment to test the capabilities of a low-cost spacecraft constrained to the 3U CubeSat form factor to host a small payload . The Dove-2 satellite was launched at 10:00 UTC April 19 , 2013 aboard a Soyuz-2 .1 a rocket from Baikonur Cosmodrome , Kazakhstan .","qid":"2782","docid":"Dove-2","rank":54,"score":139294},{"content":"Title: CBERS-4 Content: China -- Brazil Earth Resources Satellite 4 ( CBERS-4 ) , also known as Ziyuan I-04 or Ziyuan 1E , is a remote sensing satellite intended for operation as part of the China -- Brazil Earth Resources Satellite programme between the China Centre for Resources Satellite Data and Application and Brazil 's National Institute for Space Research . The fifth CBERS satellite to fly , it was successfully launched on 7 December 2014 . It replaces CBERS-3 which was lost in a launch failure in December 2013 .","qid":"2782","docid":"CBERS-4","rank":55,"score":139136},{"content":"Title: NOAA-6 Content: NOAA-6 , designated NOAA-A before launch , was a weather satellite operated by NOAA as part of its National Operational Environmental Satellite System . It was launched into a Sun-synchronous orbit by NASA aboard an Atlas F launch vehicle on 27 June 1979 from Vandenberg Air Force Base SLC-3W . Based on the experimental TIROS-N satellite , it performed monitoring of ice and snow cover , agriculture , oceanography , volcanism , ozone and the space environment , in addition to its regular meteorological observations . Its instruments included the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer ( AVHRR/1 ) for global cloud cover observations , the TIROS Operational Vertical Sounder ( TOVS ) suite for atmospheric temperature and water vapor profiling , the Space Environment Monitor ( SEM ) for measuring proton and electron fluxes , and the Data Collection and Platform Location System ( DCPLS ) for relaying data from balloons and ocean buoys . The TOVS suite consists of three subsystems : the High Resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder 2 ( HIRS/2 ) , the Stratospheric Sounding Unit ( SSU ) , and the Microwave Sounding Unit ( MSU ) . The HIRS/2 instrument failed on 19 September 1983 , and the spacecraft was placed in reserve in early 1984 as NOAA prioritized operations of NOAA-7 and NOAA-8 . It was returned to operational status after NOAA-8 failed in June 1984 , and continued to return data until its decommissioning on 31 March 1987 .","qid":"2782","docid":"NOAA-6","rank":56,"score":138881},{"content":"Title: Solar Mesosphere Explorer Content: The Solar Mesosphere Explorer ( also known as Explorer 64 ) was a United States unmanned spacecraft to investigate the processes that create and destroy ozone in Earth 's upper atmosphere . The mesosphere is a layer of the atmosphere extending from the top of the stratosphere to an altitude of about 80 km . The spacecraft carried five instruments to measure ozone , water vapor and incoming solar radiation . Launched on October 6 , 1981 , on a Delta rocket from Vandenberg Air Force Base , in California , the satellite returned data until April 4 , 1989 . The spacecraft reentered Earth 's atmosphere on March 5 , 1991 . Managed for NASA by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory , the Solar Mesosphere Explorer was built by Ball Space Systems and operated by the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics of the University of Colorado where one hundred undergraduate and graduate students were involved . Mass : 437 kilograms ( 963 pounds ) Power : Solar panels which charged NiCad batteries Configuration : Cylinder 1.25 meter ( 4.1 ft ) diameter by 1.7 meter ( 5.6 ft ) high Science instruments : Ultraviolet ozone spectrometer , 1.27 micrometre spectrometer , nitrogen dioxide spectrometer , four-channel infrared radiometer , solar ultraviolet monitor , solar proton alarm detector","qid":"2782","docid":"Solar_Mesosphere_Explorer","rank":57,"score":138512},{"content":"Title: RASAT Content: RASAT is an earth observation satellite designed and developed by TÜBİTAK Space Technologies Research Institute ( TÜBİTAK UZAY ) and produced in Turkey to provide high resolution imagery . It is so the first one of its art completely realized in Turkey , and the second indigenously developed remote sensing satellite after BILSAT-1 . Financed by the State Planning Organization ( DPT ) and designed by TÜBİTAK UZAY without any international know-how transfer , RASAT was launched from Dombarovskiy Cosmodrome , near Yasny in Russia by a Dnepr space launch vehicle at 08:12:20 UTC on August 17 , 2011 along with seven other satellites Sich-2 and BPA-2 of Ukraine , NigeriaSat-2 and NigeriaSat-X of Nigeria , EduSat of India as well as AprizeSat-5 and AprizeSat-6 of Italy . RASAT was placed 16 minutes and 9 seconds after the lift-off into a low Earth orbit of 685 km . The first signal from RASAT was received in the space center of Andøya Rocket Range , northern Norway at 09:44.04 UTC . RASAT is controlled and observed at the space center of TÜBİTAK UZAY in Ankara .","qid":"2782","docid":"RASAT","rank":58,"score":138499},{"content":"Title: Carl Mears Content: Carl Mears is a Senior Scientist , at Remote Sensing Systems , since 1998 . He has worked on validation of SSM/I derived winds , and rain-flagging algorithm for the QuikScat scatterometer . He is best known for his work with Frank Wentz in developing a satellite temperature record from MSU and AMSU . Intercomparison of this record with the earlier UAH satellite temperature record , developed by John Christy and Roy Spencer , revealed deficiencies in the earlier work ; specifically , the warming trend in the RSS version is larger than the UAH one . Mears was a major contributor to Temperature Trends in the Lower Atmosphere : Steps for Understanding and Reconciling Differences , the first released report from the US Climate Change Science Program . He also contributed to the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Working Group one report , Climate Change 2007 - The Physical Science Basis .","qid":"2782","docid":"Carl_Mears","rank":59,"score":137888},{"content":"Title: CBERS-2 Content: China -- Brazil Earth Resources Satellite 2 ( CBERS-2 ) , also known as Ziyuan I-02 or Ziyuan 1B , was a remote sensing satellite operated as part of the China -- Brazil Earth Resources Satellite programme between the China Centre for Resources Satellite Data and Application and Brazil 's National Institute for Space Research . The second CBERS satellite to fly , it was launched by China in 2003 to replace CBERS-1 . CBERS-2 was a 1450 kg spacecraft built by the China Academy of Space Technology and based on the Phoenix-Eye 1 satellite bus . The spacecraft was powered by a single solar array , which provided 1,100 watts of electricity for the satellite 's systems . The instrument suite aboard the CBERS-2 spacecraft consisted of three systems : the Wide Field Imager ( WFI ) produced visible-light to near-infrared images with a resolution of 260 m and a swath width of 890 km ; a high-resolution CCD camera was used for multispectral imaging at a resolution of 20 m with a swath width of 113 km ; the third instrument , the Infrared Multispectral Scanner ( IMS ) , had a resolution of 80 m and a swath width of 120 km . A Chang Zheng 4B carrier rocket , operated by the China Academy of Launch Vehicle Technology , was used to launch CBERS-2 . The launch took place at 03:16 UTC on 21 October 2003 , using Launch Complex 7 at the Taiyuan Satellite Launch Centre . The satellite was successfully placed into a sun-synchronous orbit . Following the launch of CBERS-2B in 2007 , CBERS-2 was retired from service . As of 1 December 2013 , the dericict satellite remains in orbit , with a perigee of 780 km , an apogee of 782 km , 98.17 degrees inclination and a period of 100.33 minutes . Its orbit has a semimajor axis of 7152.64 km , and eccentricity of 0.0001886 .","qid":"2782","docid":"CBERS-2","rank":60,"score":137716},{"content":"Title: NASA Earth Observatory Content: NASA Earth Observatory is an online publishing outlet for NASA which was created in 1999 . It is the principal source of satellite imagery and other scientific information pertaining to the climate and the environment which are being provided by NASA for consumption by the general public . It is funded with public money , as authorized by the United States Congress , and is part of the EOS Project Science Office located at Goddard Space Flight Center . NASA Earth Observatory has won the Webby People 's Voice Award in Education three times . There were a series of publicized images issued by the website in 2008 , including imagery of clouds streaming over the Caspian Sea , dust storms curling off the coast of Morocco , the crumbling of the Wilkins Ice Shelf , Hurricane Bertha , and others .","qid":"2782","docid":"NASA_Earth_Observatory","rank":61,"score":137708},{"content":"Title: KhalifaSat Content: KhalifaSat is a remote sensing Earth observation satellite that is being manufactured in the United Arab Emirates at the Mohammed bin Rashid Space Centre ( MBRSC ) ' . It is the first satellite to be built in the clean rooms of the Dubai government 's space science and research facility and the first to be developed entirely by a team of Emirati engineers . The Mohammed bin Rashid Space Centre is a Dubai government based space centre working on the National Space programme . MBRSC already has two Earth observation satellites in orbit , DubaiSat-1 and DubaiSat-2 , which were built in partnership with Satrec Initiative , a South Korean satellite manufacturer With the knowledge gained through this co-operation , MBRSC engineers are now designing and developing KhalifaSat in the UAE without assistance . The project was officially announced by His Highness Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum , ' Vice President and Prime Minister of the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) , and Ruler of Dubai , in December 2013 The manufacture of KhalifaSat began in South Korea at Satrec Initiative 's facilities . A team of Emirati engineers used the facilities there while the Advanced Technology Laboratories at MBRSC were under construction . In early 2015 , the project was moved to MBRSC where every aspect of its development has continued","qid":"2782","docid":"KhalifaSat","rank":62,"score":137680},{"content":"Title: CBERS-1 Content: China -- Brazil Earth Resources Satellite 1 ( CBERS-1 ) , also known as Ziyuan I-01 or Ziyuan 1A , is a remote sensing satellite which was operated as part of the China -- Brazil Earth Resources Satellite programme between the China National Space Administration and Brazil 's National Institute for Space Research . The first CBERS satellite to fly , it was launched by China in 1999 . CBERS-1 was a 1450 kg spacecraft built by the China Academy of Space Technology and based on the Phoenix-Eye 1 satellite bus . The spacecraft was powered by a single solar array , providing 1,100 watts of electricity for the satellite 's systems . The instrument suite aboard the CBERS-1 spacecraft consisted of three systems : the Wide Field Imager ( WFI ) produced visible-light to near-infrared images with a resolution of 260 m and a swath width of 890 km ; a high-resolution CCD camera was used for multispectral imaging at a resolution of 20 m with a swath width of 113 km ; the third instrument , the Infrared Multispectral Scanner ( IMS ) , had a resolution of 80 m and a swath width of 120 km . A Chang Zheng 4B carrier rocket , operated by the China Academy of Launch Vehicle Technology , was used to launch CBERS-1 . The launch took place at 03:15 UTC on 14 October 1999 , using Launch Complex 7 at the Taiyuan Satellite Launch Centre . The satellite was successfully placed into a sun-synchronous orbit . CBERS-1 was decommissioned in September 2003 , almost four years after launch . The derelict satellite remains in orbit ; as of 30 November 2013 it is in an orbit with a perigee of 779 km , an apogee of 785 km , 98.34 degrees inclination and a period of 100.35 minutes . The orbit has a semimajor axis of 7153.45 km , and eccentricity of 0.0004025 .","qid":"2782","docid":"CBERS-1","rank":63,"score":137445},{"content":"Title: EarthSat Content: Earth Satellite Corporation ( EarthSat ) , an American company , was a pioneer in the commercial use of Earth observation satellites . Founded in 1969 , EarthSat was first headquartered in Washington , D.C. and later moved its offices to Bethesda , Maryland and finally to Rockville , Maryland in the late 1980s . In 2001 , EarthSat was acquired by MacDonald , Dettwiler and Associates Ltd. ( MDA ) of Vancouver , British Columbia . In August 2005 , EarthSat was incorporated as MDA Federal Inc. , the U.S. operation of MDA Geospatial Services . EarthSat pioneered the use of remote sensing for petroleum , mineral and groundwater exploration . It later expanded into satellite and aerial image processing , weather services and geographic information systems . EarthSat products were derived from NASA 's Landsat program , Canada 's RADARSAT-1 and an entire list of Earth observation satellites . In August 1998 , NASA contracted EarthSat to produce Landsat GeoCover - a positionally accurate orthorectified Landsat Thematic Mapper and Multispectral Scanner imagery covering the majority of the Earth 's land mass . The contract was part of the NASA Scientific Data Purchase which was administrated through NASA 's John C. Stennis Space Center . Geocover 2000 is one of the global satellite image products used in NASA World Wind . GeoCover was later enhanced to EarthSat NaturalVue , a natural color Landsat 7 derived circa year 2000 , orthorectified , mosaicked and color balanced digital image dataset covering the entire land area of the Earth except for the high latitude polar regions .","qid":"2782","docid":"EarthSat","rank":64,"score":137082},{"content":"Title: Institute for Space Applications and Remote Sensing Content: The Institute for Space Applications and Remote Sensing ( ISARS/NOA ) was a research institute in Greece with expertise in multidisciplinary space and environmental sciences . It was an independent research Institute of the National Observatory of Athens ( NOA ) until 2012 when it was merged with the Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics to a single unit entitled Institute for Astronomy , Astrophysics , Space Applications and Remote Sensing ( IAASARS ) . Member scientists of all its research groups have broad knowledge of Space Science and Earth observation techniques and their applications . They collaborate with other research groups in Europe and United States , and have been internationally recognized through editorship in scientific journals , invited talks at international conferences , invited review papers in top journals , high rate of citations and coordination of EU-funded research projects .","qid":"2782","docid":"Institute_for_Space_Applications_and_Remote_Sensing","rank":65,"score":136986},{"content":"Title: Atmosphere of Earth Content: The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases , commonly known as air , that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity . The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation , warming the surface through heat retention ( greenhouse effect ) , and reducing temperature extremes between day and night ( the diurnal temperature variation ) . By volume , dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen , 20.95 % oxygen , 0.93 % argon , 0.04 % carbon dioxide , and small amounts of other gases . Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor , on average around 1 % at sea level , and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere . Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers , and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres . The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 kg , three quarters of which is within about 11 km of the surface . The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude , with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space . The Kármán line , at 100 km , or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius , is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space . Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km . Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere , based on characteristics such as temperature and composition . The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science ( aerology ) . Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann .","qid":"2782","docid":"Atmosphere_of_Earth","rank":66,"score":136327},{"content":"Title: Yaogan Content: Yaogan ( in full Yaogan Weixing , `` Remote Sensing Satellite '' ; sometimes written YaoGan ) refers to a series of Chinese reconnaissance satellites launched in the early 21st century . Chinese media describe the satellites as intended for `` scientific experiments , land survey , crop yield assessment , and disaster monitoring '' . Western analysts suspect that they are also used for military purposes . Analysts believe that each satellite employs either optical or synthetic aperture radar ( SAR ) sensors and that the SAR satellites are of the Jian Bing-5 series . The SAR satellite was developed by the Shanghai Academy of Space Flight Technology ( SAST ) . The electro-optical digital imaging satellite was developed by the China Academy of Space Technology ( CAST ) . It is carried into space atop a Chang Zheng ( Long March ) rocket . Yaogan satellites have been launched from both the Taiyuan Satellite Launch Center in China 's northern Shanxi province and the Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center in China 's northwestern Gansu province .","qid":"2782","docid":"Yaogan","rank":67,"score":135799},{"content":"Title: IMS-1 Content: IMS-1 is an Earth observation satellite in a sun-synchronous orbit . The satellite which is the fourteenth satellite in the Indian Remote Sensing ( IRS ) satellite series has been built , launched and maintained by the Indian Space Research Organisation ( ISRO ) . IMS-1 is the first satellite to use ISRO 's Indian Mini Satellite bus . It was launched by the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle - C9 on April 28 , 2008 along with the Cartosat-2A and eight nano research satellites belonging to research facilities in Canada , Denmark , Germany , Japan and the Netherlands .","qid":"2782","docid":"IMS-1","rank":68,"score":135710},{"content":"Title: Cartosat-2B Content: CARTOSAT 2B is an Earth observation satellite in a sun-synchronous orbit and the fourth of the Cartosat series of satellites . The satellite is the seventeenth satellite in the Indian Remote Sensing ( IRS ) satellite series to be built by the Indian Space Research Organisation . It was launched along with the 116 kg Algerian satellite , one nano satellite each from Canada and Switzerland , and StudSat , a pico satellite , on 12 July 2010 in a Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle ( PSLV ) rocket from the spaceport at Sriharikota . The satellite carries a panchromatic ( PAN ) camera capable of taking black-and-white pictures in the visible region of electromagnetic spectrum . The highly agile CARTOSAT-2B can be steered up to 26 degrees along as well as across the direction of its movement to facilitate imaging of any area more frequently .","qid":"2782","docid":"Cartosat-2B","rank":69,"score":135395},{"content":"Title: MSU temperature measurements Content: Microwave sounding unit temperature measurements have been obtained from the troposphere since 1979 , when they were included within NOAA weather satellites . By comparison , the usable balloon ( radiosonde ) record begins in 1958 but has less geographic coverage and is less uniform . Satellites do not measure temperature . They measure radiances in various wavelength bands , which must then be mathematically inverted to obtain indirect inferences of temperature . The resulting temperature profiles depend on details of the methods that are used to obtain temperatures from radiances . As a result , different groups that have analyzed the satellite data have obtained different temperature trends . Among these groups are Remote Sensing Systems ( RSS ) and the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) . The satellite series is not fully homogeneous - the record is constructed from a series of satellites with similar but not identical instrumentation . The sensors deteriorate over time , and corrections are necessary for satellite drift in orbit . Particularly large differences between reconstructed temperature series occur at the few times when there is little temporal overlap between successive satellites , making intercalibration difficult . To compare to the trend from the surface temperature record ( approximately +0.07 ° C/decade over the past century and +0.15 -0.16 ° C/decade since 1979 ) it is most appropriate to derive trends for the part of the atmosphere nearest the surface , i.e. , the lower troposphere . Doing this , through January 2012 : RSS v3 .3 finds a trend of +0.137 ° C/decade . UAH v5 .4 finds a trend of +0.136 ° C/decade . An alternative adjustment introduced by Fu et al. ( 2004 ) finds trends ( 1979 -- 2011 ) of +0.14 ° C/decade when applied to the RSS data set and +0.11 ° C/decade when applied to the UAH data set . Using the T2 channel ( which include significant contributions from the stratosphere , which has cooled ) , Mears et al. of Remote Sensing Systems ( RSS ) find ( through January 2012 ) a trend of +0.082 ° C/decade . Spencer and Christy of the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) , find a smaller trend of +0.046 ° C/decade . A no longer updated analysis of Vinnikov and Grody found +0.20 ° C/decade ( 1978 -- 2005 ) . Another satellite temperature analysis is provided by NOAA/NESDIS STAR Center for Satellite Application and Research and use simultaneous nadir overpasses ( SNO ) to remove satellite intercalibration biases yielding more accurate temperature trends . The SNO analysis finds a 1979-2011 trend of +0.128 ° C/decade for T2 channel . The satellite records have the advantage of greater spatial coverage , whereas the radiosonde record is longer . There have been complaints of data problems with both records , and difficulty reconciling climate model predictions with the observed data .","qid":"2782","docid":"MSU_temperature_measurements","rank":70,"score":135372},{"content":"Title: MOPITT Content: MOPITT ( Measurements of Pollution in the Troposphere ) is a payload scientific instrument launched into Earth orbit by NASA on board the Terra satellite in 1999 . It is designed to monitor changes in pollution patterns and its effect in the lower atmosphere of the Earth . The instrument was funded by the Space Science Division of the Canadian Space Agency .","qid":"2782","docid":"MOPITT","rank":71,"score":135279},{"content":"Title: CBERS-2B Content: China -- Brazil Earth Resources Satellite 2B ( CBERS-2B ) , also known as Ziyuan I-02B or Ziyuan 1B2 , was a remote sensing satellite operated as part of the China -- Brazil Earth Resources Satellite programme between the China Centre for Resources Satellite Data and Application and Brazil 's National Institute for Space Research . The third CBERS satellite to fly , it was launched by China in 2007 to replace CBERS-2 . CBERS-2B was a 1450 kg spacecraft built by the China Academy of Space Technology and based on the Phoenix-Eye 1 satellite bus . The spacecraft was powered by a single solar array , which provided 1,100 watts of electricity for the satellite 's systems . The instrument suite aboard the CBERS-2B spacecraft consisted of three systems : the Wide Field Imager ( WFI ) produced visible-light to near-infrared images with a resolution of 260 m and a swath width of 890 km ; a high-resolution CCD camera was used for multispectral imaging at a resolution of 20 m with a swath width of 113 km ; the third instrument , the High Resolution Camera ( HRC ) was a panchromatic imager with a resolution of 2.7 m and a swath width of 27 km . HRC replaced the lower-resolution Infrared Multispectral Scanner instrument flown on earlier CBERS satellites . A Chang Zheng 4B carrier rocket , operated by the China Academy of Launch Vehicle Technology , was used to launch CBERS-2B . The launch took place at 03:26:13 UTC on 19 September 2007 , using Launch Complex 7 at the Taiyuan Satellite Launch Centre . The satellite was successfully placed into a sun-synchronous orbit . CBERS-2B suffered a power system failure on 10 May 2010 , leaving it unable to continue operations . As of it remains in orbit , with a perigee of Orbit perigee 745 km mi , an apogee of Orbit apogee 789 km mi , degrees inclination and a period of minutes . It has a semimajor axis of Orbit semimajor axis 7138.59 km mi , and eccentricity of .","qid":"2782","docid":"CBERS-2B","rank":72,"score":135238},{"content":"Title: Explorer 17 Content: Explorer 17 ( also known as Atmosphere Explorer-A ( AE-A ) and S6 ) was a United States satellite , launched at Cape Canaveral from LC-17B on a Delta-B booster , on April 3 , 1963 , to study the Earth 's upper atmosphere . It was the first satellite of five Atmosphere Explorers .","qid":"2782","docid":"Explorer_17","rank":73,"score":135073},{"content":"Title: Heliophysics Science Division Content: The Heliophysics Science Division of the Goddard Space Flight Center ( NASA ) conducts research on the Sun , its extended solar system environment ( the heliosphere ) , and interactions of Earth , other planets , small bodies , and interstellar gas with the heliosphere . Division research also encompasses geospace -- Earth 's uppermost atmosphere , the ionosphere , and the magnetosphere -- and the changing environmental conditions throughout the coupled heliosphere ( solar system weather ) . Scientists in the Heliophysics Science Division develop models , spacecraft missions and instruments , and systems to manage and disseminate heliophysical data . They interpret and evaluate data gathered from instruments , draw comparisons with computer simulations and theoretical models , and publish the results . The Division also conducts education and public outreach programs to communicate the excitement and social value of NASA heliophysics .","qid":"2782","docid":"Heliophysics_Science_Division","rank":74,"score":134961},{"content":"Title: Goddard Institute for Space Studies Content: The Goddard Institute for Space Studies ( GISS ) is a laboratory in the Earth Sciences Division of NASA 's Goddard Space Flight Center and a unit of the Columbia University Earth Institute . The institute is located at Columbia University in New York City . Research at the GISS emphasizes a broad study of Global Change ; the natural and anthropogenic changes in our environment that affect the habitability of our planet . These effects may occur on greatly differing time scales , from one-time forcings such as volcanic explosions , to seasonal/annual effects such as El Niño , and on up to the millennia of ice ages . The Institute 's research combines analysis of comprehensive global datasets , ( derived from surface stations combined with satellite data for SSTs ) , with global models of atmospheric , land surface , and oceanic processes . Study of past climate change on Earth and of other planetary atmospheres provides an additional tool in assessing our general understanding of the atmosphere and its evolution . GISS was established in May 1961 by Robert Jastrow to do basic research in space sciences in support of Goddard programs . Formally it was the New York City office of the GSFC Theoretical Division but was known as the Goddard Space Flight Center Institute for Space Studies or in some publications as simply the Institute for Space Studies . Soon enough it became known as the Goddard Institute for Space Studies . It was separated from the Theoretical Division in July 1962 . Its offices were originally located in The Interchurch Center , and the institute moved into Columbia 's Armstrong Hall ( formerly the Ostend apartments and then the Oxford Residence Hotel ) in April 1966 . From 1981 to 2013 , GISS was directed by James E. Hansen . In June 2014 , Gavin A. Schmidt was named the institute 's third director .","qid":"2782","docid":"Goddard_Institute_for_Space_Studies","rank":75,"score":134223},{"content":"Title: Advances in Atmospheric Sciences Content: Advances in Atmospheric Sciences is a bimonthly peer-reviewed scientific journal co-published by Springer Science + Business Media and Science Press . It covers research on the dynamics , physics and chemistry of the atmosphere and oceans , including weather systems , numerical weather prediction , climate dynamics and variability , and satellite meteorology . It was established in 1984 . The editors-in-chief are D. Lü , H. Wang ( Chinese Academy of Sciences ) , and M. Xue ( University of Oklahoma . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2012 impact factor of 1.338 .","qid":"2782","docid":"Advances_in_Atmospheric_Sciences","rank":76,"score":134119},{"content":"Title: Atmospheric entry Content: Atmospheric entry is the movement of an object from outer space into and through the gases of an atmosphere of a planet , dwarf planet or natural satellite . There are two main types of atmospheric entry : uncontrolled entry , such as the entry of astronomical objects , space debris or bolides ; and controlled entry ( or reentry ) of a spacecraft capable of being navigated or following a predetermined course . Technologies and procedures allowing the controlled atmospheric entry , descent and landing of spacecraft are collectively abbreviated as EDL . Atmospheric drag and aerodynamic heating can cause atmospheric breakup capable of completely disintegrating smaller objects . These forces may cause objects with lower compressive strength to explode . Manned space vehicles must be slowed to subsonic speeds before parachutes or air brakes may be deployed . Such vehicles have kinetic energies typically between 50 and 1800 MJoules , and atmospheric dissipation is the only way of expending the kinetic energy . The amount of rocket fuel required to slow the vehicle would be nearly equal to the amount used to accelerate it initially , and it is thus highly impractical to use retro rockets for the entire Earth re-entry procedure . While the high temperature generated at the surface of the heat shield is due to adiabatic compression , the vehicle 's kinetic energy is ultimately lost to gas friction ( viscosity ) after the vehicle has passed by . Other smaller energy losses include black body radiation directly from the hot gasses and chemical reactions between ionized gasses . Ballistic warheads and expendable vehicles do not require slowing at re-entry , and in fact , are made streamlined so as to maintain their speed . For Earth , atmospheric entry occurs above the Kármán line at an altitude of more than 100 km ( 62 mi . ) above the surface , while at Venus atmospheric entry occurs at 250 km ( 155 mi . ) and at Mars atmospheric entry at about 80 km ( 50 mi . ) . Uncontrolled , objects accelerate through the atmosphere at extreme velocities under the influence of Earth 's gravity . Most controlled objects enter at hypersonic speeds due to their suborbital ( e.g. , intercontinental ballistic missile reentry vehicles ) , orbital ( e.g. , the Space Shuttle ) , or unbounded ( e.g. , meteors ) trajectories . Various advanced technologies have been developed to enable atmospheric reentry and flight at extreme velocities . An alternative low velocity method of controlled atmospheric entry is buoyancy which is suitable for planetary entry where thick atmospheres , strong gravity or both factors complicate high-velocity hyperbolic entry , such as the atmospheres of Venus , Titan and the gas giants .","qid":"2782","docid":"Atmospheric_entry","rank":77,"score":134118},{"content":"Title: Remote sensing atmospheric boundary layer Content: Remote sensing of the planetary boundary layer refers to the utilization of ground based , flight based , or satellite based remote sensing instruments to measure properties of the planetary boundary layer including boundary layer height , aerosols and clouds . Satellite remote sensing of the atmosphere has the advantage of being able to provide global coverage of atmospheric planetary boundary layer properties while simultaneously providing relatively high temporal sampling rates . Advancements in satellite remote sensing have provided greater vertical resolution which enables higher accuracy for planetary boundary layer measurements . The radiative forcing for marine boundary layer ( MBL ) clouds is imperative for understanding any global warming changes . Low-level clouds , including MBL clouds , have the largest net radiative forcing of all clouds . The albedo of these low level clouds is much higher than the albedo of the underlying ocean surface and correctly modeling these clouds is needed to limit the uncertainty in climate model predictions . The remote sensing of the planetary boundary layer , especially clouds and aerosols within the planetary boundary layer can help verify and improve climate models .","qid":"2782","docid":"Remote_sensing_atmospheric_boundary_layer","rank":78,"score":133653},{"content":"Title: SBUV/2 Content: The Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet Radiometer , or SBUV/2 , is a series of operational remote sensors on NOAA weather satellites in Sun-synchronous orbits which have been providing global measurements of stratospheric total ozone , as well as ozone profiles , since March 1985 . The SBUV/2 instruments were developed from the SBUV experiment flown on the Nimbus-7 spacecraft which improved on the design of the original BUV instrument on Nimbus-4 . These are nadir viewing radiometric instruments operating at mid to near UV wavelengths . SBUV/2 data sets overlap with data from SBUV and TOMS instruments on the Nimbus-7 spacecraft . These extensive data sets ( January 1979 to the present ) measure the density and vertical distribution of ozone in the Earth 's atmosphere from six to 30 miles . SBUV/2 looks down at the Earth 's atmosphere and the reflected sunlight at wavelengths characteristic of ozone . The SBUV/2 wavelength `` channels '' range from 252 nanometer ( nm ) to 340 nm . Ozone is measured as a ratio of sunlight incident on the atmosphere to the amount of sunlight scattered back into space . From this information , the total ozone between the instrument and the ground can be calculated . The SBUV/2 measures solar irradiance and Earth radiance ( backscattered solar energy ) in the near ultraviolet spectrum ( 160 to 400 nm ) . The SBUV is capable of determining the global ozone concentration in the stratosphere to an absolute accuracy of 1 percent ; the vertical distribution of atmospheric ozone to an absolute accuracy of 5 percent ; the long-term solar spectral irradiance from 160 to 400 nm Photochemical process and the influence of `` trace '' constituents on the ozone layer . The Ball Aerospace-built SBUV/2 helped to discover the ozone hole over Antarctica in 1987 , and continues to monitor this phenomenon . Atmospheric ozone absorbs the sun 's ultraviolet rays , which are believed to cause gene mutations , skin cancer , and cataracts in humans . Ultraviolet rays may also damage crops and aquatic ecosystems . The first SBUV/2 instrument was launched on NOAA-9 in December 1984 and the last instrument in this series was launched in February 2009 aboard the NOAA-19 spacecraft .","qid":"2782","docid":"SBUV/2","rank":79,"score":133559},{"content":"Title: S-56 (satellite) Content: S-56 was an American satellite launched by NASA on 4 December 1960 as part of the Explorers program . The satellite was composed of a 3.66 meter ( 12 foot ) diameter inflatable sphere , and was intended to study the density of the upper atmosphere . S-56 was launched on a Scout X-1 rocket , but failed to reach orbit due to the second stage not igniting . It was replaced by the identical Explorer 9 ( S 56A ) spacecraft .","qid":"2782","docid":"S-56_(satellite)","rank":80,"score":133422},{"content":"Title: Space Research and Remote Sensing Organization Content: The Bangladesh Space Research and Remote Sensing Organization ( বাংলাদেশ মহাকাশ গবেষণা ও দূর অনুধাবন কেন্দ্র Bangladesh môhakash gôbeshôna o dur ônudhabôn kendrô ) , or SPARRSO , is a state agency concerned with astronomical research and the application of space technology in Bangladesh . Sparrso works closely with JAXA , NASA and the ESA in environmental and meteorological research . Using Japanese and American satellites , SPARRSO monitors agro-climatic conditions and water resources in Bangladesh .","qid":"2782","docid":"Space_Research_and_Remote_Sensing_Organization","rank":81,"score":133300},{"content":"Title: STSAT-2A Content: STSAT-2A ( Science and Technology Satellite 2A ) was a satellite launched by the Korea Aerospace Research Institute ( KARI ) , the national space agency of South Korea , from the Naro Space Center in Goheung County , South Jeolla using the Naro-1 ( KSLV-1 ) rocket . The 100 kg satellite carried a Lyman-alpha Imaging Solar Telescope ( LIST ) as well as Satellite laser ranging ( SLR ) payload . The Satellite Technology Research Center ( SaTReC ) developed STSAT-2A as a sun observation , satellite laser ranging and engineering and technology demonstration sponsored by the Ministry of Science and Technology . It was expected to be operational for about two years , and was scheduled to be launched between 2005 and 2007 . The Satellite Laser Ranging ( SLR ) instrument was intended to measure the orbit of STSAT-2A , in order to investigate variations in its orbit . It was a followup to STSAT-1 , which was launched using a Kosmos-3M rocket on September 27 , 2003 . Originally a Dual-channel Radiometers for Earth and Atmosphere Monitoring ( DREAM ) Microwave radiometer was intended as the principal payload of STSAT-2A for an expected launch in 2007 . The Laser Retro-reflector Array ( LRA ) was described as an early expected payload for STSAT-2A which would consist of nine retro-reflectors in a mechanical casing . STSAT-2A has three missions , the indigenous research and development to place a satellite into low orbit , development of indigenous spacecraft , and the ability to develop scientific payloads . STSAT-2A was launched on the maiden flight of the Naro-1 rocket , which lifted off the Naro Space Centre , on the southern coast of South Korea at 08:00 GMT on 25 August 2009 . The launch failed to place STSAT-2 into orbit after half of the payload fairing failed to separate . This resulted in the second stage being too heavy to reach orbit , and it fell back to Earth along with the satellite . Further investigation is ongoing . A second satellite , STSAT-2B , was launched on June 10 , 2010 , but the launch vehicle failed again .","qid":"2782","docid":"STSAT-2A","rank":82,"score":133160},{"content":"Title: Atmospheric Environment Content: Atmospheric Environment is a peer-reviewed scientific journal covering research pertaining to air pollution and other ways humans and natural forces affect the Earth 's atmosphere . It was established in 1967 . In 1990 it was split into two parts , Atmospheric Environment , Part A : General Topics and Atmospheric Environment , Part B : Urban Atmosphere , which were merged again in 1994 . The editors-in-chief are C.K. Chan ( Hong Kong University of Science and Technology ) , H.B. Singh ( NASA Ames Research Center ) , and A. Wiedensohler ( Leibniz Institute for Tropospheric Research ) . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2013 impact factor of 3.062 .","qid":"2782","docid":"Atmospheric_Environment","rank":83,"score":133098},{"content":"Title: IMAGE Content: IMAGE ( from Imager for Magnetopause-to-Aurora Global Exploration ) , or Explorer 78 , was a NASA MIDEX mission that studied the global response of the Earth 's magnetosphere to changes in the solar wind . It was launched March 25 , 2000 by a Delta II rocket from Vandenberg AFB and ceased operations in December 2005 . The IMAGE craft was placed in a 1,000 × 46,000 km orbit around the Earth , with an inclination of 90 ° ( passing over the poles ) and a 14.2 hour period . IMAGE was the first spacecraft dedicated to observing the magnetosphere of the Earth , and it produced comprehensive global images of plasma in the inner magnetosphere . It did this using five instruments : Neutral Atom Imagers ( LENA , MENA , HENA ) Far-Ultraviolet ( FUV ) Imaging System Extreme Ultraviolet ( EUV ) Imager Radio Plasma Imager ( RPI ) Central Instrument Data Processor ( CIDP ) The CIDP as well as the Command & Data Handling Subsystem ( main on-board computer ) of the craft were built around the mission-proven RAD6000 avionics processors .","qid":"2782","docid":"IMAGE","rank":84,"score":132662},{"content":"Title: Joan T. Schmelz Content: Joan T. Schmelz has been a professor of physics at the University of Memphis since 1996 . Schmelz 's research focus is heliophysics , specifically investigating the coronal heating problem as well as the properties and dynamics of the solar atmosphere . She uses spectroscopic and image data in the X-ray and ultraviolet wavelength ranges obtained from NASA satellites and rockets . She has published over 80 refereed scientific journal articles and authored three books . Dr. Schmelz also was the chair of the American Astronomical Society 's ( AAS 's ) Committee on the Status of Women in Astronomy for 6 years ( two terms ) . Schmelz has recently come under fire for alleged age and disability discrimination at Arecibo Observatory in Puerto Rico","qid":"2782","docid":"Joan_T._Schmelz","rank":85,"score":132583},{"content":"Title: NOAA-7 Content: NOAA-7 , designated NOAA-C before launch , was an American weather satellite launched in June 1981 as part of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 's Polar Operational Environmental Satellites ( POES ) program . It was used to support the Global Atmospheric Research Program ( GARP ) during 1978 -- 1984 . An earlier launch , NOAA-B , was scheduled to become NOAA-7 , however NOAA-B failed to reach its required orbit . The launch of NOAA-7 took place at 10:52:59 UTC ( 3:53 a.m. PST ) on 23 June 1981 from Space Launch Complex 3W at the Vandenberg Air Force Base in California . NOAA-7 was launched atop an Atlas E/F rocket with a Star-37S-ISS upper stage . The NOAA-7 satellite had a mass of 588.9 kg . The satellite 's design provided an economical and stable sun synchronous platform for advanced operational instruments to measure the Earth 's atmosphere , its surface and cloud cover , and the near space environment . The primary sensors included an Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer ( AVHRR ) and a TIROS Operational Vertical Sounder ( TOVS ) . One of the primary mission sensors , the High Resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder ( HIRS ) , failed 7 February 1985 . There were a number of secondary experiments on-board NOAA-7 . These include a Space Environment Monitor ( SEM ) and a Data Collection and Platform Location System ( DCPLS ) . The United States Air Force also provided a contamination monitor to assess contamination sources , levels and effects for consideration on future spacecraft . NOAA-7 was based upon the Block 5D spacecraft bus developed for the U.S. Air Force . The satellite was capable of maintaining an earth-pointing accuracy of better than ± 0.1 ° with a motion rate of less than 0.035 degrees/second . NOAA-7 was withdrawn from use in June 1986 after its power system malfunctioned . In August 1997 the decommissioned satellite experienced an abrupt 1 second change in orbital period . At the same time 3 new debris particles were observed . It is unclear if this was caused by an internal release of energy or collision with an unidentified object . As of 8 December 2013 , the derelict satellite remains in a 834 by orbit , inclined at 98.87 degrees and with a period of 101.62 minutes .","qid":"2782","docid":"NOAA-7","rank":86,"score":132290},{"content":"Title: X-ray astronomy satellite Content: An X-ray astronomy satellite studies X-ray emissions from celestial objects , as part of a branch of space science known as X-ray astronomy . Satellites are needed because X-radiation is absorbed by the Earth 's atmosphere , so instruments to detect X-rays must be taken to high altitude by balloons , sounding rockets , and satellites . A detector is placed on a satellite which is then put into orbit well above the Earth 's atmosphere . Unlike balloons , instruments on satellites are able to observe the full range of the X-ray spectrum . Unlike sounding rockets , they can collect data for as long as the instruments continue to operate . For example , the Chandra X-ray Observatory has been operational for more than fifteen years .","qid":"2782","docid":"X-ray_astronomy_satellite","rank":87,"score":132205},{"content":"Title: EOSDIS Content: The Earth Observing System Data and Information System ( EOSDIS ) is a key core capability in NASA 's Earth Science Data Systems Program . It is a comprehensive data and information system designed to perform a wide variety of functions in support of a heterogeneous national and international user community . EOSDIS provides a spectrum of services ; some services are intended for a diverse group of casual users while others are intended only for a select cadre of research scientists chosen by NASA 's peer-reviewed competitions , and then many fall somewhere in between . The primary services provided by EOSDIS are User Support , Data Archive , Management and Distribution , Information Management , and Product Generation , all of which are managed by the Earth Science Data and Information System ( ESDIS ) Project . EOSDIS ingests , processes , archives , and distributes data from a large number of Earth observing satellites , and provides end-to-end capabilities for managing NASA 's Earth science data from various sources -- satellites , aircraft , field measurements , and various other programs . For the Earth Observing System ( EOS ) satellite missions , EOSDIS provides capabilities for command and control , scheduling , data capture and initial ( Level 0 ) processing . These capabilities , constituting the EOSDIS Mission Operations , are managed by the Earth Science Mission Operations ( ESMO ) Project . NASA network capabilities transport the data to the science operations facilities . EOSDIS consists of a set of processing facilities and Earth Science Data Centers ( referred to as Distributed Active Archive Centers , or DAACs ) distributed across the United States . These processing facilities and DAACs serve hundreds of thousands of users around the world , providing hundreds of millions of data files each year covering many Earth science disciplines . The EOSDIS project as of September 2012 reported it contained approximately 10 PB of data in its database with ingestion of approximately 8.5 TB daily . The remaining capabilities of EOSDIS constitute the EOSDIS Science Operations , which are managed by the Earth Science Data and Information System ( ESDIS ) Project . These capabilities include : generation of higher level ( Level 1-4 ) science data products for EOS missions ; archiving and distribution of data products from EOS and other satellite missions , as well as aircraft and field measurement campaigns . The EOSDIS science operations are performed within a distributed system of many interconnected nodes ( Science Investigator-led Processing Systems and distributed , discipline-specific , Earth science data centers ) with specific responsibilities for production , archiving , and distribution of Earth science data products . The distributed data centers serve a large and diverse user community ( as indicated by EOSDIS performance metrics ) by providing capabilities to search and access science data products and specialized services .","qid":"2782","docid":"EOSDIS","rank":88,"score":131986},{"content":"Title: CLARREO Content: CLARREO ( Climate Absolute Radiance and Refractivity Observatory ) is a high-priority NASA decadal survey mission , originally selected as such by the National Research Council in 2007 . The CLARREO mission is intended to provide a metrology laboratory in orbit to accurately quantify and attribute Earth 's climate change ( see List of climate research satellites ) . If launched at the earliest opportunity , CLARREO 's observations could be used to detect the largest of climate trends above natural variability by the year 2039 . Then it may go on to further test , validate , and improve prediction by climate models . The mission also might provide the first orbiting radiometers with enough accuracy to serve as reference calibration standards that can fine-tune other spaceborne sensors and climate research , making climate trends apparent in their data sets within a 30-year time frame . Due to funding cuts in announced for the 2012 budget , the CLARREO mission was significantly scaled back , while remaining spaceborne projects were eyed to fill the gap . In the President 's FY16 budget request , CLARREO was provided $ 76.9 M to demonstrate essential measurement technologies of the CLARREO Tier 1 Decadal Survey mission . That funding will potentially support the flight of two instruments , Reflected Solar ( RS ) and Infrared ( IR ) spectrometers , hosted on the International Space Station in FY 2019 .","qid":"2782","docid":"CLARREO","rank":89,"score":131961},{"content":"Title: Charged Aerosol Release Experiment Content: The Charged Aerosol Release Experiment also known as CARE , is a project run by NASA which will use a rocket to release dust in the upper atmosphere to form a dusty plasma in space . The clouds thus generated are intended to simulate naturally occurring phenomena called noctilucent clouds , which are the highest clouds in the atmosphere . The CARE experiment is intended to create an artificial dust layer at the boundary of space in a controlled sense , in order to `` allow scientists to study different aspects of it , the turbulence generated on the inside , the distribution of dust particles and such . '' The dust cloud is generated using the Nihka motor dust generator . The dust cloud is composed of aluminum oxide , carbon monoxide , hydrogen chloride , water , and nitrogen , as well as smaller amounts of carbon dioxide , hydrogen , monatomic chlorine , and monatomic hydrogen . According to NASA , SHIMMER will track the CARE dust cloud for days or even months . The SHIMMER instrument has previously viewed natural noctilucent clouds for the past two years . The CARE will be the first space viewing of an artificial noctilucent cloud . The rocket was set to launch between 7:30 and 7:57 EDT on Tuesday Sept. 14 , 2009 from NASA 's Wallops Flight Facility in Virginia .","qid":"2782","docid":"Charged_Aerosol_Release_Experiment","rank":90,"score":131912},{"content":"Title: Polar (satellite) Content: The Global Geospace Science ( GGS ) Polar Satellite was a NASA science spacecraft designed to study the polar magnetosphere and aurora . It was launched into orbit in February 1996 , and continued operations until the program was terminated in April 2008 . The spacecraft remains in orbit , though it is now inactive . Polar is the sister ship to GGS Wind .","qid":"2782","docid":"Polar_(satellite)","rank":91,"score":131452},{"content":"Title: ADM-Aeolus Content: ADM-Aeolus , or , in full , Atmospheric Dynamics Mission Aeolus , is an Earth observation satellite built by Airbus Defence and Space that is due for launch in 2017 . ADM-Aeolus will be the first equipment capable of performing global wind-component-profile observation and will provide much-needed information to improve weather forecasting . in Greek mythology , Aeolus is the name of the ruler of the winds .","qid":"2782","docid":"ADM-Aeolus","rank":92,"score":131426},{"content":"Title: Deep Space Climate Observatory Content: Deep Space Climate Observatory ( DSCOVR ; formerly known as Triana , unofficially known as GoreSat ) is a NOAA Earth observation and space weather satellite launched by SpaceX on a Falcon 9 launch vehicle on February 11 , 2015 from Cape Canaveral . It was originally developed as a NASA satellite proposed in 1998 by then-Vice President Al Gore for the purpose of Earth observation . It is in a Lissajous orbit at the Sun-Earth Lagrangian point , 1500000 km from Earth , to monitor variable solar wind condition , provide early warning of approaching coronal mass ejections and observe phenomena on Earth including changes in ozone , aerosols , dust and volcanic ash , cloud height , vegetation cover and climate . At this location it has a continuous view of the Sun and the sunlit side of the Earth . The satellite is orbiting the Sun-Earth point in a six-month period , with a spacecraft-Earth-Sun angle varying from 4 to 15 degrees . It takes full-Earth pictures about every two hours and is able to process them faster than other Earth observation satellites . DSCOVR started orbiting around by June 8 , 2015 , just over 100 days after launch . After the spacecraft arrived on site and entered its operational phase , NASA began releasing near-real time images of Earth through the EPIC instrument 's website .","qid":"2782","docid":"Deep_Space_Climate_Observatory","rank":93,"score":131211},{"content":"Title: Cos-B Content: COS-B was the first European Space Research Organisation mission to study cosmic gamma ray sources . COS-B was first put forward by the European scientific community in the mid-1960s and approved by the ESRO council in 1969 . The mission consisted of a satellite containing gamma-ray detectors , which was launched by NASA on behalf of the ESRO on August 9 , 1975 . The mission was completed on April 25 , 1982 , after the satellite had been operational for more than 6.5 years , four years longer than planned and had increased the amount of data on gamma rays by a factor of 25 . Scientific results included the 2CG Catalogue listing around 25 gamma ray sources and a map of the Milky Way . The satellite also observed the X-ray binary Cygnus X-3 .","qid":"2782","docid":"Cos-B","rank":94,"score":131199},{"content":"Title: Cartosat-2A Content: Cartosat-2A is an Earth observation satellite in a sun-synchronous orbit and the third of the Cartosat series of satellites . The satellite is the thirteenth satellite in the Indian Remote Sensing ( IRS ) satellite series to be built , launched and maintained by the Indian Space Research Organisation . It was launched by the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle - C9 on April 28 , 2008 along with the 87 kg Indian Mini Satellite ( IMS-1 ) and eight nano research satellites belonging to research facilities in Canada , Denmark , Germany , Japan and the Netherlands . This satellite is a Ministry of Defence mission for the Government of India . It is a dedicated satellite for the Indian Armed Forces which is in the process of establishing an Aerospace Command . The satellite carries a panchromatic ( PAN ) camera capable of taking black-and-white pictures in the visible region of electromagnetic spectrum . The highly agile Cartosat-2A can be steered up to 45 degrees along as well as across the direction of its movement to facilitate imaging of any area more frequently . The satellite 's health is continuously monitored from the Spacecraft Control Centre at Bangalore with the help of ISTRAC network of stations at Bangalore , Lucknow , Mauritius , Bearslake in Russia , Biak in Indonesia and Svalbard in Norway .","qid":"2782","docid":"Cartosat-2A","rank":95,"score":131036},{"content":"Title: THEMIS Content: The Time History of Events and Macroscale Interactions during Substorms ( THEMIS ) mission was originally a constellation of five NASA satellites ( THEMIS A through THEMIS E ) to study energy releases from Earth 's magnetosphere known as substorms , magnetic phenomena that intensify auroras near Earth 's poles . The name of the mission is an acronym alluding to the Titan , Themis . Three of the satellites remain in the magnetosphere , while two have been moved into orbit near the Moon . Those have been renamed ARTEMIS for Acceleration , Reconnection , Turbulence and Electrodynamics of the Moon 's Interaction with the Sun . THEMIS B became ARTEMIS P1 and THEMIS C became ARTEMIS P2 . The THEMIS satellites were launched February 17 , 2007 from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Space Launch Complex 17 aboard a Delta II rocket . Each satellite carries identical instrumentation , including a fluxgate magnetometer ( FGM ) , an electrostatic analyzer ( ESA ) , a solid state telescope ( SST ) , a search-coil magnetometer ( SCM ) and an electric field instrument ( EFI ) . Each has a mass of 126 kg , including 49 kg of fuel . THEMIS data can be accessed using the SPEDAS software .","qid":"2782","docid":"THEMIS","rank":96,"score":130827},{"content":"Title: Thomas Sever Content: Dr. Thomas L. Sever is an archaeologist with NASA 's Marshall Space Flight Center . Dr. Sever is NASA 's only archaeologist and works primarily with Dan Irwin to decode remote sensing readings . While most of his work has dealt with South American and ancient Mayan civilization , Dr. Sever has also used his skills in meteorology . Remote sensing uses an apparatus that scans the earth with CAMS to detect features not seen by the human eye . While the sensitivity creates hundreds of readings and possibilities , specialists must analyze the data to determine the meanings . Dr. Sever has found that thermal imaging can discover old routes and footpaths now covered by dense vegetation . By interpreting the data , NASA has located hundreds of old and abandoned cities , not previously known to exist . Sever also used remote sensing technology in Costa Rica . A project team of professionals from NASA and the University of Colorado searched in the mountains for ancient footpaths , the oldest known in the New World , buried under six volcanic deposits and obscured from the air by a 150-foot jungle canopy . The difference in moisture level of the soils detected by TIMS led to their discovery . Although they saw no physical evidence of the footpaths on the ground , the team dug trenches to confirm their existence through archaeological investigation . In addition , by following the footpaths and using predictive modeling , the project team located approximately 60 settlements and other sites in areas of the Costa Rican mountains that had been believed to be uninhabited in prehistoric times . He currently teaches at the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) , his best class is the collapse of civilizations .","qid":"2782","docid":"Thomas_Sever","rank":97,"score":130724},{"content":"Title: CBERS-3 Content: China -- Brazil Earth Resources Satellite 3 ( CBERS-3 ) , also known as Ziyuan I-03 or Ziyuan 1D , was a remote sensing satellite intended for operation as part of the China -- Brazil Earth Resources Satellite programme between the China Centre for Resources Satellite Data and Application and Brazil 's National Institute for Space Research . The fourth CBERS satellite to fly , it was lost in a launch failure in December 2013 .","qid":"2782","docid":"CBERS-3","rank":98,"score":130692},{"content":"Title: Ionospheric Connection Explorer Content: The Ionospheric Connection Explorer -RSB- ( ICON ) is a satellite designed to investigate changes in the Earth 's ionosphere and is scheduled for launch in the summer of 2017 . The mission is being led by the University of California , Berkeley and will be a new addition to NASA 's Explorer program . ICON will provide NASA 's Heliophysics Division with a new capability to understand the tug-of-war between Earth 's atmosphere and the space environment . In the `` no man 's land '' of the ionosphere , a continuous struggle between solar forcing and Earth 's weather systems drive extreme and unpredicted variability . ICON will investigate the forces at play in the near-space environment , leading the way in understanding disturbances that can lead to severe interference with communications and GPS signals . On April 12 , 2013 , NASA announced that ICON , along with Global-scale Observations of the Limb and Disk ( GOLD ) , had been selected for launch in 2017 , with the cost capped at $ 200 million , excluding launch costs . The principal investigator of ICON is Thomas Immel at the University of California , Berkeley .","qid":"2782","docid":"Ionospheric_Connection_Explorer","rank":99,"score":130192},{"content":"Title: FORMOSAT-5 Content: FORMOSAT-5 is a planned Earth observation satellite operated by the National Space Organization ( NSPO ) of the Republic of China ( Taiwan ) . It is to be NSPO 's first indigenous developed remote sensing satellite .","qid":"2782","docid":"FORMOSAT-5","rank":100,"score":129943}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Remote Sensing Systems Content: Remote Sensing Systems ( RSS ) is a private research company founded in 1974 by Frank Wentz . It processes microwave data from a variety of NASA satellites . Most of their research is supported by the Earth Science Enterprise program . The company is based in Santa Rosa , California . They are a widely cited source of data , on the satellite temperature record . Their data is one source of evidence for global warming . Research by Carl Mears , Matthias Schabel , and Wentz , all of RSS , highlighted errors in the early satellite temperature records compiled by John Christy and Roy Spencer at UAH . The UAH data had previously showed no significant temperature trend , bringing the derived satellite data into closer agreement with surface temperature trends , radiosonde data and computer models . The UAH data is now closer to the RSS data but differences remain , for example the Lower Troposphere global average trend since 1979 , RSS currently have +0.133 K/decade while UAH have 0.140 K/decade , while the mid troposphere difference is even more marked at 0.079 K/decade and 0.052 K/decade respectively . However , in a recent online YouTube video , Dr. Carl Mears , a senior scientist with the team behind the satellite data , explained how he believes his data set needed correction . I would have to say that the surface data seems that it 's more accurate , because a number of groups analyze the surface data , including some who set out to prove the other ones wrong , and they all get more or less the same answer .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"Remote_Sensing_Systems\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 202608\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of climate research satellites Content: The invention of climate research through the use of satellite remote telemetry began in the 1960s through development of space probes to study other planets . During the U.S. economic decline in 1977 , with much of NASA 's money going toward the Shuttle program , the Reagan Administration proposed to reduce spending on planetary exploration . During this time , new scientific evidence emerged from ice and sediment cores that Earth 's climate had experienced rapid changes in temperature , running contrary to the previously held belief that the climate changed on a geological time scale . These changes increased political interest in gathering remote-sensing data on the Earth itself and stimulated the science of climatology .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_climate_research_satellites\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 182017\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite Content: The Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite ( UARS ) was a NASA-operated orbital observatory whose mission was to study the Earth 's atmosphere , particularly the protective ozone layer . The 5900 kg satellite was deployed from Space Shuttle Discovery during the STS-48 mission on 15 September 1991 . It entered Earth orbit at an operational altitude of 600 km , with an orbital inclination of 57 degrees . The original mission duration was to be only three years , but was extended several times . When the mission finally ended in June 2005 due to funding cuts , 14 years after the satellite 's launch , six of its ten instruments were still operational . A final orbit-lowering burn was performed in early December 2005 to prepare the satellite for deorbit . On 26 October 2010 , the International Space Station performed a debris-avoidance maneuver in response to a conjunction with UARS . The decommissioned satellite re-entered Earth 's atmosphere on 24 September 2011 . Considerable media attention surrounded the event , largely due to NASA 's predictions that substantial parts of the satellite might reach the ground , potentially endangering inhabited areas . However , the satellite ultimately impacted in a remote area of the Pacific Ocean .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"Upper_Atmosphere_Research_Satellite\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 176519\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: David Lary Content: David Lary ( born 7 December 1965 ) is an atmospheric scientist interested in applying computational and information systems to facilitate discovery and decision support in Earth system science . His main contributions have been to highlight the role of carbonaceous aerosols in atmospheric chemistry , heterogeneous bromine reactions , and to employ chemical data assimilation for satellite validation , and the use of machine learning for remote sensing applications . He is author of AutoChem , NASA release software that constitutes an automatic computer code generator and documentor for chemically reactive systems . It was designed primarily for modeling atmospheric chemistry , and in particular , for chemical data assimilation . AutoChem has won five NASA awards and has been used to perform long term chemical data assimilation of atmospheric chemistry and in the validation of observations from the NASA Aura satellite . It has been used in numerous peer reviewed articles . David Lary completed his education in the United Kingdom . He received a first class double honors BSc in physics and chemistry from King 's College London ( 1987 ) with the Sambrooke Exhibition Prize in Natural Science , and a PhD in atmospheric chemistry from the University of Cambridge , Department of Chemistry while at Churchill College ( 1991 ) . His thesis described the first chemical scheme for the ECMWF numerical weather prediction model . He then held post-doctoral research assistant and associate positions at the University of Cambridge until receiving a Royal Society research fellowship in 1996 ( also at Cambridge ) . From 1998 to 2000 he held a joint position at Cambridge and the University of Tel-Aviv as a senior lecturer and Alon fellow . In 2001 he joined UMBC/GEST as the first distinguished Goddard fellow in earth science . Between 2001 and 2010 he was part of various branches at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center including the Global Modeling and Assimilation Office , the Atmospheric Chemistry and Dynamics Branch , the Software Integration and Visualization Office , and the Goddard Earth Sciences ( GES ) Data and Information Services Center ( DISC ) . In 2010 he moved to the William B. Hanson Center for Space Sciences at the University of Texas at Dallas , where he has focused on the health effects of atmospheric particulates , and developing a fleet of unmanned aerial vehicles for a variety of agricultural , environmental , and meteorological applications .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"David_Lary\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 175098\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment Content: The Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment ( SORCE ) is a NASA-sponsored satellite mission that measures incoming X-ray , ultraviolet , visible , near-infrared , and total solar radiation . These measurements specifically address long-term climate change , natural variability and enhanced climate prediction , and atmospheric ozone and UV-B radiation . These measurements are critical to studies of the Sun , its effect on our Earth system and its influence on humankind . The SORCE spacecraft launched on January 25 , 2003 on a Pegasus XL launch vehicle to provide NASA 's Earth Science Enterprise ( ESE ) with precise measurements of solar radiation . SORCE measures the Sun 's output using radiometers , spectrometers , photodiodes , detectors , and bolometers mounted on a satellite observatory . The SORCE satellite orbits the Earth accumulating solar data . Spectral measurements identify the irradiance of the Sun by characterizing the Sun 's energy and emissions in the form of color that can then be translated into quantities and elements of matter . Data obtained by the SORCE experiment can be used to model the Sun 's output and to explain and predict the effect of the Sun 's radiation on the Earth 's atmosphere and climate . Flying in a 645 km , 40 degree orbit , SORCE is operated by the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics ( LASP ) at the University of Colorado at Boulder , Colorado . It will continue the precise measurements of total solar irradiance that began with the ERB instrument in 1979 and has continued to the present with the ACRIM series of measurements . SORCE will also provide the measurements of the solar spectral irradiance from 1 nm to 2000 nm , accounting for 95 % of the spectral contribution to the total solar irradiance . SORCE carries four instruments including the Total Irradiance Monitor ( TIM ) , Solar Stellar Irradiance Comparison Experiment ( SOLSTICE ) , Spectral Irradiance Monitor ( SIM ) , and the XUV Photometer System ( XPS ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"Solar_Radiation_and_Climate_Experiment\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 173668\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Iris hypothesis Content: The iris hypothesis is a hypothesis proposed by Richard Lindzen et al. in 2001 that suggested increased sea surface temperature in the tropics would result in reduced cirrus clouds and thus more infrared radiation leakage from Earth 's atmosphere . His study of observed changes in cloud coverage and modeled effects on infrared radiation released to space as a result supported the hypothesis . This suggested infrared radiation leakage was hypothesized to be a negative feedback in which an initial warming would result in an overall cooling of the surface . The consensus view is that increased sea surface temperature would result in increased cirrus clouds and reduced infrared radiation leakage and therefore a positive feedback . Other scientists subsequently tested the hypothesis . Some concluded that there was no evidence supporting the hypothesis . Others found evidence suggesting that increased sea surface temperature in the tropics did indeed reduce cirrus clouds but found that the effect was nonetheless a positive feedback rather than the negative feedback that Lindzen had hypothesized . A later 2007 study conducted by Roy Spencer et al. using updated satellite data potentially supported the iris hypothesis . In 2011 , Lindzen published a rebuttal to the main criticisms . In 2015 a paper was published which again suggested the possibility of an `` Iris Effect '' . It also proposed what it called a `` plausible physical mechanism for an iris effect . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"Iris_hypothesis\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 172910\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer Content: ASTER ( Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer ) is a Japanese sensor which is one of five remote sensory devices on board the Terra satellite launched into Earth orbit by NASA in 1999 . The instrument has been collecting data since February 2000 . ASTER provides high-resolution images of the planet Earth in 14 different bands of the electromagnetic spectrum , ranging from visible to thermal infrared light . The resolution of images ranges between 15 and 90 meters . ASTER data are used to create detailed maps of surface temperature of land , emissivity , reflectance , and elevation . The ASTER Global Digital Elevation Model ( GDEM ) is available at no charge to users worldwide via electronic download .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"Advanced_Spaceborne_Thermal_Emission_and_Reflection_Radiometer\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 170456\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmospheric Infrared Sounder Content: The Atmospheric Infrared Sounder ( AIRS ) is one of six instruments flying on board NASA 's Aqua satellite , launched on May 4 , 2002 . The instrument is designed to support climate research and improve weather forecasting . Working in combination with its partner microwave instrument , the Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit ( AMSU-A ) , AIRS observes the global water and energy cycles , climate variation and trends , and the response of the climate system to increased greenhouse gases . AIRS uses infrared technology to create three-dimensional maps of air and surface temperature , water vapor , and cloud properties . AIRS can also measure trace greenhouse gases such as ozone , carbon monoxide , carbon dioxide , and methane . AIRS and AMSU-A share the Aqua satellite with the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer ( MODIS ) , Clouds and the Earth 's Radiant Energy System ( CERES ) , and the Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer-EOS ( AMSR-E ) . Aqua is part of NASA 's `` A-train , '' a series of high-inclination , Sun-synchronous satellites in low Earth orbit designed to make long-term global observations of the land surface , biosphere , solid Earth , atmosphere , and ocean . AIRS data is free and available to the public through the Goddard Earth Sciences Data Information and Services Center . NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena , California , manages AIRS for NASA 's Science Mission Directorate in Washington , D.C.\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmospheric_Infrared_Sounder\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 165272\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Explorer 7 Content: Explorer 7 was launched October 13 , 1959 at 10:36 a.m. Eastern Time by a Juno II rocket from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station to an orbit of 573 km by 1073 km and inclination of 50.27 ° . It was designed to measure solar x-ray and Lyman-alpha flux , trapped energetic particles , and heavy primary cosmic rays . Also Secondary objectives included collecting data on micrometeoroid penetration and molecular sputtering and studying the Earth-atmosphere heat balance . Launch was originally scheduled for late September 1959 , but the mission was delayed for a week after a Jupiter IRBM test on an adjacent pad failed shortly after liftoff , causing flying debris to hit Explorer 7 's launch vehicle . However , the damage to the booster was minor and could be easily repaired . Significantly , it also carried Verner Suomi 's flat-plate radiometer , improved with the help of Robert Parent , that took the first Earth radiation budget measurements from space and initiated the era of satellite studies of the climate . Using both satellite observations of the Earth 's heat balance and atmospheric cooling rates measured by net flux radiosondes , Suomi established the important role played by clouds in absorbing radiated solar energy . These observations established that Earth 's energy budget varies markedly due to the effect of clouds , the surface albedo , and other absorbing constituents . Using these instruments , Suomi and his team discovered that the Earth absorbed more of the Sun 's energy than originally thought and demonstrated that it was possible to measure and quantify seasonal changes in the global heat budget . The satellite weighed 41.5 kg , was 75 cm high and 75 cm wide . Powered by solar cells it also carried 15 nickel-cadmium batteries around its equator . It transmitted data continuously through to February 1961 and went dead on August 24 , 1961 . It is still in orbit .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"Explorer_7\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 165269\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Petr Chýlek Content: Petr Chýlek is a researcher for Space and Remote Sensing Sciences at Los Alamos National Laboratory . Prior to becoming a government researcher in 2001 , Chýlek was a Professor at several US and Canadian universities including SUNY Albany , Purdue University , University of Oklahoma and Dalhousie University in Halifax , Canada . Chýlek has published over 100 first authored scientific papers in remote sensing , atmospheric radiation , climate change , cloud and aerosol physics , applied laser physics and ice core analysis . His work has been cited more than 4000 times . Chylek is best known for his work in remote sensing , aerosols and climate change . In 2006 , Chýlek served as Chairman , Scientific Program Committee for The Second International Conference on Global Warming and the Next Ice Age held at Los Alamos National Laboratory in Santa Fe , NM . Speakers included Venkatachalam Ramaswamy , Chris Folland , Gerald North , Roger A. Pielke , William M. Gray and Jan Veizer . The conference included a two-day workshop on climate prediction uncertainties . The papers presented at the 2006 Conference were published in a special section of the Journal of Geophysical Research - Atmospheres in 2007 . In 2007 , Chýlek and co-authors published a peer-reviewed paper estimating climate sensitivity to doubled atmospheric CO2 to be significantly less than the IPCC estimate . Chýlek received his diploma in theoretical physics from Charles University in Prague , Czech Republic . He received his Ph.D. in physics from UC Riverside in 1970 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"Petr_Chýlek\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 164354\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: James Taranik Content: James Vladimir Taranik ( April 23 , 1940 -- June 21 , 2011 ) was an American scientist and educator who worked in the area of earth-observation satellite remote sensing . He was Chief of NASA 's Non-Renewable Resources Branch and Program Scientist of the Space Shuttle 's first scientific flights with cargo that included experiments related to geology , atmospheric chemistry , meteorology , marine biology , and plant physiology in the earth and life sciences . He also held various positions in the Nevada System of Higher Education , including the Desert Research Institute and the Mackay School of Earth Sciences and Engineering .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"James_Taranik\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 164281\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite Content: The Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite ( GOSat ) , also known as , is an Earth observation satellite and the world 's first satellite dedicated to greenhouse-gas-monitoring . It measures the densities of carbon dioxide and methane from 56,000 locations on the Earth 's atmosphere . The GOSAT was developed by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency ( JAXA ) and launched on 23 January 2009 , from the Tanegashima Space Center . Japan 's Ministry of the Environment , and the National Institute for Environmental Studies ( NIES ) use the data to track gases causing the greenhouse effect , and share the data with NASA and other international scientific organizations .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_Gases_Observing_Satellite\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 164139\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Glory (satellite) Content: The Glory satellite was a planned NASA satellite mission that would have collected data on the chemical , micro-physical and optical properties -- and the spatial and temporal distributions -- of sulfate and other aerosols , and would have collected solar irradiance data for the long-term climate record . The science focus areas served by Glory included : atmospheric composition ; carbon cycle , ecosystems , and biogeochemistry ; climate variability and change ; and water and energy cycles . The US$ 424 million satellite was lost on March 4 , 2011 , when its Taurus XL carrier rocket malfunctioned . A subsequent investigation revealed that the fairing system failed to open fully , causing the satellite to reenter the atmosphere at which point it likely broke up and burned .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"Glory_(satellite)\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 163786\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: CRRES Content: The Combined Release and Radiation Effects Satellite ( CRRES ) was launched on July 25 , 1990 into a geosynchronous transfer orbit ( GTO ) for a nominal three-year mission to investigate fields , plasmas , and energetic particles inside the Earth 's magnetosphere . As part of the CRRES program , the SPACERAD ( Space Radiation Effects ) project , managed by Air Force Geophysics Laboratory , investigated the radiation environment of the inner and outer radiation belts and measured radiation effects on state-of-the-art microelectronics devices . Other magnetospheric , ionospheric , and cosmic ray experiments were also included onboard CRRES and supported by NASA or the Office of Naval Research . The chemical release project was managed by NASA/MSFC and utilized the release of chemicals from onboard canisters at low altitudes near dawn and dusk perigee times and at high altitudes near local midnight . The chemical releases were monitored with optical and radar instrumentation by ground-based observers to measure the bulk properties and movement of the expanding clouds of photo-ionized plasma along field lines after the releases occurred . In order to study the magnetosphere at different local times during the mission , the satellite orbit was designed to precess with respect to the Earth-Sun line such that the local time at apogee decreased by 2.5 minutes/day from 08:00 ( LT ) just after launch and returned to this position in nineteen month cycles . The CRRES spacecraft had the shape of an octagonal prism with solar arrays on the top side . The prism is 1 m high and 3 m between opposite faces . Four of the eight compartments were for the chemical canisters and the other four housed the SPACERAD and other experiments . The spacecraft body was spun at 2.2 rpm about a spin axis in the ecliptic plane and kept pointed about 12 degrees ahead of the Sun 's apparent motion in celestial coordinates . Pre-launch and in-flight operations were supported by the Space Test and Transportation Program Office of the U.S. Air Force Space Division . Contact with the CRRES spacecraft was lost on October 12 , 1991 and was presumed to be due to onboard battery failure . Taken From NASA .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"CRRES\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 162558\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Seasat Content: Seasat was the first Earth-orbiting satellite designed for remote sensing of the Earth 's oceans and had on board the first spaceborne synthetic aperture radar ( SAR ) . The mission was designed to demonstrate the feasibility of global satellite monitoring of oceanographic phenomena and to help determine the requirements for an operational ocean remote sensing satellite system . Specific objectives were to collect data on sea-surface winds , sea-surface temperatures , wave heights , internal waves , atmospheric water , sea ice features and ocean topography . Seasat was managed by NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory and was launched on 27 June 1978 into a nearly circular 800 km orbit with an inclination of 108 ° . Seasat operated for 106 days until 10 October 1978 , when a massive short circuit in the satellite 's electrical system ended the mission . Seasat carried five major instruments designed to return the maximum information from ocean surfaces : Radar altimeter to measure spacecraft height above the ocean surface Microwave scatterometer to measure wind speed and direction Scanning multichannel microwave radiometer to measure sea surface temperature Visible and infrared radiometer to identify cloud , land and water features Synthetic Aperture Radar ( SAR ) L-band , HH polarization , fixed look angle to monitor the global surface wave field and polar sea ice conditions -LCB- the antenna is the light parallelogram in the picture -RCB- . The SAR support structure was designed and manufactured by Northrop Grumman Astro Aerospace in Carpinteria , CA . The structure deployed on orbit . Many later remote sensing missions owe their legacy to Seasat . These include imaging radars flown on NASA 's Space Shuttle , altimeters on Earth-orbiting satellites such as TOPEX/Poseidon , and scatterometers on NASA Scatterometer ( NSCAT ) , QuikSCAT , and Jason 1 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"Seasat\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 161907\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Idealized greenhouse model Content: The surface of the Sun radiates light and heat at approximately 5,500 ° C . The Earth is much cooler and so radiates heat back away from itself at much longer wavelengths , mostly in the infrared range . The idealized greenhouse model is based on the fact that certain gases in the Earth 's atmosphere , including carbon dioxide and water vapour , are transparent to the high-frequency , high-energy solar radiation , but are much more opaque to the lower frequency infrared radiation leaving the surface of the earth . Thus heat is easily let in , but is partially trapped by these gases as it tries to leave . Rather than get hotter and hotter , Kirchhoff 's law of thermal radiation says that the gases of the atmosphere also have to re-emit the infrared energy that they absorb , and they do so , also at long infrared wavelengths , both upwards into space as well as downwards back towards the Earth 's surface . In the long-term , thermal equilibrium is reached when all the heat energy arriving on the planet is leaving again at the same rate . In this idealized model , the greenhouse gases cause the surface of the planet to be warmer than it would be without them , in order for the required amount of heat energy finally to be radiated out into space from the top of the atmosphere . The greenhouse effect can be illustrated with an idealized planet . This is a common `` textbook model '' : the planet will have a constant surface temperature Ts and an atmosphere with constant temperature Ta . For diagrammatic clarity , a gap can be depicted between the atmosphere and the surface . Alternatively , Ts could be interpreted as a temperature representative of the surface and the lower atmosphere , and Ta could be interpreted as the temperature of the upper atmosphere . In order to justify that Ta and Ts remain constant over the planet , strong ocean and atmospheric currents can be imagined to provide plentiful lateral mixing . Furthermore , any daily or seasonal cycles in temperature are assumed to be insignificant .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"Idealized_greenhouse_model\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 156765\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Earth Radiation Budget Satellite Content: The Earth Radiation Budget Satellite ( ERBS ) was a NASA scientific research satellite launched on October 5 , 1984 , to study the Earth radiation budget and stratospheric aerosol and gases . It was carried into low Earth orbit and deployed by the during the STS-41-G mission . The spacecraft was expected to have a two-year operation life , but ultimately , the mission provided scientific data about the Earth 's ozone layer for more than two decades . Data on the ozone layer provided by ERBS was key in the international community 's decision-making process during the Montreal Protocol Agreement , which has resulted in a near elimination of CFCs in industrialized countries . ERBS was one of three satellites in the Earth Radiation Budget Experiment and carried two instruments as part of that endeavor : the ERBE scanner ( three detectors that study longwave radiation , shortwave radiation and total energy radiating from the Earth along a line of the satellite 's path ) and the ERBE non-scanner ( five detectors measuring the total energy from the Sun , and the shortwave and total energy from the entire Earth disk and the area beneath the satellite ) . The second ERBE Instrument was aboard the NOAA-9 satellite when it was launched in January 1985 , and the third was aboard the NOAA-10 satellite when it was launched in October 1986 . In addition , it carried the Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment ( SAGE II ) . It was retired for budgetary reasons on October 14 , 2005 , as one of the longest-running spacecraft missions to date .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"Earth_Radiation_Budget_Satellite\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 155246\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: SUPARCO Satellite Ground Station Content: The SUPARCO Satellite Ground Station is an earth observation and remote sensing satellite control center . The SUPARCO 's SGS center is a major space research centre of the Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission ( SUPARCO ) , focusing on the earth observational and remote sensing technology . The space center is currently controlled by the SUPARCO . It is located at Rawat near Islamabad , has an acquisition zone of approximately 2500 km radius and covers Pakistan and 25 other countries , wholly or partially , in the South Asian , Central Asian and Western Asia and Middle East regions . The SUPARCO 's SGS center acquires and archives satellite data from different earth resources satellites . The data products and related services are offered to different user agencies within and outside Pakistan .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"SUPARCO_Satellite_Ground_Station\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 154519\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Television Infrared Observation Satellite Content: TIROS , or Television Infrared Observation Satellite , is a series of early weather satellites launched by the United States , beginning with TIROS-1 in 1960 . TIROS was the first satellite that was capable of remote sensing of the Earth , enabling scientists to view the Earth from a new perspective : space . The program , promoted by Harry Wexler , proved the usefulness of satellite weather observation , at a time when military reconnaissance satellites were secretly in development or use . TIROS demonstrated at that time that `` the key to genius is often simplicity . '' TIROS is an acronym of `` Television InfraRed Observation Satellite '' and is also the plural of `` tiro '' which means `` a young soldier , a beginner '' . Participants in the TIROS project included the National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA ) , United States Army Signal Research and Development Laboratory , Radio Corporation of America , the United States Weather Bureau , the United States Naval Photographic Interpretation Center ( NPIC ) , the Environmental Science Services Administration ( ESSA ) , and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"Television_Infrared_Observation_Satellite\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 153509\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment Content: The Gravity Recovery And Climate Experiment ( GRACE ) , a joint mission of NASA and the German Aerospace Center , has been making detailed measurements of Earth 's gravity field anomalies since its launch in March 2002 . By measuring gravity anomalies , GRACE shows how mass is distributed around the planet and how it varies over time . Data from the GRACE satellites is an important tool for studying Earth 's ocean , geology , and climate . GRACE is a collaborative endeavor involving the Center for Space Research at the University of Texas , Austin ; NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory , Pasadena , Calif. ; the German Space Agency and Germany 's National Research Center for Geosciences , Potsdam . The Jet Propulsion Laboratory is responsible for the overall mission management under the NASA ESSP program . The principal investigator is Dr. Byron Tapley of the University of Texas Center for Space Research , and the co-principal investigator is Dr. Christoph Reigber of the GeoForschungsZentrum ( GFZ ) Potsdam . The GRACE satellites were launched from Plesetsk Cosmodrome , Russia on a Rockot ( SS-19 + Breeze upper stage ) launch vehicle , on 17 March 2002 . The spacecraft were launched to an initial altitude of approximately 500 km at a near-polar inclination of 89 ° . The satellites are separated by approximately 200 km along their orbit track . GRACE has far exceeded its designed five-year lifespan . the GRACE spacecrafts orbit has decayed by 150 km , and is continuing to decay at 30 km/year . Its successor , GRACE Follow-On , is expected to launch in 2017/18\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"Gravity_Recovery_and_Climate_Experiment\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 153314\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Badr-B Content: The Badr-B ( -LSB- ; also known as Badr-II , meaning Full Moon-2 ) is the second spacecraft and the first earth observation satellite launched into Earth orbit on 10 December 2001 at 09:15 by the SUPARCO -- Pakistan 's national space agency . Badr-B is a microsatellite , with a mass of ~ 70 kg , and contained the supercomputerized system to conduct the studies on the gravity gradient . Badr-B is a research satellite to explore the upper atmosphere and the near space , and carried a large array of instruments for geophysical research . The Badr-B payload was equipped with several CCD cameras , compact dosimeter , a telemetry system , charge detector and a temperature control unit . It is intended to complete and update the Islamabad Mission Control Center ( IMCC ) , and to test the remote sensing CCD instruments .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"Badr-B\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 152970\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Heat Capacity Mapping Mission Content: The Heat Capacity Mapping Mission ( HCMM ) was the first Applications Explorer Mission . HCMM provided comprehensive , accurate , high-spatial-resolution thermal surveys of the surface of the Earth . HCCM was launched from Vandenberg Air Force Base on April 26 , 1978 by a Scout-F rocket . Its mass was 117.0 kg . The HCMM spacecraft was placed in a circular sun-synchronous orbit , allowing the spacecraft to sense surface temperatures near the maximum and minimum of the diurnal cycle . There was no on-board data storage capability , so only real-time data were transmitted when the satellite came within reception range of seven ground stations . During February 21 -- 23 , 1980 , the HCMM orbital altitude was lowered from 620 km to 540 km to stop the drift of the orbit plane to unfavorable sun angles which in turn reduced the power collection capability of the solar panels . The operations of the spacecraft were terminated on September 30 , 1980 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"Heat_Capacity_Mapping_Mission\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 152887\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Gravity Probe B Content: Gravity Probe B ( GP-B ) was a satellite-based mission which launched on 20 April 2004 on a Delta II rocket . The spaceflight phase lasted until 2005 ; its aim was to measure spacetime curvature near Earth , and thereby the stress -- energy tensor ( which is related to the distribution and the motion of matter in space ) in and near Earth . This provided a test of general relativity , gravitomagnetism and related models . The principal investigator was Francis Everitt . Initial results confirmed the expected geodetic effect to an accuracy of about 1 % . The expected frame-dragging effect was similar in magnitude to the current noise level ( the noise being dominated by initially unmodeled effects due to nonuniform coatings on the gyroscopes ) . Work continued to model and account for these sources of error , thus permitting extraction of the frame-dragging signal . By August 2008 , the frame-dragging effect had been confirmed to within 15 % of the expected result , and the December 2008 NASA report indicated that the geodetic effect was confirmed to better than 0.5 % . In an article published in the journal Physical Review Letters in 2011 , the authors reported analysis of the data from all four gyroscopes results in a geodetic drift rate of and a frame-dragging drift rate of , in good agreement with the general relativity predictions of and , respectively .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"Gravity_Probe_B\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 152242\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Equatorial Vortex Experiment Content: The Equatorial Vortex Experiment ( EVEX ) is a NASA-funded sounding rocket mission to better understand and predict the electrical storms in Earth 's upper atmosphere . As part of this experiment , two rockets were launched for a twelve-minute journey through the equatorial ionosphere above the South Pacific . These rockets were launched from Kwajalein Atoll in the Marshall Islands during a period of April 27 to May 10 , 2013 . The principal investigator for this mission is Erhan Kudeki of the University of Illinois . The purpose of this experiment is to study what disrupts Radio waves . A NASA Terrier Oriole sounding rocket was launched at 3:39 a.m. EDT on 7 May 2013 from Roi Namur , Republic of the Marshall Islands . Ninety seconds later a Terrier-Improved Malemute sounding rocket also was launches successfully . This experiment will help scientists better understand and predict the electrical storms in Earth 's upper atmosphere . The electrical storms can interfere with satellite communication and global positioning signals . Payload for each rocket included two canisters of samarium and a dual frequency RF Beacon ( NRL CERTO ) . These two rockets released vapor clouds of lithium ( trimethyl aluminum ) , and were observed from various locations in the area . All scientific instruments on the rockets worked as planned . These two rockets were the second and third rockets of four planned for launch during 2013 's campaign in the Marshall Islands .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"Equatorial_Vortex_Experiment\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 151433\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Frank Wentz Content: Frank Wentz is the CEO and director of Remote Sensing Systems , a company he founded in 1974 . Remote Sensing Systems specializes in satellite microwave remote sensing research . Together with Carl Mears , he is best known for developing a satellite temperature record from MSU and AMSU . Intercomparison of this record with the earlier UAH satellite temperature record , developed by John Christy and Roy Spencer , revealed deficiencies in the earlier work ; specifically , the warming trend in the RSS version is larger than the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) one . From 1978 to 1982 Frank was a member of NASA 's SeaSat Experiment Team involved in the development of physically based retrieval methods for microwave scatterometers and radiometers . He has also investigated the effect of climate change on satellite-derived evaporation , precipitation and surface wind values . His findings are different from most climate change model predictions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"Frank_Wentz\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 151172\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: European Remote-Sensing Satellite Content: European remote sensing satellite ( ERS ) was the European Space Agency 's first Earth-observing satellite programme using a polar orbit . The first satellite was launched on 17 July 1991 into a Sun-synchronous polar orbit at an altitude of 782 -- 785 km .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"European_Remote-Sensing_Satellite\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 151062\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: NRLMSISE-00 Content: NRLMSISE-00 is an empirical , global model of the Earth 's atmosphere from ground to space . It models the temperatures and densities of the atmosphere 's components . A primary use of this model is to aid predictions of satellite orbital decay due to atmospheric drag . This model has also been used by astronomers to calculate the mass of air between telescopes and laser beams in order to assess the impact of laser guide stars on the non-lasing telescopes .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"NRLMSISE-00\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 150685\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: EgyptSat 1 Content: EgyptSat 1 or MisrSat-1 is Egypt 's first Earth remote sensing satellite . This satellite was jointly built by Egypt 's National Authority for Remote Sensing and Space Sciences together with the Yuzhnoye Design Bureau in Ukraine and was launched on board a Dnepr rocket on 17 April 2007 from the Baikonur Cosmodrome . The effort was spearheaded by Dr. Aly Sadek , chairman of the Egyptian Council for Space Science and Technology Research . It in many ways was considered a huge step for the Egyptians since it marked the first time they opted for technology transfer during the manufacturing the satellite rather than simply purchasing one ( as in case of the Nilesat satellites ) . On 23 October 2010 , the National Authority for Remote Sensing and Space Sciences announced that control and communication with the satellite had been lost since July 2010 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"EgyptSat_1\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 149464\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Nimbus program Content: The Nimbus satellites were second-generation U.S. robotic spacecraft used for meteorological research and development . The spacecraft were designed to serve as stabilized , Earth-oriented platforms for the testing of advanced systems to sense and collect atmospheric science data . Seven Nimbus spacecraft have been launched into near-polar , sun-synchronous orbits beginning with Nimbus 1 on August 28 , 1964 . On board the Nimbus satellites are various instrumentation for imaging , sounding , and other studies in different spectral regions . The Nimbus satellites were launched aboard Thor-Agena rockets ( Nimbus 1-4 ) and Delta rockets ( Nimbus 5-7 ) . Over a 20-year period from the launch of the first satellite , the Nimbus series of missions was the United States ' primary research and development platform for satellite remote-sensing of the Earth . The seven Nimbus satellites , launched over a fourteen-year period , shared their space-based observations of the planet for thirty years . NASA transferred the technology tested and refined by the Nimbus missions to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) for its operational satellite instruments . The technology and lessons learned from the Nimbus missions are the heritage of most of the Earth-observing satellites NASA and NOAA have launched over the past three decades .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"Nimbus_program\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 148690\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Land Remote-Sensing Commercialization Act of 1984 Content: The Land Remote-Sensing Commercialization Act of 1984 is a United States statute establishing a system to further the utilization of satellite imagery data obtained from Earth observation satellites located in a geocentric orbit above the atmosphere of Earth . The H.R. 5155 legislation was passed by the 98th U.S. Congressional session and enacted into law by the 40th President of the United States Ronald Reagan on July 17 , 1984 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"Land_Remote-Sensing_Commercialization_Act_of_1984\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 147892\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Akebono (satellite) Content: Akebono ( known as EXOS-D before launch ) is a satellite to study aurora and Earth 's magnetosphere environment . It was developed by Institute of Space and Astronautical Science and launched by M-3SII rocket on February 22 , 1989 . After 26 years of successful observation , operation was terminated on April 23 , 2015 , due to the degradation of solar cells and the decay of orbit .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"Akebono_(satellite)\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 146980\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Aura (satellite) Content: Aura ( EOS CH-1 ) is a multi-national NASA scientific research satellite in orbit around the Earth , studying the Earth 's ozone layer , air quality and climate . It is the third major component of the Earth Observing System ( EOS ) following on Terra ( launched 1999 ) and Aqua ( launched 2002 ) . Aura follows on from the Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite ( UARS ) . The name `` Aura '' comes from the Latin word for air . The satellite was launched from Vandenberg Air Force Base on July 15 , 2004 , aboard a Delta II 7920-10L rocket . The Aura spacecraft has a mass of about 1765 kg . The body is 6.9 m long with the extended single solar panel about 15 m long . Aura flies in a sun-synchronous orbit , in formation with 6 other satellites , collectively known as the `` A Train '' . The other satellites in the formation are : Aqua CALIPSO CloudSat GCOM-W1 OCO-2 PARASOL All satellites have an equatorial crossing time at about 1:30 in the afternoon , thus the name ' A ( Afternoon ) Train ' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"Aura_(satellite)\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 144885\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System Content: Clouds and the Earth 's Radiant Energy System ( CERES ) is NASA climatological experiment from Earth orbit . The CERES are scientific satellite instruments , part of the NASA 's Earth Observing System ( EOS ) , designed to measure both solar-reflected and Earth-emitted radiation from the top of the atmosphere ( TOA ) to the Earth 's surface . Cloud properties are determined using simultaneous measurements by other EOS instruments such as the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer ( MODIS ) . Results from the CERES and other NASA missions , such as the Earth Radiation Budget Experiment ( ERBE ) , could lead to a better understanding of the role of clouds and the energy cycle in global climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"Clouds_and_the_Earth's_Radiant_Energy_System\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 144569\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kitsat-3 Content: Kitsat-3 was a South Korean remote sensing minisatellite which carried MEIS ( Multispectral Earth Imaging System ) and SENSE ( Space ENvironment Scientific Experiment ) instruments to Low Earth orbit . Launched on 26 May 1999 by Indian space agency ISRO , on orbit the satellite was renamed to Uribyol 3 . Manufactured by KAIST Satellite Technology Research Center ( SaTReC ) , Kitsat-3 was developed with experience from Kitsat-1 and Kitsat-2 ( no heritage to the Kitsat-1 and Kitsat-2 bus ) and was the first independently designed South Korean satellite .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"Kitsat-3\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 144318\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: C/NOFS Content: C/NOFS , or Communications/Navigation Outage Forecasting System was an American satellite developed by the Air Force Research Laboratory Space Vehicles Directorate to investigate and forecast scintillations in the Earth 's ionosphere . It was launched by an Orbital Sciences Corporation Pegasus-XL rocket at 17:01 GMT on 16 April 2008 . It decayed on 28 November 2015 . The satellite , which was operated by the USAF STP , allowed the US military to predict the effects of ionospheric activity on signals from communication and navigation satellites , outages of which could potentially cause problems in battlefield situations . C/NOFS had a three-axis stabilisation system , and was equipped with seven sensors . It was placed into a low Earth orbit with orbital inclination of 13 ° , a perigee of 400 km and an apogee of 850 km . It carried the CINDI experiment for NASA . Launch was originally scheduled for 2003 , but was delayed due to a number of issues .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"C/NOFS\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 144231\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Giovanni (meteorology) Content: Giovanni ( meteorology ) - Web interface that allows users to analyze NASA 's gridded data from various satellite and surface observations . Giovanni provides researchers with the capability to examine data on atmospheric chemistry , atmospheric temperature , water vapor and clouds , atmospheric aerosols , precipitation , and ocean chlorophyll and surface temperature . The primary data consist of global gridded data sets with reduced spatial resolution . Basic analytical functions performed by Giovanni currently are carried out by the Grid Analysis and Display System ( GrADS ) . The GES-DISC Interactive Online Visualization ANd aNalysis Infrastructure ( Giovanni ) allows to explore satellite data using sophisticated analyses and visualizations . Giovanni allows access to data from multiple remote sites , supports multiple data formats including Hierarchical Data Format ( HDF ) , HDF-EOS , network Common Data Form ( netCDF ) , GRIdded Binary ( GRIB ) , and binary , and multiple plot types including area , time , Hovmoller , and image animation .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"Giovanni_(meteorology)\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 144021\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: GRACE and GRACE-FO Content: The Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) was a joint mission of NASA and the German Aerospace Center (DLR). Twin satellites took detailed measurements of Earth's gravity field anomalies from its launch in March 2002 to the end of its science mission in October 2017. The Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment Follow-On (GRACE-FO) is a continuation of the mission on near-identical hardware, launched in May 2018. By measuring gravity anomalies, GRACE showed how mass is distributed around the planet and how it varies over time. Data from the GRACE satellites is an important tool for studying Earth's ocean, geology, and climate. GRACE was a collaborative endeavor involving the Center for Space Research at the University of Texas at Austin, NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, the German Aerospace Center and Germany's National Research Center for Geosciences, Potsdam. The Jet Propulsion Laboratory was responsible for the overall mission management under the NASA ESSP (Earth System Science Pathfinder) program. The principal investigator is Byron Tapley of the University of Texas Center for Space Research, and the co-principal investigator is Christoph Reigber of the GeoForschungsZentrum (GFZ) Potsdam.The two GRACE satellites (GRACE-1 and GRACE-2) were launched from Plesetsk Cosmodrome, Russia, on a Rockot (SS-19 + Breeze upper stage) launch vehicle on 17 March 2002. The spacecraft were launched to an initial altitude of approximately 500 km at a near-polar inclination of 89°. During normal operations, the satellites were separated by 220 km along their orbit track. This system was able to gather global coverage every 30 days. GRACE far exceeded its 5-year design lifespan, operating for 15 years until the decommissioning of GRACE-2 on 27 October 2017. Its successor, GRACE-FO, was successfully launched on 22 May 2018. In 2019, a glacier in West Antarctica was named after the GRACE mission.\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"GRACE_and_GRACE-FO\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 143818\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment Content: The Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment ( SAGE ) is a series of remote sensing satellite instruments used to study the chemical composition of earth 's atmosphere . Specifically , SAGE has been used to study the Earth 's ozone layer and aerosols at the troposphere through the stratosphere . The SAGE instruments use solar occultation measurement technique to determine chemical concentrations in the atmosphere . Solar occultation measurement technique measures sunlight through the atmosphere and ratios that measurement with a sunlight measurement without atmospheric attenuation . This is achieved by observing sunrises and sunsets during a satellite orbit . Physically , the SAGE instruments measure ultraviolet/visible energy and this is converted via algorithms to determine chemical concentrations . SAGE data has been used to study the atmospheres aerosols , ozone , water vapor , and other trace gases .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"Stratospheric_Aerosol_and_Gas_Experiment\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 143625\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Earth Observing System Content: The Earth Observing System ( EOS ) is a program of NASA comprising a series of artificial satellite missions and scientific instruments in Earth orbit designed for long-term global observations of the land surface , biosphere , atmosphere , and oceans of the Earth . The satellite component of the program was launched in 1997 . The program is centerpiece of NASA 's Earth Science Enterprise ( ESE ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"Earth_Observing_System\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 143187\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Multi-angle Imaging SpectroRadiometer Content: The Multi-angle Imaging SpectroRadiometer ( MISR ) is a scientific instrument on the Terra satellite launched by NASA on December 18 , 1999 . This device is designed to measure the intensity of solar radiation reflected by the Earth system ( planetary surface and atmosphere ) in various directions and spectral bands ; it became operational in February 2000 . Data generated by this sensor have been proven useful in a variety of applications including atmospheric sciences , climatology and monitoring terrestrial processes . The MISR instrument consists of an innovative configuration of nine separate digital cameras that gather data in four different spectral bands of the solar spectrum . One camera points toward the nadir , while the others provide forward and aftward view angles at 26.1 ° , 45.6 ° , 60.0 ° , and 70.5 ° . As the instrument flies overhead , each region of the Earth 's surface is successively imaged by all nine cameras in each of four wavelengths ( blue , green , red , and near-infrared ) . The data gathered by MISR are useful in climatological studies concerning the disposition of the solar radiation flux in the Earth 's system . MISR is specifically designed to monitor the monthly , seasonal , and long-term trends of atmospheric aerosol particle concentrations including those formed by natural sources and by human activities , upper air winds and cloud cover , type , height , as well as the characterization of land surface properties , including the structure of vegetation canopies , the distribution of land cover types , or the properties of snow and ice fields , amongst many other biogeophysical variables .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"Multi-angle_Imaging_SpectroRadiometer\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 143002\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide Content: Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide are used to help answer questions about Earth 's carbon cycle . There are a variety of active and planned instruments for measuring carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere from space . The first satellite mission designed to measure was the Interferometric Monitor for Greenhouse Gases ( IMG ) on board the ADEOS I satellite in 1996 . This mission lasted less than a year . Since then , additional space-based measurements have begun , including those from two high-precision ( better than 0.3 % or 1 ppm ) satellites ( GOSAT and OCO-2 ) . Different instrument designs may reflect different primary missions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"Space-based_measurements_of_carbon_dioxide\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 142915\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Thermopause Content: The thermopause is the atmospheric boundary of Earth 's energy system , located at the top of the thermosphere . The temperature of the thermopause could range up to absolute zero to 987.548 C. Below this , the atmosphere is defined to be active on the insolation received , due to the increased presence of heavier gases such as monatomic oxygen . The solar constant is thus expressed at the thermopause . Beyond ( above ) this , the exosphere describes the thinnest remainder of atmospheric particles with large mean free path , mostly hydrogen and helium . As a limit for the exosphere this boundary is also called exobase . The exact altitude varies by the energy inputs of location , time of day , solar flux , season , etc. and can be between 500 and high at a given place and time because of these . A portion of the magnetosphere dips below this layer as well . Although these are all named layers of the atmosphere , the pressure is so negligible that the chiefly-used definitions of outer space are actually below this altitude . Orbiting satellites do not experience significant atmospheric heating , but their orbits do decay over time , depending on orbit altitude . Space missions such as the ISS , space shuttle , and Soyuz operate under this layer .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"Thermopause\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 142394\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Earth's energy budget Content: Earth 's energy budget accounts for the energy Earth receives from the Sun . Much of this energy is lost when the earth re-radiates it back into outer space , and the rest of the energy is distributed throughout the five components of Earth 's climate system . This system is made up of earth 's water , ice , atmosphere , rocky crust , and all living things . Quantifying changes in these amounts is required to accurately model the Earth 's climate . Received radiation is unevenly distributed over the planet , because the Sun heats equatorial regions more than polar regions . Energy is absorbed by the atmosphere , hydrosphere , and lithosphere , and , in a process informally described as Earth 's heat engine , the solar heating is redistributed through evaporation of surface water , convection , rainfall , winds , and ocean circulation . When the incoming solar energy is balanced by an equal flow of heat to space , the Earth is said to be in radiative equilibrium and under that condition , global temperatures will be stable . Disturbances of Earth 's radiative equilibrium , such as an increase of greenhouse gases , will change global temperatures in response . However , Earth 's energy balance and heat fluxes depend on many factors , such as atmospheric composition ( mainly aerosols and greenhouse gases ) , the albedo ( reflectivity ) of surface properties , cloud cover and vegetation and land use patterns . Changes in surface temperature due to Earth 's energy budget do not occur instantaneously , due to the inertia of the oceans and the cryosphere . The net heat flux is buffered primarily by becoming part of the ocean 's heat content , until a new equilibrium state is established between radiative forcings and the climate response .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"Earth's_energy_budget\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 142383\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Satellite temperature measurements Content: The temperature of the atmosphere at various altitudes as well as sea and land surface temperatures can be inferred from satellite measurements . These measurements can be used to locate weather fronts , monitor the El Niño-Southern Oscillation , determine the strength of tropical cyclones , study urban heat islands and monitor the global climate . Wildfires , volcanos , and industrial hot spots can also be found via thermal imaging from weather satellites . Weather satellites do not measure temperature directly . They measure radiances in various wavelength bands . Since 1978 microwave sounding units ( MSUs ) on National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration polar orbiting satellites have measured the intensity of upwelling microwave radiation from atmospheric oxygen , which is related to the temperature of broad vertical layers of the atmosphere . Measurements of infrared radiation pertaining to sea surface temperature have been collected since 1967 . Satellite datasets show that over the past four decades the troposphere has warmed and the stratosphere has cooled . Both of these trends are consistent with the influence of increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"Satellite_temperature_measurements\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 141789\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Space programme 2040 Content: The Space Programme 2040 is a satellite development and launch programme of the Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission ( Suparco ) , Pakistan 's supreme space research authority . The Space programme 2040 intends to replace the Badr satellite programme and geo-stationary communication satellite . On 11 August , Paksat-IR was launched from Xichang Satellite Launch Center by China , making it first satellite to be launched under this programme . According to Suparco , five GEO satellites and six low earth orbit ( LEO ) satellites will be launched between 2011 and 2040 . The stated goals of the program are expected to gain significant experience in satellite development , practising of space medicine , and to promote socio-economic sector in the country . While the programme intends to learn to develop the military and space technologies and to conduct experiments on fundamental sciences in space frontier , the government maintained that Space programme-2040 's prime purpose is to bring the benefits of the full spectrum of space technology to the people of Pakistan . On 15 July 2011 , Prime minister Yousaf Gillani gave official approval of the programme with the 2011 Pakistan fiscal year budget .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"Space_programme_2040\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 141643\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Science Mission Directorate Content: The Science Mission Directorate ( SMD ) of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA ) engages the United States ' science community , sponsors scientific research , and develops and deploys satellites and probes in collaboration with NASA 's partners around the world to answer fundamental questions requiring the view from and into space . The Science Mission Directorate also sponsors research that both enables , and is enabled by , NASA 's exploration activities . The SMD portfolio is contributing to NASA 's achievement of the Vision for Space Exploration by striving to : Understand the history of Mars and the formation of the solar system . By understanding the formation of diverse terrestrial planets ( with atmospheres ) in the solar system , researchers learn more about Earth 's future and the most promising opportunities for habitation beyond our planet . For example , differences in the impacts of collisional processes on Earth , the Moon , and Mars can provide clues about differences in origin and evolution of each of these bodies . Search for Earth-like planets and habitable environments around other stars . SMD pursues multiple research strategies with the goal of developing effective astronomically-detectable signatures of biological processes . The study of the Earth-Sun system may help researchers identify atmospheric biosignatures that distinguish Earth-like ( and potentially habitable ) planets around nearby stars . An understanding of the origin of life and the time evolution of the atmosphere on Earth may reveal likely signatures of life on extrasolar planets . Explore the solar system for scientific purposes while supporting safe robotic and human exploration of space . For example , large-scale coronal mass ejections from the Sun can cause potentially lethal consequences for improperly shielded human flight systems , as well as some types of robotic systems . SMD 's pursuit of interdisciplinary scientific research focus areas will help predict potentially harmful conditions in space and protect NASA 's robotic and human explorers .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"Science_Mission_Directorate\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 140872\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Moderate-resolution imaging spectroradiometer Content: The moderate-resolution imaging spectroradiometer ( MODIS ) is a payload scientific instrument built by Santa Barbara Remote Sensing that was launched into Earth orbit by NASA in 1999 on board the Terra ( EOS AM ) Satellite , and in 2002 on board the Aqua ( EOS PM ) satellite . The instruments capture data in 36 spectral bands ranging in wavelength from 0.4 µm to 14.4 µm and at varying spatial resolutions ( 2 bands at 250 m , 5 bands at 500 m and 29 bands at 1 km ) . Together the instruments image the entire Earth every 1 to 2 days . They are designed to provide measurements in large-scale global dynamics including changes in Earth 's cloud cover , radiation budget and processes occurring in the oceans , on land , and in the lower atmosphere . MODIS utilizes four on-board calibrators in addition to the space view in order to provide in-flight calibration : solar diffuser ( SD ) , solar diffuser stability monitor ( SDSM ) , spectral radiometric calibration assembly ( SRCA ) , and a v-groove black body . MODIS has used the marine optical buoy for vicarious calibration . MODIS is succeeded by the VIIRS instrument on board the Suomi NPP satellite launched in 2011 and future Joint Polar Satellite System ( JPSS ) satellites . The MODIS characterization support team ( MCST ) is dedicated to the production of high-quality MODIS calibrated product which is a precursor to every geophysical science product . A detailed description of the MCST mission statement and other details can be found at MCST Web .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"Moderate-resolution_imaging_spectroradiometer\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 140813\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: GROVER Content: GROVER or Goddard Remotely Operated Vehicle for Exploration and Research is an Earth-bound autonomous student-designed rover developed by the Goddard Space Flight Center . With this solar-powered rover , scientists hope to get cheaper data about the Greenland ice sheet that lies in a rapidly warming region . The test drive started in Summit Camp in Greenland on a three kilometer thick ice sheet , which is the highest spot on the largest island of the World . The science team is led by the glaciologist Lora Koenig from NASA 's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt , Md. . The test began on 3 May 2013 at temperatures as low as -30 ° C and is planned to continue till 8 June 2013 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"GROVER\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 140762\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics Content: Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics is an open access peer-reviewed scientific journal published by the European Geosciences Union . It covers research on the Earth 's atmosphere and the underlying chemical and physical processes , including the altitude range from the land and ocean surface up to the turbopause , including the troposphere , stratosphere , and mesosphere . The main subject areas comprise atmospheric modelling , field measurements , remote sensing , and laboratory studies of gases , aerosols , clouds and precipitation , isotopes , radiation , dynamics , and biosphere and hydrosphere interactions . Article types published are research and review articles , technical notes , and commentaries . The journal has a two-stage publication process . In the first stage , papers that pass a rapid access peer-review are immediately published on the Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics Discussions forum website . They are then subject to interactive public peer review , including the referees ' comments ( anonymous or attributed ) , additional comments by other members of the scientific community ( attributed ) , and the authors ' replies . In the second stage , if accepted , the final revised papers are published in the journal . To ensure publication precedence for authors , and to provide a lasting record of the scientific discussion , both the journal and the forum are permanently archived and fully citable .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmospheric_Chemistry_and_Physics\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 140428\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: NASA DEVELOP National Program Content: DEVELOP is a training and development program sponsored by NASA 's Earth Science Applied Sciences Program . Headquartered at Langley Research Center , DEVELOP has teams at twelve locations around the country , one in Nepal and one in Mexico . Participants work with advisers and mentors to learn about the application of NASA Earth Science and remote sensing during three 10-week terms each year . DEVELOP is based in the Earth Science Mission , which has the goal to `` Develop a scientific understanding of Earth 's system and its response to natural or human-induced changes , and to improve prediction of climate , weather , and natural hazards . '' With a unique focus on community concerns , DEVELOP offers participants the chance to work with remote sensing to research real-world problems .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"NASA_DEVELOP_National_Program\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 140209\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Explorer 32 Content: Explorer 32 , also known as Atmosphere Explorer-B ( AE-B ) , was a satellite launched by the United States to study the Earth 's upper atmosphere . It was launched from Cape Canaveral on a Delta-C1 rocket , on May 25 , 1966 . It was the second of five Atmosphere Explorers , the first being Explorer 17 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"Explorer_32\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 140195\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: E-CORCE Content: E-Corce was a planned remote sensing satellite constellation of CNES , slated for launch in 2014 . Designed by an engineer from CNES , JP Antikidis , in the frame of a prospective unit led by JJ Favier , this project is revolutionizing satellite Earth observation methodologies by allowing at acceptable cost a rapid coverage of the entire planet ( 1 day to 1 week ) with high resolution ( metric ) color pictures . The solutions use image compression ( psycho-visual ) coupled with new methods of receiving and processing information distributed across the planet . The project aims by 2014 to photograph all of the continents in color at a resolution of 1 meter , every week , with a constellation of 13 Earth-orbiting microsatellites at 600 km , imaging everything in their path and down-linking compressed data to processing centers on the world . Definition : `` e-Constellation of Observation by Recurrent Cellular Environment '' combining of three technological `` cells '' ( space , telecom , Grid ) to produce a multi-spectral image of the Earth . `` e '' as intended to feed the new vectors of the mass-based Internet , `` Constellation '' because relying on a constellation of satellites observing the earth in `` saturation '' REcurrent `` because based on a systematic information delivery high resolution refreshed daily to weekly `` Cellular '' because using the combined virtues of new technology based on cellular processing ( Wide Area Grid ) distributed across the full globe .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"E-CORCE\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 139830\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Polar amplification Content: Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict . In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"Polar_amplification\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 139408\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Dove-2 Content: Dove-2 is an Earth observation satellite launched as part of a private , commercial , space-based , remote sensing system , licensed to collect images of the Earth . It is currently undertaking an experimental mission in a 575 km circular orbit at an inclination of 64.9 degrees . The Commercial Remote Sensing Regulatory Affairs Office of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration , an agency of the United States Department of Commerce , granted a license to Cosmogia Inc. to operate the Dove-2 mission . Cosmogia later changed its name to Planet Labs and started operating flocks of Dove satellites commercially . The Dove-2 mission is an internal company technology demonstration experiment to test the capabilities of a low-cost spacecraft constrained to the 3U CubeSat form factor to host a small payload . The Dove-2 satellite was launched at 10:00 UTC April 19 , 2013 aboard a Soyuz-2 .1 a rocket from Baikonur Cosmodrome , Kazakhstan .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"Dove-2\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 139294\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: CBERS-4 Content: China -- Brazil Earth Resources Satellite 4 ( CBERS-4 ) , also known as Ziyuan I-04 or Ziyuan 1E , is a remote sensing satellite intended for operation as part of the China -- Brazil Earth Resources Satellite programme between the China Centre for Resources Satellite Data and Application and Brazil 's National Institute for Space Research . The fifth CBERS satellite to fly , it was successfully launched on 7 December 2014 . It replaces CBERS-3 which was lost in a launch failure in December 2013 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"CBERS-4\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 139136\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: NOAA-6 Content: NOAA-6 , designated NOAA-A before launch , was a weather satellite operated by NOAA as part of its National Operational Environmental Satellite System . It was launched into a Sun-synchronous orbit by NASA aboard an Atlas F launch vehicle on 27 June 1979 from Vandenberg Air Force Base SLC-3W . Based on the experimental TIROS-N satellite , it performed monitoring of ice and snow cover , agriculture , oceanography , volcanism , ozone and the space environment , in addition to its regular meteorological observations . Its instruments included the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer ( AVHRR/1 ) for global cloud cover observations , the TIROS Operational Vertical Sounder ( TOVS ) suite for atmospheric temperature and water vapor profiling , the Space Environment Monitor ( SEM ) for measuring proton and electron fluxes , and the Data Collection and Platform Location System ( DCPLS ) for relaying data from balloons and ocean buoys . The TOVS suite consists of three subsystems : the High Resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder 2 ( HIRS/2 ) , the Stratospheric Sounding Unit ( SSU ) , and the Microwave Sounding Unit ( MSU ) . The HIRS/2 instrument failed on 19 September 1983 , and the spacecraft was placed in reserve in early 1984 as NOAA prioritized operations of NOAA-7 and NOAA-8 . It was returned to operational status after NOAA-8 failed in June 1984 , and continued to return data until its decommissioning on 31 March 1987 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"NOAA-6\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 138881\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Solar Mesosphere Explorer Content: The Solar Mesosphere Explorer ( also known as Explorer 64 ) was a United States unmanned spacecraft to investigate the processes that create and destroy ozone in Earth 's upper atmosphere . The mesosphere is a layer of the atmosphere extending from the top of the stratosphere to an altitude of about 80 km . The spacecraft carried five instruments to measure ozone , water vapor and incoming solar radiation . Launched on October 6 , 1981 , on a Delta rocket from Vandenberg Air Force Base , in California , the satellite returned data until April 4 , 1989 . The spacecraft reentered Earth 's atmosphere on March 5 , 1991 . Managed for NASA by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory , the Solar Mesosphere Explorer was built by Ball Space Systems and operated by the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics of the University of Colorado where one hundred undergraduate and graduate students were involved . Mass : 437 kilograms ( 963 pounds ) Power : Solar panels which charged NiCad batteries Configuration : Cylinder 1.25 meter ( 4.1 ft ) diameter by 1.7 meter ( 5.6 ft ) high Science instruments : Ultraviolet ozone spectrometer , 1.27 micrometre spectrometer , nitrogen dioxide spectrometer , four-channel infrared radiometer , solar ultraviolet monitor , solar proton alarm detector\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"Solar_Mesosphere_Explorer\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 138512\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: RASAT Content: RASAT is an earth observation satellite designed and developed by TÜBİTAK Space Technologies Research Institute ( TÜBİTAK UZAY ) and produced in Turkey to provide high resolution imagery . It is so the first one of its art completely realized in Turkey , and the second indigenously developed remote sensing satellite after BILSAT-1 . Financed by the State Planning Organization ( DPT ) and designed by TÜBİTAK UZAY without any international know-how transfer , RASAT was launched from Dombarovskiy Cosmodrome , near Yasny in Russia by a Dnepr space launch vehicle at 08:12:20 UTC on August 17 , 2011 along with seven other satellites Sich-2 and BPA-2 of Ukraine , NigeriaSat-2 and NigeriaSat-X of Nigeria , EduSat of India as well as AprizeSat-5 and AprizeSat-6 of Italy . RASAT was placed 16 minutes and 9 seconds after the lift-off into a low Earth orbit of 685 km . The first signal from RASAT was received in the space center of Andøya Rocket Range , northern Norway at 09:44.04 UTC . RASAT is controlled and observed at the space center of TÜBİTAK UZAY in Ankara .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"RASAT\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 138499\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carl Mears Content: Carl Mears is a Senior Scientist , at Remote Sensing Systems , since 1998 . He has worked on validation of SSM/I derived winds , and rain-flagging algorithm for the QuikScat scatterometer . He is best known for his work with Frank Wentz in developing a satellite temperature record from MSU and AMSU . Intercomparison of this record with the earlier UAH satellite temperature record , developed by John Christy and Roy Spencer , revealed deficiencies in the earlier work ; specifically , the warming trend in the RSS version is larger than the UAH one . Mears was a major contributor to Temperature Trends in the Lower Atmosphere : Steps for Understanding and Reconciling Differences , the first released report from the US Climate Change Science Program . He also contributed to the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Working Group one report , Climate Change 2007 - The Physical Science Basis .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"Carl_Mears\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 137888\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: CBERS-2 Content: China -- Brazil Earth Resources Satellite 2 ( CBERS-2 ) , also known as Ziyuan I-02 or Ziyuan 1B , was a remote sensing satellite operated as part of the China -- Brazil Earth Resources Satellite programme between the China Centre for Resources Satellite Data and Application and Brazil 's National Institute for Space Research . The second CBERS satellite to fly , it was launched by China in 2003 to replace CBERS-1 . CBERS-2 was a 1450 kg spacecraft built by the China Academy of Space Technology and based on the Phoenix-Eye 1 satellite bus . The spacecraft was powered by a single solar array , which provided 1,100 watts of electricity for the satellite 's systems . The instrument suite aboard the CBERS-2 spacecraft consisted of three systems : the Wide Field Imager ( WFI ) produced visible-light to near-infrared images with a resolution of 260 m and a swath width of 890 km ; a high-resolution CCD camera was used for multispectral imaging at a resolution of 20 m with a swath width of 113 km ; the third instrument , the Infrared Multispectral Scanner ( IMS ) , had a resolution of 80 m and a swath width of 120 km . A Chang Zheng 4B carrier rocket , operated by the China Academy of Launch Vehicle Technology , was used to launch CBERS-2 . The launch took place at 03:16 UTC on 21 October 2003 , using Launch Complex 7 at the Taiyuan Satellite Launch Centre . The satellite was successfully placed into a sun-synchronous orbit . Following the launch of CBERS-2B in 2007 , CBERS-2 was retired from service . As of 1 December 2013 , the dericict satellite remains in orbit , with a perigee of 780 km , an apogee of 782 km , 98.17 degrees inclination and a period of 100.33 minutes . Its orbit has a semimajor axis of 7152.64 km , and eccentricity of 0.0001886 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"CBERS-2\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 137716\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: NASA Earth Observatory Content: NASA Earth Observatory is an online publishing outlet for NASA which was created in 1999 . It is the principal source of satellite imagery and other scientific information pertaining to the climate and the environment which are being provided by NASA for consumption by the general public . It is funded with public money , as authorized by the United States Congress , and is part of the EOS Project Science Office located at Goddard Space Flight Center . NASA Earth Observatory has won the Webby People 's Voice Award in Education three times . There were a series of publicized images issued by the website in 2008 , including imagery of clouds streaming over the Caspian Sea , dust storms curling off the coast of Morocco , the crumbling of the Wilkins Ice Shelf , Hurricane Bertha , and others .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"NASA_Earth_Observatory\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 137708\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KhalifaSat Content: KhalifaSat is a remote sensing Earth observation satellite that is being manufactured in the United Arab Emirates at the Mohammed bin Rashid Space Centre ( MBRSC ) ' . It is the first satellite to be built in the clean rooms of the Dubai government 's space science and research facility and the first to be developed entirely by a team of Emirati engineers . The Mohammed bin Rashid Space Centre is a Dubai government based space centre working on the National Space programme . MBRSC already has two Earth observation satellites in orbit , DubaiSat-1 and DubaiSat-2 , which were built in partnership with Satrec Initiative , a South Korean satellite manufacturer With the knowledge gained through this co-operation , MBRSC engineers are now designing and developing KhalifaSat in the UAE without assistance . The project was officially announced by His Highness Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum , ' Vice President and Prime Minister of the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) , and Ruler of Dubai , in December 2013 The manufacture of KhalifaSat began in South Korea at Satrec Initiative 's facilities . A team of Emirati engineers used the facilities there while the Advanced Technology Laboratories at MBRSC were under construction . In early 2015 , the project was moved to MBRSC where every aspect of its development has continued\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"KhalifaSat\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 137680\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: CBERS-1 Content: China -- Brazil Earth Resources Satellite 1 ( CBERS-1 ) , also known as Ziyuan I-01 or Ziyuan 1A , is a remote sensing satellite which was operated as part of the China -- Brazil Earth Resources Satellite programme between the China National Space Administration and Brazil 's National Institute for Space Research . The first CBERS satellite to fly , it was launched by China in 1999 . CBERS-1 was a 1450 kg spacecraft built by the China Academy of Space Technology and based on the Phoenix-Eye 1 satellite bus . The spacecraft was powered by a single solar array , providing 1,100 watts of electricity for the satellite 's systems . The instrument suite aboard the CBERS-1 spacecraft consisted of three systems : the Wide Field Imager ( WFI ) produced visible-light to near-infrared images with a resolution of 260 m and a swath width of 890 km ; a high-resolution CCD camera was used for multispectral imaging at a resolution of 20 m with a swath width of 113 km ; the third instrument , the Infrared Multispectral Scanner ( IMS ) , had a resolution of 80 m and a swath width of 120 km . A Chang Zheng 4B carrier rocket , operated by the China Academy of Launch Vehicle Technology , was used to launch CBERS-1 . The launch took place at 03:15 UTC on 14 October 1999 , using Launch Complex 7 at the Taiyuan Satellite Launch Centre . The satellite was successfully placed into a sun-synchronous orbit . CBERS-1 was decommissioned in September 2003 , almost four years after launch . The derelict satellite remains in orbit ; as of 30 November 2013 it is in an orbit with a perigee of 779 km , an apogee of 785 km , 98.34 degrees inclination and a period of 100.35 minutes . The orbit has a semimajor axis of 7153.45 km , and eccentricity of 0.0004025 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"CBERS-1\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 137445\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: EarthSat Content: Earth Satellite Corporation ( EarthSat ) , an American company , was a pioneer in the commercial use of Earth observation satellites . Founded in 1969 , EarthSat was first headquartered in Washington , D.C. and later moved its offices to Bethesda , Maryland and finally to Rockville , Maryland in the late 1980s . In 2001 , EarthSat was acquired by MacDonald , Dettwiler and Associates Ltd. ( MDA ) of Vancouver , British Columbia . In August 2005 , EarthSat was incorporated as MDA Federal Inc. , the U.S. operation of MDA Geospatial Services . EarthSat pioneered the use of remote sensing for petroleum , mineral and groundwater exploration . It later expanded into satellite and aerial image processing , weather services and geographic information systems . EarthSat products were derived from NASA 's Landsat program , Canada 's RADARSAT-1 and an entire list of Earth observation satellites . In August 1998 , NASA contracted EarthSat to produce Landsat GeoCover - a positionally accurate orthorectified Landsat Thematic Mapper and Multispectral Scanner imagery covering the majority of the Earth 's land mass . The contract was part of the NASA Scientific Data Purchase which was administrated through NASA 's John C. Stennis Space Center . Geocover 2000 is one of the global satellite image products used in NASA World Wind . GeoCover was later enhanced to EarthSat NaturalVue , a natural color Landsat 7 derived circa year 2000 , orthorectified , mosaicked and color balanced digital image dataset covering the entire land area of the Earth except for the high latitude polar regions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"EarthSat\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 137082\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Institute for Space Applications and Remote Sensing Content: The Institute for Space Applications and Remote Sensing ( ISARS/NOA ) was a research institute in Greece with expertise in multidisciplinary space and environmental sciences . It was an independent research Institute of the National Observatory of Athens ( NOA ) until 2012 when it was merged with the Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics to a single unit entitled Institute for Astronomy , Astrophysics , Space Applications and Remote Sensing ( IAASARS ) . Member scientists of all its research groups have broad knowledge of Space Science and Earth observation techniques and their applications . They collaborate with other research groups in Europe and United States , and have been internationally recognized through editorship in scientific journals , invited talks at international conferences , invited review papers in top journals , high rate of citations and coordination of EU-funded research projects .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"Institute_for_Space_Applications_and_Remote_Sensing\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 136986\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmosphere of Earth Content: The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases , commonly known as air , that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity . The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation , warming the surface through heat retention ( greenhouse effect ) , and reducing temperature extremes between day and night ( the diurnal temperature variation ) . By volume , dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen , 20.95 % oxygen , 0.93 % argon , 0.04 % carbon dioxide , and small amounts of other gases . Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor , on average around 1 % at sea level , and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere . Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers , and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres . The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 kg , three quarters of which is within about 11 km of the surface . The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude , with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space . The Kármán line , at 100 km , or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius , is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space . Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km . Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere , based on characteristics such as temperature and composition . The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science ( aerology ) . Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmosphere_of_Earth\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 136327\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Yaogan Content: Yaogan ( in full Yaogan Weixing , `` Remote Sensing Satellite '' ; sometimes written YaoGan ) refers to a series of Chinese reconnaissance satellites launched in the early 21st century . Chinese media describe the satellites as intended for `` scientific experiments , land survey , crop yield assessment , and disaster monitoring '' . Western analysts suspect that they are also used for military purposes . Analysts believe that each satellite employs either optical or synthetic aperture radar ( SAR ) sensors and that the SAR satellites are of the Jian Bing-5 series . The SAR satellite was developed by the Shanghai Academy of Space Flight Technology ( SAST ) . The electro-optical digital imaging satellite was developed by the China Academy of Space Technology ( CAST ) . It is carried into space atop a Chang Zheng ( Long March ) rocket . Yaogan satellites have been launched from both the Taiyuan Satellite Launch Center in China 's northern Shanxi province and the Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center in China 's northwestern Gansu province .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"Yaogan\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 135799\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: IMS-1 Content: IMS-1 is an Earth observation satellite in a sun-synchronous orbit . The satellite which is the fourteenth satellite in the Indian Remote Sensing ( IRS ) satellite series has been built , launched and maintained by the Indian Space Research Organisation ( ISRO ) . IMS-1 is the first satellite to use ISRO 's Indian Mini Satellite bus . It was launched by the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle - C9 on April 28 , 2008 along with the Cartosat-2A and eight nano research satellites belonging to research facilities in Canada , Denmark , Germany , Japan and the Netherlands .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"IMS-1\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 135710\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cartosat-2B Content: CARTOSAT 2B is an Earth observation satellite in a sun-synchronous orbit and the fourth of the Cartosat series of satellites . The satellite is the seventeenth satellite in the Indian Remote Sensing ( IRS ) satellite series to be built by the Indian Space Research Organisation . It was launched along with the 116 kg Algerian satellite , one nano satellite each from Canada and Switzerland , and StudSat , a pico satellite , on 12 July 2010 in a Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle ( PSLV ) rocket from the spaceport at Sriharikota . The satellite carries a panchromatic ( PAN ) camera capable of taking black-and-white pictures in the visible region of electromagnetic spectrum . The highly agile CARTOSAT-2B can be steered up to 26 degrees along as well as across the direction of its movement to facilitate imaging of any area more frequently .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"Cartosat-2B\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 135395\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: MSU temperature measurements Content: Microwave sounding unit temperature measurements have been obtained from the troposphere since 1979 , when they were included within NOAA weather satellites . By comparison , the usable balloon ( radiosonde ) record begins in 1958 but has less geographic coverage and is less uniform . Satellites do not measure temperature . They measure radiances in various wavelength bands , which must then be mathematically inverted to obtain indirect inferences of temperature . The resulting temperature profiles depend on details of the methods that are used to obtain temperatures from radiances . As a result , different groups that have analyzed the satellite data have obtained different temperature trends . Among these groups are Remote Sensing Systems ( RSS ) and the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) . The satellite series is not fully homogeneous - the record is constructed from a series of satellites with similar but not identical instrumentation . The sensors deteriorate over time , and corrections are necessary for satellite drift in orbit . Particularly large differences between reconstructed temperature series occur at the few times when there is little temporal overlap between successive satellites , making intercalibration difficult . To compare to the trend from the surface temperature record ( approximately +0.07 ° C/decade over the past century and +0.15 -0.16 ° C/decade since 1979 ) it is most appropriate to derive trends for the part of the atmosphere nearest the surface , i.e. , the lower troposphere . Doing this , through January 2012 : RSS v3 .3 finds a trend of +0.137 ° C/decade . UAH v5 .4 finds a trend of +0.136 ° C/decade . An alternative adjustment introduced by Fu et al. ( 2004 ) finds trends ( 1979 -- 2011 ) of +0.14 ° C/decade when applied to the RSS data set and +0.11 ° C/decade when applied to the UAH data set . Using the T2 channel ( which include significant contributions from the stratosphere , which has cooled ) , Mears et al. of Remote Sensing Systems ( RSS ) find ( through January 2012 ) a trend of +0.082 ° C/decade . Spencer and Christy of the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) , find a smaller trend of +0.046 ° C/decade . A no longer updated analysis of Vinnikov and Grody found +0.20 ° C/decade ( 1978 -- 2005 ) . Another satellite temperature analysis is provided by NOAA/NESDIS STAR Center for Satellite Application and Research and use simultaneous nadir overpasses ( SNO ) to remove satellite intercalibration biases yielding more accurate temperature trends . The SNO analysis finds a 1979-2011 trend of +0.128 ° C/decade for T2 channel . The satellite records have the advantage of greater spatial coverage , whereas the radiosonde record is longer . There have been complaints of data problems with both records , and difficulty reconciling climate model predictions with the observed data .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"MSU_temperature_measurements\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 135372\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: MOPITT Content: MOPITT ( Measurements of Pollution in the Troposphere ) is a payload scientific instrument launched into Earth orbit by NASA on board the Terra satellite in 1999 . It is designed to monitor changes in pollution patterns and its effect in the lower atmosphere of the Earth . The instrument was funded by the Space Science Division of the Canadian Space Agency .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"MOPITT\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 135279\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: CBERS-2B Content: China -- Brazil Earth Resources Satellite 2B ( CBERS-2B ) , also known as Ziyuan I-02B or Ziyuan 1B2 , was a remote sensing satellite operated as part of the China -- Brazil Earth Resources Satellite programme between the China Centre for Resources Satellite Data and Application and Brazil 's National Institute for Space Research . The third CBERS satellite to fly , it was launched by China in 2007 to replace CBERS-2 . CBERS-2B was a 1450 kg spacecraft built by the China Academy of Space Technology and based on the Phoenix-Eye 1 satellite bus . The spacecraft was powered by a single solar array , which provided 1,100 watts of electricity for the satellite 's systems . The instrument suite aboard the CBERS-2B spacecraft consisted of three systems : the Wide Field Imager ( WFI ) produced visible-light to near-infrared images with a resolution of 260 m and a swath width of 890 km ; a high-resolution CCD camera was used for multispectral imaging at a resolution of 20 m with a swath width of 113 km ; the third instrument , the High Resolution Camera ( HRC ) was a panchromatic imager with a resolution of 2.7 m and a swath width of 27 km . HRC replaced the lower-resolution Infrared Multispectral Scanner instrument flown on earlier CBERS satellites . A Chang Zheng 4B carrier rocket , operated by the China Academy of Launch Vehicle Technology , was used to launch CBERS-2B . The launch took place at 03:26:13 UTC on 19 September 2007 , using Launch Complex 7 at the Taiyuan Satellite Launch Centre . The satellite was successfully placed into a sun-synchronous orbit . CBERS-2B suffered a power system failure on 10 May 2010 , leaving it unable to continue operations . As of it remains in orbit , with a perigee of Orbit perigee 745 km mi , an apogee of Orbit apogee 789 km mi , degrees inclination and a period of minutes . It has a semimajor axis of Orbit semimajor axis 7138.59 km mi , and eccentricity of .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"CBERS-2B\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 135238\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Explorer 17 Content: Explorer 17 ( also known as Atmosphere Explorer-A ( AE-A ) and S6 ) was a United States satellite , launched at Cape Canaveral from LC-17B on a Delta-B booster , on April 3 , 1963 , to study the Earth 's upper atmosphere . It was the first satellite of five Atmosphere Explorers .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"Explorer_17\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 135073\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Heliophysics Science Division Content: The Heliophysics Science Division of the Goddard Space Flight Center ( NASA ) conducts research on the Sun , its extended solar system environment ( the heliosphere ) , and interactions of Earth , other planets , small bodies , and interstellar gas with the heliosphere . Division research also encompasses geospace -- Earth 's uppermost atmosphere , the ionosphere , and the magnetosphere -- and the changing environmental conditions throughout the coupled heliosphere ( solar system weather ) . Scientists in the Heliophysics Science Division develop models , spacecraft missions and instruments , and systems to manage and disseminate heliophysical data . They interpret and evaluate data gathered from instruments , draw comparisons with computer simulations and theoretical models , and publish the results . The Division also conducts education and public outreach programs to communicate the excitement and social value of NASA heliophysics .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"Heliophysics_Science_Division\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 134961\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Goddard Institute for Space Studies Content: The Goddard Institute for Space Studies ( GISS ) is a laboratory in the Earth Sciences Division of NASA 's Goddard Space Flight Center and a unit of the Columbia University Earth Institute . The institute is located at Columbia University in New York City . Research at the GISS emphasizes a broad study of Global Change ; the natural and anthropogenic changes in our environment that affect the habitability of our planet . These effects may occur on greatly differing time scales , from one-time forcings such as volcanic explosions , to seasonal/annual effects such as El Niño , and on up to the millennia of ice ages . The Institute 's research combines analysis of comprehensive global datasets , ( derived from surface stations combined with satellite data for SSTs ) , with global models of atmospheric , land surface , and oceanic processes . Study of past climate change on Earth and of other planetary atmospheres provides an additional tool in assessing our general understanding of the atmosphere and its evolution . GISS was established in May 1961 by Robert Jastrow to do basic research in space sciences in support of Goddard programs . Formally it was the New York City office of the GSFC Theoretical Division but was known as the Goddard Space Flight Center Institute for Space Studies or in some publications as simply the Institute for Space Studies . Soon enough it became known as the Goddard Institute for Space Studies . It was separated from the Theoretical Division in July 1962 . Its offices were originally located in The Interchurch Center , and the institute moved into Columbia 's Armstrong Hall ( formerly the Ostend apartments and then the Oxford Residence Hotel ) in April 1966 . From 1981 to 2013 , GISS was directed by James E. Hansen . In June 2014 , Gavin A. Schmidt was named the institute 's third director .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"Goddard_Institute_for_Space_Studies\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 134223\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Advances in Atmospheric Sciences Content: Advances in Atmospheric Sciences is a bimonthly peer-reviewed scientific journal co-published by Springer Science + Business Media and Science Press . It covers research on the dynamics , physics and chemistry of the atmosphere and oceans , including weather systems , numerical weather prediction , climate dynamics and variability , and satellite meteorology . It was established in 1984 . The editors-in-chief are D. Lü , H. Wang ( Chinese Academy of Sciences ) , and M. Xue ( University of Oklahoma . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2012 impact factor of 1.338 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"Advances_in_Atmospheric_Sciences\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 134119\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmospheric entry Content: Atmospheric entry is the movement of an object from outer space into and through the gases of an atmosphere of a planet , dwarf planet or natural satellite . There are two main types of atmospheric entry : uncontrolled entry , such as the entry of astronomical objects , space debris or bolides ; and controlled entry ( or reentry ) of a spacecraft capable of being navigated or following a predetermined course . Technologies and procedures allowing the controlled atmospheric entry , descent and landing of spacecraft are collectively abbreviated as EDL . Atmospheric drag and aerodynamic heating can cause atmospheric breakup capable of completely disintegrating smaller objects . These forces may cause objects with lower compressive strength to explode . Manned space vehicles must be slowed to subsonic speeds before parachutes or air brakes may be deployed . Such vehicles have kinetic energies typically between 50 and 1800 MJoules , and atmospheric dissipation is the only way of expending the kinetic energy . The amount of rocket fuel required to slow the vehicle would be nearly equal to the amount used to accelerate it initially , and it is thus highly impractical to use retro rockets for the entire Earth re-entry procedure . While the high temperature generated at the surface of the heat shield is due to adiabatic compression , the vehicle 's kinetic energy is ultimately lost to gas friction ( viscosity ) after the vehicle has passed by . Other smaller energy losses include black body radiation directly from the hot gasses and chemical reactions between ionized gasses . Ballistic warheads and expendable vehicles do not require slowing at re-entry , and in fact , are made streamlined so as to maintain their speed . For Earth , atmospheric entry occurs above the Kármán line at an altitude of more than 100 km ( 62 mi . ) above the surface , while at Venus atmospheric entry occurs at 250 km ( 155 mi . ) and at Mars atmospheric entry at about 80 km ( 50 mi . ) . Uncontrolled , objects accelerate through the atmosphere at extreme velocities under the influence of Earth 's gravity . Most controlled objects enter at hypersonic speeds due to their suborbital ( e.g. , intercontinental ballistic missile reentry vehicles ) , orbital ( e.g. , the Space Shuttle ) , or unbounded ( e.g. , meteors ) trajectories . Various advanced technologies have been developed to enable atmospheric reentry and flight at extreme velocities . An alternative low velocity method of controlled atmospheric entry is buoyancy which is suitable for planetary entry where thick atmospheres , strong gravity or both factors complicate high-velocity hyperbolic entry , such as the atmospheres of Venus , Titan and the gas giants .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmospheric_entry\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 134118\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Remote sensing atmospheric boundary layer Content: Remote sensing of the planetary boundary layer refers to the utilization of ground based , flight based , or satellite based remote sensing instruments to measure properties of the planetary boundary layer including boundary layer height , aerosols and clouds . Satellite remote sensing of the atmosphere has the advantage of being able to provide global coverage of atmospheric planetary boundary layer properties while simultaneously providing relatively high temporal sampling rates . Advancements in satellite remote sensing have provided greater vertical resolution which enables higher accuracy for planetary boundary layer measurements . The radiative forcing for marine boundary layer ( MBL ) clouds is imperative for understanding any global warming changes . Low-level clouds , including MBL clouds , have the largest net radiative forcing of all clouds . The albedo of these low level clouds is much higher than the albedo of the underlying ocean surface and correctly modeling these clouds is needed to limit the uncertainty in climate model predictions . The remote sensing of the planetary boundary layer , especially clouds and aerosols within the planetary boundary layer can help verify and improve climate models .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"Remote_sensing_atmospheric_boundary_layer\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 133653\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: SBUV/2 Content: The Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet Radiometer , or SBUV/2 , is a series of operational remote sensors on NOAA weather satellites in Sun-synchronous orbits which have been providing global measurements of stratospheric total ozone , as well as ozone profiles , since March 1985 . The SBUV/2 instruments were developed from the SBUV experiment flown on the Nimbus-7 spacecraft which improved on the design of the original BUV instrument on Nimbus-4 . These are nadir viewing radiometric instruments operating at mid to near UV wavelengths . SBUV/2 data sets overlap with data from SBUV and TOMS instruments on the Nimbus-7 spacecraft . These extensive data sets ( January 1979 to the present ) measure the density and vertical distribution of ozone in the Earth 's atmosphere from six to 30 miles . SBUV/2 looks down at the Earth 's atmosphere and the reflected sunlight at wavelengths characteristic of ozone . The SBUV/2 wavelength `` channels '' range from 252 nanometer ( nm ) to 340 nm . Ozone is measured as a ratio of sunlight incident on the atmosphere to the amount of sunlight scattered back into space . From this information , the total ozone between the instrument and the ground can be calculated . The SBUV/2 measures solar irradiance and Earth radiance ( backscattered solar energy ) in the near ultraviolet spectrum ( 160 to 400 nm ) . The SBUV is capable of determining the global ozone concentration in the stratosphere to an absolute accuracy of 1 percent ; the vertical distribution of atmospheric ozone to an absolute accuracy of 5 percent ; the long-term solar spectral irradiance from 160 to 400 nm Photochemical process and the influence of `` trace '' constituents on the ozone layer . The Ball Aerospace-built SBUV/2 helped to discover the ozone hole over Antarctica in 1987 , and continues to monitor this phenomenon . Atmospheric ozone absorbs the sun 's ultraviolet rays , which are believed to cause gene mutations , skin cancer , and cataracts in humans . Ultraviolet rays may also damage crops and aquatic ecosystems . The first SBUV/2 instrument was launched on NOAA-9 in December 1984 and the last instrument in this series was launched in February 2009 aboard the NOAA-19 spacecraft .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"SBUV/2\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 133559\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: S-56 (satellite) Content: S-56 was an American satellite launched by NASA on 4 December 1960 as part of the Explorers program . The satellite was composed of a 3.66 meter ( 12 foot ) diameter inflatable sphere , and was intended to study the density of the upper atmosphere . S-56 was launched on a Scout X-1 rocket , but failed to reach orbit due to the second stage not igniting . It was replaced by the identical Explorer 9 ( S 56A ) spacecraft .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"S-56_(satellite)\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 133422\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Space Research and Remote Sensing Organization Content: The Bangladesh Space Research and Remote Sensing Organization ( বাংলাদেশ মহাকাশ গবেষণা ও দূর অনুধাবন কেন্দ্র Bangladesh môhakash gôbeshôna o dur ônudhabôn kendrô ) , or SPARRSO , is a state agency concerned with astronomical research and the application of space technology in Bangladesh . Sparrso works closely with JAXA , NASA and the ESA in environmental and meteorological research . Using Japanese and American satellites , SPARRSO monitors agro-climatic conditions and water resources in Bangladesh .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"Space_Research_and_Remote_Sensing_Organization\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 133300\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: STSAT-2A Content: STSAT-2A ( Science and Technology Satellite 2A ) was a satellite launched by the Korea Aerospace Research Institute ( KARI ) , the national space agency of South Korea , from the Naro Space Center in Goheung County , South Jeolla using the Naro-1 ( KSLV-1 ) rocket . The 100 kg satellite carried a Lyman-alpha Imaging Solar Telescope ( LIST ) as well as Satellite laser ranging ( SLR ) payload . The Satellite Technology Research Center ( SaTReC ) developed STSAT-2A as a sun observation , satellite laser ranging and engineering and technology demonstration sponsored by the Ministry of Science and Technology . It was expected to be operational for about two years , and was scheduled to be launched between 2005 and 2007 . The Satellite Laser Ranging ( SLR ) instrument was intended to measure the orbit of STSAT-2A , in order to investigate variations in its orbit . It was a followup to STSAT-1 , which was launched using a Kosmos-3M rocket on September 27 , 2003 . Originally a Dual-channel Radiometers for Earth and Atmosphere Monitoring ( DREAM ) Microwave radiometer was intended as the principal payload of STSAT-2A for an expected launch in 2007 . The Laser Retro-reflector Array ( LRA ) was described as an early expected payload for STSAT-2A which would consist of nine retro-reflectors in a mechanical casing . STSAT-2A has three missions , the indigenous research and development to place a satellite into low orbit , development of indigenous spacecraft , and the ability to develop scientific payloads . STSAT-2A was launched on the maiden flight of the Naro-1 rocket , which lifted off the Naro Space Centre , on the southern coast of South Korea at 08:00 GMT on 25 August 2009 . The launch failed to place STSAT-2 into orbit after half of the payload fairing failed to separate . This resulted in the second stage being too heavy to reach orbit , and it fell back to Earth along with the satellite . Further investigation is ongoing . A second satellite , STSAT-2B , was launched on June 10 , 2010 , but the launch vehicle failed again .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"STSAT-2A\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 133160\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmospheric Environment Content: Atmospheric Environment is a peer-reviewed scientific journal covering research pertaining to air pollution and other ways humans and natural forces affect the Earth 's atmosphere . It was established in 1967 . In 1990 it was split into two parts , Atmospheric Environment , Part A : General Topics and Atmospheric Environment , Part B : Urban Atmosphere , which were merged again in 1994 . The editors-in-chief are C.K. Chan ( Hong Kong University of Science and Technology ) , H.B. Singh ( NASA Ames Research Center ) , and A. Wiedensohler ( Leibniz Institute for Tropospheric Research ) . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2013 impact factor of 3.062 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmospheric_Environment\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 133098\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: IMAGE Content: IMAGE ( from Imager for Magnetopause-to-Aurora Global Exploration ) , or Explorer 78 , was a NASA MIDEX mission that studied the global response of the Earth 's magnetosphere to changes in the solar wind . It was launched March 25 , 2000 by a Delta II rocket from Vandenberg AFB and ceased operations in December 2005 . The IMAGE craft was placed in a 1,000 × 46,000 km orbit around the Earth , with an inclination of 90 ° ( passing over the poles ) and a 14.2 hour period . IMAGE was the first spacecraft dedicated to observing the magnetosphere of the Earth , and it produced comprehensive global images of plasma in the inner magnetosphere . It did this using five instruments : Neutral Atom Imagers ( LENA , MENA , HENA ) Far-Ultraviolet ( FUV ) Imaging System Extreme Ultraviolet ( EUV ) Imager Radio Plasma Imager ( RPI ) Central Instrument Data Processor ( CIDP ) The CIDP as well as the Command & Data Handling Subsystem ( main on-board computer ) of the craft were built around the mission-proven RAD6000 avionics processors .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"IMAGE\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 132662\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Joan T. Schmelz Content: Joan T. Schmelz has been a professor of physics at the University of Memphis since 1996 . Schmelz 's research focus is heliophysics , specifically investigating the coronal heating problem as well as the properties and dynamics of the solar atmosphere . She uses spectroscopic and image data in the X-ray and ultraviolet wavelength ranges obtained from NASA satellites and rockets . She has published over 80 refereed scientific journal articles and authored three books . Dr. Schmelz also was the chair of the American Astronomical Society 's ( AAS 's ) Committee on the Status of Women in Astronomy for 6 years ( two terms ) . Schmelz has recently come under fire for alleged age and disability discrimination at Arecibo Observatory in Puerto Rico\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"Joan_T._Schmelz\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 132583\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: NOAA-7 Content: NOAA-7 , designated NOAA-C before launch , was an American weather satellite launched in June 1981 as part of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 's Polar Operational Environmental Satellites ( POES ) program . It was used to support the Global Atmospheric Research Program ( GARP ) during 1978 -- 1984 . An earlier launch , NOAA-B , was scheduled to become NOAA-7 , however NOAA-B failed to reach its required orbit . The launch of NOAA-7 took place at 10:52:59 UTC ( 3:53 a.m. PST ) on 23 June 1981 from Space Launch Complex 3W at the Vandenberg Air Force Base in California . NOAA-7 was launched atop an Atlas E/F rocket with a Star-37S-ISS upper stage . The NOAA-7 satellite had a mass of 588.9 kg . The satellite 's design provided an economical and stable sun synchronous platform for advanced operational instruments to measure the Earth 's atmosphere , its surface and cloud cover , and the near space environment . The primary sensors included an Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer ( AVHRR ) and a TIROS Operational Vertical Sounder ( TOVS ) . One of the primary mission sensors , the High Resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder ( HIRS ) , failed 7 February 1985 . There were a number of secondary experiments on-board NOAA-7 . These include a Space Environment Monitor ( SEM ) and a Data Collection and Platform Location System ( DCPLS ) . The United States Air Force also provided a contamination monitor to assess contamination sources , levels and effects for consideration on future spacecraft . NOAA-7 was based upon the Block 5D spacecraft bus developed for the U.S. Air Force . The satellite was capable of maintaining an earth-pointing accuracy of better than ± 0.1 ° with a motion rate of less than 0.035 degrees/second . NOAA-7 was withdrawn from use in June 1986 after its power system malfunctioned . In August 1997 the decommissioned satellite experienced an abrupt 1 second change in orbital period . At the same time 3 new debris particles were observed . It is unclear if this was caused by an internal release of energy or collision with an unidentified object . As of 8 December 2013 , the derelict satellite remains in a 834 by orbit , inclined at 98.87 degrees and with a period of 101.62 minutes .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"NOAA-7\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 132290\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: X-ray astronomy satellite Content: An X-ray astronomy satellite studies X-ray emissions from celestial objects , as part of a branch of space science known as X-ray astronomy . Satellites are needed because X-radiation is absorbed by the Earth 's atmosphere , so instruments to detect X-rays must be taken to high altitude by balloons , sounding rockets , and satellites . A detector is placed on a satellite which is then put into orbit well above the Earth 's atmosphere . Unlike balloons , instruments on satellites are able to observe the full range of the X-ray spectrum . Unlike sounding rockets , they can collect data for as long as the instruments continue to operate . For example , the Chandra X-ray Observatory has been operational for more than fifteen years .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"X-ray_astronomy_satellite\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 132205\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: EOSDIS Content: The Earth Observing System Data and Information System ( EOSDIS ) is a key core capability in NASA 's Earth Science Data Systems Program . It is a comprehensive data and information system designed to perform a wide variety of functions in support of a heterogeneous national and international user community . EOSDIS provides a spectrum of services ; some services are intended for a diverse group of casual users while others are intended only for a select cadre of research scientists chosen by NASA 's peer-reviewed competitions , and then many fall somewhere in between . The primary services provided by EOSDIS are User Support , Data Archive , Management and Distribution , Information Management , and Product Generation , all of which are managed by the Earth Science Data and Information System ( ESDIS ) Project . EOSDIS ingests , processes , archives , and distributes data from a large number of Earth observing satellites , and provides end-to-end capabilities for managing NASA 's Earth science data from various sources -- satellites , aircraft , field measurements , and various other programs . For the Earth Observing System ( EOS ) satellite missions , EOSDIS provides capabilities for command and control , scheduling , data capture and initial ( Level 0 ) processing . These capabilities , constituting the EOSDIS Mission Operations , are managed by the Earth Science Mission Operations ( ESMO ) Project . NASA network capabilities transport the data to the science operations facilities . EOSDIS consists of a set of processing facilities and Earth Science Data Centers ( referred to as Distributed Active Archive Centers , or DAACs ) distributed across the United States . These processing facilities and DAACs serve hundreds of thousands of users around the world , providing hundreds of millions of data files each year covering many Earth science disciplines . The EOSDIS project as of September 2012 reported it contained approximately 10 PB of data in its database with ingestion of approximately 8.5 TB daily . The remaining capabilities of EOSDIS constitute the EOSDIS Science Operations , which are managed by the Earth Science Data and Information System ( ESDIS ) Project . These capabilities include : generation of higher level ( Level 1-4 ) science data products for EOS missions ; archiving and distribution of data products from EOS and other satellite missions , as well as aircraft and field measurement campaigns . The EOSDIS science operations are performed within a distributed system of many interconnected nodes ( Science Investigator-led Processing Systems and distributed , discipline-specific , Earth science data centers ) with specific responsibilities for production , archiving , and distribution of Earth science data products . The distributed data centers serve a large and diverse user community ( as indicated by EOSDIS performance metrics ) by providing capabilities to search and access science data products and specialized services .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"EOSDIS\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 131986\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: CLARREO Content: CLARREO ( Climate Absolute Radiance and Refractivity Observatory ) is a high-priority NASA decadal survey mission , originally selected as such by the National Research Council in 2007 . The CLARREO mission is intended to provide a metrology laboratory in orbit to accurately quantify and attribute Earth 's climate change ( see List of climate research satellites ) . If launched at the earliest opportunity , CLARREO 's observations could be used to detect the largest of climate trends above natural variability by the year 2039 . Then it may go on to further test , validate , and improve prediction by climate models . The mission also might provide the first orbiting radiometers with enough accuracy to serve as reference calibration standards that can fine-tune other spaceborne sensors and climate research , making climate trends apparent in their data sets within a 30-year time frame . Due to funding cuts in announced for the 2012 budget , the CLARREO mission was significantly scaled back , while remaining spaceborne projects were eyed to fill the gap . In the President 's FY16 budget request , CLARREO was provided $ 76.9 M to demonstrate essential measurement technologies of the CLARREO Tier 1 Decadal Survey mission . That funding will potentially support the flight of two instruments , Reflected Solar ( RS ) and Infrared ( IR ) spectrometers , hosted on the International Space Station in FY 2019 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"CLARREO\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 131961\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Charged Aerosol Release Experiment Content: The Charged Aerosol Release Experiment also known as CARE , is a project run by NASA which will use a rocket to release dust in the upper atmosphere to form a dusty plasma in space . The clouds thus generated are intended to simulate naturally occurring phenomena called noctilucent clouds , which are the highest clouds in the atmosphere . The CARE experiment is intended to create an artificial dust layer at the boundary of space in a controlled sense , in order to `` allow scientists to study different aspects of it , the turbulence generated on the inside , the distribution of dust particles and such . '' The dust cloud is generated using the Nihka motor dust generator . The dust cloud is composed of aluminum oxide , carbon monoxide , hydrogen chloride , water , and nitrogen , as well as smaller amounts of carbon dioxide , hydrogen , monatomic chlorine , and monatomic hydrogen . According to NASA , SHIMMER will track the CARE dust cloud for days or even months . The SHIMMER instrument has previously viewed natural noctilucent clouds for the past two years . The CARE will be the first space viewing of an artificial noctilucent cloud . The rocket was set to launch between 7:30 and 7:57 EDT on Tuesday Sept. 14 , 2009 from NASA 's Wallops Flight Facility in Virginia .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"Charged_Aerosol_Release_Experiment\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 131912\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Polar (satellite) Content: The Global Geospace Science ( GGS ) Polar Satellite was a NASA science spacecraft designed to study the polar magnetosphere and aurora . It was launched into orbit in February 1996 , and continued operations until the program was terminated in April 2008 . The spacecraft remains in orbit , though it is now inactive . Polar is the sister ship to GGS Wind .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"Polar_(satellite)\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 131452\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: ADM-Aeolus Content: ADM-Aeolus , or , in full , Atmospheric Dynamics Mission Aeolus , is an Earth observation satellite built by Airbus Defence and Space that is due for launch in 2017 . ADM-Aeolus will be the first equipment capable of performing global wind-component-profile observation and will provide much-needed information to improve weather forecasting . in Greek mythology , Aeolus is the name of the ruler of the winds .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"ADM-Aeolus\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 131426\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Deep Space Climate Observatory Content: Deep Space Climate Observatory ( DSCOVR ; formerly known as Triana , unofficially known as GoreSat ) is a NOAA Earth observation and space weather satellite launched by SpaceX on a Falcon 9 launch vehicle on February 11 , 2015 from Cape Canaveral . It was originally developed as a NASA satellite proposed in 1998 by then-Vice President Al Gore for the purpose of Earth observation . It is in a Lissajous orbit at the Sun-Earth Lagrangian point , 1500000 km from Earth , to monitor variable solar wind condition , provide early warning of approaching coronal mass ejections and observe phenomena on Earth including changes in ozone , aerosols , dust and volcanic ash , cloud height , vegetation cover and climate . At this location it has a continuous view of the Sun and the sunlit side of the Earth . The satellite is orbiting the Sun-Earth point in a six-month period , with a spacecraft-Earth-Sun angle varying from 4 to 15 degrees . It takes full-Earth pictures about every two hours and is able to process them faster than other Earth observation satellites . DSCOVR started orbiting around by June 8 , 2015 , just over 100 days after launch . After the spacecraft arrived on site and entered its operational phase , NASA began releasing near-real time images of Earth through the EPIC instrument 's website .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"Deep_Space_Climate_Observatory\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 131211\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cos-B Content: COS-B was the first European Space Research Organisation mission to study cosmic gamma ray sources . COS-B was first put forward by the European scientific community in the mid-1960s and approved by the ESRO council in 1969 . The mission consisted of a satellite containing gamma-ray detectors , which was launched by NASA on behalf of the ESRO on August 9 , 1975 . The mission was completed on April 25 , 1982 , after the satellite had been operational for more than 6.5 years , four years longer than planned and had increased the amount of data on gamma rays by a factor of 25 . Scientific results included the 2CG Catalogue listing around 25 gamma ray sources and a map of the Milky Way . The satellite also observed the X-ray binary Cygnus X-3 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"Cos-B\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 131199\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cartosat-2A Content: Cartosat-2A is an Earth observation satellite in a sun-synchronous orbit and the third of the Cartosat series of satellites . The satellite is the thirteenth satellite in the Indian Remote Sensing ( IRS ) satellite series to be built , launched and maintained by the Indian Space Research Organisation . It was launched by the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle - C9 on April 28 , 2008 along with the 87 kg Indian Mini Satellite ( IMS-1 ) and eight nano research satellites belonging to research facilities in Canada , Denmark , Germany , Japan and the Netherlands . This satellite is a Ministry of Defence mission for the Government of India . It is a dedicated satellite for the Indian Armed Forces which is in the process of establishing an Aerospace Command . The satellite carries a panchromatic ( PAN ) camera capable of taking black-and-white pictures in the visible region of electromagnetic spectrum . The highly agile Cartosat-2A can be steered up to 45 degrees along as well as across the direction of its movement to facilitate imaging of any area more frequently . The satellite 's health is continuously monitored from the Spacecraft Control Centre at Bangalore with the help of ISTRAC network of stations at Bangalore , Lucknow , Mauritius , Bearslake in Russia , Biak in Indonesia and Svalbard in Norway .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"Cartosat-2A\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 131036\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: THEMIS Content: The Time History of Events and Macroscale Interactions during Substorms ( THEMIS ) mission was originally a constellation of five NASA satellites ( THEMIS A through THEMIS E ) to study energy releases from Earth 's magnetosphere known as substorms , magnetic phenomena that intensify auroras near Earth 's poles . The name of the mission is an acronym alluding to the Titan , Themis . Three of the satellites remain in the magnetosphere , while two have been moved into orbit near the Moon . Those have been renamed ARTEMIS for Acceleration , Reconnection , Turbulence and Electrodynamics of the Moon 's Interaction with the Sun . THEMIS B became ARTEMIS P1 and THEMIS C became ARTEMIS P2 . The THEMIS satellites were launched February 17 , 2007 from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Space Launch Complex 17 aboard a Delta II rocket . Each satellite carries identical instrumentation , including a fluxgate magnetometer ( FGM ) , an electrostatic analyzer ( ESA ) , a solid state telescope ( SST ) , a search-coil magnetometer ( SCM ) and an electric field instrument ( EFI ) . Each has a mass of 126 kg , including 49 kg of fuel . THEMIS data can be accessed using the SPEDAS software .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"THEMIS\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 130827\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Thomas Sever Content: Dr. Thomas L. Sever is an archaeologist with NASA 's Marshall Space Flight Center . Dr. Sever is NASA 's only archaeologist and works primarily with Dan Irwin to decode remote sensing readings . While most of his work has dealt with South American and ancient Mayan civilization , Dr. Sever has also used his skills in meteorology . Remote sensing uses an apparatus that scans the earth with CAMS to detect features not seen by the human eye . While the sensitivity creates hundreds of readings and possibilities , specialists must analyze the data to determine the meanings . Dr. Sever has found that thermal imaging can discover old routes and footpaths now covered by dense vegetation . By interpreting the data , NASA has located hundreds of old and abandoned cities , not previously known to exist . Sever also used remote sensing technology in Costa Rica . A project team of professionals from NASA and the University of Colorado searched in the mountains for ancient footpaths , the oldest known in the New World , buried under six volcanic deposits and obscured from the air by a 150-foot jungle canopy . The difference in moisture level of the soils detected by TIMS led to their discovery . Although they saw no physical evidence of the footpaths on the ground , the team dug trenches to confirm their existence through archaeological investigation . In addition , by following the footpaths and using predictive modeling , the project team located approximately 60 settlements and other sites in areas of the Costa Rican mountains that had been believed to be uninhabited in prehistoric times . He currently teaches at the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) , his best class is the collapse of civilizations .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"Thomas_Sever\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 130724\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: CBERS-3 Content: China -- Brazil Earth Resources Satellite 3 ( CBERS-3 ) , also known as Ziyuan I-03 or Ziyuan 1D , was a remote sensing satellite intended for operation as part of the China -- Brazil Earth Resources Satellite programme between the China Centre for Resources Satellite Data and Application and Brazil 's National Institute for Space Research . The fourth CBERS satellite to fly , it was lost in a launch failure in December 2013 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"CBERS-3\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 130692\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ionospheric Connection Explorer Content: The Ionospheric Connection Explorer -RSB- ( ICON ) is a satellite designed to investigate changes in the Earth 's ionosphere and is scheduled for launch in the summer of 2017 . The mission is being led by the University of California , Berkeley and will be a new addition to NASA 's Explorer program . ICON will provide NASA 's Heliophysics Division with a new capability to understand the tug-of-war between Earth 's atmosphere and the space environment . In the `` no man 's land '' of the ionosphere , a continuous struggle between solar forcing and Earth 's weather systems drive extreme and unpredicted variability . ICON will investigate the forces at play in the near-space environment , leading the way in understanding disturbances that can lead to severe interference with communications and GPS signals . On April 12 , 2013 , NASA announced that ICON , along with Global-scale Observations of the Limb and Disk ( GOLD ) , had been selected for launch in 2017 , with the cost capped at $ 200 million , excluding launch costs . The principal investigator of ICON is Thomas Immel at the University of California , Berkeley .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"Ionospheric_Connection_Explorer\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 130192\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: FORMOSAT-5 Content: FORMOSAT-5 is a planned Earth observation satellite operated by the National Space Organization ( NSPO ) of the Republic of China ( Taiwan ) . It is to be NSPO 's first indigenous developed remote sensing satellite .\",\n \"qid\": \"2782\",\n \"docid\": \"FORMOSAT-5\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 129943\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":1371,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"The study indicates far less future global warming will occur than United Nations computer models have predicted, and supports prior studies indicating increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide trap far less heat than alarmists have claimed."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .","qid":"2783","docid":"Global_warming_potential","rank":1,"score":188686},{"content":"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.","qid":"2783","docid":"Climate_change_in_the_United_States","rank":2,"score":169785},{"content":"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .","qid":"2783","docid":"Global_warming","rank":3,"score":167882},{"content":"Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .","qid":"2783","docid":"Atmospheric_methane","rank":4,"score":165214},{"content":"Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .","qid":"2783","docid":"List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming","rank":5,"score":160491},{"content":"Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .","qid":"2783","docid":"Copenhagen_Diagnosis","rank":6,"score":157677},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .","qid":"2783","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere","rank":7,"score":156173},{"content":"Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .","qid":"2783","docid":"Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change","rank":8,"score":155208},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .","qid":"2783","docid":"Climate_change_in_Japan","rank":9,"score":151697},{"content":"Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .","qid":"2783","docid":"Global_Carbon_Project","rank":10,"score":149148},{"content":"Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .","qid":"2783","docid":"Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center","rank":11,"score":148753},{"content":"Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .","qid":"2783","docid":"Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios","rank":12,"score":148649},{"content":"Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .","qid":"2783","docid":"Economics_of_global_warming","rank":13,"score":148534},{"content":"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .","qid":"2783","docid":"Regional_effects_of_global_warming","rank":14,"score":147548},{"content":"Title: Mark Z. Jacobson Content: Mark Zachary Jacobson ( born 1965 ) is professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy Program . Jacobson develops computer models about the effects of different energy technologies and their emissions on air pollution and climate . He has done influential research on the role of aerosols and black carbon on the climate and is regarded as a leading aerosol climate modeler . According to Jacobson , a speedy transition to clean , renewable energy is required to reduce the potential acceleration of global warming , including the disappearance of the Arctic Sea ice . This change will also eliminate 2.5 -- 3 million deaths worldwide each year , related to air pollution , and reduce disruption associated with fossil fuel shortages .","qid":"2783","docid":"Mark_Z._Jacobson","rank":15,"score":147010},{"content":"Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .","qid":"2783","docid":"Carbon_tax","rank":16,"score":146369},{"content":"Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .","qid":"2783","docid":"Atmospheric_carbon_cycle","rank":17,"score":145447},{"content":"Title: Climate change and potatoes Content: Global warming is predicted to have significant effects on global potato production . Like many crops , potatoes are likely to be affected by changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide , temperature and precipitation , as well as interactions between these factors . As well as affecting potatoes directly , climate change will also affect the distributions and populations of many potato diseases and pests . Potato is one of the world 's most important food crops . Potato production must be adapted to climate change to avoid reductions in crop yields .","qid":"2783","docid":"Climate_change_and_potatoes","rank":18,"score":145283},{"content":"Title: Charles David Keeling Content: Charles David Keeling ( April 20 , 1928 -- June 20 , 2005 ) was an American scientist whose recording of carbon dioxide at the Mauna Loa Observatory first alerted the world to the possibility of anthropogenic contribution to the `` greenhouse effect '' and global warming . The Keeling Curve measures the progressive buildup of carbon dioxide , a greenhouse gas , in the atmosphere .","qid":"2783","docid":"Charles_David_Keeling","rank":19,"score":141950},{"content":"Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .","qid":"2783","docid":"Environmental_impact_of_aviation","rank":20,"score":141648},{"content":"Title: Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources Content: Measurement of life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions involves calculating the global-warming potential of electrical energy sources through life-cycle assessment of each energy source . The findings are presented in units of global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated by that source . The scale uses the global warming potential unit , the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) , and the unit of electrical energy , the kilowatt hour ( kWh ) . The goal of such assessments is to cover the full life of the source , from material and fuel mining through construction to operation and waste management . In 2014 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change harmonized the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) findings of the major electricity generating sources in use worldwide . This was done by analyzing the findings of hundreds of individual scientific papers assessing each energy source . For all technologies , advances in efficiency , and therefore reductions in e since the time of publication , have not been included . For example , the total life cycle emissions from wind power may have lessened since publication . Similarly , due to the time frame over which the studies were conducted , nuclear Generation II reactor 's e results are presented and not the global warming potential of Generation III reactors , presently under construction in the United States and China . Other limitations of the data include : a ) missing life cycle phases , and , b ) uncertainty as to where to define the cut-off point in the global warming potential of an energy source . The latter is important in assessing a combined electrical grid in the real world , rather than the established practice of simply assessing the energy source in isolation .","qid":"2783","docid":"Life-cycle_greenhouse-gas_emissions_of_energy_sources","rank":21,"score":141446},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .","qid":"2783","docid":"Greenhouse_gas","rank":22,"score":140916},{"content":"Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference) Content: In 2005, an international conference titled Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and global warming and its effects. The conference name was derived from Article 2 of the charter for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The conference explored the possible impacts at different levels of greenhouse gas emissions and how the climate might be stabilized at a desired level. The conference took place under the United Kingdom's presidency of the G8, with the participation of around 200 \"internationally renowned\" scientists from 30 countries. It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter, from 1 February to 3 February. The conference was one of many meetings leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, at which the international community agreed to limit global warming to no more than 2C in order to have a 50-50 chance of avoiding dangerous climate change. However, a 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting it is below the 2 degree temperature target.","qid":"2783","docid":"Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change_(2005_conference)","rank":23,"score":140848},{"content":"Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .","qid":"2783","docid":"Carbon_diet","rank":24,"score":140578},{"content":"Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.","qid":"2783","docid":"Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C","rank":25,"score":140519},{"content":"Title: Idealized greenhouse model Content: The surface of the Sun radiates light and heat at approximately 5,500 ° C . The Earth is much cooler and so radiates heat back away from itself at much longer wavelengths , mostly in the infrared range . The idealized greenhouse model is based on the fact that certain gases in the Earth 's atmosphere , including carbon dioxide and water vapour , are transparent to the high-frequency , high-energy solar radiation , but are much more opaque to the lower frequency infrared radiation leaving the surface of the earth . Thus heat is easily let in , but is partially trapped by these gases as it tries to leave . Rather than get hotter and hotter , Kirchhoff 's law of thermal radiation says that the gases of the atmosphere also have to re-emit the infrared energy that they absorb , and they do so , also at long infrared wavelengths , both upwards into space as well as downwards back towards the Earth 's surface . In the long-term , thermal equilibrium is reached when all the heat energy arriving on the planet is leaving again at the same rate . In this idealized model , the greenhouse gases cause the surface of the planet to be warmer than it would be without them , in order for the required amount of heat energy finally to be radiated out into space from the top of the atmosphere . The greenhouse effect can be illustrated with an idealized planet . This is a common `` textbook model '' : the planet will have a constant surface temperature Ts and an atmosphere with constant temperature Ta . For diagrammatic clarity , a gap can be depicted between the atmosphere and the surface . Alternatively , Ts could be interpreted as a temperature representative of the surface and the lower atmosphere , and Ta could be interpreted as the temperature of the upper atmosphere . In order to justify that Ta and Ts remain constant over the planet , strong ocean and atmospheric currents can be imagined to provide plentiful lateral mixing . Furthermore , any daily or seasonal cycles in temperature are assumed to be insignificant .","qid":"2783","docid":"Idealized_greenhouse_model","rank":26,"score":138651},{"content":"Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .","qid":"2783","docid":"Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum","rank":27,"score":138533},{"content":"Title: Guy Stewart Callendar Content: Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''","qid":"2783","docid":"Guy_Stewart_Callendar","rank":28,"score":138423},{"content":"Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .","qid":"2783","docid":"History_of_climate_change_science","rank":29,"score":137643},{"content":"Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .","qid":"2783","docid":"Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous","rank":30,"score":135745},{"content":"Title: Gilbert Plass Content: Gilbert Norman Plass ( 22 March 1920 -- 1 March 2004 ) was a Canadian physicist who in the 1950s made predictions about the increase in global atmospheric carbon dioxide levels in the 20th century and its effect on the average temperature of the planet that closely match measurements reported half a century later . Plass worked most of his life as a physicist in the United States . He graduated from Harvard University in 1941 and earned a PhD in physics from Princeton University in 1947 . He worked as an associate physicist at the Metallurgical Laboratory ( Manhattan District ) of the University of Chicago from 1942 to 1945 . He became an instructor of physics at Johns Hopkins University in 1946 , and eventually became an associate professor there . In 1955 , leaving academia , he held a job for a year as a staff scientist with Lockheed Aircraft Corporation . He then joined the advanced research staff at the Aeronutronic division of the Ford Motor Company . In 1960 , he became manager of the research lab at Ford 's theoretical physics department and a consulting editor of the journal Infrared Physics ( now called Infrared Physics and Technology ) . In 1963 , he accepted a position as the first professor of atmospheric and space science at the Southwest Center for Advanced Studies ( now the University of Texas at Arlington ) , where he remained for five years . In 1968 , he arrived at Texas A&M University , where he served as professor of physics and head of the department .","qid":"2783","docid":"Gilbert_Plass","rank":31,"score":135602},{"content":"Title: Journal for Geoclimatic Studies Content: The Journal for Geoclimatic Studies is the name given to a nonexistent journal which published a fabricated global warming study in November 2007 entitled , `` Carbon dioxide production by benthic bacteria : the death of manmade global warming theory ? '' The published study identified the Journal for Geoclimatic Studies as an official publication of Okinawa University 's Institute for Geoclimatic Studies ( The Institute for Geoclimatic Studies is also fraudulent and does not exist ) . The spurious study , ostensibly authored by Daniel Klein and Mandeep J. Gupta of the University of Arizona 's Department of Climatology , and Philip Cooper and Arne FR Jansson at the University of Gothenburg 's Department of Atmospheric Physics , claimed that global warming was not human caused , but the work of carbon-dioxide emitting bacteria based on the ocean floor . The report was circulated by a number of global warming skeptics before discovery that the study authors and university departments identified in the publication did not exist . The website where the study was published was taken down once the deception was revealed , and its ownership was traced to David Thorpe , a science journalist and web designer based in the United Kingdom . The true author of the article is purportedly a man identifying himself as Mark Cox , who has claimed the hoax was designed to expose the gullibility and scientific illiteracy of global warming skeptics .","qid":"2783","docid":"Journal_for_Geoclimatic_Studies","rank":32,"score":135372},{"content":"Title: Carbon leakage Content: Carbon leakage occurs when there is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions in one country as a result of an emissions reduction by a second country with a strict climate policy . Carbon leakage may occur for a number of reasons : if the emissions policy of a country raises local costs , then another country with a more relaxed policy may have a trading advantage . If demand for these goods remains the same , production may move offshore to the cheaper country with lower standards , and global emissions will not be reduced . if environmental policies in one country add a premium to certain fuels or commodities , then the demand may decline and their price may fall . Countries that do not place a premium on those items may then take up the demand and use the same supply , negating any benefit . There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term leakage effects . This is important for the problem of climate change . Carbon leakage is one type of spill-over effect . Spill-over effects can be positive or negative ; for example , emission reductions policy might lead to technological developments that aid reductions outside of the policy area . `` Carbon leakage is defined as the increase in emissions outside the countries taking domestic mitigation action divided by the reduction in the emissions of these countries . '' It is expressed as a percentage , and can be greater or less than 100 % . Carbon leakage may occur through changes in trading patterns , and that is sometimes measured as the balance of emissions embodied in trade ( BEET ) .","qid":"2783","docid":"Carbon_leakage","rank":33,"score":134721},{"content":"Title: 2002 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2002 United Nations Climate Change Conference took place from October 23 to November 1 , 2002 , in New Delhi , India . The conference included the 8th Conference of the Parties ( COP8 ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The conference adopted the Delhi Ministerial Declaration that , amongst others , called for efforts by developed countries to transfer technology and minimize the impact of climate change on developing countries . It is also approved the New Delhi work programme on Article 6 of the Convention . The COP8 was marked by Russia 's hesitation , stating that it needed more time to think it over . The Kyoto Protocol could enter into force once it was ratified by 55 countries , including countries responsible for 55 per cent of the developed world 's 1990 carbon dioxide emissions . With the United States ( 36.1 per cent share of developed-world carbon dioxide ) and Australia refusing ratification , Russia 's agreement ( 17 % of global emissions in 1990 ) was required to meet the ratification criteria and therefore Russia could delay the process .","qid":"2783","docid":"2002_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference","rank":34,"score":134425},{"content":"Title: Advisory Group on Greenhouse Gases Content: The Advisory Group on Greenhouse Gases , created in 1985 , was an advisory body for the review of studies into the greenhouse effect . The group was created by the International Council of Scientific Unions , the United Nations Environment Programme , and the World Meteorological Organization to follow up on the recommendations of the International conference of the Assessment of the role of carbon dioxide and of other greenhouse gases in climate variations and associated impacts , held at Villach , Austria , in October 1985 . The seven-member panel included Swedish meteorologist Bert Bolin and Canadian climatologist Kenneth Hare . The group held its last meeting in 1990 . It was gradually replaced by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change .","qid":"2783","docid":"Advisory_Group_on_Greenhouse_Gases","rank":35,"score":134132},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .","qid":"2783","docid":"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom","rank":36,"score":134033},{"content":"Title: Dr. Neil Trivett Global Atmosphere Watch Observatory Content: The Dr. Neil Trivett Global Atmosphere Watch Observatory is an atmospheric baseline station operated by Environment and Climate Change Canada located at Alert , Nunavut , on the north-eastern tip of Ellesmere Island , about 800 km south of the geographic north pole . The observatory is the northernmost of 31 Global Stations in an international network coordinated by the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) under its Global Atmosphere Watch ( GAW ) program to study the long-term effects of pollution on the atmospheric environment . Among these 31 stations , Alert is one of three greenhouse gas `` intercomparison supersites '' , along with Mauna Loa in Hawaii and Cape Grim in Australia , which , due to their locations far from industrial activity , provide the international scientific community with a baseline record of atmospheric chemistry .","qid":"2783","docid":"Dr._Neil_Trivett_Global_Atmosphere_Watch_Observatory","rank":37,"score":133318},{"content":"Title: Land use, land-use change and forestry Content: Land use , land-use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) is defined by the United Nations Climate Change Secretariat as a `` greenhouse gas inventory sector that covers emissions and removals of greenhouse gases resulting from direct human-induced land use , land-use change and forestry activities . '' LULUCF has impacts on the global carbon cycle and as such , these activities can add or remove carbon dioxide ( or , more generally , carbon ) from the atmosphere , influencing climate . LULUCF has been the subject of two major reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Additionally , land use is of critical importance for biodiversity .","qid":"2783","docid":"Land_use,_land-use_change_and_forestry","rank":38,"score":132875},{"content":"Title: Contraction and Convergence Content: Contraction and Convergence ( C&C ) is a proposed global framework for reducing greenhouse gas emissions to combat climate change . Conceived by the Global Commons Institute -LSB- GCI -RSB- in the early 1990s , the Contraction and Convergence strategy consists of reducing overall emissions of greenhouse gases to a safe level ( contraction ) , resulting from every country bringing its emissions per capita to a level which is equal for all countries ( convergence ) . It is intended to form the basis of an international agreement which will reduce carbon dioxide emissions to avoid dangerous climate change , carbon dioxide being the gas that is primarily responsible for changes in the greenhouse effect on Earth . It is expressed as a simple mathematical formula . This formula can be used as a way for the world to stabilize carbon levels at any level . Advocates of Contraction and Convergence stress that negotiations at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change -LSB- UNFCCC -RSB- are governed sequentially by the ` objective ' of the UNFCCC -LSB- safe and stable GHG concentration in the global atmosphere -RSB- followed by its organising principles -LSB- ` precaution ' and ` equity ' -RSB- . C&C is widely cited and supported .","qid":"2783","docid":"Contraction_and_Convergence","rank":39,"score":132320},{"content":"Title: Carbon capture and storage in Australia Content: Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) is an approach to mitigate global warming by capturing carbon dioxide from large point sources such as fossil fuel power plants and storing it instead of releasing it into the atmosphere . Carbon capture and storage is also used for Enhanced Oil Recovery to increase yield from declining oil fields , and for storage of from natural gas fields . No coal-fired power station in Australia has CCS of . CCS is proven technology but is not yet commercially viable for reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from coal-fired power stations . Without an economic driver such as a high carbon price or revenue from Enhanced Oil Recovery CCS is not expected to be commercially viable until at least 2020 . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until 2100 . In the 2015 budget , the Abbott Government cut $ 460m from CCS research projects leaving $ 191.7 m to continue existing projects for the next seven years . The program had already been cut by the previous Labor government and much of the funding remained unallocated .","qid":"2783","docid":"Carbon_capture_and_storage_in_Australia","rank":40,"score":132110},{"content":"Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .","qid":"2783","docid":"350.org","rank":41,"score":132020},{"content":"Title: Kyoto Protocol Content: The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , based on the fact that ( a ) global warming exists and ( b ) human-made CO2 emissions have caused it . The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto , Japan , on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005 . There are currently 192 parties ( Canada withdrew effective December 2012 ) to the Protocol . The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to `` a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' ( Art. 2 ) . The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities : it puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . The Protocol 's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012 . A second commitment period was agreed on in 2012 , known as the Doha Amendment to the protocol , in which 37 countries have binding targets : Australia , the European Union ( and its 28 member states ) , Belarus , Iceland , Kazakhstan , Liechtenstein , Norway , Switzerland , and Ukraine . Belarus , Kazakhstan and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets . Japan , New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyoto 's first-round but have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period . Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada ( which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012 ) and the United States ( which has not ratified the Protocol ) . As of July 2016 , 66 states have accepted the Doha Amendment , while entry into force requires the acceptances of 144 states . Of the 37 countries with binding commitments , 7 have ratified . Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ends in 2020 . This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the Paris Agreement , which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto protocol .","qid":"2783","docid":"Kyoto_Protocol","rank":42,"score":131364},{"content":"Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .","qid":"2783","docid":"Deforestation_and_climate_change","rank":43,"score":131083},{"content":"Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .","qid":"2783","docid":"Low-carbon_economy","rank":44,"score":130986},{"content":"Title: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates Content: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) are cause by the exploitation of natural resources , rapid population growth , and high energy demand . The continuing temperature rise caused by global warming contributes to UAE 's water scarcity , drought , rising sea level and aridity . The countryside of the UAE , characterized with its great arid land , infrequent precipitation , and high temperatures are already facing long-term aridity . This precondition is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change and contributes to worsening water scarcity , quality , and water contamination . The United Arab Emirates are located in the Middle East between Oman and Saudi Arabia , adjoining the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf . In the last years , the impact of global warming on the UAE has intensified the already existing environmental issues , including water scarcity and limited agricultural land . The United Arab Emirates are a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , listed as having the 29th highest carbon dioxide emissions . Since the boom of the oil-industry occurred in the early 21st century , the population and its consumption of energy have sharply increased . The UAE contains the world 's seventh largest natural resource of oil and seventeenth-largest natural gas reserve . This possession of a high amount of valuable natural resources , pushed the UAE to the position of the ninth wealthiest country in the world by 2016 GDP per capita . These financial resources support their adaptation capacity to `` climate change-induced challenges '' . Currently , they are investing in increasing air conditioning infrastructure , rainwater drainage systems , constructing flood barriers and new desalination plants . In June 2016 Abu Dhabi announced a project for an enhanced rainwater drainage system due to unnaturally occurring thunderstorms in March 2016 which caused 860 damages on properties and flooding . Also the three main characteristics of UAE 's politics contribute to the recent natural unsustainability : First , the Emirates feature components of a Rentier state . It is governed by an authoritarian political system and finally both facts cause critical natural resource-related trades . In particular , UAE as a rentier state means that the federalization gains external rent from foreign individuals , companies and governments . A rentier state 's economy is predominated by the dependency on external rents . Oil revenues also count as external rent .","qid":"2783","docid":"Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates","rank":45,"score":130384},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .","qid":"2783","docid":"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States","rank":46,"score":130339},{"content":"Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .","qid":"2783","docid":"Global_warming_controversy","rank":47,"score":130281},{"content":"Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .","qid":"2783","docid":"CO2_fertilization_effect","rank":48,"score":130179},{"content":"Title: Shale gas Content: Shale gas is natural gas that is found trapped within shale formations . Shale gas has become an increasingly important source of natural gas in the United States since the start of this century , and interest has spread to potential gas shales in the rest of the world . In 2000 shale gas provided only 1 % of U.S. natural gas production ; by 2010 it was over 20 % and the U.S. government 's Energy Information Administration predicts that by 2035 , 46 % of the United States ' natural gas supply will come from shale gas . Some analysts expect that shale gas will greatly expand worldwide energy supply . China is estimated to have the world 's largest shale gas reserves . The Obama administration believed that increased shale gas development would help reduce greenhouse gas emissions . In 2012 , US carbon dioxide emissions dropped to a 20-year low . A 2013 review by the United Kingdom Department of Energy and Climate Change noted that most studies of the subject have estimated that life-cycle greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions from shale gas are similar to those of conventional natural gas , and are much less than those from coal , usually about half the greenhouse gas emissions of coal ; the noted exception was a 2011 study by Howarth and others of Cornell University , which concluded that shale GHG emissions were as high as those of coal . More recent studies have also concluded that life-cycle shale gas GHG emissions are much less than those of coal , among them , studies by Natural Resources Canada ( 2012 ) , and a consortium formed by the US National Renewable Energy Laboratory with a number of universities ( 2012 ) . Some 2011 studies pointed to high rates of decline of some shale gas wells as an indication that shale gas production may ultimately be much lower than is currently projected . But shale-gas discoveries are also opening up substantial new resources of tight oil / `` shale oil '' .","qid":"2783","docid":"Shale_gas","rank":49,"score":129944},{"content":"Title: Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 Content: The Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 - a bill to amend the Clean Air Act to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide , and for other purposes . It was proposed in the 110th United States Congress by Senators Bernie Sanders ( I-VT ) and Barbara Boxer ( D-CA ) on January 15 , 2007 . It was referred to the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works . The measure was intended to increase performance standards for electricity generation and motor vehicles with the option of an emissions `` cap and trade '' system . The emissions cap would begin in 2010 with the aim of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 15 percent by 2020 and 83 percent by 2050 . The legislation would also provide funding for R&D on geologic sequestration of carbon dioxide , among other projects ; set emissions standards for new vehicles and a renewable fuels requirement for gasoline beginning in 2016 ; establish energy efficiency and renewable portfolio standards beginning in 2008 and low-carbon electric generation standards beginning in 2016 for electric utilities ; and require periodic evaluations by the National Academy of Sciences to determine whether emissions targets are adequate .","qid":"2783","docid":"Global_Warming_Pollution_Reduction_Act_of_2007","rank":50,"score":129605},{"content":"Title: Carbon sequestration Content: Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Carbon sequestration involves long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to mitigate or defer global warming . It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases , which are released by burning fossil fuels . Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological , chemical , and physical processes . Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects , including large-scale , artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced using subsurface saline aquifers , reservoirs , ocean water , aging oil fields , or other carbon sinks .","qid":"2783","docid":"Carbon_sequestration","rank":51,"score":128938},{"content":"Title: Climate change and agriculture Content: -RSB- Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes , both of which take place on a global scale . Climate change affects agriculture in a number of ways , including through changes in average temperatures , rainfall , and climate extremes ( e.g. , heat waves ) ; changes in pests and diseases ; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations ; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods ; and changes in sea level . Climate change is already affecting agriculture , with effects unevenly distributed across the world . Future climate change will likely negatively affect crop production in low latitude countries , while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative . Climate change will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups , such as the poor . Agriculture contributes to climate change by ( 1 ) anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , and ( 2 ) by the conversion of non-agricultural land ( e.g. , forests ) into agricultural land . Agriculture , forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25 % to global annual emissions in 2010 . There are a range of policies that can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture , and to reduce GHG emissions from the agriculture sector .","qid":"2783","docid":"Climate_change_and_agriculture","rank":52,"score":128333},{"content":"Title: Christine Wiedinmyer Content: Christine Wiedinmyer is a research scientist in the Atmospheric Chemistry Division of the National Center for Atmospheric Research . She has a Ph.D. in Chemical Engineering from the University of Texas at Austin . Wiedinmyer developed the Fire INventory from NCAR ( FINN ) , `` a high resolution global fire emissions model now used by local , regional , and global chemical modelers to better quantify the impacts of fire emissions on atmospheric composition , both in hindsight and forecast model applications . '' She used the model to estimate that the 2010 Russian wildfires liberated 22 teragrams of highly toxic carbon monoxide , though this amount was less than the cumulative carbon monoxide emissions of 2012 and 2003 . Wiedinmyer discovered that in the long run , controlled burning of forests will produce up to sixty percent less carbon dioxide emissions compared to the full-fledged wildfires they prevented . Undergrowth will be destroyed by the controlled burns while carbon-rich mature trees survive . Without removing the undergrowth , wildfires can quickly escalate out of control using the undergrowth as fuel , and then burn down mature trees as well . Wiedinmyer is also a co-founder of the Earth Science Women 's Network .","qid":"2783","docid":"Christine_Wiedinmyer","rank":53,"score":127738},{"content":"Title: Sustainable automotive air conditioning Content: Sustainable automotive air conditioning is the subject of a debate -- nicknamed the Cool War -- about the next-generation refrigerant in car air conditioning . The Alliance for CO2 Solutions supports the uptake of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) as a refrigerant in passenger cars , and the chemical industry is developing new chemical blends . The Alliance and its supporters -- scientists , NGOs and business leaders -- urge the car industry to replace high global warming chemical substances with the natural refrigerant carbon dioxide ( CO2 , R744 / R-744 ) in car cooling and heating . This , they argue , would lead to 10 % less car emissions , and knock out 1 % of total greenhouse gas emissions worldwide . If CO2 Technology is applied in other sectors , such as commercial and industrial refrigeration , heat pumps for water heating etc. , it may even save up to 3 % of the world 's greenhouse gases . Opponents of the Alliance claim that CO2 Technology is not cost-efficient and safe , hence seeking to postpone the global industry decision to be taken to develop new chemical blends instead .","qid":"2783","docid":"Sustainable_automotive_air_conditioning","rank":54,"score":127717},{"content":"Title: Contribution to global warming by Australia Content: Australia has one of the highest per capita emissions of carbon dioxide in the world , with 0.3 % of the world 's population it produces 1.8 % of the world 's greenhouse gasses . It was 18.3 tonnes per year per person and the 11th highest in the world per capita in 2009 . Australia uses principally coal power ( 70 % ) for electricity , with the remainder mainly gas , with no nuclear , low levels of hydro power , and low , but increasing , levels of solar , wind and wave power .","qid":"2783","docid":"Contribution_to_global_warming_by_Australia","rank":55,"score":127322},{"content":"Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .","qid":"2783","docid":"Effects_of_global_warming","rank":56,"score":127211},{"content":"Title: Ecological forecasting Content: Ecological forecasting uses knowledge of physics , ecology and physiology to predict how ecosystems will change in the future in response to environmental factors such as climate change . The ultimate goal of the approach is to provide people such as resource managers and designers of marine reserves with information that they can then use to respond , in advance , to future changes , a form of adaptation to global warming . One of the most important environmental factors for organisms today is global warming . Most physiological processes are affected by temperature , and so even small changes in weather and climate can lead to large changes in the growth , reproduction and survival of animals and plants . The scientific consensus is that the increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases due to human activity caused most of the warming observed since the start of the industrial era . These changes are in turn affecting human and natural ecosystems . One major challenge is to predict where , when and with what magnitude changes are likely to occur so that we can mitigate or at least prepare for them . Ecological forecasting applies existing knowledge of how animals and plants interact with their physical environment to ask how changes in environmental factors might result in changes to the ecosystems as a whole .","qid":"2783","docid":"Ecological_forecasting","rank":57,"score":126962},{"content":"Title: David Evans (mathematician and engineer) Content: David Evans is an Australian mathematician and engineer . Evans obtained the degree of Bachelor of Electrical Engineering from the University of Sydney in 1983 ; and PhD in Electrical Engineering from Stanford University in 1989 . He has four other degrees . From 1999 to 2005 Evans worked in the Australian Greenhouse Office . There he contributed to the development of FullCam , a fully integrated carbon accounting model for estimating and predicting all biomass , litter and soil carbon pools in forest and agricultural systems for the Australian government . ( FullCam , part of Australia 's National Carbon Accounting System , received a Special Achievement in GIS award at the 2010 ESRI International User Conference ) . He established Goldnerds , an information service for gold investors . He also serves on the Board of Advisors for the Committee for a Constructive Tomorrow , a group founded to promote a `` positive voice on environment and development issues '' . The Committee rejects the consensus of the scientific community on global warming as `` alarmist '' , and Evans has moved from what he calls a `` warmist '' to a `` skeptic '' position .","qid":"2783","docid":"David_Evans_(mathematician_and_engineer)","rank":58,"score":126568},{"content":"Title: Scott Denning Content: A. Scott Denning is a climate scientist and professor of atmospheric science at Colorado State University , whose faculty he joined in 1998 . He is known for his research into atmosphere-biosphere interactions and atmospheric carbon dioxide . He firmly supports action to avoid dangerous climate change and has said that the science behind it is `` settled '' . He has also argued that , if no action is taken on the matter , global warming could cause the climate of Colorado to resemble the current climate of its neighbors to the south , such as southern New Mexico , Texas and Mexico .","qid":"2783","docid":"Scott_Denning","rank":59,"score":126535},{"content":"Title: Environmental issue Content: Environmental issues are harmful trouble effects of human activity on the biophysical environment . Environmental protection is a practice of protecting the natural environment on individual , organizational or governmental levels , for the benefit of both the environment and humans . Environmentalism , a social and environmental movement , addresses environmental issues through advocacy , education and activism . The carbon dioxide equivalent of greenhouse gases ( GHG ) in the atmosphere has already exceeded 400 parts per million ( NOAA ) ( with total `` long-term '' GHG exceeding 455 parts per million ) . ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Report ) This level is considered a tipping point . `` The amount of greenhouse gas in the atmosphere is already above the threshold that can potentially cause dangerous climate change . We are already at risk of many areas of pollution ... It 's not next year or next decade , it 's now . '' Report from the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs ( OCHA ) : Environment destruction caused by humans is a global problem , and this is a problem that is on going every day . By year 2050 , the global human population is expected to grow by 2 billion people , thereby reaching a level of 9.6 billion people ( Living Blue Planet 24 ) . The human effects on Earth can be seen in many different ways . A main one is the temperature rise , and according to the report '' Our Changing Climate '' , the global warming that has been going on for the past 50 years is primarily due to human activities ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) . Since 1895 , the U.S. average temperature has increased from 1.3 ° F to 1.9 ° F , with most of the increase taken place since around year 1970 ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) .","qid":"2783","docid":"Environmental_issue","rank":60,"score":125897},{"content":"Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .","qid":"2783","docid":"Global_cooling","rank":61,"score":125800},{"content":"Title: Atmospheric dispersion modeling Content: Atmospheric dispersion modeling is the mathematical simulation of how air pollutants disperse in the ambient atmosphere . It is performed with computer programs that solve the mathematical equations and algorithms which simulate the pollutant dispersion . The dispersion models are used to estimate the downwind ambient concentration of air pollutants or toxins emitted from sources such as industrial plants , vehicular traffic or accidental chemical releases . They can also be used to predict future concentrations under specific scenarios ( i.e. changes in emission sources ) . Therefore , they are the dominant type of model used in air quality policy making . They are most useful for pollutants that are dispersed over large distances and that may react in the atmosphere . For pollutants that have a very high spatio-temporal variability ( i.e. have very steep distance to source decay such as black carbon ) and for epidemiological studies statistical land-use regression models are also used . Dispersion models are important to governmental agencies tasked with protecting and managing the ambient air quality . The models are typically employed to determine whether existing or proposed new industrial facilities are or will be in compliance with the National Ambient Air Quality Standards ( NAAQS ) in the United States and other nations . The models also serve to assist in the design of effective control strategies to reduce emissions of harmful air pollutants . During the late 1960s , the Air Pollution Control Office of the U.S. EPA initiated research projects that would lead to the development of models for the use by urban and transportation planners . A major and significant application of a roadway dispersion model that resulted from such research was applied to the Spadina Expressway of Canada in 1971 . Air dispersion models are also used by public safety responders and emergency management personnel for emergency planning of accidental chemical releases . Models are used to determine the consequences of accidental releases of hazardous or toxic materials , Accidental releases may result in fires , spills or explosions that involve hazardous materials , such as chemicals or radionuclides . The results of dispersion modeling , using worst case accidental release source terms and meteorological conditions , can provide an estimate of location impacted areas , ambient concentrations , and be used to determine protective actions appropriate in the event a release occurs . Appropriate protective actions may include evacuation or shelter in place for persons in the downwind direction . At industrial facilities , this type of consequence assessment or emergency planning is required under the Clean Air Act ( United States ) ( CAA ) codified in Part 68 of Title 40 of the Code of Federal Regulations . The dispersion models vary depending on the mathematics used to develop the model , but all require the input of data that may include : Meteorological conditions such as wind speed and direction , the amount of atmospheric turbulence ( as characterized by what is called the `` stability class '' ) , the ambient air temperature , the height to the bottom of any inversion aloft that may be present , cloud cover and solar radiation . Source term ( the concentration or quantity of toxins in emission or accidental release source terms ) and temperature of the material Emissions or release parameters such as source location and height , type of source ( i.e. , fire , pool or vent stack ) and exit velocity , exit temperature and mass flow rate or release rate . Terrain elevations at the source location and at the receptor location ( s ) , such as nearby homes , schools , businesses and hospitals . The location , height and width of any obstructions ( such as buildings or other structures ) in the path of the emitted gaseous plume , surface roughness or the use of a more generic parameter `` rural '' or `` city '' terrain . Many of the modern , advanced dispersion modeling programs include a pre-processor module for the input of meteorological and other data , and many also include a post-processor module for graphing the output data and/or plotting the area impacted by the air pollutants on maps . The plots of areas impacted may also include isopleths showing areas of minimal to high concentrations that define areas of the highest health risk . The isopleths plots are useful in determining protective actions for the public and responders . The atmospheric dispersion models are also known as atmospheric diffusion models , air dispersion models , air quality models , and air pollution dispersion models .","qid":"2783","docid":"Atmospheric_dispersion_modeling","rank":62,"score":125671},{"content":"Title: Dynamic global vegetation model Content: A Dynamic Global Vegetation Model ( DGVM ) is a computer program that simulates shifts in potential vegetation and its associated biogeochemical and hydrological cycles as a response to shifts in climate . DGVMs use time series of climate data and , given constraints of latitude , topography , and soil characteristics , simulate monthly or daily dynamics of ecosystem processes . DGVMs are used most often to simulate the effects of future climate change on natural vegetation and its carbon and water cycles . DGVMs generally combine biogeochemistry , biogeography , and disturbance submodels . Disturbance is often limited to wildfires , but in principle could include any of : forest/land management decisions , windthrow , insect damage , ozone damage etc. . DGVMs usually `` spin up '' their simulations from bare ground to `` equilibrium '' vegetation to establish realistic initial values for their various `` pools '' : carbon and nitrogen in live and dead vegetation , soil organic matter , etc. corresponding to a documented historical vegetation cover . DGVMs are usually run in a spatially distributed mode , with simulations carried out for thousands of `` cells '' , geographic points which are assumed to have homogeneous conditions within each cell . Simulations are carried out across a range of spatial scales , from global to landscape . Cells are usually arranged as lattice points ; the distance between adjacent lattice points may be as coarse as a few degrees of latitude or longitude , or as fine as 30 arc-seconds . Simulations of the conterminous United States in the first DGVM comparison exercise ( LPJ and MC1 ) called the VEMAP project in the 1990s used a lattice grain of one-half degree . Global simulations by the PIK group and collaborators using 6 different DGVMs ( HYBRID , IBIS , LPJ , SDGVM , TRIFFID , and VECODE ) used the same resolution as the general circulation model ( GCM ) that provided the climate data , 3.75 deg longitude x 2.5 deg latitude , a total of 1631 land grid cells . Sometimes lattice distances are specified in kilometers rather than angular measure , especially for finer grains , so a project like VEMAP is often referred to as 50 km grain . Several DGVMs appeared in the middle 1990s . The first was apparently IBIS ( Foley et al. , 1996 ) , VECODE ( Brovkin et al. , 1997 ) , followed by several others described below : Several DGVMs have been developed by various research groups around the world : LPJ - Germany , Sweden IBIS - Integrated Biosphere Simulator - U.S. MC1 - U.S. HYBRID - U.K. SDGVM - U.K. SEIB-DGVM - Japan TRIFFID - U.K. VECODE - Germany CLM-DVGM - U.S. Ecosystem Demography ( ED , ED2 ) The next generation of models - earth system models ( ex . CCSM , ORCHIDEE , JULES , CTEM ) - now includes the important feedbacks from the biosphere to the atmosphere so that vegetation shifts and changes in the carbon and hydrological cycles affect the climate . DGVMs commonly simulate a variety of plant and soil physiological processes . The processes simulated by various DGVMs are summarized in the table below . Abbreviations are : NPP , net primary production ; PFT , plant functional type ; SAW , soil available water ; LAI , leaf area index ; I , solar radiation ; T , air temperature ; Wr , root zone water supply ; PET , potential evapotranspiration ; vegc , total live vegetation carbon . References : Category : Scientific modeling","qid":"2783","docid":"Dynamic_global_vegetation_model","rank":63,"score":125269},{"content":"Title: 2011 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2011 United Nations Climate Change Conference ( COP17 ) was held in Durban , South Africa , from 28 November to 11 December 2011 to establish a new treaty to limit carbon emissions . A treaty was not established , but the conference agreed to establish a legally binding deal comprising all countries by 2015 , which was to take effect in 2020 . There was also progress regarding the creation of a Green Climate Fund for which a management framework was adopted . The fund is to distribute US$ 100 billion per year to help poor countries adapt to climate impacts . While the president of the conference , Maite Nkoana-Mashabane , declared it a success , scientists and environmental groups warned that the deal was not sufficient to avoid global warming beyond 2 ° C as more urgent action is needed .","qid":"2783","docid":"2011_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference","rank":64,"score":125195},{"content":"Title: Carbon bubble Content: The carbon bubble is a hypothesized bubble in the valuation of companies dependent on fossil-fuel-based energy production , because the true costs of carbon dioxide in intensifying global warming are not yet taken into account in a company 's stock market valuation . Currently the price of fossil fuels companies ' shares is calculated under the assumption that all fossil fuel reserves will be consumed . An estimate made by Kepler Chevreux puts the loss in value of the fossil fuel companies due to the impact of the growing renewables industry at US$ 28 trillion over the next two decades-long . A more recent analysis made by Citi puts that figure at $ 100 trillion . Analysts in both the petroleum and financial industries are concluding that the `` age of oil '' has already reached a new stage where the excess supply that appeared in late 2014 may continue to prevail in the future . A consensus appears to be emerging that an international agreement will be reached to introduce measures to constrain the combustion of hydrocarbons in an effort to limit global temperature rise to the nominal 2 ° C that is consensually predicted to limit environmental harm to tolerable levels . According to the UK 's Committee on Climate Change , overvaluing companies that produce fossil fuels and greenhouse gases poses a serious threat to the economy . The committee warned the British government and Bank of England of the risks of the carbon bubble in 2014 . The following year , Mark Carney , the Governor of the Bank of England , in his lecture to Lloyd 's of London , warned that limiting global warming to 2 ° C appears to require that the `` vast majority '' of fossil fuel reserves be `` stranded '' , or `` literally unburnable without expensive carbon-capture technology '' , resulting in `` potentially huge '' exposure to investors in that sector . He concluded that `` the window of opportunity is finite and shrinking '' for responding to the threat that climate change poses to financial resilience and longer-term prosperity , which he called the `` tragedy of the horizon '' . That same month , the Prudential Regulation Authority of the Bank of England issued a report discussing the risks and opportunities that climate change presents to the insurance industry . In his speech announcing his denial of the proposal to build the Keystone XL oil pipeline , U.S. President Barack Obama gave as one reason for the decision '' ... ultimately , if we 're going to prevent large parts of this Earth from becoming not only inhospitable but uninhabitable in our lifetimes , we 're going to have to keep some fossil fuels in the ground ... '' .","qid":"2783","docid":"Carbon_bubble","rank":65,"score":124680},{"content":"Title: IPCC First Assessment Report Content: The First Assessment Report ( FAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) was completed in 1990 . It served as the basis of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The report was issued in three main sections , corresponding to the three Working Groups of scientists that the IPCC had established . Working Group I : Scientific Assessment of Climate Change , edited by J.T. Houghton , G.J. Jenkins and J.J. Ephraums Working Group II : Impacts Assessment of Climate Change , edited by W.J. McG . Tegart , G.W. Sheldon and D.C. Griffiths Working Group III : The IPCC Response Strategies Each section included a summary for policymakers . This format was followed in subsequent Assessment Reports . The executive summary of the policymakers ' summary of the WG I report includes : We are certain of the following : there is a natural greenhouse effect ... ; emissions resulting from human activities are substantially increasing the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases : CO2 , methane , CFCs and nitrous oxide . These increases will enhance the greenhouse effect , resulting on average in an additional warming of the Earth 's surface . The main greenhouse gas , water vapour , will increase in response to global warming and further enhance it . We calculate with confidence that : ... CO2 has been responsible for over half the enhanced greenhouse effect ; long-lived gases would require immediate reductions in emissions from human activities of over 60 % to stabilise their concentrations at today 's levels ... Based on current models , we predict : under -LSB- BAU -RSB- increase of global mean temperature during the -LSB- 21st -RSB- century of about 0.3 oC per decade ( with an uncertainty range of 0.2 to 0.5 oC per decade ) ; this is greater than that seen over the past 10,000 years ; under other ... scenarios which assume progressively increasing levels of controls , rates of increase in global mean temperature of about 0.2 oC -LSB- to -RSB- about 0.1 oC per decade . There are many uncertainties in our predictions particularly with regard to the timing , magnitude and regional patterns of climate change , due to our incomplete understanding of : sources and sinks of GHGs ; clouds ; oceans ; polar ice sheets . Our judgement is that : global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 oC over the last 100 years ... ; The size of this warming is broadly consistent with predictions of climate models , but it is also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability . Thus the observed increase could be largely due to this natural variability ; alternatively this variability and other human factors could have offset a still larger human-induced greenhouse warming . The unequivocal detection of the enhanced greenhouse effect is not likely for a decade or more . under the IPCC business as usual emissions scenario , an average rate of global mean sea level rise of about 6 cm per decade over the next century ( with an uncertainty range of 3 -- 10 cm per decade ) , mainly due to thermal expansion of the oceans and the melting of some land ice . The predicted rise is about 20 cm ... by 2030 , and 65 cm by the end of the next century .","qid":"2783","docid":"IPCC_First_Assessment_Report","rank":66,"score":124341},{"content":"Title: Maximilian Auffhammer Content: Maximilian Auffhammer ( born 1973 ) is a UC-Berkeley based environmental economist who has produced some important forecasts of Chinese carbon dioxide releases . Auffhammer is an Associate Professor with a joint appointment in International Area Studies and Agricultural and Resource Economics . He received his Ph.D. in Economics from the University of California at San Diego . His research agenda focuses on forecasting Greenhouse Gas Emissions as well as studying the impacts of air pollution on agriculture . Geographically he is mainly interested in China and India as well as his chosen home -- California . Said Auffhammer regarding China 's carbon pollution output , `` The only solution is for a massive transfer of technology and wealth from the West . ''","qid":"2783","docid":"Maximilian_Auffhammer","rank":67,"score":124323},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .","qid":"2783","docid":"Climate_change_in_Pakistan","rank":68,"score":124278},{"content":"Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .","qid":"2783","docid":"Media_coverage_of_climate_change","rank":69,"score":124081},{"content":"Title: Environmental impact of transport Content: The environmental impact of transport is significant because it is a major user of energy , and burns most of the world 's petroleum . This creates air pollution , including nitrous oxides and particulates , and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon dioxide , for sector . By subsector , road transport is the largest contributor to global warming . Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced the individual vehicle 's emission ; however , this has been offset by an increase in the number of vehicles , and more use of each vehicle . Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road vehicles considerably have been studied . Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes , causing environmentalists to call for a transition from air and road to rail and human-powered transport , and increase transport electrification and energy efficiency . The transportation sector is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) in the United States . An estimated 30 percent of national GHGs are directly attributable to transportation -- and in some regions , the proportion is even higher . Transportation methods are the greatest contributing source of GHGs in the U.S. , accounting for 47 percent of the net increase in total U.S. emissions since 1990 . Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urban sprawl , which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands . By reducing transportation emissions globally , it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects on Earth 's air quality , acid rain , smog and climate change . The health impact of transport emissions is also of concern . A recent survey of the studies on the effect of traffic emissions on pregnancy outcomes has linked exposure to emissions to adverse effects on gestational duration and possibly also intrauterine growth . As listed above direct impacts such as noise and carbon monoxide emissions create direct and harmful effects on the environment , along with indirect impacts . The indirect impacts are often of higher consequence which leads to the misconception that it 's the opposite since it is frequently understood that initial effects cause the most damage . For example , particulates which are the outcome of incomplete combustion done by an internal combustion engine , are not linked with respiratory and cardiovascular problems since they contribute to other factors not only to that specific condition . Even though the environmental impacts are usually listed individually there are also cumulative impacts . The synergetic consequences of transport activities . They take into account of the varied effects of direct and indirect impacts on an ecosystem . Climate change is the sum total impact of several natural and human-made factors . 15 % of global CO2 emissions are attributed to the transport sector .","qid":"2783","docid":"Environmental_impact_of_transport","rank":70,"score":124036},{"content":"Title: Polar amplification Content: Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict . In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .","qid":"2783","docid":"Polar_amplification","rank":71,"score":123881},{"content":"Title: Integrated Carbon Observation System Content: Integrated Carbon Observation System ( ICOS ) is a new strategic research infrastructure to quantify the greenhouse gas balance in Europe and adjacent regions . It consists of a harmonized network of ecosystem long-term observation sites , a network of atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration sites and a network of ocean observations . The network will be coordinated through a set of central facilities , including an atmospheric and an ecosystem thematic center , a central data center , an analytical laboratory and an oceanic thematic center . ICOS will provide the essential long-term observations required to understand the present state and predict future behavior of the global carbon cycle and greenhouse gas emissions . It will monitor and assess the effectiveness of carbon sequestration and/or greenhouse gases emission reduction activities on global atmospheric composition levels , including attribution of sources and sinks by region and sector . Standardized network will improved access to data and enable the development of flux products for research and political application . ICOS will be a state-of-the-art facility for the European research community . It will contribute the European share to global greenhouse gas observations under GEO , WMO-GAW and GTOS programs .","qid":"2783","docid":"Integrated_Carbon_Observation_System","rank":72,"score":123871},{"content":"Title: James Hansen Content: James Edward Hansen ( born 29 March 1941 ) is an American adjunct professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University . He is best known for his research in climatology , his 1988 Congressional testimony on climate change that helped raise broad awareness of global warming , and his advocacy of action to avoid dangerous climate change . In recent years he has become a climate activist to mitigate the effects of climate change , on a few occasions leading to his arrest . In 2000 , Hansen advanced an alternative view of global warming over the last 100 years , arguing that during that time frame the negative forcing via aerosols and the positive forcing via largely balanced each other out , and that the 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide , such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons . However , even then he wrote `` the future balance of forcings is likely to shift toward dominance of CO2 over aerosols ''","qid":"2783","docid":"James_Hansen","rank":73,"score":123216},{"content":"Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .","qid":"2783","docid":"Future_sea_level","rank":74,"score":123110},{"content":"Title: American Electric Power Co. v. Connecticut Content: American Electric Power Company v. Connecticut , , was a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court , in an 8 -- 0 decision , held that corporations can not be sued for greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) under federal common law , primarily because the Clean Air Act ( CAA ) delegates the management of carbon dioxide and other GHG emissions to the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) . Brought to court in July 2004 in the Southern District of New York , this was the first global warming case based on a public nuisance claim .","qid":"2783","docid":"American_Electric_Power_Co._v._Connecticut","rank":75,"score":123092},{"content":"Title: Climate model Content: Climate models use quantitative methods to simulate the interactions of the important drivers of climate , including atmosphere , oceans , land surface and ice . They are used for a variety of purposes from study of the dynamics of the climate system to projections of future climate . All climate models take account of incoming energy from the sun as short wave electromagnetic radiation , chiefly visible and short-wave ( near ) infrared , as well as outgoing long wave ( far ) infrared electromagnetic . Any imbalance results in a change in temperature . Models vary in complexity : A simple radiant heat transfer model treats the earth as a single point and averages outgoing energy This can be expanded vertically ( radiative-convective models ) and/or horizontally Finally , ( coupled ) atmosphere -- ocean -- sea ice global climate models solve the full equations for mass and energy transfer and radiant exchange . Box models can treat flows across and within ocean basins . Other types of modelling can be interlinked , such as land use , allowing researchers to predict the interaction between climate and ecosystems .","qid":"2783","docid":"Climate_model","rank":76,"score":123091},{"content":"Title: GWP Content: GWP can stand for : Global-warming potential , a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere Global Water Partnership , an international network offering practical advice for sustainably managing water resources Gross world product , the combined GNP of all countries in the world Gross Written Premiums , a measure of revenues for insurance businesses Guild Wars Prophecies , an MMORPG Guinea-Bissau peso , the currency code for Guinea-Bissau 's peso from 1975 to 1997 Gigawatt-peak , a measure in gigawatts of the nominal power of a photovoltaic solar energy device under laboratory illumination conditions","qid":"2783","docid":"GWP","rank":77,"score":122863},{"content":"Title: The Weather of the Future Content: The Weather of the Future : Heat Waves , Extreme Storms , and Other Scenes From a Climate-Changed Planet ( ISBN 978-0-06-172688-0 ) is a 2010 book by climatologist Heidi Cullen . Cullen takes as her starting point the `` clear and present dangers '' posed by the greenhouse gases which result from the burning fossil fuels . She offers a vision of what life might be like in a warmer world . Cullen predicts `` more frequent and more violent storms , more hot spells , cold spells , droughts , famines and huge waves of desperate refugees '' .","qid":"2783","docid":"The_Weather_of_the_Future","rank":78,"score":121921},{"content":"Title: List of parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Content: The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC or FCCC ) is an international environmental treaty negotiated at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) , informally known as the Earth Summit , held in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992 . The objective of the treaty is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' . The treaty itself set no binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions for individual countries and contains no enforcement mechanisms . In that sense , the treaty is considered legally non-binding . Instead , the treaty provides a framework for negotiating specific international treaties ( called `` protocols '' ) that may set binding limits on greenhouse gases . The UNFCCC was opened for signature on 9 May 1992 , after an Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee produced the text of the Framework Convention as a report following its meeting in New York from 30 April to 9 May 1992 . It entered into force on 21 March 1994 . As of December 2015 , UNFCCC has 197 parties .","qid":"2783","docid":"List_of_parties_to_the_United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change","rank":79,"score":121813},{"content":"Title: Post–Kyoto Protocol negotiations on greenhouse gas emissions Content: Post-Kyoto negotiations refers to high level talks attempting to address global warming by limiting greenhouse gas emissions . Generally part of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , these talks concern the period after the first `` commitment period '' of the Kyoto Protocol , which expired at the end of 2012 . Negotiations have been mandated by the adoption of the Bali Road Map and Decision 1/CP .13 ( `` The Bali Action Plan '' ) . UNFCCC negotiations are conducted within two subsidiary bodies , the Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action under the Convention ( AWG-LCA ) and the Ad Hoc Working Group on Further Commitments for Annex I Parties under the Kyoto Protocol ( AWG-KP ) and were expected to culminate in the United Nations Climate Change Conference taking place in December 2009 in Copenhagen ( COP-15 ) ; negotiations are supported by a number of external processes , including the G8 process , a number of regional meetings and the Major Economies Forum on Energy and Climate that was launched by US President Barack Obama in March 2009 . High level talks were held at the meeting of the G8 +5 Climate Change Dialogue in February 2007 and at a number of subsequent G8 meetings , most recently leading to the adoption of the G8 leaders declaration `` Responsible Leadership for a Sustainable Future '' during the G8 summit in L ´ Aquila , Italy , in July 2009 .","qid":"2783","docid":"Post–Kyoto_Protocol_negotiations_on_greenhouse_gas_emissions","rank":80,"score":121688},{"content":"Title: Keith E. Idso Content: Keith E. Idso is a botanist and vice president of the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change . He is the brother of Craig D. Idso and son of Sherwood B. Idso . He received his B.S. in Agriculture with a major in Plant Sciences from the University of Arizona and his M.S. from the same institution with a major in Agronomy and Plant Genetics . He completed his Ph.D. in Botany at Arizona State University . In 1994 , Idso , along with his father , published a review paper on the topic of increased CO2 levels and their effects on plant growth . The paper concluded that not only did other factors not diminish the ability of CO2 to increase plant growth rates , that `` the data show the relative growth-enhancing effects of atmospheric CO2 enrichment to be greatest when resource limitations and environmental stresses are most severe . '' As of 1999 , he was teaching biology in the Maricopa County Community College District as an adjunct professor , a post to which he was appointed in 1996 . In 1998 , Idso spoke at the Doctors for Disaster Preparedness ' annual meeting in Scottsdale , Arizona . His talk was entitled `` Direct Biological Effects of Increasing Levels of Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide . '' In 1999 , Idso was appointed by the Arizona Speaker of the House of Representatives to serve on the Arizona Advisory Council on Environmental Education .","qid":"2783","docid":"Keith_E._Idso","rank":81,"score":121685},{"content":"Title: Climate engineering Content: Climate engineering , commonly referred to as geoengineering , also known as climate intervention , is the deliberate and large-scale intervention in the Earth 's climatic system with the aim of limiting adverse global warming . Climate engineering is an umbrella term for measures that mainly fall into two types : carbon dioxide removal and solar radiation management . Carbon dioxide removal addresses the cause of global warming by removing one of the greenhouse gases ( carbon dioxide ) from the atmosphere . Solar radiation management attempts to offset effects of greenhouse gases by causing the Earth to absorb less solar radiation . Climate engineering approaches are sometimes viewed as additional potential options for limiting global warming , alongside mitigation and adaptation . There is substantial agreement among scientists that climate engineering can not substitute for climate change mitigation . Some approaches might be used as accompanying measures to sharp cuts in greenhouse gas emissions . Given that all types of measures for addressing climate change have economic , political , or physical limitations , some climate engineering approaches might eventually be used as part of an ensemble of measures . Research on costs , benefits , and various types of risks of most climate engineering approaches is at an early stage and their understanding needs to improve to judge their adequacy and feasibility . Almost all research into solar radiation management has consisted of computer modelling or laboratory tests , and an attempt to move to outdoor experimentation was controversial . Some carbon dioxide removal practices , such as planting of trees and bio-energy with carbon capture and storage projects , are underway . Their scalability to effectively affect global climate is , however , debated . Ocean iron fertilization has been given small-scale research trials , sparking substantial controversy . Most experts and major reports advise against relying on climate engineering techniques as a simple solution to global warming , in part due to the large uncertainties over effectiveness and side effects . However , most experts also argue that the risks of such interventions must be seen in the context of risks of dangerous global warming . Interventions at large scale may run a greater risk of disrupting natural systems resulting in a dilemma that those approaches that could prove highly ( cost - ) effective in addressing extreme climate risk , might themselves cause substantial risk . Some have suggested that the concept of engineering the climate presents a so-called `` moral hazard '' because it could reduce political and public pressure for emissions reduction , which could exacerbate overall climate risks ; others assert that the threat of climate engineering could spur emissions cuts . Some are in favour of a moratorium on out-of-doors testing and deployment of solar radiation management ( SRM ) .","qid":"2783","docid":"Climate_engineering","rank":82,"score":121613},{"content":"Title: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Content: The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) is an international environmental treaty adopted on May 9 , 1992 and opened for signature at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992 . It then entered into force on 21 March 1994 , after a sufficient number of countries had ratified it . The UNFCCC objective is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' . The framework sets no binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions for individual countries and contains no enforcement mechanisms . Instead , the framework outlines how specific international treaties ( called `` protocols '' or `` Agreements '' ) may be negotiated to specify further action towards the objective of the UNFCCC . Initially an Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee ( INC ) produced the text of the Framework Convention during its meeting in New York from 30 April to 9 May 1992 . The UNFCCC was adopted on 9 May 1992 , and opened for signature on 4 June 1992 . The UNFCCC has 197 parties as of December 2015 . The convention enjoys broad legitimacy , largely due to its nearly universal membership . The parties to the convention have met annually from 1995 in Conferences of the Parties ( COP ) to assess progress in dealing with climate change . In 1997 , the Kyoto Protocol was concluded and established legally binding obligations for developed countries to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions in the period 2008-2012 . The 2010 Cancún agreements state that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) relative to the pre-industrial level . The Protocol was amended in 2012 to encompass the period 2013-2020 in the Doha Amendment , which - as of December 2015 - had not entered into force . In 2015 the Paris Agreement was adopted , governing emission reductions from 2020 on through commitments of countries in ambitious Nationally Determined Contributions . The Paris Agreement entered into force on November 4th , 2016 . One of the first tasks set by the UNFCCC was for signatory nations to establish national greenhouse gas inventories of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions and removals , which were used to create the 1990 benchmark levels for accession of Annex I countries to the Kyoto Protocol and for the commitment of those countries to GHG reductions . Updated inventories must be submitted annually by Annex I countries . The UNFCCC is also the name of the United Nations Secretariat charged with supporting the operation of the Convention , with offices in Haus Carstanjen , and the UN Campus ( known as Langer Eugen ) Bonn , Germany . From 2010 to 2016 the head of the secretariat was Christiana Figueres . In July 2016 , Patricia Espinosa from Mexico succeeded Figueres . The Secretariat , augmented through the parallel efforts of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , aims to gain consensus through meetings and the discussion of various strategies .","qid":"2783","docid":"United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change","rank":83,"score":121546},{"content":"Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .","qid":"2783","docid":"Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact","rank":84,"score":121338},{"content":"Title: Mitigation of global warming in Australia Content: Mitigation of global warming involves taking actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to enhance sinks aimed at reducing the extent of global warming . This is in distinction to adaptation to global warming , which involves taking action to minimise the effects of global warming . Scientific consensus on global warming , together with the precautionary principle and the fear of non-linear climate transitions , is leading to increased effort to develop new technologies and sciences and carefully manage others in an attempt to mitigate global warming . Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) for coal-fired power stations has been put forward as a solution to rising greenhouse gas emissions . However , CCS can not deliver in time to avoid dangerous increases in temperatures , as widespread commercial use of CCS is not expected before 2030 . Following the introduction of government mandatory renewable energy targets , more opportunities have opened up for renewable energy technologies such as wind power , photovoltaics , and solar thermal technologies . The deployment of these technologies provides opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gases . A carbon price was introduced on 1 July 2012 by the government of Julia Gillard with the purpose of reducing Australia 's carbon emissions . It requires large businesses ( defined as those with annual carbon dioxide equivalent emissions over 25,000 tonnes annually ) to pay a price for emissions permits . The tax was scrapped by the Abbott government in July 2014 in what was a widely criticised and highly publicised move .","qid":"2783","docid":"Mitigation_of_global_warming_in_Australia","rank":85,"score":121298},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas inventory Content: Greenhouse gas inventories are a type of emission inventory that are developed for a variety of reasons . Scientists use inventories of natural and anthropogenic ( human-caused ) emissions as tools when developing atmospheric models . Policy makers use inventories to develop strategies and policies for emissions reductions and to track the progress of those policies . And , regulatory agencies and corporations rely on inventories to establish compliance records with allowable emission rates . Businesses , the public , and other interest groups use inventories to better understand the sources and trends in emissions . Unlike some other air emission inventories , greenhouse gas inventories include not only emissions from source categories , but also removals by carbon sinks . These removals are typically referred to as carbon sequestration . Greenhouse gas inventories , typically use Global warming potential ( GWP ) values to combine emissions of various greenhouse gases into a single weighted value of emissions . Some of the key examples of greenhouse gas inventories include : All Annex I countries are required to report annual emissions and sinks of greenhouse gases under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) National governments that are Parties to the UNFCCC and/or the Kyoto Protocol are required to submit annual inventories of all anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions from sources and removals from sinks . The Kyoto Protocol includes additional requirements for national inventory systems , inventory reporting , and annual inventory review for determining compliance with Articles 5 and 8 of the Protocol . Project developers under the Clean Development Mechanism of the Kyoto Protocol prepare inventories as part of their project baselines . Corporation and other entities can prepare greenhouse gas inventories to track progress towards meeting an emission reduction goal . Scientific efforts aimed at understanding detail of total net carbon exchange . Example : Project Vulcan - a comprehensive US inventory of fossil-fuel greenhouse gas emissions .","qid":"2783","docid":"Greenhouse_gas_inventory","rank":86,"score":121212},{"content":"Title: 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference , COP 21 or CMP 11 was held in Paris , France , from 30 November to 12 December 2015 . It was the 21st yearly session of the Conference of the Parties ( COP ) to the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and the 11th session of the Conference of the Parties ( CMP ) to the 1997 Kyoto Protocol . The conference negotiated the Paris Agreement , a global agreement on the reduction of climate change , the text of which represented a consensus of the representatives of the 196 parties attending it . The agreement will enter into force when joined by at least 55 countries which together represent at least 55 percent of global greenhouse emissions . On 22 April 2016 ( Earth Day ) , 174 countries signed the agreement in New York , and began adopting it within their own legal systems ( through ratification , acceptance , approval , or accession ) . According to the organizing committee at the outset of the talks , the expected key result was an agreement to set a goal of limiting global warming to less than 2 degrees Celsius ( ° C ) compared to pre-industrial levels . The agreement calls for zero net anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions to be reached during the second half of the 21st century . In the adopted version of the Paris Agreement , the parties will also `` pursue efforts to '' limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C . The 1.5 ° C goal will require zero emissions sometime between 2030 and 2050 , according to some scientists . Prior to the conference , 146 national climate panels publicly presented draft national climate contributions ( called `` Intended Nationally Determined Contributions '' , INDCs ) . These suggested commitments were estimated to limit global warming to 2.7 degrees Celsius by 2100 . For example , the EU suggested INDC is a commitment to a 40 percent reduction in emissions by 2030 compared to 1990 . The agreement establishes a `` global stocktake '' which revisits the national goals to `` update and enhance '' them every five years beginning 2023 . However , no detailed timetable or country-specific goals for emissions were incorporated into the Paris Agreement -- as opposed to the previous Kyoto Protocol . A number of meetings took place in preparation for COP21 , including the Bonn Climate Change Conference , 19 to 23 October 2015 , which produced a draft agreement .","qid":"2783","docid":"2015_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference","rank":87,"score":121016},{"content":"Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .","qid":"2783","docid":"Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean","rank":88,"score":120820},{"content":"Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.","qid":"2783","docid":"Media_coverage_of_global_warming","rank":89,"score":120521},{"content":"Title: Sherwood B. Idso Content: Sherwood B. Idso ( born June 12 , 1942 ) is the president of the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change , a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) nonprofit organization . Prior to that time he was a Research Physicist with the U.S. Department of Agriculture 's Agricultural Research Service at the U.S. Water Conservation Laboratory in Phoenix , Arizona , where he worked since June 1967 . He was also closely associated with Arizona State University over most of this period , serving as an Adjunct Professor in the Departments of Geology , Geography , and Botany and Microbiology . His two sons , Craig and Keith , are , respectively , the founder and vice president of the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change . Idso is the author or co-author of over 500 publications including the books Carbon Dioxide : Friend or Foe ? ( 1982 ) and Carbon Dioxide and Global Change : Earth in Transition ( 1989 ) . He served on the editorial board of the international journal Agricultural and Forest Meteorology from 1973 to 1993 and since 1993 has served on the editorial board of Environmental and Experimental Botany . Over the course of his career , he has been an invited reviewer of manuscripts for 56 different scientific journals and 17 different funding agencies , representing an unusually large array of disciplines . He is an ISI highly cited researcher .","qid":"2783","docid":"Sherwood_B._Idso","rank":90,"score":120325},{"content":"Title: Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation Content: Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation and the role of conservation , sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries ( REDD + ) was first negotiated under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) since 2005 , with the objective of mitigating climate change through reducing net emissions of greenhouse gases through enhanced forest management in developing countries . Most of the key REDD + decisions were completed by 2013 , with the final pieces of the rulebook finished in 2015 . In the last two decades , various studies estimate that land use change , including deforestation and forest degradation , accounts for 12-29 % of global greenhouse gas emissions . For this reason the inclusion of reducing emissions from land use change is considered essential to achieve the objectives of the UNFCCC . During the negotiations for the Kyoto Protocol , and then in particular its Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) , the inclusion of tropical forest management was debated but eventually dropped due to anticipated methodological difficulties in establishing -- in particular -- additionality and leakage ( detrimental effects outside of the project area attributable to project activities ) . What remained on forestry was `` Afforestation and Reforestation '' , sectoral scope 14 of the CDM . Under this sectoral scope areas of land that had no forest cover since 1990 could be replanted with commercial or indigenous tree species . In its first eight years of operation 52 projects had been registered under the `` Afforestation and Reforestation '' scope of the CDM . The cumbersome administrative procedures and corresponding high transaction costs are often blamed for this slow uptake . Beyond the CDM , all developed countries that were parties to the Kyoto Protocol also committed to measuring and reporting on efforts to reduce net greenhouse gas emissions from forests . The United States also measures and reports on the net greenhouse gas sequestration in its forests . In response to what many perceived to be a failure to address a major source of global greenhouse gas emissions , the Coalition for Rainforest Nations ( CfRN ) was established and in 2005 they proposed to the Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC policy approaches and positive incentives for the reduction of emissions of greenhouse gases stemming from tropical deforestation and forest degradation as a climate change mitigation measure .","qid":"2783","docid":"Reducing_emissions_from_deforestation_and_forest_degradation","rank":91,"score":120279},{"content":"Title: North American Carbon Program Content: The North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) is one of the major elements of the Strategic Plan for the U.S. Climate Change Science Program . The central objective of NACP is to measure and understand carbon stocks and sources and sinks of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , and carbon monoxide ( CO ) in North America and adjacent ocean regions . The specific program goals are as followed : Develop quantitative scientific knowledge , robust observations , and models to determine the emissions and uptake of CO2 , CH4 , and CO , changes in carbon stocks , and the factors regulating these processes for North America and adjacent ocean basins . Develop the scientific basis to implement full carbon accounting on regional and continental scales . This is the knowledge base needed to design monitoring programs for natural and managed CO2 sinks and emissions of CH4 . Support long-term quantitative measurements of fluxes , sources , and sinks of atmospheric CO2 and CH4 , and develop forecasts for future trends . The North American Carbon Program was designed to help with the process of providing data needed to model the synthesis activities .","qid":"2783","docid":"North_American_Carbon_Program","rank":92,"score":120229},{"content":"Title: Global Historical Climatology Network Content: The Global Historical Climatology Network ( GHCN ) is a database of temperature , precipitation and pressure records managed by the National Climatic Data Center , Arizona State University and the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center . The aggregate data are collected from many continuously reporting fixed stations at the Earth 's surface and represent the input of approximately 6000 temperature stations , 7500 precipitation stations and 2000 pressure stations . This work has often been used as a foundation for reconstructing past global temperatures , and was used in previous versions of two of the best-known reconstructions , that prepared by the National Climatic Data Center ( NCDC ) , and that prepared by NASA as its Goddard Institute for Space Studies ( GISS ) temperature set . The average temperature record is 60 years long with ~ 1650 records greater than 100 years and ~ 220 greater than 150 years ( based on GHCN v2 in 2006 ) . The earliest data included in the database were collected in 1697 .","qid":"2783","docid":"Global_Historical_Climatology_Network","rank":93,"score":120086},{"content":"Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita from 1990 through 2011 . All data was calculated by the US Department of Energy 's Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) , mostly based on data collected from country agencies by the United Nations Statistics Division . Countries are ranked by their metric tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions per capita in 2009 . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use such as deforestation . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The carbon dioxide emissions of a country are only an indicator of one greenhouse gas . For a more complete idea of how a country influences climate change , gases such as methane and nitrous oxide should be taken into account . This is particularly so in agricultural economies . Carbon dioxide emissions are also known for earlier periods . A study of a global sample of twelve countries provide estimates for emissions since 1800 and explores the long-run drivers of carbon dioxide emissions by decomposing changes in carbon emissions into population , income , technological and energy mix changes .","qid":"2783","docid":"List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions_per_capita","rank":94,"score":119531},{"content":"Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Content: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change : A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases was a 2005 international conference that examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration , and the 2 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) ceiling on global warming thought necessary to avoid the most serious effects of global warming . Previously this had generally been accepted as being 550 ppm . The conference took place under the United Kingdom 's presidency of the G8 , with the participation of around 200 ` internationally renowned ' scientists from 30 countries . It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter , from 1 February to 3 February .","qid":"2783","docid":"Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change","rank":95,"score":119470},{"content":"Title: Fugitive emissions Content: Fugitive emissions are emissions of gases or vapors from pressurized equipment due to leaks and other unintended or irregular releases of gases , mostly from industrial activities . As well as the economic cost of lost commodities , fugitive emissions contribute to air pollution and climate change . A detailed inventory of greenhouse gas emissions from upstream oil and gas activities in Canada for the year 2000 estimated that fugitive equipment leaks had a global warming potential equivalent to the release of 17 million metric tonnes of carbon dioxide , or 12 per cent of all greenhouse gases emitted by the sector . Venting of natural gas , flaring , accidental releases and storage losses accounted for an additional 38 per cent . Fugitive emissions present other risks and hazards . Emissions of volatile organic compounds such as benzene from oil refineries and chemical plants pose a long term health risk to workers and local communities . In situations where large amounts of flammable liquids and gases are contained under pressure , leaks also increase the risk of fire and explosion . Leaks from pressurized process equipment generally occur through valves , pipe connections , mechanical seals , or related equipment . Fugitive emissions also occur at evaporative sources such as waste water treatment ponds and storage tanks . Because of the huge number of potential leak sources at large industrial facilities and the difficulties in detecting and repairing some leaks , fugitive emissions can be a significant proportion of total emissions . Though the quantities of leaked gases may be small , gases that have serious health or environmental impacts can cause a significant problem . To minimize and control leaks at process facilities operators carry out regular leak detection and repair activities . Routine inspections of process equipment with gas detectors can be used to identify leaks and estimate the leak rate in order to decide on appropriate corrective action . Proper routine maintenance of equipment reduces the likelihood of leaks . Because of the technical difficulties and costs of detecting and quantifying actual fugitive emissions at a site or facility , and the variability and intermittent nature of emission flow rates , bottom-up estimates based on standard emission factors are generally used for annual reporting purposes . New technologies are under development that could revolutionize the detection and monitoring of fugitive emissions . One technology , known as differential absorption lidar ( DIAL ) , can be used to remotely measure concentration profiles of hydrocarbons in the atmosphere up to several hundred meters from a facility . DIAL has been used for refinery surveys in Europe for over 15 years . A pilot study carried out in 2005 using DIAL found that actual emissions at a refinery were fifteen times higher than those previously reported using the emission factor approach . The fugitive emissions were equivalent to 0.17 % of the refinery throughput . Portable gas leak imaging cameras are also a new technology that can be used to improve leak detection and repair , leading to reduced fugitive emissions . The cameras use infrared imaging technology to produce video images in which invisible gases escaping from leak sources can be clearly identified .","qid":"2783","docid":"Fugitive_emissions","rank":96,"score":119461},{"content":"Title: Sergei Petrovskii Content: Sergei Petrovskii is a Russian-born British mathematician who researches the modeling of natural phenomena . He is a professor of Applied Mathematics at the University of Leicester . In 2015 , he led a study that found that if the ocean temperature were to increase by about six degrees Celsius due to global warming , phytoplankton might stop producing oxygen . This would lead to shortages of oxygen in the atmosphere , which could be very harmful to humans . Petrovskii said , `` About two thirds of the planet 's total atmospheric oxygen is produced by ocean phytoplankton - and therefore cessation would result in the depletion of atmospheric oxygen on a global scale . This would likely result in the mass mortality of animals and humans . '' Petrovskii 's study appeared in the Bulletin of Mathematical Biology . Another stream of his research is modelling of biological invasions where he discovered a new phenomenon called `` patchy invasion '' . Contrary to a commonly used paradigm of alien species spread by a travelling population front , in the patchy invasion the invasive species spreads into new areas by creating individual patches not preceded by a front propagation . Patchy invasion has been observed in several invasions of insects and birds and has been studied theoretically using a variety of growth-dispersal models .","qid":"2783","docid":"Sergei_Petrovskii","rank":97,"score":119378},{"content":"Title: United Kingdom Climate Change Programme Content: The United Kingdom 's Climate Change Programme was launched in November 2000 by the British government in response to its commitment agreed at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) . The 2000 programme was updated in March 2006 following a review launched in September 2004 . In 2008 , the UK was the world 's 9th greatest producer of man-made carbon emissions , producing around 1.8 % of the global total generated from fossil fuels .","qid":"2783","docid":"United_Kingdom_Climate_Change_Programme","rank":98,"score":118900},{"content":"Title: Surface Heat Budget of the Arctic Ocean Content: The Surface Heat Budget of the Arctic Ocean ( SHEBA ) study was a National Science Foundation-funded research project designed to quantify the heat transfer processes that occur between the ocean and the atmosphere over the course of a year in the Arctic Ocean , where the sun is above the horizon from spring through summer and below the horizon the rest of the time . The study was designed to provide data for use in global climate models , which scientists use to study global climate change .","qid":"2783","docid":"Surface_Heat_Budget_of_the_Arctic_Ocean","rank":99,"score":118740},{"content":"Title: Territorialisation of carbon governance Content: Territorialisation of Carbon Governance ( ToCG ) is a concept used in political geography or environmental policy which is considered to be a new logic of environmental governance . This method creates carbon-relevant citizens who become enrolled in the process of governing the climate . The territorialisation of carbon governance transforms climate change from a global to local issue . It embodies political practices that serve to connect the causes and consequences of global climate change to local communities . The commitment to reducing greenhouse gas emissions ( GHG ) has been a key component of sustainability within governance since the early 1990s . The ICLEI - Local Governments for Sustainability is an international association of local governments which brings together 1200 cities , towns and the associated 70 countries in their commitment to sustainable development . Further responses that seek to address these issues , include international body the IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , the Rio Earth Summit and United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . These organisations strive to tackle anthropogenic forces which are increasing risks of global warming . Under the territorialisation of carbon , climate and global flows of carbon are regarded as ` national sinks ' . This is a means by which the carbon cycle can be managed and territorialised through being assigned to a physical geographical space instead of being thought of as a global phenomenon . The act of territorialisation oversees the combining of material natures and state institutions into one system through the creation of carbon territories . This approach can allow individual states and governments to control and monitor their carbon emissions in order to improve their efforts in carbon governance . Carbon governance can be interpreted as the institutional arrangements under which greenhouse gas emissions are addressed and mitigated . This is achieved through regulating and controlling carbon activities . Measures and protocols exist in an attempt to address the issues surrounding greenhouse gas emissions . Carbon governance is addressed via governmental decisions made through leadership and management which attempt to improve and resolve problems related to climate change .","qid":"2783","docid":"Territorialisation_of_carbon_governance","rank":100,"score":118333}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_potential\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 188686\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 169785\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 167882\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmospheric_methane\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 165214\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 160491\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Copenhagen_Diagnosis\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 157677\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 156173\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 155208\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Japan\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 151697\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Carbon_Project\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 149148\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 148753\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 148649\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Economics_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 148534\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Regional_effects_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 147548\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mark Z. Jacobson Content: Mark Zachary Jacobson ( born 1965 ) is professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy Program . Jacobson develops computer models about the effects of different energy technologies and their emissions on air pollution and climate . He has done influential research on the role of aerosols and black carbon on the climate and is regarded as a leading aerosol climate modeler . According to Jacobson , a speedy transition to clean , renewable energy is required to reduce the potential acceleration of global warming , including the disappearance of the Arctic Sea ice . This change will also eliminate 2.5 -- 3 million deaths worldwide each year , related to air pollution , and reduce disruption associated with fossil fuel shortages .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Mark_Z._Jacobson\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 147010\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_tax\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 146369\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmospheric_carbon_cycle\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 145447\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change and potatoes Content: Global warming is predicted to have significant effects on global potato production . Like many crops , potatoes are likely to be affected by changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide , temperature and precipitation , as well as interactions between these factors . As well as affecting potatoes directly , climate change will also affect the distributions and populations of many potato diseases and pests . Potato is one of the world 's most important food crops . Potato production must be adapted to climate change to avoid reductions in crop yields .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_and_potatoes\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 145283\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Charles David Keeling Content: Charles David Keeling ( April 20 , 1928 -- June 20 , 2005 ) was an American scientist whose recording of carbon dioxide at the Mauna Loa Observatory first alerted the world to the possibility of anthropogenic contribution to the `` greenhouse effect '' and global warming . The Keeling Curve measures the progressive buildup of carbon dioxide , a greenhouse gas , in the atmosphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Charles_David_Keeling\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 141950\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_impact_of_aviation\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 141648\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources Content: Measurement of life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions involves calculating the global-warming potential of electrical energy sources through life-cycle assessment of each energy source . The findings are presented in units of global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated by that source . The scale uses the global warming potential unit , the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) , and the unit of electrical energy , the kilowatt hour ( kWh ) . The goal of such assessments is to cover the full life of the source , from material and fuel mining through construction to operation and waste management . In 2014 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change harmonized the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) findings of the major electricity generating sources in use worldwide . This was done by analyzing the findings of hundreds of individual scientific papers assessing each energy source . For all technologies , advances in efficiency , and therefore reductions in e since the time of publication , have not been included . For example , the total life cycle emissions from wind power may have lessened since publication . Similarly , due to the time frame over which the studies were conducted , nuclear Generation II reactor 's e results are presented and not the global warming potential of Generation III reactors , presently under construction in the United States and China . Other limitations of the data include : a ) missing life cycle phases , and , b ) uncertainty as to where to define the cut-off point in the global warming potential of an energy source . The latter is important in assessing a combined electrical grid in the real world , rather than the established practice of simply assessing the energy source in isolation .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Life-cycle_greenhouse-gas_emissions_of_energy_sources\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 141446\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 140916\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference) Content: In 2005, an international conference titled Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and global warming and its effects. The conference name was derived from Article 2 of the charter for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The conference explored the possible impacts at different levels of greenhouse gas emissions and how the climate might be stabilized at a desired level. The conference took place under the United Kingdom's presidency of the G8, with the participation of around 200 \\\"internationally renowned\\\" scientists from 30 countries. It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter, from 1 February to 3 February. The conference was one of many meetings leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, at which the international community agreed to limit global warming to no more than 2C in order to have a 50-50 chance of avoiding dangerous climate change. However, a 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting it is below the 2 degree temperature target.\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change_(2005_conference)\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 140848\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_diet\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 140578\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \\\"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\\\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \\\"deep emissions reductions\\\" and \\\"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\\\" Furthermore, the report finds that \\\"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\\\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \\\"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\\\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 140519\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Idealized greenhouse model Content: The surface of the Sun radiates light and heat at approximately 5,500 ° C . The Earth is much cooler and so radiates heat back away from itself at much longer wavelengths , mostly in the infrared range . The idealized greenhouse model is based on the fact that certain gases in the Earth 's atmosphere , including carbon dioxide and water vapour , are transparent to the high-frequency , high-energy solar radiation , but are much more opaque to the lower frequency infrared radiation leaving the surface of the earth . Thus heat is easily let in , but is partially trapped by these gases as it tries to leave . Rather than get hotter and hotter , Kirchhoff 's law of thermal radiation says that the gases of the atmosphere also have to re-emit the infrared energy that they absorb , and they do so , also at long infrared wavelengths , both upwards into space as well as downwards back towards the Earth 's surface . In the long-term , thermal equilibrium is reached when all the heat energy arriving on the planet is leaving again at the same rate . In this idealized model , the greenhouse gases cause the surface of the planet to be warmer than it would be without them , in order for the required amount of heat energy finally to be radiated out into space from the top of the atmosphere . The greenhouse effect can be illustrated with an idealized planet . This is a common `` textbook model '' : the planet will have a constant surface temperature Ts and an atmosphere with constant temperature Ta . For diagrammatic clarity , a gap can be depicted between the atmosphere and the surface . Alternatively , Ts could be interpreted as a temperature representative of the surface and the lower atmosphere , and Ta could be interpreted as the temperature of the upper atmosphere . In order to justify that Ta and Ts remain constant over the planet , strong ocean and atmospheric currents can be imagined to provide plentiful lateral mixing . Furthermore , any daily or seasonal cycles in temperature are assumed to be insignificant .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Idealized_greenhouse_model\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 138651\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 138533\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Guy Stewart Callendar Content: Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Guy_Stewart_Callendar\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 138423\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"History_of_climate_change_science\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 137643\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 135745\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Gilbert Plass Content: Gilbert Norman Plass ( 22 March 1920 -- 1 March 2004 ) was a Canadian physicist who in the 1950s made predictions about the increase in global atmospheric carbon dioxide levels in the 20th century and its effect on the average temperature of the planet that closely match measurements reported half a century later . Plass worked most of his life as a physicist in the United States . He graduated from Harvard University in 1941 and earned a PhD in physics from Princeton University in 1947 . He worked as an associate physicist at the Metallurgical Laboratory ( Manhattan District ) of the University of Chicago from 1942 to 1945 . He became an instructor of physics at Johns Hopkins University in 1946 , and eventually became an associate professor there . In 1955 , leaving academia , he held a job for a year as a staff scientist with Lockheed Aircraft Corporation . He then joined the advanced research staff at the Aeronutronic division of the Ford Motor Company . In 1960 , he became manager of the research lab at Ford 's theoretical physics department and a consulting editor of the journal Infrared Physics ( now called Infrared Physics and Technology ) . In 1963 , he accepted a position as the first professor of atmospheric and space science at the Southwest Center for Advanced Studies ( now the University of Texas at Arlington ) , where he remained for five years . In 1968 , he arrived at Texas A&M University , where he served as professor of physics and head of the department .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Gilbert_Plass\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 135602\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Journal for Geoclimatic Studies Content: The Journal for Geoclimatic Studies is the name given to a nonexistent journal which published a fabricated global warming study in November 2007 entitled , `` Carbon dioxide production by benthic bacteria : the death of manmade global warming theory ? '' The published study identified the Journal for Geoclimatic Studies as an official publication of Okinawa University 's Institute for Geoclimatic Studies ( The Institute for Geoclimatic Studies is also fraudulent and does not exist ) . The spurious study , ostensibly authored by Daniel Klein and Mandeep J. Gupta of the University of Arizona 's Department of Climatology , and Philip Cooper and Arne FR Jansson at the University of Gothenburg 's Department of Atmospheric Physics , claimed that global warming was not human caused , but the work of carbon-dioxide emitting bacteria based on the ocean floor . The report was circulated by a number of global warming skeptics before discovery that the study authors and university departments identified in the publication did not exist . The website where the study was published was taken down once the deception was revealed , and its ownership was traced to David Thorpe , a science journalist and web designer based in the United Kingdom . The true author of the article is purportedly a man identifying himself as Mark Cox , who has claimed the hoax was designed to expose the gullibility and scientific illiteracy of global warming skeptics .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Journal_for_Geoclimatic_Studies\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 135372\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon leakage Content: Carbon leakage occurs when there is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions in one country as a result of an emissions reduction by a second country with a strict climate policy . Carbon leakage may occur for a number of reasons : if the emissions policy of a country raises local costs , then another country with a more relaxed policy may have a trading advantage . If demand for these goods remains the same , production may move offshore to the cheaper country with lower standards , and global emissions will not be reduced . if environmental policies in one country add a premium to certain fuels or commodities , then the demand may decline and their price may fall . Countries that do not place a premium on those items may then take up the demand and use the same supply , negating any benefit . There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term leakage effects . This is important for the problem of climate change . Carbon leakage is one type of spill-over effect . Spill-over effects can be positive or negative ; for example , emission reductions policy might lead to technological developments that aid reductions outside of the policy area . `` Carbon leakage is defined as the increase in emissions outside the countries taking domestic mitigation action divided by the reduction in the emissions of these countries . '' It is expressed as a percentage , and can be greater or less than 100 % . Carbon leakage may occur through changes in trading patterns , and that is sometimes measured as the balance of emissions embodied in trade ( BEET ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_leakage\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 134721\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2002 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2002 United Nations Climate Change Conference took place from October 23 to November 1 , 2002 , in New Delhi , India . The conference included the 8th Conference of the Parties ( COP8 ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The conference adopted the Delhi Ministerial Declaration that , amongst others , called for efforts by developed countries to transfer technology and minimize the impact of climate change on developing countries . It is also approved the New Delhi work programme on Article 6 of the Convention . The COP8 was marked by Russia 's hesitation , stating that it needed more time to think it over . The Kyoto Protocol could enter into force once it was ratified by 55 countries , including countries responsible for 55 per cent of the developed world 's 1990 carbon dioxide emissions . With the United States ( 36.1 per cent share of developed-world carbon dioxide ) and Australia refusing ratification , Russia 's agreement ( 17 % of global emissions in 1990 ) was required to meet the ratification criteria and therefore Russia could delay the process .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"2002_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 134425\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Advisory Group on Greenhouse Gases Content: The Advisory Group on Greenhouse Gases , created in 1985 , was an advisory body for the review of studies into the greenhouse effect . The group was created by the International Council of Scientific Unions , the United Nations Environment Programme , and the World Meteorological Organization to follow up on the recommendations of the International conference of the Assessment of the role of carbon dioxide and of other greenhouse gases in climate variations and associated impacts , held at Villach , Austria , in October 1985 . The seven-member panel included Swedish meteorologist Bert Bolin and Canadian climatologist Kenneth Hare . The group held its last meeting in 1990 . It was gradually replaced by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Advisory_Group_on_Greenhouse_Gases\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 134132\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 134033\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Dr. Neil Trivett Global Atmosphere Watch Observatory Content: The Dr. Neil Trivett Global Atmosphere Watch Observatory is an atmospheric baseline station operated by Environment and Climate Change Canada located at Alert , Nunavut , on the north-eastern tip of Ellesmere Island , about 800 km south of the geographic north pole . The observatory is the northernmost of 31 Global Stations in an international network coordinated by the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) under its Global Atmosphere Watch ( GAW ) program to study the long-term effects of pollution on the atmospheric environment . Among these 31 stations , Alert is one of three greenhouse gas `` intercomparison supersites '' , along with Mauna Loa in Hawaii and Cape Grim in Australia , which , due to their locations far from industrial activity , provide the international scientific community with a baseline record of atmospheric chemistry .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Dr._Neil_Trivett_Global_Atmosphere_Watch_Observatory\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 133318\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Land use, land-use change and forestry Content: Land use , land-use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) is defined by the United Nations Climate Change Secretariat as a `` greenhouse gas inventory sector that covers emissions and removals of greenhouse gases resulting from direct human-induced land use , land-use change and forestry activities . '' LULUCF has impacts on the global carbon cycle and as such , these activities can add or remove carbon dioxide ( or , more generally , carbon ) from the atmosphere , influencing climate . LULUCF has been the subject of two major reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Additionally , land use is of critical importance for biodiversity .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Land_use,_land-use_change_and_forestry\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 132875\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Contraction and Convergence Content: Contraction and Convergence ( C&C ) is a proposed global framework for reducing greenhouse gas emissions to combat climate change . Conceived by the Global Commons Institute -LSB- GCI -RSB- in the early 1990s , the Contraction and Convergence strategy consists of reducing overall emissions of greenhouse gases to a safe level ( contraction ) , resulting from every country bringing its emissions per capita to a level which is equal for all countries ( convergence ) . It is intended to form the basis of an international agreement which will reduce carbon dioxide emissions to avoid dangerous climate change , carbon dioxide being the gas that is primarily responsible for changes in the greenhouse effect on Earth . It is expressed as a simple mathematical formula . This formula can be used as a way for the world to stabilize carbon levels at any level . Advocates of Contraction and Convergence stress that negotiations at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change -LSB- UNFCCC -RSB- are governed sequentially by the ` objective ' of the UNFCCC -LSB- safe and stable GHG concentration in the global atmosphere -RSB- followed by its organising principles -LSB- ` precaution ' and ` equity ' -RSB- . C&C is widely cited and supported .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Contraction_and_Convergence\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 132320\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon capture and storage in Australia Content: Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) is an approach to mitigate global warming by capturing carbon dioxide from large point sources such as fossil fuel power plants and storing it instead of releasing it into the atmosphere . Carbon capture and storage is also used for Enhanced Oil Recovery to increase yield from declining oil fields , and for storage of from natural gas fields . No coal-fired power station in Australia has CCS of . CCS is proven technology but is not yet commercially viable for reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from coal-fired power stations . Without an economic driver such as a high carbon price or revenue from Enhanced Oil Recovery CCS is not expected to be commercially viable until at least 2020 . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until 2100 . In the 2015 budget , the Abbott Government cut $ 460m from CCS research projects leaving $ 191.7 m to continue existing projects for the next seven years . The program had already been cut by the previous Labor government and much of the funding remained unallocated .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_capture_and_storage_in_Australia\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 132110\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"350.org\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 132020\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kyoto Protocol Content: The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , based on the fact that ( a ) global warming exists and ( b ) human-made CO2 emissions have caused it . The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto , Japan , on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005 . There are currently 192 parties ( Canada withdrew effective December 2012 ) to the Protocol . The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to `` a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' ( Art. 2 ) . The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities : it puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . The Protocol 's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012 . A second commitment period was agreed on in 2012 , known as the Doha Amendment to the protocol , in which 37 countries have binding targets : Australia , the European Union ( and its 28 member states ) , Belarus , Iceland , Kazakhstan , Liechtenstein , Norway , Switzerland , and Ukraine . Belarus , Kazakhstan and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets . Japan , New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyoto 's first-round but have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period . Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada ( which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012 ) and the United States ( which has not ratified the Protocol ) . As of July 2016 , 66 states have accepted the Doha Amendment , while entry into force requires the acceptances of 144 states . Of the 37 countries with binding commitments , 7 have ratified . Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ends in 2020 . This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the Paris Agreement , which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto protocol .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Kyoto_Protocol\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 131364\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Deforestation_and_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 131083\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Low-carbon_economy\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 130986\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates Content: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) are cause by the exploitation of natural resources , rapid population growth , and high energy demand . The continuing temperature rise caused by global warming contributes to UAE 's water scarcity , drought , rising sea level and aridity . The countryside of the UAE , characterized with its great arid land , infrequent precipitation , and high temperatures are already facing long-term aridity . This precondition is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change and contributes to worsening water scarcity , quality , and water contamination . The United Arab Emirates are located in the Middle East between Oman and Saudi Arabia , adjoining the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf . In the last years , the impact of global warming on the UAE has intensified the already existing environmental issues , including water scarcity and limited agricultural land . The United Arab Emirates are a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , listed as having the 29th highest carbon dioxide emissions . Since the boom of the oil-industry occurred in the early 21st century , the population and its consumption of energy have sharply increased . The UAE contains the world 's seventh largest natural resource of oil and seventeenth-largest natural gas reserve . This possession of a high amount of valuable natural resources , pushed the UAE to the position of the ninth wealthiest country in the world by 2016 GDP per capita . These financial resources support their adaptation capacity to `` climate change-induced challenges '' . Currently , they are investing in increasing air conditioning infrastructure , rainwater drainage systems , constructing flood barriers and new desalination plants . In June 2016 Abu Dhabi announced a project for an enhanced rainwater drainage system due to unnaturally occurring thunderstorms in March 2016 which caused 860 damages on properties and flooding . Also the three main characteristics of UAE 's politics contribute to the recent natural unsustainability : First , the Emirates feature components of a Rentier state . It is governed by an authoritarian political system and finally both facts cause critical natural resource-related trades . In particular , UAE as a rentier state means that the federalization gains external rent from foreign individuals , companies and governments . A rentier state 's economy is predominated by the dependency on external rents . Oil revenues also count as external rent .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 130384\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 130339\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_controversy\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 130281\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"CO2_fertilization_effect\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 130179\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Shale gas Content: Shale gas is natural gas that is found trapped within shale formations . Shale gas has become an increasingly important source of natural gas in the United States since the start of this century , and interest has spread to potential gas shales in the rest of the world . In 2000 shale gas provided only 1 % of U.S. natural gas production ; by 2010 it was over 20 % and the U.S. government 's Energy Information Administration predicts that by 2035 , 46 % of the United States ' natural gas supply will come from shale gas . Some analysts expect that shale gas will greatly expand worldwide energy supply . China is estimated to have the world 's largest shale gas reserves . The Obama administration believed that increased shale gas development would help reduce greenhouse gas emissions . In 2012 , US carbon dioxide emissions dropped to a 20-year low . A 2013 review by the United Kingdom Department of Energy and Climate Change noted that most studies of the subject have estimated that life-cycle greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions from shale gas are similar to those of conventional natural gas , and are much less than those from coal , usually about half the greenhouse gas emissions of coal ; the noted exception was a 2011 study by Howarth and others of Cornell University , which concluded that shale GHG emissions were as high as those of coal . More recent studies have also concluded that life-cycle shale gas GHG emissions are much less than those of coal , among them , studies by Natural Resources Canada ( 2012 ) , and a consortium formed by the US National Renewable Energy Laboratory with a number of universities ( 2012 ) . Some 2011 studies pointed to high rates of decline of some shale gas wells as an indication that shale gas production may ultimately be much lower than is currently projected . But shale-gas discoveries are also opening up substantial new resources of tight oil / `` shale oil '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Shale_gas\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 129944\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 Content: The Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 - a bill to amend the Clean Air Act to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide , and for other purposes . It was proposed in the 110th United States Congress by Senators Bernie Sanders ( I-VT ) and Barbara Boxer ( D-CA ) on January 15 , 2007 . It was referred to the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works . The measure was intended to increase performance standards for electricity generation and motor vehicles with the option of an emissions `` cap and trade '' system . The emissions cap would begin in 2010 with the aim of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 15 percent by 2020 and 83 percent by 2050 . The legislation would also provide funding for R&D on geologic sequestration of carbon dioxide , among other projects ; set emissions standards for new vehicles and a renewable fuels requirement for gasoline beginning in 2016 ; establish energy efficiency and renewable portfolio standards beginning in 2008 and low-carbon electric generation standards beginning in 2016 for electric utilities ; and require periodic evaluations by the National Academy of Sciences to determine whether emissions targets are adequate .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Warming_Pollution_Reduction_Act_of_2007\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 129605\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon sequestration Content: Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Carbon sequestration involves long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to mitigate or defer global warming . It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases , which are released by burning fossil fuels . Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological , chemical , and physical processes . Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects , including large-scale , artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced using subsurface saline aquifers , reservoirs , ocean water , aging oil fields , or other carbon sinks .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_sequestration\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 128938\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change and agriculture Content: -RSB- Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes , both of which take place on a global scale . Climate change affects agriculture in a number of ways , including through changes in average temperatures , rainfall , and climate extremes ( e.g. , heat waves ) ; changes in pests and diseases ; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations ; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods ; and changes in sea level . Climate change is already affecting agriculture , with effects unevenly distributed across the world . Future climate change will likely negatively affect crop production in low latitude countries , while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative . Climate change will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups , such as the poor . Agriculture contributes to climate change by ( 1 ) anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , and ( 2 ) by the conversion of non-agricultural land ( e.g. , forests ) into agricultural land . Agriculture , forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25 % to global annual emissions in 2010 . There are a range of policies that can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture , and to reduce GHG emissions from the agriculture sector .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_and_agriculture\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 128333\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Christine Wiedinmyer Content: Christine Wiedinmyer is a research scientist in the Atmospheric Chemistry Division of the National Center for Atmospheric Research . She has a Ph.D. in Chemical Engineering from the University of Texas at Austin . Wiedinmyer developed the Fire INventory from NCAR ( FINN ) , `` a high resolution global fire emissions model now used by local , regional , and global chemical modelers to better quantify the impacts of fire emissions on atmospheric composition , both in hindsight and forecast model applications . '' She used the model to estimate that the 2010 Russian wildfires liberated 22 teragrams of highly toxic carbon monoxide , though this amount was less than the cumulative carbon monoxide emissions of 2012 and 2003 . Wiedinmyer discovered that in the long run , controlled burning of forests will produce up to sixty percent less carbon dioxide emissions compared to the full-fledged wildfires they prevented . Undergrowth will be destroyed by the controlled burns while carbon-rich mature trees survive . Without removing the undergrowth , wildfires can quickly escalate out of control using the undergrowth as fuel , and then burn down mature trees as well . Wiedinmyer is also a co-founder of the Earth Science Women 's Network .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Christine_Wiedinmyer\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 127738\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sustainable automotive air conditioning Content: Sustainable automotive air conditioning is the subject of a debate -- nicknamed the Cool War -- about the next-generation refrigerant in car air conditioning . The Alliance for CO2 Solutions supports the uptake of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) as a refrigerant in passenger cars , and the chemical industry is developing new chemical blends . The Alliance and its supporters -- scientists , NGOs and business leaders -- urge the car industry to replace high global warming chemical substances with the natural refrigerant carbon dioxide ( CO2 , R744 / R-744 ) in car cooling and heating . This , they argue , would lead to 10 % less car emissions , and knock out 1 % of total greenhouse gas emissions worldwide . If CO2 Technology is applied in other sectors , such as commercial and industrial refrigeration , heat pumps for water heating etc. , it may even save up to 3 % of the world 's greenhouse gases . Opponents of the Alliance claim that CO2 Technology is not cost-efficient and safe , hence seeking to postpone the global industry decision to be taken to develop new chemical blends instead .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Sustainable_automotive_air_conditioning\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 127717\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Contribution to global warming by Australia Content: Australia has one of the highest per capita emissions of carbon dioxide in the world , with 0.3 % of the world 's population it produces 1.8 % of the world 's greenhouse gasses . It was 18.3 tonnes per year per person and the 11th highest in the world per capita in 2009 . Australia uses principally coal power ( 70 % ) for electricity , with the remainder mainly gas , with no nuclear , low levels of hydro power , and low , but increasing , levels of solar , wind and wave power .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Contribution_to_global_warming_by_Australia\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 127322\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 127211\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ecological forecasting Content: Ecological forecasting uses knowledge of physics , ecology and physiology to predict how ecosystems will change in the future in response to environmental factors such as climate change . The ultimate goal of the approach is to provide people such as resource managers and designers of marine reserves with information that they can then use to respond , in advance , to future changes , a form of adaptation to global warming . One of the most important environmental factors for organisms today is global warming . Most physiological processes are affected by temperature , and so even small changes in weather and climate can lead to large changes in the growth , reproduction and survival of animals and plants . The scientific consensus is that the increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases due to human activity caused most of the warming observed since the start of the industrial era . These changes are in turn affecting human and natural ecosystems . One major challenge is to predict where , when and with what magnitude changes are likely to occur so that we can mitigate or at least prepare for them . Ecological forecasting applies existing knowledge of how animals and plants interact with their physical environment to ask how changes in environmental factors might result in changes to the ecosystems as a whole .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Ecological_forecasting\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 126962\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: David Evans (mathematician and engineer) Content: David Evans is an Australian mathematician and engineer . Evans obtained the degree of Bachelor of Electrical Engineering from the University of Sydney in 1983 ; and PhD in Electrical Engineering from Stanford University in 1989 . He has four other degrees . From 1999 to 2005 Evans worked in the Australian Greenhouse Office . There he contributed to the development of FullCam , a fully integrated carbon accounting model for estimating and predicting all biomass , litter and soil carbon pools in forest and agricultural systems for the Australian government . ( FullCam , part of Australia 's National Carbon Accounting System , received a Special Achievement in GIS award at the 2010 ESRI International User Conference ) . He established Goldnerds , an information service for gold investors . He also serves on the Board of Advisors for the Committee for a Constructive Tomorrow , a group founded to promote a `` positive voice on environment and development issues '' . The Committee rejects the consensus of the scientific community on global warming as `` alarmist '' , and Evans has moved from what he calls a `` warmist '' to a `` skeptic '' position .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"David_Evans_(mathematician_and_engineer)\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 126568\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Scott Denning Content: A. Scott Denning is a climate scientist and professor of atmospheric science at Colorado State University , whose faculty he joined in 1998 . He is known for his research into atmosphere-biosphere interactions and atmospheric carbon dioxide . He firmly supports action to avoid dangerous climate change and has said that the science behind it is `` settled '' . He has also argued that , if no action is taken on the matter , global warming could cause the climate of Colorado to resemble the current climate of its neighbors to the south , such as southern New Mexico , Texas and Mexico .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Scott_Denning\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 126535\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental issue Content: Environmental issues are harmful trouble effects of human activity on the biophysical environment . Environmental protection is a practice of protecting the natural environment on individual , organizational or governmental levels , for the benefit of both the environment and humans . Environmentalism , a social and environmental movement , addresses environmental issues through advocacy , education and activism . The carbon dioxide equivalent of greenhouse gases ( GHG ) in the atmosphere has already exceeded 400 parts per million ( NOAA ) ( with total `` long-term '' GHG exceeding 455 parts per million ) . ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Report ) This level is considered a tipping point . `` The amount of greenhouse gas in the atmosphere is already above the threshold that can potentially cause dangerous climate change . We are already at risk of many areas of pollution ... It 's not next year or next decade , it 's now . '' Report from the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs ( OCHA ) : Environment destruction caused by humans is a global problem , and this is a problem that is on going every day . By year 2050 , the global human population is expected to grow by 2 billion people , thereby reaching a level of 9.6 billion people ( Living Blue Planet 24 ) . The human effects on Earth can be seen in many different ways . A main one is the temperature rise , and according to the report '' Our Changing Climate '' , the global warming that has been going on for the past 50 years is primarily due to human activities ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) . Since 1895 , the U.S. average temperature has increased from 1.3 ° F to 1.9 ° F , with most of the increase taken place since around year 1970 ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_issue\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 125897\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_cooling\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 125800\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmospheric dispersion modeling Content: Atmospheric dispersion modeling is the mathematical simulation of how air pollutants disperse in the ambient atmosphere . It is performed with computer programs that solve the mathematical equations and algorithms which simulate the pollutant dispersion . The dispersion models are used to estimate the downwind ambient concentration of air pollutants or toxins emitted from sources such as industrial plants , vehicular traffic or accidental chemical releases . They can also be used to predict future concentrations under specific scenarios ( i.e. changes in emission sources ) . Therefore , they are the dominant type of model used in air quality policy making . They are most useful for pollutants that are dispersed over large distances and that may react in the atmosphere . For pollutants that have a very high spatio-temporal variability ( i.e. have very steep distance to source decay such as black carbon ) and for epidemiological studies statistical land-use regression models are also used . Dispersion models are important to governmental agencies tasked with protecting and managing the ambient air quality . The models are typically employed to determine whether existing or proposed new industrial facilities are or will be in compliance with the National Ambient Air Quality Standards ( NAAQS ) in the United States and other nations . The models also serve to assist in the design of effective control strategies to reduce emissions of harmful air pollutants . During the late 1960s , the Air Pollution Control Office of the U.S. EPA initiated research projects that would lead to the development of models for the use by urban and transportation planners . A major and significant application of a roadway dispersion model that resulted from such research was applied to the Spadina Expressway of Canada in 1971 . Air dispersion models are also used by public safety responders and emergency management personnel for emergency planning of accidental chemical releases . Models are used to determine the consequences of accidental releases of hazardous or toxic materials , Accidental releases may result in fires , spills or explosions that involve hazardous materials , such as chemicals or radionuclides . The results of dispersion modeling , using worst case accidental release source terms and meteorological conditions , can provide an estimate of location impacted areas , ambient concentrations , and be used to determine protective actions appropriate in the event a release occurs . Appropriate protective actions may include evacuation or shelter in place for persons in the downwind direction . At industrial facilities , this type of consequence assessment or emergency planning is required under the Clean Air Act ( United States ) ( CAA ) codified in Part 68 of Title 40 of the Code of Federal Regulations . The dispersion models vary depending on the mathematics used to develop the model , but all require the input of data that may include : Meteorological conditions such as wind speed and direction , the amount of atmospheric turbulence ( as characterized by what is called the `` stability class '' ) , the ambient air temperature , the height to the bottom of any inversion aloft that may be present , cloud cover and solar radiation . Source term ( the concentration or quantity of toxins in emission or accidental release source terms ) and temperature of the material Emissions or release parameters such as source location and height , type of source ( i.e. , fire , pool or vent stack ) and exit velocity , exit temperature and mass flow rate or release rate . Terrain elevations at the source location and at the receptor location ( s ) , such as nearby homes , schools , businesses and hospitals . The location , height and width of any obstructions ( such as buildings or other structures ) in the path of the emitted gaseous plume , surface roughness or the use of a more generic parameter `` rural '' or `` city '' terrain . Many of the modern , advanced dispersion modeling programs include a pre-processor module for the input of meteorological and other data , and many also include a post-processor module for graphing the output data and/or plotting the area impacted by the air pollutants on maps . The plots of areas impacted may also include isopleths showing areas of minimal to high concentrations that define areas of the highest health risk . The isopleths plots are useful in determining protective actions for the public and responders . The atmospheric dispersion models are also known as atmospheric diffusion models , air dispersion models , air quality models , and air pollution dispersion models .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmospheric_dispersion_modeling\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 125671\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Dynamic global vegetation model Content: A Dynamic Global Vegetation Model ( DGVM ) is a computer program that simulates shifts in potential vegetation and its associated biogeochemical and hydrological cycles as a response to shifts in climate . DGVMs use time series of climate data and , given constraints of latitude , topography , and soil characteristics , simulate monthly or daily dynamics of ecosystem processes . DGVMs are used most often to simulate the effects of future climate change on natural vegetation and its carbon and water cycles . DGVMs generally combine biogeochemistry , biogeography , and disturbance submodels . Disturbance is often limited to wildfires , but in principle could include any of : forest/land management decisions , windthrow , insect damage , ozone damage etc. . DGVMs usually `` spin up '' their simulations from bare ground to `` equilibrium '' vegetation to establish realistic initial values for their various `` pools '' : carbon and nitrogen in live and dead vegetation , soil organic matter , etc. corresponding to a documented historical vegetation cover . DGVMs are usually run in a spatially distributed mode , with simulations carried out for thousands of `` cells '' , geographic points which are assumed to have homogeneous conditions within each cell . Simulations are carried out across a range of spatial scales , from global to landscape . Cells are usually arranged as lattice points ; the distance between adjacent lattice points may be as coarse as a few degrees of latitude or longitude , or as fine as 30 arc-seconds . Simulations of the conterminous United States in the first DGVM comparison exercise ( LPJ and MC1 ) called the VEMAP project in the 1990s used a lattice grain of one-half degree . Global simulations by the PIK group and collaborators using 6 different DGVMs ( HYBRID , IBIS , LPJ , SDGVM , TRIFFID , and VECODE ) used the same resolution as the general circulation model ( GCM ) that provided the climate data , 3.75 deg longitude x 2.5 deg latitude , a total of 1631 land grid cells . Sometimes lattice distances are specified in kilometers rather than angular measure , especially for finer grains , so a project like VEMAP is often referred to as 50 km grain . Several DGVMs appeared in the middle 1990s . The first was apparently IBIS ( Foley et al. , 1996 ) , VECODE ( Brovkin et al. , 1997 ) , followed by several others described below : Several DGVMs have been developed by various research groups around the world : LPJ - Germany , Sweden IBIS - Integrated Biosphere Simulator - U.S. MC1 - U.S. HYBRID - U.K. SDGVM - U.K. SEIB-DGVM - Japan TRIFFID - U.K. VECODE - Germany CLM-DVGM - U.S. Ecosystem Demography ( ED , ED2 ) The next generation of models - earth system models ( ex . CCSM , ORCHIDEE , JULES , CTEM ) - now includes the important feedbacks from the biosphere to the atmosphere so that vegetation shifts and changes in the carbon and hydrological cycles affect the climate . DGVMs commonly simulate a variety of plant and soil physiological processes . The processes simulated by various DGVMs are summarized in the table below . Abbreviations are : NPP , net primary production ; PFT , plant functional type ; SAW , soil available water ; LAI , leaf area index ; I , solar radiation ; T , air temperature ; Wr , root zone water supply ; PET , potential evapotranspiration ; vegc , total live vegetation carbon . References : Category : Scientific modeling\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Dynamic_global_vegetation_model\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 125269\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2011 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2011 United Nations Climate Change Conference ( COP17 ) was held in Durban , South Africa , from 28 November to 11 December 2011 to establish a new treaty to limit carbon emissions . A treaty was not established , but the conference agreed to establish a legally binding deal comprising all countries by 2015 , which was to take effect in 2020 . There was also progress regarding the creation of a Green Climate Fund for which a management framework was adopted . The fund is to distribute US$ 100 billion per year to help poor countries adapt to climate impacts . While the president of the conference , Maite Nkoana-Mashabane , declared it a success , scientists and environmental groups warned that the deal was not sufficient to avoid global warming beyond 2 ° C as more urgent action is needed .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"2011_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 125195\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon bubble Content: The carbon bubble is a hypothesized bubble in the valuation of companies dependent on fossil-fuel-based energy production , because the true costs of carbon dioxide in intensifying global warming are not yet taken into account in a company 's stock market valuation . Currently the price of fossil fuels companies ' shares is calculated under the assumption that all fossil fuel reserves will be consumed . An estimate made by Kepler Chevreux puts the loss in value of the fossil fuel companies due to the impact of the growing renewables industry at US$ 28 trillion over the next two decades-long . A more recent analysis made by Citi puts that figure at $ 100 trillion . Analysts in both the petroleum and financial industries are concluding that the `` age of oil '' has already reached a new stage where the excess supply that appeared in late 2014 may continue to prevail in the future . A consensus appears to be emerging that an international agreement will be reached to introduce measures to constrain the combustion of hydrocarbons in an effort to limit global temperature rise to the nominal 2 ° C that is consensually predicted to limit environmental harm to tolerable levels . According to the UK 's Committee on Climate Change , overvaluing companies that produce fossil fuels and greenhouse gases poses a serious threat to the economy . The committee warned the British government and Bank of England of the risks of the carbon bubble in 2014 . The following year , Mark Carney , the Governor of the Bank of England , in his lecture to Lloyd 's of London , warned that limiting global warming to 2 ° C appears to require that the `` vast majority '' of fossil fuel reserves be `` stranded '' , or `` literally unburnable without expensive carbon-capture technology '' , resulting in `` potentially huge '' exposure to investors in that sector . He concluded that `` the window of opportunity is finite and shrinking '' for responding to the threat that climate change poses to financial resilience and longer-term prosperity , which he called the `` tragedy of the horizon '' . That same month , the Prudential Regulation Authority of the Bank of England issued a report discussing the risks and opportunities that climate change presents to the insurance industry . In his speech announcing his denial of the proposal to build the Keystone XL oil pipeline , U.S. President Barack Obama gave as one reason for the decision '' ... ultimately , if we 're going to prevent large parts of this Earth from becoming not only inhospitable but uninhabitable in our lifetimes , we 're going to have to keep some fossil fuels in the ground ... '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_bubble\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 124680\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: IPCC First Assessment Report Content: The First Assessment Report ( FAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) was completed in 1990 . It served as the basis of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The report was issued in three main sections , corresponding to the three Working Groups of scientists that the IPCC had established . Working Group I : Scientific Assessment of Climate Change , edited by J.T. Houghton , G.J. Jenkins and J.J. Ephraums Working Group II : Impacts Assessment of Climate Change , edited by W.J. McG . Tegart , G.W. Sheldon and D.C. Griffiths Working Group III : The IPCC Response Strategies Each section included a summary for policymakers . This format was followed in subsequent Assessment Reports . The executive summary of the policymakers ' summary of the WG I report includes : We are certain of the following : there is a natural greenhouse effect ... ; emissions resulting from human activities are substantially increasing the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases : CO2 , methane , CFCs and nitrous oxide . These increases will enhance the greenhouse effect , resulting on average in an additional warming of the Earth 's surface . The main greenhouse gas , water vapour , will increase in response to global warming and further enhance it . We calculate with confidence that : ... CO2 has been responsible for over half the enhanced greenhouse effect ; long-lived gases would require immediate reductions in emissions from human activities of over 60 % to stabilise their concentrations at today 's levels ... Based on current models , we predict : under -LSB- BAU -RSB- increase of global mean temperature during the -LSB- 21st -RSB- century of about 0.3 oC per decade ( with an uncertainty range of 0.2 to 0.5 oC per decade ) ; this is greater than that seen over the past 10,000 years ; under other ... scenarios which assume progressively increasing levels of controls , rates of increase in global mean temperature of about 0.2 oC -LSB- to -RSB- about 0.1 oC per decade . There are many uncertainties in our predictions particularly with regard to the timing , magnitude and regional patterns of climate change , due to our incomplete understanding of : sources and sinks of GHGs ; clouds ; oceans ; polar ice sheets . Our judgement is that : global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 oC over the last 100 years ... ; The size of this warming is broadly consistent with predictions of climate models , but it is also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability . Thus the observed increase could be largely due to this natural variability ; alternatively this variability and other human factors could have offset a still larger human-induced greenhouse warming . The unequivocal detection of the enhanced greenhouse effect is not likely for a decade or more . under the IPCC business as usual emissions scenario , an average rate of global mean sea level rise of about 6 cm per decade over the next century ( with an uncertainty range of 3 -- 10 cm per decade ) , mainly due to thermal expansion of the oceans and the melting of some land ice . The predicted rise is about 20 cm ... by 2030 , and 65 cm by the end of the next century .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"IPCC_First_Assessment_Report\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 124341\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Maximilian Auffhammer Content: Maximilian Auffhammer ( born 1973 ) is a UC-Berkeley based environmental economist who has produced some important forecasts of Chinese carbon dioxide releases . Auffhammer is an Associate Professor with a joint appointment in International Area Studies and Agricultural and Resource Economics . He received his Ph.D. in Economics from the University of California at San Diego . His research agenda focuses on forecasting Greenhouse Gas Emissions as well as studying the impacts of air pollution on agriculture . Geographically he is mainly interested in China and India as well as his chosen home -- California . Said Auffhammer regarding China 's carbon pollution output , `` The only solution is for a massive transfer of technology and wealth from the West . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Maximilian_Auffhammer\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 124323\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Pakistan\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 124278\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Media_coverage_of_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 124081\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental impact of transport Content: The environmental impact of transport is significant because it is a major user of energy , and burns most of the world 's petroleum . This creates air pollution , including nitrous oxides and particulates , and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon dioxide , for sector . By subsector , road transport is the largest contributor to global warming . Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced the individual vehicle 's emission ; however , this has been offset by an increase in the number of vehicles , and more use of each vehicle . Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road vehicles considerably have been studied . Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes , causing environmentalists to call for a transition from air and road to rail and human-powered transport , and increase transport electrification and energy efficiency . The transportation sector is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) in the United States . An estimated 30 percent of national GHGs are directly attributable to transportation -- and in some regions , the proportion is even higher . Transportation methods are the greatest contributing source of GHGs in the U.S. , accounting for 47 percent of the net increase in total U.S. emissions since 1990 . Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urban sprawl , which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands . By reducing transportation emissions globally , it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects on Earth 's air quality , acid rain , smog and climate change . The health impact of transport emissions is also of concern . A recent survey of the studies on the effect of traffic emissions on pregnancy outcomes has linked exposure to emissions to adverse effects on gestational duration and possibly also intrauterine growth . As listed above direct impacts such as noise and carbon monoxide emissions create direct and harmful effects on the environment , along with indirect impacts . The indirect impacts are often of higher consequence which leads to the misconception that it 's the opposite since it is frequently understood that initial effects cause the most damage . For example , particulates which are the outcome of incomplete combustion done by an internal combustion engine , are not linked with respiratory and cardiovascular problems since they contribute to other factors not only to that specific condition . Even though the environmental impacts are usually listed individually there are also cumulative impacts . The synergetic consequences of transport activities . They take into account of the varied effects of direct and indirect impacts on an ecosystem . Climate change is the sum total impact of several natural and human-made factors . 15 % of global CO2 emissions are attributed to the transport sector .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_impact_of_transport\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 124036\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Polar amplification Content: Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict . In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Polar_amplification\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 123881\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Integrated Carbon Observation System Content: Integrated Carbon Observation System ( ICOS ) is a new strategic research infrastructure to quantify the greenhouse gas balance in Europe and adjacent regions . It consists of a harmonized network of ecosystem long-term observation sites , a network of atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration sites and a network of ocean observations . The network will be coordinated through a set of central facilities , including an atmospheric and an ecosystem thematic center , a central data center , an analytical laboratory and an oceanic thematic center . ICOS will provide the essential long-term observations required to understand the present state and predict future behavior of the global carbon cycle and greenhouse gas emissions . It will monitor and assess the effectiveness of carbon sequestration and/or greenhouse gases emission reduction activities on global atmospheric composition levels , including attribution of sources and sinks by region and sector . Standardized network will improved access to data and enable the development of flux products for research and political application . ICOS will be a state-of-the-art facility for the European research community . It will contribute the European share to global greenhouse gas observations under GEO , WMO-GAW and GTOS programs .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Integrated_Carbon_Observation_System\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 123871\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: James Hansen Content: James Edward Hansen ( born 29 March 1941 ) is an American adjunct professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University . He is best known for his research in climatology , his 1988 Congressional testimony on climate change that helped raise broad awareness of global warming , and his advocacy of action to avoid dangerous climate change . In recent years he has become a climate activist to mitigate the effects of climate change , on a few occasions leading to his arrest . In 2000 , Hansen advanced an alternative view of global warming over the last 100 years , arguing that during that time frame the negative forcing via aerosols and the positive forcing via largely balanced each other out , and that the 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide , such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons . However , even then he wrote `` the future balance of forcings is likely to shift toward dominance of CO2 over aerosols ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"James_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 123216\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Future_sea_level\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 123110\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: American Electric Power Co. v. Connecticut Content: American Electric Power Company v. Connecticut , , was a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court , in an 8 -- 0 decision , held that corporations can not be sued for greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) under federal common law , primarily because the Clean Air Act ( CAA ) delegates the management of carbon dioxide and other GHG emissions to the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) . Brought to court in July 2004 in the Southern District of New York , this was the first global warming case based on a public nuisance claim .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"American_Electric_Power_Co._v._Connecticut\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 123092\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate model Content: Climate models use quantitative methods to simulate the interactions of the important drivers of climate , including atmosphere , oceans , land surface and ice . They are used for a variety of purposes from study of the dynamics of the climate system to projections of future climate . All climate models take account of incoming energy from the sun as short wave electromagnetic radiation , chiefly visible and short-wave ( near ) infrared , as well as outgoing long wave ( far ) infrared electromagnetic . Any imbalance results in a change in temperature . Models vary in complexity : A simple radiant heat transfer model treats the earth as a single point and averages outgoing energy This can be expanded vertically ( radiative-convective models ) and/or horizontally Finally , ( coupled ) atmosphere -- ocean -- sea ice global climate models solve the full equations for mass and energy transfer and radiant exchange . Box models can treat flows across and within ocean basins . Other types of modelling can be interlinked , such as land use , allowing researchers to predict the interaction between climate and ecosystems .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_model\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 123091\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: GWP Content: GWP can stand for : Global-warming potential , a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere Global Water Partnership , an international network offering practical advice for sustainably managing water resources Gross world product , the combined GNP of all countries in the world Gross Written Premiums , a measure of revenues for insurance businesses Guild Wars Prophecies , an MMORPG Guinea-Bissau peso , the currency code for Guinea-Bissau 's peso from 1975 to 1997 Gigawatt-peak , a measure in gigawatts of the nominal power of a photovoltaic solar energy device under laboratory illumination conditions\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"GWP\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 122863\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Weather of the Future Content: The Weather of the Future : Heat Waves , Extreme Storms , and Other Scenes From a Climate-Changed Planet ( ISBN 978-0-06-172688-0 ) is a 2010 book by climatologist Heidi Cullen . Cullen takes as her starting point the `` clear and present dangers '' posed by the greenhouse gases which result from the burning fossil fuels . She offers a vision of what life might be like in a warmer world . Cullen predicts `` more frequent and more violent storms , more hot spells , cold spells , droughts , famines and huge waves of desperate refugees '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Weather_of_the_Future\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 121921\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Content: The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC or FCCC ) is an international environmental treaty negotiated at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) , informally known as the Earth Summit , held in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992 . The objective of the treaty is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' . The treaty itself set no binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions for individual countries and contains no enforcement mechanisms . In that sense , the treaty is considered legally non-binding . Instead , the treaty provides a framework for negotiating specific international treaties ( called `` protocols '' ) that may set binding limits on greenhouse gases . The UNFCCC was opened for signature on 9 May 1992 , after an Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee produced the text of the Framework Convention as a report following its meeting in New York from 30 April to 9 May 1992 . It entered into force on 21 March 1994 . As of December 2015 , UNFCCC has 197 parties .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_parties_to_the_United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 121813\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Post–Kyoto Protocol negotiations on greenhouse gas emissions Content: Post-Kyoto negotiations refers to high level talks attempting to address global warming by limiting greenhouse gas emissions . Generally part of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , these talks concern the period after the first `` commitment period '' of the Kyoto Protocol , which expired at the end of 2012 . Negotiations have been mandated by the adoption of the Bali Road Map and Decision 1/CP .13 ( `` The Bali Action Plan '' ) . UNFCCC negotiations are conducted within two subsidiary bodies , the Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action under the Convention ( AWG-LCA ) and the Ad Hoc Working Group on Further Commitments for Annex I Parties under the Kyoto Protocol ( AWG-KP ) and were expected to culminate in the United Nations Climate Change Conference taking place in December 2009 in Copenhagen ( COP-15 ) ; negotiations are supported by a number of external processes , including the G8 process , a number of regional meetings and the Major Economies Forum on Energy and Climate that was launched by US President Barack Obama in March 2009 . High level talks were held at the meeting of the G8 +5 Climate Change Dialogue in February 2007 and at a number of subsequent G8 meetings , most recently leading to the adoption of the G8 leaders declaration `` Responsible Leadership for a Sustainable Future '' during the G8 summit in L ´ Aquila , Italy , in July 2009 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Post–Kyoto_Protocol_negotiations_on_greenhouse_gas_emissions\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 121688\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Keith E. Idso Content: Keith E. Idso is a botanist and vice president of the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change . He is the brother of Craig D. Idso and son of Sherwood B. Idso . He received his B.S. in Agriculture with a major in Plant Sciences from the University of Arizona and his M.S. from the same institution with a major in Agronomy and Plant Genetics . He completed his Ph.D. in Botany at Arizona State University . In 1994 , Idso , along with his father , published a review paper on the topic of increased CO2 levels and their effects on plant growth . The paper concluded that not only did other factors not diminish the ability of CO2 to increase plant growth rates , that `` the data show the relative growth-enhancing effects of atmospheric CO2 enrichment to be greatest when resource limitations and environmental stresses are most severe . '' As of 1999 , he was teaching biology in the Maricopa County Community College District as an adjunct professor , a post to which he was appointed in 1996 . In 1998 , Idso spoke at the Doctors for Disaster Preparedness ' annual meeting in Scottsdale , Arizona . His talk was entitled `` Direct Biological Effects of Increasing Levels of Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide . '' In 1999 , Idso was appointed by the Arizona Speaker of the House of Representatives to serve on the Arizona Advisory Council on Environmental Education .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Keith_E._Idso\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 121685\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate engineering Content: Climate engineering , commonly referred to as geoengineering , also known as climate intervention , is the deliberate and large-scale intervention in the Earth 's climatic system with the aim of limiting adverse global warming . Climate engineering is an umbrella term for measures that mainly fall into two types : carbon dioxide removal and solar radiation management . Carbon dioxide removal addresses the cause of global warming by removing one of the greenhouse gases ( carbon dioxide ) from the atmosphere . Solar radiation management attempts to offset effects of greenhouse gases by causing the Earth to absorb less solar radiation . Climate engineering approaches are sometimes viewed as additional potential options for limiting global warming , alongside mitigation and adaptation . There is substantial agreement among scientists that climate engineering can not substitute for climate change mitigation . Some approaches might be used as accompanying measures to sharp cuts in greenhouse gas emissions . Given that all types of measures for addressing climate change have economic , political , or physical limitations , some climate engineering approaches might eventually be used as part of an ensemble of measures . Research on costs , benefits , and various types of risks of most climate engineering approaches is at an early stage and their understanding needs to improve to judge their adequacy and feasibility . Almost all research into solar radiation management has consisted of computer modelling or laboratory tests , and an attempt to move to outdoor experimentation was controversial . Some carbon dioxide removal practices , such as planting of trees and bio-energy with carbon capture and storage projects , are underway . Their scalability to effectively affect global climate is , however , debated . Ocean iron fertilization has been given small-scale research trials , sparking substantial controversy . Most experts and major reports advise against relying on climate engineering techniques as a simple solution to global warming , in part due to the large uncertainties over effectiveness and side effects . However , most experts also argue that the risks of such interventions must be seen in the context of risks of dangerous global warming . Interventions at large scale may run a greater risk of disrupting natural systems resulting in a dilemma that those approaches that could prove highly ( cost - ) effective in addressing extreme climate risk , might themselves cause substantial risk . Some have suggested that the concept of engineering the climate presents a so-called `` moral hazard '' because it could reduce political and public pressure for emissions reduction , which could exacerbate overall climate risks ; others assert that the threat of climate engineering could spur emissions cuts . Some are in favour of a moratorium on out-of-doors testing and deployment of solar radiation management ( SRM ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_engineering\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 121613\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Content: The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) is an international environmental treaty adopted on May 9 , 1992 and opened for signature at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992 . It then entered into force on 21 March 1994 , after a sufficient number of countries had ratified it . The UNFCCC objective is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' . The framework sets no binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions for individual countries and contains no enforcement mechanisms . Instead , the framework outlines how specific international treaties ( called `` protocols '' or `` Agreements '' ) may be negotiated to specify further action towards the objective of the UNFCCC . Initially an Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee ( INC ) produced the text of the Framework Convention during its meeting in New York from 30 April to 9 May 1992 . The UNFCCC was adopted on 9 May 1992 , and opened for signature on 4 June 1992 . The UNFCCC has 197 parties as of December 2015 . The convention enjoys broad legitimacy , largely due to its nearly universal membership . The parties to the convention have met annually from 1995 in Conferences of the Parties ( COP ) to assess progress in dealing with climate change . In 1997 , the Kyoto Protocol was concluded and established legally binding obligations for developed countries to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions in the period 2008-2012 . The 2010 Cancún agreements state that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) relative to the pre-industrial level . The Protocol was amended in 2012 to encompass the period 2013-2020 in the Doha Amendment , which - as of December 2015 - had not entered into force . In 2015 the Paris Agreement was adopted , governing emission reductions from 2020 on through commitments of countries in ambitious Nationally Determined Contributions . The Paris Agreement entered into force on November 4th , 2016 . One of the first tasks set by the UNFCCC was for signatory nations to establish national greenhouse gas inventories of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions and removals , which were used to create the 1990 benchmark levels for accession of Annex I countries to the Kyoto Protocol and for the commitment of those countries to GHG reductions . Updated inventories must be submitted annually by Annex I countries . The UNFCCC is also the name of the United Nations Secretariat charged with supporting the operation of the Convention , with offices in Haus Carstanjen , and the UN Campus ( known as Langer Eugen ) Bonn , Germany . From 2010 to 2016 the head of the secretariat was Christiana Figueres . In July 2016 , Patricia Espinosa from Mexico succeeded Figueres . The Secretariat , augmented through the parallel efforts of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , aims to gain consensus through meetings and the discussion of various strategies .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 121546\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 121338\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mitigation of global warming in Australia Content: Mitigation of global warming involves taking actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to enhance sinks aimed at reducing the extent of global warming . This is in distinction to adaptation to global warming , which involves taking action to minimise the effects of global warming . Scientific consensus on global warming , together with the precautionary principle and the fear of non-linear climate transitions , is leading to increased effort to develop new technologies and sciences and carefully manage others in an attempt to mitigate global warming . Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) for coal-fired power stations has been put forward as a solution to rising greenhouse gas emissions . However , CCS can not deliver in time to avoid dangerous increases in temperatures , as widespread commercial use of CCS is not expected before 2030 . Following the introduction of government mandatory renewable energy targets , more opportunities have opened up for renewable energy technologies such as wind power , photovoltaics , and solar thermal technologies . The deployment of these technologies provides opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gases . A carbon price was introduced on 1 July 2012 by the government of Julia Gillard with the purpose of reducing Australia 's carbon emissions . It requires large businesses ( defined as those with annual carbon dioxide equivalent emissions over 25,000 tonnes annually ) to pay a price for emissions permits . The tax was scrapped by the Abbott government in July 2014 in what was a widely criticised and highly publicised move .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Mitigation_of_global_warming_in_Australia\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 121298\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas inventory Content: Greenhouse gas inventories are a type of emission inventory that are developed for a variety of reasons . Scientists use inventories of natural and anthropogenic ( human-caused ) emissions as tools when developing atmospheric models . Policy makers use inventories to develop strategies and policies for emissions reductions and to track the progress of those policies . And , regulatory agencies and corporations rely on inventories to establish compliance records with allowable emission rates . Businesses , the public , and other interest groups use inventories to better understand the sources and trends in emissions . Unlike some other air emission inventories , greenhouse gas inventories include not only emissions from source categories , but also removals by carbon sinks . These removals are typically referred to as carbon sequestration . Greenhouse gas inventories , typically use Global warming potential ( GWP ) values to combine emissions of various greenhouse gases into a single weighted value of emissions . Some of the key examples of greenhouse gas inventories include : All Annex I countries are required to report annual emissions and sinks of greenhouse gases under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) National governments that are Parties to the UNFCCC and/or the Kyoto Protocol are required to submit annual inventories of all anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions from sources and removals from sinks . The Kyoto Protocol includes additional requirements for national inventory systems , inventory reporting , and annual inventory review for determining compliance with Articles 5 and 8 of the Protocol . Project developers under the Clean Development Mechanism of the Kyoto Protocol prepare inventories as part of their project baselines . Corporation and other entities can prepare greenhouse gas inventories to track progress towards meeting an emission reduction goal . Scientific efforts aimed at understanding detail of total net carbon exchange . Example : Project Vulcan - a comprehensive US inventory of fossil-fuel greenhouse gas emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas_inventory\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 121212\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference , COP 21 or CMP 11 was held in Paris , France , from 30 November to 12 December 2015 . It was the 21st yearly session of the Conference of the Parties ( COP ) to the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and the 11th session of the Conference of the Parties ( CMP ) to the 1997 Kyoto Protocol . The conference negotiated the Paris Agreement , a global agreement on the reduction of climate change , the text of which represented a consensus of the representatives of the 196 parties attending it . The agreement will enter into force when joined by at least 55 countries which together represent at least 55 percent of global greenhouse emissions . On 22 April 2016 ( Earth Day ) , 174 countries signed the agreement in New York , and began adopting it within their own legal systems ( through ratification , acceptance , approval , or accession ) . According to the organizing committee at the outset of the talks , the expected key result was an agreement to set a goal of limiting global warming to less than 2 degrees Celsius ( ° C ) compared to pre-industrial levels . The agreement calls for zero net anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions to be reached during the second half of the 21st century . In the adopted version of the Paris Agreement , the parties will also `` pursue efforts to '' limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C . The 1.5 ° C goal will require zero emissions sometime between 2030 and 2050 , according to some scientists . Prior to the conference , 146 national climate panels publicly presented draft national climate contributions ( called `` Intended Nationally Determined Contributions '' , INDCs ) . These suggested commitments were estimated to limit global warming to 2.7 degrees Celsius by 2100 . For example , the EU suggested INDC is a commitment to a 40 percent reduction in emissions by 2030 compared to 1990 . The agreement establishes a `` global stocktake '' which revisits the national goals to `` update and enhance '' them every five years beginning 2023 . However , no detailed timetable or country-specific goals for emissions were incorporated into the Paris Agreement -- as opposed to the previous Kyoto Protocol . A number of meetings took place in preparation for COP21 , including the Bonn Climate Change Conference , 19 to 23 October 2015 , which produced a draft agreement .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"2015_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 121016\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 120820\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Media_coverage_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 120521\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sherwood B. Idso Content: Sherwood B. Idso ( born June 12 , 1942 ) is the president of the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change , a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) nonprofit organization . Prior to that time he was a Research Physicist with the U.S. Department of Agriculture 's Agricultural Research Service at the U.S. Water Conservation Laboratory in Phoenix , Arizona , where he worked since June 1967 . He was also closely associated with Arizona State University over most of this period , serving as an Adjunct Professor in the Departments of Geology , Geography , and Botany and Microbiology . His two sons , Craig and Keith , are , respectively , the founder and vice president of the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change . Idso is the author or co-author of over 500 publications including the books Carbon Dioxide : Friend or Foe ? ( 1982 ) and Carbon Dioxide and Global Change : Earth in Transition ( 1989 ) . He served on the editorial board of the international journal Agricultural and Forest Meteorology from 1973 to 1993 and since 1993 has served on the editorial board of Environmental and Experimental Botany . Over the course of his career , he has been an invited reviewer of manuscripts for 56 different scientific journals and 17 different funding agencies , representing an unusually large array of disciplines . He is an ISI highly cited researcher .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Sherwood_B._Idso\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 120325\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation Content: Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation and the role of conservation , sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries ( REDD + ) was first negotiated under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) since 2005 , with the objective of mitigating climate change through reducing net emissions of greenhouse gases through enhanced forest management in developing countries . Most of the key REDD + decisions were completed by 2013 , with the final pieces of the rulebook finished in 2015 . In the last two decades , various studies estimate that land use change , including deforestation and forest degradation , accounts for 12-29 % of global greenhouse gas emissions . For this reason the inclusion of reducing emissions from land use change is considered essential to achieve the objectives of the UNFCCC . During the negotiations for the Kyoto Protocol , and then in particular its Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) , the inclusion of tropical forest management was debated but eventually dropped due to anticipated methodological difficulties in establishing -- in particular -- additionality and leakage ( detrimental effects outside of the project area attributable to project activities ) . What remained on forestry was `` Afforestation and Reforestation '' , sectoral scope 14 of the CDM . Under this sectoral scope areas of land that had no forest cover since 1990 could be replanted with commercial or indigenous tree species . In its first eight years of operation 52 projects had been registered under the `` Afforestation and Reforestation '' scope of the CDM . The cumbersome administrative procedures and corresponding high transaction costs are often blamed for this slow uptake . Beyond the CDM , all developed countries that were parties to the Kyoto Protocol also committed to measuring and reporting on efforts to reduce net greenhouse gas emissions from forests . The United States also measures and reports on the net greenhouse gas sequestration in its forests . In response to what many perceived to be a failure to address a major source of global greenhouse gas emissions , the Coalition for Rainforest Nations ( CfRN ) was established and in 2005 they proposed to the Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC policy approaches and positive incentives for the reduction of emissions of greenhouse gases stemming from tropical deforestation and forest degradation as a climate change mitigation measure .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Reducing_emissions_from_deforestation_and_forest_degradation\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 120279\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: North American Carbon Program Content: The North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) is one of the major elements of the Strategic Plan for the U.S. Climate Change Science Program . The central objective of NACP is to measure and understand carbon stocks and sources and sinks of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , and carbon monoxide ( CO ) in North America and adjacent ocean regions . The specific program goals are as followed : Develop quantitative scientific knowledge , robust observations , and models to determine the emissions and uptake of CO2 , CH4 , and CO , changes in carbon stocks , and the factors regulating these processes for North America and adjacent ocean basins . Develop the scientific basis to implement full carbon accounting on regional and continental scales . This is the knowledge base needed to design monitoring programs for natural and managed CO2 sinks and emissions of CH4 . Support long-term quantitative measurements of fluxes , sources , and sinks of atmospheric CO2 and CH4 , and develop forecasts for future trends . The North American Carbon Program was designed to help with the process of providing data needed to model the synthesis activities .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"North_American_Carbon_Program\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 120229\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Historical Climatology Network Content: The Global Historical Climatology Network ( GHCN ) is a database of temperature , precipitation and pressure records managed by the National Climatic Data Center , Arizona State University and the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center . The aggregate data are collected from many continuously reporting fixed stations at the Earth 's surface and represent the input of approximately 6000 temperature stations , 7500 precipitation stations and 2000 pressure stations . This work has often been used as a foundation for reconstructing past global temperatures , and was used in previous versions of two of the best-known reconstructions , that prepared by the National Climatic Data Center ( NCDC ) , and that prepared by NASA as its Goddard Institute for Space Studies ( GISS ) temperature set . The average temperature record is 60 years long with ~ 1650 records greater than 100 years and ~ 220 greater than 150 years ( based on GHCN v2 in 2006 ) . The earliest data included in the database were collected in 1697 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Historical_Climatology_Network\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 120086\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita from 1990 through 2011 . All data was calculated by the US Department of Energy 's Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) , mostly based on data collected from country agencies by the United Nations Statistics Division . Countries are ranked by their metric tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions per capita in 2009 . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use such as deforestation . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The carbon dioxide emissions of a country are only an indicator of one greenhouse gas . For a more complete idea of how a country influences climate change , gases such as methane and nitrous oxide should be taken into account . This is particularly so in agricultural economies . Carbon dioxide emissions are also known for earlier periods . A study of a global sample of twelve countries provide estimates for emissions since 1800 and explores the long-run drivers of carbon dioxide emissions by decomposing changes in carbon emissions into population , income , technological and energy mix changes .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions_per_capita\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 119531\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Content: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change : A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases was a 2005 international conference that examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration , and the 2 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) ceiling on global warming thought necessary to avoid the most serious effects of global warming . Previously this had generally been accepted as being 550 ppm . The conference took place under the United Kingdom 's presidency of the G8 , with the participation of around 200 ` internationally renowned ' scientists from 30 countries . It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter , from 1 February to 3 February .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 119470\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Fugitive emissions Content: Fugitive emissions are emissions of gases or vapors from pressurized equipment due to leaks and other unintended or irregular releases of gases , mostly from industrial activities . As well as the economic cost of lost commodities , fugitive emissions contribute to air pollution and climate change . A detailed inventory of greenhouse gas emissions from upstream oil and gas activities in Canada for the year 2000 estimated that fugitive equipment leaks had a global warming potential equivalent to the release of 17 million metric tonnes of carbon dioxide , or 12 per cent of all greenhouse gases emitted by the sector . Venting of natural gas , flaring , accidental releases and storage losses accounted for an additional 38 per cent . Fugitive emissions present other risks and hazards . Emissions of volatile organic compounds such as benzene from oil refineries and chemical plants pose a long term health risk to workers and local communities . In situations where large amounts of flammable liquids and gases are contained under pressure , leaks also increase the risk of fire and explosion . Leaks from pressurized process equipment generally occur through valves , pipe connections , mechanical seals , or related equipment . Fugitive emissions also occur at evaporative sources such as waste water treatment ponds and storage tanks . Because of the huge number of potential leak sources at large industrial facilities and the difficulties in detecting and repairing some leaks , fugitive emissions can be a significant proportion of total emissions . Though the quantities of leaked gases may be small , gases that have serious health or environmental impacts can cause a significant problem . To minimize and control leaks at process facilities operators carry out regular leak detection and repair activities . Routine inspections of process equipment with gas detectors can be used to identify leaks and estimate the leak rate in order to decide on appropriate corrective action . Proper routine maintenance of equipment reduces the likelihood of leaks . Because of the technical difficulties and costs of detecting and quantifying actual fugitive emissions at a site or facility , and the variability and intermittent nature of emission flow rates , bottom-up estimates based on standard emission factors are generally used for annual reporting purposes . New technologies are under development that could revolutionize the detection and monitoring of fugitive emissions . One technology , known as differential absorption lidar ( DIAL ) , can be used to remotely measure concentration profiles of hydrocarbons in the atmosphere up to several hundred meters from a facility . DIAL has been used for refinery surveys in Europe for over 15 years . A pilot study carried out in 2005 using DIAL found that actual emissions at a refinery were fifteen times higher than those previously reported using the emission factor approach . The fugitive emissions were equivalent to 0.17 % of the refinery throughput . Portable gas leak imaging cameras are also a new technology that can be used to improve leak detection and repair , leading to reduced fugitive emissions . The cameras use infrared imaging technology to produce video images in which invisible gases escaping from leak sources can be clearly identified .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Fugitive_emissions\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 119461\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sergei Petrovskii Content: Sergei Petrovskii is a Russian-born British mathematician who researches the modeling of natural phenomena . He is a professor of Applied Mathematics at the University of Leicester . In 2015 , he led a study that found that if the ocean temperature were to increase by about six degrees Celsius due to global warming , phytoplankton might stop producing oxygen . This would lead to shortages of oxygen in the atmosphere , which could be very harmful to humans . Petrovskii said , `` About two thirds of the planet 's total atmospheric oxygen is produced by ocean phytoplankton - and therefore cessation would result in the depletion of atmospheric oxygen on a global scale . This would likely result in the mass mortality of animals and humans . '' Petrovskii 's study appeared in the Bulletin of Mathematical Biology . Another stream of his research is modelling of biological invasions where he discovered a new phenomenon called `` patchy invasion '' . Contrary to a commonly used paradigm of alien species spread by a travelling population front , in the patchy invasion the invasive species spreads into new areas by creating individual patches not preceded by a front propagation . Patchy invasion has been observed in several invasions of insects and birds and has been studied theoretically using a variety of growth-dispersal models .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Sergei_Petrovskii\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 119378\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: United Kingdom Climate Change Programme Content: The United Kingdom 's Climate Change Programme was launched in November 2000 by the British government in response to its commitment agreed at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) . The 2000 programme was updated in March 2006 following a review launched in September 2004 . In 2008 , the UK was the world 's 9th greatest producer of man-made carbon emissions , producing around 1.8 % of the global total generated from fossil fuels .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"United_Kingdom_Climate_Change_Programme\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 118900\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Surface Heat Budget of the Arctic Ocean Content: The Surface Heat Budget of the Arctic Ocean ( SHEBA ) study was a National Science Foundation-funded research project designed to quantify the heat transfer processes that occur between the ocean and the atmosphere over the course of a year in the Arctic Ocean , where the sun is above the horizon from spring through summer and below the horizon the rest of the time . The study was designed to provide data for use in global climate models , which scientists use to study global climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Surface_Heat_Budget_of_the_Arctic_Ocean\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 118740\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Territorialisation of carbon governance Content: Territorialisation of Carbon Governance ( ToCG ) is a concept used in political geography or environmental policy which is considered to be a new logic of environmental governance . This method creates carbon-relevant citizens who become enrolled in the process of governing the climate . The territorialisation of carbon governance transforms climate change from a global to local issue . It embodies political practices that serve to connect the causes and consequences of global climate change to local communities . The commitment to reducing greenhouse gas emissions ( GHG ) has been a key component of sustainability within governance since the early 1990s . The ICLEI - Local Governments for Sustainability is an international association of local governments which brings together 1200 cities , towns and the associated 70 countries in their commitment to sustainable development . Further responses that seek to address these issues , include international body the IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , the Rio Earth Summit and United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . These organisations strive to tackle anthropogenic forces which are increasing risks of global warming . Under the territorialisation of carbon , climate and global flows of carbon are regarded as ` national sinks ' . This is a means by which the carbon cycle can be managed and territorialised through being assigned to a physical geographical space instead of being thought of as a global phenomenon . The act of territorialisation oversees the combining of material natures and state institutions into one system through the creation of carbon territories . This approach can allow individual states and governments to control and monitor their carbon emissions in order to improve their efforts in carbon governance . Carbon governance can be interpreted as the institutional arrangements under which greenhouse gas emissions are addressed and mitigated . This is achieved through regulating and controlling carbon activities . Measures and protocols exist in an attempt to address the issues surrounding greenhouse gas emissions . Carbon governance is addressed via governmental decisions made through leadership and management which attempt to improve and resolve problems related to climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"2783\",\n \"docid\": \"Territorialisation_of_carbon_governance\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 118333\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":1372,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"A subsequent study by Dessler (2011) found that Spencer's paper was not a test of climate sensitivity or feedbacks, and his assumptions do not match empirical observational data."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Iris hypothesis Content: The iris hypothesis is a hypothesis proposed by Richard Lindzen et al. in 2001 that suggested increased sea surface temperature in the tropics would result in reduced cirrus clouds and thus more infrared radiation leakage from Earth 's atmosphere . His study of observed changes in cloud coverage and modeled effects on infrared radiation released to space as a result supported the hypothesis . This suggested infrared radiation leakage was hypothesized to be a negative feedback in which an initial warming would result in an overall cooling of the surface . The consensus view is that increased sea surface temperature would result in increased cirrus clouds and reduced infrared radiation leakage and therefore a positive feedback . Other scientists subsequently tested the hypothesis . Some concluded that there was no evidence supporting the hypothesis . Others found evidence suggesting that increased sea surface temperature in the tropics did indeed reduce cirrus clouds but found that the effect was nonetheless a positive feedback rather than the negative feedback that Lindzen had hypothesized . A later 2007 study conducted by Roy Spencer et al. using updated satellite data potentially supported the iris hypothesis . In 2011 , Lindzen published a rebuttal to the main criticisms . In 2015 a paper was published which again suggested the possibility of an `` Iris Effect '' . It also proposed what it called a `` plausible physical mechanism for an iris effect . ''","qid":"2784","docid":"Iris_hypothesis","rank":1,"score":144255},{"content":"Title: Andrew Dessler Content: Andrew Emory Dessler ( born 1964 ) is a climate scientist and Professor of Atmospheric Sciences at Texas A&M University . His research subject areas are atmospheric chemistry , climate change and climate change policy .","qid":"2784","docid":"Andrew_Dessler","rank":2,"score":138293},{"content":"Title: Climate sensitivity Content: Climate sensitivity is the equilibrium temperature change in response to changes of the radiative forcing . Therefore , climate sensitivity depends on the initial climate state , but potentially can be accurately inferred from precise palaeoclimate data . Slow climate feedbacks , especially changes of ice sheet size and atmospheric CO2 , amplify the total Earth system sensitivity by an amount that depends on the time scale considered . Although climate sensitivity is usually used in the context of radiative forcing by carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , it is thought of as a general property of the climate system : the change in surface air temperature ( ΔTs ) following a unit change in radiative forcing ( RF ) , and thus is expressed in units of ° C / ( W/m2 ) . For this to be useful , the measure must be independent of the nature of the forcing ( e.g. from greenhouse gases or solar variation ) ; to first order this is indeed found to be so . The climate sensitivity specifically due to is often expressed as the temperature change in ° C associated with a doubling of the concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere . For coupled atmosphere-ocean global climate models ( e.g. CMIP5 ) the climate sensitivity is an emergent property : it is not a model parameter , but rather a result of a combination of model physics and parameters . By contrast , simpler energy-balance models may have climate sensitivity as an explicit parameter . The terms represented in the equation relate radiative forcing ( RF ) to linear changes in global surface temperature change ( ΔTs ) via the climate sensitivity λ . It is also possible to estimate climate sensitivity from observations ; however , this is difficult due to uncertainties in the forcing and temperature histories .","qid":"2784","docid":"Climate_sensitivity","rank":3,"score":132837},{"content":"Title: Roy Spencer (scientist) Content: Roy Warren Spencer ( born December 20 , 1955 ) is a meteorologist , Principal Research Scientist at the University of Alabama in Huntsville , and the U.S. Science Team leader for the Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer ( AMSR-E ) on NASA 's Aqua satellite . He has served as Senior Scientist for Climate Studies at NASA 's Marshall Space Flight Center . He is known for his satellite-based temperature monitoring work , for which he was awarded the American Meteorological Society 's Special Award .","qid":"2784","docid":"Roy_Spencer_(scientist)","rank":4,"score":130485},{"content":"Title: The Discovery of Global Warming Content: The Discovery of Global Warming is a book by the physicist and historian Spencer R. Weart published in 2003 ; revised and updated edition , 2008 . It traces the history of scientific discoveries that led to the current scientific opinion on climate change . It has been translated into Spanish , Japanese , Italian , Arabic , Chinese and Korean .","qid":"2784","docid":"The_Discovery_of_Global_Warming","rank":5,"score":127577},{"content":"Title: Simon Tett Content: Simon Tett is a climatologist working at the University of Edinburgh . He used to work at the Hadley Centre . His most-cited paper , is , and of it he says : All attempts at detecting and attributing climate change signals need a reliable observed data set and simulations with mechanisms that drive climate change included . In a nutshell , this paper is important because it was the first study to investigate the effect of sulphate aerosols in a general circulation model of the climate system . The experiments simulate the climate back to 1860 ( which is when the global records of surface temperature became reliable ) ... After 1970 our model with greenhouse gases alone begins to depart significantly from the observations . However , when we included sulphate aerosols , which have a cooling effect , the model agreed with the data from the 1930s and onwards . The rapid warming that has taken place since 1970 is , according to the model , attributable to a heating effect from greenhouse gases and a cooling effect from sulphate aerosols .","qid":"2784","docid":"Simon_Tett","rank":6,"score":125673},{"content":"Title: Climate change feedback Content: Climate change feedback is important in the understanding of global warming because feedback processes may amplify or diminish the effect of each climate forcing , and so play an important part in determining the climate sensitivity and future climate state . Feedback in general is the process in which changing one quantity changes a second quantity , and the change in the second quantity in turn changes the first . Positive feedback amplifies the change in the first quantity while negative feedback reduces it . The term `` forcing '' means a change which may `` push '' the climate system in the direction of warming or cooling . An example of a climate forcing is increased atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases . By definition , forcings are external to the climate system while feedbacks are internal ; in essence , feedbacks represent the internal processes of the system . Some feedbacks may act in relative isolation to the rest of the climate system ; others may be tightly coupled ; hence it may be difficult to tell just how much a particular process contributes . Forcings , feedbacks and the dynamics of the climate system determine how much and how fast the climate changes . The main positive feedback in global warming is the tendency of warming to increase the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere , which in turn leads to further warming . The main negative feedback comes from the Stefan -- Boltzmann law , the amount of heat radiated from the Earth into space changes with the fourth power of the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere . Some observed and potential effects of global warming are positive feedbacks , which contribute directly to further global warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that `` Anthropogenic warming could lead to some effects that are abrupt or irreversible , depending upon the rate and magnitude of the climate change . ''","qid":"2784","docid":"Climate_change_feedback","rank":7,"score":123723},{"content":"Title: Robert D. Cess Content: Robert D. Cess is professor emeritus of atmospheric sciences at Stony Brook University . He earned his bachelor of science degree in mechanical engineering from Oregon State University and his master 's degree from Purdue University in Indiana in 1956 . Cess received a Ph.D. from the University of Pittsburgh in 1959 . He is a recognized leader in the fields of climate change and atmospheric radiation transfer . His research interest involve modeling of climate feedbacks that can either amplify or diminish global climate change , and interpreting surface and satellite remote sensing data . He has been a part of studies which have found problems with the ability of model the transmission of shortwave radiation through a cloud-free atmosphere , and designed an experiment to test the accuracy of the models . They reported that they found agreement between the models and the observations of clear-sky shortwave radiation at the surface for the period studied , 1985 to 1988 . Cess was a lead author of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and worked with the National Science Foundation on understanding greenhouse warming and its associated policy implications .","qid":"2784","docid":"Robert_D._Cess","rank":8,"score":123675},{"content":"Title: Bronwyn Gillanders Content: Bronwyn May Gillanders ( born 1963 ) is a marine scientist whose research spans freshwater , estuarine and marine waters while focusing on fish and fisheries ecology . Her studies of the Giant Australian cuttlefish of Northern Spencer Gulf in South Australia revealed the species ' sensitivity to increases in salinity ; a controversial aspect of the Environmental Impact Study ( EIS ) for the expansion of BHP Billiton 's Olympic Dam mine . Gillanders ' discovery was published in the scientific journal Marine Environmental Research and prompted environmental activists to call for the relocation of the project 's proposed seawater desalination plant at Point Lowly , due to its proximity to the only mass breeding area for the animals ' genetically distinct population . Gillanders commenced work at the University of Adelaide in 2001 , received a tenurable position in 2007 and was appointed professor in 2010 . She is the Director of the Marine Biology program at the university 's Environment Institute .","qid":"2784","docid":"Bronwyn_Gillanders","rank":9,"score":122596},{"content":"Title: Cloud feedback Content: Cloud feedback is the coupling between cloudiness and surface air temperature where a surface air temperature change leads to a change in clouds , which could then amplify or diminish the initial temperature perturbation . Cloud feedbacks can affect the magnitude of internally generated climate variability or they can affect the magnitude of climate change resulting from external radiative forcings . Global warming is expected to change the distribution and type of clouds . Seen from below , clouds emit infrared radiation back to the surface , and so exert a warming effect ; seen from above , clouds reflect sunlight and emit infrared radiation to space , and so exert a cooling effect . Cloud representations vary among global climate models , and small changes in cloud cover have a large impact on the climate . Differences in planetary boundary layer cloud modeling schemes can lead to large differences in derived values of climate sensitivity . A model that decreases boundary layer clouds in response to global warming has a climate sensitivity twice that of a model that does not include this feedback . However , satellite data show that cloud optical thickness actually increases with increasing temperature . Whether the net effect is warming or cooling depends on details such as the type and altitude of the cloud ; details that are difficult to represent in climate models .","qid":"2784","docid":"Cloud_feedback","rank":10,"score":117262},{"content":"Title: Daniel Spencer (environmentalist) Content: Daniel Spencer is a young South Australian climate activist , originally from Renmark in the state 's Riverland region . He has held prominent leadership roles in the Australian Youth Climate Coalition , the Repower Port Augusta campaign and the Walk for Solar . His work has focused on promoting a vision and building community support for the replacement of the coal-fired power stations at Port Augusta with a concentrated solar-thermal power generation alternative . Dan 's contributions to climate activism have been widely acknowledged and awarded . In 2012 , Dan received the Bob Brown Foundation 's inaugural Young Environmentalist of the Year award and was recognized by the Conservation Council of South Australia with the Jill Hudson Award for Environmental Protection . In 2013 , he received the Flinders Ports Environment Award at the Channel 9 Young Achievers Awards in South Australia . Dan has appeared in documentary films focusing on climate change and activism , including Revolution and 2 Degrees and is also a musician , songwriter and lead singer for the roots reggae band Babylon Burning .","qid":"2784","docid":"Daniel_Spencer_(environmentalist)","rank":11,"score":114885},{"content":"Title: Michael Schlesinger Content: Dr. Michael Earl Schlesinger ( born February 23 , 1943 ) is a Professor of Atmospheric Sciences and director of the Climate Research Group at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign . He received his Ph.D. ( meteorology ) in 1976 from the University of California , Los Angeles . Michael Schlesinger is an expert in the modeling , simulation and analysis of climate and climate change , with interests in simulating and understanding the climates of the geologic past and possible future climates resulting from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases and human-made aerosols . He has been instrumental in developing a range of simple and complex climate models , which have been used by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and the Energy Modeling Forum . His research currently focuses on : ( 1 ) simulating and understanding the effects on climate of a human-induced melting of the Greenland ice sheet ; ( 2 ) simulating and understanding the coupled climate-chemistry system , including the influences of the Sun - both irradiance and energetic electron precipitation - and volcanoes ; ( 3 ) understanding and reducing the uncertainty in the estimation of climate sensitivity and climate feedbacks ; and ( 4 ) performing integrative assessment of climate change , including further development of the robust adaptive decision strategy for mitigating and adapting to human-induced climate change . He is known for his work on oscillations in the global climate system , on estimating the climate sensitivity , and on seasonal climate change . He has edited four books , most recently Human-induced climate change : An interdisciplinary assessment . He regularly appears in the media .","qid":"2784","docid":"Michael_Schlesinger","rank":12,"score":112913},{"content":"Title: James Hays Content: James D. Hays is a professor of Earth and environmental sciences at Columbia University 's Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory . Hays founded and led the CLIMAP project , which collected sea floor sediment data to study surface sea temperatures and paleoclimatological conditions 18,000 years ago . Hays is probably best known as a co-author of the 1976 paper in Science , `` Variations in the Earth 's orbit : Pacemaker of the ice ages . '' Using ocean sediment cores , the Science paper verified the theories of Milutin Milanković that oscillations in climate can be correlated with Earth 's orbital variations of eccentricity , axial tilt , and precession around the Sun ( see Milankovitch cycles ) .","qid":"2784","docid":"James_Hays","rank":13,"score":111659},{"content":"Title: Jean Bosler Content: Jean Bosler ( 24 March 1878 , Angers -- 25 September 1973 , Marseille ) was a French astronomer and author of several books . Recruited by Deslandres as an astronomer at l'observatoire de Paris , Bosler discovered in 1908 in the spectrum of Comet Morehouse the spectral lines of ionized nitrogen , which was the first evidence of that element in comets . Much of his research was on the physical properties and orbits of comets . He made a report on progress in astrophysics in the United States for the 1910 annual report of the Smithsonian Institution . In 1912 , he showed in his doctoral dissertation ( supervised by Henri Poincaré ) that the Sun 's magnetic field , by means of the intermediary of the solar wind , explains many aspects of cometary tails , the aurora borealis and aurora australis , solar storms and telluric currents . During a solar eciipse in 1914 , Bosler observed in the corona a spectral band `` nouvelle , intense et unique '' which he suggested was spectral evidence for coronium ; however , in the 1930s subsequent research showed that the cause was a highly ionized form of iron . In 1916 , he published an analysis of the circular form of lunar craters as caused by the impact of meteors . In 1923 Bosler was named director of Marseille Observatory , a post he occupied until his retirement in 1948 . Simultaneously with his directorship , he taught at the University of Marseille from 1923 to 1948 . Bosler made important contributions to the theory of the evolution of stars and published the first textbook in French that dealt with the then recent discoveries of Hubble and the work on optical phenomena of such physicists as Michelson , Fabry and Perot . Bosler won the Prix Jules Janssen in 1911 from the Société astronomique de France , the French astronomical society , and the Prix Lalande from l'Académie des sciences in 1913 .","qid":"2784","docid":"Jean_Bosler","rank":14,"score":111604},{"content":"Title: Herbert Spencer Content: Herbert Spencer ( 27 April 1820 -- 8 December 1903 ) was an English philosopher , biologist , anthropologist , sociologist , and prominent classical liberal political theorist of the Victorian era . Spencer developed an all-embracing conception of evolution as the progressive development of the physical world , biological organisms , the human mind , and human culture and societies . As a polymath , he contributed to a wide range of subjects , including ethics , religion , anthropology , economics , political theory , philosophy , literature , astronomy , biology , sociology , and psychology . During his lifetime he achieved tremendous authority , mainly in English-speaking academia . `` The only other English philosopher to have achieved anything like such widespread popularity was Bertrand Russell , and that was in the 20th century . '' Spencer was `` the single most famous European intellectual in the closing decades of the nineteenth century '' but his influence declined sharply after 1900 : `` Who now reads Spencer ? '' asked Talcott Parsons in 1937 . Spencer is best known for the expression `` survival of the fittest '' , which he coined in Principles of Biology ( 1864 ) , after reading Charles Darwin 's On the Origin of Species . This term strongly suggests natural selection , yet as Spencer extended evolution into realms of sociology and ethics , he also made use of Lamarckism .","qid":"2784","docid":"Herbert_Spencer","rank":15,"score":110154},{"content":"Title: John Christy Content: John Raymond Christy is a climate scientist at the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) whose chief interests are satellite remote sensing of global climate and global climate change . He is best known , jointly with Roy Spencer , for the first successful development of a satellite temperature record .","qid":"2784","docid":"John_Christy","rank":16,"score":109871},{"content":"Title: David E. Spencer Content: David E. Spencer is a retired professor of economics at Brigham Young University . He taught and did research in macroeconomics , econometrics , and montetary theory . He is the author of eighteen peer-reviewed publications including Econometrica , the American Economic Review , the Review of Economics and Statistics and the Journal of Money , Credit and Banking . Spencer is a founding member of the BYU Macroeconomics and Computational Lab . In addition to teaching various economics classes , Spencer also taught American Heritage at BYU for several years . Spencer 's academic work has focused on econometric testing of macroeconomic theory . In particular , he has made important contributions to the understanding of the behavior of nominal and real wages over the course of the business cycle . He has made contributions to the literature on structural VAR estimation in this context . David Spencer has taught at BYU since 1986 . He received his Ph.D. in economics from Texas A & M University in 1974 . He was a visiting professor at Michigan State University during the 1974-75 academic year . From 1975 through 1979 he taught at Illinois State University . He was at Washington State University from 1979 to 1986 . He was tenured there in 1981 . In 1986 he moved to BYU and became a full professor in 1991 . He has held visiting positions at M.I.T. ( 1988 -- 89 ) and the University of Michigan ( 2007 -- 08 ) . He was also a Fulbright Scholar in Vietnam in 1997 . Spencer and coauthor Jo Anna Gray received the Best Article Award at Economic Inquiry in 1990 for their paper , `` Price Prediction Errors and Real Activity : A Reassessment . '' David Spencer has served as a committee member overseeing the Graduate Record Examination ( GRE ) Economics Exam from 1994 to 2001 and was chair of the committee from 1998 to 2001 , when the exam was discontinued . He received a major award at BYU in 2005 , the Alcuin Fellowship , and was an Alcuin fellow 2005-2008 . Spencer is one of the founders ( along with Richard W. Evans and Kerk L. Phillips ) of the BYU Macroeconomics and Computational Lab .","qid":"2784","docid":"David_E._Spencer","rank":17,"score":104918},{"content":"Title: Richard Lindzen Content: Richard Siegmund Lindzen ( born February 8 , 1940 ) is an American atmospheric physicist known for his work in the dynamics of the middle atmosphere , atmospheric tides , and ozone photochemistry . He has published more than 200 scientific papers and books . From 1983 until his retirement in 2013 , he was Alfred P. Sloan Professor of Meteorology at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology . He was a lead author of Chapter 7 , `` Physical Climate Processes and Feedbacks , '' of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Third Assessment Report on climate change . He has criticized the scientific consensus about climate change and what he has called `` climate alarmism . ''","qid":"2784","docid":"Richard_Lindzen","rank":18,"score":104792},{"content":"Title: Scott Spencer (writer) Content: Scott Spencer ( born September 1 , 1945 in Washington , D.C. ) is an American author who has written eleven novels . He also wrote the screenplay for the 1993 movie Father Hood . Two of Spencer 's novels , Endless Love and Waking the Dead , have been adapted into films . Endless Love was first adapted into a motion picture by Franco Zeffirelli in 1981 , and a second adaptation by Shana Feste was released in 2014 . Waking the Dead was produced by Jodie Foster and directed by Keith Gordon in 2000 . The novels Endless Love and A Ship Made of Paper have both been nominated for the National Book Award , with Endless Love selling over 2 million copies . Spencer has heavily panned both film adaptations of Endless Love . Interviewed in The New York Times , Spencer once said : `` It may be time for serious , literary novelists to take back some of the subject matter we abandoned to hack novelists and the movies . '' Joyce Carol Oates , writing about A Ship Made of Paper in The New Yorker , said : `` Like Cheever , Spencer has imagined for his ... infatuated lover melodramatic crises that verge on the surreal ; like John Updike , Spencer is a poet-celebrant of Eros , lyrically precise in his descriptions of lovers ' fantasies , lovers ' lovemaking , lovers ' bodies ... '' The Wall Street Journal has said : `` There are few novelists alive who use the English language as Scott Spencer does ... Every ache of feeling , every failed effort at restraint , every attempt at self-deception is captured in precise , beautifully cadenced prose . '' Spencer has also worked as a journalist . He has published in The New York Times , The New Yorker , Harpers Magazine , GQ , O , The Oprah Magazine , and he is a regular contributor to Rolling Stone . He has taught at Columbia University , the University of Iowa , Williams College , Bard College 's Bard Prison Initiative , and the University of Virginia . Spencer attended the University of Illinois , Roosevelt University , and graduated from the University of Wisconsin . In 2004 , he was the recipient of a Guggenheim Fellowship . For the past twenty years , he has lived in a small town in upstate New York . The Men in Black movies are not based upon Spencer 's novel Men in Black . For some of his latest works , two sequenced horror novels , Spencer has chosen the pseudonym ″ Chase Novak ″ .","qid":"2784","docid":"Scott_Spencer_(writer)","rank":19,"score":104209},{"content":"Title: Peter Doran Content: Peter Doran , Ph.D. is Professor of Geology and Geophysics at Louisiana State University . Doran specializes in polar regions , especially Antarctic climate and ecosystems . Doran was the lead author of a research paper about Antarctic temperatures that was published in the journal Nature in January 2002 . Because he and his colleagues found that some parts of Antarctica had cooled between 1964 and 2000 , his paper has been frequently cited by opponents of the global warming theory , such as Ann Coulter and Michael Crichton . In an opinion piece in the July 27 , 2006 New York Times , Doran characterized this as a `` misinterpretation '' and stated , `` I have never thought such a thing ... I would like to remove my name from the list of scientists who dispute global warming . '' ( The temporary phenomenon is related to the `` hole '' in the ozone . As the `` hole heals '' the Antarctic will dramatically warm quickly . ) Doran and his grad student Maggie Kendall Zimmerman also published a paper in the Jan 27 , 2009 issue of EOS showing that active climate researchers almost unanimously agree that humans have had a significant impact on the Earth 's climate . Both an Antarctic stream and glacier were named for Doran by the U.S. Geological Survey to commemorate his many significant research contributions conducted on the continent .","qid":"2784","docid":"Peter_Doran","rank":20,"score":104156},{"content":"Title: Soon and Baliunas controversy Content: The Soon and Baliunas controversy involved the publication in 2003 of a review study written by aerospace engineer Willie Soon and astronomer Sallie Baliunas in the journal Climate Research , which was quickly taken up by the G.W. Bush administration as a basis for amending the first Environmental Protection Agency Report on the Environment . The paper was strongly criticized by numerous scientists for its methodology and for its misuse of data from previously published studies , prompting concerns about the peer review process of the paper . The controversy resulted in the resignation of half of the editors of the journal and in the admission by its publisher Otto Kinne that the paper should not have been published as it was .","qid":"2784","docid":"Soon_and_Baliunas_controversy","rank":21,"score":104111},{"content":"Title: Surveys of scientists' views on climate change Content: Surveys of scientists ' views on climate change - with a focus on human-caused or anthropogenic global warming ( AGW ) - have been undertaken since the 1990s . A 2016 paper ( which was co-authored by Naomi Oreskes , Peter Doran , William Anderegg , Bart Verheggen , Ed Maibach , J. Stuart Carlton and John Cook , and which was based on a half a dozen independent studies by the authors ) concluded that `` the finding of 97 % consensus -LSB- that humans are causing recent global warming -RSB- in published climate research is robust and consistent with other surveys of climate scientists and peer-reviewed studies . ''","qid":"2784","docid":"Surveys_of_scientists'_views_on_climate_change","rank":22,"score":103301},{"content":"Title: CLAW hypothesis Content: The CLAW hypothesis proposes a negative feedback loop that operates between ocean ecosystems and the Earth 's climate . The hypothesis specifically proposes that particular phytoplankton that produce dimethyl sulfide are responsive to variations in climate forcing , and that these responses act to stabilise the temperature of the Earth 's atmosphere . The CLAW hypothesis was originally proposed by Robert Jay Charlson , James Lovelock , Meinrat Andreae and Stephen G. Warren , and takes its acronym from the first letter of their surnames .","qid":"2784","docid":"CLAW_hypothesis","rank":23,"score":101667},{"content":"Title: Daniel Spencer Content: Daniel Spencer may refer to : Daniel Spencer ( Mormon ) ( 1794 -- 1868 ) , mayor of Nauvoo , Illinois and Mormon pioneer Daniel Spencer ( environmentalist ) , South Australian climate activist Danny Spencer , guitarist with Rogue Traders Dan Spencer ( born 1965 ) , American baseball coach","qid":"2784","docid":"Daniel_Spencer","rank":24,"score":101248},{"content":"Title: Piers Forster Content: Piers Forster is Professor of Physical Climate Change and Director of the Priestley International Centre for Climate at the University of Leeds . A physicist by training , his research focuses on quantifying the different human causes of climate change and the way the Earth responds . He is best known for his work on radiative forcing , climate sensitivity , contrails and geoengineering . He has contributed heavily to the writing of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change reports , including acting as a Lead Author for both the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and IPCC Fifth Assessment Report .","qid":"2784","docid":"Piers_Forster","rank":25,"score":101246},{"content":"Title: Mount Spencer (California) Content: Mount Spencer is a 12431 ft peak in the Sierra Nevada , in Kings Canyon National Park and Fresno County , California . It is named for Herbert Spencer , an English philosopher and prominent scientist in the field of evolution who coined the term `` survival of the fittest . '' Other nearby mountains in the Evolution Group include Mount Darwin , Mount Mendel , Mount Fiske , Mount Haeckel , Mount Huxley , Mount Wallace , and Mount Lamarck . The area around the peaks , known as the Evolution Region , includes Evolution Basin and Evolution Valley . Although it is not a very well known peak , it offers a picturesque view from Evolution Lake and the John Muir Trail .","qid":"2784","docid":"Mount_Spencer_(California)","rank":26,"score":101139},{"content":"Title: William D. Sellers Content: William D. Sellers ( 18 August 1928 -- 27 August 2014 ) was an American meteorologist , climate scientist , and pioneer of climate modelling . He created one the earliest climate models and was one of the first scientists to recognize the effects of CO2 in the atmosphere on the earth 's climate . He published the textbook `` Physical Climatology '' .","qid":"2784","docid":"William_D._Sellers","rank":27,"score":101122},{"content":"Title: Peter Thejll Content: Peter Andreas Thejll ( born 1956 ) is a Danish astrophysicist and climate researcher . His research in solar variation helped provide evidence of the greenhouse effect on the Earth 's climate in the late 20th century . In particular , his study with Knud Lassen on Northern Hemisphere land air temperature showed that the rise of 0.4 degrees Celsius since 1980 could not be accounted for by the solar cycle . Climatologists have pointed to this finding as an `` actual piece of evidence for greenhouse warming '' . Thejll received his undergraduate education at the University of Copenhagen . He received an M.S. in physics and a Ph.D. in astrophysics from the University of Delaware . Thejll was a Carlsberg Fellow at the Niels Bohr Institute and worked at the Nordic Institute for Theoretical Physics . Thejll currently is a senior scientist at the Danish Meteorological Institute in Copenhagen . He is currently involved in the creation of a global automatic system to observe the Earth 's reflectivity - albedo - using observations of the earthshine on the Moon . Such data can be used for climate change studies and calibration of satellite data as the measurements deliver independent data on the albedo . A telescope is now installed on Hawaii at the Mauna Loa Observatory . The Swedish research agency VINNOVA is funding this project .","qid":"2784","docid":"Peter_Thejll","rank":28,"score":100993},{"content":"Title: Bode's sensitivity integral Content: Bode 's sensitivity integral , discovered by Hendrik Wade Bode , is a formula that quantifies some of the limitations in feedback control of linear parameter invariant systems . Let L be the loop transfer function and S be the sensitivity function . Then the following holds : where are the poles of L in the right half plane ( unstable poles ) . If L has at least two more poles than zeros , and has no poles in the right half plane ( is stable ) , the equation simplifies to : This equality shows that if sensitivity to disturbance is suppressed at some frequency range , it is necessarily increased at some other range . This has been called the `` waterbed effect . ''","qid":"2784","docid":"Bode's_sensitivity_integral","rank":29,"score":100853},{"content":"Title: Thomas Spencer (mathematical physicist) Content: Thomas C. Spencer ( born December 24 , 1946 ) is an American mathematical physicist , known in particular for important contributions to constructive quantum field theory , statistical mechanics , and spectral theory of random operators . He earned his doctorate in 1972 from New York University with a dissertation entitled Perturbation of the Po2 Quantum Field Hamiltonian written under the direction of James Glimm . Since 1986 , he has been professor of mathematics at the Institute for Advanced Study . He is a member of the United States National Academy of Sciences , and the recipient of the Dannie Heineman Prize for Mathematical Physics ( joint with Jürg Fröhlich , `` For their joint work in providing rigorous mathematical solutions to some outstanding problems in statistical mechanics and field theory . '' ) .","qid":"2784","docid":"Thomas_Spencer_(mathematical_physicist)","rank":30,"score":100164},{"content":"Title: Antarctica cooling controversy Content: An apparent contradiction in the observed cooling behavior of Antarctica between 1966 and 2000 became part of the public debate in the global warming controversy , particularly between advocacy groups of both sides in the public arena including politicians , as well as the popular media . In his novel State of Fear , Michael Crichton asserted that the Antarctic data contradict global warming . The few scientists who have commented on the supposed controversy state that there is no contradiction , while the author of the paper whose work inspired Crichton 's remarks has said that Crichton `` misused '' his results . There is no similar controversy within the scientific community , as the small observed changes in Antarctica are consistent with the small changes predicted by climate models , and because the overall trend since comprehensive observations began is now known to be one of warming . At the South Pole , where some of the strongest cooling trends were observed between the 1950s and 1990s , the mean trend is flat from 1957 through 2013 .","qid":"2784","docid":"Antarctica_cooling_controversy","rank":31,"score":100091},{"content":"Title: Metta Spencer Content: Metta Spencer ( born 29 August 1931 ) is a Canadian sociologist , writer , peace researcher , and activist . She is president of Science for Peace , a Canadian organization of natural and social scientists based in Toronto . After completing a Ph.D. in Sociology in 1969 at the University of California , Berkeley , Spencer joined the Department of Sociology at the University of Toronto 's Erindale College in 1971 . She taught regularly in the university 's Peace and Conflict Studies Program , which she founded in 1989 and coordinated until her retirement in 1997 . In 1976 Spencer authored the Foundations of Modern Sociology textbook , which was subsequently published in four American and seven Canadian editions . Spencer has specialized in peace and war studies , and has been active in the Canadian peace movement . As the founding president and director of the Canadian Disarmament Information Service ( CANDIS ) , she published the monthly Peace Calendar from 1983 to 1985 , when the publication changed to magazine format and took the name Peace Magazine . In 2009 , Spencer organized the Zero Nuclear Weapons public forum in Toronto , jointly sponsored by four major Canadian peace organizations with which she has been involved since the mid-80s : Physicians for Global Survival , Canadian Voice of Women for Peace , the Nobel Peace Prize laureate organization Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs , and Science for Peace . She has also extensively researched peace and conflict in the former Soviet Union and Eastern Europe . In 1997 , she organized `` The Lessons of Yugoslavia , '' a three-day Science for Peace conference at the University of Toronto . In 2011 , she published The Russian Quest for Peace and Democracy , the culmination of 28 years of research and hundreds of interviews with Russian politicians and activists . She argues that Western peace activists ' influence on Russians including Gorbachev helped end the Cold War more so than pressure from the US or NATO . More recently , Spencer has become involved in climate change activism ( by chairing since 2007 a Science for Peace committee to study and campaign for carbon taxation policy ) and has researched edutainment , or social change through storytelling . In her book Two Aspirins and a Comedy : How Television Can Enhance Health and Society ( 2006 ) , she argues that television could be a force for health and social change .","qid":"2784","docid":"Metta_Spencer","rank":32,"score":99875},{"content":"Title: Seita Emori Content: Seita Emori ( born 1970 in Kanagawa , Japan ) is a Japanese environmental scientist whose most noted work focuses upon the worldwide effects of Global Warming . He completed his Doctorate at the University of Tokyo in 1997 and thereafter joined the National Institute of Environmental Studies , Japan where he is currently the Chief of the Climate Risk Assessment Research Section at the Center for Global Environmental Research . Emori is a contributing author to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and a member of the IPCC Steering Committee for the `` Expert Meeting on New Scenarios '' , for which the IPCC received a Noble Prize in 2007 . Among Emori 's publications are the academic paper `` Sensitivity Map of LAI to Precipitation and Surface Air Temperature Variations in a Global Scale '' ( co-authored with his Japans colleague Hiroshi Kanzawa and Jiahua Zhang and Congbin Fu of the START , Institute of Atmospheric Physics in Beijing , China ) .","qid":"2784","docid":"Seita_Emori","rank":33,"score":99653},{"content":"Title: Sensitivity analysis Content: Sensitivity analysis is the study of how the uncertainty in the output of a mathematical model or system ( numerical or otherwise ) can be apportioned to different sources of uncertainty in its inputs . A related practice is uncertainty analysis , which has a greater focus on uncertainty quantification and propagation of uncertainty ; ideally , uncertainty and sensitivity analysis should be run in tandem . The process of recalculating outcomes under alternative assumptions to determine the impact of a variable under sensitivity analysis can be useful for a range of purposes , including : Testing the robustness of the results of a model or system in the presence of uncertainty . Increased understanding of the relationships between input and output variables in a system or model . Uncertainty reduction , through the identification of model inputs that cause significant uncertainty in the output and should therefore be the focus of attention in order to increase robustness ( perhaps by further research ) . Searching for errors in the model ( by encountering unexpected relationships between inputs and outputs ) . Model simplification -- fixing model inputs that have no effect on the output , or identifying and removing redundant parts of the model structure . Enhancing communication from modelers to decision makers ( e.g. by making recommendations more credible , understandable , compelling or persuasive ) . Finding regions in the space of input factors for which the model output is either maximum or minimum or meets some optimum criterion ( see optimization and Monte Carlo filtering ) . In case of calibrating models with large number of parameters , a primary sensitivity test can ease the calibration stage by focusing on the sensitive parameters . Not knowing the sensitivity of parameters can result in time being uselessly spent on non-sensitive ones . To seek to identify important connections between observations , model inputs , and predictions or forecasts , leading to the development of better models .","qid":"2784","docid":"Sensitivity_analysis","rank":34,"score":99169},{"content":"Title: Petar Gburčik Content: Prof. Petar Gburčik ( Cyrillic : Петар Гбурчик ) ( 30 October 1931 - 29 October 2006 ) was a Serbian scientist and a Professor of Meteorology at the University of Belgrade . He was the author of first mathematical models of the numerical weather prediction , which were used operationally in the Weather Service of Yugoslavia from 1970 to 1977 . In the same period he began modeling of the atmospheric diffusion of air-pollution and created the first model of the spatial distribution of air-pollution . The output of this model was used for the elaboration of the urban plan of Pančevo . For the actual research of the three-dimensional distribution of wind energy ( on the territories of Belgrade and Serbia ) he applied the integration of classic models with GIS technology . Special area of his engagements were the intentionally and inadvertently modified climates , as well as their impact on the sustainable development . These modifications destabilize the climate system and lead to big material and social damage , due to the lack of possibility of weather control . Petar Gburčik proved this with his scientific papers on weather modifications and climate change .","qid":"2784","docid":"Petar_Gburčik","rank":35,"score":98876},{"content":"Title: Friderich Martens Content: Friderich Martens , ( 1635 - 1699 ) was a German physician and naturalist who conducted the first scientific observations of the nature , animal life and climate of Svalbard . He published his notes in the book `` Spitzbergische oder Groenlandische Reise-Beschreibung , gethan im Jahre 1671 '' and this book became a reference work for many decades .","qid":"2784","docid":"Friderich_Martens","rank":36,"score":98679},{"content":"Title: G. Spencer-Brown Content: George Spencer-Brown ( 2 April 1923 -- 25 August 2016 ) was an English polymath best known as the author of Laws of Form . He described himself as a `` mathematician , consulting engineer , psychologist , educational consultant and practitioner , consulting psychotherapist , author , and poet '' .","qid":"2784","docid":"G._Spencer-Brown","rank":37,"score":98310},{"content":"Title: Harold Locke Hazen Content: Harold Locke Hazen ( August 1 , 1901 -- February 21 , 1980 ) was an American electrical engineer . He contributed to the theory of servomechanisms and feedback control systems . In 1924 under the lead of Vannevar Bush , Hazen and his fellow undergraduate Hugh H. Spencer built a prototype AC network analyzer , a special-purpose analog computer for solving problems in interconnected AC power systems . Hazen also worked with Bush over twenty years on such projects as the mechanical differential analyzer .","qid":"2784","docid":"Harold_Locke_Hazen","rank":38,"score":98165},{"content":"Title: Donald C. Spencer Content: Donald Clayton Spencer ( April 25 , 1912 -- December 23 , 2001 ) was an American mathematician , known for work on deformation theory of structures arising in differential geometry , and on several complex variables from the point of view of partial differential equations . He was born in Boulder , Colorado , and educated at the University of Colorado and MIT . He wrote a Ph.D. in diophantine approximation under J. E. Littlewood and G.H. Hardy at the University of Cambridge , completed in 1939 . He had positions at MIT and Stanford before his appointment in 1950 at Princeton University . There he was involved in a series of collaborative works with Kunihiko Kodaira on the deformation of complex structures , which had some influence on the theory of complex manifolds and algebraic geometry , and the conception of moduli spaces . He also was led to formulate the d-bar Neumann problem , for the operator ( see complex differential form ) in PDE theory , to extend Hodge theory and the n-dimensional Cauchy -- Riemann equations to the non-compact case . This is used to show existence theorems for holomorphic functions . He later worked on pseudogroups and their deformation theory , based on a fresh approach to overdetermined systems of PDEs ( bypassing the Cartan -- Kähler ideas based on differential forms by making an intensive use of jets ) . Formulated at the level of various chain complexes , this gives rise to what is now called Spencer cohomology , a subtle and difficult theory both of formal and of analytical structure . This is a kind of Koszul complex theory , taken up by numerous mathematicians during the 1960s . In particular a theory for Lie equations formulated by Malgrange emerged , giving a very broad formulation of the notion of integrability . After his death , a mountain peak outside of Silverton , Colorado was named in his honor .","qid":"2784","docid":"Donald_C._Spencer","rank":39,"score":98038},{"content":"Title: Percival H. Spencer Content: Percival Hopkins Spencer ( April 30 , 1897 -- January 16 , 1995 ) was an American inventor , aviation pioneer , test pilot and businessman .","qid":"2784","docid":"Percival_H._Spencer","rank":40,"score":98037},{"content":"Title: Spencer R. Weart Content: Spencer R. Weart ( born 1942 ) was the director of the Center for History of Physics of the American Institute of Physics ( AIP ) from 1971 until his retirement in 2009 . Originally trained as a physicist , he is now a historian of science . He earned his B.A. in Physics at Cornell University in 1963 and a Ph.D. in Physics and Astrophysics at the University of Colorado , Boulder , in 1968 . He has produced numerous historical articles , two children 's science books , and written or co-edited eleven other books , including : Scientists in Power ( 1979 ) . A history of the rise of nuclear science , weapons , and reactors in France . ISBN 0-674-79515-6 Leo Szilard : His Version of the Facts ( 1978 ) . Edited correspondence . ISBN 0-262-69070-5 Nuclear Fear : A History of Images ( 1989 ) ISBN 0-674-62836-5 Out of the Crystal Maze : Chapters from the History of Solid State Physics ( 1991 ) . ISBN 0-19-505329-X Never at War : Why Democracies Will Not Fight One Another ( 1998 ) . ISBN 0-300-08298-3 The Discovery of Global Warming ( 2003 , 2008 ) . Online extended version . ISBN 0-674-03189-X The Rise of Nuclear Fear ( 2012 ) . ISBN 978-0-674-05233-8 While at AIP he also produced and edited an award-winning website with historical exhibits .","qid":"2784","docid":"Spencer_R._Weart","rank":41,"score":97843},{"content":"Title: Spencer G. Lucas Content: Spencer George Lucas is an American paleontologist and stratigrapher , and curator of paleontology at the New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science . His main areas of study are late Paleozoic , Mesozoic and early Cenozoic vertebrate fossils , stratigraphy , and continental deposits , particularly in the American Southwest . His research has taken him on field trips to northern Mexico , Costa Rica , Nicaragua , Jamaica , Kazakhstan , and Georgia , and he conducted extensive field and museum research in China in the 1980s and 1990s . He has written more than 500 scientific contributions ( about 25-percent are articles in peer-reviewed journals ) , three books , and has co-edited 14 books . In 2007 , some publications by Lucas and associates at the New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science came under scrutiny after allegations that information was improperly taken from the unpublished and in-press work of graduate students not on his team . Formal complaints were made to the New Mexico Department of Cultural Affairs regarding publications on a new genus of aetosaur ( a type of armored prehistoric reptile from the Triassic ) , and a reinterpretation of another aetosaur 's armor . In July 2008 , the Ethics Committee of the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology concluded that the matter could not be resolved in favor of either side . In 2012 , he co-authored a paper describing the world 's smallest tetrapod footprints , found at Joggins , Nova Scotia . Lucas was a master-level chess player ( New Mexico state champion in 1973 and 1974 ) . He gave up chess , for the most part , in the mid-1970s to focus on his academic career .","qid":"2784","docid":"Spencer_G._Lucas","rank":42,"score":97635},{"content":"Title: Charles A. Spencer Content: Charles A. Spencer was an American scientific pioneer and inventor , who is widely believed to have developed the first American-made achromatic objective microscope . He was born in 1813 in Madison County , NY and died in 1881 .","qid":"2784","docid":"Charles_A._Spencer","rank":43,"score":97546},{"content":"Title: Minocher K. Spencer Content: Yogi Minocher K. Spencer was a Parsi author and spiritual healer who lived in Karachi , Pakistan where he also worked as a metal merchant . Spencer was born in Pune , Maharashtra , India on October 4 , 1888 and died August 30 , 1958 . He claimed that he was guided by the spirit of a deceased guru , Rishi Ram Ram , and later by Sai Baba of Shirdi ( also deceased ) . He claimed to have attained ` Jeevan Mukti ' during his life . He wrote a number of books that were published posthumously , including : How I found God The other world Joyous mysticism great mystics saints of the world Understanding the divine mysteries Romance of the soul ( 1954 ) The most important of his books is How I found God . In this book , Spencer wrote all his experiences first hand . His cousin H. Spencer also helped him in his journey to God . His life can be divided in different phases according to spiritual development . His life changed in 1930 when he met a mystic in Lahore . That mysterious person with occult powers told him that he had hidden spiritual powers of becoming a medium . He started writing articles in local newspaper on weekly basis where he was criticised by few persons of theosophical society for his view for spirituality . Later he met a lady in London which catalysed his spiritual growth . In his second phase of intensification of love for God , he came in contact with `` spiritual healing center , Coimbatore ( South India ) '' . Rishi Ram Ram was the spiritual guide of the center at that time . Rishi Ram Ram was born 2500 years ago in Orissa , India . He was living in spiritual plane at that time and helping souls eager to know God 's love . Rishi Ram Ram promised him to help . Later , in 1960 Rishi Ram Ram left spiritual plane and merged in God . M.K. Spencer was told to read holy scriptures and write spiritual stuff . He followed the same . During that time he wrote Oneness with God . Slowly and steadily his desire of meeting God intensified . He spent more and more time in his altar room . His meditation sessions started at 2 am and lasted late into the night . He forgot his daily mundane work and worries . Later Rish Ram Ram handed him over to Shirdi Sai Baba , saint of the saints . Sai baba helped him in achieving the perfection and purity required to meet God .","qid":"2784","docid":"Minocher_K._Spencer","rank":44,"score":97539},{"content":"Title: Spencer Heath Content: Spencer Heath ( born 1876 , Vienna , Virginia -- died 1963 , Leesburg , Virginia ) was an American engineer , attorney , inventor , manufacturer , horticulturist , poet , philosopher of science and social thinker . A dissenter from the prevailing Georgist views , he pioneered the theory of proprietary governance and community in his book Citadel , Market and Altar . His grandson , Spencer Heath MacCallum , popularized and expounded on his ideas , most notably in his book The Art of Community .","qid":"2784","docid":"Spencer_Heath","rank":45,"score":96991},{"content":"Title: Carroll Izard Content: Carroll Ellis Izard ( October 8 , 1923 -- February 5 , 2017 ) was an American research psychologist known for his contributions to differential emotions theory ( DET ) , and the Maximally Discriminative Affect Coding System ( MAX ) . Differential Emotions Theory maintains that universally recognizable innate , basic emotions emerge within the first 2 to 7 months of post-natal life `` without facial movement precursors '' , and argues for congruence of emotional expression and subjective experience . Izard also undertook empirical studies into the facial feedback hypothesis according to which emotions which have different functions also cause facial expressions which in turn provide us with cues about what emotion a person is feeling . In addition , Izard constructed a multidimensional self-report measure -- the Differential Emotions Scale -- currently in its 4th edition ( DES-IV ) that purports to measure 12 fundamental emotions universally discernible in the facial expressions of infants","qid":"2784","docid":"Carroll_Izard","rank":46,"score":96864},{"content":"Title: John Spencer (businessman) Content: John Berridge Spencer ( 1934 or 1935 -- 10 February 2016 ) was a New Zealand business magnate . Spencer was for many years head of Caxton Pulp & Paper , a business founded in 1890 by his grandfather , Albert Spencer . He inherited the company in 1981 from his father , Berridge Spencer , who had successfully expanded the company after World War I. Expansion included the founding of the pulp and paper mill at Kawerau . John Spencer ran the company until 1988 , when he sold it to Carter Holt Harvey for a sum estimated at $ NZ 300 million . During the stock market boom of the 1980s , Spencer 's nett wealth was estimated at $ 675 million , making him New Zealand 's richest man . Other business interests included property and vineyards . He lost heavily in the 1987 stock market crash , but managed to retain a significant portion of his fortune , which was augmented by the Caxton sale . By 2015 , the NBR rich list estimated that the Spencer family fortune was around $ 720 million . In the last years of his life , Spencer was as well-known for disputes over land access on his Waiheke Island property as for his fortune . An intensely private man , he waged a two decade-long campaign to reduce public access to the Stony Batter historic site on his farm , a dispute which involved him on one occasion barricading a public road . The dispute eventually ended up at the Privy Council , with Spencer losing the case . Spencer died in London on 10 February 2016 at the age of 81 . His wife , Finnish-born Tytti Laurola , predeceased him , dying of cancer in 1992 at the age of 54 . He was survived by his son Berridge and daughter Mertsi .","qid":"2784","docid":"John_Spencer_(businessman)","rank":47,"score":96787},{"content":"Title: Climate Research (journal) Content: Climate Research is a small peer-reviewed scientific journal published by the Inter-Research Science Center that was established in 1990 . Its founder and long time publisher was marine biologist Otto Kinne . Outside the climate research community , the journal is mostly known for its 2003 publication of a controversial and now discredited climate change article . Three volumes , each typically containing half a dozen articles , are published each year . Each of its 12 editors therefore handles an average of less than 2 articles a year . Climate Research covers all aspects of the interactions of climate with organisms , ecosystems , and human societies . In 2006 , a special issue of the journal , titled `` Advances in Applying Climate Prediction to Agriculture '' , was published under open access .","qid":"2784","docid":"Climate_Research_(journal)","rank":48,"score":96715},{"content":"Title: Eliyahu Eliezer Dessler Content: Eliyahu Eliezer Dessler ( 1892 -- 30 December 1953 ) was an Orthodox rabbi , Talmudic scholar , and Jewish philosopher of the 20th century . He is best known for being the mashgiach ruchani ( `` spiritual counselor '' ) of the Ponevezh yeshiva in Israel and through collections of his writings published posthumously by his pupils .","qid":"2784","docid":"Eliyahu_Eliezer_Dessler","rank":49,"score":96546},{"content":"Title: Duncan Wingham Content: Duncan John Wingham ( born 12 October 1957 ) is a British physicist who is Professor of Climate Physics at University College London , and was the first Director of the Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling . He is chief executive of the Natural Environment Research Council and Principal Scientist for the CryoSat Satellite Mission . In the 1990s , Wingham was involved in a four-year satellite study of the Antarctic ice sheet . His conclusion then , and from later research , is that the Antarctic has contributed little to observed rising sea levels in the 20th century . However , he has also stated that `` it is possible that the consequences of global warming on sea level rise have been underestimated ... Other sources of rise must be underestimated . In particular it is possible that the effect of global warming on thermal expansion -LSB- on the oceans -RSB- is larger than we thought '' . In a 2005 interview Wingham stated '' -LSB- t -RSB- he Antarctic is to some extent insulated from global warming because to its north are zonal flows in the atmosphere and ocean , unimpeded by other landmasses ... I am not denying global warming . ''","qid":"2784","docid":"Duncan_Wingham","rank":50,"score":96261},{"content":"Title: Spencer Christian Content: Spencer Christian ( born July 23 , 1947 ) is an American television broadcaster , best known as the former weather forecaster for ABC 's Good Morning America from 1986 to 1998 . He currently is the weather forecaster for ABC-owned KGO-TV in San Francisco . Christian is also the author of several children 's books .","qid":"2784","docid":"Spencer_Christian","rank":51,"score":96229},{"content":"Title: John H. Mercer Content: John H. Mercer ( Cheltenham , England , 19 October 1922 -- Columbus , Ohio 3 July 1987 ) was a glaciologist , chiefly known for his theoretical work on , and field studies of Antarctic ice streams , especially in the Transantarctic Mountains and in West Antarctica . Following John T. Hollin 's work ( 1962 ) suggesting that climatic warming and rising sea-level cause Antarctic ice shelves to retreat , Mercer postulated that the West Antarctic ice sheet , being grounded well below sea-level and terminating in floating ice shelves , was vulnerable to these changes and may have collapsed altogether during the last interglacial when Antarctica may have been warmer and sea-level may have been higher . In 1978 , in the science magazine Nature , Mercer pointed out that `` green-house '' warming from burning fossil fuel could have the same effect during the present interglacial . Two studies published 12 May 2014 confirm Mercer 's assumption . Climate scientist James Hansen has coined the term , `` John Mercer effect . '' After Mercer published his paper suggesting that the West Antarctic ice sheet could collapse in response to warming , he struggled to get funding . Others , including Hansen , had similar problems . Many climate scientists censor their own work to avoid losing funding , especially regarding prospects for limiting warming to 2 ° C above pre-industrial temperatures . John H. Mercer was the third child of Harriet and John W. Mercer . He was educated at private schools in Cheltenham and , later , at Gordonstoun in Scotland . During World War II he served in the British Merchant Marines ( 1940 -- 46 ) as a radio man . After the war he went to University of Cambridge and studied geography . At that time he came under the influence of William Vaughan Lewis . After finishing his B.A. in 1949 Mercer went to Canada , where he received his PhD in geography from McGill University in 1954 . He was a Research Scholar from 1954 to 1956 at the Australian National University in Canberra , where he studied land use and population in western Samoa . He returned to Canada and worked in the Canadian Hydro-graphic Office in Ottawa as a geographer in 1957 and 1958 . During 1959 -- 60 , 1961 -- 62 , 1964 , and 1966 , the American Geographical Society employed him at its World Data Center A for Glaciology in New York . The turning point in his career as a glaciologist was in 1960 , when he became a Research Associate at The Ohio State University , in the Institute of Polar Studies ( renamed the Byrd Polar Research Center ) . He remained at The Ohio State University until his death , becoming its first Senior Research Scientist .","qid":"2784","docid":"John_H._Mercer","rank":52,"score":95564},{"content":"Title: Patrick Michaels Content: Patrick J. ( `` Pat '' ) Michaels ( born February 15 , 1950 ) is an American climatologist . Michaels is a senior fellow in environmental studies at the Cato Institute . Until 2007 he was research professor of environmental sciences at the University of Virginia , where he had worked from 1980 . A self-described skeptic on the issue of global warming , he is a past president of the American Association of State Climatologists . He has written a number of books and papers on climate change , including Sound and Fury : The Science and Politics of Global Warming ( 1992 ) , The Satanic Gases ( 2000 ) , and Meltdown : The Predictable Distortion of Global Warming by Scientists , Politicians , and the Media ( 2004 ) . He 's also the co-author of Climate of Extremes : Global Warming Science They Do n't Want You to Know ( 2009 ) . Michaels ' viewpoint , as argued in a 2002 article in the journal Climate Research , is that the planet will see `` a warming range of 1.3 -- 3.0 ° C , with a central value of 1.9 ° C '' for the 1990 to 2100 period ( an analysis far smaller than the IPCC 's average predictions ) .","qid":"2784","docid":"Patrick_Michaels","rank":53,"score":95002},{"content":"Title: John Spencer (Master of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge) Content: John Spencer ( 1630 -- 1693 ) was an English clergyman and scholar , Master of Corpus Christi College , Cambridge . An erudite theologian and Hebraist , he is now remembered as the author of De Legibus Hebraeorum , a pioneer work of comparative religion , advancing the thesis that Judaism was not the earliest of mankind 's religions .","qid":"2784","docid":"John_Spencer_(Master_of_Corpus_Christi_College,_Cambridge)","rank":54,"score":94952},{"content":"Title: Anthony James Merrill Spencer Content: Anthony James Merrill Spencer ( 23 August 1929 -- 26 January 2008 ) FRS was an applied mathematician whose main field of research was in understanding and predicting the mechanical behaviour of advanced materials .","qid":"2784","docid":"Anthony_James_Merrill_Spencer","rank":55,"score":94742},{"content":"Title: The Truth About Muhammad Content: The Truth About Muhammad : Founder of the World 's Most Intolerant Religion ( 2006 ) is a controversial book by Robert Spencer , the director of Jihad Watch and Dhimmi Watch . In the book the author proposes to present an account of what Muhammad said and did from the writings of the early biographers of Muhammad such as Ibn Ishaq , Ibn Sa 'd al-Baghdadi , Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari as well as the Qur ` an and the hadith collections of Bukhari and Muslim . In the examination of the early sources , Spencer gives his view on the events of Muhammad 's life which are invoked by contemporary Islamic clerics , governments , advocates and Yusuf al-Qaradawi today as a standard for their behaviour . The book aims to draw a connection between Muhammad 's legacy and modern day practices like child marriages and divorce laws , punishments such as stoning for adultery and amputation for theft , execution for apostasy as well as the jihad and dhimmi doctrines adopted towards non-Muslims , as found in some parts of the Muslim world . The book was on the New York Times Best Seller list for the week ending October 14 , 2006 .","qid":"2784","docid":"The_Truth_About_Muhammad","rank":56,"score":94581},{"content":"Title: Domina Eberle Spencer Content: Domina Eberle Spencer ( born September 26 , 1920 ) is a mathematician at the University of Connecticut who works on electrodynamics and field theory . She earned her Ph.D. in 1942 from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology under the supervision of Dirk Jan Struik . She was married to Parry Moon together with whom she wrote many of her books and papers and introduced holors . She is president of the Natural Philosophy Alliance which she helped found in 1993 .","qid":"2784","docid":"Domina_Eberle_Spencer","rank":57,"score":94576},{"content":"Title: Archibald Spencer Content: Archibald Spencer ( January 1 , 1698 -- January 13 , 1760 ) was a businessman , scientist , doctor , clergyman , and lecturer . He is noted for introducing the phenomenon of electricity to Benjamin Franklin .","qid":"2784","docid":"Archibald_Spencer","rank":58,"score":94497},{"content":"Title: Spencer Holst Content: Spencer Holst ( 1926 -- 2001 ) was an American writer and storyteller . Though he published several collections of stories , as well as volumes of translations , Holst was known primarily for the captivating live performances of his work that he regularly conducted , particularly in the New York City area , in a distinctive mellifluous , rhythmically cadenced voice . In his heyday he was often heard on the radio on New York 's listener-sponsored radio station , WBAI . For many years until his death , he lived at Westbeth Artists Housing in NYC . In addition to presenting readings there , he exhibited his watercolour paintings , many based on invented calligraphic motifs . The paintings were often shown with lengthy titles attached , some were small stories in themselves . The typical Holst story might be a gentle but twisted fable , such as the tale of a frog who , having become addicted to morphine during a laboratory experiment , was rejected by the woman whose kiss transformed him back into a prince because he was , after all , only a junkie . Holst also wrote a number of paragraph-length prose pieces , which distilled a brief scene or anecdote into a glimmering , evanescent koan .","qid":"2784","docid":"Spencer_Holst","rank":59,"score":94305},{"content":"Title: Charles Spencer (journalist) Content: Charles Spencer ( born 4 March 1955 ) is a British journalist . He was the chief drama critic of The Daily Telegraph from 1991 to 2014 , having joined the paper in 1988 . On 1 September 2014 it was announced that he had decided to take early retirement , and his final review for the paper appeared on the same day . He was educated at Charterhouse and Balliol College , Oxford . He began his career in journalism at the Surrey Advertiser , and subsequently wrote for the London Evening Standard , The Stage and Television Today , before joining the Telegraph . He won `` Critic of the Year '' in the 1999 British Press Awards . He has written three crime novels : I Nearly Died ( 1994 ) , Full Personal Service ( 1996 ) and Under the Influence ( 2000 ) . In 2006 , Compton Miller of The Independent wrote in a profile : `` This convivial ex-alcoholic is best remembered for his description of Nicole Kidman 's nude scene in The Blue Room as ` pure theatrical Viagra ' . '' In a review published in the Daily Telegraph on 6 September 2012 , he revealed that the reason for his absence from the paper 's pages for the previous three months was that he had been suffering from clinical depression . Charles Spencer is descended from several generations of noted early aeronauts . His great-grandfather , Percival G. Spencer , made the first successful balloon flight in India , and Charles ' third great-grandfather Edward Spencer helped to conduct an unsuccessful parachute jump from a balloon over Vauxhall Gardens in London in July 1837 .","qid":"2784","docid":"Charles_Spencer_(journalist)","rank":60,"score":94151},{"content":"Title: Frank Wentz Content: Frank Wentz is the CEO and director of Remote Sensing Systems , a company he founded in 1974 . Remote Sensing Systems specializes in satellite microwave remote sensing research . Together with Carl Mears , he is best known for developing a satellite temperature record from MSU and AMSU . Intercomparison of this record with the earlier UAH satellite temperature record , developed by John Christy and Roy Spencer , revealed deficiencies in the earlier work ; specifically , the warming trend in the RSS version is larger than the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) one . From 1978 to 1982 Frank was a member of NASA 's SeaSat Experiment Team involved in the development of physically based retrieval methods for microwave scatterometers and radiometers . He has also investigated the effect of climate change on satellite-derived evaporation , precipitation and surface wind values . His findings are different from most climate change model predictions .","qid":"2784","docid":"Frank_Wentz","rank":61,"score":93987},{"content":"Title: The Revenge of Gaia Content: The Revenge of Gaia : Why the Earth is Fighting Back -- and How we Can Still Save Humanity ( 2006 ) is a book by James Lovelock . Some editions of the book have a different , less optimistic subtitle : `` Earth 's Climate Crisis and the Fate of Humanity . '' The book introduces the concept of the anti-CLAW hypothesis . Lovelock proposed that instead of providing negative feedback in the climate system , the components of the CLAW hypothesis may act to create a positive feedback loop . Under future global warming , increasing temperature may stratify the world ocean , decreasing the supply of nutrients from the deep ocean to its productive euphotic zone . Consequently , phytoplankton activity will decline with a concomitant fall in the production of DMS . In a reverse of the CLAW hypothesis , this decline in DMS production will lead to a decrease in cloud condensation nuclei and a fall in cloud albedo . The consequence of this will be further climate warming which may lead to even less DMS production ( and further climate warming ) . The figure to the right shows a summarising schematic diagram . Evidence for the anti-CLAW hypothesis is constrained by similar uncertainties as those of the sulfur cycle feedback loop of the CLAW hypothesis . However , researchers simulating future oceanic primary production have found evidence of declining production with increasing ocean stratification , leaving open the possibility that such a mechanism may exist .","qid":"2784","docid":"The_Revenge_of_Gaia","rank":62,"score":93832},{"content":"Title: Hiroshi Kanzawa Content: Hiroshi Kanzawa ( b. January 1953 in Maebashi , Gunma Prefecture , Japan ) is a Japanese meteorologist , environmental scientist and the dean of the Graduate School of Environmental Studies at the University of Nagoya . He is perhaps best known for his onsite atmospheric work in Antarctica and the papers he has co-authored on Ozone depletion , including : `` Large stratospheric sudden warming in Antarctic late winter and shallow ozone hole in 1988 '' ( with Sadao Kamaguchi ) and `` Sensitivity Map of LAI to Precipitation and Surface Air Temperature Variations in a Global Scale '' ( co-authored with his Japanese colleague Seita Emori and Jiahua Zhang and Congbin Fu of the START , Institute of Atmospheric Physics in Beijing , China ) . Kanzawa also sits on the board of Councilors of the Hydrospheric Atmospheric Research Center at the University of Nagoya .","qid":"2784","docid":"Hiroshi_Kanzawa","rank":63,"score":93821},{"content":"Title: Benjamin T. Spencer Content: Benjamin T. ( Townley ) Spencer ( 1904 -- 1996 ) was a scholar of American literature and a professor at Ohio Wesleyan University . He graduated from Kentucky Wesleyan College , and received his M.A. and Ph.D. degrees from the University of Cincinnati . Spencer wrote widely on American literature and on Shakespeare but is best remembered for his great book , The Quest for American Nationality ; An American Literary Campaign ( 1957 . ) In 2008 , Robert Milder described it as , `` an informed and still eminently serviceable account of the multifront ` campaign ' for a national literature . '' The annual The Benjamin T. Spencer Lecture is given at Ohio Wesleyan University in his memory and the Benjamin T. Spencer Professorship in Literature is named in his honor .","qid":"2784","docid":"Benjamin_T._Spencer","rank":64,"score":93762},{"content":"Title: William George Spencer Content: ( William ) George Spencer ( 1790 -- 1866 ) was an English schoolmaster and tutor , known as a mathematical writer .","qid":"2784","docid":"William_George_Spencer","rank":65,"score":93720},{"content":"Title: Parry Moon Content: Parry Hiram Moon ( -LSB- muːn -RSB- 1898 -- 1988 ) was an American electrical engineer , who with Domina Eberle Spencer co-authored eight scientific books and over 200 papers on subjects including electromagnetic field theory , color harmony , nutrition , aesthetic measure , and advanced mathematics . He also developed a theory of holors .","qid":"2784","docid":"Parry_Moon","rank":66,"score":93657},{"content":"Title: Scott Barrett (political scientist) Content: Scott Barrett is a professor of natural resource economics at Columbia University . There , he holds the title of Lenfest Professor of Natural Resource Economics at the School of International and Public Affairs and The Earth Institute . He is known for his game theoretical analysis of climate change treaties . His book on the subject Environment and Statecraft : The Strategy of Environmental Treaty Making was published in 2003 . He has been involved in the discussions of the Kyoto Treaty and its comparison to the more successful Montreal Protocol . More recently , he has been publishing on the institutions set up to control the regional and global spread of infectious diseases . His latest book , Why Cooperate ? The Incentive to Supply Global Public Goods , was published by Oxford University Press in September 2007 . This book examines a wide range of issues , from nuclear proliferation to infectious disease pandemics , from over-fishing to peacekeeping , from asteroid defense to big science , from the standard for determining the time to international development . Before joining Columbia University , Barrett taught at The Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies ( SAIS ) , Johns Hopkins University , the London Business School and was also affiliated with the University College London . His graduate work was at the London School of Economics .","qid":"2784","docid":"Scott_Barrett_(political_scientist)","rank":67,"score":93638},{"content":"Title: Amsler grid Content: The Amsler grid , used since 1945 , is a grid of horizontal and vertical lines used to monitor a person 's central visual field . The grid was developed by Marc Amsler , a Swiss ophthalmologist . It is a diagnostic tool that aids in the detection of visual disturbances caused by changes in the retina , particularly the macula ( e.g. macular degeneration , Epiretinal membrane ) , as well as the optic nerve and the visual pathway to the brain . In the test , the person looks with each eye separately at the small dot in the center of the grid . Patients with macular disease may see wavy lines or some lines may be missing . Amsler grids are supplied by ophthalmologists , optometrists or from web sites , and may be used to test one 's vision at home . The original Amsler grid was black and white . A color version with a blue and yellow grid is more sensitive and can be used to test for a wide variety of visual pathway abnormalities , including those associated with the retina , the optic nerve , and the pituitary gland .","qid":"2784","docid":"Amsler_grid","rank":68,"score":93581},{"content":"Title: Little Albert experiment Content: The Little Albert experiment was a controlled experiment showing empirical evidence of classical conditioning in humans and operant conditioning in humans . The study also provides an example of stimulus generalization . It was carried out by John B. Watson and his graduate student , Rosalie Rayner , at Johns Hopkins University . The results were first published in the February 1920 issue of the Journal of Experimental Psychology . After observing children in the field , Watson hypothesized that the fearful response of children to loud noises is an innate unconditioned response . He wanted to test the notion that by following the principles of the procedure now known as `` classical conditioning '' , he could use this unconditioned response to condition a child to fear a distinctive stimulus that normally would not be feared by a child ( in this case , furry objects ) .","qid":"2784","docid":"Little_Albert_experiment","rank":69,"score":92969},{"content":"Title: Platt Rogers Spencer Content: Platt Rogers Spencer ( also Platt R. Spencer ) ( November 7 , 1800 -- May 16 , 1864 ) was the originator of Spencerian penmanship , a popular system of cursive handwriting . He was a teacher and active in the business school movement .","qid":"2784","docid":"Platt_Rogers_Spencer","rank":70,"score":92884},{"content":"Title: Alaettin Tahir Content: Alahettin Tahir ( Macedonian : Алаетин Тахир , Skopje , Republic of Macedonia , April 23 , 1949 - Skopje , January 28 , 2004 ) is a well-known Macedonia ` s author , researcher and journalist of Turkish descent . Tahir studied philosophy at the University of Skopje , after graduating from high school in Skopje . In 1969 , he was given the post secretary of the monthly magazine Sesler ( Sounds ) , published in Turkish language in Skopje . Later he worked as a journalist and editor of the culture section of the newspaper Birlik ( Unity ) , published also in Turkish in Skopje . Tahir in the late 1970s began to work at the Turkish Language Department of Skopje Television ( now Macedonian Television ) . He died on 28 January 2004 in his hometown , Skopje .","qid":"2784","docid":"Alaettin_Tahir","rank":71,"score":92859},{"content":"Title: Lyle M. Spencer Content: Lyle M. Spencer ( May 10 , 1911 -- August 21 , 1968 ) was a twenty-seven-year-old graduate student in sociology at the University of Chicago in 1938 when he founded Science Research Associates ( SRA ) , the educational publishing firm which provided the basis of his wealth and ultimately made possible the creation of The Spencer Foundation .","qid":"2784","docid":"Lyle_M._Spencer","rank":72,"score":92502},{"content":"Title: Darwin from Orchids to Variation Content: Between 1860 and 1868 , the life and work of Charles Darwin from Orchids to Variation continued with research and experimentation on evolution , carrying out tedious work to provide evidence of the extent of natural variation enabling artificial selection . He was repeatedly held up by his illness , and continued to find relaxation and interest in the study of plants . His studies of insect pollination led to publication of his book Fertilisation of Orchids as his first detailed demonstration of the power of natural selection , explaining the complex ecological relationships and making testable predictions . As his health declined , he lay on his sickbed in a room filled with inventive experiments to trace the movements of climbing plants . Darwinism became a movement covering a wide range of evolutionary ideas . In 1863 Lyell 's Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man popularised prehistory , though his caution on evolution disappointed Darwin . Weeks later Huxley 's Evidence as to Man 's Place in Nature showed that anatomically , humans are apes , then The Naturalist on the River Amazons by Henry Walter Bates provided empirical evidence of natural selection . Lobbying brought Darwin Britain 's highest scientific honour , the Royal Society 's Copley Medal , awarded on 3 November 1864 . That day , Huxley held the first meeting of what became the influential X Club devoted to `` science , pure and free , untrammelled by religious dogmas '' . Admiring visitors included Ernst Haeckel , a zealous follower of Darwinismus in a translation favouring progressive evolution over natural selection . Wallace remained supportive , though he increasingly turned to Spiritualism . The first part of Darwin 's planned `` big book '' , The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication , grew to two huge volumes , forcing him to leave out human evolution and sexual selection . It sold briskly in 1868 despite its size , and was translated into many languages . Darwin 's work on the Descent of Man and Emotions followed after this publication .","qid":"2784","docid":"Darwin_from_Orchids_to_Variation","rank":73,"score":92019},{"content":"Title: David Legates Content: David Russell Legates is a Professor of Geography at the University of Delaware . He is the former Director of the Center for Climatic Research at the same university , and a former Delaware State Climatologist . Legates has published research papers , opinion editorials , and spoken openly in opposition to the consensus scientific opinion on climate change . More recently , he has been known for his skepticism toward the anthropogenic cause of the observed global warming patterns and the severity of its consequences at the local geographical scale . Legates viewpoint , as stated in a 2015 study that he co-authored , is that the Earth will experience about 1.0 C warming over the 2000 to 2100 period .","qid":"2784","docid":"David_Legates","rank":74,"score":91893},{"content":"Title: Murry Salby Content: Murry Lewis Salby is an atmospheric scientist who focused on upper atmospheric wave propagation for most of his early career , and who more recently has argued against aspects of the scientific consensus that human activity contributes to climate change . From the mid 1980s , Salby conducted research out of University of Colorado Boulder . In 2005 , the National Science Foundation opened an investigation into Salby 's federal funding arrangements and found that he had displayed `` a pattern of deception -LSB- and -RSB- a lack of integrity '' in his handling of federal grant money . He resigned his position in Colorado in 2008 and became professor of climate risk at Macquarie University in Macquarie Park , New South Wales . In 2013 he was dismissed by the university on grounds of refusal to teach and misuse of university resources . He has written two textbooks , Fundamentals of Atmospheric Physics ( 1996 ) , and Physics of the Atmosphere and Climate ( 2011 ) . The latter textbook , building on his first book , offers an overview of the processes controlling the atmosphere of Earth , weather , energetics , and climate physics .","qid":"2784","docid":"Murry_Salby","rank":75,"score":91886},{"content":"Title: Kevin E. Trenberth Content: Kevin Edward Trenberth ( born November 8 , 1944 ) is part of the Climate Analysis Section at the US NCAR National Center for Atmospheric Research . He was a lead author of the 2001 and 2007 IPCC Scientific Assessment of Climate Change ( see IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ) and serves on the Scientific Steering Group for the Climate Variability and Predictability ( CLIVAR ) program . He chaired the WCRP Observation and Assimilation Panel from 2004 to 2010 and chaired the Global Energy and Water Exchanges ( GEWEX ) scientific steering group from 2010-2013 ( member 2007-14 ) . In addition , he served on the Joint Scientific Committee of the World Climate Research Programme , and has made significant contributions to research into El Niño-Southern Oscillation . Kevin 's work is highly cited and he has an h-index of 100 ( 100 papers have over 100 citations ) .","qid":"2784","docid":"Kevin_E._Trenberth","rank":76,"score":91819},{"content":"Title: Percival Spencer Umfreville Pickering Content: Percival Spencer Umfreville ( Spencer ) Pickering ( 6 March 1858 -- 5 December 1920 ) was a British chemist and horticulturist . Pickering grew up in a wealthy family , and was able to start a career in science by building his own laboratory in his private house . In 1881 , he took up a position as lecturer at Bedford College , where he stayed until 1887 . After losing an eye in a serious accident in his lab , his health waned and he moved to the countryside to the village of Harpenden . Among the residents of the village were already four fellows of the Royal Society , and Pickering was to become the fifth by 1890 . From 1894 on , he was director of the Woburn Experimental Fruit Farm , a private establishment by Pickering and the Duke of Bedford , where he worked to improve horticultural techniques . In 1907 he discovered the phenomenon that emulsions can be stabilised by small particles instead of emulsifiers , nowadays referred to as Pickering stabilization , although the effect was already recognized by Walter Ramsden in 1903 .","qid":"2784","docid":"Percival_Spencer_Umfreville_Pickering","rank":77,"score":91800},{"content":"Title: Michael E. Mann Content: Michael E. Mann ( born 1965 ) is an American climatologist and geophysicist , currently director of the Earth System Science Center at Pennsylvania State University , who has contributed to the scientific understanding of historic climate change based on the temperature record of the past thousand years . He has pioneered techniques to find patterns in past climate change , and to isolate climate signals from noisy data . As lead author of a paper produced in 1998 with co-authors Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes , Mann used advanced statistical techniques to find regional variations in a hemispherical climate reconstruction covering the past 600 years . In 1999 the same team used these techniques to produce a reconstruction over the past 1,000 years ( MBH99 ) which was dubbed the `` hockey stick graph '' because of its shape . He was one of eight lead authors of the `` Observed Climate Variability and Change '' chapter of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Third Scientific Assessment Report published in 2001 . A graph based on the MBH99 paper was highlighted in several parts of the report , and was given wide publicity . The IPCC acknowledged that his work , along with that of the many other lead authors and review editors , contributed to the award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize , which was won jointly by the IPCC and Al Gore . Mann was organizing committee chair for the National Academy of Sciences Frontiers of Science in 2003 and has received a number of honors and awards including selection by Scientific American as one of the fifty leading visionaries in science and technology in 2002 . In 2012 he was inducted as a Fellow of the American Geophysical Union and was awarded the Hans Oeschger Medal of the European Geosciences Union . In 2013 he was elected a Fellow of the American Meteorological Society , and awarded the status of distinguished professor in Penn State 's College of Earth and Mineral Sciences . Mann is author of more than 200 peer-reviewed and edited publications . He has also published three books : Dire Predictions : Understanding Global Warming ( 2008 ) , The Hockey Stick and the Climate Wars : Dispatches from the Front Lines ( 2012 ) , and , together with co-author Tom Toles , The Madhouse Effect : How Climate Change Denial Is Threatening Our Planet , Destroying Our Politics , and Driving Us Crazy ( 2016 ) . In 2012 , the European Geosciences Union described his publication record as `` outstanding for a scientist of his relatively young age '' . Mann is also a co-founder and contributor to the climatology blog RealClimate .","qid":"2784","docid":"Michael_E._Mann","rank":78,"score":91733},{"content":"Title: Lennart Bengtsson Content: Lennart Bengtsson ( , Trollhättan ) , is a Swedish meteorologist . His research interests include climate sensitivity , extreme events , climate variability and climate predictability .","qid":"2784","docid":"Lennart_Bengtsson","rank":79,"score":91720},{"content":"Title: The Man Versus the State Content: The Man Versus the State is a political theory book by Herbert Spencer It was first published in book form in 1884 by Williams and Norgate , London and Edinburgh , from articles previous published in The Contemporary Review . The book consists of four main chapters : The New Toryism , The coming Slavery , The sins of legislators and The Great Political Superstition . In this book , English libertarian sociologist Herbert Spencer sees a statist corruption appearing within the liberal ideological framework , and warns of what he calls , `` the coming slavery '' . And he presents the argument that liberalism , which liberated the world from slavery and feudalism , was undergoing a transformation . Its new love for the state would put liberalism behind a movement to create a new despotism that would be worse than the old . Henry Hazlitt has once said that this is `` One of the most powerful and influential arguments for limited government , laissez faire and individualism ever written . '' .","qid":"2784","docid":"The_Man_Versus_the_State","rank":80,"score":91580},{"content":"Title: Masao Kanamitsu Content: Masao Kanamitsu ( November 6 , 1943 in Kumamoto , Japan -- August 17 , 2011 in Del Mar , California ) - was Japanese and American atmospheric scientist working in the field of data assimilation . His research greatly influenced global and regional climate change studies including development of breakthrough reanalysis and downscaling datasets and weather forecasting studies . He was the co-author of one of the most cited geophysics paper in his time . Kanamitsu was born in 1943 and was raised in Sapporo . He did his B.S. and M. Sc . in 1968 at Hokkaido University , Japan and M.Sc . and Ph. D. in 1975 at Florida State University . He was one of the large group of Japanese scientists who after the World War II greatly contributed to the development of the dynamic meteorology in the US and in the World including Syukuro Manabe , Taroh Matsuno , Kikuro Miyakoda , and Akio Arakawa . He served as a Forecaster at Japan Meteorological Agency , as a leader of the Global Modeling Branch , Development Division , and later as an Acting Chief of the Prediction Branch at the Climate Prediction Center of the National Meteorological Center . In 2001 he moved to Scripps Institution of Oceanography where he worked to the rest of his life . He had a group of young researchers working with him . Kanamitsu was instrumental in creating one of the most successful datasets used in global change studies - the NCEP/NCAR Reanalysis for which he received a Group Gold Medal from the Department of Commerce in 1997 . His 1996 reanalysis paper is one of the most celebrated paper in atmospheric science and geosciences - at the time of his death this paper was cited 7985 times . His publications report ambitious , multiyear in making , and extensive project to develop regional-scale climate change dataset based on the NCEP -- NCAR reanalysis for the period 1948 -- 2005 . This downscaling paved the way for local scale understanding of climate changes . In he worked out a problem of how to produce meteorological dataset such as winds , pressures , or temperature on fine scale ( say every 10 km ) if the measurements are performed every 200 km . This led to a concept of dynamical downscaling of climate analysis using regional models . He served as an editor for the Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan ( 1980 -- 1985 ) and the Monthly Weather Review ( 1991 -- 1993 ) . He was active scientifically to the end of his very productive life . At the time of his death he was a researcher at Scripps Institution of Oceanography where in relatively short time of about 10 years he wrote 35 papers . Kanamitsu was survived by his wife Mariko and he had daughter Tomoko . He enjoyed hiking in various mountain ranges around Japan , United States and Europe . He loved dogs . He received Meteorological Society of Japan award in 1983 . He was known as Kana among his friends .","qid":"2784","docid":"Masao_Kanamitsu","rank":81,"score":91460},{"content":"Title: Christopher Field Content: Chris Field , Ph.D is an American scientist and researcher , who has contributed to the field of climate change . The author of more than 200 scientific publications , Field 's research emphasizes impacts of climate change , from the molecular to the global scale . His work includes major field experiments on responses of California grassland to multi-factor global change , integrative studies on the global carbon cycle , and assessments of impacts of climate change on agriculture . Field 's work with models includes studies on the global distribution of carbon sources and sinks , and studies on environmental consequences of expanding biomass energy .","qid":"2784","docid":"Christopher_Field","rank":82,"score":91390},{"content":"Title: Deep Ecliptic Survey Content: The Deep Ecliptic Survey ( DES ) is a project to find Kuiper belt objects ( KBOs ) , using the facilities of the National Optical Astronomy Observatory ( NOAO ) . The principal investigator is Robert L. Millis . Since 1998 through the end of 2003 , the survey covered 550 square degrees with sensitivity of 22.5 , which means an estimated 50 % of objects of this magnitude have been found . The survey has also established the mean Kuiper Belt plane and introduced new formal definitions of the dynamical classes of Kuiper belt objects . The remarkable first observations and/or discoveries include : 28978 Ixion , large plutino 19521 Chaos ( cubewano ) , the first binary trans-Neptunian object ( TNO ) , the first object with perihelion too far to be affected ( scattered ) by Neptune and a large semi-major axis , remarkable for its semi-major axis of more than 500 AU and extreme eccentricity ( 0.96 ) taking the object from the inside of the Neptune 's orbit to more than 1000 AU , the first Neptune trojan , with one of the most inclined orbits ( > 68 ° )","qid":"2784","docid":"Deep_Ecliptic_Survey","rank":83,"score":91270},{"content":"Title: Charles S. Spencer Content: Charles Sidney Spencer ( born 12 June 1950 ) is Curator of Mexican and Central American Archaeology in the Division of Anthropology at the American Museum of Natural History in New York City . `` Dr. Spencer is an internationally renowned anthropological archaeologist specializing in the origins of hierarchical societies and the rise of the first political states in Mesoamerica , where he has been conducting fieldwork for more than 25 years . His focus is the Oaxaca Valley and surrounding regions , a mountainous part of southern Mexico that is home to the Zapotec people . He is also widely recognized as a leader in the application of evolutionary theory and socio-political concepts to the study of prehistoric cultural change and has formulated a mathematical model of pristine state formation . '' Dr. Spencer completed his graduate training at the University of Michigan , where he received his Ph.D. in Anthropology in 1981 . His dissertation , `` The Cuicatlán Cañada and Monte Albán : Interregional Processes and Primary State Formation in Central Oaxaca , '' was published by Academic Press in 1982 . He has over 110 publications to date , including books , chapters , and articles . Since the 1970s , Spencer has conducted extensive archaeological fieldwork in Mexico and Venezuela . He has trained a generation of graduate students in methodologies of field research , and he also has served on doctoral committees as primary advisor and as a reader . Prior to his appointment at the AMNH in 1991 , Dr. Spencer was Associate Professor of Anthropology at the University of Connecticut . He was born June 12 , 1950 in Ancon , Panama , then part of the Panama Canal Zone . He attended local U.S.-operated schools in the Canal Zone before leaving Panama to attend Rice University , where he received his BA in Anthropology in 1972 . In 2007 , Dr. Spencer was elected to membership in the National Academy of Sciences , one of the highest honors a scientist can receive from a U.S.-based organization . At his induction ceremony in April 2008 , NAS President Ralph Cicerone lauded Dr. Spencer as `` the leading evolutionary archaeologist of his generation . '' The citation continues : `` His fieldwork has documented the rise of entrepreneurial rank societies , the origin of the stratified militaristic state , and the strategies of imperial colonization . His work combines empirical data with evolutionary concepts like tempo , mode , biased transmission , and adaptive peaks . '' Dr. Spencer is also a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences , along with his wife and research collaborator , Elsa M. Redmond , Ph.D. . They reside in the Connecticut suburbs of New York City .","qid":"2784","docid":"Charles_S._Spencer","rank":84,"score":91239},{"content":"Title: Robert Spencer (author) Content: Robert Bruce Spencer ( born February 27 , 1962 ) is an American author and blogger and a key figure of the counter-jihad movement in the United States . He appears frequently on Fox News and has given seminars to various law enforcement units in the United States . Spencer , a self-proclaimed expert on radical Islam , has published a number of books on the subject including two New York Times bestsellers . In 2003 he founded and has since directed Jihad Watch , a blog which he describes as containing `` news of the international jihad , -LSB- and -RSB- commentary '' which is dedicated to `` bringing public attention to the role that jihad theology and ideology plays in the modern world , and to correcting popular misconceptions about the role of jihad and religion in modern-day conflicts '' . He has also co-founded Stop Islamization of America ( SIOA ) and the Freedom Defense Initiative with blogger Pamela Geller , with whom he also co-authored a book , The Post-American Presidency : The Obama Administration 's War on America . His viewpoints have been described as anti-Islamic or Islamophobic , while he denies this and says he focuses his criticism on radical Islam and its violence . In 2013 the UK Home Office has barred Spencer and Geller from travel to the UK for 3 to 5 years for `` making statements that may foster hatred that might lead to inter-community violence '' , a decision which drew criticism .","qid":"2784","docid":"Robert_Spencer_(author)","rank":85,"score":91140},{"content":"Title: Duhem–Quine thesis Content: The Duhem -- Quine thesis , also called the Duhem -- Quine problem , after Pierre Duhem and Willard Van Orman Quine , is that it is impossible to test a scientific hypothesis in isolation , because an empirical test of the hypothesis requires one or more background assumptions ( also called auxiliary assumptions or auxiliary hypotheses ) . In recent decades the set of associated assumptions supporting a thesis sometimes is called a bundle of hypotheses .","qid":"2784","docid":"Duhem–Quine_thesis","rank":86,"score":91139},{"content":"Title: Laboratoire des sciences du climat et de l'environnement Content: The Laboratoire des sciences du climat et de l'environnement ( LSCE , Climate and Environment Sciences Laboratory ) is a laboratory for the study of climate and in particular climate change . It plays a very important role within the framework of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , which involves many of its researchers . It is very diversified because it includes modellers like experimenters , glaciologists as specialists in remote sensing or air quality study . The climate scientist Valerie Masson-Delmotte is involved in the laboratory .","qid":"2784","docid":"Laboratoire_des_sciences_du_climat_et_de_l'environnement","rank":87,"score":91067},{"content":"Title: Rolf Hassler Content: Rolf Hassler ( 1914 -- 1984 ) was a German pathologist who made important discoveries on the pathophisiology and treatment of Parkinson 's disease ( PD ) . In 1938 he published the autopsies of PD patients that showed while the striatum and globus pallidus were mostly unaffected and the main affected structure was the substantia nigra pars compacta ; it lost many neurons and also held abundant Lewy bodies . Such findings confirmed Konstantin Tretiakoff 's theories , who in 1919 had reported that the substantia nigra was the main cerebral structure affected . Hassler later was the director of the Max-Planck-Institut für Hirnforschung at Frankfurt am Main where he continued his studies on PD , becoming a pioneer in surgery for tremors .","qid":"2784","docid":"Rolf_Hassler","rank":88,"score":90878},{"content":"Title: Peter Spencer (farmer) Content: Peter Spencer ( born 1948 or 1949 ) is an Australian farmer who came to national prominence after going on hunger strike in November 2009 . He had been prevented from clearing `` native vegetation '' from his sheep farm in New South Wales and he said that this had caused severe financial difficulty . Spencer 's use of his land was restricted due to Australia 's commitments to the Kyoto Protocol . He was refused compensation for his land being declared a carbon sink as it was the New South Wales government , and not the federal government in Canberra , which had enacted the laws in question , which were intended to combat global warming . However , Spencer 's family later stated : `` Native vegetation laws enacted over 10 years ago by State Governments ( and certainly not the ETS proposals and `` Carbon Sinks '' which are a far more recent development ) are not the sole reason for the collapse of Peter 's farm , and really have had a very small part to play . For MANY reasons the farm has not been profitable for a long time . Peter spent several years in Papua New Guinea on various business ventures , including an advisory role to the PNG government of the time . During this time he was unable to look after the farm adequately , an issue that was clearly a product of his then circumstance . '' http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/nation/message-from-peter-spencers-family/story-e6frg6nf-1225817464020 Spencer spent 52 days suspended on a platform 15 meters above ground level . Spencer ignored a letter sent on behalf of the Prime Minister Kevin Rudd saying he did not believe it was from him . However , he reportedly invited Bob Brown leader of the Green Party to debate human rights with him . The 61-year-old ended the strike after supporters worried for his health asked him to stop . In a statement he said , `` As much as the nation is concerned about me , my concerns are directed at the families of the hundreds of farmers who have suicided and the politicians who have failed to show any concern , compassion or morality for what the government has done to these families and the nation 's Constitution . My committed stance on the tower was to press the point . '' Spencer was evicted from his property for failing to meet payments on loans from family members . However , he was granted the right to appeal to the High Court to decide if he should be compensated by the Commonwealth for the property having been declared a carbon sink . The High Court declared that the Federal Court was wrong to have thrown out Mr Spencer 's case for compensation on the basis he had `` no reasonable prospect '' of success .","qid":"2784","docid":"Peter_Spencer_(farmer)","rank":89,"score":90801},{"content":"Title: David Cushing Content: David Henry Cushing FRS was an English born fisheries biologist , who is credited with the development the match/mismatch hypothesis as an explanation for reduced fish stocks as associated with climatic variability . As opposed to other important fisheries biologists , such as Daniel Pauly and Carl J. Walters , Cushing was a proponent of keeping fisheries open to the point of collapse .","qid":"2784","docid":"David_Cushing","rank":90,"score":90800},{"content":"Title: Claudius B. Spencer Content: Claudius B. Spencer ( born 1856 in Michigan , died 14 July 1934 ) was a pastor of the Methodist Episcopal Church and an editor of Christian publications . Spencer attended Northwestern University and Garrett Seminary , and served as a pastor of the Methodist Episcopal Church in the Detroit Conference from 1881 to 1892 . He was then transferred to the Colorado Conference , where he was appointed editor of the Rocky Mountain Christian Advocate . When that publication merged with the Central Christian Advocate , Spencer moved to Kansas City , Missouri , to assume the editorship of that publication . He served in that capacity until his death in 1934 . Spencer served on many denominational boards and conferences . He received an honorary Doctor of Divinity degree from Lawrence University in 1896 . As eulogized by University of Denver Chancellor Frederick M. Hunter , he `` generated a spirit of enthusiasm and optimism because of what he himself was , as well as because of what he did and said . '' After a short illness , Spencer died on July 14 , 1934 . The Claudius B. Spencer Papers at the University of Denver include articles from newspapers and magazines concerning Mormonism and the Methodist response to the Mormon Church . Also included are letters written to Spencer in his capacity as editor of the Central Christian Advocate . Many of these letters concern Mormonism , but there are also letters regarding controversies within the Methodist church and other church matters . Half of the collection is typescript pages and handwritten notes from a manuscript titled Holiness and Mormonism . The author of the manuscript is unknown . The manuscript describes the origins of Mormonism and , through lengthy discussion , refutes the legitimacy of the Mormon church .","qid":"2784","docid":"Claudius_B._Spencer","rank":91,"score":90631},{"content":"Title: Tom Spencer (cricketer) Content: Thomas William Spencer ( 22 March 1914 -- 1 November 1995 ) was a London-born English first-class cricketer and international umpire . He played 76 games for Kent before going on to officiate in 17 Test matches and 6 ODIs . He was awarded the OBE in 1976 for services to cricket . He also was an umpire at the 1975 Cricket World Cup final .","qid":"2784","docid":"Tom_Spencer_(cricketer)","rank":92,"score":90419},{"content":"Title: The Hartwell Paper Content: The Hartwell Paper calls for a reorientation of climate policy after the perceived failure in 2009 of the UNFCCC climate conference in Copenhagen . The paper was published in May 2010 by the London School of Economics in cooperation with the University of Oxford . The authors are 14 natural and social scientists from Asia , Europe and North America , including Mike Hulme , Roger A. Pielke ( Jr ) , Nico Stehr and Steve Rayner , who met under the Chatham House Rule . The paper argues that `` decarbonisation will only be achieved successfully as a benefit contingent upon other goals which are politically attractive and relentlessly pragmatic . '' It emphasizes human dignity as a necessary guiding principle for climate policy : `` To reframe the climate issue around matters of human dignity is not just noble or necessary . It is also likely to be more effective than the approach of framing around human sinfulness -- which has failed and will continue to fail . '' It has three main objectives : 1 . Energy access for all The paper advocates taking investments in the innovations of renewable energy to decrease energy costs and to make them more affordable to society . Only this diversification of energy could extend the access to energy , especially in undeveloped countries . 2 . Clean energy 3 . Dealing with climate change The ultimate goal is `` to develop non-carbon energy supplies at unsubsidised costs less than those using fossil fuels . '' The Hartwell Paper recommends achieving this goal by introducing low carbon taxes . Moreover this money should be used to develop a CO2 free energy supply .","qid":"2784","docid":"The_Hartwell_Paper","rank":93,"score":90403},{"content":"Title: Green Zone Community Climate Action Content: Green Zone Community Climate Action is a charitable unincorporated association formed in November 2016 . Based in Broomfield , Essex , this organisation delivers climate change awareness at a grass roots level to improve public understanding of Global warming and promote individual actions that can help to address this . The charity works with Marks & Spencer through the project Neighbourly among other retailers to reduce food waste and share unsold food within the community . The charity also supports climate education for primary school children through clubs . The charity took part in the worldwide 24 Hours of Reality campaign broadcast by The Climate Reality Project . Working alongside additional community charities Green Zone Community Climate Action is one of many new projects created to assist the UK in meeting the United Nations global Sustainable Development Goals","qid":"2784","docid":"Green_Zone_Community_Climate_Action","rank":94,"score":90368},{"content":"Title: Henry Spencer Content: Henry Spencer ( born 1955 ) is a Canadian computer programmer and space enthusiast . He wrote `` regex '' , a widely used software library for regular expressions , and co-wrote C News , a Usenet server program . He also wrote The Ten Commandments for C Programmers . He is coauthor , with David Lawrence , of the book Managing Usenet . While working at the University of Toronto he ran the first active Usenet site outside the U.S. , starting in 1981 . His records from that period were eventually acquired by Google to provide an archive of Usenet in the 1980s . The first international Usenet site was run in Ottawa , in 1981 ; however , it is generally not remembered , as it served merely as a read-only medium . Later in 1981 , Spencer acquired a Usenet feed from Duke University , and brought `` utzoo '' online ; the earliest public archives of Usenet date from May 1981 as a result . The small size of Usenet in its youthful days , and Spencer 's early involvement , made him a well-recognised participant ; this is commemorated in Vernor Vinge 's 1992 novel A Fire Upon the Deep . The novel featured an interstellar communications medium remarkably similar to Usenet , down to the author including spurious message headers ; one of the characters who appeared solely through postings to this was modeled on Spencer ( and , slightly obliquely , named for him ) . He is also credited with the claim that `` Those who do not understand Unix are condemned to reinvent it , poorly . ''","qid":"2784","docid":"Henry_Spencer","rank":95,"score":90322},{"content":"Title: Herbert Spencer Jennings Content: Prof Herbert Spencer Jennings HFRSE ( 1868-1947 ) was an American zoologist , geneticist , and eugenicist . His research helped demonstrate the link between physical and chemical stimulation and automatic responses in lower orders of animals .","qid":"2784","docid":"Herbert_Spencer_Jennings","rank":96,"score":90242},{"content":"Title: Petr Chýlek Content: Petr Chýlek is a researcher for Space and Remote Sensing Sciences at Los Alamos National Laboratory . Prior to becoming a government researcher in 2001 , Chýlek was a Professor at several US and Canadian universities including SUNY Albany , Purdue University , University of Oklahoma and Dalhousie University in Halifax , Canada . Chýlek has published over 100 first authored scientific papers in remote sensing , atmospheric radiation , climate change , cloud and aerosol physics , applied laser physics and ice core analysis . His work has been cited more than 4000 times . Chylek is best known for his work in remote sensing , aerosols and climate change . In 2006 , Chýlek served as Chairman , Scientific Program Committee for The Second International Conference on Global Warming and the Next Ice Age held at Los Alamos National Laboratory in Santa Fe , NM . Speakers included Venkatachalam Ramaswamy , Chris Folland , Gerald North , Roger A. Pielke , William M. Gray and Jan Veizer . The conference included a two-day workshop on climate prediction uncertainties . The papers presented at the 2006 Conference were published in a special section of the Journal of Geophysical Research - Atmospheres in 2007 . In 2007 , Chýlek and co-authors published a peer-reviewed paper estimating climate sensitivity to doubled atmospheric CO2 to be significantly less than the IPCC estimate . Chýlek received his diploma in theoretical physics from Charles University in Prague , Czech Republic . He received his Ph.D. in physics from UC Riverside in 1970 .","qid":"2784","docid":"Petr_Chýlek","rank":97,"score":90227},{"content":"Title: T.O.T.E. Content: The T.O.T.E. or TOTE , standing for `` Test - Operate - Test - Exit '' , is an iterative problem solving strategy based on feedback loops . It was described by George A. Miller , Eugene Galanter , and Karl H. Pribram in their 1960 book , Plans and the Structure of Behavior which outlined their conception of cognitive psychology .","qid":"2784","docid":"T.O.T.E.","rank":98,"score":89561},{"content":"Title: Spencer (Essex cricketer) Content: Spencer ( first name and dates unknown ) was an English first-class cricketer for Essex and the Hornchurch Cricket Club who was active in the 1790s and is recorded in one first-class match in 1793 , totalling 2 runs with a highest score of 2 .","qid":"2784","docid":"Spencer_(Essex_cricketer)","rank":99,"score":89206},{"content":"Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference) Content: In 2005, an international conference titled Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and global warming and its effects. The conference name was derived from Article 2 of the charter for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The conference explored the possible impacts at different levels of greenhouse gas emissions and how the climate might be stabilized at a desired level. The conference took place under the United Kingdom's presidency of the G8, with the participation of around 200 \"internationally renowned\" scientists from 30 countries. It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter, from 1 February to 3 February. The conference was one of many meetings leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, at which the international community agreed to limit global warming to no more than 2C in order to have a 50-50 chance of avoiding dangerous climate change. However, a 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting it is below the 2 degree temperature target.","qid":"2784","docid":"Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change_(2005_conference)","rank":100,"score":89195}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Iris hypothesis Content: The iris hypothesis is a hypothesis proposed by Richard Lindzen et al. in 2001 that suggested increased sea surface temperature in the tropics would result in reduced cirrus clouds and thus more infrared radiation leakage from Earth 's atmosphere . His study of observed changes in cloud coverage and modeled effects on infrared radiation released to space as a result supported the hypothesis . This suggested infrared radiation leakage was hypothesized to be a negative feedback in which an initial warming would result in an overall cooling of the surface . The consensus view is that increased sea surface temperature would result in increased cirrus clouds and reduced infrared radiation leakage and therefore a positive feedback . Other scientists subsequently tested the hypothesis . Some concluded that there was no evidence supporting the hypothesis . Others found evidence suggesting that increased sea surface temperature in the tropics did indeed reduce cirrus clouds but found that the effect was nonetheless a positive feedback rather than the negative feedback that Lindzen had hypothesized . A later 2007 study conducted by Roy Spencer et al. using updated satellite data potentially supported the iris hypothesis . In 2011 , Lindzen published a rebuttal to the main criticisms . In 2015 a paper was published which again suggested the possibility of an `` Iris Effect '' . It also proposed what it called a `` plausible physical mechanism for an iris effect . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Iris_hypothesis\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 144255\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Andrew Dessler Content: Andrew Emory Dessler ( born 1964 ) is a climate scientist and Professor of Atmospheric Sciences at Texas A&M University . His research subject areas are atmospheric chemistry , climate change and climate change policy .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Andrew_Dessler\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 138293\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate sensitivity Content: Climate sensitivity is the equilibrium temperature change in response to changes of the radiative forcing . Therefore , climate sensitivity depends on the initial climate state , but potentially can be accurately inferred from precise palaeoclimate data . Slow climate feedbacks , especially changes of ice sheet size and atmospheric CO2 , amplify the total Earth system sensitivity by an amount that depends on the time scale considered . Although climate sensitivity is usually used in the context of radiative forcing by carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , it is thought of as a general property of the climate system : the change in surface air temperature ( ΔTs ) following a unit change in radiative forcing ( RF ) , and thus is expressed in units of ° C / ( W/m2 ) . For this to be useful , the measure must be independent of the nature of the forcing ( e.g. from greenhouse gases or solar variation ) ; to first order this is indeed found to be so . The climate sensitivity specifically due to is often expressed as the temperature change in ° C associated with a doubling of the concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere . For coupled atmosphere-ocean global climate models ( e.g. CMIP5 ) the climate sensitivity is an emergent property : it is not a model parameter , but rather a result of a combination of model physics and parameters . By contrast , simpler energy-balance models may have climate sensitivity as an explicit parameter . The terms represented in the equation relate radiative forcing ( RF ) to linear changes in global surface temperature change ( ΔTs ) via the climate sensitivity λ . It is also possible to estimate climate sensitivity from observations ; however , this is difficult due to uncertainties in the forcing and temperature histories .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_sensitivity\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 132837\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Roy Spencer (scientist) Content: Roy Warren Spencer ( born December 20 , 1955 ) is a meteorologist , Principal Research Scientist at the University of Alabama in Huntsville , and the U.S. Science Team leader for the Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer ( AMSR-E ) on NASA 's Aqua satellite . He has served as Senior Scientist for Climate Studies at NASA 's Marshall Space Flight Center . He is known for his satellite-based temperature monitoring work , for which he was awarded the American Meteorological Society 's Special Award .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Roy_Spencer_(scientist)\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 130485\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Discovery of Global Warming Content: The Discovery of Global Warming is a book by the physicist and historian Spencer R. Weart published in 2003 ; revised and updated edition , 2008 . It traces the history of scientific discoveries that led to the current scientific opinion on climate change . It has been translated into Spanish , Japanese , Italian , Arabic , Chinese and Korean .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Discovery_of_Global_Warming\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 127577\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Simon Tett Content: Simon Tett is a climatologist working at the University of Edinburgh . He used to work at the Hadley Centre . His most-cited paper , is , and of it he says : All attempts at detecting and attributing climate change signals need a reliable observed data set and simulations with mechanisms that drive climate change included . In a nutshell , this paper is important because it was the first study to investigate the effect of sulphate aerosols in a general circulation model of the climate system . The experiments simulate the climate back to 1860 ( which is when the global records of surface temperature became reliable ) ... After 1970 our model with greenhouse gases alone begins to depart significantly from the observations . However , when we included sulphate aerosols , which have a cooling effect , the model agreed with the data from the 1930s and onwards . The rapid warming that has taken place since 1970 is , according to the model , attributable to a heating effect from greenhouse gases and a cooling effect from sulphate aerosols .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Simon_Tett\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 125673\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change feedback Content: Climate change feedback is important in the understanding of global warming because feedback processes may amplify or diminish the effect of each climate forcing , and so play an important part in determining the climate sensitivity and future climate state . Feedback in general is the process in which changing one quantity changes a second quantity , and the change in the second quantity in turn changes the first . Positive feedback amplifies the change in the first quantity while negative feedback reduces it . The term `` forcing '' means a change which may `` push '' the climate system in the direction of warming or cooling . An example of a climate forcing is increased atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases . By definition , forcings are external to the climate system while feedbacks are internal ; in essence , feedbacks represent the internal processes of the system . Some feedbacks may act in relative isolation to the rest of the climate system ; others may be tightly coupled ; hence it may be difficult to tell just how much a particular process contributes . Forcings , feedbacks and the dynamics of the climate system determine how much and how fast the climate changes . The main positive feedback in global warming is the tendency of warming to increase the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere , which in turn leads to further warming . The main negative feedback comes from the Stefan -- Boltzmann law , the amount of heat radiated from the Earth into space changes with the fourth power of the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere . Some observed and potential effects of global warming are positive feedbacks , which contribute directly to further global warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that `` Anthropogenic warming could lead to some effects that are abrupt or irreversible , depending upon the rate and magnitude of the climate change . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_feedback\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 123723\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Robert D. Cess Content: Robert D. Cess is professor emeritus of atmospheric sciences at Stony Brook University . He earned his bachelor of science degree in mechanical engineering from Oregon State University and his master 's degree from Purdue University in Indiana in 1956 . Cess received a Ph.D. from the University of Pittsburgh in 1959 . He is a recognized leader in the fields of climate change and atmospheric radiation transfer . His research interest involve modeling of climate feedbacks that can either amplify or diminish global climate change , and interpreting surface and satellite remote sensing data . He has been a part of studies which have found problems with the ability of model the transmission of shortwave radiation through a cloud-free atmosphere , and designed an experiment to test the accuracy of the models . They reported that they found agreement between the models and the observations of clear-sky shortwave radiation at the surface for the period studied , 1985 to 1988 . Cess was a lead author of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and worked with the National Science Foundation on understanding greenhouse warming and its associated policy implications .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Robert_D._Cess\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 123675\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bronwyn Gillanders Content: Bronwyn May Gillanders ( born 1963 ) is a marine scientist whose research spans freshwater , estuarine and marine waters while focusing on fish and fisheries ecology . Her studies of the Giant Australian cuttlefish of Northern Spencer Gulf in South Australia revealed the species ' sensitivity to increases in salinity ; a controversial aspect of the Environmental Impact Study ( EIS ) for the expansion of BHP Billiton 's Olympic Dam mine . Gillanders ' discovery was published in the scientific journal Marine Environmental Research and prompted environmental activists to call for the relocation of the project 's proposed seawater desalination plant at Point Lowly , due to its proximity to the only mass breeding area for the animals ' genetically distinct population . Gillanders commenced work at the University of Adelaide in 2001 , received a tenurable position in 2007 and was appointed professor in 2010 . She is the Director of the Marine Biology program at the university 's Environment Institute .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Bronwyn_Gillanders\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 122596\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cloud feedback Content: Cloud feedback is the coupling between cloudiness and surface air temperature where a surface air temperature change leads to a change in clouds , which could then amplify or diminish the initial temperature perturbation . Cloud feedbacks can affect the magnitude of internally generated climate variability or they can affect the magnitude of climate change resulting from external radiative forcings . Global warming is expected to change the distribution and type of clouds . Seen from below , clouds emit infrared radiation back to the surface , and so exert a warming effect ; seen from above , clouds reflect sunlight and emit infrared radiation to space , and so exert a cooling effect . Cloud representations vary among global climate models , and small changes in cloud cover have a large impact on the climate . Differences in planetary boundary layer cloud modeling schemes can lead to large differences in derived values of climate sensitivity . A model that decreases boundary layer clouds in response to global warming has a climate sensitivity twice that of a model that does not include this feedback . However , satellite data show that cloud optical thickness actually increases with increasing temperature . Whether the net effect is warming or cooling depends on details such as the type and altitude of the cloud ; details that are difficult to represent in climate models .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Cloud_feedback\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 117262\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Daniel Spencer (environmentalist) Content: Daniel Spencer is a young South Australian climate activist , originally from Renmark in the state 's Riverland region . He has held prominent leadership roles in the Australian Youth Climate Coalition , the Repower Port Augusta campaign and the Walk for Solar . His work has focused on promoting a vision and building community support for the replacement of the coal-fired power stations at Port Augusta with a concentrated solar-thermal power generation alternative . Dan 's contributions to climate activism have been widely acknowledged and awarded . In 2012 , Dan received the Bob Brown Foundation 's inaugural Young Environmentalist of the Year award and was recognized by the Conservation Council of South Australia with the Jill Hudson Award for Environmental Protection . In 2013 , he received the Flinders Ports Environment Award at the Channel 9 Young Achievers Awards in South Australia . Dan has appeared in documentary films focusing on climate change and activism , including Revolution and 2 Degrees and is also a musician , songwriter and lead singer for the roots reggae band Babylon Burning .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Daniel_Spencer_(environmentalist)\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 114885\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Michael Schlesinger Content: Dr. Michael Earl Schlesinger ( born February 23 , 1943 ) is a Professor of Atmospheric Sciences and director of the Climate Research Group at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign . He received his Ph.D. ( meteorology ) in 1976 from the University of California , Los Angeles . Michael Schlesinger is an expert in the modeling , simulation and analysis of climate and climate change , with interests in simulating and understanding the climates of the geologic past and possible future climates resulting from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases and human-made aerosols . He has been instrumental in developing a range of simple and complex climate models , which have been used by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and the Energy Modeling Forum . His research currently focuses on : ( 1 ) simulating and understanding the effects on climate of a human-induced melting of the Greenland ice sheet ; ( 2 ) simulating and understanding the coupled climate-chemistry system , including the influences of the Sun - both irradiance and energetic electron precipitation - and volcanoes ; ( 3 ) understanding and reducing the uncertainty in the estimation of climate sensitivity and climate feedbacks ; and ( 4 ) performing integrative assessment of climate change , including further development of the robust adaptive decision strategy for mitigating and adapting to human-induced climate change . He is known for his work on oscillations in the global climate system , on estimating the climate sensitivity , and on seasonal climate change . He has edited four books , most recently Human-induced climate change : An interdisciplinary assessment . He regularly appears in the media .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Michael_Schlesinger\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 112913\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: James Hays Content: James D. Hays is a professor of Earth and environmental sciences at Columbia University 's Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory . Hays founded and led the CLIMAP project , which collected sea floor sediment data to study surface sea temperatures and paleoclimatological conditions 18,000 years ago . Hays is probably best known as a co-author of the 1976 paper in Science , `` Variations in the Earth 's orbit : Pacemaker of the ice ages . '' Using ocean sediment cores , the Science paper verified the theories of Milutin Milanković that oscillations in climate can be correlated with Earth 's orbital variations of eccentricity , axial tilt , and precession around the Sun ( see Milankovitch cycles ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"James_Hays\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 111659\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Jean Bosler Content: Jean Bosler ( 24 March 1878 , Angers -- 25 September 1973 , Marseille ) was a French astronomer and author of several books . Recruited by Deslandres as an astronomer at l'observatoire de Paris , Bosler discovered in 1908 in the spectrum of Comet Morehouse the spectral lines of ionized nitrogen , which was the first evidence of that element in comets . Much of his research was on the physical properties and orbits of comets . He made a report on progress in astrophysics in the United States for the 1910 annual report of the Smithsonian Institution . In 1912 , he showed in his doctoral dissertation ( supervised by Henri Poincaré ) that the Sun 's magnetic field , by means of the intermediary of the solar wind , explains many aspects of cometary tails , the aurora borealis and aurora australis , solar storms and telluric currents . During a solar eciipse in 1914 , Bosler observed in the corona a spectral band `` nouvelle , intense et unique '' which he suggested was spectral evidence for coronium ; however , in the 1930s subsequent research showed that the cause was a highly ionized form of iron . In 1916 , he published an analysis of the circular form of lunar craters as caused by the impact of meteors . In 1923 Bosler was named director of Marseille Observatory , a post he occupied until his retirement in 1948 . Simultaneously with his directorship , he taught at the University of Marseille from 1923 to 1948 . Bosler made important contributions to the theory of the evolution of stars and published the first textbook in French that dealt with the then recent discoveries of Hubble and the work on optical phenomena of such physicists as Michelson , Fabry and Perot . Bosler won the Prix Jules Janssen in 1911 from the Société astronomique de France , the French astronomical society , and the Prix Lalande from l'Académie des sciences in 1913 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Jean_Bosler\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 111604\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Herbert Spencer Content: Herbert Spencer ( 27 April 1820 -- 8 December 1903 ) was an English philosopher , biologist , anthropologist , sociologist , and prominent classical liberal political theorist of the Victorian era . Spencer developed an all-embracing conception of evolution as the progressive development of the physical world , biological organisms , the human mind , and human culture and societies . As a polymath , he contributed to a wide range of subjects , including ethics , religion , anthropology , economics , political theory , philosophy , literature , astronomy , biology , sociology , and psychology . During his lifetime he achieved tremendous authority , mainly in English-speaking academia . `` The only other English philosopher to have achieved anything like such widespread popularity was Bertrand Russell , and that was in the 20th century . '' Spencer was `` the single most famous European intellectual in the closing decades of the nineteenth century '' but his influence declined sharply after 1900 : `` Who now reads Spencer ? '' asked Talcott Parsons in 1937 . Spencer is best known for the expression `` survival of the fittest '' , which he coined in Principles of Biology ( 1864 ) , after reading Charles Darwin 's On the Origin of Species . This term strongly suggests natural selection , yet as Spencer extended evolution into realms of sociology and ethics , he also made use of Lamarckism .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Herbert_Spencer\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 110154\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: John Christy Content: John Raymond Christy is a climate scientist at the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) whose chief interests are satellite remote sensing of global climate and global climate change . He is best known , jointly with Roy Spencer , for the first successful development of a satellite temperature record .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"John_Christy\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 109871\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: David E. Spencer Content: David E. Spencer is a retired professor of economics at Brigham Young University . He taught and did research in macroeconomics , econometrics , and montetary theory . He is the author of eighteen peer-reviewed publications including Econometrica , the American Economic Review , the Review of Economics and Statistics and the Journal of Money , Credit and Banking . Spencer is a founding member of the BYU Macroeconomics and Computational Lab . In addition to teaching various economics classes , Spencer also taught American Heritage at BYU for several years . Spencer 's academic work has focused on econometric testing of macroeconomic theory . In particular , he has made important contributions to the understanding of the behavior of nominal and real wages over the course of the business cycle . He has made contributions to the literature on structural VAR estimation in this context . David Spencer has taught at BYU since 1986 . He received his Ph.D. in economics from Texas A & M University in 1974 . He was a visiting professor at Michigan State University during the 1974-75 academic year . From 1975 through 1979 he taught at Illinois State University . He was at Washington State University from 1979 to 1986 . He was tenured there in 1981 . In 1986 he moved to BYU and became a full professor in 1991 . He has held visiting positions at M.I.T. ( 1988 -- 89 ) and the University of Michigan ( 2007 -- 08 ) . He was also a Fulbright Scholar in Vietnam in 1997 . Spencer and coauthor Jo Anna Gray received the Best Article Award at Economic Inquiry in 1990 for their paper , `` Price Prediction Errors and Real Activity : A Reassessment . '' David Spencer has served as a committee member overseeing the Graduate Record Examination ( GRE ) Economics Exam from 1994 to 2001 and was chair of the committee from 1998 to 2001 , when the exam was discontinued . He received a major award at BYU in 2005 , the Alcuin Fellowship , and was an Alcuin fellow 2005-2008 . Spencer is one of the founders ( along with Richard W. Evans and Kerk L. Phillips ) of the BYU Macroeconomics and Computational Lab .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"David_E._Spencer\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 104918\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Richard Lindzen Content: Richard Siegmund Lindzen ( born February 8 , 1940 ) is an American atmospheric physicist known for his work in the dynamics of the middle atmosphere , atmospheric tides , and ozone photochemistry . He has published more than 200 scientific papers and books . From 1983 until his retirement in 2013 , he was Alfred P. Sloan Professor of Meteorology at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology . He was a lead author of Chapter 7 , `` Physical Climate Processes and Feedbacks , '' of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Third Assessment Report on climate change . He has criticized the scientific consensus about climate change and what he has called `` climate alarmism . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Richard_Lindzen\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 104792\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Scott Spencer (writer) Content: Scott Spencer ( born September 1 , 1945 in Washington , D.C. ) is an American author who has written eleven novels . He also wrote the screenplay for the 1993 movie Father Hood . Two of Spencer 's novels , Endless Love and Waking the Dead , have been adapted into films . Endless Love was first adapted into a motion picture by Franco Zeffirelli in 1981 , and a second adaptation by Shana Feste was released in 2014 . Waking the Dead was produced by Jodie Foster and directed by Keith Gordon in 2000 . The novels Endless Love and A Ship Made of Paper have both been nominated for the National Book Award , with Endless Love selling over 2 million copies . Spencer has heavily panned both film adaptations of Endless Love . Interviewed in The New York Times , Spencer once said : `` It may be time for serious , literary novelists to take back some of the subject matter we abandoned to hack novelists and the movies . '' Joyce Carol Oates , writing about A Ship Made of Paper in The New Yorker , said : `` Like Cheever , Spencer has imagined for his ... infatuated lover melodramatic crises that verge on the surreal ; like John Updike , Spencer is a poet-celebrant of Eros , lyrically precise in his descriptions of lovers ' fantasies , lovers ' lovemaking , lovers ' bodies ... '' The Wall Street Journal has said : `` There are few novelists alive who use the English language as Scott Spencer does ... Every ache of feeling , every failed effort at restraint , every attempt at self-deception is captured in precise , beautifully cadenced prose . '' Spencer has also worked as a journalist . He has published in The New York Times , The New Yorker , Harpers Magazine , GQ , O , The Oprah Magazine , and he is a regular contributor to Rolling Stone . He has taught at Columbia University , the University of Iowa , Williams College , Bard College 's Bard Prison Initiative , and the University of Virginia . Spencer attended the University of Illinois , Roosevelt University , and graduated from the University of Wisconsin . In 2004 , he was the recipient of a Guggenheim Fellowship . For the past twenty years , he has lived in a small town in upstate New York . The Men in Black movies are not based upon Spencer 's novel Men in Black . For some of his latest works , two sequenced horror novels , Spencer has chosen the pseudonym ″ Chase Novak ″ .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Scott_Spencer_(writer)\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 104209\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Peter Doran Content: Peter Doran , Ph.D. is Professor of Geology and Geophysics at Louisiana State University . Doran specializes in polar regions , especially Antarctic climate and ecosystems . Doran was the lead author of a research paper about Antarctic temperatures that was published in the journal Nature in January 2002 . Because he and his colleagues found that some parts of Antarctica had cooled between 1964 and 2000 , his paper has been frequently cited by opponents of the global warming theory , such as Ann Coulter and Michael Crichton . In an opinion piece in the July 27 , 2006 New York Times , Doran characterized this as a `` misinterpretation '' and stated , `` I have never thought such a thing ... I would like to remove my name from the list of scientists who dispute global warming . '' ( The temporary phenomenon is related to the `` hole '' in the ozone . As the `` hole heals '' the Antarctic will dramatically warm quickly . ) Doran and his grad student Maggie Kendall Zimmerman also published a paper in the Jan 27 , 2009 issue of EOS showing that active climate researchers almost unanimously agree that humans have had a significant impact on the Earth 's climate . Both an Antarctic stream and glacier were named for Doran by the U.S. Geological Survey to commemorate his many significant research contributions conducted on the continent .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Peter_Doran\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 104156\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Soon and Baliunas controversy Content: The Soon and Baliunas controversy involved the publication in 2003 of a review study written by aerospace engineer Willie Soon and astronomer Sallie Baliunas in the journal Climate Research , which was quickly taken up by the G.W. Bush administration as a basis for amending the first Environmental Protection Agency Report on the Environment . The paper was strongly criticized by numerous scientists for its methodology and for its misuse of data from previously published studies , prompting concerns about the peer review process of the paper . The controversy resulted in the resignation of half of the editors of the journal and in the admission by its publisher Otto Kinne that the paper should not have been published as it was .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Soon_and_Baliunas_controversy\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 104111\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Surveys of scientists' views on climate change Content: Surveys of scientists ' views on climate change - with a focus on human-caused or anthropogenic global warming ( AGW ) - have been undertaken since the 1990s . A 2016 paper ( which was co-authored by Naomi Oreskes , Peter Doran , William Anderegg , Bart Verheggen , Ed Maibach , J. Stuart Carlton and John Cook , and which was based on a half a dozen independent studies by the authors ) concluded that `` the finding of 97 % consensus -LSB- that humans are causing recent global warming -RSB- in published climate research is robust and consistent with other surveys of climate scientists and peer-reviewed studies . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Surveys_of_scientists'_views_on_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 103301\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: CLAW hypothesis Content: The CLAW hypothesis proposes a negative feedback loop that operates between ocean ecosystems and the Earth 's climate . The hypothesis specifically proposes that particular phytoplankton that produce dimethyl sulfide are responsive to variations in climate forcing , and that these responses act to stabilise the temperature of the Earth 's atmosphere . The CLAW hypothesis was originally proposed by Robert Jay Charlson , James Lovelock , Meinrat Andreae and Stephen G. Warren , and takes its acronym from the first letter of their surnames .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"CLAW_hypothesis\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 101667\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Daniel Spencer Content: Daniel Spencer may refer to : Daniel Spencer ( Mormon ) ( 1794 -- 1868 ) , mayor of Nauvoo , Illinois and Mormon pioneer Daniel Spencer ( environmentalist ) , South Australian climate activist Danny Spencer , guitarist with Rogue Traders Dan Spencer ( born 1965 ) , American baseball coach\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Daniel_Spencer\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 101248\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Piers Forster Content: Piers Forster is Professor of Physical Climate Change and Director of the Priestley International Centre for Climate at the University of Leeds . A physicist by training , his research focuses on quantifying the different human causes of climate change and the way the Earth responds . He is best known for his work on radiative forcing , climate sensitivity , contrails and geoengineering . He has contributed heavily to the writing of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change reports , including acting as a Lead Author for both the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and IPCC Fifth Assessment Report .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Piers_Forster\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 101246\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mount Spencer (California) Content: Mount Spencer is a 12431 ft peak in the Sierra Nevada , in Kings Canyon National Park and Fresno County , California . It is named for Herbert Spencer , an English philosopher and prominent scientist in the field of evolution who coined the term `` survival of the fittest . '' Other nearby mountains in the Evolution Group include Mount Darwin , Mount Mendel , Mount Fiske , Mount Haeckel , Mount Huxley , Mount Wallace , and Mount Lamarck . The area around the peaks , known as the Evolution Region , includes Evolution Basin and Evolution Valley . Although it is not a very well known peak , it offers a picturesque view from Evolution Lake and the John Muir Trail .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Mount_Spencer_(California)\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 101139\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: William D. Sellers Content: William D. Sellers ( 18 August 1928 -- 27 August 2014 ) was an American meteorologist , climate scientist , and pioneer of climate modelling . He created one the earliest climate models and was one of the first scientists to recognize the effects of CO2 in the atmosphere on the earth 's climate . He published the textbook `` Physical Climatology '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"William_D._Sellers\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 101122\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Peter Thejll Content: Peter Andreas Thejll ( born 1956 ) is a Danish astrophysicist and climate researcher . His research in solar variation helped provide evidence of the greenhouse effect on the Earth 's climate in the late 20th century . In particular , his study with Knud Lassen on Northern Hemisphere land air temperature showed that the rise of 0.4 degrees Celsius since 1980 could not be accounted for by the solar cycle . Climatologists have pointed to this finding as an `` actual piece of evidence for greenhouse warming '' . Thejll received his undergraduate education at the University of Copenhagen . He received an M.S. in physics and a Ph.D. in astrophysics from the University of Delaware . Thejll was a Carlsberg Fellow at the Niels Bohr Institute and worked at the Nordic Institute for Theoretical Physics . Thejll currently is a senior scientist at the Danish Meteorological Institute in Copenhagen . He is currently involved in the creation of a global automatic system to observe the Earth 's reflectivity - albedo - using observations of the earthshine on the Moon . Such data can be used for climate change studies and calibration of satellite data as the measurements deliver independent data on the albedo . A telescope is now installed on Hawaii at the Mauna Loa Observatory . The Swedish research agency VINNOVA is funding this project .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Peter_Thejll\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 100993\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bode's sensitivity integral Content: Bode 's sensitivity integral , discovered by Hendrik Wade Bode , is a formula that quantifies some of the limitations in feedback control of linear parameter invariant systems . Let L be the loop transfer function and S be the sensitivity function . Then the following holds : where are the poles of L in the right half plane ( unstable poles ) . If L has at least two more poles than zeros , and has no poles in the right half plane ( is stable ) , the equation simplifies to : This equality shows that if sensitivity to disturbance is suppressed at some frequency range , it is necessarily increased at some other range . This has been called the `` waterbed effect . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Bode's_sensitivity_integral\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 100853\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Thomas Spencer (mathematical physicist) Content: Thomas C. Spencer ( born December 24 , 1946 ) is an American mathematical physicist , known in particular for important contributions to constructive quantum field theory , statistical mechanics , and spectral theory of random operators . He earned his doctorate in 1972 from New York University with a dissertation entitled Perturbation of the Po2 Quantum Field Hamiltonian written under the direction of James Glimm . Since 1986 , he has been professor of mathematics at the Institute for Advanced Study . He is a member of the United States National Academy of Sciences , and the recipient of the Dannie Heineman Prize for Mathematical Physics ( joint with Jürg Fröhlich , `` For their joint work in providing rigorous mathematical solutions to some outstanding problems in statistical mechanics and field theory . '' ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Thomas_Spencer_(mathematical_physicist)\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 100164\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Antarctica cooling controversy Content: An apparent contradiction in the observed cooling behavior of Antarctica between 1966 and 2000 became part of the public debate in the global warming controversy , particularly between advocacy groups of both sides in the public arena including politicians , as well as the popular media . In his novel State of Fear , Michael Crichton asserted that the Antarctic data contradict global warming . The few scientists who have commented on the supposed controversy state that there is no contradiction , while the author of the paper whose work inspired Crichton 's remarks has said that Crichton `` misused '' his results . There is no similar controversy within the scientific community , as the small observed changes in Antarctica are consistent with the small changes predicted by climate models , and because the overall trend since comprehensive observations began is now known to be one of warming . At the South Pole , where some of the strongest cooling trends were observed between the 1950s and 1990s , the mean trend is flat from 1957 through 2013 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Antarctica_cooling_controversy\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 100091\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Metta Spencer Content: Metta Spencer ( born 29 August 1931 ) is a Canadian sociologist , writer , peace researcher , and activist . She is president of Science for Peace , a Canadian organization of natural and social scientists based in Toronto . After completing a Ph.D. in Sociology in 1969 at the University of California , Berkeley , Spencer joined the Department of Sociology at the University of Toronto 's Erindale College in 1971 . She taught regularly in the university 's Peace and Conflict Studies Program , which she founded in 1989 and coordinated until her retirement in 1997 . In 1976 Spencer authored the Foundations of Modern Sociology textbook , which was subsequently published in four American and seven Canadian editions . Spencer has specialized in peace and war studies , and has been active in the Canadian peace movement . As the founding president and director of the Canadian Disarmament Information Service ( CANDIS ) , she published the monthly Peace Calendar from 1983 to 1985 , when the publication changed to magazine format and took the name Peace Magazine . In 2009 , Spencer organized the Zero Nuclear Weapons public forum in Toronto , jointly sponsored by four major Canadian peace organizations with which she has been involved since the mid-80s : Physicians for Global Survival , Canadian Voice of Women for Peace , the Nobel Peace Prize laureate organization Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs , and Science for Peace . She has also extensively researched peace and conflict in the former Soviet Union and Eastern Europe . In 1997 , she organized `` The Lessons of Yugoslavia , '' a three-day Science for Peace conference at the University of Toronto . In 2011 , she published The Russian Quest for Peace and Democracy , the culmination of 28 years of research and hundreds of interviews with Russian politicians and activists . She argues that Western peace activists ' influence on Russians including Gorbachev helped end the Cold War more so than pressure from the US or NATO . More recently , Spencer has become involved in climate change activism ( by chairing since 2007 a Science for Peace committee to study and campaign for carbon taxation policy ) and has researched edutainment , or social change through storytelling . In her book Two Aspirins and a Comedy : How Television Can Enhance Health and Society ( 2006 ) , she argues that television could be a force for health and social change .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Metta_Spencer\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 99875\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Seita Emori Content: Seita Emori ( born 1970 in Kanagawa , Japan ) is a Japanese environmental scientist whose most noted work focuses upon the worldwide effects of Global Warming . He completed his Doctorate at the University of Tokyo in 1997 and thereafter joined the National Institute of Environmental Studies , Japan where he is currently the Chief of the Climate Risk Assessment Research Section at the Center for Global Environmental Research . Emori is a contributing author to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and a member of the IPCC Steering Committee for the `` Expert Meeting on New Scenarios '' , for which the IPCC received a Noble Prize in 2007 . Among Emori 's publications are the academic paper `` Sensitivity Map of LAI to Precipitation and Surface Air Temperature Variations in a Global Scale '' ( co-authored with his Japans colleague Hiroshi Kanzawa and Jiahua Zhang and Congbin Fu of the START , Institute of Atmospheric Physics in Beijing , China ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Seita_Emori\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 99653\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sensitivity analysis Content: Sensitivity analysis is the study of how the uncertainty in the output of a mathematical model or system ( numerical or otherwise ) can be apportioned to different sources of uncertainty in its inputs . A related practice is uncertainty analysis , which has a greater focus on uncertainty quantification and propagation of uncertainty ; ideally , uncertainty and sensitivity analysis should be run in tandem . The process of recalculating outcomes under alternative assumptions to determine the impact of a variable under sensitivity analysis can be useful for a range of purposes , including : Testing the robustness of the results of a model or system in the presence of uncertainty . Increased understanding of the relationships between input and output variables in a system or model . Uncertainty reduction , through the identification of model inputs that cause significant uncertainty in the output and should therefore be the focus of attention in order to increase robustness ( perhaps by further research ) . Searching for errors in the model ( by encountering unexpected relationships between inputs and outputs ) . Model simplification -- fixing model inputs that have no effect on the output , or identifying and removing redundant parts of the model structure . Enhancing communication from modelers to decision makers ( e.g. by making recommendations more credible , understandable , compelling or persuasive ) . Finding regions in the space of input factors for which the model output is either maximum or minimum or meets some optimum criterion ( see optimization and Monte Carlo filtering ) . In case of calibrating models with large number of parameters , a primary sensitivity test can ease the calibration stage by focusing on the sensitive parameters . Not knowing the sensitivity of parameters can result in time being uselessly spent on non-sensitive ones . To seek to identify important connections between observations , model inputs , and predictions or forecasts , leading to the development of better models .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Sensitivity_analysis\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 99169\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Petar Gburčik Content: Prof. Petar Gburčik ( Cyrillic : Петар Гбурчик ) ( 30 October 1931 - 29 October 2006 ) was a Serbian scientist and a Professor of Meteorology at the University of Belgrade . He was the author of first mathematical models of the numerical weather prediction , which were used operationally in the Weather Service of Yugoslavia from 1970 to 1977 . In the same period he began modeling of the atmospheric diffusion of air-pollution and created the first model of the spatial distribution of air-pollution . The output of this model was used for the elaboration of the urban plan of Pančevo . For the actual research of the three-dimensional distribution of wind energy ( on the territories of Belgrade and Serbia ) he applied the integration of classic models with GIS technology . Special area of his engagements were the intentionally and inadvertently modified climates , as well as their impact on the sustainable development . These modifications destabilize the climate system and lead to big material and social damage , due to the lack of possibility of weather control . Petar Gburčik proved this with his scientific papers on weather modifications and climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Petar_Gburčik\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 98876\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Friderich Martens Content: Friderich Martens , ( 1635 - 1699 ) was a German physician and naturalist who conducted the first scientific observations of the nature , animal life and climate of Svalbard . He published his notes in the book `` Spitzbergische oder Groenlandische Reise-Beschreibung , gethan im Jahre 1671 '' and this book became a reference work for many decades .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Friderich_Martens\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 98679\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: G. Spencer-Brown Content: George Spencer-Brown ( 2 April 1923 -- 25 August 2016 ) was an English polymath best known as the author of Laws of Form . He described himself as a `` mathematician , consulting engineer , psychologist , educational consultant and practitioner , consulting psychotherapist , author , and poet '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"G._Spencer-Brown\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 98310\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Harold Locke Hazen Content: Harold Locke Hazen ( August 1 , 1901 -- February 21 , 1980 ) was an American electrical engineer . He contributed to the theory of servomechanisms and feedback control systems . In 1924 under the lead of Vannevar Bush , Hazen and his fellow undergraduate Hugh H. Spencer built a prototype AC network analyzer , a special-purpose analog computer for solving problems in interconnected AC power systems . Hazen also worked with Bush over twenty years on such projects as the mechanical differential analyzer .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Harold_Locke_Hazen\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 98165\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Donald C. Spencer Content: Donald Clayton Spencer ( April 25 , 1912 -- December 23 , 2001 ) was an American mathematician , known for work on deformation theory of structures arising in differential geometry , and on several complex variables from the point of view of partial differential equations . He was born in Boulder , Colorado , and educated at the University of Colorado and MIT . He wrote a Ph.D. in diophantine approximation under J. E. Littlewood and G.H. Hardy at the University of Cambridge , completed in 1939 . He had positions at MIT and Stanford before his appointment in 1950 at Princeton University . There he was involved in a series of collaborative works with Kunihiko Kodaira on the deformation of complex structures , which had some influence on the theory of complex manifolds and algebraic geometry , and the conception of moduli spaces . He also was led to formulate the d-bar Neumann problem , for the operator ( see complex differential form ) in PDE theory , to extend Hodge theory and the n-dimensional Cauchy -- Riemann equations to the non-compact case . This is used to show existence theorems for holomorphic functions . He later worked on pseudogroups and their deformation theory , based on a fresh approach to overdetermined systems of PDEs ( bypassing the Cartan -- Kähler ideas based on differential forms by making an intensive use of jets ) . Formulated at the level of various chain complexes , this gives rise to what is now called Spencer cohomology , a subtle and difficult theory both of formal and of analytical structure . This is a kind of Koszul complex theory , taken up by numerous mathematicians during the 1960s . In particular a theory for Lie equations formulated by Malgrange emerged , giving a very broad formulation of the notion of integrability . After his death , a mountain peak outside of Silverton , Colorado was named in his honor .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Donald_C._Spencer\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 98038\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Percival H. Spencer Content: Percival Hopkins Spencer ( April 30 , 1897 -- January 16 , 1995 ) was an American inventor , aviation pioneer , test pilot and businessman .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Percival_H._Spencer\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 98037\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Spencer R. Weart Content: Spencer R. Weart ( born 1942 ) was the director of the Center for History of Physics of the American Institute of Physics ( AIP ) from 1971 until his retirement in 2009 . Originally trained as a physicist , he is now a historian of science . He earned his B.A. in Physics at Cornell University in 1963 and a Ph.D. in Physics and Astrophysics at the University of Colorado , Boulder , in 1968 . He has produced numerous historical articles , two children 's science books , and written or co-edited eleven other books , including : Scientists in Power ( 1979 ) . A history of the rise of nuclear science , weapons , and reactors in France . ISBN 0-674-79515-6 Leo Szilard : His Version of the Facts ( 1978 ) . Edited correspondence . ISBN 0-262-69070-5 Nuclear Fear : A History of Images ( 1989 ) ISBN 0-674-62836-5 Out of the Crystal Maze : Chapters from the History of Solid State Physics ( 1991 ) . ISBN 0-19-505329-X Never at War : Why Democracies Will Not Fight One Another ( 1998 ) . ISBN 0-300-08298-3 The Discovery of Global Warming ( 2003 , 2008 ) . Online extended version . ISBN 0-674-03189-X The Rise of Nuclear Fear ( 2012 ) . ISBN 978-0-674-05233-8 While at AIP he also produced and edited an award-winning website with historical exhibits .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Spencer_R._Weart\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 97843\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Spencer G. Lucas Content: Spencer George Lucas is an American paleontologist and stratigrapher , and curator of paleontology at the New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science . His main areas of study are late Paleozoic , Mesozoic and early Cenozoic vertebrate fossils , stratigraphy , and continental deposits , particularly in the American Southwest . His research has taken him on field trips to northern Mexico , Costa Rica , Nicaragua , Jamaica , Kazakhstan , and Georgia , and he conducted extensive field and museum research in China in the 1980s and 1990s . He has written more than 500 scientific contributions ( about 25-percent are articles in peer-reviewed journals ) , three books , and has co-edited 14 books . In 2007 , some publications by Lucas and associates at the New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science came under scrutiny after allegations that information was improperly taken from the unpublished and in-press work of graduate students not on his team . Formal complaints were made to the New Mexico Department of Cultural Affairs regarding publications on a new genus of aetosaur ( a type of armored prehistoric reptile from the Triassic ) , and a reinterpretation of another aetosaur 's armor . In July 2008 , the Ethics Committee of the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology concluded that the matter could not be resolved in favor of either side . In 2012 , he co-authored a paper describing the world 's smallest tetrapod footprints , found at Joggins , Nova Scotia . Lucas was a master-level chess player ( New Mexico state champion in 1973 and 1974 ) . He gave up chess , for the most part , in the mid-1970s to focus on his academic career .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Spencer_G._Lucas\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 97635\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Charles A. Spencer Content: Charles A. Spencer was an American scientific pioneer and inventor , who is widely believed to have developed the first American-made achromatic objective microscope . He was born in 1813 in Madison County , NY and died in 1881 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Charles_A._Spencer\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 97546\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Minocher K. Spencer Content: Yogi Minocher K. Spencer was a Parsi author and spiritual healer who lived in Karachi , Pakistan where he also worked as a metal merchant . Spencer was born in Pune , Maharashtra , India on October 4 , 1888 and died August 30 , 1958 . He claimed that he was guided by the spirit of a deceased guru , Rishi Ram Ram , and later by Sai Baba of Shirdi ( also deceased ) . He claimed to have attained ` Jeevan Mukti ' during his life . He wrote a number of books that were published posthumously , including : How I found God The other world Joyous mysticism great mystics saints of the world Understanding the divine mysteries Romance of the soul ( 1954 ) The most important of his books is How I found God . In this book , Spencer wrote all his experiences first hand . His cousin H. Spencer also helped him in his journey to God . His life can be divided in different phases according to spiritual development . His life changed in 1930 when he met a mystic in Lahore . That mysterious person with occult powers told him that he had hidden spiritual powers of becoming a medium . He started writing articles in local newspaper on weekly basis where he was criticised by few persons of theosophical society for his view for spirituality . Later he met a lady in London which catalysed his spiritual growth . In his second phase of intensification of love for God , he came in contact with `` spiritual healing center , Coimbatore ( South India ) '' . Rishi Ram Ram was the spiritual guide of the center at that time . Rishi Ram Ram was born 2500 years ago in Orissa , India . He was living in spiritual plane at that time and helping souls eager to know God 's love . Rishi Ram Ram promised him to help . Later , in 1960 Rishi Ram Ram left spiritual plane and merged in God . M.K. Spencer was told to read holy scriptures and write spiritual stuff . He followed the same . During that time he wrote Oneness with God . Slowly and steadily his desire of meeting God intensified . He spent more and more time in his altar room . His meditation sessions started at 2 am and lasted late into the night . He forgot his daily mundane work and worries . Later Rish Ram Ram handed him over to Shirdi Sai Baba , saint of the saints . Sai baba helped him in achieving the perfection and purity required to meet God .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Minocher_K._Spencer\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 97539\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Spencer Heath Content: Spencer Heath ( born 1876 , Vienna , Virginia -- died 1963 , Leesburg , Virginia ) was an American engineer , attorney , inventor , manufacturer , horticulturist , poet , philosopher of science and social thinker . A dissenter from the prevailing Georgist views , he pioneered the theory of proprietary governance and community in his book Citadel , Market and Altar . His grandson , Spencer Heath MacCallum , popularized and expounded on his ideas , most notably in his book The Art of Community .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Spencer_Heath\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 96991\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carroll Izard Content: Carroll Ellis Izard ( October 8 , 1923 -- February 5 , 2017 ) was an American research psychologist known for his contributions to differential emotions theory ( DET ) , and the Maximally Discriminative Affect Coding System ( MAX ) . Differential Emotions Theory maintains that universally recognizable innate , basic emotions emerge within the first 2 to 7 months of post-natal life `` without facial movement precursors '' , and argues for congruence of emotional expression and subjective experience . Izard also undertook empirical studies into the facial feedback hypothesis according to which emotions which have different functions also cause facial expressions which in turn provide us with cues about what emotion a person is feeling . In addition , Izard constructed a multidimensional self-report measure -- the Differential Emotions Scale -- currently in its 4th edition ( DES-IV ) that purports to measure 12 fundamental emotions universally discernible in the facial expressions of infants\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Carroll_Izard\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 96864\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: John Spencer (businessman) Content: John Berridge Spencer ( 1934 or 1935 -- 10 February 2016 ) was a New Zealand business magnate . Spencer was for many years head of Caxton Pulp & Paper , a business founded in 1890 by his grandfather , Albert Spencer . He inherited the company in 1981 from his father , Berridge Spencer , who had successfully expanded the company after World War I. Expansion included the founding of the pulp and paper mill at Kawerau . John Spencer ran the company until 1988 , when he sold it to Carter Holt Harvey for a sum estimated at $ NZ 300 million . During the stock market boom of the 1980s , Spencer 's nett wealth was estimated at $ 675 million , making him New Zealand 's richest man . Other business interests included property and vineyards . He lost heavily in the 1987 stock market crash , but managed to retain a significant portion of his fortune , which was augmented by the Caxton sale . By 2015 , the NBR rich list estimated that the Spencer family fortune was around $ 720 million . In the last years of his life , Spencer was as well-known for disputes over land access on his Waiheke Island property as for his fortune . An intensely private man , he waged a two decade-long campaign to reduce public access to the Stony Batter historic site on his farm , a dispute which involved him on one occasion barricading a public road . The dispute eventually ended up at the Privy Council , with Spencer losing the case . Spencer died in London on 10 February 2016 at the age of 81 . His wife , Finnish-born Tytti Laurola , predeceased him , dying of cancer in 1992 at the age of 54 . He was survived by his son Berridge and daughter Mertsi .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"John_Spencer_(businessman)\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 96787\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Research (journal) Content: Climate Research is a small peer-reviewed scientific journal published by the Inter-Research Science Center that was established in 1990 . Its founder and long time publisher was marine biologist Otto Kinne . Outside the climate research community , the journal is mostly known for its 2003 publication of a controversial and now discredited climate change article . Three volumes , each typically containing half a dozen articles , are published each year . Each of its 12 editors therefore handles an average of less than 2 articles a year . Climate Research covers all aspects of the interactions of climate with organisms , ecosystems , and human societies . In 2006 , a special issue of the journal , titled `` Advances in Applying Climate Prediction to Agriculture '' , was published under open access .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Research_(journal)\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 96715\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Eliyahu Eliezer Dessler Content: Eliyahu Eliezer Dessler ( 1892 -- 30 December 1953 ) was an Orthodox rabbi , Talmudic scholar , and Jewish philosopher of the 20th century . He is best known for being the mashgiach ruchani ( `` spiritual counselor '' ) of the Ponevezh yeshiva in Israel and through collections of his writings published posthumously by his pupils .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Eliyahu_Eliezer_Dessler\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 96546\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Duncan Wingham Content: Duncan John Wingham ( born 12 October 1957 ) is a British physicist who is Professor of Climate Physics at University College London , and was the first Director of the Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling . He is chief executive of the Natural Environment Research Council and Principal Scientist for the CryoSat Satellite Mission . In the 1990s , Wingham was involved in a four-year satellite study of the Antarctic ice sheet . His conclusion then , and from later research , is that the Antarctic has contributed little to observed rising sea levels in the 20th century . However , he has also stated that `` it is possible that the consequences of global warming on sea level rise have been underestimated ... Other sources of rise must be underestimated . In particular it is possible that the effect of global warming on thermal expansion -LSB- on the oceans -RSB- is larger than we thought '' . In a 2005 interview Wingham stated '' -LSB- t -RSB- he Antarctic is to some extent insulated from global warming because to its north are zonal flows in the atmosphere and ocean , unimpeded by other landmasses ... I am not denying global warming . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Duncan_Wingham\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 96261\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Spencer Christian Content: Spencer Christian ( born July 23 , 1947 ) is an American television broadcaster , best known as the former weather forecaster for ABC 's Good Morning America from 1986 to 1998 . He currently is the weather forecaster for ABC-owned KGO-TV in San Francisco . Christian is also the author of several children 's books .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Spencer_Christian\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 96229\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: John H. Mercer Content: John H. Mercer ( Cheltenham , England , 19 October 1922 -- Columbus , Ohio 3 July 1987 ) was a glaciologist , chiefly known for his theoretical work on , and field studies of Antarctic ice streams , especially in the Transantarctic Mountains and in West Antarctica . Following John T. Hollin 's work ( 1962 ) suggesting that climatic warming and rising sea-level cause Antarctic ice shelves to retreat , Mercer postulated that the West Antarctic ice sheet , being grounded well below sea-level and terminating in floating ice shelves , was vulnerable to these changes and may have collapsed altogether during the last interglacial when Antarctica may have been warmer and sea-level may have been higher . In 1978 , in the science magazine Nature , Mercer pointed out that `` green-house '' warming from burning fossil fuel could have the same effect during the present interglacial . Two studies published 12 May 2014 confirm Mercer 's assumption . Climate scientist James Hansen has coined the term , `` John Mercer effect . '' After Mercer published his paper suggesting that the West Antarctic ice sheet could collapse in response to warming , he struggled to get funding . Others , including Hansen , had similar problems . Many climate scientists censor their own work to avoid losing funding , especially regarding prospects for limiting warming to 2 ° C above pre-industrial temperatures . John H. Mercer was the third child of Harriet and John W. Mercer . He was educated at private schools in Cheltenham and , later , at Gordonstoun in Scotland . During World War II he served in the British Merchant Marines ( 1940 -- 46 ) as a radio man . After the war he went to University of Cambridge and studied geography . At that time he came under the influence of William Vaughan Lewis . After finishing his B.A. in 1949 Mercer went to Canada , where he received his PhD in geography from McGill University in 1954 . He was a Research Scholar from 1954 to 1956 at the Australian National University in Canberra , where he studied land use and population in western Samoa . He returned to Canada and worked in the Canadian Hydro-graphic Office in Ottawa as a geographer in 1957 and 1958 . During 1959 -- 60 , 1961 -- 62 , 1964 , and 1966 , the American Geographical Society employed him at its World Data Center A for Glaciology in New York . The turning point in his career as a glaciologist was in 1960 , when he became a Research Associate at The Ohio State University , in the Institute of Polar Studies ( renamed the Byrd Polar Research Center ) . He remained at The Ohio State University until his death , becoming its first Senior Research Scientist .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"John_H._Mercer\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 95564\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Patrick Michaels Content: Patrick J. ( `` Pat '' ) Michaels ( born February 15 , 1950 ) is an American climatologist . Michaels is a senior fellow in environmental studies at the Cato Institute . Until 2007 he was research professor of environmental sciences at the University of Virginia , where he had worked from 1980 . A self-described skeptic on the issue of global warming , he is a past president of the American Association of State Climatologists . He has written a number of books and papers on climate change , including Sound and Fury : The Science and Politics of Global Warming ( 1992 ) , The Satanic Gases ( 2000 ) , and Meltdown : The Predictable Distortion of Global Warming by Scientists , Politicians , and the Media ( 2004 ) . He 's also the co-author of Climate of Extremes : Global Warming Science They Do n't Want You to Know ( 2009 ) . Michaels ' viewpoint , as argued in a 2002 article in the journal Climate Research , is that the planet will see `` a warming range of 1.3 -- 3.0 ° C , with a central value of 1.9 ° C '' for the 1990 to 2100 period ( an analysis far smaller than the IPCC 's average predictions ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Patrick_Michaels\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 95002\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: John Spencer (Master of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge) Content: John Spencer ( 1630 -- 1693 ) was an English clergyman and scholar , Master of Corpus Christi College , Cambridge . An erudite theologian and Hebraist , he is now remembered as the author of De Legibus Hebraeorum , a pioneer work of comparative religion , advancing the thesis that Judaism was not the earliest of mankind 's religions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"John_Spencer_(Master_of_Corpus_Christi_College,_Cambridge)\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 94952\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Anthony James Merrill Spencer Content: Anthony James Merrill Spencer ( 23 August 1929 -- 26 January 2008 ) FRS was an applied mathematician whose main field of research was in understanding and predicting the mechanical behaviour of advanced materials .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Anthony_James_Merrill_Spencer\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 94742\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Truth About Muhammad Content: The Truth About Muhammad : Founder of the World 's Most Intolerant Religion ( 2006 ) is a controversial book by Robert Spencer , the director of Jihad Watch and Dhimmi Watch . In the book the author proposes to present an account of what Muhammad said and did from the writings of the early biographers of Muhammad such as Ibn Ishaq , Ibn Sa 'd al-Baghdadi , Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari as well as the Qur ` an and the hadith collections of Bukhari and Muslim . In the examination of the early sources , Spencer gives his view on the events of Muhammad 's life which are invoked by contemporary Islamic clerics , governments , advocates and Yusuf al-Qaradawi today as a standard for their behaviour . The book aims to draw a connection between Muhammad 's legacy and modern day practices like child marriages and divorce laws , punishments such as stoning for adultery and amputation for theft , execution for apostasy as well as the jihad and dhimmi doctrines adopted towards non-Muslims , as found in some parts of the Muslim world . The book was on the New York Times Best Seller list for the week ending October 14 , 2006 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Truth_About_Muhammad\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 94581\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Domina Eberle Spencer Content: Domina Eberle Spencer ( born September 26 , 1920 ) is a mathematician at the University of Connecticut who works on electrodynamics and field theory . She earned her Ph.D. in 1942 from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology under the supervision of Dirk Jan Struik . She was married to Parry Moon together with whom she wrote many of her books and papers and introduced holors . She is president of the Natural Philosophy Alliance which she helped found in 1993 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Domina_Eberle_Spencer\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 94576\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Archibald Spencer Content: Archibald Spencer ( January 1 , 1698 -- January 13 , 1760 ) was a businessman , scientist , doctor , clergyman , and lecturer . He is noted for introducing the phenomenon of electricity to Benjamin Franklin .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Archibald_Spencer\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 94497\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Spencer Holst Content: Spencer Holst ( 1926 -- 2001 ) was an American writer and storyteller . Though he published several collections of stories , as well as volumes of translations , Holst was known primarily for the captivating live performances of his work that he regularly conducted , particularly in the New York City area , in a distinctive mellifluous , rhythmically cadenced voice . In his heyday he was often heard on the radio on New York 's listener-sponsored radio station , WBAI . For many years until his death , he lived at Westbeth Artists Housing in NYC . In addition to presenting readings there , he exhibited his watercolour paintings , many based on invented calligraphic motifs . The paintings were often shown with lengthy titles attached , some were small stories in themselves . The typical Holst story might be a gentle but twisted fable , such as the tale of a frog who , having become addicted to morphine during a laboratory experiment , was rejected by the woman whose kiss transformed him back into a prince because he was , after all , only a junkie . Holst also wrote a number of paragraph-length prose pieces , which distilled a brief scene or anecdote into a glimmering , evanescent koan .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Spencer_Holst\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 94305\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Charles Spencer (journalist) Content: Charles Spencer ( born 4 March 1955 ) is a British journalist . He was the chief drama critic of The Daily Telegraph from 1991 to 2014 , having joined the paper in 1988 . On 1 September 2014 it was announced that he had decided to take early retirement , and his final review for the paper appeared on the same day . He was educated at Charterhouse and Balliol College , Oxford . He began his career in journalism at the Surrey Advertiser , and subsequently wrote for the London Evening Standard , The Stage and Television Today , before joining the Telegraph . He won `` Critic of the Year '' in the 1999 British Press Awards . He has written three crime novels : I Nearly Died ( 1994 ) , Full Personal Service ( 1996 ) and Under the Influence ( 2000 ) . In 2006 , Compton Miller of The Independent wrote in a profile : `` This convivial ex-alcoholic is best remembered for his description of Nicole Kidman 's nude scene in The Blue Room as ` pure theatrical Viagra ' . '' In a review published in the Daily Telegraph on 6 September 2012 , he revealed that the reason for his absence from the paper 's pages for the previous three months was that he had been suffering from clinical depression . Charles Spencer is descended from several generations of noted early aeronauts . His great-grandfather , Percival G. Spencer , made the first successful balloon flight in India , and Charles ' third great-grandfather Edward Spencer helped to conduct an unsuccessful parachute jump from a balloon over Vauxhall Gardens in London in July 1837 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Charles_Spencer_(journalist)\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 94151\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Frank Wentz Content: Frank Wentz is the CEO and director of Remote Sensing Systems , a company he founded in 1974 . Remote Sensing Systems specializes in satellite microwave remote sensing research . Together with Carl Mears , he is best known for developing a satellite temperature record from MSU and AMSU . Intercomparison of this record with the earlier UAH satellite temperature record , developed by John Christy and Roy Spencer , revealed deficiencies in the earlier work ; specifically , the warming trend in the RSS version is larger than the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) one . From 1978 to 1982 Frank was a member of NASA 's SeaSat Experiment Team involved in the development of physically based retrieval methods for microwave scatterometers and radiometers . He has also investigated the effect of climate change on satellite-derived evaporation , precipitation and surface wind values . His findings are different from most climate change model predictions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Frank_Wentz\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 93987\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Revenge of Gaia Content: The Revenge of Gaia : Why the Earth is Fighting Back -- and How we Can Still Save Humanity ( 2006 ) is a book by James Lovelock . Some editions of the book have a different , less optimistic subtitle : `` Earth 's Climate Crisis and the Fate of Humanity . '' The book introduces the concept of the anti-CLAW hypothesis . Lovelock proposed that instead of providing negative feedback in the climate system , the components of the CLAW hypothesis may act to create a positive feedback loop . Under future global warming , increasing temperature may stratify the world ocean , decreasing the supply of nutrients from the deep ocean to its productive euphotic zone . Consequently , phytoplankton activity will decline with a concomitant fall in the production of DMS . In a reverse of the CLAW hypothesis , this decline in DMS production will lead to a decrease in cloud condensation nuclei and a fall in cloud albedo . The consequence of this will be further climate warming which may lead to even less DMS production ( and further climate warming ) . The figure to the right shows a summarising schematic diagram . Evidence for the anti-CLAW hypothesis is constrained by similar uncertainties as those of the sulfur cycle feedback loop of the CLAW hypothesis . However , researchers simulating future oceanic primary production have found evidence of declining production with increasing ocean stratification , leaving open the possibility that such a mechanism may exist .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Revenge_of_Gaia\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 93832\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hiroshi Kanzawa Content: Hiroshi Kanzawa ( b. January 1953 in Maebashi , Gunma Prefecture , Japan ) is a Japanese meteorologist , environmental scientist and the dean of the Graduate School of Environmental Studies at the University of Nagoya . He is perhaps best known for his onsite atmospheric work in Antarctica and the papers he has co-authored on Ozone depletion , including : `` Large stratospheric sudden warming in Antarctic late winter and shallow ozone hole in 1988 '' ( with Sadao Kamaguchi ) and `` Sensitivity Map of LAI to Precipitation and Surface Air Temperature Variations in a Global Scale '' ( co-authored with his Japanese colleague Seita Emori and Jiahua Zhang and Congbin Fu of the START , Institute of Atmospheric Physics in Beijing , China ) . Kanzawa also sits on the board of Councilors of the Hydrospheric Atmospheric Research Center at the University of Nagoya .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Hiroshi_Kanzawa\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 93821\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Benjamin T. Spencer Content: Benjamin T. ( Townley ) Spencer ( 1904 -- 1996 ) was a scholar of American literature and a professor at Ohio Wesleyan University . He graduated from Kentucky Wesleyan College , and received his M.A. and Ph.D. degrees from the University of Cincinnati . Spencer wrote widely on American literature and on Shakespeare but is best remembered for his great book , The Quest for American Nationality ; An American Literary Campaign ( 1957 . ) In 2008 , Robert Milder described it as , `` an informed and still eminently serviceable account of the multifront ` campaign ' for a national literature . '' The annual The Benjamin T. Spencer Lecture is given at Ohio Wesleyan University in his memory and the Benjamin T. Spencer Professorship in Literature is named in his honor .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Benjamin_T._Spencer\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 93762\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: William George Spencer Content: ( William ) George Spencer ( 1790 -- 1866 ) was an English schoolmaster and tutor , known as a mathematical writer .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"William_George_Spencer\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 93720\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Parry Moon Content: Parry Hiram Moon ( -LSB- muːn -RSB- 1898 -- 1988 ) was an American electrical engineer , who with Domina Eberle Spencer co-authored eight scientific books and over 200 papers on subjects including electromagnetic field theory , color harmony , nutrition , aesthetic measure , and advanced mathematics . He also developed a theory of holors .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Parry_Moon\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 93657\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Scott Barrett (political scientist) Content: Scott Barrett is a professor of natural resource economics at Columbia University . There , he holds the title of Lenfest Professor of Natural Resource Economics at the School of International and Public Affairs and The Earth Institute . He is known for his game theoretical analysis of climate change treaties . His book on the subject Environment and Statecraft : The Strategy of Environmental Treaty Making was published in 2003 . He has been involved in the discussions of the Kyoto Treaty and its comparison to the more successful Montreal Protocol . More recently , he has been publishing on the institutions set up to control the regional and global spread of infectious diseases . His latest book , Why Cooperate ? The Incentive to Supply Global Public Goods , was published by Oxford University Press in September 2007 . This book examines a wide range of issues , from nuclear proliferation to infectious disease pandemics , from over-fishing to peacekeeping , from asteroid defense to big science , from the standard for determining the time to international development . Before joining Columbia University , Barrett taught at The Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies ( SAIS ) , Johns Hopkins University , the London Business School and was also affiliated with the University College London . His graduate work was at the London School of Economics .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Scott_Barrett_(political_scientist)\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 93638\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Amsler grid Content: The Amsler grid , used since 1945 , is a grid of horizontal and vertical lines used to monitor a person 's central visual field . The grid was developed by Marc Amsler , a Swiss ophthalmologist . It is a diagnostic tool that aids in the detection of visual disturbances caused by changes in the retina , particularly the macula ( e.g. macular degeneration , Epiretinal membrane ) , as well as the optic nerve and the visual pathway to the brain . In the test , the person looks with each eye separately at the small dot in the center of the grid . Patients with macular disease may see wavy lines or some lines may be missing . Amsler grids are supplied by ophthalmologists , optometrists or from web sites , and may be used to test one 's vision at home . The original Amsler grid was black and white . A color version with a blue and yellow grid is more sensitive and can be used to test for a wide variety of visual pathway abnormalities , including those associated with the retina , the optic nerve , and the pituitary gland .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Amsler_grid\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 93581\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Little Albert experiment Content: The Little Albert experiment was a controlled experiment showing empirical evidence of classical conditioning in humans and operant conditioning in humans . The study also provides an example of stimulus generalization . It was carried out by John B. Watson and his graduate student , Rosalie Rayner , at Johns Hopkins University . The results were first published in the February 1920 issue of the Journal of Experimental Psychology . After observing children in the field , Watson hypothesized that the fearful response of children to loud noises is an innate unconditioned response . He wanted to test the notion that by following the principles of the procedure now known as `` classical conditioning '' , he could use this unconditioned response to condition a child to fear a distinctive stimulus that normally would not be feared by a child ( in this case , furry objects ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Little_Albert_experiment\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 92969\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Platt Rogers Spencer Content: Platt Rogers Spencer ( also Platt R. Spencer ) ( November 7 , 1800 -- May 16 , 1864 ) was the originator of Spencerian penmanship , a popular system of cursive handwriting . He was a teacher and active in the business school movement .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Platt_Rogers_Spencer\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 92884\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Alaettin Tahir Content: Alahettin Tahir ( Macedonian : Алаетин Тахир , Skopje , Republic of Macedonia , April 23 , 1949 - Skopje , January 28 , 2004 ) is a well-known Macedonia ` s author , researcher and journalist of Turkish descent . Tahir studied philosophy at the University of Skopje , after graduating from high school in Skopje . In 1969 , he was given the post secretary of the monthly magazine Sesler ( Sounds ) , published in Turkish language in Skopje . Later he worked as a journalist and editor of the culture section of the newspaper Birlik ( Unity ) , published also in Turkish in Skopje . Tahir in the late 1970s began to work at the Turkish Language Department of Skopje Television ( now Macedonian Television ) . He died on 28 January 2004 in his hometown , Skopje .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Alaettin_Tahir\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 92859\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Lyle M. Spencer Content: Lyle M. Spencer ( May 10 , 1911 -- August 21 , 1968 ) was a twenty-seven-year-old graduate student in sociology at the University of Chicago in 1938 when he founded Science Research Associates ( SRA ) , the educational publishing firm which provided the basis of his wealth and ultimately made possible the creation of The Spencer Foundation .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Lyle_M._Spencer\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 92502\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Darwin from Orchids to Variation Content: Between 1860 and 1868 , the life and work of Charles Darwin from Orchids to Variation continued with research and experimentation on evolution , carrying out tedious work to provide evidence of the extent of natural variation enabling artificial selection . He was repeatedly held up by his illness , and continued to find relaxation and interest in the study of plants . His studies of insect pollination led to publication of his book Fertilisation of Orchids as his first detailed demonstration of the power of natural selection , explaining the complex ecological relationships and making testable predictions . As his health declined , he lay on his sickbed in a room filled with inventive experiments to trace the movements of climbing plants . Darwinism became a movement covering a wide range of evolutionary ideas . In 1863 Lyell 's Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man popularised prehistory , though his caution on evolution disappointed Darwin . Weeks later Huxley 's Evidence as to Man 's Place in Nature showed that anatomically , humans are apes , then The Naturalist on the River Amazons by Henry Walter Bates provided empirical evidence of natural selection . Lobbying brought Darwin Britain 's highest scientific honour , the Royal Society 's Copley Medal , awarded on 3 November 1864 . That day , Huxley held the first meeting of what became the influential X Club devoted to `` science , pure and free , untrammelled by religious dogmas '' . Admiring visitors included Ernst Haeckel , a zealous follower of Darwinismus in a translation favouring progressive evolution over natural selection . Wallace remained supportive , though he increasingly turned to Spiritualism . The first part of Darwin 's planned `` big book '' , The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication , grew to two huge volumes , forcing him to leave out human evolution and sexual selection . It sold briskly in 1868 despite its size , and was translated into many languages . Darwin 's work on the Descent of Man and Emotions followed after this publication .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Darwin_from_Orchids_to_Variation\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 92019\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: David Legates Content: David Russell Legates is a Professor of Geography at the University of Delaware . He is the former Director of the Center for Climatic Research at the same university , and a former Delaware State Climatologist . Legates has published research papers , opinion editorials , and spoken openly in opposition to the consensus scientific opinion on climate change . More recently , he has been known for his skepticism toward the anthropogenic cause of the observed global warming patterns and the severity of its consequences at the local geographical scale . Legates viewpoint , as stated in a 2015 study that he co-authored , is that the Earth will experience about 1.0 C warming over the 2000 to 2100 period .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"David_Legates\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 91893\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Murry Salby Content: Murry Lewis Salby is an atmospheric scientist who focused on upper atmospheric wave propagation for most of his early career , and who more recently has argued against aspects of the scientific consensus that human activity contributes to climate change . From the mid 1980s , Salby conducted research out of University of Colorado Boulder . In 2005 , the National Science Foundation opened an investigation into Salby 's federal funding arrangements and found that he had displayed `` a pattern of deception -LSB- and -RSB- a lack of integrity '' in his handling of federal grant money . He resigned his position in Colorado in 2008 and became professor of climate risk at Macquarie University in Macquarie Park , New South Wales . In 2013 he was dismissed by the university on grounds of refusal to teach and misuse of university resources . He has written two textbooks , Fundamentals of Atmospheric Physics ( 1996 ) , and Physics of the Atmosphere and Climate ( 2011 ) . The latter textbook , building on his first book , offers an overview of the processes controlling the atmosphere of Earth , weather , energetics , and climate physics .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Murry_Salby\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 91886\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kevin E. Trenberth Content: Kevin Edward Trenberth ( born November 8 , 1944 ) is part of the Climate Analysis Section at the US NCAR National Center for Atmospheric Research . He was a lead author of the 2001 and 2007 IPCC Scientific Assessment of Climate Change ( see IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ) and serves on the Scientific Steering Group for the Climate Variability and Predictability ( CLIVAR ) program . He chaired the WCRP Observation and Assimilation Panel from 2004 to 2010 and chaired the Global Energy and Water Exchanges ( GEWEX ) scientific steering group from 2010-2013 ( member 2007-14 ) . In addition , he served on the Joint Scientific Committee of the World Climate Research Programme , and has made significant contributions to research into El Niño-Southern Oscillation . Kevin 's work is highly cited and he has an h-index of 100 ( 100 papers have over 100 citations ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Kevin_E._Trenberth\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 91819\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Percival Spencer Umfreville Pickering Content: Percival Spencer Umfreville ( Spencer ) Pickering ( 6 March 1858 -- 5 December 1920 ) was a British chemist and horticulturist . Pickering grew up in a wealthy family , and was able to start a career in science by building his own laboratory in his private house . In 1881 , he took up a position as lecturer at Bedford College , where he stayed until 1887 . After losing an eye in a serious accident in his lab , his health waned and he moved to the countryside to the village of Harpenden . Among the residents of the village were already four fellows of the Royal Society , and Pickering was to become the fifth by 1890 . From 1894 on , he was director of the Woburn Experimental Fruit Farm , a private establishment by Pickering and the Duke of Bedford , where he worked to improve horticultural techniques . In 1907 he discovered the phenomenon that emulsions can be stabilised by small particles instead of emulsifiers , nowadays referred to as Pickering stabilization , although the effect was already recognized by Walter Ramsden in 1903 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Percival_Spencer_Umfreville_Pickering\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 91800\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Michael E. Mann Content: Michael E. Mann ( born 1965 ) is an American climatologist and geophysicist , currently director of the Earth System Science Center at Pennsylvania State University , who has contributed to the scientific understanding of historic climate change based on the temperature record of the past thousand years . He has pioneered techniques to find patterns in past climate change , and to isolate climate signals from noisy data . As lead author of a paper produced in 1998 with co-authors Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes , Mann used advanced statistical techniques to find regional variations in a hemispherical climate reconstruction covering the past 600 years . In 1999 the same team used these techniques to produce a reconstruction over the past 1,000 years ( MBH99 ) which was dubbed the `` hockey stick graph '' because of its shape . He was one of eight lead authors of the `` Observed Climate Variability and Change '' chapter of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Third Scientific Assessment Report published in 2001 . A graph based on the MBH99 paper was highlighted in several parts of the report , and was given wide publicity . The IPCC acknowledged that his work , along with that of the many other lead authors and review editors , contributed to the award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize , which was won jointly by the IPCC and Al Gore . Mann was organizing committee chair for the National Academy of Sciences Frontiers of Science in 2003 and has received a number of honors and awards including selection by Scientific American as one of the fifty leading visionaries in science and technology in 2002 . In 2012 he was inducted as a Fellow of the American Geophysical Union and was awarded the Hans Oeschger Medal of the European Geosciences Union . In 2013 he was elected a Fellow of the American Meteorological Society , and awarded the status of distinguished professor in Penn State 's College of Earth and Mineral Sciences . Mann is author of more than 200 peer-reviewed and edited publications . He has also published three books : Dire Predictions : Understanding Global Warming ( 2008 ) , The Hockey Stick and the Climate Wars : Dispatches from the Front Lines ( 2012 ) , and , together with co-author Tom Toles , The Madhouse Effect : How Climate Change Denial Is Threatening Our Planet , Destroying Our Politics , and Driving Us Crazy ( 2016 ) . In 2012 , the European Geosciences Union described his publication record as `` outstanding for a scientist of his relatively young age '' . Mann is also a co-founder and contributor to the climatology blog RealClimate .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Michael_E._Mann\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 91733\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Lennart Bengtsson Content: Lennart Bengtsson ( , Trollhättan ) , is a Swedish meteorologist . His research interests include climate sensitivity , extreme events , climate variability and climate predictability .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Lennart_Bengtsson\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 91720\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Man Versus the State Content: The Man Versus the State is a political theory book by Herbert Spencer It was first published in book form in 1884 by Williams and Norgate , London and Edinburgh , from articles previous published in The Contemporary Review . The book consists of four main chapters : The New Toryism , The coming Slavery , The sins of legislators and The Great Political Superstition . In this book , English libertarian sociologist Herbert Spencer sees a statist corruption appearing within the liberal ideological framework , and warns of what he calls , `` the coming slavery '' . And he presents the argument that liberalism , which liberated the world from slavery and feudalism , was undergoing a transformation . Its new love for the state would put liberalism behind a movement to create a new despotism that would be worse than the old . Henry Hazlitt has once said that this is `` One of the most powerful and influential arguments for limited government , laissez faire and individualism ever written . '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Man_Versus_the_State\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 91580\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Masao Kanamitsu Content: Masao Kanamitsu ( November 6 , 1943 in Kumamoto , Japan -- August 17 , 2011 in Del Mar , California ) - was Japanese and American atmospheric scientist working in the field of data assimilation . His research greatly influenced global and regional climate change studies including development of breakthrough reanalysis and downscaling datasets and weather forecasting studies . He was the co-author of one of the most cited geophysics paper in his time . Kanamitsu was born in 1943 and was raised in Sapporo . He did his B.S. and M. Sc . in 1968 at Hokkaido University , Japan and M.Sc . and Ph. D. in 1975 at Florida State University . He was one of the large group of Japanese scientists who after the World War II greatly contributed to the development of the dynamic meteorology in the US and in the World including Syukuro Manabe , Taroh Matsuno , Kikuro Miyakoda , and Akio Arakawa . He served as a Forecaster at Japan Meteorological Agency , as a leader of the Global Modeling Branch , Development Division , and later as an Acting Chief of the Prediction Branch at the Climate Prediction Center of the National Meteorological Center . In 2001 he moved to Scripps Institution of Oceanography where he worked to the rest of his life . He had a group of young researchers working with him . Kanamitsu was instrumental in creating one of the most successful datasets used in global change studies - the NCEP/NCAR Reanalysis for which he received a Group Gold Medal from the Department of Commerce in 1997 . His 1996 reanalysis paper is one of the most celebrated paper in atmospheric science and geosciences - at the time of his death this paper was cited 7985 times . His publications report ambitious , multiyear in making , and extensive project to develop regional-scale climate change dataset based on the NCEP -- NCAR reanalysis for the period 1948 -- 2005 . This downscaling paved the way for local scale understanding of climate changes . In he worked out a problem of how to produce meteorological dataset such as winds , pressures , or temperature on fine scale ( say every 10 km ) if the measurements are performed every 200 km . This led to a concept of dynamical downscaling of climate analysis using regional models . He served as an editor for the Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan ( 1980 -- 1985 ) and the Monthly Weather Review ( 1991 -- 1993 ) . He was active scientifically to the end of his very productive life . At the time of his death he was a researcher at Scripps Institution of Oceanography where in relatively short time of about 10 years he wrote 35 papers . Kanamitsu was survived by his wife Mariko and he had daughter Tomoko . He enjoyed hiking in various mountain ranges around Japan , United States and Europe . He loved dogs . He received Meteorological Society of Japan award in 1983 . He was known as Kana among his friends .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Masao_Kanamitsu\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 91460\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Christopher Field Content: Chris Field , Ph.D is an American scientist and researcher , who has contributed to the field of climate change . The author of more than 200 scientific publications , Field 's research emphasizes impacts of climate change , from the molecular to the global scale . His work includes major field experiments on responses of California grassland to multi-factor global change , integrative studies on the global carbon cycle , and assessments of impacts of climate change on agriculture . Field 's work with models includes studies on the global distribution of carbon sources and sinks , and studies on environmental consequences of expanding biomass energy .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Christopher_Field\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 91390\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Deep Ecliptic Survey Content: The Deep Ecliptic Survey ( DES ) is a project to find Kuiper belt objects ( KBOs ) , using the facilities of the National Optical Astronomy Observatory ( NOAO ) . The principal investigator is Robert L. Millis . Since 1998 through the end of 2003 , the survey covered 550 square degrees with sensitivity of 22.5 , which means an estimated 50 % of objects of this magnitude have been found . The survey has also established the mean Kuiper Belt plane and introduced new formal definitions of the dynamical classes of Kuiper belt objects . The remarkable first observations and/or discoveries include : 28978 Ixion , large plutino 19521 Chaos ( cubewano ) , the first binary trans-Neptunian object ( TNO ) , the first object with perihelion too far to be affected ( scattered ) by Neptune and a large semi-major axis , remarkable for its semi-major axis of more than 500 AU and extreme eccentricity ( 0.96 ) taking the object from the inside of the Neptune 's orbit to more than 1000 AU , the first Neptune trojan , with one of the most inclined orbits ( > 68 ° )\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Deep_Ecliptic_Survey\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 91270\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Charles S. Spencer Content: Charles Sidney Spencer ( born 12 June 1950 ) is Curator of Mexican and Central American Archaeology in the Division of Anthropology at the American Museum of Natural History in New York City . `` Dr. Spencer is an internationally renowned anthropological archaeologist specializing in the origins of hierarchical societies and the rise of the first political states in Mesoamerica , where he has been conducting fieldwork for more than 25 years . His focus is the Oaxaca Valley and surrounding regions , a mountainous part of southern Mexico that is home to the Zapotec people . He is also widely recognized as a leader in the application of evolutionary theory and socio-political concepts to the study of prehistoric cultural change and has formulated a mathematical model of pristine state formation . '' Dr. Spencer completed his graduate training at the University of Michigan , where he received his Ph.D. in Anthropology in 1981 . His dissertation , `` The Cuicatlán Cañada and Monte Albán : Interregional Processes and Primary State Formation in Central Oaxaca , '' was published by Academic Press in 1982 . He has over 110 publications to date , including books , chapters , and articles . Since the 1970s , Spencer has conducted extensive archaeological fieldwork in Mexico and Venezuela . He has trained a generation of graduate students in methodologies of field research , and he also has served on doctoral committees as primary advisor and as a reader . Prior to his appointment at the AMNH in 1991 , Dr. Spencer was Associate Professor of Anthropology at the University of Connecticut . He was born June 12 , 1950 in Ancon , Panama , then part of the Panama Canal Zone . He attended local U.S.-operated schools in the Canal Zone before leaving Panama to attend Rice University , where he received his BA in Anthropology in 1972 . In 2007 , Dr. Spencer was elected to membership in the National Academy of Sciences , one of the highest honors a scientist can receive from a U.S.-based organization . At his induction ceremony in April 2008 , NAS President Ralph Cicerone lauded Dr. Spencer as `` the leading evolutionary archaeologist of his generation . '' The citation continues : `` His fieldwork has documented the rise of entrepreneurial rank societies , the origin of the stratified militaristic state , and the strategies of imperial colonization . His work combines empirical data with evolutionary concepts like tempo , mode , biased transmission , and adaptive peaks . '' Dr. Spencer is also a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences , along with his wife and research collaborator , Elsa M. Redmond , Ph.D. . They reside in the Connecticut suburbs of New York City .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Charles_S._Spencer\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 91239\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Robert Spencer (author) Content: Robert Bruce Spencer ( born February 27 , 1962 ) is an American author and blogger and a key figure of the counter-jihad movement in the United States . He appears frequently on Fox News and has given seminars to various law enforcement units in the United States . Spencer , a self-proclaimed expert on radical Islam , has published a number of books on the subject including two New York Times bestsellers . In 2003 he founded and has since directed Jihad Watch , a blog which he describes as containing `` news of the international jihad , -LSB- and -RSB- commentary '' which is dedicated to `` bringing public attention to the role that jihad theology and ideology plays in the modern world , and to correcting popular misconceptions about the role of jihad and religion in modern-day conflicts '' . He has also co-founded Stop Islamization of America ( SIOA ) and the Freedom Defense Initiative with blogger Pamela Geller , with whom he also co-authored a book , The Post-American Presidency : The Obama Administration 's War on America . His viewpoints have been described as anti-Islamic or Islamophobic , while he denies this and says he focuses his criticism on radical Islam and its violence . In 2013 the UK Home Office has barred Spencer and Geller from travel to the UK for 3 to 5 years for `` making statements that may foster hatred that might lead to inter-community violence '' , a decision which drew criticism .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Robert_Spencer_(author)\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 91140\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Duhem–Quine thesis Content: The Duhem -- Quine thesis , also called the Duhem -- Quine problem , after Pierre Duhem and Willard Van Orman Quine , is that it is impossible to test a scientific hypothesis in isolation , because an empirical test of the hypothesis requires one or more background assumptions ( also called auxiliary assumptions or auxiliary hypotheses ) . In recent decades the set of associated assumptions supporting a thesis sometimes is called a bundle of hypotheses .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Duhem–Quine_thesis\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 91139\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Laboratoire des sciences du climat et de l'environnement Content: The Laboratoire des sciences du climat et de l'environnement ( LSCE , Climate and Environment Sciences Laboratory ) is a laboratory for the study of climate and in particular climate change . It plays a very important role within the framework of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , which involves many of its researchers . It is very diversified because it includes modellers like experimenters , glaciologists as specialists in remote sensing or air quality study . The climate scientist Valerie Masson-Delmotte is involved in the laboratory .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Laboratoire_des_sciences_du_climat_et_de_l'environnement\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 91067\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Rolf Hassler Content: Rolf Hassler ( 1914 -- 1984 ) was a German pathologist who made important discoveries on the pathophisiology and treatment of Parkinson 's disease ( PD ) . In 1938 he published the autopsies of PD patients that showed while the striatum and globus pallidus were mostly unaffected and the main affected structure was the substantia nigra pars compacta ; it lost many neurons and also held abundant Lewy bodies . Such findings confirmed Konstantin Tretiakoff 's theories , who in 1919 had reported that the substantia nigra was the main cerebral structure affected . Hassler later was the director of the Max-Planck-Institut für Hirnforschung at Frankfurt am Main where he continued his studies on PD , becoming a pioneer in surgery for tremors .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Rolf_Hassler\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 90878\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Peter Spencer (farmer) Content: Peter Spencer ( born 1948 or 1949 ) is an Australian farmer who came to national prominence after going on hunger strike in November 2009 . He had been prevented from clearing `` native vegetation '' from his sheep farm in New South Wales and he said that this had caused severe financial difficulty . Spencer 's use of his land was restricted due to Australia 's commitments to the Kyoto Protocol . He was refused compensation for his land being declared a carbon sink as it was the New South Wales government , and not the federal government in Canberra , which had enacted the laws in question , which were intended to combat global warming . However , Spencer 's family later stated : `` Native vegetation laws enacted over 10 years ago by State Governments ( and certainly not the ETS proposals and `` Carbon Sinks '' which are a far more recent development ) are not the sole reason for the collapse of Peter 's farm , and really have had a very small part to play . For MANY reasons the farm has not been profitable for a long time . Peter spent several years in Papua New Guinea on various business ventures , including an advisory role to the PNG government of the time . During this time he was unable to look after the farm adequately , an issue that was clearly a product of his then circumstance . '' http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/nation/message-from-peter-spencers-family/story-e6frg6nf-1225817464020 Spencer spent 52 days suspended on a platform 15 meters above ground level . Spencer ignored a letter sent on behalf of the Prime Minister Kevin Rudd saying he did not believe it was from him . However , he reportedly invited Bob Brown leader of the Green Party to debate human rights with him . The 61-year-old ended the strike after supporters worried for his health asked him to stop . In a statement he said , `` As much as the nation is concerned about me , my concerns are directed at the families of the hundreds of farmers who have suicided and the politicians who have failed to show any concern , compassion or morality for what the government has done to these families and the nation 's Constitution . My committed stance on the tower was to press the point . '' Spencer was evicted from his property for failing to meet payments on loans from family members . However , he was granted the right to appeal to the High Court to decide if he should be compensated by the Commonwealth for the property having been declared a carbon sink . The High Court declared that the Federal Court was wrong to have thrown out Mr Spencer 's case for compensation on the basis he had `` no reasonable prospect '' of success .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Peter_Spencer_(farmer)\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 90801\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: David Cushing Content: David Henry Cushing FRS was an English born fisheries biologist , who is credited with the development the match/mismatch hypothesis as an explanation for reduced fish stocks as associated with climatic variability . As opposed to other important fisheries biologists , such as Daniel Pauly and Carl J. Walters , Cushing was a proponent of keeping fisheries open to the point of collapse .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"David_Cushing\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 90800\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Claudius B. Spencer Content: Claudius B. Spencer ( born 1856 in Michigan , died 14 July 1934 ) was a pastor of the Methodist Episcopal Church and an editor of Christian publications . Spencer attended Northwestern University and Garrett Seminary , and served as a pastor of the Methodist Episcopal Church in the Detroit Conference from 1881 to 1892 . He was then transferred to the Colorado Conference , where he was appointed editor of the Rocky Mountain Christian Advocate . When that publication merged with the Central Christian Advocate , Spencer moved to Kansas City , Missouri , to assume the editorship of that publication . He served in that capacity until his death in 1934 . Spencer served on many denominational boards and conferences . He received an honorary Doctor of Divinity degree from Lawrence University in 1896 . As eulogized by University of Denver Chancellor Frederick M. Hunter , he `` generated a spirit of enthusiasm and optimism because of what he himself was , as well as because of what he did and said . '' After a short illness , Spencer died on July 14 , 1934 . The Claudius B. Spencer Papers at the University of Denver include articles from newspapers and magazines concerning Mormonism and the Methodist response to the Mormon Church . Also included are letters written to Spencer in his capacity as editor of the Central Christian Advocate . Many of these letters concern Mormonism , but there are also letters regarding controversies within the Methodist church and other church matters . Half of the collection is typescript pages and handwritten notes from a manuscript titled Holiness and Mormonism . The author of the manuscript is unknown . The manuscript describes the origins of Mormonism and , through lengthy discussion , refutes the legitimacy of the Mormon church .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Claudius_B._Spencer\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 90631\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tom Spencer (cricketer) Content: Thomas William Spencer ( 22 March 1914 -- 1 November 1995 ) was a London-born English first-class cricketer and international umpire . He played 76 games for Kent before going on to officiate in 17 Test matches and 6 ODIs . He was awarded the OBE in 1976 for services to cricket . He also was an umpire at the 1975 Cricket World Cup final .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Tom_Spencer_(cricketer)\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 90419\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Hartwell Paper Content: The Hartwell Paper calls for a reorientation of climate policy after the perceived failure in 2009 of the UNFCCC climate conference in Copenhagen . The paper was published in May 2010 by the London School of Economics in cooperation with the University of Oxford . The authors are 14 natural and social scientists from Asia , Europe and North America , including Mike Hulme , Roger A. Pielke ( Jr ) , Nico Stehr and Steve Rayner , who met under the Chatham House Rule . The paper argues that `` decarbonisation will only be achieved successfully as a benefit contingent upon other goals which are politically attractive and relentlessly pragmatic . '' It emphasizes human dignity as a necessary guiding principle for climate policy : `` To reframe the climate issue around matters of human dignity is not just noble or necessary . It is also likely to be more effective than the approach of framing around human sinfulness -- which has failed and will continue to fail . '' It has three main objectives : 1 . Energy access for all The paper advocates taking investments in the innovations of renewable energy to decrease energy costs and to make them more affordable to society . Only this diversification of energy could extend the access to energy , especially in undeveloped countries . 2 . Clean energy 3 . Dealing with climate change The ultimate goal is `` to develop non-carbon energy supplies at unsubsidised costs less than those using fossil fuels . '' The Hartwell Paper recommends achieving this goal by introducing low carbon taxes . Moreover this money should be used to develop a CO2 free energy supply .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Hartwell_Paper\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 90403\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Green Zone Community Climate Action Content: Green Zone Community Climate Action is a charitable unincorporated association formed in November 2016 . Based in Broomfield , Essex , this organisation delivers climate change awareness at a grass roots level to improve public understanding of Global warming and promote individual actions that can help to address this . The charity works with Marks & Spencer through the project Neighbourly among other retailers to reduce food waste and share unsold food within the community . The charity also supports climate education for primary school children through clubs . The charity took part in the worldwide 24 Hours of Reality campaign broadcast by The Climate Reality Project . Working alongside additional community charities Green Zone Community Climate Action is one of many new projects created to assist the UK in meeting the United Nations global Sustainable Development Goals\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Green_Zone_Community_Climate_Action\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 90368\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Henry Spencer Content: Henry Spencer ( born 1955 ) is a Canadian computer programmer and space enthusiast . He wrote `` regex '' , a widely used software library for regular expressions , and co-wrote C News , a Usenet server program . He also wrote The Ten Commandments for C Programmers . He is coauthor , with David Lawrence , of the book Managing Usenet . While working at the University of Toronto he ran the first active Usenet site outside the U.S. , starting in 1981 . His records from that period were eventually acquired by Google to provide an archive of Usenet in the 1980s . The first international Usenet site was run in Ottawa , in 1981 ; however , it is generally not remembered , as it served merely as a read-only medium . Later in 1981 , Spencer acquired a Usenet feed from Duke University , and brought `` utzoo '' online ; the earliest public archives of Usenet date from May 1981 as a result . The small size of Usenet in its youthful days , and Spencer 's early involvement , made him a well-recognised participant ; this is commemorated in Vernor Vinge 's 1992 novel A Fire Upon the Deep . The novel featured an interstellar communications medium remarkably similar to Usenet , down to the author including spurious message headers ; one of the characters who appeared solely through postings to this was modeled on Spencer ( and , slightly obliquely , named for him ) . He is also credited with the claim that `` Those who do not understand Unix are condemned to reinvent it , poorly . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Henry_Spencer\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 90322\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Herbert Spencer Jennings Content: Prof Herbert Spencer Jennings HFRSE ( 1868-1947 ) was an American zoologist , geneticist , and eugenicist . His research helped demonstrate the link between physical and chemical stimulation and automatic responses in lower orders of animals .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Herbert_Spencer_Jennings\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 90242\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Petr Chýlek Content: Petr Chýlek is a researcher for Space and Remote Sensing Sciences at Los Alamos National Laboratory . Prior to becoming a government researcher in 2001 , Chýlek was a Professor at several US and Canadian universities including SUNY Albany , Purdue University , University of Oklahoma and Dalhousie University in Halifax , Canada . Chýlek has published over 100 first authored scientific papers in remote sensing , atmospheric radiation , climate change , cloud and aerosol physics , applied laser physics and ice core analysis . His work has been cited more than 4000 times . Chylek is best known for his work in remote sensing , aerosols and climate change . In 2006 , Chýlek served as Chairman , Scientific Program Committee for The Second International Conference on Global Warming and the Next Ice Age held at Los Alamos National Laboratory in Santa Fe , NM . Speakers included Venkatachalam Ramaswamy , Chris Folland , Gerald North , Roger A. Pielke , William M. Gray and Jan Veizer . The conference included a two-day workshop on climate prediction uncertainties . The papers presented at the 2006 Conference were published in a special section of the Journal of Geophysical Research - Atmospheres in 2007 . In 2007 , Chýlek and co-authors published a peer-reviewed paper estimating climate sensitivity to doubled atmospheric CO2 to be significantly less than the IPCC estimate . Chýlek received his diploma in theoretical physics from Charles University in Prague , Czech Republic . He received his Ph.D. in physics from UC Riverside in 1970 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Petr_Chýlek\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 90227\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: T.O.T.E. Content: The T.O.T.E. or TOTE , standing for `` Test - Operate - Test - Exit '' , is an iterative problem solving strategy based on feedback loops . It was described by George A. Miller , Eugene Galanter , and Karl H. Pribram in their 1960 book , Plans and the Structure of Behavior which outlined their conception of cognitive psychology .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"T.O.T.E.\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 89561\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Spencer (Essex cricketer) Content: Spencer ( first name and dates unknown ) was an English first-class cricketer for Essex and the Hornchurch Cricket Club who was active in the 1790s and is recorded in one first-class match in 1793 , totalling 2 runs with a highest score of 2 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Spencer_(Essex_cricketer)\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 89206\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference) Content: In 2005, an international conference titled Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and global warming and its effects. The conference name was derived from Article 2 of the charter for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The conference explored the possible impacts at different levels of greenhouse gas emissions and how the climate might be stabilized at a desired level. The conference took place under the United Kingdom's presidency of the G8, with the participation of around 200 \\\"internationally renowned\\\" scientists from 30 countries. It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter, from 1 February to 3 February. The conference was one of many meetings leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, at which the international community agreed to limit global warming to no more than 2C in order to have a 50-50 chance of avoiding dangerous climate change. However, a 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting it is below the 2 degree temperature target.\",\n \"qid\": \"2784\",\n \"docid\": \"Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change_(2005_conference)\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 89195\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":1373,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"Hansen's 1988 results are evidence that the actual climate sensitivity is about 3°C for a doubling of atmospheric CO2."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Climate sensitivity Content: Climate sensitivity is the equilibrium temperature change in response to changes of the radiative forcing . Therefore , climate sensitivity depends on the initial climate state , but potentially can be accurately inferred from precise palaeoclimate data . Slow climate feedbacks , especially changes of ice sheet size and atmospheric CO2 , amplify the total Earth system sensitivity by an amount that depends on the time scale considered . Although climate sensitivity is usually used in the context of radiative forcing by carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , it is thought of as a general property of the climate system : the change in surface air temperature ( ΔTs ) following a unit change in radiative forcing ( RF ) , and thus is expressed in units of ° C / ( W/m2 ) . For this to be useful , the measure must be independent of the nature of the forcing ( e.g. from greenhouse gases or solar variation ) ; to first order this is indeed found to be so . The climate sensitivity specifically due to is often expressed as the temperature change in ° C associated with a doubling of the concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere . For coupled atmosphere-ocean global climate models ( e.g. CMIP5 ) the climate sensitivity is an emergent property : it is not a model parameter , but rather a result of a combination of model physics and parameters . By contrast , simpler energy-balance models may have climate sensitivity as an explicit parameter . The terms represented in the equation relate radiative forcing ( RF ) to linear changes in global surface temperature change ( ΔTs ) via the climate sensitivity λ . It is also possible to estimate climate sensitivity from observations ; however , this is difficult due to uncertainties in the forcing and temperature histories .","qid":"2787","docid":"Climate_sensitivity","rank":1,"score":196899},{"content":"Title: James Hansen Content: James Edward Hansen ( born 29 March 1941 ) is an American adjunct professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University . He is best known for his research in climatology , his 1988 Congressional testimony on climate change that helped raise broad awareness of global warming , and his advocacy of action to avoid dangerous climate change . In recent years he has become a climate activist to mitigate the effects of climate change , on a few occasions leading to his arrest . In 2000 , Hansen advanced an alternative view of global warming over the last 100 years , arguing that during that time frame the negative forcing via aerosols and the positive forcing via largely balanced each other out , and that the 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide , such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons . However , even then he wrote `` the future balance of forcings is likely to shift toward dominance of CO2 over aerosols ''","qid":"2787","docid":"James_Hansen","rank":2,"score":192108},{"content":"Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .","qid":"2787","docid":"350.org","rank":3,"score":186097},{"content":"Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .","qid":"2787","docid":"Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change","rank":4,"score":174013},{"content":"Title: Climate Code Red Content: Climate Code Red : The Case for Emergency Action is a 2008 book which presents scientific evidence that the global warming crisis is worse than official reports and national governments have so far indicated . The book argues that we are facing a `` sustainability emergency '' that requires a clear break from business-as-usual politics . The authors explain that emergency action to address climate change is not so much a radical idea as an indispensable course we must embark upon . Climate Code Red draws heavily on the work of a large number of climate scientists , including James E. Hansen . The key themes of Climate Code Red are : `` Our goal is a safe-climate future -- we have no right to bargain away species or human lives . '' `` We are facing rapid warming impacts : the danger is immediate , not just in the future . '' `` For a safe climate future , we must take action now to stop emissions and to cool the earth . '' `` Plan a large-scale transition to a post-carbon economy and society . '' `` Recognise a climate and sustainability emergency , because we need to move at a pace far beyond business and politics as usual '' . Co-author David Spratt is a Melbourne businessman , climate-policy analyst , and co-founder of the Carbon Equity network . Co-author Philip Sutton is convener of the Greenleap Strategic Institute and Assistant Convenor of the Climate Emergency Network . The book was launched by the Governor of Victoria , Professor David de Kretser in Parliament House in Melbourne , Victoria , on July 17 , 2008 .","qid":"2787","docid":"Climate_Code_Red","rank":5,"score":141765},{"content":"Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .","qid":"2787","docid":"Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous","rank":6,"score":140739},{"content":"Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .","qid":"2787","docid":"List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming","rank":7,"score":138834},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .","qid":"2787","docid":"Greenhouse_gas","rank":8,"score":134727},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .","qid":"2787","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere","rank":9,"score":134617},{"content":"Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .","qid":"2787","docid":"Atmospheric_carbon_cycle","rank":10,"score":134101},{"content":"Title: Keeling Curve Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that plots the ongoing change in concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere since the 1950s . It is based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii that began under the supervision of Charles David Keeling . Keeling 's measurements showed the first significant evidence of rapidly increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere . Many scientists credit Keeling 's graph with first bringing the world 's attention to the current increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Charles David Keeling , of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego , was the first person to make frequent regular measurements of the atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) concentration , taking readings at the South Pole and in Hawaii from 1958 onwards . Measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had been taken prior to the Mauna Loa measurements , but on an ad-hoc basis across a variety of locations . Guy Stewart Callendar had shown a steady increase in concentrations since the 19th century . Keeling had perfected the measurement techniques and observed `` strong diurnal behavior with steady values of about 310 ppm in the afternoon '' at three locations : Big Sur near Monterey , the rain forests of Olympic Peninsula , and high mountain forests in Arizona . By measuring the ratio of two isotopes of carbon , Keeling attributed the diurnal change to respiration from local plants and soils , with afternoon values representative of the `` free atmosphere '' . By 1960 , Keeling and his group had determined that the measurement records from California , Antarctica , and Hawaii were long enough to see not just the diurnal and seasonal variations , but also a year-on-year increase that roughly matched the amount of fossil fuels burned per year . In the article that made him famous , Keeling observed : `` at the South Pole the observed rate of increase is nearly that to be expected from the combustion of fossil fuel '' .","qid":"2787","docid":"Keeling_Curve","rank":11,"score":133019},{"content":"Title: Citizens' Climate Lobby Content: Citizens ' Climate Lobby ( CCL ) is an international grassroots environmental group that trains and supports volunteers to build relationships with their elected representatives in order to influence climate policy . Operating since 2007 , the goal of CCL is to build political support across party lines to put a price on carbon , specifically a revenue neutral carbon fee and dividend ( CF&D ) at the national level . CCL is supported by notable climate scientists James Hansen , Katharine Hayhoe , and Daniel Kammen . CCL 's advisory board also includes former Secretary of State George Shultz , former US Representative Bob Inglis , actor Don Cheadle , and RESULTS founder Sam Daley-Harris . Founded in the United States , CCL has active groups in Australia , Bangladesh , Brazil , Burundi , Cameroon , Canada , Chile , France , Germany , Iceland , India , Italy , Kenya , Nepal , the Netherlands , New Zealand , Nigeria , Panama , Poland , Portugal , Qatar , Romania , Serbia , Scotland , Sweden , Switzerland , the Ukraine , and the United Kingdom .","qid":"2787","docid":"Citizens'_Climate_Lobby","rank":12,"score":131954},{"content":"Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .","qid":"2787","docid":"Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios","rank":13,"score":131367},{"content":"Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .","qid":"2787","docid":"Carbon_diet","rank":14,"score":131344},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Wyoming Content: On a per-person basis , Wyoming emits more carbon dioxide than any other state or any other country : 276000 lb of it per capita a year , because of burning coal , which provides nearly all of the state 's electrical power . Over the last century , the average temperature in Laramie , Wyoming , has increased 1.5 ° F ( 0.8 ° C ) , and precipitation has decreased by up to 20 % in many parts of the state . Over the next century , climate in Wyoming may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Wyoming could increase by 4 ° F ( 2 ° C ) in spring and fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) , 5 ° F ( 2.5 ° C ) in summer ( with a range of 2-8 ° F ) , and 6 ° F ( 3 ° C ) in winter ( with a range of 3-11 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease slightly in summer ( with a range of 0-10 % ) , increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and increase by 30 % in winter ( with a range of 10-50 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .","qid":"2787","docid":"Climate_change_in_Wyoming","rank":15,"score":131003},{"content":"Title: Tihomir Novakov Content: Tihomir Novakov , Ph.D known also as Tica Novakov ( March 16 , 1929 -- January 2 , 2015 ) was a Serbian-born American physicist . As a scientist , Novakov is known for his black carbon , air quality , and climate change research . James Hansen dubbed him `` the godfather of black carbon . ''","qid":"2787","docid":"Tihomir_Novakov","rank":16,"score":130012},{"content":"Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .","qid":"2787","docid":"Deforestation_and_climate_change","rank":17,"score":128892},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .","qid":"2787","docid":"Climate_change_in_Pakistan","rank":18,"score":127880},{"content":"Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .","qid":"2787","docid":"Global_warming_potential","rank":19,"score":127665},{"content":"Title: Suess effect Content: The Suess effect is a change in the ratio of the atmospheric concentrations of heavy isotopes of carbon ( 13C and 14C ) by the admixture of large amounts of fossil-fuel derived CO2 , which is depleted in 13CO2 and contains no 14CO2 . It is named for the Austrian chemist Hans Suess , who noted the influence of this effect on the accuracy of radiocarbon dating . More recently , the Suess effect has been used in studies of climate change . The term originally referred only to dilution of atmospheric 14CO2 . The concept was later extended to dilution of 13CO2 and to other reservoirs of carbon such as the oceans and soils .","qid":"2787","docid":"Suess_effect","rank":20,"score":127050},{"content":"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .","qid":"2787","docid":"Global_warming","rank":21,"score":126904},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .","qid":"2787","docid":"Climate_change_in_Japan","rank":22,"score":126249},{"content":"Title: William D. Sellers Content: William D. Sellers ( 18 August 1928 -- 27 August 2014 ) was an American meteorologist , climate scientist , and pioneer of climate modelling . He created one the earliest climate models and was one of the first scientists to recognize the effects of CO2 in the atmosphere on the earth 's climate . He published the textbook `` Physical Climatology '' .","qid":"2787","docid":"William_D._Sellers","rank":23,"score":125929},{"content":"Title: Hiroshi Kanzawa Content: Hiroshi Kanzawa ( b. January 1953 in Maebashi , Gunma Prefecture , Japan ) is a Japanese meteorologist , environmental scientist and the dean of the Graduate School of Environmental Studies at the University of Nagoya . He is perhaps best known for his onsite atmospheric work in Antarctica and the papers he has co-authored on Ozone depletion , including : `` Large stratospheric sudden warming in Antarctic late winter and shallow ozone hole in 1988 '' ( with Sadao Kamaguchi ) and `` Sensitivity Map of LAI to Precipitation and Surface Air Temperature Variations in a Global Scale '' ( co-authored with his Japanese colleague Seita Emori and Jiahua Zhang and Congbin Fu of the START , Institute of Atmospheric Physics in Beijing , China ) . Kanzawa also sits on the board of Councilors of the Hydrospheric Atmospheric Research Center at the University of Nagoya .","qid":"2787","docid":"Hiroshi_Kanzawa","rank":24,"score":125609},{"content":"Title: Storms of My Grandchildren Content: Storms of My Grandchildren : The Truth About the Coming Climate Catastrophe and Our Last Chance to Save Humanity is climate scientist James Hansen 's first book , published by Bloomsbury Press in 2009 . The book is about threats to people and habitability for life on earth from global warming .","qid":"2787","docid":"Storms_of_My_Grandchildren","rank":25,"score":125134},{"content":"Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .","qid":"2787","docid":"Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center","rank":26,"score":125115},{"content":"Title: Scott Denning Content: A. Scott Denning is a climate scientist and professor of atmospheric science at Colorado State University , whose faculty he joined in 1998 . He is known for his research into atmosphere-biosphere interactions and atmospheric carbon dioxide . He firmly supports action to avoid dangerous climate change and has said that the science behind it is `` settled '' . He has also argued that , if no action is taken on the matter , global warming could cause the climate of Colorado to resemble the current climate of its neighbors to the south , such as southern New Mexico , Texas and Mexico .","qid":"2787","docid":"Scott_Denning","rank":27,"score":124922},{"content":"Title: Bjørn Helland-Hansen Content: Bjørn Helland-Hansen ( 16 October 1877 -- 7 September 1957 ) was a Norwegian pioneer in the field of modern oceanography . He studied the variation patterns of the weather in the northern Atlantic Ocean and of the atmosphere . He studied both medicine and physics at the University of Christiania ( now University of Oslo ) . He developed the `` Helland-Hansen Photometer '' in 1910 , which was carried on board Michael Sars . It was operated for the first time close to the Azores at a depth between 500 and m . In 1915 he became Professor of oceanography at the Bergen Museum , and in 1917 director of the Geophysical Institute , University of Bergen . In 1933 he was awarded the Alexander Agassiz Medal . In 1939 he became President of the International Geodesic and Geophysical Union . He was a member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences and a member of the Member of the Academy of Sciences of the German Democratic Republic ( DDR ) . Helland-Hansen trained Alexander Kuchin , the Russian oceanographer who went to Antarctica with Roald Amundsen . An island in the Russian Arctic , east of the Geiberg Islands , has been named Gellanda-Gansena after Helland-Hansen . thumb | left | Bjørn Helland-Hansen ( ca 1917 )","qid":"2787","docid":"Bjørn_Helland-Hansen","rank":28,"score":124313},{"content":"Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .","qid":"2787","docid":"CO2_fertilization_effect","rank":29,"score":124195},{"content":"Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .","qid":"2787","docid":"Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum","rank":30,"score":123855},{"content":"Title: Air sensitivity Content: Air sensitivity is a term used , particularly in chemistry , to denote the reactivity of chemical compounds with some constituent of air . Most often , reactions occur with atmospheric oxygen ( O2 ) or water vapor ( H2O ) , although reactions with the other constituents of air such as carbon monoxide ( CO ) , carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and nitrogen ( N2 ) are also possible . The range of methods used to work with air-sensitive compounds are known as air-free techniques . Two main methods exist -- gloveboxes and Schlenk lines . Gloveboxes are sealed cabinets filled with an inert gas such as argon or nitrogen . Normal laboratory equipment can be set up and manipulated through the use of the gloves . A Schlenk line is a vacuum and inert-gas dual-manifold that allows glassware to be evacuated and refilled with inert gas .","qid":"2787","docid":"Air_sensitivity","rank":31,"score":123286},{"content":"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.","qid":"2787","docid":"Climate_change_in_the_United_States","rank":32,"score":123277},{"content":"Title: Geophysical Institute, University of Bergen Content: The Geophysical Institute , University of Bergen ( Geofysisk institutt , UiB ) is a marine research facility located in Bergen , Norway . Founded in 1917 by Bjørn Helland-Hansen , the institute studies the field of oceanography dealing with the patterns of the weather in the North Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Norway . Within recent years , focus has been increasingly on geophysics and environmental research . The research activities at the institute span from small scale measurement of turbulence up to studies of the large scale ocean currents , from local air and noise pollution up to studies of global scale climate change . Areas of research focus on the Norwegian Current , the West Spitsbergen Current and the Norwegian Sea . Shifts and fluctuations in these currents are monitored , as they are thought to be indicators for climate change . Research has included sequestration and related matters dealing with Carbon capture and storage.The director of the institute is Dr. Peter M. Haugan . The Bergen School of Meteorology , which led to modern weather forecasting , was developed at the Geophysical Institute by Vilhelm Bjerknes and collaborators ( including Carl-Gustaf Rossby ) beginning in 1917 .","qid":"2787","docid":"Geophysical_Institute,_University_of_Bergen","rank":33,"score":122650},{"content":"Title: Michael Raupach Content: Michael Robin Raupach ( 30 October 1950 -- 10 February 2015 ) was an Australian climate scientist . He is credited with developing the concept of a carbon budget , the amount of CO2 that is emitted and absorbed in the global ecosystem in the course of a year . When the in balance , CO2 emissions and absorption in carbon sinks are roughly the same , but when disturbed , possibly large changes in the ecosystem ensue . He was a founding co-chair of the Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) , a network of the world 's leading carbon cycle researchers . He was instrumental in publishing the Annual Carbon Budget , which draws on a large amount of scientific data to determine the level of imbalance and options for addressing it . He worked for the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation before becoming the director of the Australian National University 's Climate Change Institute in 2014 . He was a co-chair of the Global Carbon Project from 2000 to 2008 , and contributed to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Fourth Assessment Report in 2007 . He chaired the steering committee of the ` Australia 2050 ' project of the Australian Academy of Science ( AAS ) . In 2009 -- 2010 he chaired the Expert Working Group on Challenges at the Intersection of Carbon , Energy and Water , reporting to the Prime Minister 's Science , Engineering and Innovation Council and the Office of the Chief Scientist of Australia . His career included the publication of 150 scientific papers and 50 reports . His research developed in three stages , the first focused on very localized flow and transport of matter and energy through and above plant canopies . At the next stage , he worked on quantification of CO2 transport through and above plant canopies , though still on a small scale . In the 1990s , his focus began to shift to global ecosystems when he became a member of the scientific steering committee of the Biospheric Aspects of the Hydrological Cycle core project of the IGBP ( International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme ) . One of the most fundamental and important questions that the project addressed was : does the land-surface matter in climate and weather ? His research contributed to addressing that question , through his work on turbulent fluxes near the land surface , boundary-layer budgeting and quantifying the water balance at broader scales . He was a fellow of the Australian Academy of Science , the Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering , and the American Geophysical Union . Just before his death following a short illness , he co-chaired the working group of the Australian Academy of Science drafting the AAS booklet The Science of Climate Change : Questions and Answers .","qid":"2787","docid":"Michael_Raupach","rank":34,"score":122622},{"content":"Title: Guy Stewart Callendar Content: Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''","qid":"2787","docid":"Guy_Stewart_Callendar","rank":35,"score":121609},{"content":"Title: North American Carbon Program Content: The North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) is one of the major elements of the Strategic Plan for the U.S. Climate Change Science Program . The central objective of NACP is to measure and understand carbon stocks and sources and sinks of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , and carbon monoxide ( CO ) in North America and adjacent ocean regions . The specific program goals are as followed : Develop quantitative scientific knowledge , robust observations , and models to determine the emissions and uptake of CO2 , CH4 , and CO , changes in carbon stocks , and the factors regulating these processes for North America and adjacent ocean basins . Develop the scientific basis to implement full carbon accounting on regional and continental scales . This is the knowledge base needed to design monitoring programs for natural and managed CO2 sinks and emissions of CH4 . Support long-term quantitative measurements of fluxes , sources , and sinks of atmospheric CO2 and CH4 , and develop forecasts for future trends . The North American Carbon Program was designed to help with the process of providing data needed to model the synthesis activities .","qid":"2787","docid":"North_American_Carbon_Program","rank":36,"score":121087},{"content":"Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Content: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change : A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases was a 2005 international conference that examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration , and the 2 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) ceiling on global warming thought necessary to avoid the most serious effects of global warming . Previously this had generally been accepted as being 550 ppm . The conference took place under the United Kingdom 's presidency of the G8 , with the participation of around 200 ` internationally renowned ' scientists from 30 countries . It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter , from 1 February to 3 February .","qid":"2787","docid":"Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change","rank":37,"score":120880},{"content":"Title: Michael Schlesinger Content: Dr. Michael Earl Schlesinger ( born February 23 , 1943 ) is a Professor of Atmospheric Sciences and director of the Climate Research Group at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign . He received his Ph.D. ( meteorology ) in 1976 from the University of California , Los Angeles . Michael Schlesinger is an expert in the modeling , simulation and analysis of climate and climate change , with interests in simulating and understanding the climates of the geologic past and possible future climates resulting from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases and human-made aerosols . He has been instrumental in developing a range of simple and complex climate models , which have been used by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and the Energy Modeling Forum . His research currently focuses on : ( 1 ) simulating and understanding the effects on climate of a human-induced melting of the Greenland ice sheet ; ( 2 ) simulating and understanding the coupled climate-chemistry system , including the influences of the Sun - both irradiance and energetic electron precipitation - and volcanoes ; ( 3 ) understanding and reducing the uncertainty in the estimation of climate sensitivity and climate feedbacks ; and ( 4 ) performing integrative assessment of climate change , including further development of the robust adaptive decision strategy for mitigating and adapting to human-induced climate change . He is known for his work on oscillations in the global climate system , on estimating the climate sensitivity , and on seasonal climate change . He has edited four books , most recently Human-induced climate change : An interdisciplinary assessment . He regularly appears in the media .","qid":"2787","docid":"Michael_Schlesinger","rank":38,"score":120698},{"content":"Title: Severinghaus electrode Content: The Severinghaus electrode is an electrode that measures carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . It was developed by Dr. John W. Severinghaus and his technician A. Freeman Bradley in 1958 . It utilizes a CO2-sensitive glass electrode in a surrounding film of bicarbonate solution covered by a thin plastic carbon dioxide permeable membrane , but impermeable to water and electrolytic solutes . The carbon dioxide pressure of a sample gas or liquid equilibrates through the membrane and the glass electrode measures the resulting pH of the bicarbonate solution .","qid":"2787","docid":"Severinghaus_electrode","rank":39,"score":120577},{"content":"Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .","qid":"2787","docid":"History_of_climate_change_science","rank":40,"score":120270},{"content":"Title: Mars Surveyor '98 program Content: The Mars Surveyor '98 program comprised two spacecraft launched separately , the Mars Climate Orbiter ( formerly the Mars Surveyor '98 Orbiter ) and the Mars Polar Lander ( formerly the Mars Surveyor '98 Lander ) ; on board the Mars Polar Lander spacecraft were two surface-penetrator probes ( Deep Space 2 ) . The two missions were to study the Martian weather , climate , water and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) budget , to understand the reservoirs , behavior , and atmospheric role of volatiles and to search for evidence of long-term and episodic climate changes . Both spacecraft were launched during the 1998 Mars orbit insertion launch window . Both were lost , including the penetrator probes .","qid":"2787","docid":"Mars_Surveyor_'98_program","rank":41,"score":118908},{"content":"Title: Climate footprint Content: The term climate footprint has emerged from the field of carbon footprinting , and refers to a measure of the full set of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) controlled under the Kyoto Protocol . A climate footprint is a more comprehensive measure of anthropogenic impact upon the climate than a carbon footprint , but is also more costly and labour-intensive to calculate . A climate footprint is a measure of the total amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFCs ) and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) emissions of a defined population , system or activity , considering all relevant sources , sinks and storage within the spatial and temporal boundary of the population , system or activity of interest . Calculated as carbon dioxide equivalent ( CO2e ) using the relevant 100-year global warming potential ( GWP100 ) .","qid":"2787","docid":"Climate_footprint","rank":42,"score":118457},{"content":"Title: Revelle factor Content: The Revelle factor ( buffer factor ) is the ratio of instantaneous change in carbon dioxide to the change in total dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) , and is a measure of the resistance to atmospheric CO2 being absorbed by the ocean surface layer . The buffer factor is used to examine the distribution of CO2 between the atmosphere and the ocean , and measures the amount of CO2 that can be dissolved in the mixed surface layer . It is named after the oceanographer Roger Revelle , who was one of the first scientists to study global warming . Revelle factor = / ( Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- ) where DIC is dissolved inorganic carbon . Δ -LSB- -RSB- / -LSB- -RSB- is the instantaneous change in p and Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- is the instantaneous change in DIC .","qid":"2787","docid":"Revelle_factor","rank":43,"score":117779},{"content":"Title: Kenneth Hare Content: Fredrick Kenneth Hare , ( February 5 , 1919 -- September 3 , 2002 ) was a Canadian climatologist and academic , who researched atmospheric carbon dioxide , climate change , drought , and arid zone climates and was a strong advocate for preserving the natural environment .","qid":"2787","docid":"Kenneth_Hare","rank":44,"score":116563},{"content":"Title: Global Historical Climatology Network Content: The Global Historical Climatology Network ( GHCN ) is a database of temperature , precipitation and pressure records managed by the National Climatic Data Center , Arizona State University and the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center . The aggregate data are collected from many continuously reporting fixed stations at the Earth 's surface and represent the input of approximately 6000 temperature stations , 7500 precipitation stations and 2000 pressure stations . This work has often been used as a foundation for reconstructing past global temperatures , and was used in previous versions of two of the best-known reconstructions , that prepared by the National Climatic Data Center ( NCDC ) , and that prepared by NASA as its Goddard Institute for Space Studies ( GISS ) temperature set . The average temperature record is 60 years long with ~ 1650 records greater than 100 years and ~ 220 greater than 150 years ( based on GHCN v2 in 2006 ) . The earliest data included in the database were collected in 1697 .","qid":"2787","docid":"Global_Historical_Climatology_Network","rank":45,"score":115298},{"content":"Title: Climate engineering Content: Climate engineering , commonly referred to as geoengineering , also known as climate intervention , is the deliberate and large-scale intervention in the Earth 's climatic system with the aim of limiting adverse global warming . Climate engineering is an umbrella term for measures that mainly fall into two types : carbon dioxide removal and solar radiation management . Carbon dioxide removal addresses the cause of global warming by removing one of the greenhouse gases ( carbon dioxide ) from the atmosphere . Solar radiation management attempts to offset effects of greenhouse gases by causing the Earth to absorb less solar radiation . Climate engineering approaches are sometimes viewed as additional potential options for limiting global warming , alongside mitigation and adaptation . There is substantial agreement among scientists that climate engineering can not substitute for climate change mitigation . Some approaches might be used as accompanying measures to sharp cuts in greenhouse gas emissions . Given that all types of measures for addressing climate change have economic , political , or physical limitations , some climate engineering approaches might eventually be used as part of an ensemble of measures . Research on costs , benefits , and various types of risks of most climate engineering approaches is at an early stage and their understanding needs to improve to judge their adequacy and feasibility . Almost all research into solar radiation management has consisted of computer modelling or laboratory tests , and an attempt to move to outdoor experimentation was controversial . Some carbon dioxide removal practices , such as planting of trees and bio-energy with carbon capture and storage projects , are underway . Their scalability to effectively affect global climate is , however , debated . Ocean iron fertilization has been given small-scale research trials , sparking substantial controversy . Most experts and major reports advise against relying on climate engineering techniques as a simple solution to global warming , in part due to the large uncertainties over effectiveness and side effects . However , most experts also argue that the risks of such interventions must be seen in the context of risks of dangerous global warming . Interventions at large scale may run a greater risk of disrupting natural systems resulting in a dilemma that those approaches that could prove highly ( cost - ) effective in addressing extreme climate risk , might themselves cause substantial risk . Some have suggested that the concept of engineering the climate presents a so-called `` moral hazard '' because it could reduce political and public pressure for emissions reduction , which could exacerbate overall climate risks ; others assert that the threat of climate engineering could spur emissions cuts . Some are in favour of a moratorium on out-of-doors testing and deployment of solar radiation management ( SRM ) .","qid":"2787","docid":"Climate_engineering","rank":46,"score":115118},{"content":"Title: Peter Thejll Content: Peter Andreas Thejll ( born 1956 ) is a Danish astrophysicist and climate researcher . His research in solar variation helped provide evidence of the greenhouse effect on the Earth 's climate in the late 20th century . In particular , his study with Knud Lassen on Northern Hemisphere land air temperature showed that the rise of 0.4 degrees Celsius since 1980 could not be accounted for by the solar cycle . Climatologists have pointed to this finding as an `` actual piece of evidence for greenhouse warming '' . Thejll received his undergraduate education at the University of Copenhagen . He received an M.S. in physics and a Ph.D. in astrophysics from the University of Delaware . Thejll was a Carlsberg Fellow at the Niels Bohr Institute and worked at the Nordic Institute for Theoretical Physics . Thejll currently is a senior scientist at the Danish Meteorological Institute in Copenhagen . He is currently involved in the creation of a global automatic system to observe the Earth 's reflectivity - albedo - using observations of the earthshine on the Moon . Such data can be used for climate change studies and calibration of satellite data as the measurements deliver independent data on the albedo . A telescope is now installed on Hawaii at the Mauna Loa Observatory . The Swedish research agency VINNOVA is funding this project .","qid":"2787","docid":"Peter_Thejll","rank":47,"score":114794},{"content":"Title: Chicago Climate Exchange Content: The Chicago Climate Exchange ( CCX ) was North America 's only voluntary , legally binding greenhouse gas ( GHG ) reduction and trading system for emission sources and offset projects in North America and Brazil . CCX employed independent verification , included six greenhouse gases , and traded greenhouse gas emission allowances from 2003 to 2010 . The companies joining the exchange committed to reducing their aggregate emissions by 6 % by 2010 . CCX had an aggregate baseline of 680 million metric tons of CO2 equivalent . CCX ceased trading carbon credits at the end of 2010 due to inactivity in the U.S. carbon markets , although carbon exchanges were intended to still be facilitated .","qid":"2787","docid":"Chicago_Climate_Exchange","rank":48,"score":114677},{"content":"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .","qid":"2787","docid":"Regional_effects_of_global_warming","rank":49,"score":114139},{"content":"Title: Kyoto Protocol Content: The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , based on the fact that ( a ) global warming exists and ( b ) human-made CO2 emissions have caused it . The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto , Japan , on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005 . There are currently 192 parties ( Canada withdrew effective December 2012 ) to the Protocol . The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to `` a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' ( Art. 2 ) . The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities : it puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . The Protocol 's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012 . A second commitment period was agreed on in 2012 , known as the Doha Amendment to the protocol , in which 37 countries have binding targets : Australia , the European Union ( and its 28 member states ) , Belarus , Iceland , Kazakhstan , Liechtenstein , Norway , Switzerland , and Ukraine . Belarus , Kazakhstan and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets . Japan , New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyoto 's first-round but have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period . Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada ( which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012 ) and the United States ( which has not ratified the Protocol ) . As of July 2016 , 66 states have accepted the Doha Amendment , while entry into force requires the acceptances of 144 states . Of the 37 countries with binding commitments , 7 have ratified . Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ends in 2020 . This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the Paris Agreement , which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto protocol .","qid":"2787","docid":"Kyoto_Protocol","rank":50,"score":113984},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Idaho Content: Like other parts of the world , climate in Idaho has changed dramatically over the geologic history of the Earth . Paleo-climatic records give some indication of these changes . The longest instrumented records of climate in Idaho extend back to the late 1800s . Concern over human induced climate change through the emission of carbon dioxide from fossil fuels and methane from agriculture and industry , are driving research efforts across the state at university , state , and federals levels to understand what the implications of climate change could be in Idaho . In the big picture of greenhouse gas emissions , Idaho emits the least carbon dioxide per person of the United States , less than 23,000 pounds a year . It relies mostly on nonpolluting hydroelectric power from its rivers . Like other parts of the world , Idaho has seen significant temperature increases , especially in the last several decades . From 1971-2005 the average annual observed temperature in the Snake River Plain , located in southern Idaho , has increased by 1.4 degrees Celsius based on data from 10 climate stations ( Dubois , Ashton , Oakely , Pocatello , Aberdeen , Hazelton , Jerome , Boise , Nampa , and Payette ) . Statistically the increasing temperature trends are most significant in the months of January , March , and April . While precipitation has generally increased , since the early 1900s . The high variability in precipitation makes the identification of precipitation trends statistically difficult . Over the next century , climate in Idaho will experience additional changes due both to ` natural ' climate variability and due to feedbacks related to the interaction between climate variability and increasing greenhouse gases . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Idaho could increase by 5 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 9 F-change ) in winter and summer and 4 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 7 F-change ) in spring and fall . Precipitation is estimated to change little in summer , to increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and to increase by 20 % in winter ( with a range of 10-40 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .","qid":"2787","docid":"Climate_change_in_Idaho","rank":51,"score":113705},{"content":"Title: Climate Dress Content: The Climate Dress was designed in 2009 by Danish design company Diffus Design in collaboration with the Swiss embroidery company Forster-Rohner , Alexandra Institute and the Danish School of Design . The Climate Dress is laced with hundreds of light-emitting diodes ( LEDs ) that responds to the level of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) in the nearby surroundings and are powered through the conductive embroidery by an Arduino Lily pad microprocessor and a carbon dioxide detector , resulting in patterns that range from slow pulses to rapid flashes depending on the concentration of the CO2 . The Climate Dress does not rely on wiring , soldering , or crimping , which is often the case with smart textile products . All functional elements are blended into the embroidery and exposed to the viewer . The Climate Dress was presented at the Cop 15 Climate Summit in Copenhagen in 2009 , at the `` Health Environment Climate '' exhibition . In 2011 the Climate Dress won first prize in the Design That Performs contest , hosted by Samsung .","qid":"2787","docid":"Climate_Dress","rank":52,"score":113659},{"content":"Title: Katsuko Saruhashi Content: was a geochemist who made some of the first measurements of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels in seawater and subsequently showed the evidence in seawater and the atmosphere of the dangers of radioactive fallout .","qid":"2787","docid":"Katsuko_Saruhashi","rank":53,"score":112737},{"content":"Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .","qid":"2787","docid":"Carbon_rift","rank":54,"score":112730},{"content":"Title: Bomb pulse Content: The bomb pulse is the sudden increase of carbon-14 ( 14C ) in the Earth 's atmosphere due to the hundreds of aboveground nuclear bombs tests started in 1945 and intensified between 1950 until 1963 when the Limited Test Ban Treaty was signed by the United States , the Soviet Union and Great Britain . These hundreds of blasts were followed by a doubling of the concentration of 14C in the atmosphere . Since then , the concentration of 14C has decreased towards the previous level . Carbon-14 , the radioisotope of carbon-12 , is naturally developed in trace amounts in the atmosphere and it can be detected in all living organisms . Carbon of all types is continually used to form the molecules of the cells of organisms . Doubling of the concentration of 14C in the atmosphere is reflected in the tissues and cells of all organisms that lived around the period of nuclear testing . This property has many applications in the fields of biology and forensics .","qid":"2787","docid":"Bomb_pulse","rank":55,"score":112520},{"content":"Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .","qid":"2787","docid":"Attribution_of_recent_climate_change","rank":56,"score":112501},{"content":"Title: Charles David Keeling Content: Charles David Keeling ( April 20 , 1928 -- June 20 , 2005 ) was an American scientist whose recording of carbon dioxide at the Mauna Loa Observatory first alerted the world to the possibility of anthropogenic contribution to the `` greenhouse effect '' and global warming . The Keeling Curve measures the progressive buildup of carbon dioxide , a greenhouse gas , in the atmosphere .","qid":"2787","docid":"Charles_David_Keeling","rank":57,"score":112445},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide removal Content: Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions .","qid":"2787","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_removal","rank":58,"score":112287},{"content":"Title: John H. Mercer Content: John H. Mercer ( Cheltenham , England , 19 October 1922 -- Columbus , Ohio 3 July 1987 ) was a glaciologist , chiefly known for his theoretical work on , and field studies of Antarctic ice streams , especially in the Transantarctic Mountains and in West Antarctica . Following John T. Hollin 's work ( 1962 ) suggesting that climatic warming and rising sea-level cause Antarctic ice shelves to retreat , Mercer postulated that the West Antarctic ice sheet , being grounded well below sea-level and terminating in floating ice shelves , was vulnerable to these changes and may have collapsed altogether during the last interglacial when Antarctica may have been warmer and sea-level may have been higher . In 1978 , in the science magazine Nature , Mercer pointed out that `` green-house '' warming from burning fossil fuel could have the same effect during the present interglacial . Two studies published 12 May 2014 confirm Mercer 's assumption . Climate scientist James Hansen has coined the term , `` John Mercer effect . '' After Mercer published his paper suggesting that the West Antarctic ice sheet could collapse in response to warming , he struggled to get funding . Others , including Hansen , had similar problems . Many climate scientists censor their own work to avoid losing funding , especially regarding prospects for limiting warming to 2 ° C above pre-industrial temperatures . John H. Mercer was the third child of Harriet and John W. Mercer . He was educated at private schools in Cheltenham and , later , at Gordonstoun in Scotland . During World War II he served in the British Merchant Marines ( 1940 -- 46 ) as a radio man . After the war he went to University of Cambridge and studied geography . At that time he came under the influence of William Vaughan Lewis . After finishing his B.A. in 1949 Mercer went to Canada , where he received his PhD in geography from McGill University in 1954 . He was a Research Scholar from 1954 to 1956 at the Australian National University in Canberra , where he studied land use and population in western Samoa . He returned to Canada and worked in the Canadian Hydro-graphic Office in Ottawa as a geographer in 1957 and 1958 . During 1959 -- 60 , 1961 -- 62 , 1964 , and 1966 , the American Geographical Society employed him at its World Data Center A for Glaciology in New York . The turning point in his career as a glaciologist was in 1960 , when he became a Research Associate at The Ohio State University , in the Institute of Polar Studies ( renamed the Byrd Polar Research Center ) . He remained at The Ohio State University until his death , becoming its first Senior Research Scientist .","qid":"2787","docid":"John_H._Mercer","rank":59,"score":112135},{"content":"Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .","qid":"2787","docid":"Economics_of_global_warming","rank":60,"score":111471},{"content":"Title: Warren Hansen Content: Warren R. Hansen ( born February 15 , 1943 ) is a Canadian retired curler . He played as third on the Hec Gervais rink that won the 1974 Brier . Hansen served as director of event operations for Curling Canada , but retired in June 2015 . He currently works for the Curling Canada Board of Governors as an advisory , the United States Curling Association as a Business Development Consultant and is part of the organizing committee , in Las Vegas , that are hosting the Men 's World Curling Championship in 2018 . Hansen worked for Curling Canada ( formerly the Canadian Curling Association ) 1974 - 2015 . His involvement with the organization has been instrumental in moving major events into hockey arenas , introducing the page playoff system , reducing the amount of sheets in events to four , implementing player dress codes , bringing in officiating of major events and the creation of the Continental Cup of Curling and Canada Cup of Curling . In addition Hansen played a key role , along with Calgary 's Ray Kingsmith in establishing curling as a demonstration sport at the 1988 Winter Olympics in Calgary . In 2002 he developed the game of Mixed Doubles as part of the newly created Continental Cup . In June 2015 it was announced that Mixed Doubles will be a full medal sport at the 2018 Winter Olympics . Hansen is a member of the Alberta Sports Hall of Fame as a team member of the Edmonton Huskies and also as a Curling Builder . He is a member of the City of Edmonton Sports Hall of Fame as a team member of the Huskies and a Curler/Builder in the Canadian Curing Hall of Fame and a Builder in the World Curing Hall of Fame . Hansen grew up in Namao , Alberta and played junior football for the -LSB- -LSB- Edmonton Huskies -RSB- when the team won three consecutive Canadian championships in 1962 , '63 and ' 64 . -RSB- .","qid":"2787","docid":"Warren_Hansen","rank":61,"score":111188},{"content":"Title: Global Warming: What You Need to Know Content: Global Warming What You Need to Know is a 2006 global warming ( climate change ) documentary , directed by Nicolas Brown , starring Tom Brokaw , James Hansen , Michael Oppenheimer , and Mark Serreze . The film focuses on impacts from climate change , and Tom Brokaw interviews scientists . The documentary premiered on Discovery Channel , 16 July 2006 .","qid":"2787","docid":"Global_Warming:_What_You_Need_to_Know","rank":62,"score":110826},{"content":"Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.","qid":"2787","docid":"Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C","rank":63,"score":110602},{"content":"Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .","qid":"2787","docid":"Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean","rank":64,"score":109914},{"content":"Title: Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals Content: Climate change has had a significant direct effect on terrestrial animals , by being a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction . The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago . This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles . Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history . However , with the recent increased emission of CO2 in the Earth 's atmosphere , abrupt climate change has occurred . It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present ( Van Hoof 2006 ) . Animals have had specific responses to climate change . Species respond to climate changes by migration , adaptation , or if neither of those occur , death . These migrations can sometimes follow an animal 's preferred temperature , elevation , soil , etc. , as said terrain moves due to climate change . Adaptation can be either genetic or phenological , and death can occur in a local population only ( extirpation ) or as an entire species , otherwise known as extinction . Climate changes is projected to affect individual organisms , populations , species distributions and ecosystem composition and function both directly ( ex . Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation ) and indirectly ( through climate changing the intensity and frequency of disturbances such as wildfires and severe storms ) ( IPCC 2002 ) . Every organism has a unique set of preferences or requirements , a niche and biodiversity has been tied to the diversity of animals ' niches . These can include or be affected by temperature , aridity , resource availability , habitat requirements , enemies , soil characteristics , competitors , and pollinators . Since the factors that compose a niche can be so complex and interconnected , the niches of many animals are bound to be affected by climate change ( Parmesan Yohe 2003 ) . One study done by Camille Parmesan and Gary Yohe from University of Texas , Austin shows the global fingerprint of climate change on natural systems . The results of their global analysis of 334 species were recorded to demonstrate the correlation of patterns consistent with global climate change of the 20th century . Using the IPCC 's ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) ` levels of confidence ' , this study proved significant nonrandom behavioral changes due to global climate change with very high confidence ( > 95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change .","qid":"2787","docid":"Effects_of_climate_change_on_terrestrial_animals","rank":65,"score":109759},{"content":"Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .","qid":"2787","docid":"Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact","rank":66,"score":109759},{"content":"Title: Climate commitment Content: Climate commitment describes the fact that climate reacts with a delay to influencing factors ( `` climate forcings '' ) such as the presence of greenhouse gases . Climate commitment studies attempt to assess the amount of future global warming that is `` committed '' under the assumption of some constant level of forcings . The constant level often used for illustrative purposes is doubling or quadrupling ; or the present level of forcing .","qid":"2787","docid":"Climate_commitment","rank":67,"score":109673},{"content":"Title: Bølling-Allerød warming Content: The Bølling-Allerød interstadial was an abrupt warm and moist interstadial period that occurred during the final stages of the last glacial period . This warm period ran from c. 14,700 to c. 12,700 years before the present ( BP ) . It began with the end of the cold period known as the Oldest Dryas , and ended abruptly with the onset of the Younger Dryas , a cold period that reduced temperatures back to near-glacial levels within a decade . In some regions , a cold period known as the Older Dryas can be detected in the middle of the Bølling-Allerød interstadial . In these regions the period is divided into the Bølling oscillation , which peaked around 14,500 BP , and the Allerød oscillation , which peaked closer to 13,000 BP . Estimates of CO2 rise are 20 -- 35 ppmv within 200 years , a rate less than 29 -- 50 % compared to the anthropogenic global warming signal from the past 50 years , and with a radiative forcing of 0.59 -- 0.75 W m − 2 .","qid":"2787","docid":"Bølling-Allerød_warming","rank":68,"score":109307},{"content":"Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .","qid":"2787","docid":"Copenhagen_Diagnosis","rank":69,"score":109300},{"content":"Title: Zotino Tall Tower Observation Facility Content: The Zotino Tall Tower Observation Facility ( ZOTTO ) is a climatic research station in the Siberian taiga in the proximity of Zotino , Russia , established and operated by the Max Planck Society and the Sukachev Institute of Forest , it serves as a long-term observing platform to be operated for at least 30 years . Far from human influences , researchers aim to determine how the concentration of greenhouse gases , aerosols , and the rising temperatures of the terrestrial atmosphere affect each other mutually . The heart of the station is a 302 m tower on which precision instruments measure the concentration of carbon dioxide , methane and other greenhouse gases . The measurement data are processed directly in the station at the foot of the tower and then transferred to the Institute of Forest , in Krasnoyarsk , Russia , as well as to the Max Planck Institute for Biogeochemistry in Jena , Germany . The station has been operational since September 2006 . It extended the project Terrestrial Carbon Observing System and was funded by the 5th framework programme of the European Union , uniting 8 European and 4 Russian partners . A main conclusion of the project is that Siberian forests constitute a substantially smaller carbon-sink than so far assumed .","qid":"2787","docid":"Zotino_Tall_Tower_Observation_Facility","rank":70,"score":109229},{"content":"Title: Climate change and potatoes Content: Global warming is predicted to have significant effects on global potato production . Like many crops , potatoes are likely to be affected by changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide , temperature and precipitation , as well as interactions between these factors . As well as affecting potatoes directly , climate change will also affect the distributions and populations of many potato diseases and pests . Potato is one of the world 's most important food crops . Potato production must be adapted to climate change to avoid reductions in crop yields .","qid":"2787","docid":"Climate_change_and_potatoes","rank":71,"score":109047},{"content":"Title: Mary Christina Wood Content: Mary Christina Wood ( born 1962 ) is an Oregon Philip H. Knight Professor of Law and author , best known for her writings advocating for the use of the Public trust doctrine to compel government action on climate change . Wood originated the approach , called atmospheric trust litigation , `` to hold governments worldwide accountable for reducing carbon pollution within their jurisdictions , and her research is being used in cases and petitions brought on behalf of children and youth throughout the United States and in other countries . '' In 2014 , after a number of atmospheric trust litigation and petitions were brought by young people worldwide , Forbes contributor James Conca wrote , '' ( i ) f the Supreme Court holds the government responsible for at least trying to protect our atmosphere , things could certainly change here in America . ''","qid":"2787","docid":"Mary_Christina_Wood","rank":72,"score":109044},{"content":"Title: Climate change in the United Kingdom Content: Climate change in the United Kingdom has been a subject of protests and controversies and various policies have been developed to mitigate its effects . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . The UK Government has a commitment to reduce CO2 equivalent emissions by 80 % on 1990 levels by 2025 and by 50 % on 1990 levels by 2050 .","qid":"2787","docid":"Climate_change_in_the_United_Kingdom","rank":73,"score":108714},{"content":"Title: Climate change feedback Content: Climate change feedback is important in the understanding of global warming because feedback processes may amplify or diminish the effect of each climate forcing , and so play an important part in determining the climate sensitivity and future climate state . Feedback in general is the process in which changing one quantity changes a second quantity , and the change in the second quantity in turn changes the first . Positive feedback amplifies the change in the first quantity while negative feedback reduces it . The term `` forcing '' means a change which may `` push '' the climate system in the direction of warming or cooling . An example of a climate forcing is increased atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases . By definition , forcings are external to the climate system while feedbacks are internal ; in essence , feedbacks represent the internal processes of the system . Some feedbacks may act in relative isolation to the rest of the climate system ; others may be tightly coupled ; hence it may be difficult to tell just how much a particular process contributes . Forcings , feedbacks and the dynamics of the climate system determine how much and how fast the climate changes . The main positive feedback in global warming is the tendency of warming to increase the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere , which in turn leads to further warming . The main negative feedback comes from the Stefan -- Boltzmann law , the amount of heat radiated from the Earth into space changes with the fourth power of the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere . Some observed and potential effects of global warming are positive feedbacks , which contribute directly to further global warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that `` Anthropogenic warming could lead to some effects that are abrupt or irreversible , depending upon the rate and magnitude of the climate change . ''","qid":"2787","docid":"Climate_change_feedback","rank":74,"score":108614},{"content":"Title: Atmospheric Infrared Sounder Content: The Atmospheric Infrared Sounder ( AIRS ) is one of six instruments flying on board NASA 's Aqua satellite , launched on May 4 , 2002 . The instrument is designed to support climate research and improve weather forecasting . Working in combination with its partner microwave instrument , the Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit ( AMSU-A ) , AIRS observes the global water and energy cycles , climate variation and trends , and the response of the climate system to increased greenhouse gases . AIRS uses infrared technology to create three-dimensional maps of air and surface temperature , water vapor , and cloud properties . AIRS can also measure trace greenhouse gases such as ozone , carbon monoxide , carbon dioxide , and methane . AIRS and AMSU-A share the Aqua satellite with the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer ( MODIS ) , Clouds and the Earth 's Radiant Energy System ( CERES ) , and the Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer-EOS ( AMSR-E ) . Aqua is part of NASA 's `` A-train , '' a series of high-inclination , Sun-synchronous satellites in low Earth orbit designed to make long-term global observations of the land surface , biosphere , solid Earth , atmosphere , and ocean . AIRS data is free and available to the public through the Goddard Earth Sciences Data Information and Services Center . NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena , California , manages AIRS for NASA 's Science Mission Directorate in Washington , D.C.","qid":"2787","docid":"Atmospheric_Infrared_Sounder","rank":75,"score":108588},{"content":"Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference) Content: In 2005, an international conference titled Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and global warming and its effects. The conference name was derived from Article 2 of the charter for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The conference explored the possible impacts at different levels of greenhouse gas emissions and how the climate might be stabilized at a desired level. The conference took place under the United Kingdom's presidency of the G8, with the participation of around 200 \"internationally renowned\" scientists from 30 countries. It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter, from 1 February to 3 February. The conference was one of many meetings leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, at which the international community agreed to limit global warming to no more than 2C in order to have a 50-50 chance of avoiding dangerous climate change. However, a 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting it is below the 2 degree temperature target.","qid":"2787","docid":"Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change_(2005_conference)","rank":76,"score":108465},{"content":"Title: Inge Birgit Hansen Content: Inge Birgit Anker Hansen is a former Danish badminton player . With her mixed doubles partners Finn Kobberø and Poul-Erik Nielsen she won the National title in 1954 , 1959 & 1961 . In addition Inge won the women 's doubles in 1956 & 1960 with Aase Winther . Her greatest success came during the 1959 All England Badminton Championships when she won the mixed doubles with Nielsen .","qid":"2787","docid":"Inge_Birgit_Hansen","rank":77,"score":108459},{"content":"Title: Wetland methane emissions Content: As one of the most significant natural sources of atmospheric methane , wetlands remain a major area of concern with respect to climate change . Wetlands are characterized by water-logged soils and distinctive communities of plant and animal species that have evolved and adapted to the constant presence of water . Due to this high level of water saturation as well as warm weather , wetlands are one of the most significant natural sources of atmospheric methane . Most methanogenesis , or methane production , occurs in oxygen-poor environments . Because the microbes that live in warm , moist environments consume oxygen more rapidly than it can diffuse in from the atmosphere , wetlands are the ideal anaerobic , or oxygen poor , environments for fermentation . Fermentation is a process used by certain kinds of microorganisms to break down essential nutrients . In a process called acetoclastic methanogenesis , microorganisms from the classification domain archaea produce methane by fermenting acetate and H2-CO2 into methane and carbon dioxide . H3C-COOH → CH4 + CO2 Depending on the wetland and type of archaea , hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis , another process that yields methane , can also occur . This process occurs as a result of archaea oxidizing hydrogen with carbon dioxide to yield methane and water . 4H2 + CO2 → CH4 + 2H2O","qid":"2787","docid":"Wetland_methane_emissions","rank":78,"score":108215},{"content":"Title: Atmospheric temperature Content: Atmospheric temperature is a measure of temperature at different levels of the Earth 's atmosphere . It is governed by many factors , including incoming solar radiation , humidity and altitude . When discussing surface temperature , the annual atmospheric temperature range at any geographical location depends largely upon the type of biome , as measured by the Köppen climate classification .","qid":"2787","docid":"Atmospheric_temperature","rank":79,"score":108153},{"content":"Title: Mesopause Content: The mesopause is the temperature minimum at the boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere atmospheric regions . Due to the lack of solar heating and very strong radiative cooling from carbon dioxide , the mesosphere is the coldest region on Earth with temperatures as low as -100 ° C ( -148 ° F or 173 K ) . The altitude of the mesopause for many years was assumed to be at around 85 km ( 53 mi . ) , but observations to higher altitudes and modeling studies in the last 10 years have shown that in fact the mesopause consists of two minima - one at about 85 km and a stronger minimum at about 100 km . ( 62 mi . ) Another feature is that the summer mesopause is cooler than the winter ( sometimes referred to as the mesopause anomaly ) . It is due to a summer-to-winter circulation giving rise to upwelling at the summer pole and downwelling at the winter pole . Air rising will expand and cool resulting in a cold summer mesopause and conversely downwelling air results in compression and associated increase in temperature at the winter mesopause . In the mesosphere the summer-to-winter circulation is due to gravity wave dissipation , which deposits momentum against the mean east-west flow , resulting in a small north-south circulation . In recent years the mesopause has also been the focus of studies on global climate change associated with increases in CO2 . Unlike the troposphere , where greenhouse gases result in the atmosphere heating up , increased CO2 in the mesosphere acts to cool the atmosphere due to increased radiative emission . This results in a measurable effect - the mesopause should become cooler with increased CO2 . Observations do show a decrease of temperature of the mesopause , though the magnitude of this decrease varies and is subject to further study . Modeling studies of this phenomenon have also been carried out .","qid":"2787","docid":"Mesopause","rank":80,"score":108059},{"content":"Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .","qid":"2787","docid":"Atmospheric_methane","rank":81,"score":107757},{"content":"Title: Evangelical Climate Initiative Content: The Evangelical Climate Initiative ( ECI ) is a campaign by US-American church leaders and organizations to promote market based mechanisms to mitigate global warming . ECI 's first statement , calling for reductions in carbon dioxide emissions , was initially signed by 86 evangelical leaders . Signatories included Rick Warren , the presidents of 39 evangelical colleges , and the leader of the Salvation Army . The number of signatories had risen to over 100 by December 2007 , and as of July 2011 over 220 evangelical leaders had signed the call to action . David P. Gushee , a professor of Christian ethics at Mercer University , helped draft the document . When the Evangelical Climate Initiative launched in February 2006 , the National Association of Evangelicals ( NAE ) was not ready to make such a commitment . Not quite a year later , the NAE worked with the Center for Health and the Global Environment at Harvard Medical School to bring scientists and evangelical Christian leaders together to mitigate climate change . As ABC News reported :","qid":"2787","docid":"Evangelical_Climate_Initiative","rank":82,"score":107684},{"content":"Title: Seita Emori Content: Seita Emori ( born 1970 in Kanagawa , Japan ) is a Japanese environmental scientist whose most noted work focuses upon the worldwide effects of Global Warming . He completed his Doctorate at the University of Tokyo in 1997 and thereafter joined the National Institute of Environmental Studies , Japan where he is currently the Chief of the Climate Risk Assessment Research Section at the Center for Global Environmental Research . Emori is a contributing author to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and a member of the IPCC Steering Committee for the `` Expert Meeting on New Scenarios '' , for which the IPCC received a Noble Prize in 2007 . Among Emori 's publications are the academic paper `` Sensitivity Map of LAI to Precipitation and Surface Air Temperature Variations in a Global Scale '' ( co-authored with his Japans colleague Hiroshi Kanzawa and Jiahua Zhang and Congbin Fu of the START , Institute of Atmospheric Physics in Beijing , China ) .","qid":"2787","docid":"Seita_Emori","rank":83,"score":107558},{"content":"Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .","qid":"2787","docid":"Low-carbon_economy","rank":84,"score":107515},{"content":"Title: Jørgen Hammergaard Hansen Content: Jørgen Hammergaard Hansen ( c. 1930 -- 22 August 2013 ) was a Danish badminton player who won numerous major international titles from the mid-1950s to the mid-1960s . Though he competed in singles at a strong international level during the first half of his career , it was as a doubles player that he made his mark , capturing six All-England men 's doubles titles with Finn Kobberø ( 1955 , 1956 , 1961 , 1962 , 1963 , 1964 ) and reaching the final round of the All-England mixed doubles on three occasions . Noted for his powerful smash which included an ability to smash off his backhand with the heavy rackets of the day , Hammergaard Hansen took part in five consecutive Thomas Cup ( men 's international team ) campaigns for Denmark between 1952 and 1964 , winning over 80 percent of his matches . In 1998 he was inducted into the Badminton Hall of Fame .","qid":"2787","docid":"Jørgen_Hammergaard_Hansen","rank":85,"score":107306},{"content":"Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .","qid":"2787","docid":"Low-carbon_emission","rank":86,"score":107278},{"content":"Title: Vatican Climate Forest Content: The Vatican Climate Forest , to be located in the Bükk National Park , Hungary , was donated to the Vatican City by a carbon offsetting company . The forest is to be sized to offset the carbon emissions generated by the Vatican during 2007 . The Vatican 's acceptance of the offer , at a ceremony on July 5 , 2007 , was reported as being `` purely symbolic '' , and a way to encourage Catholics to do more to safeguard the planet . No trees have been planted under the project and the carbon offsets have not materialised . In a more effective move to combat global warming , in May 2007 , the Vatican announced that the roof of the Paul VI Audience Hall would be covered with photovoltaic panels . The installation was officially placed into service on November 26 , 2008 .","qid":"2787","docid":"Vatican_Climate_Forest","rank":87,"score":107176},{"content":"Title: Alf Hansen Content: Alf John Hansen ( born 13 July 1948 ) is a retired rower from Norway . In 1976 , he won a gold medal at the Montreal Olympic Games in the double scull event ( 2x ) with his brother Frank Hansen . The Hansen brothers started their career with a silver medal at the 1974 world championships , and followed that up with a gold medal at the 1975 world championships . They would go on to win the 1978 and 1979 world championships in the double scull . Unfortunately the Norwegian Rowing Federation boycotted the Moscow Olympics in 1980 , so the brothers were unable to defend their Olympic title . Frank officially retired after the Moscow Olympics . Alf continued his career with a new partner and won gold , then silver at the world championships together with Rolf Thorsen in 1982 and 1983 . He further won a silver medal in the Olympic Games in Seoul in 1988 and ended his professional career after the worlds in 1991 at the age of 43 . Hansen was awarded the Thomas Keller Medal in 1990 . The medal is given by the International Rowing Federation ( FISA ) for an outstanding international career in the sport of rowing as well as exemplary sportsmanship . It is the highest honor in rowing .","qid":"2787","docid":"Alf_Hansen","rank":88,"score":107116},{"content":"Title: Cloud feedback Content: Cloud feedback is the coupling between cloudiness and surface air temperature where a surface air temperature change leads to a change in clouds , which could then amplify or diminish the initial temperature perturbation . Cloud feedbacks can affect the magnitude of internally generated climate variability or they can affect the magnitude of climate change resulting from external radiative forcings . Global warming is expected to change the distribution and type of clouds . Seen from below , clouds emit infrared radiation back to the surface , and so exert a warming effect ; seen from above , clouds reflect sunlight and emit infrared radiation to space , and so exert a cooling effect . Cloud representations vary among global climate models , and small changes in cloud cover have a large impact on the climate . Differences in planetary boundary layer cloud modeling schemes can lead to large differences in derived values of climate sensitivity . A model that decreases boundary layer clouds in response to global warming has a climate sensitivity twice that of a model that does not include this feedback . However , satellite data show that cloud optical thickness actually increases with increasing temperature . Whether the net effect is warming or cooling depends on details such as the type and altitude of the cloud ; details that are difficult to represent in climate models .","qid":"2787","docid":"Cloud_feedback","rank":89,"score":107025},{"content":"Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .","qid":"2787","docid":"Carbon_neutrality","rank":90,"score":106842},{"content":"Title: IPCC First Assessment Report Content: The First Assessment Report ( FAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) was completed in 1990 . It served as the basis of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The report was issued in three main sections , corresponding to the three Working Groups of scientists that the IPCC had established . Working Group I : Scientific Assessment of Climate Change , edited by J.T. Houghton , G.J. Jenkins and J.J. Ephraums Working Group II : Impacts Assessment of Climate Change , edited by W.J. McG . Tegart , G.W. Sheldon and D.C. Griffiths Working Group III : The IPCC Response Strategies Each section included a summary for policymakers . This format was followed in subsequent Assessment Reports . The executive summary of the policymakers ' summary of the WG I report includes : We are certain of the following : there is a natural greenhouse effect ... ; emissions resulting from human activities are substantially increasing the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases : CO2 , methane , CFCs and nitrous oxide . These increases will enhance the greenhouse effect , resulting on average in an additional warming of the Earth 's surface . The main greenhouse gas , water vapour , will increase in response to global warming and further enhance it . We calculate with confidence that : ... CO2 has been responsible for over half the enhanced greenhouse effect ; long-lived gases would require immediate reductions in emissions from human activities of over 60 % to stabilise their concentrations at today 's levels ... Based on current models , we predict : under -LSB- BAU -RSB- increase of global mean temperature during the -LSB- 21st -RSB- century of about 0.3 oC per decade ( with an uncertainty range of 0.2 to 0.5 oC per decade ) ; this is greater than that seen over the past 10,000 years ; under other ... scenarios which assume progressively increasing levels of controls , rates of increase in global mean temperature of about 0.2 oC -LSB- to -RSB- about 0.1 oC per decade . There are many uncertainties in our predictions particularly with regard to the timing , magnitude and regional patterns of climate change , due to our incomplete understanding of : sources and sinks of GHGs ; clouds ; oceans ; polar ice sheets . Our judgement is that : global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 oC over the last 100 years ... ; The size of this warming is broadly consistent with predictions of climate models , but it is also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability . Thus the observed increase could be largely due to this natural variability ; alternatively this variability and other human factors could have offset a still larger human-induced greenhouse warming . The unequivocal detection of the enhanced greenhouse effect is not likely for a decade or more . under the IPCC business as usual emissions scenario , an average rate of global mean sea level rise of about 6 cm per decade over the next century ( with an uncertainty range of 3 -- 10 cm per decade ) , mainly due to thermal expansion of the oceans and the melting of some land ice . The predicted rise is about 20 cm ... by 2030 , and 65 cm by the end of the next century .","qid":"2787","docid":"IPCC_First_Assessment_Report","rank":91,"score":106809},{"content":"Title: Climate inertia Content: Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .","qid":"2787","docid":"Climate_inertia","rank":92,"score":106665},{"content":"Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .","qid":"2787","docid":"Environmental_impact_of_aviation","rank":93,"score":106565},{"content":"Title: Amory Hansen Content: Amory Ide Agnes Hansen ( née Scheel ) ( February 24 , 1887 -- October 6 , 1961 ) was a Danish female tennis player who competed in the 1920 Summer Olympics . She was born and died in Copenhagen . In 1920 she and her partner Erik Tegner finished fourth in the mixed doubles event after losing the bronze medal match to Milada Skrbková and Ladislav Žemla . In the women 's doubles tournament she and her partner Elsebeth Brehm were eliminated in the quarter-finals after losing their match to Marie Storms and Fernande Arendt . Hansen also participated in the singles competition but was eliminated in the second round after losing her match to Élisabeth d'Ayen","qid":"2787","docid":"Amory_Hansen","rank":94,"score":106531},{"content":"Title: Advisory Group on Greenhouse Gases Content: The Advisory Group on Greenhouse Gases , created in 1985 , was an advisory body for the review of studies into the greenhouse effect . The group was created by the International Council of Scientific Unions , the United Nations Environment Programme , and the World Meteorological Organization to follow up on the recommendations of the International conference of the Assessment of the role of carbon dioxide and of other greenhouse gases in climate variations and associated impacts , held at Villach , Austria , in October 1985 . The seven-member panel included Swedish meteorologist Bert Bolin and Canadian climatologist Kenneth Hare . The group held its last meeting in 1990 . It was gradually replaced by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change .","qid":"2787","docid":"Advisory_Group_on_Greenhouse_Gases","rank":95,"score":106407},{"content":"Title: Atmosphere of Earth Content: The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases , commonly known as air , that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity . The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation , warming the surface through heat retention ( greenhouse effect ) , and reducing temperature extremes between day and night ( the diurnal temperature variation ) . By volume , dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen , 20.95 % oxygen , 0.93 % argon , 0.04 % carbon dioxide , and small amounts of other gases . Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor , on average around 1 % at sea level , and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere . Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers , and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres . The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 kg , three quarters of which is within about 11 km of the surface . The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude , with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space . The Kármán line , at 100 km , or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius , is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space . Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km . Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere , based on characteristics such as temperature and composition . The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science ( aerology ) . Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann .","qid":"2787","docid":"Atmosphere_of_Earth","rank":96,"score":106370},{"content":"Title: Timothy Ball Content: Timothy Francis `` Tim '' Ball ( born November 5 , 1938 ) is a Canadian geographer . A retired professor , he taught in the department of geography at the University of Winnipeg from 1971 until 1996 . Ball rejects the scientific opinion on climate change , stating that `` CO2 is not a greenhouse gas . '' He has worked with the Friends of Science and the Natural Resources Stewardship Project , and is a research fellow at the Frontier Centre for Public Policy .","qid":"2787","docid":"Timothy_Ball","rank":97,"score":106200},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide clathrate Content: Carbon dioxide hydrate is a snow-like crystalline substance composed of water ice and carbon dioxide . It normally is a Type I gas clathrate . However , there has been some experimental evidence for the development of a metastable Type II phase at A temperature near the ice melting point . The clathrate can exist below 283K ( 10 ° C ) at a range of pressures of carbon dioxide . It is quite likely to be important on Mars due to the presence of carbon dioxide and ice at low temperatures .","qid":"2787","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_clathrate","rank":98,"score":106022},{"content":"Title: Rasmus Quist Hansen Content: Rasmus Quist Hansen ( born 5 April 1980 in Middelfart ) , also known as Rasmus Quist , is a Danish rower and double World Champion in the lightweight double sculls , with his partner Mads Rasmussen . Quist and Rasmussen placed first in the 2012 Summer Olympics in London , third in the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing and fourth in the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens .","qid":"2787","docid":"Rasmus_Quist_Hansen","rank":99,"score":106011},{"content":"Title: Unstoppable Global Warming: Every 1,500 Years Content: Unstoppable Global Warming : Every 1,500 Years is a book about climate change , written by Siegfried Fred Singer and Dennis T. Avery , which asserts that natural changes , and not CO2 emissions , are the cause of Global Warming . Published by Rowman & Littlefield in 2006 , the book sold well and was reprinted in an updated edition in 2007 . The title refers to the hypothesis of 1,500-year climate cycles in the Holocene first postulated by Gerard C. Bond , mainly based on petrologic tracers of drift ice in the North Atlantic .","qid":"2787","docid":"Unstoppable_Global_Warming:_Every_1,500_Years","rank":100,"score":105891}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate sensitivity Content: Climate sensitivity is the equilibrium temperature change in response to changes of the radiative forcing . Therefore , climate sensitivity depends on the initial climate state , but potentially can be accurately inferred from precise palaeoclimate data . Slow climate feedbacks , especially changes of ice sheet size and atmospheric CO2 , amplify the total Earth system sensitivity by an amount that depends on the time scale considered . Although climate sensitivity is usually used in the context of radiative forcing by carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , it is thought of as a general property of the climate system : the change in surface air temperature ( ΔTs ) following a unit change in radiative forcing ( RF ) , and thus is expressed in units of ° C / ( W/m2 ) . For this to be useful , the measure must be independent of the nature of the forcing ( e.g. from greenhouse gases or solar variation ) ; to first order this is indeed found to be so . The climate sensitivity specifically due to is often expressed as the temperature change in ° C associated with a doubling of the concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere . For coupled atmosphere-ocean global climate models ( e.g. CMIP5 ) the climate sensitivity is an emergent property : it is not a model parameter , but rather a result of a combination of model physics and parameters . By contrast , simpler energy-balance models may have climate sensitivity as an explicit parameter . The terms represented in the equation relate radiative forcing ( RF ) to linear changes in global surface temperature change ( ΔTs ) via the climate sensitivity λ . It is also possible to estimate climate sensitivity from observations ; however , this is difficult due to uncertainties in the forcing and temperature histories .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_sensitivity\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 196899\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: James Hansen Content: James Edward Hansen ( born 29 March 1941 ) is an American adjunct professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University . He is best known for his research in climatology , his 1988 Congressional testimony on climate change that helped raise broad awareness of global warming , and his advocacy of action to avoid dangerous climate change . In recent years he has become a climate activist to mitigate the effects of climate change , on a few occasions leading to his arrest . In 2000 , Hansen advanced an alternative view of global warming over the last 100 years , arguing that during that time frame the negative forcing via aerosols and the positive forcing via largely balanced each other out , and that the 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide , such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons . However , even then he wrote `` the future balance of forcings is likely to shift toward dominance of CO2 over aerosols ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"James_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 192108\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"350.org\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 186097\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 174013\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Code Red Content: Climate Code Red : The Case for Emergency Action is a 2008 book which presents scientific evidence that the global warming crisis is worse than official reports and national governments have so far indicated . The book argues that we are facing a `` sustainability emergency '' that requires a clear break from business-as-usual politics . The authors explain that emergency action to address climate change is not so much a radical idea as an indispensable course we must embark upon . Climate Code Red draws heavily on the work of a large number of climate scientists , including James E. Hansen . The key themes of Climate Code Red are : `` Our goal is a safe-climate future -- we have no right to bargain away species or human lives . '' `` We are facing rapid warming impacts : the danger is immediate , not just in the future . '' `` For a safe climate future , we must take action now to stop emissions and to cool the earth . '' `` Plan a large-scale transition to a post-carbon economy and society . '' `` Recognise a climate and sustainability emergency , because we need to move at a pace far beyond business and politics as usual '' . Co-author David Spratt is a Melbourne businessman , climate-policy analyst , and co-founder of the Carbon Equity network . Co-author Philip Sutton is convener of the Greenleap Strategic Institute and Assistant Convenor of the Climate Emergency Network . The book was launched by the Governor of Victoria , Professor David de Kretser in Parliament House in Melbourne , Victoria , on July 17 , 2008 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Code_Red\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 141765\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 140739\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 138834\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 134727\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 134617\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmospheric_carbon_cycle\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 134101\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Keeling Curve Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that plots the ongoing change in concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere since the 1950s . It is based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii that began under the supervision of Charles David Keeling . Keeling 's measurements showed the first significant evidence of rapidly increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere . Many scientists credit Keeling 's graph with first bringing the world 's attention to the current increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Charles David Keeling , of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego , was the first person to make frequent regular measurements of the atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) concentration , taking readings at the South Pole and in Hawaii from 1958 onwards . Measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had been taken prior to the Mauna Loa measurements , but on an ad-hoc basis across a variety of locations . Guy Stewart Callendar had shown a steady increase in concentrations since the 19th century . Keeling had perfected the measurement techniques and observed `` strong diurnal behavior with steady values of about 310 ppm in the afternoon '' at three locations : Big Sur near Monterey , the rain forests of Olympic Peninsula , and high mountain forests in Arizona . By measuring the ratio of two isotopes of carbon , Keeling attributed the diurnal change to respiration from local plants and soils , with afternoon values representative of the `` free atmosphere '' . By 1960 , Keeling and his group had determined that the measurement records from California , Antarctica , and Hawaii were long enough to see not just the diurnal and seasonal variations , but also a year-on-year increase that roughly matched the amount of fossil fuels burned per year . In the article that made him famous , Keeling observed : `` at the South Pole the observed rate of increase is nearly that to be expected from the combustion of fossil fuel '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Keeling_Curve\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 133019\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Citizens' Climate Lobby Content: Citizens ' Climate Lobby ( CCL ) is an international grassroots environmental group that trains and supports volunteers to build relationships with their elected representatives in order to influence climate policy . Operating since 2007 , the goal of CCL is to build political support across party lines to put a price on carbon , specifically a revenue neutral carbon fee and dividend ( CF&D ) at the national level . CCL is supported by notable climate scientists James Hansen , Katharine Hayhoe , and Daniel Kammen . CCL 's advisory board also includes former Secretary of State George Shultz , former US Representative Bob Inglis , actor Don Cheadle , and RESULTS founder Sam Daley-Harris . Founded in the United States , CCL has active groups in Australia , Bangladesh , Brazil , Burundi , Cameroon , Canada , Chile , France , Germany , Iceland , India , Italy , Kenya , Nepal , the Netherlands , New Zealand , Nigeria , Panama , Poland , Portugal , Qatar , Romania , Serbia , Scotland , Sweden , Switzerland , the Ukraine , and the United Kingdom .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Citizens'_Climate_Lobby\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 131954\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 131367\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_diet\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 131344\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Wyoming Content: On a per-person basis , Wyoming emits more carbon dioxide than any other state or any other country : 276000 lb of it per capita a year , because of burning coal , which provides nearly all of the state 's electrical power . Over the last century , the average temperature in Laramie , Wyoming , has increased 1.5 ° F ( 0.8 ° C ) , and precipitation has decreased by up to 20 % in many parts of the state . Over the next century , climate in Wyoming may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Wyoming could increase by 4 ° F ( 2 ° C ) in spring and fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) , 5 ° F ( 2.5 ° C ) in summer ( with a range of 2-8 ° F ) , and 6 ° F ( 3 ° C ) in winter ( with a range of 3-11 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease slightly in summer ( with a range of 0-10 % ) , increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and increase by 30 % in winter ( with a range of 10-50 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Wyoming\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 131003\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tihomir Novakov Content: Tihomir Novakov , Ph.D known also as Tica Novakov ( March 16 , 1929 -- January 2 , 2015 ) was a Serbian-born American physicist . As a scientist , Novakov is known for his black carbon , air quality , and climate change research . James Hansen dubbed him `` the godfather of black carbon . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Tihomir_Novakov\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 130012\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Deforestation_and_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 128892\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Pakistan\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 127880\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_potential\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 127665\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Suess effect Content: The Suess effect is a change in the ratio of the atmospheric concentrations of heavy isotopes of carbon ( 13C and 14C ) by the admixture of large amounts of fossil-fuel derived CO2 , which is depleted in 13CO2 and contains no 14CO2 . It is named for the Austrian chemist Hans Suess , who noted the influence of this effect on the accuracy of radiocarbon dating . More recently , the Suess effect has been used in studies of climate change . The term originally referred only to dilution of atmospheric 14CO2 . The concept was later extended to dilution of 13CO2 and to other reservoirs of carbon such as the oceans and soils .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Suess_effect\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 127050\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 126904\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Japan\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 126249\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: William D. Sellers Content: William D. Sellers ( 18 August 1928 -- 27 August 2014 ) was an American meteorologist , climate scientist , and pioneer of climate modelling . He created one the earliest climate models and was one of the first scientists to recognize the effects of CO2 in the atmosphere on the earth 's climate . He published the textbook `` Physical Climatology '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"William_D._Sellers\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 125929\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hiroshi Kanzawa Content: Hiroshi Kanzawa ( b. January 1953 in Maebashi , Gunma Prefecture , Japan ) is a Japanese meteorologist , environmental scientist and the dean of the Graduate School of Environmental Studies at the University of Nagoya . He is perhaps best known for his onsite atmospheric work in Antarctica and the papers he has co-authored on Ozone depletion , including : `` Large stratospheric sudden warming in Antarctic late winter and shallow ozone hole in 1988 '' ( with Sadao Kamaguchi ) and `` Sensitivity Map of LAI to Precipitation and Surface Air Temperature Variations in a Global Scale '' ( co-authored with his Japanese colleague Seita Emori and Jiahua Zhang and Congbin Fu of the START , Institute of Atmospheric Physics in Beijing , China ) . Kanzawa also sits on the board of Councilors of the Hydrospheric Atmospheric Research Center at the University of Nagoya .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Hiroshi_Kanzawa\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 125609\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Storms of My Grandchildren Content: Storms of My Grandchildren : The Truth About the Coming Climate Catastrophe and Our Last Chance to Save Humanity is climate scientist James Hansen 's first book , published by Bloomsbury Press in 2009 . The book is about threats to people and habitability for life on earth from global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Storms_of_My_Grandchildren\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 125134\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 125115\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Scott Denning Content: A. Scott Denning is a climate scientist and professor of atmospheric science at Colorado State University , whose faculty he joined in 1998 . He is known for his research into atmosphere-biosphere interactions and atmospheric carbon dioxide . He firmly supports action to avoid dangerous climate change and has said that the science behind it is `` settled '' . He has also argued that , if no action is taken on the matter , global warming could cause the climate of Colorado to resemble the current climate of its neighbors to the south , such as southern New Mexico , Texas and Mexico .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Scott_Denning\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 124922\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bjørn Helland-Hansen Content: Bjørn Helland-Hansen ( 16 October 1877 -- 7 September 1957 ) was a Norwegian pioneer in the field of modern oceanography . He studied the variation patterns of the weather in the northern Atlantic Ocean and of the atmosphere . He studied both medicine and physics at the University of Christiania ( now University of Oslo ) . He developed the `` Helland-Hansen Photometer '' in 1910 , which was carried on board Michael Sars . It was operated for the first time close to the Azores at a depth between 500 and m . In 1915 he became Professor of oceanography at the Bergen Museum , and in 1917 director of the Geophysical Institute , University of Bergen . In 1933 he was awarded the Alexander Agassiz Medal . In 1939 he became President of the International Geodesic and Geophysical Union . He was a member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences and a member of the Member of the Academy of Sciences of the German Democratic Republic ( DDR ) . Helland-Hansen trained Alexander Kuchin , the Russian oceanographer who went to Antarctica with Roald Amundsen . An island in the Russian Arctic , east of the Geiberg Islands , has been named Gellanda-Gansena after Helland-Hansen . thumb | left | Bjørn Helland-Hansen ( ca 1917 )\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Bjørn_Helland-Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 124313\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"CO2_fertilization_effect\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 124195\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 123855\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Air sensitivity Content: Air sensitivity is a term used , particularly in chemistry , to denote the reactivity of chemical compounds with some constituent of air . Most often , reactions occur with atmospheric oxygen ( O2 ) or water vapor ( H2O ) , although reactions with the other constituents of air such as carbon monoxide ( CO ) , carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and nitrogen ( N2 ) are also possible . The range of methods used to work with air-sensitive compounds are known as air-free techniques . Two main methods exist -- gloveboxes and Schlenk lines . Gloveboxes are sealed cabinets filled with an inert gas such as argon or nitrogen . Normal laboratory equipment can be set up and manipulated through the use of the gloves . A Schlenk line is a vacuum and inert-gas dual-manifold that allows glassware to be evacuated and refilled with inert gas .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Air_sensitivity\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 123286\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 123277\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Geophysical Institute, University of Bergen Content: The Geophysical Institute , University of Bergen ( Geofysisk institutt , UiB ) is a marine research facility located in Bergen , Norway . Founded in 1917 by Bjørn Helland-Hansen , the institute studies the field of oceanography dealing with the patterns of the weather in the North Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Norway . Within recent years , focus has been increasingly on geophysics and environmental research . The research activities at the institute span from small scale measurement of turbulence up to studies of the large scale ocean currents , from local air and noise pollution up to studies of global scale climate change . Areas of research focus on the Norwegian Current , the West Spitsbergen Current and the Norwegian Sea . Shifts and fluctuations in these currents are monitored , as they are thought to be indicators for climate change . Research has included sequestration and related matters dealing with Carbon capture and storage.The director of the institute is Dr. Peter M. Haugan . The Bergen School of Meteorology , which led to modern weather forecasting , was developed at the Geophysical Institute by Vilhelm Bjerknes and collaborators ( including Carl-Gustaf Rossby ) beginning in 1917 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Geophysical_Institute,_University_of_Bergen\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 122650\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Michael Raupach Content: Michael Robin Raupach ( 30 October 1950 -- 10 February 2015 ) was an Australian climate scientist . He is credited with developing the concept of a carbon budget , the amount of CO2 that is emitted and absorbed in the global ecosystem in the course of a year . When the in balance , CO2 emissions and absorption in carbon sinks are roughly the same , but when disturbed , possibly large changes in the ecosystem ensue . He was a founding co-chair of the Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) , a network of the world 's leading carbon cycle researchers . He was instrumental in publishing the Annual Carbon Budget , which draws on a large amount of scientific data to determine the level of imbalance and options for addressing it . He worked for the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation before becoming the director of the Australian National University 's Climate Change Institute in 2014 . He was a co-chair of the Global Carbon Project from 2000 to 2008 , and contributed to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Fourth Assessment Report in 2007 . He chaired the steering committee of the ` Australia 2050 ' project of the Australian Academy of Science ( AAS ) . In 2009 -- 2010 he chaired the Expert Working Group on Challenges at the Intersection of Carbon , Energy and Water , reporting to the Prime Minister 's Science , Engineering and Innovation Council and the Office of the Chief Scientist of Australia . His career included the publication of 150 scientific papers and 50 reports . His research developed in three stages , the first focused on very localized flow and transport of matter and energy through and above plant canopies . At the next stage , he worked on quantification of CO2 transport through and above plant canopies , though still on a small scale . In the 1990s , his focus began to shift to global ecosystems when he became a member of the scientific steering committee of the Biospheric Aspects of the Hydrological Cycle core project of the IGBP ( International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme ) . One of the most fundamental and important questions that the project addressed was : does the land-surface matter in climate and weather ? His research contributed to addressing that question , through his work on turbulent fluxes near the land surface , boundary-layer budgeting and quantifying the water balance at broader scales . He was a fellow of the Australian Academy of Science , the Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering , and the American Geophysical Union . Just before his death following a short illness , he co-chaired the working group of the Australian Academy of Science drafting the AAS booklet The Science of Climate Change : Questions and Answers .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Michael_Raupach\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 122622\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Guy Stewart Callendar Content: Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Guy_Stewart_Callendar\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 121609\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: North American Carbon Program Content: The North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) is one of the major elements of the Strategic Plan for the U.S. Climate Change Science Program . The central objective of NACP is to measure and understand carbon stocks and sources and sinks of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , and carbon monoxide ( CO ) in North America and adjacent ocean regions . The specific program goals are as followed : Develop quantitative scientific knowledge , robust observations , and models to determine the emissions and uptake of CO2 , CH4 , and CO , changes in carbon stocks , and the factors regulating these processes for North America and adjacent ocean basins . Develop the scientific basis to implement full carbon accounting on regional and continental scales . This is the knowledge base needed to design monitoring programs for natural and managed CO2 sinks and emissions of CH4 . Support long-term quantitative measurements of fluxes , sources , and sinks of atmospheric CO2 and CH4 , and develop forecasts for future trends . The North American Carbon Program was designed to help with the process of providing data needed to model the synthesis activities .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"North_American_Carbon_Program\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 121087\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Content: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change : A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases was a 2005 international conference that examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration , and the 2 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) ceiling on global warming thought necessary to avoid the most serious effects of global warming . Previously this had generally been accepted as being 550 ppm . The conference took place under the United Kingdom 's presidency of the G8 , with the participation of around 200 ` internationally renowned ' scientists from 30 countries . It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter , from 1 February to 3 February .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 120880\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Michael Schlesinger Content: Dr. Michael Earl Schlesinger ( born February 23 , 1943 ) is a Professor of Atmospheric Sciences and director of the Climate Research Group at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign . He received his Ph.D. ( meteorology ) in 1976 from the University of California , Los Angeles . Michael Schlesinger is an expert in the modeling , simulation and analysis of climate and climate change , with interests in simulating and understanding the climates of the geologic past and possible future climates resulting from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases and human-made aerosols . He has been instrumental in developing a range of simple and complex climate models , which have been used by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and the Energy Modeling Forum . His research currently focuses on : ( 1 ) simulating and understanding the effects on climate of a human-induced melting of the Greenland ice sheet ; ( 2 ) simulating and understanding the coupled climate-chemistry system , including the influences of the Sun - both irradiance and energetic electron precipitation - and volcanoes ; ( 3 ) understanding and reducing the uncertainty in the estimation of climate sensitivity and climate feedbacks ; and ( 4 ) performing integrative assessment of climate change , including further development of the robust adaptive decision strategy for mitigating and adapting to human-induced climate change . He is known for his work on oscillations in the global climate system , on estimating the climate sensitivity , and on seasonal climate change . He has edited four books , most recently Human-induced climate change : An interdisciplinary assessment . He regularly appears in the media .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Michael_Schlesinger\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 120698\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Severinghaus electrode Content: The Severinghaus electrode is an electrode that measures carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . It was developed by Dr. John W. Severinghaus and his technician A. Freeman Bradley in 1958 . It utilizes a CO2-sensitive glass electrode in a surrounding film of bicarbonate solution covered by a thin plastic carbon dioxide permeable membrane , but impermeable to water and electrolytic solutes . The carbon dioxide pressure of a sample gas or liquid equilibrates through the membrane and the glass electrode measures the resulting pH of the bicarbonate solution .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Severinghaus_electrode\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 120577\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"History_of_climate_change_science\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 120270\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mars Surveyor '98 program Content: The Mars Surveyor '98 program comprised two spacecraft launched separately , the Mars Climate Orbiter ( formerly the Mars Surveyor '98 Orbiter ) and the Mars Polar Lander ( formerly the Mars Surveyor '98 Lander ) ; on board the Mars Polar Lander spacecraft were two surface-penetrator probes ( Deep Space 2 ) . The two missions were to study the Martian weather , climate , water and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) budget , to understand the reservoirs , behavior , and atmospheric role of volatiles and to search for evidence of long-term and episodic climate changes . Both spacecraft were launched during the 1998 Mars orbit insertion launch window . Both were lost , including the penetrator probes .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Mars_Surveyor_'98_program\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 118908\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate footprint Content: The term climate footprint has emerged from the field of carbon footprinting , and refers to a measure of the full set of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) controlled under the Kyoto Protocol . A climate footprint is a more comprehensive measure of anthropogenic impact upon the climate than a carbon footprint , but is also more costly and labour-intensive to calculate . A climate footprint is a measure of the total amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFCs ) and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) emissions of a defined population , system or activity , considering all relevant sources , sinks and storage within the spatial and temporal boundary of the population , system or activity of interest . Calculated as carbon dioxide equivalent ( CO2e ) using the relevant 100-year global warming potential ( GWP100 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_footprint\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 118457\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Revelle factor Content: The Revelle factor ( buffer factor ) is the ratio of instantaneous change in carbon dioxide to the change in total dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) , and is a measure of the resistance to atmospheric CO2 being absorbed by the ocean surface layer . The buffer factor is used to examine the distribution of CO2 between the atmosphere and the ocean , and measures the amount of CO2 that can be dissolved in the mixed surface layer . It is named after the oceanographer Roger Revelle , who was one of the first scientists to study global warming . Revelle factor = / ( Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- ) where DIC is dissolved inorganic carbon . Δ -LSB- -RSB- / -LSB- -RSB- is the instantaneous change in p and Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- is the instantaneous change in DIC .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Revelle_factor\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 117779\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kenneth Hare Content: Fredrick Kenneth Hare , ( February 5 , 1919 -- September 3 , 2002 ) was a Canadian climatologist and academic , who researched atmospheric carbon dioxide , climate change , drought , and arid zone climates and was a strong advocate for preserving the natural environment .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Kenneth_Hare\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 116563\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Historical Climatology Network Content: The Global Historical Climatology Network ( GHCN ) is a database of temperature , precipitation and pressure records managed by the National Climatic Data Center , Arizona State University and the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center . The aggregate data are collected from many continuously reporting fixed stations at the Earth 's surface and represent the input of approximately 6000 temperature stations , 7500 precipitation stations and 2000 pressure stations . This work has often been used as a foundation for reconstructing past global temperatures , and was used in previous versions of two of the best-known reconstructions , that prepared by the National Climatic Data Center ( NCDC ) , and that prepared by NASA as its Goddard Institute for Space Studies ( GISS ) temperature set . The average temperature record is 60 years long with ~ 1650 records greater than 100 years and ~ 220 greater than 150 years ( based on GHCN v2 in 2006 ) . The earliest data included in the database were collected in 1697 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Historical_Climatology_Network\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 115298\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate engineering Content: Climate engineering , commonly referred to as geoengineering , also known as climate intervention , is the deliberate and large-scale intervention in the Earth 's climatic system with the aim of limiting adverse global warming . Climate engineering is an umbrella term for measures that mainly fall into two types : carbon dioxide removal and solar radiation management . Carbon dioxide removal addresses the cause of global warming by removing one of the greenhouse gases ( carbon dioxide ) from the atmosphere . Solar radiation management attempts to offset effects of greenhouse gases by causing the Earth to absorb less solar radiation . Climate engineering approaches are sometimes viewed as additional potential options for limiting global warming , alongside mitigation and adaptation . There is substantial agreement among scientists that climate engineering can not substitute for climate change mitigation . Some approaches might be used as accompanying measures to sharp cuts in greenhouse gas emissions . Given that all types of measures for addressing climate change have economic , political , or physical limitations , some climate engineering approaches might eventually be used as part of an ensemble of measures . Research on costs , benefits , and various types of risks of most climate engineering approaches is at an early stage and their understanding needs to improve to judge their adequacy and feasibility . Almost all research into solar radiation management has consisted of computer modelling or laboratory tests , and an attempt to move to outdoor experimentation was controversial . Some carbon dioxide removal practices , such as planting of trees and bio-energy with carbon capture and storage projects , are underway . Their scalability to effectively affect global climate is , however , debated . Ocean iron fertilization has been given small-scale research trials , sparking substantial controversy . Most experts and major reports advise against relying on climate engineering techniques as a simple solution to global warming , in part due to the large uncertainties over effectiveness and side effects . However , most experts also argue that the risks of such interventions must be seen in the context of risks of dangerous global warming . Interventions at large scale may run a greater risk of disrupting natural systems resulting in a dilemma that those approaches that could prove highly ( cost - ) effective in addressing extreme climate risk , might themselves cause substantial risk . Some have suggested that the concept of engineering the climate presents a so-called `` moral hazard '' because it could reduce political and public pressure for emissions reduction , which could exacerbate overall climate risks ; others assert that the threat of climate engineering could spur emissions cuts . Some are in favour of a moratorium on out-of-doors testing and deployment of solar radiation management ( SRM ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_engineering\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 115118\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Peter Thejll Content: Peter Andreas Thejll ( born 1956 ) is a Danish astrophysicist and climate researcher . His research in solar variation helped provide evidence of the greenhouse effect on the Earth 's climate in the late 20th century . In particular , his study with Knud Lassen on Northern Hemisphere land air temperature showed that the rise of 0.4 degrees Celsius since 1980 could not be accounted for by the solar cycle . Climatologists have pointed to this finding as an `` actual piece of evidence for greenhouse warming '' . Thejll received his undergraduate education at the University of Copenhagen . He received an M.S. in physics and a Ph.D. in astrophysics from the University of Delaware . Thejll was a Carlsberg Fellow at the Niels Bohr Institute and worked at the Nordic Institute for Theoretical Physics . Thejll currently is a senior scientist at the Danish Meteorological Institute in Copenhagen . He is currently involved in the creation of a global automatic system to observe the Earth 's reflectivity - albedo - using observations of the earthshine on the Moon . Such data can be used for climate change studies and calibration of satellite data as the measurements deliver independent data on the albedo . A telescope is now installed on Hawaii at the Mauna Loa Observatory . The Swedish research agency VINNOVA is funding this project .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Peter_Thejll\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 114794\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Chicago Climate Exchange Content: The Chicago Climate Exchange ( CCX ) was North America 's only voluntary , legally binding greenhouse gas ( GHG ) reduction and trading system for emission sources and offset projects in North America and Brazil . CCX employed independent verification , included six greenhouse gases , and traded greenhouse gas emission allowances from 2003 to 2010 . The companies joining the exchange committed to reducing their aggregate emissions by 6 % by 2010 . CCX had an aggregate baseline of 680 million metric tons of CO2 equivalent . CCX ceased trading carbon credits at the end of 2010 due to inactivity in the U.S. carbon markets , although carbon exchanges were intended to still be facilitated .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Chicago_Climate_Exchange\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 114677\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Regional_effects_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 114139\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kyoto Protocol Content: The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , based on the fact that ( a ) global warming exists and ( b ) human-made CO2 emissions have caused it . The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto , Japan , on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005 . There are currently 192 parties ( Canada withdrew effective December 2012 ) to the Protocol . The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to `` a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' ( Art. 2 ) . The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities : it puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . The Protocol 's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012 . A second commitment period was agreed on in 2012 , known as the Doha Amendment to the protocol , in which 37 countries have binding targets : Australia , the European Union ( and its 28 member states ) , Belarus , Iceland , Kazakhstan , Liechtenstein , Norway , Switzerland , and Ukraine . Belarus , Kazakhstan and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets . Japan , New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyoto 's first-round but have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period . Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada ( which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012 ) and the United States ( which has not ratified the Protocol ) . As of July 2016 , 66 states have accepted the Doha Amendment , while entry into force requires the acceptances of 144 states . Of the 37 countries with binding commitments , 7 have ratified . Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ends in 2020 . This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the Paris Agreement , which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto protocol .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Kyoto_Protocol\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 113984\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Idaho Content: Like other parts of the world , climate in Idaho has changed dramatically over the geologic history of the Earth . Paleo-climatic records give some indication of these changes . The longest instrumented records of climate in Idaho extend back to the late 1800s . Concern over human induced climate change through the emission of carbon dioxide from fossil fuels and methane from agriculture and industry , are driving research efforts across the state at university , state , and federals levels to understand what the implications of climate change could be in Idaho . In the big picture of greenhouse gas emissions , Idaho emits the least carbon dioxide per person of the United States , less than 23,000 pounds a year . It relies mostly on nonpolluting hydroelectric power from its rivers . Like other parts of the world , Idaho has seen significant temperature increases , especially in the last several decades . From 1971-2005 the average annual observed temperature in the Snake River Plain , located in southern Idaho , has increased by 1.4 degrees Celsius based on data from 10 climate stations ( Dubois , Ashton , Oakely , Pocatello , Aberdeen , Hazelton , Jerome , Boise , Nampa , and Payette ) . Statistically the increasing temperature trends are most significant in the months of January , March , and April . While precipitation has generally increased , since the early 1900s . The high variability in precipitation makes the identification of precipitation trends statistically difficult . Over the next century , climate in Idaho will experience additional changes due both to ` natural ' climate variability and due to feedbacks related to the interaction between climate variability and increasing greenhouse gases . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Idaho could increase by 5 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 9 F-change ) in winter and summer and 4 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 7 F-change ) in spring and fall . Precipitation is estimated to change little in summer , to increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and to increase by 20 % in winter ( with a range of 10-40 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Idaho\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 113705\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Dress Content: The Climate Dress was designed in 2009 by Danish design company Diffus Design in collaboration with the Swiss embroidery company Forster-Rohner , Alexandra Institute and the Danish School of Design . The Climate Dress is laced with hundreds of light-emitting diodes ( LEDs ) that responds to the level of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) in the nearby surroundings and are powered through the conductive embroidery by an Arduino Lily pad microprocessor and a carbon dioxide detector , resulting in patterns that range from slow pulses to rapid flashes depending on the concentration of the CO2 . The Climate Dress does not rely on wiring , soldering , or crimping , which is often the case with smart textile products . All functional elements are blended into the embroidery and exposed to the viewer . The Climate Dress was presented at the Cop 15 Climate Summit in Copenhagen in 2009 , at the `` Health Environment Climate '' exhibition . In 2011 the Climate Dress won first prize in the Design That Performs contest , hosted by Samsung .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Dress\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 113659\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Katsuko Saruhashi Content: was a geochemist who made some of the first measurements of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels in seawater and subsequently showed the evidence in seawater and the atmosphere of the dangers of radioactive fallout .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Katsuko_Saruhashi\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 112737\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_rift\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 112730\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bomb pulse Content: The bomb pulse is the sudden increase of carbon-14 ( 14C ) in the Earth 's atmosphere due to the hundreds of aboveground nuclear bombs tests started in 1945 and intensified between 1950 until 1963 when the Limited Test Ban Treaty was signed by the United States , the Soviet Union and Great Britain . These hundreds of blasts were followed by a doubling of the concentration of 14C in the atmosphere . Since then , the concentration of 14C has decreased towards the previous level . Carbon-14 , the radioisotope of carbon-12 , is naturally developed in trace amounts in the atmosphere and it can be detected in all living organisms . Carbon of all types is continually used to form the molecules of the cells of organisms . Doubling of the concentration of 14C in the atmosphere is reflected in the tissues and cells of all organisms that lived around the period of nuclear testing . This property has many applications in the fields of biology and forensics .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Bomb_pulse\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 112520\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Attribution_of_recent_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 112501\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Charles David Keeling Content: Charles David Keeling ( April 20 , 1928 -- June 20 , 2005 ) was an American scientist whose recording of carbon dioxide at the Mauna Loa Observatory first alerted the world to the possibility of anthropogenic contribution to the `` greenhouse effect '' and global warming . The Keeling Curve measures the progressive buildup of carbon dioxide , a greenhouse gas , in the atmosphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Charles_David_Keeling\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 112445\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide removal Content: Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_removal\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 112287\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: John H. Mercer Content: John H. Mercer ( Cheltenham , England , 19 October 1922 -- Columbus , Ohio 3 July 1987 ) was a glaciologist , chiefly known for his theoretical work on , and field studies of Antarctic ice streams , especially in the Transantarctic Mountains and in West Antarctica . Following John T. Hollin 's work ( 1962 ) suggesting that climatic warming and rising sea-level cause Antarctic ice shelves to retreat , Mercer postulated that the West Antarctic ice sheet , being grounded well below sea-level and terminating in floating ice shelves , was vulnerable to these changes and may have collapsed altogether during the last interglacial when Antarctica may have been warmer and sea-level may have been higher . In 1978 , in the science magazine Nature , Mercer pointed out that `` green-house '' warming from burning fossil fuel could have the same effect during the present interglacial . Two studies published 12 May 2014 confirm Mercer 's assumption . Climate scientist James Hansen has coined the term , `` John Mercer effect . '' After Mercer published his paper suggesting that the West Antarctic ice sheet could collapse in response to warming , he struggled to get funding . Others , including Hansen , had similar problems . Many climate scientists censor their own work to avoid losing funding , especially regarding prospects for limiting warming to 2 ° C above pre-industrial temperatures . John H. Mercer was the third child of Harriet and John W. Mercer . He was educated at private schools in Cheltenham and , later , at Gordonstoun in Scotland . During World War II he served in the British Merchant Marines ( 1940 -- 46 ) as a radio man . After the war he went to University of Cambridge and studied geography . At that time he came under the influence of William Vaughan Lewis . After finishing his B.A. in 1949 Mercer went to Canada , where he received his PhD in geography from McGill University in 1954 . He was a Research Scholar from 1954 to 1956 at the Australian National University in Canberra , where he studied land use and population in western Samoa . He returned to Canada and worked in the Canadian Hydro-graphic Office in Ottawa as a geographer in 1957 and 1958 . During 1959 -- 60 , 1961 -- 62 , 1964 , and 1966 , the American Geographical Society employed him at its World Data Center A for Glaciology in New York . The turning point in his career as a glaciologist was in 1960 , when he became a Research Associate at The Ohio State University , in the Institute of Polar Studies ( renamed the Byrd Polar Research Center ) . He remained at The Ohio State University until his death , becoming its first Senior Research Scientist .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"John_H._Mercer\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 112135\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Economics_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 111471\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Warren Hansen Content: Warren R. Hansen ( born February 15 , 1943 ) is a Canadian retired curler . He played as third on the Hec Gervais rink that won the 1974 Brier . Hansen served as director of event operations for Curling Canada , but retired in June 2015 . He currently works for the Curling Canada Board of Governors as an advisory , the United States Curling Association as a Business Development Consultant and is part of the organizing committee , in Las Vegas , that are hosting the Men 's World Curling Championship in 2018 . Hansen worked for Curling Canada ( formerly the Canadian Curling Association ) 1974 - 2015 . His involvement with the organization has been instrumental in moving major events into hockey arenas , introducing the page playoff system , reducing the amount of sheets in events to four , implementing player dress codes , bringing in officiating of major events and the creation of the Continental Cup of Curling and Canada Cup of Curling . In addition Hansen played a key role , along with Calgary 's Ray Kingsmith in establishing curling as a demonstration sport at the 1988 Winter Olympics in Calgary . In 2002 he developed the game of Mixed Doubles as part of the newly created Continental Cup . In June 2015 it was announced that Mixed Doubles will be a full medal sport at the 2018 Winter Olympics . Hansen is a member of the Alberta Sports Hall of Fame as a team member of the Edmonton Huskies and also as a Curling Builder . He is a member of the City of Edmonton Sports Hall of Fame as a team member of the Huskies and a Curler/Builder in the Canadian Curing Hall of Fame and a Builder in the World Curing Hall of Fame . Hansen grew up in Namao , Alberta and played junior football for the -LSB- -LSB- Edmonton Huskies -RSB- when the team won three consecutive Canadian championships in 1962 , '63 and ' 64 . -RSB- .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Warren_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 111188\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Warming: What You Need to Know Content: Global Warming What You Need to Know is a 2006 global warming ( climate change ) documentary , directed by Nicolas Brown , starring Tom Brokaw , James Hansen , Michael Oppenheimer , and Mark Serreze . The film focuses on impacts from climate change , and Tom Brokaw interviews scientists . The documentary premiered on Discovery Channel , 16 July 2006 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Warming:_What_You_Need_to_Know\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 110826\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \\\"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\\\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \\\"deep emissions reductions\\\" and \\\"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\\\" Furthermore, the report finds that \\\"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\\\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \\\"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\\\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 110602\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 109914\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals Content: Climate change has had a significant direct effect on terrestrial animals , by being a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction . The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago . This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles . Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history . However , with the recent increased emission of CO2 in the Earth 's atmosphere , abrupt climate change has occurred . It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present ( Van Hoof 2006 ) . Animals have had specific responses to climate change . Species respond to climate changes by migration , adaptation , or if neither of those occur , death . These migrations can sometimes follow an animal 's preferred temperature , elevation , soil , etc. , as said terrain moves due to climate change . Adaptation can be either genetic or phenological , and death can occur in a local population only ( extirpation ) or as an entire species , otherwise known as extinction . Climate changes is projected to affect individual organisms , populations , species distributions and ecosystem composition and function both directly ( ex . Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation ) and indirectly ( through climate changing the intensity and frequency of disturbances such as wildfires and severe storms ) ( IPCC 2002 ) . Every organism has a unique set of preferences or requirements , a niche and biodiversity has been tied to the diversity of animals ' niches . These can include or be affected by temperature , aridity , resource availability , habitat requirements , enemies , soil characteristics , competitors , and pollinators . Since the factors that compose a niche can be so complex and interconnected , the niches of many animals are bound to be affected by climate change ( Parmesan Yohe 2003 ) . One study done by Camille Parmesan and Gary Yohe from University of Texas , Austin shows the global fingerprint of climate change on natural systems . The results of their global analysis of 334 species were recorded to demonstrate the correlation of patterns consistent with global climate change of the 20th century . Using the IPCC 's ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) ` levels of confidence ' , this study proved significant nonrandom behavioral changes due to global climate change with very high confidence ( > 95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_climate_change_on_terrestrial_animals\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 109759\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 109759\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate commitment Content: Climate commitment describes the fact that climate reacts with a delay to influencing factors ( `` climate forcings '' ) such as the presence of greenhouse gases . Climate commitment studies attempt to assess the amount of future global warming that is `` committed '' under the assumption of some constant level of forcings . The constant level often used for illustrative purposes is doubling or quadrupling ; or the present level of forcing .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_commitment\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 109673\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bølling-Allerød warming Content: The Bølling-Allerød interstadial was an abrupt warm and moist interstadial period that occurred during the final stages of the last glacial period . This warm period ran from c. 14,700 to c. 12,700 years before the present ( BP ) . It began with the end of the cold period known as the Oldest Dryas , and ended abruptly with the onset of the Younger Dryas , a cold period that reduced temperatures back to near-glacial levels within a decade . In some regions , a cold period known as the Older Dryas can be detected in the middle of the Bølling-Allerød interstadial . In these regions the period is divided into the Bølling oscillation , which peaked around 14,500 BP , and the Allerød oscillation , which peaked closer to 13,000 BP . Estimates of CO2 rise are 20 -- 35 ppmv within 200 years , a rate less than 29 -- 50 % compared to the anthropogenic global warming signal from the past 50 years , and with a radiative forcing of 0.59 -- 0.75 W m − 2 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Bølling-Allerød_warming\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 109307\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Copenhagen_Diagnosis\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 109300\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Zotino Tall Tower Observation Facility Content: The Zotino Tall Tower Observation Facility ( ZOTTO ) is a climatic research station in the Siberian taiga in the proximity of Zotino , Russia , established and operated by the Max Planck Society and the Sukachev Institute of Forest , it serves as a long-term observing platform to be operated for at least 30 years . Far from human influences , researchers aim to determine how the concentration of greenhouse gases , aerosols , and the rising temperatures of the terrestrial atmosphere affect each other mutually . The heart of the station is a 302 m tower on which precision instruments measure the concentration of carbon dioxide , methane and other greenhouse gases . The measurement data are processed directly in the station at the foot of the tower and then transferred to the Institute of Forest , in Krasnoyarsk , Russia , as well as to the Max Planck Institute for Biogeochemistry in Jena , Germany . The station has been operational since September 2006 . It extended the project Terrestrial Carbon Observing System and was funded by the 5th framework programme of the European Union , uniting 8 European and 4 Russian partners . A main conclusion of the project is that Siberian forests constitute a substantially smaller carbon-sink than so far assumed .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Zotino_Tall_Tower_Observation_Facility\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 109229\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change and potatoes Content: Global warming is predicted to have significant effects on global potato production . Like many crops , potatoes are likely to be affected by changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide , temperature and precipitation , as well as interactions between these factors . As well as affecting potatoes directly , climate change will also affect the distributions and populations of many potato diseases and pests . Potato is one of the world 's most important food crops . Potato production must be adapted to climate change to avoid reductions in crop yields .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_and_potatoes\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 109047\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mary Christina Wood Content: Mary Christina Wood ( born 1962 ) is an Oregon Philip H. Knight Professor of Law and author , best known for her writings advocating for the use of the Public trust doctrine to compel government action on climate change . Wood originated the approach , called atmospheric trust litigation , `` to hold governments worldwide accountable for reducing carbon pollution within their jurisdictions , and her research is being used in cases and petitions brought on behalf of children and youth throughout the United States and in other countries . '' In 2014 , after a number of atmospheric trust litigation and petitions were brought by young people worldwide , Forbes contributor James Conca wrote , '' ( i ) f the Supreme Court holds the government responsible for at least trying to protect our atmosphere , things could certainly change here in America . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Mary_Christina_Wood\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 109044\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in the United Kingdom Content: Climate change in the United Kingdom has been a subject of protests and controversies and various policies have been developed to mitigate its effects . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . The UK Government has a commitment to reduce CO2 equivalent emissions by 80 % on 1990 levels by 2025 and by 50 % on 1990 levels by 2050 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_the_United_Kingdom\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 108714\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change feedback Content: Climate change feedback is important in the understanding of global warming because feedback processes may amplify or diminish the effect of each climate forcing , and so play an important part in determining the climate sensitivity and future climate state . Feedback in general is the process in which changing one quantity changes a second quantity , and the change in the second quantity in turn changes the first . Positive feedback amplifies the change in the first quantity while negative feedback reduces it . The term `` forcing '' means a change which may `` push '' the climate system in the direction of warming or cooling . An example of a climate forcing is increased atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases . By definition , forcings are external to the climate system while feedbacks are internal ; in essence , feedbacks represent the internal processes of the system . Some feedbacks may act in relative isolation to the rest of the climate system ; others may be tightly coupled ; hence it may be difficult to tell just how much a particular process contributes . Forcings , feedbacks and the dynamics of the climate system determine how much and how fast the climate changes . The main positive feedback in global warming is the tendency of warming to increase the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere , which in turn leads to further warming . The main negative feedback comes from the Stefan -- Boltzmann law , the amount of heat radiated from the Earth into space changes with the fourth power of the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere . Some observed and potential effects of global warming are positive feedbacks , which contribute directly to further global warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that `` Anthropogenic warming could lead to some effects that are abrupt or irreversible , depending upon the rate and magnitude of the climate change . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_feedback\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 108614\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmospheric Infrared Sounder Content: The Atmospheric Infrared Sounder ( AIRS ) is one of six instruments flying on board NASA 's Aqua satellite , launched on May 4 , 2002 . The instrument is designed to support climate research and improve weather forecasting . Working in combination with its partner microwave instrument , the Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit ( AMSU-A ) , AIRS observes the global water and energy cycles , climate variation and trends , and the response of the climate system to increased greenhouse gases . AIRS uses infrared technology to create three-dimensional maps of air and surface temperature , water vapor , and cloud properties . AIRS can also measure trace greenhouse gases such as ozone , carbon monoxide , carbon dioxide , and methane . AIRS and AMSU-A share the Aqua satellite with the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer ( MODIS ) , Clouds and the Earth 's Radiant Energy System ( CERES ) , and the Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer-EOS ( AMSR-E ) . Aqua is part of NASA 's `` A-train , '' a series of high-inclination , Sun-synchronous satellites in low Earth orbit designed to make long-term global observations of the land surface , biosphere , solid Earth , atmosphere , and ocean . AIRS data is free and available to the public through the Goddard Earth Sciences Data Information and Services Center . NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena , California , manages AIRS for NASA 's Science Mission Directorate in Washington , D.C.\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmospheric_Infrared_Sounder\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 108588\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference) Content: In 2005, an international conference titled Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and global warming and its effects. The conference name was derived from Article 2 of the charter for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The conference explored the possible impacts at different levels of greenhouse gas emissions and how the climate might be stabilized at a desired level. The conference took place under the United Kingdom's presidency of the G8, with the participation of around 200 \\\"internationally renowned\\\" scientists from 30 countries. It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter, from 1 February to 3 February. The conference was one of many meetings leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, at which the international community agreed to limit global warming to no more than 2C in order to have a 50-50 chance of avoiding dangerous climate change. However, a 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting it is below the 2 degree temperature target.\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change_(2005_conference)\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 108465\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Inge Birgit Hansen Content: Inge Birgit Anker Hansen is a former Danish badminton player . With her mixed doubles partners Finn Kobberø and Poul-Erik Nielsen she won the National title in 1954 , 1959 & 1961 . In addition Inge won the women 's doubles in 1956 & 1960 with Aase Winther . Her greatest success came during the 1959 All England Badminton Championships when she won the mixed doubles with Nielsen .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Inge_Birgit_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 108459\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wetland methane emissions Content: As one of the most significant natural sources of atmospheric methane , wetlands remain a major area of concern with respect to climate change . Wetlands are characterized by water-logged soils and distinctive communities of plant and animal species that have evolved and adapted to the constant presence of water . Due to this high level of water saturation as well as warm weather , wetlands are one of the most significant natural sources of atmospheric methane . Most methanogenesis , or methane production , occurs in oxygen-poor environments . Because the microbes that live in warm , moist environments consume oxygen more rapidly than it can diffuse in from the atmosphere , wetlands are the ideal anaerobic , or oxygen poor , environments for fermentation . Fermentation is a process used by certain kinds of microorganisms to break down essential nutrients . In a process called acetoclastic methanogenesis , microorganisms from the classification domain archaea produce methane by fermenting acetate and H2-CO2 into methane and carbon dioxide . H3C-COOH → CH4 + CO2 Depending on the wetland and type of archaea , hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis , another process that yields methane , can also occur . This process occurs as a result of archaea oxidizing hydrogen with carbon dioxide to yield methane and water . 4H2 + CO2 → CH4 + 2H2O\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Wetland_methane_emissions\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 108215\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmospheric temperature Content: Atmospheric temperature is a measure of temperature at different levels of the Earth 's atmosphere . It is governed by many factors , including incoming solar radiation , humidity and altitude . When discussing surface temperature , the annual atmospheric temperature range at any geographical location depends largely upon the type of biome , as measured by the Köppen climate classification .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmospheric_temperature\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 108153\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mesopause Content: The mesopause is the temperature minimum at the boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere atmospheric regions . Due to the lack of solar heating and very strong radiative cooling from carbon dioxide , the mesosphere is the coldest region on Earth with temperatures as low as -100 ° C ( -148 ° F or 173 K ) . The altitude of the mesopause for many years was assumed to be at around 85 km ( 53 mi . ) , but observations to higher altitudes and modeling studies in the last 10 years have shown that in fact the mesopause consists of two minima - one at about 85 km and a stronger minimum at about 100 km . ( 62 mi . ) Another feature is that the summer mesopause is cooler than the winter ( sometimes referred to as the mesopause anomaly ) . It is due to a summer-to-winter circulation giving rise to upwelling at the summer pole and downwelling at the winter pole . Air rising will expand and cool resulting in a cold summer mesopause and conversely downwelling air results in compression and associated increase in temperature at the winter mesopause . In the mesosphere the summer-to-winter circulation is due to gravity wave dissipation , which deposits momentum against the mean east-west flow , resulting in a small north-south circulation . In recent years the mesopause has also been the focus of studies on global climate change associated with increases in CO2 . Unlike the troposphere , where greenhouse gases result in the atmosphere heating up , increased CO2 in the mesosphere acts to cool the atmosphere due to increased radiative emission . This results in a measurable effect - the mesopause should become cooler with increased CO2 . Observations do show a decrease of temperature of the mesopause , though the magnitude of this decrease varies and is subject to further study . Modeling studies of this phenomenon have also been carried out .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Mesopause\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 108059\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmospheric_methane\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 107757\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Evangelical Climate Initiative Content: The Evangelical Climate Initiative ( ECI ) is a campaign by US-American church leaders and organizations to promote market based mechanisms to mitigate global warming . ECI 's first statement , calling for reductions in carbon dioxide emissions , was initially signed by 86 evangelical leaders . Signatories included Rick Warren , the presidents of 39 evangelical colleges , and the leader of the Salvation Army . The number of signatories had risen to over 100 by December 2007 , and as of July 2011 over 220 evangelical leaders had signed the call to action . David P. Gushee , a professor of Christian ethics at Mercer University , helped draft the document . When the Evangelical Climate Initiative launched in February 2006 , the National Association of Evangelicals ( NAE ) was not ready to make such a commitment . Not quite a year later , the NAE worked with the Center for Health and the Global Environment at Harvard Medical School to bring scientists and evangelical Christian leaders together to mitigate climate change . As ABC News reported :\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Evangelical_Climate_Initiative\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 107684\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Seita Emori Content: Seita Emori ( born 1970 in Kanagawa , Japan ) is a Japanese environmental scientist whose most noted work focuses upon the worldwide effects of Global Warming . He completed his Doctorate at the University of Tokyo in 1997 and thereafter joined the National Institute of Environmental Studies , Japan where he is currently the Chief of the Climate Risk Assessment Research Section at the Center for Global Environmental Research . Emori is a contributing author to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and a member of the IPCC Steering Committee for the `` Expert Meeting on New Scenarios '' , for which the IPCC received a Noble Prize in 2007 . Among Emori 's publications are the academic paper `` Sensitivity Map of LAI to Precipitation and Surface Air Temperature Variations in a Global Scale '' ( co-authored with his Japans colleague Hiroshi Kanzawa and Jiahua Zhang and Congbin Fu of the START , Institute of Atmospheric Physics in Beijing , China ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Seita_Emori\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 107558\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Low-carbon_economy\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 107515\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Jørgen Hammergaard Hansen Content: Jørgen Hammergaard Hansen ( c. 1930 -- 22 August 2013 ) was a Danish badminton player who won numerous major international titles from the mid-1950s to the mid-1960s . Though he competed in singles at a strong international level during the first half of his career , it was as a doubles player that he made his mark , capturing six All-England men 's doubles titles with Finn Kobberø ( 1955 , 1956 , 1961 , 1962 , 1963 , 1964 ) and reaching the final round of the All-England mixed doubles on three occasions . Noted for his powerful smash which included an ability to smash off his backhand with the heavy rackets of the day , Hammergaard Hansen took part in five consecutive Thomas Cup ( men 's international team ) campaigns for Denmark between 1952 and 1964 , winning over 80 percent of his matches . In 1998 he was inducted into the Badminton Hall of Fame .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Jørgen_Hammergaard_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 107306\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Low-carbon_emission\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 107278\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Vatican Climate Forest Content: The Vatican Climate Forest , to be located in the Bükk National Park , Hungary , was donated to the Vatican City by a carbon offsetting company . The forest is to be sized to offset the carbon emissions generated by the Vatican during 2007 . The Vatican 's acceptance of the offer , at a ceremony on July 5 , 2007 , was reported as being `` purely symbolic '' , and a way to encourage Catholics to do more to safeguard the planet . No trees have been planted under the project and the carbon offsets have not materialised . In a more effective move to combat global warming , in May 2007 , the Vatican announced that the roof of the Paul VI Audience Hall would be covered with photovoltaic panels . The installation was officially placed into service on November 26 , 2008 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Vatican_Climate_Forest\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 107176\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Alf Hansen Content: Alf John Hansen ( born 13 July 1948 ) is a retired rower from Norway . In 1976 , he won a gold medal at the Montreal Olympic Games in the double scull event ( 2x ) with his brother Frank Hansen . The Hansen brothers started their career with a silver medal at the 1974 world championships , and followed that up with a gold medal at the 1975 world championships . They would go on to win the 1978 and 1979 world championships in the double scull . Unfortunately the Norwegian Rowing Federation boycotted the Moscow Olympics in 1980 , so the brothers were unable to defend their Olympic title . Frank officially retired after the Moscow Olympics . Alf continued his career with a new partner and won gold , then silver at the world championships together with Rolf Thorsen in 1982 and 1983 . He further won a silver medal in the Olympic Games in Seoul in 1988 and ended his professional career after the worlds in 1991 at the age of 43 . Hansen was awarded the Thomas Keller Medal in 1990 . The medal is given by the International Rowing Federation ( FISA ) for an outstanding international career in the sport of rowing as well as exemplary sportsmanship . It is the highest honor in rowing .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Alf_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 107116\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cloud feedback Content: Cloud feedback is the coupling between cloudiness and surface air temperature where a surface air temperature change leads to a change in clouds , which could then amplify or diminish the initial temperature perturbation . Cloud feedbacks can affect the magnitude of internally generated climate variability or they can affect the magnitude of climate change resulting from external radiative forcings . Global warming is expected to change the distribution and type of clouds . Seen from below , clouds emit infrared radiation back to the surface , and so exert a warming effect ; seen from above , clouds reflect sunlight and emit infrared radiation to space , and so exert a cooling effect . Cloud representations vary among global climate models , and small changes in cloud cover have a large impact on the climate . Differences in planetary boundary layer cloud modeling schemes can lead to large differences in derived values of climate sensitivity . A model that decreases boundary layer clouds in response to global warming has a climate sensitivity twice that of a model that does not include this feedback . However , satellite data show that cloud optical thickness actually increases with increasing temperature . Whether the net effect is warming or cooling depends on details such as the type and altitude of the cloud ; details that are difficult to represent in climate models .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Cloud_feedback\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 107025\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_neutrality\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 106842\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: IPCC First Assessment Report Content: The First Assessment Report ( FAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) was completed in 1990 . It served as the basis of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The report was issued in three main sections , corresponding to the three Working Groups of scientists that the IPCC had established . Working Group I : Scientific Assessment of Climate Change , edited by J.T. Houghton , G.J. Jenkins and J.J. Ephraums Working Group II : Impacts Assessment of Climate Change , edited by W.J. McG . Tegart , G.W. Sheldon and D.C. Griffiths Working Group III : The IPCC Response Strategies Each section included a summary for policymakers . This format was followed in subsequent Assessment Reports . The executive summary of the policymakers ' summary of the WG I report includes : We are certain of the following : there is a natural greenhouse effect ... ; emissions resulting from human activities are substantially increasing the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases : CO2 , methane , CFCs and nitrous oxide . These increases will enhance the greenhouse effect , resulting on average in an additional warming of the Earth 's surface . The main greenhouse gas , water vapour , will increase in response to global warming and further enhance it . We calculate with confidence that : ... CO2 has been responsible for over half the enhanced greenhouse effect ; long-lived gases would require immediate reductions in emissions from human activities of over 60 % to stabilise their concentrations at today 's levels ... Based on current models , we predict : under -LSB- BAU -RSB- increase of global mean temperature during the -LSB- 21st -RSB- century of about 0.3 oC per decade ( with an uncertainty range of 0.2 to 0.5 oC per decade ) ; this is greater than that seen over the past 10,000 years ; under other ... scenarios which assume progressively increasing levels of controls , rates of increase in global mean temperature of about 0.2 oC -LSB- to -RSB- about 0.1 oC per decade . There are many uncertainties in our predictions particularly with regard to the timing , magnitude and regional patterns of climate change , due to our incomplete understanding of : sources and sinks of GHGs ; clouds ; oceans ; polar ice sheets . Our judgement is that : global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 oC over the last 100 years ... ; The size of this warming is broadly consistent with predictions of climate models , but it is also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability . Thus the observed increase could be largely due to this natural variability ; alternatively this variability and other human factors could have offset a still larger human-induced greenhouse warming . The unequivocal detection of the enhanced greenhouse effect is not likely for a decade or more . under the IPCC business as usual emissions scenario , an average rate of global mean sea level rise of about 6 cm per decade over the next century ( with an uncertainty range of 3 -- 10 cm per decade ) , mainly due to thermal expansion of the oceans and the melting of some land ice . The predicted rise is about 20 cm ... by 2030 , and 65 cm by the end of the next century .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"IPCC_First_Assessment_Report\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 106809\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate inertia Content: Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_inertia\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 106665\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_impact_of_aviation\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 106565\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Amory Hansen Content: Amory Ide Agnes Hansen ( née Scheel ) ( February 24 , 1887 -- October 6 , 1961 ) was a Danish female tennis player who competed in the 1920 Summer Olympics . She was born and died in Copenhagen . In 1920 she and her partner Erik Tegner finished fourth in the mixed doubles event after losing the bronze medal match to Milada Skrbková and Ladislav Žemla . In the women 's doubles tournament she and her partner Elsebeth Brehm were eliminated in the quarter-finals after losing their match to Marie Storms and Fernande Arendt . Hansen also participated in the singles competition but was eliminated in the second round after losing her match to Élisabeth d'Ayen\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Amory_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 106531\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Advisory Group on Greenhouse Gases Content: The Advisory Group on Greenhouse Gases , created in 1985 , was an advisory body for the review of studies into the greenhouse effect . The group was created by the International Council of Scientific Unions , the United Nations Environment Programme , and the World Meteorological Organization to follow up on the recommendations of the International conference of the Assessment of the role of carbon dioxide and of other greenhouse gases in climate variations and associated impacts , held at Villach , Austria , in October 1985 . The seven-member panel included Swedish meteorologist Bert Bolin and Canadian climatologist Kenneth Hare . The group held its last meeting in 1990 . It was gradually replaced by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Advisory_Group_on_Greenhouse_Gases\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 106407\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmosphere of Earth Content: The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases , commonly known as air , that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity . The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation , warming the surface through heat retention ( greenhouse effect ) , and reducing temperature extremes between day and night ( the diurnal temperature variation ) . By volume , dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen , 20.95 % oxygen , 0.93 % argon , 0.04 % carbon dioxide , and small amounts of other gases . Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor , on average around 1 % at sea level , and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere . Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers , and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres . The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 kg , three quarters of which is within about 11 km of the surface . The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude , with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space . The Kármán line , at 100 km , or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius , is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space . Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km . Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere , based on characteristics such as temperature and composition . The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science ( aerology ) . Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmosphere_of_Earth\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 106370\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Timothy Ball Content: Timothy Francis `` Tim '' Ball ( born November 5 , 1938 ) is a Canadian geographer . A retired professor , he taught in the department of geography at the University of Winnipeg from 1971 until 1996 . Ball rejects the scientific opinion on climate change , stating that `` CO2 is not a greenhouse gas . '' He has worked with the Friends of Science and the Natural Resources Stewardship Project , and is a research fellow at the Frontier Centre for Public Policy .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Timothy_Ball\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 106200\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide clathrate Content: Carbon dioxide hydrate is a snow-like crystalline substance composed of water ice and carbon dioxide . It normally is a Type I gas clathrate . However , there has been some experimental evidence for the development of a metastable Type II phase at A temperature near the ice melting point . The clathrate can exist below 283K ( 10 ° C ) at a range of pressures of carbon dioxide . It is quite likely to be important on Mars due to the presence of carbon dioxide and ice at low temperatures .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_clathrate\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 106022\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Rasmus Quist Hansen Content: Rasmus Quist Hansen ( born 5 April 1980 in Middelfart ) , also known as Rasmus Quist , is a Danish rower and double World Champion in the lightweight double sculls , with his partner Mads Rasmussen . Quist and Rasmussen placed first in the 2012 Summer Olympics in London , third in the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing and fourth in the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Rasmus_Quist_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 106011\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Unstoppable Global Warming: Every 1,500 Years Content: Unstoppable Global Warming : Every 1,500 Years is a book about climate change , written by Siegfried Fred Singer and Dennis T. Avery , which asserts that natural changes , and not CO2 emissions , are the cause of Global Warming . Published by Rowman & Littlefield in 2006 , the book sold well and was reprinted in an updated edition in 2007 . The title refers to the hypothesis of 1,500-year climate cycles in the Holocene first postulated by Gerard C. Bond , mainly based on petrologic tracers of drift ice in the North Atlantic .\",\n \"qid\": \"2787\",\n \"docid\": \"Unstoppable_Global_Warming:_Every_1,500_Years\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 105891\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":1374,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"'On June 23, 1988, NASA scientist James Hansen testified before the House of Representatives that there was a strong \"cause and effect relationship\" between observed temperatures and human emissions into the atmosphere."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: James Hansen Content: James Edward Hansen ( born 29 March 1941 ) is an American adjunct professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University . He is best known for his research in climatology , his 1988 Congressional testimony on climate change that helped raise broad awareness of global warming , and his advocacy of action to avoid dangerous climate change . In recent years he has become a climate activist to mitigate the effects of climate change , on a few occasions leading to his arrest . In 2000 , Hansen advanced an alternative view of global warming over the last 100 years , arguing that during that time frame the negative forcing via aerosols and the positive forcing via largely balanced each other out , and that the 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide , such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons . However , even then he wrote `` the future balance of forcings is likely to shift toward dominance of CO2 over aerosols ''","qid":"2788","docid":"James_Hansen","rank":1,"score":229693},{"content":"Title: James Hansen (disambiguation) Content: James Hansen ( born 1941 ) is an American scientist and former head of the NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies . James Hansen or Jim Hansen may also refer to : James V. Hansen ( born 1932 ) , American politician from Utah Jim D. Hansen ( born 1959 ) , American politician from Idaho Jim Michael Hansen ( born 1949 ) , author of the `` Laws '' novels James R. Hansen ( born c. 1952 ) , American historian & author of First Man : The Life of Neil A. Armstrong","qid":"2788","docid":"James_Hansen_(disambiguation)","rank":2,"score":204111},{"content":"Title: James R. Hansen Content: James R. Hansen is a professor of history at Auburn University in Alabama . His book From the Ground Up won the History Book Award of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics in 1988 . For his work , The Wind and Beyond ( NASA ) - ( six-volume series ) , he was awarded the Eugene Ferguson Prize for Outstanding Reference Work by the Society for the History of Technology in 2005 .","qid":"2788","docid":"James_R._Hansen","rank":3,"score":182130},{"content":"Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .","qid":"2788","docid":"350.org","rank":4,"score":177645},{"content":"Title: Storms of My Grandchildren Content: Storms of My Grandchildren : The Truth About the Coming Climate Catastrophe and Our Last Chance to Save Humanity is climate scientist James Hansen 's first book , published by Bloomsbury Press in 2009 . The book is about threats to people and habitability for life on earth from global warming .","qid":"2788","docid":"Storms_of_My_Grandchildren","rank":5,"score":164161},{"content":"Title: James Russell III Content: James M. Russell III is an atmospheric scientist who has served as the developer of instrumentation for several NASA probes . He is currently a professor of Planetary and Atmospheric Sciences and co-director of the Center for Atmospheric research at Hampton University . Russell received a BSEE degree from Virginia Tech in 1962 . He received an MSEE degree from the University of Virginia in 1966 and a Ph.D. in Aeronomy from the University of Michigan in 1970 . In 1960 Russell and his wife Jenna joined The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints . He has served in many callings in the LDS church including Bishop , Stake President and Regional Representative . Russell led the team that first identified the connection between chlorine and ozone gas depletion . Russell was the lead investigator connected with a satellite to study ice in part of the Earth 's atmosphere .","qid":"2788","docid":"James_Russell_III","rank":6,"score":163145},{"content":"Title: James Taranik Content: James Vladimir Taranik ( April 23 , 1940 -- June 21 , 2011 ) was an American scientist and educator who worked in the area of earth-observation satellite remote sensing . He was Chief of NASA 's Non-Renewable Resources Branch and Program Scientist of the Space Shuttle 's first scientific flights with cargo that included experiments related to geology , atmospheric chemistry , meteorology , marine biology , and plant physiology in the earth and life sciences . He also held various positions in the Nevada System of Higher Education , including the Desert Research Institute and the Mackay School of Earth Sciences and Engineering .","qid":"2788","docid":"James_Taranik","rank":7,"score":158999},{"content":"Title: James H. Newman Content: James Hansen Newman , Ph.D. ( born October 16 , 1956 ) is an American physicist and a former NASA astronaut who flew on four Space Shuttle missions .","qid":"2788","docid":"James_H._Newman","rank":8,"score":158518},{"content":"Title: James V. Hansen Content: James Vear `` Jim '' Hansen ( born August 14 , 1932 ) was a Republican member of the United States House of Representatives from Utah . Hansen was born in Salt Lake City , graduating from the city 's East High School . From 1951 until 1955 he served in the United States Navy . He attended the University of Utah , receiving a business degree from the school in 1961 . The same year that he left college , Hansen was elected to the Farmington City Council . He also worked as an insurance agent . From 1973 until 1980 , Hansen was a member of the Utah House of Representatives and served as speaker of the house from 1979 until 1980 . He was elected to Congress in 1980 and represented from January 3 , 1981 . Hansen retired on January 3 , 2003 . Hansen served as chairman of the Committee on Resources in his last term in the 107th Congress . Hansen ran for the governorship in 2004 , but was defeated at the Republican convention by Jon Huntsman , Jr. who went on to win the election . He was appointed a commissioner on the 2005 Base Realignment and Closure Commission . When a portion of US-89 in Weber County , Utah was upgraded to freeway standards , it was named the James V. Hansen Highway . The federal building in Ogden , Utah was renamed the James V. Hansen Federal Building in his honor in 2004 .","qid":"2788","docid":"James_V._Hansen","rank":9,"score":158269},{"content":"Title: Bjørn Helland-Hansen Content: Bjørn Helland-Hansen ( 16 October 1877 -- 7 September 1957 ) was a Norwegian pioneer in the field of modern oceanography . He studied the variation patterns of the weather in the northern Atlantic Ocean and of the atmosphere . He studied both medicine and physics at the University of Christiania ( now University of Oslo ) . He developed the `` Helland-Hansen Photometer '' in 1910 , which was carried on board Michael Sars . It was operated for the first time close to the Azores at a depth between 500 and m . In 1915 he became Professor of oceanography at the Bergen Museum , and in 1917 director of the Geophysical Institute , University of Bergen . In 1933 he was awarded the Alexander Agassiz Medal . In 1939 he became President of the International Geodesic and Geophysical Union . He was a member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences and a member of the Member of the Academy of Sciences of the German Democratic Republic ( DDR ) . Helland-Hansen trained Alexander Kuchin , the Russian oceanographer who went to Antarctica with Roald Amundsen . An island in the Russian Arctic , east of the Geiberg Islands , has been named Gellanda-Gansena after Helland-Hansen . thumb | left | Bjørn Helland-Hansen ( ca 1917 )","qid":"2788","docid":"Bjørn_Helland-Hansen","rank":10,"score":156790},{"content":"Title: John H. Mercer Content: John H. Mercer ( Cheltenham , England , 19 October 1922 -- Columbus , Ohio 3 July 1987 ) was a glaciologist , chiefly known for his theoretical work on , and field studies of Antarctic ice streams , especially in the Transantarctic Mountains and in West Antarctica . Following John T. Hollin 's work ( 1962 ) suggesting that climatic warming and rising sea-level cause Antarctic ice shelves to retreat , Mercer postulated that the West Antarctic ice sheet , being grounded well below sea-level and terminating in floating ice shelves , was vulnerable to these changes and may have collapsed altogether during the last interglacial when Antarctica may have been warmer and sea-level may have been higher . In 1978 , in the science magazine Nature , Mercer pointed out that `` green-house '' warming from burning fossil fuel could have the same effect during the present interglacial . Two studies published 12 May 2014 confirm Mercer 's assumption . Climate scientist James Hansen has coined the term , `` John Mercer effect . '' After Mercer published his paper suggesting that the West Antarctic ice sheet could collapse in response to warming , he struggled to get funding . Others , including Hansen , had similar problems . Many climate scientists censor their own work to avoid losing funding , especially regarding prospects for limiting warming to 2 ° C above pre-industrial temperatures . John H. Mercer was the third child of Harriet and John W. Mercer . He was educated at private schools in Cheltenham and , later , at Gordonstoun in Scotland . During World War II he served in the British Merchant Marines ( 1940 -- 46 ) as a radio man . After the war he went to University of Cambridge and studied geography . At that time he came under the influence of William Vaughan Lewis . After finishing his B.A. in 1949 Mercer went to Canada , where he received his PhD in geography from McGill University in 1954 . He was a Research Scholar from 1954 to 1956 at the Australian National University in Canberra , where he studied land use and population in western Samoa . He returned to Canada and worked in the Canadian Hydro-graphic Office in Ottawa as a geographer in 1957 and 1958 . During 1959 -- 60 , 1961 -- 62 , 1964 , and 1966 , the American Geographical Society employed him at its World Data Center A for Glaciology in New York . The turning point in his career as a glaciologist was in 1960 , when he became a Research Associate at The Ohio State University , in the Institute of Polar Studies ( renamed the Byrd Polar Research Center ) . He remained at The Ohio State University until his death , becoming its first Senior Research Scientist .","qid":"2788","docid":"John_H._Mercer","rank":11,"score":154172},{"content":"Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .","qid":"2788","docid":"History_of_climate_change_science","rank":12,"score":150800},{"content":"Title: Neupert effect Content: The Neupert Effect refers to an empirical tendency for high-energy ( ` hard ' ) X-ray emission to coincide temporally with the rate of rise of lower-energy ( ` soft ' ) X-ray emission of a solar flare . Here ` hard ' and ` soft ' mean above and below an energy of about 10 keV to solar physicists , though in non-solar X-ray astronomy one typically sets this boundary at a lower energy . This effect gets its name from NASA solar physicist and spectroscopist Werner Neupert , who first documented a related correlation ( the integral form ) between microwave ( gyrosynchrotron ) and soft X-ray emissions in 1968 . The standard interpretation is that the accumulated energy injection associated with the acceleration of non-thermal electrons ( which produce the hard X-rays via non-thermal bremsstrahlung ) release energy in the lower solar atmosphere ( the chromosphere ) ; this energy then leads to thermal ( soft X-ray ) emission as the chromospheric plasma heats and expands into the corona . The effect is very common , but does not represent an exact relationship and is not observed in all solar flares .","qid":"2788","docid":"Neupert_effect","rank":13,"score":145178},{"content":"Title: Jim Hansen (Idaho politician) Content: James Duncan `` Jim '' Hansen ( born November 5 , 1959 ) is an American attorney , Ada County Highway District Commissioner and former Democratic politician from Idaho . He was the 2006 Democratic nominee for Congress in Idaho 's 2nd district , but was defeated by four-term incumbent Mike Simpson . Hansen was elected to the Ada County Highway District in 2012 and is serving a four-year term .","qid":"2788","docid":"Jim_Hansen_(Idaho_politician)","rank":14,"score":144197},{"content":"Title: James Hansen (politician) Content: James Hansen ( February 17 , 1884 -- May 14 , 1951 ) was a provincial politician from Alberta , Canada . He served as a member of the Legislative Assembly of Alberta from 1935 to 1940 , sitting with the Social Credit caucus in government . He died of heart disease in 1951 .","qid":"2788","docid":"James_Hansen_(politician)","rank":15,"score":144063},{"content":"Title: Siegfried Hansen Content: Siegfried Hansen ( March 29 , 1912-June 28 , 2002 ) was an American electrical engineer and inventor notable for his development of the early Mark I space suit. , a role that earned him appellations of `` Space Suit Father '' and `` Space Suit Pioneer '' . The Mark I was significant for its hard torso and flexible arms , providing constant volume while allowing the occupant to manipulate the external environment . These efforts broke briefly into the mainstream with Hansen 's in-suit appearance on the cover of the December 1957 issue of Look magazine . Hansen was born in San Francisco and educated at the University of Washington in Seattle .","qid":"2788","docid":"Siegfried_Hansen","rank":16,"score":140997},{"content":"Title: James B. Pollack Content: James B. Pollack ( July 9 , 1938 -- June 13 , 1994 ) was an American astrophysicist who worked for NASA 's Ames Research Center . Pollack was born on 9 July 1938 , and was brought up in Woodmere , Long Island by a Jewish family that was in the women 's garment business . He was a high school valedictorian and graduated from Princeton University in 1960 . He then received his master 's in nuclear physics at University of California , Berkeley in 1962 and his Ph.D from Harvard in 1965 , where he was a student of Carl Sagan . He was openly gay . Dorion Sagan told how his father came to the defense of Pollack 's lover in a problem with obtaining treatment at the university health service emergency room . Pollack specialized in atmospheric science , especially the atmospheres of Mars and Venus . He investigated the possibility of terraforming Mars , the extinction of the dinosaurs and the possibility of nuclear winter since the 1980s with Christopher McKay and Sagan . The work of Pollack et al. ( 1996 ) on the formation of giant planets ( `` core accretion paradigm '' ) is seen today as the standard model . He explored the weather on Mars using data from the Mariner 9 spacecraft and the Viking mission . On this he based ground-breaking computer simulations of winds , storms , and the general climate on that planet . An overview of Pollack 's scientific vita is given in the memorial talk `` James B. Pollack : A Pioneer in Stardust to Planetesimals Research '' held at an Astronomical Society of the Pacific 1996 symposium . He was a recipient of the Gerard P. Kuiper Prize in 1989 for outstanding lifetime achievement in the field of planetary science . Pollack died in 1994 from a rare form of spinal cancer , at age 55 . A crater on Mars was named in his honor .","qid":"2788","docid":"James_B._Pollack","rank":17,"score":140620},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .","qid":"2788","docid":"Greenhouse_gas","rank":18,"score":139560},{"content":"Title: James L. Green Content: James Lauer Green is an American physicist who received his Ph.D. in Space Physics from the University of Iowa in 1979 and who worked at NASA since then . He began working in the Magnetospheric Physics Branch at NASA 's Marshall Space Flight Center in 1980 . At Marshall , Green developed and managed the Space Physics Analysis Network that provided scientists with access to data . From 1985 to 1992 he was the head of the National Space Science Data Center ( NSSDC ) at Goddard Space Flight Center . The NSSDC is NASA 's largest space science data archive . He was the Chief of the Space Science Data Operations Office from 1992 until 2005 , when he became the Chief of the Science Proposal Support Office . While at Goddard , Green was a co-investigator and the Deputy Project Scientist on the IMAGE mission . He has written over 100 scientific articles in refereed journals involving various aspects of the Earth 's and Jupiter 's magnetospheres and over 50 technical articles on various aspects of data systems and networks . In August 2006 , Green became the Director of the Planetary Science Division at NASA Headquarters . In that role he serves as a spokesman for NASA for planetary missions , for instance announcing the likelihood that there was once flowing water on Mars in September 2015 . Under his leadership at the Planetary Science Division , several missions have been successfully completed or launched , including the New Horizons probe to Pluto , the MESSENGER probe to Mercury , the launch of Juno probe to Jupiter , the launch of Grail A and B to the Moon , the Dawn probe to Vesta , and the landing of the Mars Science Laboratory and Curiosity rover on Mars . In 1988 , he received the Arthur S. Flemming award given for outstanding individual performance in the federal government and was awarded Japan 's Kotani Prize in 1996 in recognition of his international science data management activities . In 2016 , Green was named an Alumni Fellow of the College of Liberal Arts & Sciences ( CLAS ) at the University of Iowa . In a 2015 TED presentation , he offered a survey of the places in our solar system that are most likely to harbor alien life . In 2015 Green was a part of the NASA involvement with the film The Martian . Green , a Civil War Trust member , has written about Civil War ballooning and has spoken at the 150th anniversary of the first tether balloon ascension . He served as an advisor on the Intrepid project , an initiative to construct and fly the world 's first replica of a Civil War manned balloon , and presented a talk for its official first lift-off at the Genesee Country Village & Museum celebration in Mumford , New York on July 4 , 2012 .","qid":"2788","docid":"James_L._Green","rank":19,"score":139516},{"content":"Title: D. James Baker Content: D. James Baker ( born March 23 , 1937 ) is an American scientist who was trained as a physicist , practiced as an oceanographer , and has held science and management positions in academia , non-profit institutions , and government agencies . He a former Under Secretary of Commerce for Atmosphere and Oceans and Administrator of the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , and currently Director , Global Carbon Measurement Program , William J. Clinton Foundation working with forestry programs in developing countries with the aim of reducing carbon dioxide emissions and at the same time helping alleviate poverty .","qid":"2788","docid":"D._James_Baker","rank":20,"score":138894},{"content":"Title: James B. Garvin Content: James B Garvin served as NASA 's Chief Scientist from October 2004 - September 2005 and is known for his foundational work in NASA 's Mars explorational programs . Garvin arrived at the Goddard Space Flight Center since 1984 where he first served as a staff scientist developing remote sensing instrumentation and has been based there or at the nearby NASA headquarters in Washington D.C. since then . His career has spanned disciplines as Earth system science , Mars Exploration , lunar exploration , Venus , asteroids , and the outer planets . He remains co-investigator on NASA 's Mars Global Surveyor , Canada 's Radarsat , and ESA 's Envisat missions . Garvin was born in Poughkeepsie , New York and attended Brown University graduating with a bachelor of science degree in Computer Science in 1978 . He earned his Masters of Science also in Computer Science from Stanford and returned to Brown where he earned his Masters of Science and PhD in planetary geological sciences 1984 . He lives with his wife and two children in Columbia , Maryland .","qid":"2788","docid":"James_B._Garvin","rank":21,"score":137145},{"content":"Title: James E. McDonald Content: James Edward McDonald ( May 7 , 1920 -- June 13 , 1971 ) was an American physicist . He is best known for his research regarding UFOs . McDonald was senior physicist at the Institute for Atmospheric Physics and professor in the Department of Meteorology , University of Arizona , Tucson . McDonald campaigned in support of expanding UFO studies during the mid and late 1960s , arguing that UFOs represented an important unsolved mystery which had not been adequately studied by science . He was one of the more prominent figures of his time who argued in favor of the extraterrestrial hypothesis as a plausible , but not completely proved , model of UFO phenomena . McDonald interviewed over 500 UFO witnesses , uncovered many important government UFO documents , and gave important presentations of UFO evidence . He testified before Congress during the UFO hearings of 1968 . McDonald also gave a famous talk called `` Science in Default '' to the American Association for the Advancement of Science ( AAAS ) . It was a summary of the current UFO evidence and a critique of the 1969 Condon Report UFO study .","qid":"2788","docid":"James_E._McDonald","rank":22,"score":135411},{"content":"Title: Osmund Holm-Hansen Content: Osmund Holm-Hansen ( also known as Oz Holm-Hansen ) is a Norwegian-born American scientist , for whom Mount Holm-Hansen , in Antarctica is named . A plant physiologist by training , from 1962 Holm-Hansen was the head of polar research at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography . Beginning in 1976 , Holm-Hansen conducted extensive field research on microbial populations in McMurdo Sound , the Ross Sea , and other ocean areas south of the Antarctic Convergence .","qid":"2788","docid":"Osmund_Holm-Hansen","rank":23,"score":134863},{"content":"Title: Iris hypothesis Content: The iris hypothesis is a hypothesis proposed by Richard Lindzen et al. in 2001 that suggested increased sea surface temperature in the tropics would result in reduced cirrus clouds and thus more infrared radiation leakage from Earth 's atmosphere . His study of observed changes in cloud coverage and modeled effects on infrared radiation released to space as a result supported the hypothesis . This suggested infrared radiation leakage was hypothesized to be a negative feedback in which an initial warming would result in an overall cooling of the surface . The consensus view is that increased sea surface temperature would result in increased cirrus clouds and reduced infrared radiation leakage and therefore a positive feedback . Other scientists subsequently tested the hypothesis . Some concluded that there was no evidence supporting the hypothesis . Others found evidence suggesting that increased sea surface temperature in the tropics did indeed reduce cirrus clouds but found that the effect was nonetheless a positive feedback rather than the negative feedback that Lindzen had hypothesized . A later 2007 study conducted by Roy Spencer et al. using updated satellite data potentially supported the iris hypothesis . In 2011 , Lindzen published a rebuttal to the main criticisms . In 2015 a paper was published which again suggested the possibility of an `` Iris Effect '' . It also proposed what it called a `` plausible physical mechanism for an iris effect . ''","qid":"2788","docid":"Iris_hypothesis","rank":24,"score":134351},{"content":"Title: Fred Singer Content: Siegfried Fred Singer ( born September 27 , 1924 ) is an Austrian-born American physicist and emeritus professor of environmental science at the University of Virginia . Singer trained as an atmospheric physicist and is known for his work in space research , atmospheric pollution , rocket and satellite technology , his questioning of the link between UV-B and melanoma rates , and that between CFCs and stratospheric ozone loss , his public downplaying of the health risks of passive smoking , and as an advocate for climate change denial . He is the author or editor of several books including Global Effects of Environmental Pollution ( 1970 ) , The Ocean in Human Affairs ( 1989 ) , Global Climate Change ( 1989 ) , The Greenhouse Debate Continued ( 1992 ) , and Hot Talk , Cold Science ( 1997 ) . He has also co-authored Unstoppable Global Warming : Every 1,500 Years ( 2007 ) with Dennis Avery , and Climate Change Reconsidered ( 2009 ) with Craig Idso . Singer has had a varied career , serving in the armed forces , government , and academia . He designed mines for the U.S. Navy during World War II , before obtaining his Ph.D. in physics from Princeton University in 1948 and working as a scientific liaison officer in the U.S. Embassy in London . He became a leading figure in early space research , was involved in the development of earth observation satellites , and in 1962 established the National Weather Bureau 's Satellite Service Center . He was the founding dean of the University of Miami School of Environmental and Planetary Sciences in 1964 , and held several government positions , including deputy assistant administrator for the Environmental Protection Agency , and chief scientist for the Department of Transportation . He held a professorship with the University of Virginia from 1971 until 1994 , and with George Mason University until 2000 . In 1990 Singer founded the Science & Environmental Policy Project , and in 2006 was named by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation as one of a minority of scientists said to be creating a stand-off on a consensus on climate change . Singer argues there is no evidence that global warming is attributable to human-caused increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide , and that humanity would benefit if temperatures do rise . He is an opponent of the Kyoto Protocol , and has claimed that climate models are neither based on reality nor evidence . Singer has been accused of rejecting peer-reviewed and independently confirmed scientific evidence in his claims concerning public health and environmental issues .","qid":"2788","docid":"Fred_Singer","rank":25,"score":133768},{"content":"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .","qid":"2788","docid":"Global_warming","rank":26,"score":133753},{"content":"Title: Tihomir Novakov Content: Tihomir Novakov , Ph.D known also as Tica Novakov ( March 16 , 1929 -- January 2 , 2015 ) was a Serbian-born American physicist . As a scientist , Novakov is known for his black carbon , air quality , and climate change research . James Hansen dubbed him `` the godfather of black carbon . ''","qid":"2788","docid":"Tihomir_Novakov","rank":27,"score":133706},{"content":"Title: James S. Famiglietti Content: James S. ( Jay ) Famiglietti is the Senior Water Scientist at the NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena , CA and a professor of Earth System Science at the University of California , Irvine . He is a leading expert in global water issues and in raising awareness about the global water crisis and in particular , about global groundwater depletion .","qid":"2788","docid":"James_S._Famiglietti","rank":28,"score":133322},{"content":"Title: Jim Hansen (Missouri politician) Content: Jim Hansen ( born January 24 , 1947 ) is an American politician . He is a member of the Missouri House of Representatives , having served since 2013 . He is a member of the Republican party .","qid":"2788","docid":"Jim_Hansen_(Missouri_politician)","rank":29,"score":133189},{"content":"Title: James Pitts (chemist) Content: James N. Pitts Jr. . ( January 10 , 1921 -- June 19 , 2014 ) was an American chemist and researcher known for his work in the fields of photochemistry and atmospheric chemistry . Pitts was a pioneer in the study of smog and air pollution , especially in Los Angeles County . Pitts co-founded the Statewide Air Pollution Research Center at the University of California , Riverside in 1961 and served as the center 's director from 1970 to 1988 . He authored more than 400 scientific publications and four books on the subjects , especially smog . Pitts ' research formed the basis for California 's air quality laws . According to the chair of the Air Resources Board , Mary Nichols , `` Jim Pitts was probably the single person most responsible for the understanding of what strategies we need to clean up Southern California 's air ... He was able to explain all of this in English to policymakers so that they would be able to accept that it was going to take extensive and difficult actions to control emissions . '' He often invited state and federal officials to his smog chamber at UC Irvine , including Jerry Brown and Ronald Reagan , to demonstrate the effects of smog and air pollution . In a common demonstration , Pitts would fill an Erlenmeyer flask with ozone and then twist a slice of lemon onto the flask . The ensuing chemical reaction , which quickly produced a fog , demonstrated the formation of smog in the atmosphere . Pitts refused funding from industry groups , which increased his center 's credibility . He was the recipient of numerous awards and recognitions from the California State Assembly , the United States Congress , the Coalition for Clean Air , the South Coast Air Quality Management District , and the California state air board . Pitts was born on January 10 , 1921 , in Salt Lake City , Utah , to Esther ( née Bengtson ) and James N. Pitts . The family moved to West Los Angeles when he was just six months old . A high school teacher sparked his interest in chemistry during his junior year . Pitts enrolled as a chemistry student at University of California , Los Angeles ( UCLA ) in 1939 . He left during World War II , joining a group of young scientists who conducted classified chemical warfare field tests . Their work led to the development of more effective gas mask for Allied forces during the war . He returned to UCLA , where he received a bachelor 's degree in chemistry in 1945 and a doctorate in 1949 . Pitts initially worked as a faculty member of Northwestern University . He was at the time married to a woman by the name of Nancy Ann Quirt . James and Nancy had three daughters Linda , Christie and Beckie . Pitts was hired as a founding professor at UC Riverside in 1954 . Pitts married his second wife , UC Irvine chemist and professor Barbara Finlayson-Pitts in 1970 . He followed her to the University of California , Irvine in 1994 , where the two collaborated of research and co-authored books and other publications . James Pitts died of natural causes at his home in Irvine , California , on June 19 , 2014 , at the age of 93 . He was survived by his wife , Barbara Finlayson-Pitts , and three daughters , Linda Lee , Christie Hoffman and Beckie St. George.He was also survived by five grandchildren Kristin Cohn , Brianna Hoffman , Trevin Hoffman , Mallory St George and Ryan Giordano . His great-grandchildren include Brandon , Kyle , Austin and Riley .","qid":"2788","docid":"James_Pitts_(chemist)","rank":30,"score":132808},{"content":"Title: Charles David Keeling Content: Charles David Keeling ( April 20 , 1928 -- June 20 , 2005 ) was an American scientist whose recording of carbon dioxide at the Mauna Loa Observatory first alerted the world to the possibility of anthropogenic contribution to the `` greenhouse effect '' and global warming . The Keeling Curve measures the progressive buildup of carbon dioxide , a greenhouse gas , in the atmosphere .","qid":"2788","docid":"Charles_David_Keeling","rank":31,"score":132568},{"content":"Title: James A. Krumhansl Content: James Arthur `` Jim '' Krumhansl ( August 2 , 1919 -- May 6 , 2004 ) was an American physicist who specialized in condensed matter physics and materials science . He spent much of his career at Cornell University . He also served as president of the American Physical Society and assistant director for mathematics , physical sciences , and engineering for the National Science Foundation . In 1987 he testified before Congress that the Superconducting Super Collider would be too costly .","qid":"2788","docid":"James_A._Krumhansl","rank":32,"score":131201},{"content":"Title: James Van Allen Content: James Alfred Van Allen ( September 7 , 1914August 9 , 2006 ) was an American space scientist at the University of Iowa . He was instrumental in establishing the field of magnetospheric research in space . The Van Allen radiation belts were named after him , following their discovery by his Geiger -- Müller tube instruments on the 1958 satellites : ( Explorer 1 , Explorer 3 , and Pioneer 3 ) during the International Geophysical Year . Van Allen led the scientific community for the inclusion of scientific research instruments on space satellites .","qid":"2788","docid":"James_Van_Allen","rank":33,"score":131098},{"content":"Title: James Elsner Content: James Brian Elsner ( born 1959 ) is an American atmospheric scientist , geographer , and applied statistician who has made substantial contributions to understanding of the spatial , temporal , and physical relationships of tropical cyclones and tornadoes , and the influence of climate change . Elsner earned a B.S. ( 1981 ) , M.S. ( 1984 ) , and Ph.D. ( 1988 ) from the University of Wisconsin -- Milwaukee ( UWM ) . He joined the faculty of Florida State University ( FSU ) in 1990 as an assistant professor in the Department of Meteorology and moved to the Department of Geography in 1998 where he has held his current position as the Earl and Sophia Shaw Professor since 2008 . He has been President of Climatek , Inc. , since 2001 . Elsner organized the biannual International Summit on Hurricanes and Climate Change in 2001 and the International Summit on Tornadoes and Climate Change , the first scientific conference on the topic , in 2014 . He is a storm chaser and leads a FSU storm intercept program . He is member of the American Association of Geographers ( AAG ) , the American Geophysical Union ( AGU ) , and the American Meteorological Society ( AMS ) .","qid":"2788","docid":"James_Elsner","rank":34,"score":130775},{"content":"Title: James L. Elliot Content: James Ludlow Elliot ( 17 June 1943 -- 3 March 2011 ) was an American astronomer and scientist who , as part of a team , discovered the rings around the planet Uranus . Elliot was also part of a team that observed global warming on Triton , the largest moon of Neptune . Elliot was born in 1943 in Columbus , Ohio and received his S.B. degree from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology ( MIT ) in 1965 and his Ph.D. degree from Harvard University in 1972 . He held a postdoctoral position in Laboratory for Planetary Studies at Cornell University , and joined the faculty of Cornell 's Astronomy Department in 1977 . After he discovered Uranus 's rings alongside Edward Dunham and Douglas Mink at Cornell , he returned to MIT in 1978 to serve as Professor of Physics , Professor of Earth , Atmospheric , and Planetary Sciences , and Director of the George R. Wallace , Jr. . Astrophysical Observatory until his death on March 3 , 2011 . There is some debate on whether Elliot , et al. discovered the rings of Uranus , or whether William Herschel made an observation in 1797 . However , scientific consensus seems to support Elliot as the discoverer . Elliot is credited by the Minor Planet Center with one minor planet , the trans-Neptunian object , which he co-discovered at CTIO in 2002 . The main-belt asteroid 3193 Elliot , discovered by astronomer Edward Bowell at Anderson Mesa Station in 1983 , was named in his honor .","qid":"2788","docid":"James_L._Elliot","rank":35,"score":129943},{"content":"Title: James A. Pawelczyk Content: James Anthony `` Jim '' Pawelczyk ( born September 20 , 1960 ) is an American researcher of physiology and Kinesiology who flew aboard the NASA STS-90 Space Shuttle mission as a Payload Specialist .","qid":"2788","docid":"James_A._Pawelczyk","rank":36,"score":129675},{"content":"Title: Jimmy Adegoke Content: James O. Adegoke ( born 1963 ) is an award-winning climate scientist and professor at the University of Missouri-Kansas City ( UMKC ) where he served as Chair of the Department of Geosciences ( 2008-2010 ) . He also served as an appointee of the Mayor of Kansas City Missouri on the city 's Environmental Management Commission ( EMC ) and has testified before the South Africa Parliament 's Portfolio Committee on Science and Technology and the Climate Change Committee of the Nigerian House of Representatives . In the United States , he has testified at the United States House of Representatives for the United States House Select Committee on Energy Independence and Global Warming . He also serves on the Technical Advisory Board of several United Nations ( UN ) applied science programs , including the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization ( UNESCO ) project on the application of remote sensing for water resources and ecosystem management in Africa .","qid":"2788","docid":"Jimmy_Adegoke","rank":37,"score":129207},{"content":"Title: James Hays Content: James D. Hays is a professor of Earth and environmental sciences at Columbia University 's Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory . Hays founded and led the CLIMAP project , which collected sea floor sediment data to study surface sea temperatures and paleoclimatological conditions 18,000 years ago . Hays is probably best known as a co-author of the 1976 paper in Science , `` Variations in the Earth 's orbit : Pacemaker of the ice ages . '' Using ocean sediment cores , the Science paper verified the theories of Milutin Milanković that oscillations in climate can be correlated with Earth 's orbital variations of eccentricity , axial tilt , and precession around the Sun ( see Milankovitch cycles ) .","qid":"2788","docid":"James_Hays","rank":38,"score":129048},{"content":"Title: Julia Butler Hansen Content: Julia Butler Hansen ( June 14 , 1907 -- May 3 , 1988 ) , born Julia Caroline Butler in Portland , Oregon , served as a member of the United States House of Representatives from 1960 -- 1974 . She represented Washington 's Third Congressional District as a Democrat . She was the second woman and first Democratic woman elected to Congress from Washington .","qid":"2788","docid":"Julia_Butler_Hansen","rank":39,"score":129048},{"content":"Title: Global Warming: What You Need to Know Content: Global Warming What You Need to Know is a 2006 global warming ( climate change ) documentary , directed by Nicolas Brown , starring Tom Brokaw , James Hansen , Michael Oppenheimer , and Mark Serreze . The film focuses on impacts from climate change , and Tom Brokaw interviews scientists . The documentary premiered on Discovery Channel , 16 July 2006 .","qid":"2788","docid":"Global_Warming:_What_You_Need_to_Know","rank":40,"score":128277},{"content":"Title: James C. Fletcher Content: James Chipman Fletcher ( June 5 , 1919 -- December 22 , 1991 ) served as the 4th and 7th Administrator of NASA , first from April 27 , 1971 to May 1 , 1977 , under President Richard M. Nixon , and again from May 12 , 1986 to April 8 , 1989 , under President Ronald Reagan . As such , he was responsible for the early planning of the Space Shuttle program , and later for its recovery and return to flight after the Space Shuttle Challenger accident . Prior to this , he was president of the University of Utah from 1964 to 1971 .","qid":"2788","docid":"James_C._Fletcher","rank":41,"score":127676},{"content":"Title: Brookings Report Content: Proposed Studies on the Implications of Peaceful Space Activities for Human Affairs , often referred to as `` the Brookings Report '' , was a 1960 report commissioned by NASA and created by the Brookings Institution in collaboration with NASA 's Committee on Long-Range Studies . It was submitted to the House Committee on Science and Astronautics of the United States House of Representatives in the 87th United States Congress on April 18 , 1961 . It was entered into the Congressional Record and can be found in any library possessing the Congressional Record for that year .","qid":"2788","docid":"Brookings_Report","rank":42,"score":127551},{"content":"Title: Jack James (rocket engineer) Content: Jack N. James ( November 22 , 1920 -- August 7 , 2001 ) was a US rocket engineer who worked for over 35 years at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory , Pasadena , California , USA . His work as a Project Manager for NASA 's Mariner program in the 1960s included the first planetary flyby ( of Venus ) and first photographs by a space probe of Mars . He received commendations for his work from several US Presidents , and his awards include the NASA Exceptional Scientific Achievement Medal ( 1965 ) and the Stuart Ballantine Medal ( 1967 ) .","qid":"2788","docid":"Jack_James_(rocket_engineer)","rank":43,"score":127208},{"content":"Title: Nils Roll-Hansen Content: Nils Roll-Hansen ( born 1938 ) is a historian and philosopher of 19th and 20th century biology at University of Oslo . He is the author of four books and many academic articles . His book `` The Lysenko Effect '' was praised in Nature . He is a member of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters .","qid":"2788","docid":"Nils_Roll-Hansen","rank":44,"score":126973},{"content":"Title: William J. Borucki Content: William J. ( Bill ) Borucki ( born 1939 ) is a space scientist who worked at the NASA Ames Research Center . Upon joining NASA in 1962 , Borucki designed the heat shields for Apollo program spacecraft . He later turned his attention to the optical efficiency of lightning strikes in the atmospheres of planets , investigating the propensity that these lightning strikes could create molecules that would later become the precursors for life . Subsequently , Borucki 's attention turned to extrasolar planets and their detection , particularly through the transit method . In light of this work , Borucki was named the principal investigator for NASA 's Kepler mission , launched on March 6 , 2009 and dedicated to a transit-based search for habitable planets . In 2013 , Borucki was awarded the United States National Academy of Sciences 's Henry Draper Medal for his work with Kepler . In 2015 he received the Shaw Prize in Astronomy .","qid":"2788","docid":"William_J._Borucki","rank":45,"score":126843},{"content":"Title: W. W. Hansen Content: William Webster Hansen ( May 27 , 1909 -- May 23 , 1949 ) was an American physicist and professor . He was one of the founders of the technology of microwave electronics .","qid":"2788","docid":"W._W._Hansen","rank":46,"score":126681},{"content":"Title: James N. Hallock Content: James Nelson Hallock ( born January 23 , 1941 ) is an American physicist . He has contributed to NASA 's Gemini and Apollo missions and served on the Columbia Accident Investigation Board . He is a leading scientist in wake vortices , and co-authored two patents and over 150 papers . Hallock was born in Yonkers , New York , and earned his bachelor 's degree in 1963 , masters degree in 1969 , and Ph.D in 1972 from Massachusetts Institute of Technology . He has retired from the Department of Transportation as a Senior Scientist , Air and Space Transportation Safety at the Volpe National Transportation Systems Center in Cambridge , Massachusetts . Hallock 's career began as a graduate student , working for the MIT Instrumentation Lab ( in the Apollo Optics Group ) in 1963 . During this time he gathered information on Earth landmarks to be used by guidance systems on the Apollo and Gemini space missions . He continued research with NASA 's Electronic Research Center until 1970 . In 1970 he left the Research Center to work at the Department of Transportation 's Volpe Center . Here he began his lifelong work on wake vortices . In 1986 he was promoted to Division Manager of the Aviation Safety Division , and held that post until 2006 . At that time the Secretary of Transportation promoted him to Senior Scientist . Most recently , in 2003 , he was selected to sit on the Columbia Accident Investigation Board . Here his expertise was used in determining the final reports and causes of that fateful disaster . Hallock resides in Waltham , Massachusetts , with his wife Georgie and two cats . He has two sons , Alexander and Theodore .","qid":"2788","docid":"James_N._Hallock","rank":47,"score":126627},{"content":"Title: Duncan Wingham Content: Duncan John Wingham ( born 12 October 1957 ) is a British physicist who is Professor of Climate Physics at University College London , and was the first Director of the Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling . He is chief executive of the Natural Environment Research Council and Principal Scientist for the CryoSat Satellite Mission . In the 1990s , Wingham was involved in a four-year satellite study of the Antarctic ice sheet . His conclusion then , and from later research , is that the Antarctic has contributed little to observed rising sea levels in the 20th century . However , he has also stated that `` it is possible that the consequences of global warming on sea level rise have been underestimated ... Other sources of rise must be underestimated . In particular it is possible that the effect of global warming on thermal expansion -LSB- on the oceans -RSB- is larger than we thought '' . In a 2005 interview Wingham stated '' -LSB- t -RSB- he Antarctic is to some extent insulated from global warming because to its north are zonal flows in the atmosphere and ocean , unimpeded by other landmasses ... I am not denying global warming . ''","qid":"2788","docid":"Duncan_Wingham","rank":48,"score":126500},{"content":"Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference) Content: In 2005, an international conference titled Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and global warming and its effects. The conference name was derived from Article 2 of the charter for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The conference explored the possible impacts at different levels of greenhouse gas emissions and how the climate might be stabilized at a desired level. The conference took place under the United Kingdom's presidency of the G8, with the participation of around 200 \"internationally renowned\" scientists from 30 countries. It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter, from 1 February to 3 February. The conference was one of many meetings leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, at which the international community agreed to limit global warming to no more than 2C in order to have a 50-50 chance of avoiding dangerous climate change. However, a 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting it is below the 2 degree temperature target.","qid":"2788","docid":"Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change_(2005_conference)","rank":49,"score":126251},{"content":"Title: Guy Stewart Callendar Content: Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''","qid":"2788","docid":"Guy_Stewart_Callendar","rank":50,"score":126119},{"content":"Title: Valda Hansen Content: Valda Joanne Hansen ( November 3 , 1932 -- July 21 , 1993 ) was an American actress , known for her performances in a number of B-movies in the 1950s and 1970s . Her most famous role was that of the White Ghost in Ed Wood 's Night of the Ghouls ( 1959 ) . She had previously played a stripper in Strips Around the World ( 1955 ) . She returned to the screen in the 1970s and appeared in movies such as Cain 's Cutthroats ( 1971 ) , Slaughter 's Big Rip-Off ( 1973 ) and Wham ! Bam ! Thank You , Spaceman ! ( 1975 , in which she was credited as `` Zelda '' ) . She also appeared in a 1990s documentary about the filmmaker Ed Wood . Hansen retired from acting around 1975 , and died in Hollywood on July 21 , 1993 , aged 60 , from cancer .","qid":"2788","docid":"Valda_Hansen","rank":51,"score":125982},{"content":"Title: Jeremy Hansen Content: Jeremy Roger Hansen , CD ( born January 27 , 1976 ) is a Canadian astronaut with the Canadian Space Agency ( CSA ) . He was selected to join the CSA in the 2009 CSA selection along with David Saint-Jacques . Prior to his selection as one of Canada 's newest astronauts , Hansen held the rank of Captain in the Royal Canadian Air Force , piloting the CF-18 fighter plane from deployment at CFB Cold Lake , Alberta . He has since been promoted to the rank of Lieutenant-colonel .","qid":"2788","docid":"Jeremy_Hansen","rank":52,"score":125957},{"content":"Title: Francis Everitt Content: C. W. Francis Everitt is a US-based English physicist working on experimental testing of general relativity . Everitt was educated at Imperial College London and the University of Pennsylvania in low-temperature physics . He is Professor at the Hansen Experimental Physics Laboratory of Stanford University and is also an Associate Member of the Kavli Institute for Particle Astrophysics and Cosmology ( KIPAC ) . Everitt is Principal Investigator of the Gravity Probe B mission mainly aimed to test frame-dragging at an expected accuracy of 1 % . According to general relativity , it is an effect induced by the rotation of the Earth on orbiting gyroscopes . Everitt spent more than 40 years on the project and was awarded with the NASA Distinguished Public Service Medal . The results were published in Physical Review Letters in May 2011 . The results confirm general relativity 's predictions , though not to the project 's ambitious goal of 1 % precision .","qid":"2788","docid":"Francis_Everitt","rank":53,"score":125603},{"content":"Title: Svante Arrhenius Content: Svante August Arrhenius ( 19 February 1859 -- 2 October 1927 ) was a Nobel-Prize winning Swedish scientist , originally a physicist , but often referred to as a chemist , and one of the founders of the science of physical chemistry . He received the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1903 , becoming the first Swedish Nobel laureate , and in 1905 became director of the Nobel Institute where he remained until his death . His lasting contributions to science are exemplified and memorialized by the Arrhenius equation , Arrhenius definition of an acid , lunar crater Arrhenius , the mountain of Arrheniusfjellet and the Arrhenius Labs at Stockholm University , all named after him . He was the first to use basic principles of physical chemistry to calculate estimates of the extent to which increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide increase Earth 's surface temperature through the Arrhenius effect , leading Keeling to conclude that human-caused carbon dioxide emissions are large enough to cause global warming .","qid":"2788","docid":"Svante_Arrhenius","rank":54,"score":125531},{"content":"Title: Mount Holm-Hansen Content: Mount Holm-Hansen is a prominent mountain rising to 1,920 m between the lower David Valley and Bartley Glacier in the Asgard Range of Victoria Land , Antarctica . Bifrost Ledge is a flat benchlike feature that rises to 1,750 metres ( 5,740 ft ) on the north side of Mount Holm-Hansen . It was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names in 1997 after Osmund Holm-Hansen , a plant physiologist , who , working in the 1959 -- 60 season , was one of the first American scientists to visit and conduct research in both Taylor Valley and Wright Valley . Holm-Hansen was a Research Biologist at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography from 1962 , and his extensive field research from 1976 includes studies of microbial populations in McMurdo Sound , the Ross Sea , and other ocean areas south of the Antarctic Convergence .","qid":"2788","docid":"Mount_Holm-Hansen","rank":55,"score":125296},{"content":"Title: Godfrey Louis Content: Godfrey Louis is a solid-state physicist from India . His hypotheses about the `` red rain '' phenomenon in Kerala have attracted controversy . In April 2008 , he published a paper in which he hypothesised that samples of particles from the `` blood-coloured '' rain that fell in his state of Kerala , India in the summer of 2001 were the result of a comet disintegrating in the upper atmosphere which comprised mainly microbes from outer space . The paper drew much media interest . Other scientists disagreed early on with Louis ' hypothesis regarding the red rain 's origin . An earlier ( 2001 ) study by the Centre for Earth Science Studies , Kerala , India , reported that the red rain was the result of spores from local algae . Since October 2006 Louis has been at Department of Physics , Cochin University of Science and Technology ( CUSAT ) in Kochi , Kerala . In August 2010 Louis and his collaborators presented a paper at the SPIE astrobiology conference held in San Diego , USA , claiming that the red rain cells develop internal daughter cells and multiply when exposed to extreme temperature of 121 ° C in an autoclave for two hours , and that the fluorescent behavior of the red cells is similar to the extended red emission observed in the Red Rectangle nebula . In August 2012 , the Epoch Times newspaper carried comments from Louis concerning another outbreak of red rain in Kannur on 28 June 2012","qid":"2788","docid":"Godfrey_Louis","rank":56,"score":125255},{"content":"Title: Gerald North Content: Gerald R. North ( June 26 , 1938 -- ) is Distinguished Professor and Holder of the Harold J. Haynes Endowed Chair in Geosciences at Texas A&M University , and previous Head of the Department of Atmospheric Sciences . His interests include climate change using simplified climate models . North was born in Sweetwater , Tennessee to Sanford and Marjorie Hill North . He grew up in nearby Knoxville and received his Bachelor 's Degree in physics from the University of Tennessee . In 1966 , he earned a Ph.D. in Physics from the University of Wisconsin -- Madison . After a two year post-doc at the University of Pennsylvania , he obtained a tenure track position at the University of Missouri-St . Louis leading to full professor . He spent 1974 -- 75 as a Senior Visiting Scientist at the National Center for Atmospheric Research . He moved to NASA Goddard Space Flight Center in 1978 where he was the initial proposer and first Study Scientist for the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission . He joined Texas A&M University in 1986 . In 2005 to 2006 he chaired a United States National Research Council committee investigating surface temperature reconstructions for the last 2,000 years , set up at the request of Representative Sherwood Boehlert , chairman of the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Science . Their report , published in July 2006 , is known as the North Report . He is the 2008 recipient of the Jule Charney Award of the American Meteorological Society . His sons , Joel North and Paul North , play in the Denton , Texas based indie band Sleep Whale on Western Vinyl records . He currently lives in Bryan , Texas with his wife Laura .","qid":"2788","docid":"Gerald_North","rank":57,"score":125190},{"content":"Title: GROVER Content: GROVER or Goddard Remotely Operated Vehicle for Exploration and Research is an Earth-bound autonomous student-designed rover developed by the Goddard Space Flight Center . With this solar-powered rover , scientists hope to get cheaper data about the Greenland ice sheet that lies in a rapidly warming region . The test drive started in Summit Camp in Greenland on a three kilometer thick ice sheet , which is the highest spot on the largest island of the World . The science team is led by the glaciologist Lora Koenig from NASA 's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt , Md. . The test began on 3 May 2013 at temperatures as low as -30 ° C and is planned to continue till 8 June 2013 .","qid":"2788","docid":"GROVER","rank":58,"score":124826},{"content":"Title: Climate Code Red Content: Climate Code Red : The Case for Emergency Action is a 2008 book which presents scientific evidence that the global warming crisis is worse than official reports and national governments have so far indicated . The book argues that we are facing a `` sustainability emergency '' that requires a clear break from business-as-usual politics . The authors explain that emergency action to address climate change is not so much a radical idea as an indispensable course we must embark upon . Climate Code Red draws heavily on the work of a large number of climate scientists , including James E. Hansen . The key themes of Climate Code Red are : `` Our goal is a safe-climate future -- we have no right to bargain away species or human lives . '' `` We are facing rapid warming impacts : the danger is immediate , not just in the future . '' `` For a safe climate future , we must take action now to stop emissions and to cool the earth . '' `` Plan a large-scale transition to a post-carbon economy and society . '' `` Recognise a climate and sustainability emergency , because we need to move at a pace far beyond business and politics as usual '' . Co-author David Spratt is a Melbourne businessman , climate-policy analyst , and co-founder of the Carbon Equity network . Co-author Philip Sutton is convener of the Greenleap Strategic Institute and Assistant Convenor of the Climate Emergency Network . The book was launched by the Governor of Victoria , Professor David de Kretser in Parliament House in Melbourne , Victoria , on July 17 , 2008 .","qid":"2788","docid":"Climate_Code_Red","rank":59,"score":124477},{"content":"Title: Per Brinch Hansen Content: Per Brinch Hansen ( November 13 , 1938 -- July 31 , 2007 ) was a Danish-American computer scientist known for his work in operating systems , concurrent programming and parallel and distributed computing .","qid":"2788","docid":"Per_Brinch_Hansen","rank":60,"score":124301},{"content":"Title: Gilbert Plass Content: Gilbert Norman Plass ( 22 March 1920 -- 1 March 2004 ) was a Canadian physicist who in the 1950s made predictions about the increase in global atmospheric carbon dioxide levels in the 20th century and its effect on the average temperature of the planet that closely match measurements reported half a century later . Plass worked most of his life as a physicist in the United States . He graduated from Harvard University in 1941 and earned a PhD in physics from Princeton University in 1947 . He worked as an associate physicist at the Metallurgical Laboratory ( Manhattan District ) of the University of Chicago from 1942 to 1945 . He became an instructor of physics at Johns Hopkins University in 1946 , and eventually became an associate professor there . In 1955 , leaving academia , he held a job for a year as a staff scientist with Lockheed Aircraft Corporation . He then joined the advanced research staff at the Aeronutronic division of the Ford Motor Company . In 1960 , he became manager of the research lab at Ford 's theoretical physics department and a consulting editor of the journal Infrared Physics ( now called Infrared Physics and Technology ) . In 1963 , he accepted a position as the first professor of atmospheric and space science at the Southwest Center for Advanced Studies ( now the University of Texas at Arlington ) , where he remained for five years . In 1968 , he arrived at Texas A&M University , where he served as professor of physics and head of the department .","qid":"2788","docid":"Gilbert_Plass","rank":61,"score":124263},{"content":"Title: Weatherport hut Content: Weatherport huts are portable and relatively easy to assemble metal-framed , fabric-covered structures that are somewhat similar to the quonset-style Jamesway hut of the early 1940s . Weatherport huts were originally developed by Clayton H. `` Sweede '' Hansen in Gunnison , Colorado in 1968 . Hansen wanted a durable structure that could protect his vehicles from the harsh Colorado winters . Dissatisfied with the available products on the market at the time , Hansen decided to create his own design . The shelter worked better than other products on the market and a family business was born .","qid":"2788","docid":"Weatherport_hut","rank":62,"score":124194},{"content":"Title: John D. Strong Content: John Donovan Strong was a professor of Physics and Astronomy from 1967 to 1975 and served as the head of the laboratory of astrophysics and physical meteorology . Strong , one of the world 's foremost optical scientists , was known for being the first to detect water vapor in the atmosphere of Venus and for developing a number of innovations in optical devices , ranging from improved telescope mirrors to anti-reflective coatings for optical elements and diffraction gratings . Born in Lawrence , Kansas in 1905 , Strong received degrees from the University of Kansas ( BA 1926 ) and the University of Michigan ( M.S. , 1928 , Ph.D. , 1930 ) . After twelve years at Caltech and wartime research at Harvard on infrared systems , Strong became professor and director of the Astrophysics and Physical Meteorology Laboratories at Johns Hopkins University in 1946 , where , among many other projects , he conducted research on balloon astronomy for the Office of Naval Research ( ONR ) . Strong published hundreds of papers throughout his career and was author of Procedures in Experimental Physics , a standard physics textbook for many years . Strong served as president of the American Optical Association in 1959 and patented numerous inventions for optics in spectroscopy as well as golf ( see US Patent no. 3720467 ) . Strong died in 1992 .","qid":"2788","docid":"John_D._Strong","rank":63,"score":123968},{"content":"Title: James F. Woodward Content: James F. Woodward is a professor emeritus of history and an adjunct professor of physics at California State University , Fullerton . He is best known for a physics hypothesis proposed in 1990 , later expanded , that predicts a series of physical effects that he refers to as Mach effects but others refer to as the Woodward effect . Woodward claims the effect could be used as a reactionless drive in to space travel .","qid":"2788","docid":"James_F._Woodward","rank":64,"score":123777},{"content":"Title: George V. Hansen Content: George Vernon Hansen ( September 14 , 1930 -- August 14 , 2014 ) was a Republican politician from the state of Idaho . He served in the U.S. House of Representatives for 14 years , representing Idaho 's 2nd district from 1965 to 1969 and again from 1975 to 1985 .","qid":"2788","docid":"George_V._Hansen","rank":65,"score":123471},{"content":"Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .","qid":"2788","docid":"Media_coverage_of_climate_change","rank":66,"score":123328},{"content":"Title: Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment Content: The Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment ( SORCE ) is a NASA-sponsored satellite mission that measures incoming X-ray , ultraviolet , visible , near-infrared , and total solar radiation . These measurements specifically address long-term climate change , natural variability and enhanced climate prediction , and atmospheric ozone and UV-B radiation . These measurements are critical to studies of the Sun , its effect on our Earth system and its influence on humankind . The SORCE spacecraft launched on January 25 , 2003 on a Pegasus XL launch vehicle to provide NASA 's Earth Science Enterprise ( ESE ) with precise measurements of solar radiation . SORCE measures the Sun 's output using radiometers , spectrometers , photodiodes , detectors , and bolometers mounted on a satellite observatory . The SORCE satellite orbits the Earth accumulating solar data . Spectral measurements identify the irradiance of the Sun by characterizing the Sun 's energy and emissions in the form of color that can then be translated into quantities and elements of matter . Data obtained by the SORCE experiment can be used to model the Sun 's output and to explain and predict the effect of the Sun 's radiation on the Earth 's atmosphere and climate . Flying in a 645 km , 40 degree orbit , SORCE is operated by the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics ( LASP ) at the University of Colorado at Boulder , Colorado . It will continue the precise measurements of total solar irradiance that began with the ERB instrument in 1979 and has continued to the present with the ACRIM series of measurements . SORCE will also provide the measurements of the solar spectral irradiance from 1 nm to 2000 nm , accounting for 95 % of the spectral contribution to the total solar irradiance . SORCE carries four instruments including the Total Irradiance Monitor ( TIM ) , Solar Stellar Irradiance Comparison Experiment ( SOLSTICE ) , Spectral Irradiance Monitor ( SIM ) , and the XUV Photometer System ( XPS ) .","qid":"2788","docid":"Solar_Radiation_and_Climate_Experiment","rank":67,"score":123044},{"content":"Title: James Strong (U.S. politician) Content: James Strong ( October 6 , 1783 -- August 8 , 1847 ) was a United States Representative from New York .","qid":"2788","docid":"James_Strong_(U.S._politician)","rank":68,"score":122992},{"content":"Title: Mary Hansen Content: Mary Therese Hansen ( 1 November 1966 9 December 2002 ) was an Australian-born guitarist and singer . She was a member of United Kingdom-based alternative music group Stereolab from 1992 . As a member of that band , Hansen recorded six studio albums from Transient Random-Noise Bursts with Announcements ( August 1993 ) to Sound-Dust ( August 2001 ) . As a side-project , in late 1999 she formed the space rock group Schema with members of Seattle-based band Hovercraft , and they issued their debut album , Schema , on 19 September 2000 . On 9 December 2002 a truck hit and killed Hansen while she was bicycling in London . She was 36 years old .","qid":"2788","docid":"Mary_Hansen","rank":69,"score":122891},{"content":"Title: Pål Brekke Content: Pål Brekke ( born 23 May 1961 ) in Oslo , Norway ) is a Norwegian solar physicist astrophysicist who received his Cand Mag . degree in astrophysics from University of Oslo in 1985 and PhD , from University of Oslo in 1992 . His thesis focused on the ultraviolet ( UV ) emissions from the Sun observed with instruments on sounding rockets and the space shuttle Challenger . His work focused on dynamical aspects of the Sun and measuring variations in solar UV radiation . Since 1993 he participated in the Norwegian involvement 's in preparing the EUV spectrometers CDS and SUMER on Solar and Heliospheric Observatory ( SOHO ) and was in charge of developing analysis software for CDS . After the launch of SOHO in December 1995 he was part of the science operation team at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center . In 1999 he joined the European Space Agency ( ESA ) as the SOHO Deputy Project Scientist stationed at NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center . He was also in charge of outreach and media activities , making SOHO to one of the most well known current satellite projects . He is now a Senior Advisor at the Norwegian Space Centre . He is a Norwegian delegate to the ESA Science Programme Committee ( SPC ) , Programme Board of Human Spaceflight , Microgravity and Exploration ( HEM ) and Situational Awareness ( SSA ) . He is also a delegate to the International Living With a Star ( ILWS ) . Served on several NASA Review Panels and as referee for various scientific journals . Professional publications : Refereed Journals -- 42 , Proceedings -- 69 , Popular Science -- 22 . Numerous appearances in national and international news-networks ( CNN , USA Today , Der Spiegel , BBC etc. ) . International recognized lecturer on the Sun , The Sun Earth connection and the Northern Lights . He has published several popular science books : Den store boken om astronomi Sola -- Vår livgivende stjerne Our Explosive Sun 2013 : Nordlyset -- en guide '' ( Forlaget Press ) . Historien om Nordlyset og en guide til hvordan oppleve og ta bilder av Nordlyset . 2013 : The Northern Lights -- a Guide '' ( Forlaget Press ) . 2013 : Il Sole '' ( Edizioni Dedalo ) . Italien version of `` Our Explosive Sun '' . 2013 : Le Soleil , notre étoile '' ( CNRS Editions ) . French version of `` Our Explosive Sun '' .","qid":"2788","docid":"Pål_Brekke","rank":70,"score":122552},{"content":"Title: Ehrenfest–Tolman effect Content: The Ehrenfest -- Tolman effect ( also known as the Tolman -- Ehrenfest effect ) , created by Richard C. Tolman and Paul Ehrenfest , argues that temperature is not constant in space at thermal equilibrium , but varies with the spacetime curvature . Specifically , it depends on the spacetime metric . In a stationary spacetime with timelike Killing vector field , the temperature satisfies instead the Tolman-Ehrenfest relation : , where is the norm of the timelike Killing vector field . This relationship leads to the concept of thermal time which has been considered as a possible basis for a fully general-relativistic thermodynamics . It has been shown that the Tolman -- Ehrenfest effect can be derived by applying the equivalence principle to the concept that temperature is the rate of thermal time with respect to proper time .","qid":"2788","docid":"Ehrenfest–Tolman_effect","rank":71,"score":122514},{"content":"Title: Space Environment Simulation Laboratory Content: The Space Environment Simulation Laboratory ( SESL ) in Building 32 at the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center was built in 1965 . It initially was used to test Apollo Program spacecraft and equipment in a space environment . It can simulate the vacuum and thermal environments that would be encountered . It consists of two human-rated chambers : A ( larger ) and B. Chamber A is equipped with a gaseous helium shroud capable of reaching temperatures of -439.9 Fahrenheit ( -262.1 Celsius or 11 Kelvin , ) and is currently being used to test the James Webb Space Telescope .","qid":"2788","docid":"Space_Environment_Simulation_Laboratory","rank":72,"score":122042},{"content":"Title: Bev Hansen Content: Beverly K. `` Bev '' Hansen ( born August 18 , 1944 in Oroville , California ) is an American politician from California and a member of the Republican Party . A former staffer to onetime state Senator Jim Nielsen , Hansen was first elected to the California State Assembly in 1986 from the 8th District , representing Lake and Napa counties and parts of Sonoma and Yolo counties . A moderate , she won easily in 1988 and 1990 , but opted not to seek reelection in 1992 . This was mainly because her district had been redrawn after the 1991 reapportionment and had become decidedly more Democratic , making it a longshot for any Republican . She spent most of 1992 campaigning with and for fellow GOP Assemblyman Bill Filante , who had fallen ill during his run for congress . Had Filante won and been unable to serve , Hansen was mentioned as a possible candidate to replace him . This did not happen as Filante eventually lost to Democrat Lynn Woolsey and died shortly after the election . Hansen did , however , run for the California State Senate in a 1993 special election for the 4th district left vacant when Democratic incumbent Mike Thompson won election to the neighboring 2nd district ( where his home wound up after reapportionment ) . She lost the GOP primary to then Shasta county supervisor Maurice Johannessen by a wide margin . Hansen is currently a lobbyist for Lang , Hansen O'Malley , and Miller Governmental Relations .","qid":"2788","docid":"Bev_Hansen","rank":73,"score":121950},{"content":"Title: W. James Adams Content: W. James ( Jim ) Adams served as the Deputy Chief Technologist at NASA in the Office of the Chief Technologist ( OCT ) from 2012 until retiring from NASA in 2016 . NASA 's OCT is responsible for direct management of NASA 's space technology programs and for coordination and tracking of all technology investments across the agency .","qid":"2788","docid":"W._James_Adams","rank":74,"score":121869},{"content":"Title: Mars Radiation Environment Experiment Content: The Martian Radiation Experiment , or MARIE was designed to measure the radiation environment of Mars using an energetic particle spectrometer as part of the science mission of the 2001 Mars Odyssey spacecraft ( launched on April 7 , 2001 ) . It was led by NASA 's Johnson Space Center and the science investigation was designed to characterize aspects of the radiation environment both on the way to Mars and while it was in the Martian orbit . Since space radiation presents an extreme hazard to crews of interplanetary missions the experiment was an attempt to predict anticipated radiation doses that would be experienced by future astronauts and it helped determine possible effects of Martian radiation on human beings . Space radiation comes from cosmic rays emitted by our local star , the Sun , and from stars beyond the Solar System as well . Space radiation can trigger cancer and cause damage to the central nervous system . Similar instruments are flown on the Space Shuttles and on the International Space Station ( ISS ) , but none have ever flown outside Earth 's protective magnetosphere , which blocks much of this radiation from reaching the surface of our planet . Ironically , in the Autumn of 2003 after a series of particularly strong solar flares MARIE started malfunctioning , probably as a result of being exposed to the solar flare 's intense blast of particle radiation . The instrument was never restored to working order .","qid":"2788","docid":"Mars_Radiation_Environment_Experiment","rank":75,"score":121620},{"content":"Title: Charles Hanses Content: Charles Hanses Hansen ( c. 1659 -- c. 1697 ) was a Member of Parliament for Winchester from 1685 to 1689 .","qid":"2788","docid":"Charles_Hanses","rank":76,"score":121529},{"content":"Title: The Falconer (Hansen) Content: The Falconer is a bronze sculpture by James Lee Hansen . Dates for the abstract piece range from the 1960s to 1973 .","qid":"2788","docid":"The_Falconer_(Hansen)","rank":77,"score":121348},{"content":"Title: Holm Hansen Munthe Content: Holm Hansen Munthe ( 1 January 1848 -- 23 May 1898 ) was a Norwegian architect . He was a leading representative of dragon style architecture ( Drakestil ) during the 1880s and 1890s . Holm Hansen Munthe was born at Stange in Hedmark , Norway . He was the son of Adolph Frederik Munthe ( 1817 -- 1884 ) and Karen Emilie Hansen ( 1820 -- 1884 ) . He father was a military officer and government official . In the early 1870s , he was an apprentice in Christiania and a student at the drawing school of Wilhelm von Hanno . He graduated from Hanover Polytechnikum in 1877 . Between 1878 and 1885 he cooperated with Henrik Nissen . From 1889 he worked for the Holmenkol-Voxenkol-Selskabet , among others drawing the well-known Frognerseteren restaurant in the so-called dragon style . Emperor Wilhelm II of Germany , vacationing in Norway , noticed these buildings and commissioned the erection of his Rominten Hunting Lodge in East Prussia ; however these buildings were largely destroyed after World War II , remnants of the Lodge are used as the seat of the administration at the Kaliningrad Central Park . The Kongsnæs ' sailors station in Potsdam was partially destroyed in 1945 . Currently it is planned to re-erect the complete complex . In 1898 Munthe was appointed city architect in Kristiania , but he died before actually assuming office . he was buried at Vår Frelsers gravlund in Oslo .","qid":"2788","docid":"Holm_Hansen_Munthe","rank":78,"score":121050},{"content":"Title: Talos No. 2 Content: Talos No. 2 is an outdoor 1959 -- 1977 bronze sculpture by American artist James Lee Hansen , located on the Transit Mall of downtown Portland , Oregon , in the United States .","qid":"2788","docid":"Talos_No._2","rank":79,"score":120947},{"content":"Title: Orval H. Hansen Content: Orval Howard Hansen ( born August 3 , 1926 ) is a former congressman from Idaho . He served three terms as a Republican in the House from 1969 to 1975 , representing the state 's 2nd district .","qid":"2788","docid":"Orval_H._Hansen","rank":80,"score":120936},{"content":"Title: James Westphal Content: James Adolph Westphal ( June 13 , 1930 -- September 8 , 2004 ) was an American academic , scientist , engineer , inventor and astronomer and Director of Caltech 's Palomar Observatory from 1994 through 1997 . His participation played an important role in designing the main camera for the Hubble Space Telescope .","qid":"2788","docid":"James_Westphal","rank":81,"score":120893},{"content":"Title: Alice Just Harding Content: Alice Just Harding from the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center , was awarded the status of Fellow in the American Physical Society , after they were nominated by their Division of Astrophysics in 1991 , for pioneering investigation of the theory of pulsar atmospheres , including the pulsar wind and its role in accelerating particles to high energies , and for contributions to the theory of basic electromagnetic interactions in the presence of super-strong magnetic fields .","qid":"2788","docid":"Alice_Just_Harding","rank":82,"score":120638},{"content":"Title: Gerhard Armauer Hansen Content: Gerhard Henrik Armauer Hansen ( 29 July 1841 -- 12 February 1912 ) was a Norwegian physician , remembered for his identification of the bacterium Mycobacterium leprae in 1873 as the causative agent of leprosy .","qid":"2788","docid":"Gerhard_Armauer_Hansen","rank":83,"score":120577},{"content":"Title: James R. Kass Content: James R. Kass is a Canadian physicist engaged in the field of human spaceflight .","qid":"2788","docid":"James_R._Kass","rank":84,"score":120065},{"content":"Title: Jim Blinn Content: James F. Blinn ( born 1949 ) is an American computer scientist who first became widely known for his work as a computer graphics expert at NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory ( JPL ) , particularly his work on the pre-encounter animations for the Voyager project , his work on the Carl Sagan documentary series Cosmos , and the research of the Blinn -- Phong shading model .","qid":"2788","docid":"Jim_Blinn","rank":85,"score":120028},{"content":"Title: Richard A. Anthes Content: Richard A. Anthes ( born March 9 , 1944 ) was a long time president of the University Corporation for Atmospheric Research ( from 1988 to 2012 ) . The Anthes Building in Boulder , Colorado , is the first UCAR-owned building to be named for an eminent scientist -- and a living one at that . '' His area of study at the University of Wisconsin , Madison , focused on hurricanes and tropical cyclones . Dr. Anthes taught as a professor for ten years at Pennsylvania State University before accepting a position at the National Center for Atmospheric Research as director of the Atmospheric and Prediction Division in 1981 , a position he kept until 1986 when he became director of NCAR . In 1988 , he started working as president of UCAR , and retired from that position n 2012 . During his presidency at UCAR , he participated or chaired over forty different national committees for agencies such as NASA , NSF , and NOAA . He also established a program aimed at increasing participation ( especially of minority professionals ) in the atmospheric sciences called SOARS ( Significant Opportunities in Atmospheric Research and Science ) .","qid":"2788","docid":"Richard_A._Anthes","rank":86,"score":120025},{"content":"Title: Niels Ebbesen Hansen Content: Niels Ebbesen Hansen ( January 4 , 1866 -- October 5 , 1950 ) was a Danish-American horticulturist and botanist who was a pioneer in plant breeding .","qid":"2788","docid":"Niels_Ebbesen_Hansen","rank":87,"score":119926},{"content":"Title: Frank Hansen (politician) Content: Frank Delmar ( Tub ) Hansen ( December 27 , 1913 -- December 29 , 1991 ) was an American politician in the state of Washington . He served in the Washington House of Representatives from 1973 to 1979 for district 13 , and in the Senate from 1979 to his death in 1991 .","qid":"2788","docid":"Frank_Hansen_(politician)","rank":88,"score":119865},{"content":"Title: James E. Webb Content: James Edwin Webb ( October 7 , 1906 -- March 27 , 1992 ) was an American government official who served as the second administrator of NASA from February 14 , 1961 to October 7 , 1968 . Webb oversaw NASA from the beginning of the Kennedy administration through the end of the Johnson administration , thus overseeing all the critical first manned launches in the Mercury through Gemini programs , until just before the first manned Apollo flight . He also dealt with the Apollo 1 fire . In 2002 , a planned space telescope , originally called the Next Generation Space Telescope ( NGST ) , was renamed the James Webb Space Telescope as a tribute to Webb .","qid":"2788","docid":"James_E._Webb","rank":89,"score":119561},{"content":"Title: James R. Holton Content: James Reed Holton ( 1938 -- 2004 ) was a professor of atmospheric sciences at the University of Washington . He was a known expert on atmospheric dynamics , and the author of the widely used atmospheric science textbook `` An Introduction to Dynamic Meteorology '' . He was at the University of Washington for 38 years , and awarded every major award in the atmospheric sciences . He was also a member of the National Academy of Sciences . The American Geophysical Union has now named an award after him , named the James R. Holton award ) .","qid":"2788","docid":"James_R._Holton","rank":90,"score":119429},{"content":"Title: Edmund H. Hansen Content: Edmund H. Hansen ( November 13 , 1894 -- October 10 , 1962 ) was an American sound engineer . He won two Academy Awards ; one for Best Sound Recording and the other Best Visual Effects . He was nominated for another 12 films across the two categories .","qid":"2788","docid":"Edmund_H._Hansen","rank":91,"score":119373},{"content":"Title: Owen Toon Content: Owen Brian Toon ( born May 26 , 1947 in Bethesda , Maryland ) is a professor of atmospheric and oceanic sciences . He is a fellow at the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics ( LASP ) at the University of Colorado Boulder . He received an A.B. in physics at the University of California , Berkeley in 1969 and a Ph.D. in physics at Cornell University in 1975 under Carl Sagan . His research interests are in cloud physics , atmospheric chemistry , and radiative transfer . He also works on comparing Earth and other planets such as Venus . His research on the asteroid impact that killed the dinosaurs led to the discovery of nuclear winter due to the major decrease in temperature . The effects of nuclear winter were re-examined in a 2006 presentation at the annual meeting of the American Geophysical Union in San Francisco , where Toon and colleagues found that even a regional nuclear war could prove deadly for a large number of people . They calculated that as few as fifty detonations of Hiroshima-size bombs could kill as many as twenty million people , although it would not produce a nuclear winter . The atmospheric effects of a regional nuclear war would last several years , and would be strongest at mid-latitudes , including the United States and Europe . He was elected a fellow of the American Meteorological Society in 1990 , and a fellow of the American Geophysical Union in 1992 . He received the 2011 Roger Revelle Medal from the American Geophysical Union .","qid":"2788","docid":"Owen_Toon","rank":92,"score":119242},{"content":"Title: James F. Bell, III Content: James ( Jim ) F. Bell III ( born July 23 , 1965 ) is a Professor of Astronomy at Arizona State University , specializing in the study of planetary geology , geochemistry and mineralogy using data obtained from telescopes and from various spacecraft missions . Dr. Bell 's active research has involved the NASA Mars Pathfinder , Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous ( NEAR ) , Comet Nucleus Tour ( CONTOUR ) , 2001 Mars Odyssey , Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter , Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter , and the Mars Science Laboratory missions . His book Postcards from Mars includes many images taken by the Mars rovers . Dr. Bell is currently an editor of the space science journal Icarus and president of The Planetary Society . He has served as the lead scientist in charge of the Panoramic camera ( Pancam ) color imaging system on Mars rovers Spirit and Opportunity .","qid":"2788","docid":"James_F._Bell,_III","rank":93,"score":119194},{"content":"Title: James E. Boyd (scientist) Content: James Emory `` Jim '' Boyd ( July 18 , 1906 -- February 18 , 1998 ) was an American physicist , mathematician , and academic administrator . He was director of the Georgia Tech Research Institute from 1957 to 1961 , president of West Georgia College ( now the University of West Georgia ) from 1961 to 1971 , and acting president of the Georgia Institute of Technology from 1971 to 1972 . A graduate of the University of Georgia and Duke University , Boyd began in academia as a professor of physics at West Georgia College . He then became a professor at Georgia Tech and a prominent researcher at the Engineering Experiment Station , now known as the Georgia Tech Research Institute . At the Engineering Experiment Station , Boyd helped spur the organization 's mainstay : federally funded electronics research and development . Along with fellow Georgia Tech researchers Gerald Rosselot and Glen P. Robinson , Boyd was influential in the founding of Scientific Atlanta , where he was a board member for 25 years . As director of the Engineering Experiment Station , Boyd focused on the recruitment of talented engineers and an increase in physical space available to the organization , including the establishment of nuclear research at Georgia Tech with a radioisotopes laboratory and the construction of the Frank H. Neely Research Reactor . While he was the third president of West Georgia College , Boyd increased faculty , degrees , programs , and both undergraduate and graduate enrollment on the campus . Boyd racially integrated the campus in 1963 , unprompted by a court order , and oversaw immense construction projects that dramatically expanded the campus to support the increased ( and future ) enrollment . Hired away to serve as the University System of Georgia 's Vice Chancellor for Academic Development in 1970 , he was almost immediately reassigned to be Georgia Tech 's interim president . During his tenure at Georgia Tech from 1971 to 1972 , Boyd resolved difficult issues in the attempted takeover of the Engineering Experiment Station by previous Georgia Tech president Arthur G. Hansen and the poor performance of ( and corresponding alumni calls to remove ) head football coach Bud Carson .","qid":"2788","docid":"James_E._Boyd_(scientist)","rank":94,"score":119146},{"content":"Title: Karl Otto Lange Content: Karl Otto Heinrich Lange , Dr.-Ing . ( 1903 -- November 29 , 1973 ) was a pioneer in aviation ( soaring ) , atmospheric science , engineering education , and biomedical engineering ( effects of gravity and vibration ) . Dr. Karl Otto Lange joined the meteorology faculty of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1931 . After his arrival , according to THE TECH , MIT 's newspaper , daily weather observations from the ground level to a height of more than three miles ( 5 km ) above Boston will be made by meteorologists of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in an airplane equipped to record temperature , barometric pressure and relative humidity . To carry out this work , MIT secured funds to purchase a Cessna cabin monoplane powered with a 120 hp Warner engine . The daily flights of this plane were part of a research program designed to gain new knowledge to aid in weather forecasting by measuring the variation of temperature and moisture at various altitudes in different air currents .","qid":"2788","docid":"Karl_Otto_Lange","rank":95,"score":119091},{"content":"Title: Kessler syndrome Content: The Kessler syndrome ( also called the Kessler effect , collisional cascading or ablation cascade ) , proposed by the NASA scientist Donald J. Kessler in 1978 , is a scenario in which the density of objects in low earth orbit ( LEO ) is high enough that collisions between objects could cause a cascade where each collision generates space debris that increases the likelihood of further collisions . One implication is that the distribution of debris in orbit could render space activities and the use of satellites in specific orbital ranges infeasible for many generations .","qid":"2788","docid":"Kessler_syndrome","rank":96,"score":119051},{"content":"Title: Colorado Student Space Weather Experiment Content: Colorado Student Space Weather Experiment ( CSSWE ) was the sixth National Science Foundation sponsored CubeSat mission . It was built by students at the University of Colorado at Boulder with advising from professionals at the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics . The CSSWE mission was a joint effort by the University of Colorado 's Department of Aerospace Engineering Sciences and Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics . The mission principal investigator was Profs. Xinlin Li , and the Co-PIs are Prof. Scott Palo and Dr. Shri Kanekal . The project manager for the project was Dr. Lauren Blum , the system engineer was Dr. David Gerhardt , and the instrument scientist was Dr. Quintin Schiller . CSSWE launched on September 13 , 2012 , on an Atlas V rocket by the United Launch Alliance on ELaNa-VI as part of the NASA 's CubeSat Launch Initiative ( CSLI ) . The CSSWE team released its science products to the public for download on NASA 's Coordinated Data Analysis Web Site ( CDAWeb ) . As of December 22 , 2014 , CSSWE showed severe battery degradation , likely due to pushing the battery thousands of cycles beyond the battery 's design specs . As a result , CSSWE can not retain enough power to receive or transmit data .","qid":"2788","docid":"Colorado_Student_Space_Weather_Experiment","rank":97,"score":118699},{"content":"Title: Jean-Pierre Hansen Content: For the executive officer with the same name , see Jean-Pierre Hansen . Jean-Pierre Hansen FRS ( born 10 May 1942 ) is a Luxembourgian chemist and an emeritus professor of the University of Cambridge . He gained a PhD from Paris-Sud 11 University in 1969 , the same year working as a staff scientist for the French National Centre for Scientific Research . A year later he moved to the United States to do postdoctoral work at Cornell University before moving back to France in 1973 to work as an associate professor at Pierre and Marie Curie University . He became a full professor in 1977 , and in 1980 moved to Grenoble to work as a visiting scientist at Institut Laue-Langevin . In 1986 he became research director at École Normale Supérieure de Lyon , and in 1987 founded the physics laboratory there . In 1990 the French Academy of Sciences awarded him the Grand Prix de l'Etat for his work , and between 1994 and 1997 he worked as a visiting professor at the physical chemistry department of the University of Oxford ; he moved Corpus Christi College at the University of Cambridge in 1997 and became Professor of Chemistry . The Société Française de Physique awarded him their Prix Special in 1998 , and in 2002 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society . The European Physical Society awarded him their first Liquid Matter Prize in 2005 , and in 2006 the Royal Society awarded him the Rumford Medal . In 2013 , together with Herman Berendsen he was awarded the Berni J. Alder Prize by the Centre européen de calcul atomique et moléculaire .","qid":"2788","docid":"Jean-Pierre_Hansen","rank":98,"score":118682},{"content":"Title: Michael Helfert Content: Dr. Michael Helfert was a senior scientist at NASA 's Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center , and acted as chief scientist and scientist for Earth observations for 100 + Space Shuttle missions ( 1982 -- 2008 ) . Those Mission Reports were primarily published in the journal Geocarto International . He was also the Director of the National Climatic Data Center 's Southeast Regional Climate Center and the South Carolina state climatologist . While at the National Climate Data Center he was also the Director of the U.S. Climate Reference Network . This program designed and maintained very precise climate monitoring stations throughout the USA as well as selected overseas locations in Italy and Siberia .","qid":"2788","docid":"Michael_Helfert","rank":99,"score":118553},{"content":"Title: Jens Christian Hansen Content: Jens Christian Hansen ( 5 May 1932 in Bodø -- 8 May 2014 ) was a Norwegian geographer . He took the dr.philos . degree in 1970 with the thesis Administrative grenser og tettstedsvekst . After a period as a docent at the Norwegian School of Economics he was a professor at the University of Bergen from 1972 . He was a fellow of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters from 1985 , of the Academia Europaea and of the Royal Norwegian Society of Sciences and Letters . He died in May 2014 .","qid":"2788","docid":"Jens_Christian_Hansen","rank":100,"score":118451}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: James Hansen Content: James Edward Hansen ( born 29 March 1941 ) is an American adjunct professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University . He is best known for his research in climatology , his 1988 Congressional testimony on climate change that helped raise broad awareness of global warming , and his advocacy of action to avoid dangerous climate change . In recent years he has become a climate activist to mitigate the effects of climate change , on a few occasions leading to his arrest . In 2000 , Hansen advanced an alternative view of global warming over the last 100 years , arguing that during that time frame the negative forcing via aerosols and the positive forcing via largely balanced each other out , and that the 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide , such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons . However , even then he wrote `` the future balance of forcings is likely to shift toward dominance of CO2 over aerosols ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"James_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 229693\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: James Hansen (disambiguation) Content: James Hansen ( born 1941 ) is an American scientist and former head of the NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies . James Hansen or Jim Hansen may also refer to : James V. Hansen ( born 1932 ) , American politician from Utah Jim D. Hansen ( born 1959 ) , American politician from Idaho Jim Michael Hansen ( born 1949 ) , author of the `` Laws '' novels James R. Hansen ( born c. 1952 ) , American historian & author of First Man : The Life of Neil A. Armstrong\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"James_Hansen_(disambiguation)\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 204111\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: James R. Hansen Content: James R. Hansen is a professor of history at Auburn University in Alabama . His book From the Ground Up won the History Book Award of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics in 1988 . For his work , The Wind and Beyond ( NASA ) - ( six-volume series ) , he was awarded the Eugene Ferguson Prize for Outstanding Reference Work by the Society for the History of Technology in 2005 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"James_R._Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 182130\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"350.org\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 177645\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Storms of My Grandchildren Content: Storms of My Grandchildren : The Truth About the Coming Climate Catastrophe and Our Last Chance to Save Humanity is climate scientist James Hansen 's first book , published by Bloomsbury Press in 2009 . The book is about threats to people and habitability for life on earth from global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"Storms_of_My_Grandchildren\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 164161\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: James Russell III Content: James M. Russell III is an atmospheric scientist who has served as the developer of instrumentation for several NASA probes . He is currently a professor of Planetary and Atmospheric Sciences and co-director of the Center for Atmospheric research at Hampton University . Russell received a BSEE degree from Virginia Tech in 1962 . He received an MSEE degree from the University of Virginia in 1966 and a Ph.D. in Aeronomy from the University of Michigan in 1970 . In 1960 Russell and his wife Jenna joined The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints . He has served in many callings in the LDS church including Bishop , Stake President and Regional Representative . Russell led the team that first identified the connection between chlorine and ozone gas depletion . Russell was the lead investigator connected with a satellite to study ice in part of the Earth 's atmosphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"James_Russell_III\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 163145\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: James Taranik Content: James Vladimir Taranik ( April 23 , 1940 -- June 21 , 2011 ) was an American scientist and educator who worked in the area of earth-observation satellite remote sensing . He was Chief of NASA 's Non-Renewable Resources Branch and Program Scientist of the Space Shuttle 's first scientific flights with cargo that included experiments related to geology , atmospheric chemistry , meteorology , marine biology , and plant physiology in the earth and life sciences . He also held various positions in the Nevada System of Higher Education , including the Desert Research Institute and the Mackay School of Earth Sciences and Engineering .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"James_Taranik\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 158999\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: James H. Newman Content: James Hansen Newman , Ph.D. ( born October 16 , 1956 ) is an American physicist and a former NASA astronaut who flew on four Space Shuttle missions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"James_H._Newman\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 158518\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: James V. Hansen Content: James Vear `` Jim '' Hansen ( born August 14 , 1932 ) was a Republican member of the United States House of Representatives from Utah . Hansen was born in Salt Lake City , graduating from the city 's East High School . From 1951 until 1955 he served in the United States Navy . He attended the University of Utah , receiving a business degree from the school in 1961 . The same year that he left college , Hansen was elected to the Farmington City Council . He also worked as an insurance agent . From 1973 until 1980 , Hansen was a member of the Utah House of Representatives and served as speaker of the house from 1979 until 1980 . He was elected to Congress in 1980 and represented from January 3 , 1981 . Hansen retired on January 3 , 2003 . Hansen served as chairman of the Committee on Resources in his last term in the 107th Congress . Hansen ran for the governorship in 2004 , but was defeated at the Republican convention by Jon Huntsman , Jr. who went on to win the election . He was appointed a commissioner on the 2005 Base Realignment and Closure Commission . When a portion of US-89 in Weber County , Utah was upgraded to freeway standards , it was named the James V. Hansen Highway . The federal building in Ogden , Utah was renamed the James V. Hansen Federal Building in his honor in 2004 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"James_V._Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 158269\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bjørn Helland-Hansen Content: Bjørn Helland-Hansen ( 16 October 1877 -- 7 September 1957 ) was a Norwegian pioneer in the field of modern oceanography . He studied the variation patterns of the weather in the northern Atlantic Ocean and of the atmosphere . He studied both medicine and physics at the University of Christiania ( now University of Oslo ) . He developed the `` Helland-Hansen Photometer '' in 1910 , which was carried on board Michael Sars . It was operated for the first time close to the Azores at a depth between 500 and m . In 1915 he became Professor of oceanography at the Bergen Museum , and in 1917 director of the Geophysical Institute , University of Bergen . In 1933 he was awarded the Alexander Agassiz Medal . In 1939 he became President of the International Geodesic and Geophysical Union . He was a member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences and a member of the Member of the Academy of Sciences of the German Democratic Republic ( DDR ) . Helland-Hansen trained Alexander Kuchin , the Russian oceanographer who went to Antarctica with Roald Amundsen . An island in the Russian Arctic , east of the Geiberg Islands , has been named Gellanda-Gansena after Helland-Hansen . thumb | left | Bjørn Helland-Hansen ( ca 1917 )\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"Bjørn_Helland-Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 156790\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: John H. Mercer Content: John H. Mercer ( Cheltenham , England , 19 October 1922 -- Columbus , Ohio 3 July 1987 ) was a glaciologist , chiefly known for his theoretical work on , and field studies of Antarctic ice streams , especially in the Transantarctic Mountains and in West Antarctica . Following John T. Hollin 's work ( 1962 ) suggesting that climatic warming and rising sea-level cause Antarctic ice shelves to retreat , Mercer postulated that the West Antarctic ice sheet , being grounded well below sea-level and terminating in floating ice shelves , was vulnerable to these changes and may have collapsed altogether during the last interglacial when Antarctica may have been warmer and sea-level may have been higher . In 1978 , in the science magazine Nature , Mercer pointed out that `` green-house '' warming from burning fossil fuel could have the same effect during the present interglacial . Two studies published 12 May 2014 confirm Mercer 's assumption . Climate scientist James Hansen has coined the term , `` John Mercer effect . '' After Mercer published his paper suggesting that the West Antarctic ice sheet could collapse in response to warming , he struggled to get funding . Others , including Hansen , had similar problems . Many climate scientists censor their own work to avoid losing funding , especially regarding prospects for limiting warming to 2 ° C above pre-industrial temperatures . John H. Mercer was the third child of Harriet and John W. Mercer . He was educated at private schools in Cheltenham and , later , at Gordonstoun in Scotland . During World War II he served in the British Merchant Marines ( 1940 -- 46 ) as a radio man . After the war he went to University of Cambridge and studied geography . At that time he came under the influence of William Vaughan Lewis . After finishing his B.A. in 1949 Mercer went to Canada , where he received his PhD in geography from McGill University in 1954 . He was a Research Scholar from 1954 to 1956 at the Australian National University in Canberra , where he studied land use and population in western Samoa . He returned to Canada and worked in the Canadian Hydro-graphic Office in Ottawa as a geographer in 1957 and 1958 . During 1959 -- 60 , 1961 -- 62 , 1964 , and 1966 , the American Geographical Society employed him at its World Data Center A for Glaciology in New York . The turning point in his career as a glaciologist was in 1960 , when he became a Research Associate at The Ohio State University , in the Institute of Polar Studies ( renamed the Byrd Polar Research Center ) . He remained at The Ohio State University until his death , becoming its first Senior Research Scientist .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"John_H._Mercer\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 154172\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"History_of_climate_change_science\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 150800\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Neupert effect Content: The Neupert Effect refers to an empirical tendency for high-energy ( ` hard ' ) X-ray emission to coincide temporally with the rate of rise of lower-energy ( ` soft ' ) X-ray emission of a solar flare . Here ` hard ' and ` soft ' mean above and below an energy of about 10 keV to solar physicists , though in non-solar X-ray astronomy one typically sets this boundary at a lower energy . This effect gets its name from NASA solar physicist and spectroscopist Werner Neupert , who first documented a related correlation ( the integral form ) between microwave ( gyrosynchrotron ) and soft X-ray emissions in 1968 . The standard interpretation is that the accumulated energy injection associated with the acceleration of non-thermal electrons ( which produce the hard X-rays via non-thermal bremsstrahlung ) release energy in the lower solar atmosphere ( the chromosphere ) ; this energy then leads to thermal ( soft X-ray ) emission as the chromospheric plasma heats and expands into the corona . The effect is very common , but does not represent an exact relationship and is not observed in all solar flares .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"Neupert_effect\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 145178\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Jim Hansen (Idaho politician) Content: James Duncan `` Jim '' Hansen ( born November 5 , 1959 ) is an American attorney , Ada County Highway District Commissioner and former Democratic politician from Idaho . He was the 2006 Democratic nominee for Congress in Idaho 's 2nd district , but was defeated by four-term incumbent Mike Simpson . Hansen was elected to the Ada County Highway District in 2012 and is serving a four-year term .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"Jim_Hansen_(Idaho_politician)\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 144197\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: James Hansen (politician) Content: James Hansen ( February 17 , 1884 -- May 14 , 1951 ) was a provincial politician from Alberta , Canada . He served as a member of the Legislative Assembly of Alberta from 1935 to 1940 , sitting with the Social Credit caucus in government . He died of heart disease in 1951 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"James_Hansen_(politician)\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 144063\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Siegfried Hansen Content: Siegfried Hansen ( March 29 , 1912-June 28 , 2002 ) was an American electrical engineer and inventor notable for his development of the early Mark I space suit. , a role that earned him appellations of `` Space Suit Father '' and `` Space Suit Pioneer '' . The Mark I was significant for its hard torso and flexible arms , providing constant volume while allowing the occupant to manipulate the external environment . These efforts broke briefly into the mainstream with Hansen 's in-suit appearance on the cover of the December 1957 issue of Look magazine . Hansen was born in San Francisco and educated at the University of Washington in Seattle .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"Siegfried_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 140997\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: James B. Pollack Content: James B. Pollack ( July 9 , 1938 -- June 13 , 1994 ) was an American astrophysicist who worked for NASA 's Ames Research Center . Pollack was born on 9 July 1938 , and was brought up in Woodmere , Long Island by a Jewish family that was in the women 's garment business . He was a high school valedictorian and graduated from Princeton University in 1960 . He then received his master 's in nuclear physics at University of California , Berkeley in 1962 and his Ph.D from Harvard in 1965 , where he was a student of Carl Sagan . He was openly gay . Dorion Sagan told how his father came to the defense of Pollack 's lover in a problem with obtaining treatment at the university health service emergency room . Pollack specialized in atmospheric science , especially the atmospheres of Mars and Venus . He investigated the possibility of terraforming Mars , the extinction of the dinosaurs and the possibility of nuclear winter since the 1980s with Christopher McKay and Sagan . The work of Pollack et al. ( 1996 ) on the formation of giant planets ( `` core accretion paradigm '' ) is seen today as the standard model . He explored the weather on Mars using data from the Mariner 9 spacecraft and the Viking mission . On this he based ground-breaking computer simulations of winds , storms , and the general climate on that planet . An overview of Pollack 's scientific vita is given in the memorial talk `` James B. Pollack : A Pioneer in Stardust to Planetesimals Research '' held at an Astronomical Society of the Pacific 1996 symposium . He was a recipient of the Gerard P. Kuiper Prize in 1989 for outstanding lifetime achievement in the field of planetary science . Pollack died in 1994 from a rare form of spinal cancer , at age 55 . A crater on Mars was named in his honor .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"James_B._Pollack\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 140620\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 139560\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: James L. Green Content: James Lauer Green is an American physicist who received his Ph.D. in Space Physics from the University of Iowa in 1979 and who worked at NASA since then . He began working in the Magnetospheric Physics Branch at NASA 's Marshall Space Flight Center in 1980 . At Marshall , Green developed and managed the Space Physics Analysis Network that provided scientists with access to data . From 1985 to 1992 he was the head of the National Space Science Data Center ( NSSDC ) at Goddard Space Flight Center . The NSSDC is NASA 's largest space science data archive . He was the Chief of the Space Science Data Operations Office from 1992 until 2005 , when he became the Chief of the Science Proposal Support Office . While at Goddard , Green was a co-investigator and the Deputy Project Scientist on the IMAGE mission . He has written over 100 scientific articles in refereed journals involving various aspects of the Earth 's and Jupiter 's magnetospheres and over 50 technical articles on various aspects of data systems and networks . In August 2006 , Green became the Director of the Planetary Science Division at NASA Headquarters . In that role he serves as a spokesman for NASA for planetary missions , for instance announcing the likelihood that there was once flowing water on Mars in September 2015 . Under his leadership at the Planetary Science Division , several missions have been successfully completed or launched , including the New Horizons probe to Pluto , the MESSENGER probe to Mercury , the launch of Juno probe to Jupiter , the launch of Grail A and B to the Moon , the Dawn probe to Vesta , and the landing of the Mars Science Laboratory and Curiosity rover on Mars . In 1988 , he received the Arthur S. Flemming award given for outstanding individual performance in the federal government and was awarded Japan 's Kotani Prize in 1996 in recognition of his international science data management activities . In 2016 , Green was named an Alumni Fellow of the College of Liberal Arts & Sciences ( CLAS ) at the University of Iowa . In a 2015 TED presentation , he offered a survey of the places in our solar system that are most likely to harbor alien life . In 2015 Green was a part of the NASA involvement with the film The Martian . Green , a Civil War Trust member , has written about Civil War ballooning and has spoken at the 150th anniversary of the first tether balloon ascension . He served as an advisor on the Intrepid project , an initiative to construct and fly the world 's first replica of a Civil War manned balloon , and presented a talk for its official first lift-off at the Genesee Country Village & Museum celebration in Mumford , New York on July 4 , 2012 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"James_L._Green\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 139516\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: D. James Baker Content: D. James Baker ( born March 23 , 1937 ) is an American scientist who was trained as a physicist , practiced as an oceanographer , and has held science and management positions in academia , non-profit institutions , and government agencies . He a former Under Secretary of Commerce for Atmosphere and Oceans and Administrator of the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , and currently Director , Global Carbon Measurement Program , William J. Clinton Foundation working with forestry programs in developing countries with the aim of reducing carbon dioxide emissions and at the same time helping alleviate poverty .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"D._James_Baker\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 138894\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: James B. Garvin Content: James B Garvin served as NASA 's Chief Scientist from October 2004 - September 2005 and is known for his foundational work in NASA 's Mars explorational programs . Garvin arrived at the Goddard Space Flight Center since 1984 where he first served as a staff scientist developing remote sensing instrumentation and has been based there or at the nearby NASA headquarters in Washington D.C. since then . His career has spanned disciplines as Earth system science , Mars Exploration , lunar exploration , Venus , asteroids , and the outer planets . He remains co-investigator on NASA 's Mars Global Surveyor , Canada 's Radarsat , and ESA 's Envisat missions . Garvin was born in Poughkeepsie , New York and attended Brown University graduating with a bachelor of science degree in Computer Science in 1978 . He earned his Masters of Science also in Computer Science from Stanford and returned to Brown where he earned his Masters of Science and PhD in planetary geological sciences 1984 . He lives with his wife and two children in Columbia , Maryland .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"James_B._Garvin\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 137145\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: James E. McDonald Content: James Edward McDonald ( May 7 , 1920 -- June 13 , 1971 ) was an American physicist . He is best known for his research regarding UFOs . McDonald was senior physicist at the Institute for Atmospheric Physics and professor in the Department of Meteorology , University of Arizona , Tucson . McDonald campaigned in support of expanding UFO studies during the mid and late 1960s , arguing that UFOs represented an important unsolved mystery which had not been adequately studied by science . He was one of the more prominent figures of his time who argued in favor of the extraterrestrial hypothesis as a plausible , but not completely proved , model of UFO phenomena . McDonald interviewed over 500 UFO witnesses , uncovered many important government UFO documents , and gave important presentations of UFO evidence . He testified before Congress during the UFO hearings of 1968 . McDonald also gave a famous talk called `` Science in Default '' to the American Association for the Advancement of Science ( AAAS ) . It was a summary of the current UFO evidence and a critique of the 1969 Condon Report UFO study .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"James_E._McDonald\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 135411\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Osmund Holm-Hansen Content: Osmund Holm-Hansen ( also known as Oz Holm-Hansen ) is a Norwegian-born American scientist , for whom Mount Holm-Hansen , in Antarctica is named . A plant physiologist by training , from 1962 Holm-Hansen was the head of polar research at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography . Beginning in 1976 , Holm-Hansen conducted extensive field research on microbial populations in McMurdo Sound , the Ross Sea , and other ocean areas south of the Antarctic Convergence .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"Osmund_Holm-Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 134863\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Iris hypothesis Content: The iris hypothesis is a hypothesis proposed by Richard Lindzen et al. in 2001 that suggested increased sea surface temperature in the tropics would result in reduced cirrus clouds and thus more infrared radiation leakage from Earth 's atmosphere . His study of observed changes in cloud coverage and modeled effects on infrared radiation released to space as a result supported the hypothesis . This suggested infrared radiation leakage was hypothesized to be a negative feedback in which an initial warming would result in an overall cooling of the surface . The consensus view is that increased sea surface temperature would result in increased cirrus clouds and reduced infrared radiation leakage and therefore a positive feedback . Other scientists subsequently tested the hypothesis . Some concluded that there was no evidence supporting the hypothesis . Others found evidence suggesting that increased sea surface temperature in the tropics did indeed reduce cirrus clouds but found that the effect was nonetheless a positive feedback rather than the negative feedback that Lindzen had hypothesized . A later 2007 study conducted by Roy Spencer et al. using updated satellite data potentially supported the iris hypothesis . In 2011 , Lindzen published a rebuttal to the main criticisms . In 2015 a paper was published which again suggested the possibility of an `` Iris Effect '' . It also proposed what it called a `` plausible physical mechanism for an iris effect . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"Iris_hypothesis\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 134351\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Fred Singer Content: Siegfried Fred Singer ( born September 27 , 1924 ) is an Austrian-born American physicist and emeritus professor of environmental science at the University of Virginia . Singer trained as an atmospheric physicist and is known for his work in space research , atmospheric pollution , rocket and satellite technology , his questioning of the link between UV-B and melanoma rates , and that between CFCs and stratospheric ozone loss , his public downplaying of the health risks of passive smoking , and as an advocate for climate change denial . He is the author or editor of several books including Global Effects of Environmental Pollution ( 1970 ) , The Ocean in Human Affairs ( 1989 ) , Global Climate Change ( 1989 ) , The Greenhouse Debate Continued ( 1992 ) , and Hot Talk , Cold Science ( 1997 ) . He has also co-authored Unstoppable Global Warming : Every 1,500 Years ( 2007 ) with Dennis Avery , and Climate Change Reconsidered ( 2009 ) with Craig Idso . Singer has had a varied career , serving in the armed forces , government , and academia . He designed mines for the U.S. Navy during World War II , before obtaining his Ph.D. in physics from Princeton University in 1948 and working as a scientific liaison officer in the U.S. Embassy in London . He became a leading figure in early space research , was involved in the development of earth observation satellites , and in 1962 established the National Weather Bureau 's Satellite Service Center . He was the founding dean of the University of Miami School of Environmental and Planetary Sciences in 1964 , and held several government positions , including deputy assistant administrator for the Environmental Protection Agency , and chief scientist for the Department of Transportation . He held a professorship with the University of Virginia from 1971 until 1994 , and with George Mason University until 2000 . In 1990 Singer founded the Science & Environmental Policy Project , and in 2006 was named by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation as one of a minority of scientists said to be creating a stand-off on a consensus on climate change . Singer argues there is no evidence that global warming is attributable to human-caused increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide , and that humanity would benefit if temperatures do rise . He is an opponent of the Kyoto Protocol , and has claimed that climate models are neither based on reality nor evidence . Singer has been accused of rejecting peer-reviewed and independently confirmed scientific evidence in his claims concerning public health and environmental issues .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"Fred_Singer\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 133768\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 133753\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tihomir Novakov Content: Tihomir Novakov , Ph.D known also as Tica Novakov ( March 16 , 1929 -- January 2 , 2015 ) was a Serbian-born American physicist . As a scientist , Novakov is known for his black carbon , air quality , and climate change research . James Hansen dubbed him `` the godfather of black carbon . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"Tihomir_Novakov\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 133706\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: James S. Famiglietti Content: James S. ( Jay ) Famiglietti is the Senior Water Scientist at the NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena , CA and a professor of Earth System Science at the University of California , Irvine . He is a leading expert in global water issues and in raising awareness about the global water crisis and in particular , about global groundwater depletion .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"James_S._Famiglietti\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 133322\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Jim Hansen (Missouri politician) Content: Jim Hansen ( born January 24 , 1947 ) is an American politician . He is a member of the Missouri House of Representatives , having served since 2013 . He is a member of the Republican party .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"Jim_Hansen_(Missouri_politician)\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 133189\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: James Pitts (chemist) Content: James N. Pitts Jr. . ( January 10 , 1921 -- June 19 , 2014 ) was an American chemist and researcher known for his work in the fields of photochemistry and atmospheric chemistry . Pitts was a pioneer in the study of smog and air pollution , especially in Los Angeles County . Pitts co-founded the Statewide Air Pollution Research Center at the University of California , Riverside in 1961 and served as the center 's director from 1970 to 1988 . He authored more than 400 scientific publications and four books on the subjects , especially smog . Pitts ' research formed the basis for California 's air quality laws . According to the chair of the Air Resources Board , Mary Nichols , `` Jim Pitts was probably the single person most responsible for the understanding of what strategies we need to clean up Southern California 's air ... He was able to explain all of this in English to policymakers so that they would be able to accept that it was going to take extensive and difficult actions to control emissions . '' He often invited state and federal officials to his smog chamber at UC Irvine , including Jerry Brown and Ronald Reagan , to demonstrate the effects of smog and air pollution . In a common demonstration , Pitts would fill an Erlenmeyer flask with ozone and then twist a slice of lemon onto the flask . The ensuing chemical reaction , which quickly produced a fog , demonstrated the formation of smog in the atmosphere . Pitts refused funding from industry groups , which increased his center 's credibility . He was the recipient of numerous awards and recognitions from the California State Assembly , the United States Congress , the Coalition for Clean Air , the South Coast Air Quality Management District , and the California state air board . Pitts was born on January 10 , 1921 , in Salt Lake City , Utah , to Esther ( née Bengtson ) and James N. Pitts . The family moved to West Los Angeles when he was just six months old . A high school teacher sparked his interest in chemistry during his junior year . Pitts enrolled as a chemistry student at University of California , Los Angeles ( UCLA ) in 1939 . He left during World War II , joining a group of young scientists who conducted classified chemical warfare field tests . Their work led to the development of more effective gas mask for Allied forces during the war . He returned to UCLA , where he received a bachelor 's degree in chemistry in 1945 and a doctorate in 1949 . Pitts initially worked as a faculty member of Northwestern University . He was at the time married to a woman by the name of Nancy Ann Quirt . James and Nancy had three daughters Linda , Christie and Beckie . Pitts was hired as a founding professor at UC Riverside in 1954 . Pitts married his second wife , UC Irvine chemist and professor Barbara Finlayson-Pitts in 1970 . He followed her to the University of California , Irvine in 1994 , where the two collaborated of research and co-authored books and other publications . James Pitts died of natural causes at his home in Irvine , California , on June 19 , 2014 , at the age of 93 . He was survived by his wife , Barbara Finlayson-Pitts , and three daughters , Linda Lee , Christie Hoffman and Beckie St. George.He was also survived by five grandchildren Kristin Cohn , Brianna Hoffman , Trevin Hoffman , Mallory St George and Ryan Giordano . His great-grandchildren include Brandon , Kyle , Austin and Riley .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"James_Pitts_(chemist)\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 132808\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Charles David Keeling Content: Charles David Keeling ( April 20 , 1928 -- June 20 , 2005 ) was an American scientist whose recording of carbon dioxide at the Mauna Loa Observatory first alerted the world to the possibility of anthropogenic contribution to the `` greenhouse effect '' and global warming . The Keeling Curve measures the progressive buildup of carbon dioxide , a greenhouse gas , in the atmosphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"Charles_David_Keeling\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 132568\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: James A. Krumhansl Content: James Arthur `` Jim '' Krumhansl ( August 2 , 1919 -- May 6 , 2004 ) was an American physicist who specialized in condensed matter physics and materials science . He spent much of his career at Cornell University . He also served as president of the American Physical Society and assistant director for mathematics , physical sciences , and engineering for the National Science Foundation . In 1987 he testified before Congress that the Superconducting Super Collider would be too costly .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"James_A._Krumhansl\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 131201\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: James Van Allen Content: James Alfred Van Allen ( September 7 , 1914August 9 , 2006 ) was an American space scientist at the University of Iowa . He was instrumental in establishing the field of magnetospheric research in space . The Van Allen radiation belts were named after him , following their discovery by his Geiger -- Müller tube instruments on the 1958 satellites : ( Explorer 1 , Explorer 3 , and Pioneer 3 ) during the International Geophysical Year . Van Allen led the scientific community for the inclusion of scientific research instruments on space satellites .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"James_Van_Allen\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 131098\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: James Elsner Content: James Brian Elsner ( born 1959 ) is an American atmospheric scientist , geographer , and applied statistician who has made substantial contributions to understanding of the spatial , temporal , and physical relationships of tropical cyclones and tornadoes , and the influence of climate change . Elsner earned a B.S. ( 1981 ) , M.S. ( 1984 ) , and Ph.D. ( 1988 ) from the University of Wisconsin -- Milwaukee ( UWM ) . He joined the faculty of Florida State University ( FSU ) in 1990 as an assistant professor in the Department of Meteorology and moved to the Department of Geography in 1998 where he has held his current position as the Earl and Sophia Shaw Professor since 2008 . He has been President of Climatek , Inc. , since 2001 . Elsner organized the biannual International Summit on Hurricanes and Climate Change in 2001 and the International Summit on Tornadoes and Climate Change , the first scientific conference on the topic , in 2014 . He is a storm chaser and leads a FSU storm intercept program . He is member of the American Association of Geographers ( AAG ) , the American Geophysical Union ( AGU ) , and the American Meteorological Society ( AMS ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"James_Elsner\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 130775\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: James L. Elliot Content: James Ludlow Elliot ( 17 June 1943 -- 3 March 2011 ) was an American astronomer and scientist who , as part of a team , discovered the rings around the planet Uranus . Elliot was also part of a team that observed global warming on Triton , the largest moon of Neptune . Elliot was born in 1943 in Columbus , Ohio and received his S.B. degree from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology ( MIT ) in 1965 and his Ph.D. degree from Harvard University in 1972 . He held a postdoctoral position in Laboratory for Planetary Studies at Cornell University , and joined the faculty of Cornell 's Astronomy Department in 1977 . After he discovered Uranus 's rings alongside Edward Dunham and Douglas Mink at Cornell , he returned to MIT in 1978 to serve as Professor of Physics , Professor of Earth , Atmospheric , and Planetary Sciences , and Director of the George R. Wallace , Jr. . Astrophysical Observatory until his death on March 3 , 2011 . There is some debate on whether Elliot , et al. discovered the rings of Uranus , or whether William Herschel made an observation in 1797 . However , scientific consensus seems to support Elliot as the discoverer . Elliot is credited by the Minor Planet Center with one minor planet , the trans-Neptunian object , which he co-discovered at CTIO in 2002 . The main-belt asteroid 3193 Elliot , discovered by astronomer Edward Bowell at Anderson Mesa Station in 1983 , was named in his honor .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"James_L._Elliot\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 129943\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: James A. Pawelczyk Content: James Anthony `` Jim '' Pawelczyk ( born September 20 , 1960 ) is an American researcher of physiology and Kinesiology who flew aboard the NASA STS-90 Space Shuttle mission as a Payload Specialist .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"James_A._Pawelczyk\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 129675\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Jimmy Adegoke Content: James O. Adegoke ( born 1963 ) is an award-winning climate scientist and professor at the University of Missouri-Kansas City ( UMKC ) where he served as Chair of the Department of Geosciences ( 2008-2010 ) . He also served as an appointee of the Mayor of Kansas City Missouri on the city 's Environmental Management Commission ( EMC ) and has testified before the South Africa Parliament 's Portfolio Committee on Science and Technology and the Climate Change Committee of the Nigerian House of Representatives . In the United States , he has testified at the United States House of Representatives for the United States House Select Committee on Energy Independence and Global Warming . He also serves on the Technical Advisory Board of several United Nations ( UN ) applied science programs , including the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization ( UNESCO ) project on the application of remote sensing for water resources and ecosystem management in Africa .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"Jimmy_Adegoke\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 129207\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: James Hays Content: James D. Hays is a professor of Earth and environmental sciences at Columbia University 's Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory . Hays founded and led the CLIMAP project , which collected sea floor sediment data to study surface sea temperatures and paleoclimatological conditions 18,000 years ago . Hays is probably best known as a co-author of the 1976 paper in Science , `` Variations in the Earth 's orbit : Pacemaker of the ice ages . '' Using ocean sediment cores , the Science paper verified the theories of Milutin Milanković that oscillations in climate can be correlated with Earth 's orbital variations of eccentricity , axial tilt , and precession around the Sun ( see Milankovitch cycles ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"James_Hays\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 129048\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Julia Butler Hansen Content: Julia Butler Hansen ( June 14 , 1907 -- May 3 , 1988 ) , born Julia Caroline Butler in Portland , Oregon , served as a member of the United States House of Representatives from 1960 -- 1974 . She represented Washington 's Third Congressional District as a Democrat . She was the second woman and first Democratic woman elected to Congress from Washington .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"Julia_Butler_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 129048\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Warming: What You Need to Know Content: Global Warming What You Need to Know is a 2006 global warming ( climate change ) documentary , directed by Nicolas Brown , starring Tom Brokaw , James Hansen , Michael Oppenheimer , and Mark Serreze . The film focuses on impacts from climate change , and Tom Brokaw interviews scientists . The documentary premiered on Discovery Channel , 16 July 2006 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Warming:_What_You_Need_to_Know\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 128277\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: James C. Fletcher Content: James Chipman Fletcher ( June 5 , 1919 -- December 22 , 1991 ) served as the 4th and 7th Administrator of NASA , first from April 27 , 1971 to May 1 , 1977 , under President Richard M. Nixon , and again from May 12 , 1986 to April 8 , 1989 , under President Ronald Reagan . As such , he was responsible for the early planning of the Space Shuttle program , and later for its recovery and return to flight after the Space Shuttle Challenger accident . Prior to this , he was president of the University of Utah from 1964 to 1971 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"James_C._Fletcher\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 127676\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Brookings Report Content: Proposed Studies on the Implications of Peaceful Space Activities for Human Affairs , often referred to as `` the Brookings Report '' , was a 1960 report commissioned by NASA and created by the Brookings Institution in collaboration with NASA 's Committee on Long-Range Studies . It was submitted to the House Committee on Science and Astronautics of the United States House of Representatives in the 87th United States Congress on April 18 , 1961 . It was entered into the Congressional Record and can be found in any library possessing the Congressional Record for that year .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"Brookings_Report\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 127551\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Jack James (rocket engineer) Content: Jack N. James ( November 22 , 1920 -- August 7 , 2001 ) was a US rocket engineer who worked for over 35 years at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory , Pasadena , California , USA . His work as a Project Manager for NASA 's Mariner program in the 1960s included the first planetary flyby ( of Venus ) and first photographs by a space probe of Mars . He received commendations for his work from several US Presidents , and his awards include the NASA Exceptional Scientific Achievement Medal ( 1965 ) and the Stuart Ballantine Medal ( 1967 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"Jack_James_(rocket_engineer)\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 127208\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Nils Roll-Hansen Content: Nils Roll-Hansen ( born 1938 ) is a historian and philosopher of 19th and 20th century biology at University of Oslo . He is the author of four books and many academic articles . His book `` The Lysenko Effect '' was praised in Nature . He is a member of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"Nils_Roll-Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 126973\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: William J. Borucki Content: William J. ( Bill ) Borucki ( born 1939 ) is a space scientist who worked at the NASA Ames Research Center . Upon joining NASA in 1962 , Borucki designed the heat shields for Apollo program spacecraft . He later turned his attention to the optical efficiency of lightning strikes in the atmospheres of planets , investigating the propensity that these lightning strikes could create molecules that would later become the precursors for life . Subsequently , Borucki 's attention turned to extrasolar planets and their detection , particularly through the transit method . In light of this work , Borucki was named the principal investigator for NASA 's Kepler mission , launched on March 6 , 2009 and dedicated to a transit-based search for habitable planets . In 2013 , Borucki was awarded the United States National Academy of Sciences 's Henry Draper Medal for his work with Kepler . In 2015 he received the Shaw Prize in Astronomy .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"William_J._Borucki\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 126843\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: W. W. Hansen Content: William Webster Hansen ( May 27 , 1909 -- May 23 , 1949 ) was an American physicist and professor . He was one of the founders of the technology of microwave electronics .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"W._W._Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 126681\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: James N. Hallock Content: James Nelson Hallock ( born January 23 , 1941 ) is an American physicist . He has contributed to NASA 's Gemini and Apollo missions and served on the Columbia Accident Investigation Board . He is a leading scientist in wake vortices , and co-authored two patents and over 150 papers . Hallock was born in Yonkers , New York , and earned his bachelor 's degree in 1963 , masters degree in 1969 , and Ph.D in 1972 from Massachusetts Institute of Technology . He has retired from the Department of Transportation as a Senior Scientist , Air and Space Transportation Safety at the Volpe National Transportation Systems Center in Cambridge , Massachusetts . Hallock 's career began as a graduate student , working for the MIT Instrumentation Lab ( in the Apollo Optics Group ) in 1963 . During this time he gathered information on Earth landmarks to be used by guidance systems on the Apollo and Gemini space missions . He continued research with NASA 's Electronic Research Center until 1970 . In 1970 he left the Research Center to work at the Department of Transportation 's Volpe Center . Here he began his lifelong work on wake vortices . In 1986 he was promoted to Division Manager of the Aviation Safety Division , and held that post until 2006 . At that time the Secretary of Transportation promoted him to Senior Scientist . Most recently , in 2003 , he was selected to sit on the Columbia Accident Investigation Board . Here his expertise was used in determining the final reports and causes of that fateful disaster . Hallock resides in Waltham , Massachusetts , with his wife Georgie and two cats . He has two sons , Alexander and Theodore .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"James_N._Hallock\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 126627\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Duncan Wingham Content: Duncan John Wingham ( born 12 October 1957 ) is a British physicist who is Professor of Climate Physics at University College London , and was the first Director of the Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling . He is chief executive of the Natural Environment Research Council and Principal Scientist for the CryoSat Satellite Mission . In the 1990s , Wingham was involved in a four-year satellite study of the Antarctic ice sheet . His conclusion then , and from later research , is that the Antarctic has contributed little to observed rising sea levels in the 20th century . However , he has also stated that `` it is possible that the consequences of global warming on sea level rise have been underestimated ... Other sources of rise must be underestimated . In particular it is possible that the effect of global warming on thermal expansion -LSB- on the oceans -RSB- is larger than we thought '' . In a 2005 interview Wingham stated '' -LSB- t -RSB- he Antarctic is to some extent insulated from global warming because to its north are zonal flows in the atmosphere and ocean , unimpeded by other landmasses ... I am not denying global warming . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"Duncan_Wingham\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 126500\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference) Content: In 2005, an international conference titled Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and global warming and its effects. The conference name was derived from Article 2 of the charter for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The conference explored the possible impacts at different levels of greenhouse gas emissions and how the climate might be stabilized at a desired level. The conference took place under the United Kingdom's presidency of the G8, with the participation of around 200 \\\"internationally renowned\\\" scientists from 30 countries. It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter, from 1 February to 3 February. The conference was one of many meetings leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, at which the international community agreed to limit global warming to no more than 2C in order to have a 50-50 chance of avoiding dangerous climate change. However, a 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting it is below the 2 degree temperature target.\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change_(2005_conference)\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 126251\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Guy Stewart Callendar Content: Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"Guy_Stewart_Callendar\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 126119\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Valda Hansen Content: Valda Joanne Hansen ( November 3 , 1932 -- July 21 , 1993 ) was an American actress , known for her performances in a number of B-movies in the 1950s and 1970s . Her most famous role was that of the White Ghost in Ed Wood 's Night of the Ghouls ( 1959 ) . She had previously played a stripper in Strips Around the World ( 1955 ) . She returned to the screen in the 1970s and appeared in movies such as Cain 's Cutthroats ( 1971 ) , Slaughter 's Big Rip-Off ( 1973 ) and Wham ! Bam ! Thank You , Spaceman ! ( 1975 , in which she was credited as `` Zelda '' ) . She also appeared in a 1990s documentary about the filmmaker Ed Wood . Hansen retired from acting around 1975 , and died in Hollywood on July 21 , 1993 , aged 60 , from cancer .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"Valda_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 125982\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Jeremy Hansen Content: Jeremy Roger Hansen , CD ( born January 27 , 1976 ) is a Canadian astronaut with the Canadian Space Agency ( CSA ) . He was selected to join the CSA in the 2009 CSA selection along with David Saint-Jacques . Prior to his selection as one of Canada 's newest astronauts , Hansen held the rank of Captain in the Royal Canadian Air Force , piloting the CF-18 fighter plane from deployment at CFB Cold Lake , Alberta . He has since been promoted to the rank of Lieutenant-colonel .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"Jeremy_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 125957\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Francis Everitt Content: C. W. Francis Everitt is a US-based English physicist working on experimental testing of general relativity . Everitt was educated at Imperial College London and the University of Pennsylvania in low-temperature physics . He is Professor at the Hansen Experimental Physics Laboratory of Stanford University and is also an Associate Member of the Kavli Institute for Particle Astrophysics and Cosmology ( KIPAC ) . Everitt is Principal Investigator of the Gravity Probe B mission mainly aimed to test frame-dragging at an expected accuracy of 1 % . According to general relativity , it is an effect induced by the rotation of the Earth on orbiting gyroscopes . Everitt spent more than 40 years on the project and was awarded with the NASA Distinguished Public Service Medal . The results were published in Physical Review Letters in May 2011 . The results confirm general relativity 's predictions , though not to the project 's ambitious goal of 1 % precision .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"Francis_Everitt\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 125603\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Svante Arrhenius Content: Svante August Arrhenius ( 19 February 1859 -- 2 October 1927 ) was a Nobel-Prize winning Swedish scientist , originally a physicist , but often referred to as a chemist , and one of the founders of the science of physical chemistry . He received the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1903 , becoming the first Swedish Nobel laureate , and in 1905 became director of the Nobel Institute where he remained until his death . His lasting contributions to science are exemplified and memorialized by the Arrhenius equation , Arrhenius definition of an acid , lunar crater Arrhenius , the mountain of Arrheniusfjellet and the Arrhenius Labs at Stockholm University , all named after him . He was the first to use basic principles of physical chemistry to calculate estimates of the extent to which increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide increase Earth 's surface temperature through the Arrhenius effect , leading Keeling to conclude that human-caused carbon dioxide emissions are large enough to cause global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"Svante_Arrhenius\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 125531\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mount Holm-Hansen Content: Mount Holm-Hansen is a prominent mountain rising to 1,920 m between the lower David Valley and Bartley Glacier in the Asgard Range of Victoria Land , Antarctica . Bifrost Ledge is a flat benchlike feature that rises to 1,750 metres ( 5,740 ft ) on the north side of Mount Holm-Hansen . It was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names in 1997 after Osmund Holm-Hansen , a plant physiologist , who , working in the 1959 -- 60 season , was one of the first American scientists to visit and conduct research in both Taylor Valley and Wright Valley . Holm-Hansen was a Research Biologist at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography from 1962 , and his extensive field research from 1976 includes studies of microbial populations in McMurdo Sound , the Ross Sea , and other ocean areas south of the Antarctic Convergence .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"Mount_Holm-Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 125296\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Godfrey Louis Content: Godfrey Louis is a solid-state physicist from India . His hypotheses about the `` red rain '' phenomenon in Kerala have attracted controversy . In April 2008 , he published a paper in which he hypothesised that samples of particles from the `` blood-coloured '' rain that fell in his state of Kerala , India in the summer of 2001 were the result of a comet disintegrating in the upper atmosphere which comprised mainly microbes from outer space . The paper drew much media interest . Other scientists disagreed early on with Louis ' hypothesis regarding the red rain 's origin . An earlier ( 2001 ) study by the Centre for Earth Science Studies , Kerala , India , reported that the red rain was the result of spores from local algae . Since October 2006 Louis has been at Department of Physics , Cochin University of Science and Technology ( CUSAT ) in Kochi , Kerala . In August 2010 Louis and his collaborators presented a paper at the SPIE astrobiology conference held in San Diego , USA , claiming that the red rain cells develop internal daughter cells and multiply when exposed to extreme temperature of 121 ° C in an autoclave for two hours , and that the fluorescent behavior of the red cells is similar to the extended red emission observed in the Red Rectangle nebula . In August 2012 , the Epoch Times newspaper carried comments from Louis concerning another outbreak of red rain in Kannur on 28 June 2012\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"Godfrey_Louis\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 125255\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Gerald North Content: Gerald R. North ( June 26 , 1938 -- ) is Distinguished Professor and Holder of the Harold J. Haynes Endowed Chair in Geosciences at Texas A&M University , and previous Head of the Department of Atmospheric Sciences . His interests include climate change using simplified climate models . North was born in Sweetwater , Tennessee to Sanford and Marjorie Hill North . He grew up in nearby Knoxville and received his Bachelor 's Degree in physics from the University of Tennessee . In 1966 , he earned a Ph.D. in Physics from the University of Wisconsin -- Madison . After a two year post-doc at the University of Pennsylvania , he obtained a tenure track position at the University of Missouri-St . Louis leading to full professor . He spent 1974 -- 75 as a Senior Visiting Scientist at the National Center for Atmospheric Research . He moved to NASA Goddard Space Flight Center in 1978 where he was the initial proposer and first Study Scientist for the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission . He joined Texas A&M University in 1986 . In 2005 to 2006 he chaired a United States National Research Council committee investigating surface temperature reconstructions for the last 2,000 years , set up at the request of Representative Sherwood Boehlert , chairman of the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Science . Their report , published in July 2006 , is known as the North Report . He is the 2008 recipient of the Jule Charney Award of the American Meteorological Society . His sons , Joel North and Paul North , play in the Denton , Texas based indie band Sleep Whale on Western Vinyl records . He currently lives in Bryan , Texas with his wife Laura .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"Gerald_North\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 125190\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: GROVER Content: GROVER or Goddard Remotely Operated Vehicle for Exploration and Research is an Earth-bound autonomous student-designed rover developed by the Goddard Space Flight Center . With this solar-powered rover , scientists hope to get cheaper data about the Greenland ice sheet that lies in a rapidly warming region . The test drive started in Summit Camp in Greenland on a three kilometer thick ice sheet , which is the highest spot on the largest island of the World . The science team is led by the glaciologist Lora Koenig from NASA 's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt , Md. . The test began on 3 May 2013 at temperatures as low as -30 ° C and is planned to continue till 8 June 2013 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"GROVER\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 124826\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Code Red Content: Climate Code Red : The Case for Emergency Action is a 2008 book which presents scientific evidence that the global warming crisis is worse than official reports and national governments have so far indicated . The book argues that we are facing a `` sustainability emergency '' that requires a clear break from business-as-usual politics . The authors explain that emergency action to address climate change is not so much a radical idea as an indispensable course we must embark upon . Climate Code Red draws heavily on the work of a large number of climate scientists , including James E. Hansen . The key themes of Climate Code Red are : `` Our goal is a safe-climate future -- we have no right to bargain away species or human lives . '' `` We are facing rapid warming impacts : the danger is immediate , not just in the future . '' `` For a safe climate future , we must take action now to stop emissions and to cool the earth . '' `` Plan a large-scale transition to a post-carbon economy and society . '' `` Recognise a climate and sustainability emergency , because we need to move at a pace far beyond business and politics as usual '' . Co-author David Spratt is a Melbourne businessman , climate-policy analyst , and co-founder of the Carbon Equity network . Co-author Philip Sutton is convener of the Greenleap Strategic Institute and Assistant Convenor of the Climate Emergency Network . The book was launched by the Governor of Victoria , Professor David de Kretser in Parliament House in Melbourne , Victoria , on July 17 , 2008 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Code_Red\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 124477\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Per Brinch Hansen Content: Per Brinch Hansen ( November 13 , 1938 -- July 31 , 2007 ) was a Danish-American computer scientist known for his work in operating systems , concurrent programming and parallel and distributed computing .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"Per_Brinch_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 124301\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Gilbert Plass Content: Gilbert Norman Plass ( 22 March 1920 -- 1 March 2004 ) was a Canadian physicist who in the 1950s made predictions about the increase in global atmospheric carbon dioxide levels in the 20th century and its effect on the average temperature of the planet that closely match measurements reported half a century later . Plass worked most of his life as a physicist in the United States . He graduated from Harvard University in 1941 and earned a PhD in physics from Princeton University in 1947 . He worked as an associate physicist at the Metallurgical Laboratory ( Manhattan District ) of the University of Chicago from 1942 to 1945 . He became an instructor of physics at Johns Hopkins University in 1946 , and eventually became an associate professor there . In 1955 , leaving academia , he held a job for a year as a staff scientist with Lockheed Aircraft Corporation . He then joined the advanced research staff at the Aeronutronic division of the Ford Motor Company . In 1960 , he became manager of the research lab at Ford 's theoretical physics department and a consulting editor of the journal Infrared Physics ( now called Infrared Physics and Technology ) . In 1963 , he accepted a position as the first professor of atmospheric and space science at the Southwest Center for Advanced Studies ( now the University of Texas at Arlington ) , where he remained for five years . In 1968 , he arrived at Texas A&M University , where he served as professor of physics and head of the department .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"Gilbert_Plass\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 124263\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Weatherport hut Content: Weatherport huts are portable and relatively easy to assemble metal-framed , fabric-covered structures that are somewhat similar to the quonset-style Jamesway hut of the early 1940s . Weatherport huts were originally developed by Clayton H. `` Sweede '' Hansen in Gunnison , Colorado in 1968 . Hansen wanted a durable structure that could protect his vehicles from the harsh Colorado winters . Dissatisfied with the available products on the market at the time , Hansen decided to create his own design . The shelter worked better than other products on the market and a family business was born .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"Weatherport_hut\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 124194\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: John D. Strong Content: John Donovan Strong was a professor of Physics and Astronomy from 1967 to 1975 and served as the head of the laboratory of astrophysics and physical meteorology . Strong , one of the world 's foremost optical scientists , was known for being the first to detect water vapor in the atmosphere of Venus and for developing a number of innovations in optical devices , ranging from improved telescope mirrors to anti-reflective coatings for optical elements and diffraction gratings . Born in Lawrence , Kansas in 1905 , Strong received degrees from the University of Kansas ( BA 1926 ) and the University of Michigan ( M.S. , 1928 , Ph.D. , 1930 ) . After twelve years at Caltech and wartime research at Harvard on infrared systems , Strong became professor and director of the Astrophysics and Physical Meteorology Laboratories at Johns Hopkins University in 1946 , where , among many other projects , he conducted research on balloon astronomy for the Office of Naval Research ( ONR ) . Strong published hundreds of papers throughout his career and was author of Procedures in Experimental Physics , a standard physics textbook for many years . Strong served as president of the American Optical Association in 1959 and patented numerous inventions for optics in spectroscopy as well as golf ( see US Patent no. 3720467 ) . Strong died in 1992 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"John_D._Strong\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 123968\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: James F. Woodward Content: James F. Woodward is a professor emeritus of history and an adjunct professor of physics at California State University , Fullerton . He is best known for a physics hypothesis proposed in 1990 , later expanded , that predicts a series of physical effects that he refers to as Mach effects but others refer to as the Woodward effect . Woodward claims the effect could be used as a reactionless drive in to space travel .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"James_F._Woodward\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 123777\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: George V. Hansen Content: George Vernon Hansen ( September 14 , 1930 -- August 14 , 2014 ) was a Republican politician from the state of Idaho . He served in the U.S. House of Representatives for 14 years , representing Idaho 's 2nd district from 1965 to 1969 and again from 1975 to 1985 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"George_V._Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 123471\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"Media_coverage_of_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 123328\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment Content: The Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment ( SORCE ) is a NASA-sponsored satellite mission that measures incoming X-ray , ultraviolet , visible , near-infrared , and total solar radiation . These measurements specifically address long-term climate change , natural variability and enhanced climate prediction , and atmospheric ozone and UV-B radiation . These measurements are critical to studies of the Sun , its effect on our Earth system and its influence on humankind . The SORCE spacecraft launched on January 25 , 2003 on a Pegasus XL launch vehicle to provide NASA 's Earth Science Enterprise ( ESE ) with precise measurements of solar radiation . SORCE measures the Sun 's output using radiometers , spectrometers , photodiodes , detectors , and bolometers mounted on a satellite observatory . The SORCE satellite orbits the Earth accumulating solar data . Spectral measurements identify the irradiance of the Sun by characterizing the Sun 's energy and emissions in the form of color that can then be translated into quantities and elements of matter . Data obtained by the SORCE experiment can be used to model the Sun 's output and to explain and predict the effect of the Sun 's radiation on the Earth 's atmosphere and climate . Flying in a 645 km , 40 degree orbit , SORCE is operated by the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics ( LASP ) at the University of Colorado at Boulder , Colorado . It will continue the precise measurements of total solar irradiance that began with the ERB instrument in 1979 and has continued to the present with the ACRIM series of measurements . SORCE will also provide the measurements of the solar spectral irradiance from 1 nm to 2000 nm , accounting for 95 % of the spectral contribution to the total solar irradiance . SORCE carries four instruments including the Total Irradiance Monitor ( TIM ) , Solar Stellar Irradiance Comparison Experiment ( SOLSTICE ) , Spectral Irradiance Monitor ( SIM ) , and the XUV Photometer System ( XPS ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"Solar_Radiation_and_Climate_Experiment\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 123044\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: James Strong (U.S. politician) Content: James Strong ( October 6 , 1783 -- August 8 , 1847 ) was a United States Representative from New York .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"James_Strong_(U.S._politician)\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 122992\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mary Hansen Content: Mary Therese Hansen ( 1 November 1966 9 December 2002 ) was an Australian-born guitarist and singer . She was a member of United Kingdom-based alternative music group Stereolab from 1992 . As a member of that band , Hansen recorded six studio albums from Transient Random-Noise Bursts with Announcements ( August 1993 ) to Sound-Dust ( August 2001 ) . As a side-project , in late 1999 she formed the space rock group Schema with members of Seattle-based band Hovercraft , and they issued their debut album , Schema , on 19 September 2000 . On 9 December 2002 a truck hit and killed Hansen while she was bicycling in London . She was 36 years old .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"Mary_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 122891\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pål Brekke Content: Pål Brekke ( born 23 May 1961 ) in Oslo , Norway ) is a Norwegian solar physicist astrophysicist who received his Cand Mag . degree in astrophysics from University of Oslo in 1985 and PhD , from University of Oslo in 1992 . His thesis focused on the ultraviolet ( UV ) emissions from the Sun observed with instruments on sounding rockets and the space shuttle Challenger . His work focused on dynamical aspects of the Sun and measuring variations in solar UV radiation . Since 1993 he participated in the Norwegian involvement 's in preparing the EUV spectrometers CDS and SUMER on Solar and Heliospheric Observatory ( SOHO ) and was in charge of developing analysis software for CDS . After the launch of SOHO in December 1995 he was part of the science operation team at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center . In 1999 he joined the European Space Agency ( ESA ) as the SOHO Deputy Project Scientist stationed at NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center . He was also in charge of outreach and media activities , making SOHO to one of the most well known current satellite projects . He is now a Senior Advisor at the Norwegian Space Centre . He is a Norwegian delegate to the ESA Science Programme Committee ( SPC ) , Programme Board of Human Spaceflight , Microgravity and Exploration ( HEM ) and Situational Awareness ( SSA ) . He is also a delegate to the International Living With a Star ( ILWS ) . Served on several NASA Review Panels and as referee for various scientific journals . Professional publications : Refereed Journals -- 42 , Proceedings -- 69 , Popular Science -- 22 . Numerous appearances in national and international news-networks ( CNN , USA Today , Der Spiegel , BBC etc. ) . International recognized lecturer on the Sun , The Sun Earth connection and the Northern Lights . He has published several popular science books : Den store boken om astronomi Sola -- Vår livgivende stjerne Our Explosive Sun 2013 : Nordlyset -- en guide '' ( Forlaget Press ) . Historien om Nordlyset og en guide til hvordan oppleve og ta bilder av Nordlyset . 2013 : The Northern Lights -- a Guide '' ( Forlaget Press ) . 2013 : Il Sole '' ( Edizioni Dedalo ) . Italien version of `` Our Explosive Sun '' . 2013 : Le Soleil , notre étoile '' ( CNRS Editions ) . French version of `` Our Explosive Sun '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"Pål_Brekke\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 122552\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ehrenfest–Tolman effect Content: The Ehrenfest -- Tolman effect ( also known as the Tolman -- Ehrenfest effect ) , created by Richard C. Tolman and Paul Ehrenfest , argues that temperature is not constant in space at thermal equilibrium , but varies with the spacetime curvature . Specifically , it depends on the spacetime metric . In a stationary spacetime with timelike Killing vector field , the temperature satisfies instead the Tolman-Ehrenfest relation : , where is the norm of the timelike Killing vector field . This relationship leads to the concept of thermal time which has been considered as a possible basis for a fully general-relativistic thermodynamics . It has been shown that the Tolman -- Ehrenfest effect can be derived by applying the equivalence principle to the concept that temperature is the rate of thermal time with respect to proper time .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"Ehrenfest–Tolman_effect\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 122514\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Space Environment Simulation Laboratory Content: The Space Environment Simulation Laboratory ( SESL ) in Building 32 at the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center was built in 1965 . It initially was used to test Apollo Program spacecraft and equipment in a space environment . It can simulate the vacuum and thermal environments that would be encountered . It consists of two human-rated chambers : A ( larger ) and B. Chamber A is equipped with a gaseous helium shroud capable of reaching temperatures of -439.9 Fahrenheit ( -262.1 Celsius or 11 Kelvin , ) and is currently being used to test the James Webb Space Telescope .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"Space_Environment_Simulation_Laboratory\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 122042\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bev Hansen Content: Beverly K. `` Bev '' Hansen ( born August 18 , 1944 in Oroville , California ) is an American politician from California and a member of the Republican Party . A former staffer to onetime state Senator Jim Nielsen , Hansen was first elected to the California State Assembly in 1986 from the 8th District , representing Lake and Napa counties and parts of Sonoma and Yolo counties . A moderate , she won easily in 1988 and 1990 , but opted not to seek reelection in 1992 . This was mainly because her district had been redrawn after the 1991 reapportionment and had become decidedly more Democratic , making it a longshot for any Republican . She spent most of 1992 campaigning with and for fellow GOP Assemblyman Bill Filante , who had fallen ill during his run for congress . Had Filante won and been unable to serve , Hansen was mentioned as a possible candidate to replace him . This did not happen as Filante eventually lost to Democrat Lynn Woolsey and died shortly after the election . Hansen did , however , run for the California State Senate in a 1993 special election for the 4th district left vacant when Democratic incumbent Mike Thompson won election to the neighboring 2nd district ( where his home wound up after reapportionment ) . She lost the GOP primary to then Shasta county supervisor Maurice Johannessen by a wide margin . Hansen is currently a lobbyist for Lang , Hansen O'Malley , and Miller Governmental Relations .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"Bev_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 121950\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: W. James Adams Content: W. James ( Jim ) Adams served as the Deputy Chief Technologist at NASA in the Office of the Chief Technologist ( OCT ) from 2012 until retiring from NASA in 2016 . NASA 's OCT is responsible for direct management of NASA 's space technology programs and for coordination and tracking of all technology investments across the agency .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"W._James_Adams\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 121869\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mars Radiation Environment Experiment Content: The Martian Radiation Experiment , or MARIE was designed to measure the radiation environment of Mars using an energetic particle spectrometer as part of the science mission of the 2001 Mars Odyssey spacecraft ( launched on April 7 , 2001 ) . It was led by NASA 's Johnson Space Center and the science investigation was designed to characterize aspects of the radiation environment both on the way to Mars and while it was in the Martian orbit . Since space radiation presents an extreme hazard to crews of interplanetary missions the experiment was an attempt to predict anticipated radiation doses that would be experienced by future astronauts and it helped determine possible effects of Martian radiation on human beings . Space radiation comes from cosmic rays emitted by our local star , the Sun , and from stars beyond the Solar System as well . Space radiation can trigger cancer and cause damage to the central nervous system . Similar instruments are flown on the Space Shuttles and on the International Space Station ( ISS ) , but none have ever flown outside Earth 's protective magnetosphere , which blocks much of this radiation from reaching the surface of our planet . Ironically , in the Autumn of 2003 after a series of particularly strong solar flares MARIE started malfunctioning , probably as a result of being exposed to the solar flare 's intense blast of particle radiation . The instrument was never restored to working order .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"Mars_Radiation_Environment_Experiment\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 121620\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Charles Hanses Content: Charles Hanses Hansen ( c. 1659 -- c. 1697 ) was a Member of Parliament for Winchester from 1685 to 1689 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"Charles_Hanses\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 121529\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Falconer (Hansen) Content: The Falconer is a bronze sculpture by James Lee Hansen . Dates for the abstract piece range from the 1960s to 1973 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Falconer_(Hansen)\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 121348\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Holm Hansen Munthe Content: Holm Hansen Munthe ( 1 January 1848 -- 23 May 1898 ) was a Norwegian architect . He was a leading representative of dragon style architecture ( Drakestil ) during the 1880s and 1890s . Holm Hansen Munthe was born at Stange in Hedmark , Norway . He was the son of Adolph Frederik Munthe ( 1817 -- 1884 ) and Karen Emilie Hansen ( 1820 -- 1884 ) . He father was a military officer and government official . In the early 1870s , he was an apprentice in Christiania and a student at the drawing school of Wilhelm von Hanno . He graduated from Hanover Polytechnikum in 1877 . Between 1878 and 1885 he cooperated with Henrik Nissen . From 1889 he worked for the Holmenkol-Voxenkol-Selskabet , among others drawing the well-known Frognerseteren restaurant in the so-called dragon style . Emperor Wilhelm II of Germany , vacationing in Norway , noticed these buildings and commissioned the erection of his Rominten Hunting Lodge in East Prussia ; however these buildings were largely destroyed after World War II , remnants of the Lodge are used as the seat of the administration at the Kaliningrad Central Park . The Kongsnæs ' sailors station in Potsdam was partially destroyed in 1945 . Currently it is planned to re-erect the complete complex . In 1898 Munthe was appointed city architect in Kristiania , but he died before actually assuming office . he was buried at Vår Frelsers gravlund in Oslo .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"Holm_Hansen_Munthe\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 121050\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Talos No. 2 Content: Talos No. 2 is an outdoor 1959 -- 1977 bronze sculpture by American artist James Lee Hansen , located on the Transit Mall of downtown Portland , Oregon , in the United States .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"Talos_No._2\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 120947\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Orval H. Hansen Content: Orval Howard Hansen ( born August 3 , 1926 ) is a former congressman from Idaho . He served three terms as a Republican in the House from 1969 to 1975 , representing the state 's 2nd district .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"Orval_H._Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 120936\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: James Westphal Content: James Adolph Westphal ( June 13 , 1930 -- September 8 , 2004 ) was an American academic , scientist , engineer , inventor and astronomer and Director of Caltech 's Palomar Observatory from 1994 through 1997 . His participation played an important role in designing the main camera for the Hubble Space Telescope .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"James_Westphal\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 120893\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Alice Just Harding Content: Alice Just Harding from the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center , was awarded the status of Fellow in the American Physical Society , after they were nominated by their Division of Astrophysics in 1991 , for pioneering investigation of the theory of pulsar atmospheres , including the pulsar wind and its role in accelerating particles to high energies , and for contributions to the theory of basic electromagnetic interactions in the presence of super-strong magnetic fields .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"Alice_Just_Harding\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 120638\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Gerhard Armauer Hansen Content: Gerhard Henrik Armauer Hansen ( 29 July 1841 -- 12 February 1912 ) was a Norwegian physician , remembered for his identification of the bacterium Mycobacterium leprae in 1873 as the causative agent of leprosy .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"Gerhard_Armauer_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 120577\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: James R. Kass Content: James R. Kass is a Canadian physicist engaged in the field of human spaceflight .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"James_R._Kass\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 120065\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Jim Blinn Content: James F. Blinn ( born 1949 ) is an American computer scientist who first became widely known for his work as a computer graphics expert at NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory ( JPL ) , particularly his work on the pre-encounter animations for the Voyager project , his work on the Carl Sagan documentary series Cosmos , and the research of the Blinn -- Phong shading model .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"Jim_Blinn\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 120028\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Richard A. Anthes Content: Richard A. Anthes ( born March 9 , 1944 ) was a long time president of the University Corporation for Atmospheric Research ( from 1988 to 2012 ) . The Anthes Building in Boulder , Colorado , is the first UCAR-owned building to be named for an eminent scientist -- and a living one at that . '' His area of study at the University of Wisconsin , Madison , focused on hurricanes and tropical cyclones . Dr. Anthes taught as a professor for ten years at Pennsylvania State University before accepting a position at the National Center for Atmospheric Research as director of the Atmospheric and Prediction Division in 1981 , a position he kept until 1986 when he became director of NCAR . In 1988 , he started working as president of UCAR , and retired from that position n 2012 . During his presidency at UCAR , he participated or chaired over forty different national committees for agencies such as NASA , NSF , and NOAA . He also established a program aimed at increasing participation ( especially of minority professionals ) in the atmospheric sciences called SOARS ( Significant Opportunities in Atmospheric Research and Science ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"Richard_A._Anthes\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 120025\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Niels Ebbesen Hansen Content: Niels Ebbesen Hansen ( January 4 , 1866 -- October 5 , 1950 ) was a Danish-American horticulturist and botanist who was a pioneer in plant breeding .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"Niels_Ebbesen_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 119926\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Frank Hansen (politician) Content: Frank Delmar ( Tub ) Hansen ( December 27 , 1913 -- December 29 , 1991 ) was an American politician in the state of Washington . He served in the Washington House of Representatives from 1973 to 1979 for district 13 , and in the Senate from 1979 to his death in 1991 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"Frank_Hansen_(politician)\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 119865\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: James E. Webb Content: James Edwin Webb ( October 7 , 1906 -- March 27 , 1992 ) was an American government official who served as the second administrator of NASA from February 14 , 1961 to October 7 , 1968 . Webb oversaw NASA from the beginning of the Kennedy administration through the end of the Johnson administration , thus overseeing all the critical first manned launches in the Mercury through Gemini programs , until just before the first manned Apollo flight . He also dealt with the Apollo 1 fire . In 2002 , a planned space telescope , originally called the Next Generation Space Telescope ( NGST ) , was renamed the James Webb Space Telescope as a tribute to Webb .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"James_E._Webb\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 119561\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: James R. Holton Content: James Reed Holton ( 1938 -- 2004 ) was a professor of atmospheric sciences at the University of Washington . He was a known expert on atmospheric dynamics , and the author of the widely used atmospheric science textbook `` An Introduction to Dynamic Meteorology '' . He was at the University of Washington for 38 years , and awarded every major award in the atmospheric sciences . He was also a member of the National Academy of Sciences . The American Geophysical Union has now named an award after him , named the James R. Holton award ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"James_R._Holton\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 119429\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Edmund H. Hansen Content: Edmund H. Hansen ( November 13 , 1894 -- October 10 , 1962 ) was an American sound engineer . He won two Academy Awards ; one for Best Sound Recording and the other Best Visual Effects . He was nominated for another 12 films across the two categories .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"Edmund_H._Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 119373\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Owen Toon Content: Owen Brian Toon ( born May 26 , 1947 in Bethesda , Maryland ) is a professor of atmospheric and oceanic sciences . He is a fellow at the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics ( LASP ) at the University of Colorado Boulder . He received an A.B. in physics at the University of California , Berkeley in 1969 and a Ph.D. in physics at Cornell University in 1975 under Carl Sagan . His research interests are in cloud physics , atmospheric chemistry , and radiative transfer . He also works on comparing Earth and other planets such as Venus . His research on the asteroid impact that killed the dinosaurs led to the discovery of nuclear winter due to the major decrease in temperature . The effects of nuclear winter were re-examined in a 2006 presentation at the annual meeting of the American Geophysical Union in San Francisco , where Toon and colleagues found that even a regional nuclear war could prove deadly for a large number of people . They calculated that as few as fifty detonations of Hiroshima-size bombs could kill as many as twenty million people , although it would not produce a nuclear winter . The atmospheric effects of a regional nuclear war would last several years , and would be strongest at mid-latitudes , including the United States and Europe . He was elected a fellow of the American Meteorological Society in 1990 , and a fellow of the American Geophysical Union in 1992 . He received the 2011 Roger Revelle Medal from the American Geophysical Union .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"Owen_Toon\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 119242\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: James F. Bell, III Content: James ( Jim ) F. Bell III ( born July 23 , 1965 ) is a Professor of Astronomy at Arizona State University , specializing in the study of planetary geology , geochemistry and mineralogy using data obtained from telescopes and from various spacecraft missions . Dr. Bell 's active research has involved the NASA Mars Pathfinder , Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous ( NEAR ) , Comet Nucleus Tour ( CONTOUR ) , 2001 Mars Odyssey , Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter , Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter , and the Mars Science Laboratory missions . His book Postcards from Mars includes many images taken by the Mars rovers . Dr. Bell is currently an editor of the space science journal Icarus and president of The Planetary Society . He has served as the lead scientist in charge of the Panoramic camera ( Pancam ) color imaging system on Mars rovers Spirit and Opportunity .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"James_F._Bell,_III\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 119194\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: James E. Boyd (scientist) Content: James Emory `` Jim '' Boyd ( July 18 , 1906 -- February 18 , 1998 ) was an American physicist , mathematician , and academic administrator . He was director of the Georgia Tech Research Institute from 1957 to 1961 , president of West Georgia College ( now the University of West Georgia ) from 1961 to 1971 , and acting president of the Georgia Institute of Technology from 1971 to 1972 . A graduate of the University of Georgia and Duke University , Boyd began in academia as a professor of physics at West Georgia College . He then became a professor at Georgia Tech and a prominent researcher at the Engineering Experiment Station , now known as the Georgia Tech Research Institute . At the Engineering Experiment Station , Boyd helped spur the organization 's mainstay : federally funded electronics research and development . Along with fellow Georgia Tech researchers Gerald Rosselot and Glen P. Robinson , Boyd was influential in the founding of Scientific Atlanta , where he was a board member for 25 years . As director of the Engineering Experiment Station , Boyd focused on the recruitment of talented engineers and an increase in physical space available to the organization , including the establishment of nuclear research at Georgia Tech with a radioisotopes laboratory and the construction of the Frank H. Neely Research Reactor . While he was the third president of West Georgia College , Boyd increased faculty , degrees , programs , and both undergraduate and graduate enrollment on the campus . Boyd racially integrated the campus in 1963 , unprompted by a court order , and oversaw immense construction projects that dramatically expanded the campus to support the increased ( and future ) enrollment . Hired away to serve as the University System of Georgia 's Vice Chancellor for Academic Development in 1970 , he was almost immediately reassigned to be Georgia Tech 's interim president . During his tenure at Georgia Tech from 1971 to 1972 , Boyd resolved difficult issues in the attempted takeover of the Engineering Experiment Station by previous Georgia Tech president Arthur G. Hansen and the poor performance of ( and corresponding alumni calls to remove ) head football coach Bud Carson .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"James_E._Boyd_(scientist)\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 119146\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Karl Otto Lange Content: Karl Otto Heinrich Lange , Dr.-Ing . ( 1903 -- November 29 , 1973 ) was a pioneer in aviation ( soaring ) , atmospheric science , engineering education , and biomedical engineering ( effects of gravity and vibration ) . Dr. Karl Otto Lange joined the meteorology faculty of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1931 . After his arrival , according to THE TECH , MIT 's newspaper , daily weather observations from the ground level to a height of more than three miles ( 5 km ) above Boston will be made by meteorologists of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in an airplane equipped to record temperature , barometric pressure and relative humidity . To carry out this work , MIT secured funds to purchase a Cessna cabin monoplane powered with a 120 hp Warner engine . The daily flights of this plane were part of a research program designed to gain new knowledge to aid in weather forecasting by measuring the variation of temperature and moisture at various altitudes in different air currents .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"Karl_Otto_Lange\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 119091\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kessler syndrome Content: The Kessler syndrome ( also called the Kessler effect , collisional cascading or ablation cascade ) , proposed by the NASA scientist Donald J. Kessler in 1978 , is a scenario in which the density of objects in low earth orbit ( LEO ) is high enough that collisions between objects could cause a cascade where each collision generates space debris that increases the likelihood of further collisions . One implication is that the distribution of debris in orbit could render space activities and the use of satellites in specific orbital ranges infeasible for many generations .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"Kessler_syndrome\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 119051\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Colorado Student Space Weather Experiment Content: Colorado Student Space Weather Experiment ( CSSWE ) was the sixth National Science Foundation sponsored CubeSat mission . It was built by students at the University of Colorado at Boulder with advising from professionals at the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics . The CSSWE mission was a joint effort by the University of Colorado 's Department of Aerospace Engineering Sciences and Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics . The mission principal investigator was Profs. Xinlin Li , and the Co-PIs are Prof. Scott Palo and Dr. Shri Kanekal . The project manager for the project was Dr. Lauren Blum , the system engineer was Dr. David Gerhardt , and the instrument scientist was Dr. Quintin Schiller . CSSWE launched on September 13 , 2012 , on an Atlas V rocket by the United Launch Alliance on ELaNa-VI as part of the NASA 's CubeSat Launch Initiative ( CSLI ) . The CSSWE team released its science products to the public for download on NASA 's Coordinated Data Analysis Web Site ( CDAWeb ) . As of December 22 , 2014 , CSSWE showed severe battery degradation , likely due to pushing the battery thousands of cycles beyond the battery 's design specs . As a result , CSSWE can not retain enough power to receive or transmit data .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"Colorado_Student_Space_Weather_Experiment\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 118699\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Jean-Pierre Hansen Content: For the executive officer with the same name , see Jean-Pierre Hansen . Jean-Pierre Hansen FRS ( born 10 May 1942 ) is a Luxembourgian chemist and an emeritus professor of the University of Cambridge . He gained a PhD from Paris-Sud 11 University in 1969 , the same year working as a staff scientist for the French National Centre for Scientific Research . A year later he moved to the United States to do postdoctoral work at Cornell University before moving back to France in 1973 to work as an associate professor at Pierre and Marie Curie University . He became a full professor in 1977 , and in 1980 moved to Grenoble to work as a visiting scientist at Institut Laue-Langevin . In 1986 he became research director at École Normale Supérieure de Lyon , and in 1987 founded the physics laboratory there . In 1990 the French Academy of Sciences awarded him the Grand Prix de l'Etat for his work , and between 1994 and 1997 he worked as a visiting professor at the physical chemistry department of the University of Oxford ; he moved Corpus Christi College at the University of Cambridge in 1997 and became Professor of Chemistry . The Société Française de Physique awarded him their Prix Special in 1998 , and in 2002 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society . The European Physical Society awarded him their first Liquid Matter Prize in 2005 , and in 2006 the Royal Society awarded him the Rumford Medal . In 2013 , together with Herman Berendsen he was awarded the Berni J. Alder Prize by the Centre européen de calcul atomique et moléculaire .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"Jean-Pierre_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 118682\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Michael Helfert Content: Dr. Michael Helfert was a senior scientist at NASA 's Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center , and acted as chief scientist and scientist for Earth observations for 100 + Space Shuttle missions ( 1982 -- 2008 ) . Those Mission Reports were primarily published in the journal Geocarto International . He was also the Director of the National Climatic Data Center 's Southeast Regional Climate Center and the South Carolina state climatologist . While at the National Climate Data Center he was also the Director of the U.S. Climate Reference Network . This program designed and maintained very precise climate monitoring stations throughout the USA as well as selected overseas locations in Italy and Siberia .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"Michael_Helfert\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 118553\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Jens Christian Hansen Content: Jens Christian Hansen ( 5 May 1932 in Bodø -- 8 May 2014 ) was a Norwegian geographer . He took the dr.philos . degree in 1970 with the thesis Administrative grenser og tettstedsvekst . After a period as a docent at the Norwegian School of Economics he was a professor at the University of Bergen from 1972 . He was a fellow of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters from 1985 , of the Academia Europaea and of the Royal Norwegian Society of Sciences and Letters . He died in May 2014 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2788\",\n \"docid\": \"Jens_Christian_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 118451\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":1375,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"At that time, Hansen also produced a model of the future behavior of the globe’s temperature, which he had turned into a video movie that was heavily shopped in Congress."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: James Hansen Content: James Edward Hansen ( born 29 March 1941 ) is an American adjunct professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University . He is best known for his research in climatology , his 1988 Congressional testimony on climate change that helped raise broad awareness of global warming , and his advocacy of action to avoid dangerous climate change . In recent years he has become a climate activist to mitigate the effects of climate change , on a few occasions leading to his arrest . In 2000 , Hansen advanced an alternative view of global warming over the last 100 years , arguing that during that time frame the negative forcing via aerosols and the positive forcing via largely balanced each other out , and that the 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide , such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons . However , even then he wrote `` the future balance of forcings is likely to shift toward dominance of CO2 over aerosols ''","qid":"2789","docid":"James_Hansen","rank":1,"score":200388},{"content":"Title: Bjørn Helland-Hansen Content: Bjørn Helland-Hansen ( 16 October 1877 -- 7 September 1957 ) was a Norwegian pioneer in the field of modern oceanography . He studied the variation patterns of the weather in the northern Atlantic Ocean and of the atmosphere . He studied both medicine and physics at the University of Christiania ( now University of Oslo ) . He developed the `` Helland-Hansen Photometer '' in 1910 , which was carried on board Michael Sars . It was operated for the first time close to the Azores at a depth between 500 and m . In 1915 he became Professor of oceanography at the Bergen Museum , and in 1917 director of the Geophysical Institute , University of Bergen . In 1933 he was awarded the Alexander Agassiz Medal . In 1939 he became President of the International Geodesic and Geophysical Union . He was a member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences and a member of the Member of the Academy of Sciences of the German Democratic Republic ( DDR ) . Helland-Hansen trained Alexander Kuchin , the Russian oceanographer who went to Antarctica with Roald Amundsen . An island in the Russian Arctic , east of the Geiberg Islands , has been named Gellanda-Gansena after Helland-Hansen . thumb | left | Bjørn Helland-Hansen ( ca 1917 )","qid":"2789","docid":"Bjørn_Helland-Hansen","rank":2,"score":165747},{"content":"Title: Jens Hoyer Hansen Content: Jens Høyer Hansen ( 14 July 1940 -- 10 August 1999 ) was a Danish-born jeweller who settled in New Zealand and did most of his well-known work in Nelson , New Zealand . Hansen was one of a number of European-trained jewellers who came to New Zealand in the 1960s and transformed contemporary jewellery in the country , including Tanya Ashken , Kobi Bosshard and Gunter Taemmler . He was the designer and creator of the prop ring used as The One Ring in Peter Jackson 's The Lord of the Rings and The Hobbit film trilogies .","qid":"2789","docid":"Jens_Hoyer_Hansen","rank":3,"score":141739},{"content":"Title: Global Warming: What You Need to Know Content: Global Warming What You Need to Know is a 2006 global warming ( climate change ) documentary , directed by Nicolas Brown , starring Tom Brokaw , James Hansen , Michael Oppenheimer , and Mark Serreze . The film focuses on impacts from climate change , and Tom Brokaw interviews scientists . The documentary premiered on Discovery Channel , 16 July 2006 .","qid":"2789","docid":"Global_Warming:_What_You_Need_to_Know","rank":4,"score":136985},{"content":"Title: W. W. Hansen Content: William Webster Hansen ( May 27 , 1909 -- May 23 , 1949 ) was an American physicist and professor . He was one of the founders of the technology of microwave electronics .","qid":"2789","docid":"W._W._Hansen","rank":5,"score":136895},{"content":"Title: Emil Christian Hansen Content: Emil Christian Hansen ( May 8 , 1842 -- August 27 , 1909 ) was a Danish mycologist and fermentation physiologist . Born in Ribe , he financed his education by writing novels . He was awarded a gold medal in 1876 for an essay on fungi , titled De danske Gjødningssvampe . During his days as a university student in Copenhagen , he worked as an unpaid assistant to zoologist Japetus Steenstrup ( 1813 -- 1897 ) . In 1876 , with Alfred Jørgensen ( 1848 -- 1925 ) , he published a Danish translation of Charles Darwin 's `` The Voyage of the Beagle '' ; Rejse om Jorden . From 1879 to 1909 , he was director of the physiological department at Carlsberg Laboratory . Hired by the Carlsberg Laboratory in Copenhagen in 1879 , he became the first to isolate a pure cell of yeast in 1883 , and after combining it with a sugary solution , produced more yeast than was in a yeast bank . It was named as Saccharomyces carlsbergensis after the laboratory , and is the yeast from which are derived , all yeasts used in lager beers . See Fermentation , Yeast . Hansen is the taxonomic authority of the fungal genus Anixiopsis ( 1897 ) from the family Onygenaceae .","qid":"2789","docid":"Emil_Christian_Hansen","rank":6,"score":134173},{"content":"Title: John H. Mercer Content: John H. Mercer ( Cheltenham , England , 19 October 1922 -- Columbus , Ohio 3 July 1987 ) was a glaciologist , chiefly known for his theoretical work on , and field studies of Antarctic ice streams , especially in the Transantarctic Mountains and in West Antarctica . Following John T. Hollin 's work ( 1962 ) suggesting that climatic warming and rising sea-level cause Antarctic ice shelves to retreat , Mercer postulated that the West Antarctic ice sheet , being grounded well below sea-level and terminating in floating ice shelves , was vulnerable to these changes and may have collapsed altogether during the last interglacial when Antarctica may have been warmer and sea-level may have been higher . In 1978 , in the science magazine Nature , Mercer pointed out that `` green-house '' warming from burning fossil fuel could have the same effect during the present interglacial . Two studies published 12 May 2014 confirm Mercer 's assumption . Climate scientist James Hansen has coined the term , `` John Mercer effect . '' After Mercer published his paper suggesting that the West Antarctic ice sheet could collapse in response to warming , he struggled to get funding . Others , including Hansen , had similar problems . Many climate scientists censor their own work to avoid losing funding , especially regarding prospects for limiting warming to 2 ° C above pre-industrial temperatures . John H. Mercer was the third child of Harriet and John W. Mercer . He was educated at private schools in Cheltenham and , later , at Gordonstoun in Scotland . During World War II he served in the British Merchant Marines ( 1940 -- 46 ) as a radio man . After the war he went to University of Cambridge and studied geography . At that time he came under the influence of William Vaughan Lewis . After finishing his B.A. in 1949 Mercer went to Canada , where he received his PhD in geography from McGill University in 1954 . He was a Research Scholar from 1954 to 1956 at the Australian National University in Canberra , where he studied land use and population in western Samoa . He returned to Canada and worked in the Canadian Hydro-graphic Office in Ottawa as a geographer in 1957 and 1958 . During 1959 -- 60 , 1961 -- 62 , 1964 , and 1966 , the American Geographical Society employed him at its World Data Center A for Glaciology in New York . The turning point in his career as a glaciologist was in 1960 , when he became a Research Associate at The Ohio State University , in the Institute of Polar Studies ( renamed the Byrd Polar Research Center ) . He remained at The Ohio State University until his death , becoming its first Senior Research Scientist .","qid":"2789","docid":"John_H._Mercer","rank":7,"score":133992},{"content":"Title: Charles M. Hansen Content: Dr. Charles Medom Hansen ( Louisville , Kentucky , 1938 ) is an American-born scientist with Danish ancestry who is now a Danish citizen living in the Copenhagen area . After a degree ( 1961 , Louisville ) and Masters ( 1962 , Wisconsin ) in chemical engineering , Hansen worked for his PhD at the Technical University of Denmark , initially on the problems of solvent retention in polymers , starting his life-time interest in diffusion science . However , the problems of predicting the compatibility of solvents with polymers took over , leading him to overcome the problems of the then-popular Hildebrand solubility parameter by dividing Hildebrand 's single parameter into three components : dispersion , polar and hydrogen bonding . His 1967 doctoral thesis ( Dr. techn . ) provided the basis for what came to be called Hansen solubility parameters , or HSPs . In addition to providing a theoretical framework , the thesis provided the first working set of HSP values for common solvents and for a range of commercial polymers , making it of immediate practical use to academia and industry . His theories were put to immediate use during his 8 years ( 1968 -- 76 ) at the R/D Center , PPG Industries in Pittsburgh where the universality of HSP became apparent as they were shown to work equally well for problems such as optimising the compatibility of pigments within paint and ink formulations . Gradually they became adopted more widely as shown by the cumulative graph of Google Scholar citations for the phrase `` Hansen Solubility Parameter '' . He was Director of the Scandinavian Paint & Printing Ink Research Institute in Hørsholm , Denmark from 1976 to 1985 , a Senior Scientist at Hempel Group from 1985 to 1987 , then Senior Scientist at FORCE Technology , Copenhagen from 1988 to 2004 . Upon retirement he became , and remains , an independent consultant . In addition to over 130 published papers and 8 patents ( h-index 25 ) , he authored Hansen Solubility Parameters -- A User 's Handbook in 1999 followed by an expanded 2nd Edition in 2007 . With Abbott and Yamamoto he authored the package of software , eBook and datasets called Hansen Solubility Parameters in Practice , in 2008 which is currently in its 5th Edition .","qid":"2789","docid":"Charles_M._Hansen","rank":8,"score":133018},{"content":"Title: Rolf Hansen (director) Content: Rolf Hansen ( 12 December 1904 -- 3 December 1990 ) was a German film director . He directed 20 films between 1936 and 1960 .","qid":"2789","docid":"Rolf_Hansen_(director)","rank":9,"score":132534},{"content":"Title: Carl Hansen Ostenfeld Content: Carl Emil Hansen Ostenfeld ( born Carl Emil Ostenfeld-Hansen ) ( 3 August 1873 -- 16 January 1931 ) was a Danish systematic botanist . He graduated from the University of Copenhagen under professor Eugenius Warming . He was a keeper at the Botanical Museum 1900-1918 , when he became professor of botany at the Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University . In 1923 , by the early retirement of Raunkiær 's , Ostenfeld became professor of botany at the University of Copenhagen and director of the Copenhagen Botanical Garden , both positions held until his death in 1931 . He was a member of the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters and served on the board of directors of the Carlsberg Foundation . Ostenfeld is known as an explorer of the Danish flora , including marine plankton , as well as the flora of Western Australia . Ostenfeld participated in the International Phytogeographic Excursion to the British Isles in 1911 . The party studied the flora of parts of Ireland , including Killarney , Connemara and The Burren . In collaboration with O. Rosenberg , he was one of the first to confirm that some plants could form asexual seeds , now called ( apomixis ) . Their experiments repeated those of Gregor Mendel with Hieracium hybrids , showing that Mendel had observed a mixture of sexual recombination and apomixis . About a dozen plant species are named after him . Also some localities in Greenland bear names that commemorate him : C.H. Ostenfeld Land in Northeast Greenland C.H. Ostenfeld Nunatak in Wordie 's Glacier , Northeast Greenland The French Academy of Sciences awarded him the Prix Desmazières for 1917 .","qid":"2789","docid":"Carl_Hansen_Ostenfeld","rank":10,"score":132330},{"content":"Title: Ed Hansen Content: Edward Hansen ( 30 January 193716 December 2005 ) was an American film writer , director and editor . Hansen was born in Minnesota . He specialized and mostly directed nudies such as the Kitten Natividad films Takin ' It Off , Takin ' It All Off , Takin ' It Off Out West , and The Bikini Carwash Company . He was also the editor of 9 1/2 Weeks and Skeeter . Hansen died in Antioch , California , of bladder cancer , aged 68 .","qid":"2789","docid":"Ed_Hansen","rank":11,"score":131272},{"content":"Title: Morris H. Hansen Content: Morris Howard Hansen ( 1910 -- 1990 ) was an American statistician . While at the United States Census Bureau , he was one of the first to develop methods for statistical sampling and made contributions in many areas of surveys and censuses .","qid":"2789","docid":"Morris_H._Hansen","rank":12,"score":130962},{"content":"Title: Osmund Holm-Hansen Content: Osmund Holm-Hansen ( also known as Oz Holm-Hansen ) is a Norwegian-born American scientist , for whom Mount Holm-Hansen , in Antarctica is named . A plant physiologist by training , from 1962 Holm-Hansen was the head of polar research at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography . Beginning in 1976 , Holm-Hansen conducted extensive field research on microbial populations in McMurdo Sound , the Ross Sea , and other ocean areas south of the Antarctic Convergence .","qid":"2789","docid":"Osmund_Holm-Hansen","rank":13,"score":130728},{"content":"Title: Siegfried Hansen Content: Siegfried Hansen ( March 29 , 1912-June 28 , 2002 ) was an American electrical engineer and inventor notable for his development of the early Mark I space suit. , a role that earned him appellations of `` Space Suit Father '' and `` Space Suit Pioneer '' . The Mark I was significant for its hard torso and flexible arms , providing constant volume while allowing the occupant to manipulate the external environment . These efforts broke briefly into the mainstream with Hansen 's in-suit appearance on the cover of the December 1957 issue of Look magazine . Hansen was born in San Francisco and educated at the University of Washington in Seattle .","qid":"2789","docid":"Siegfried_Hansen","rank":14,"score":130288},{"content":"Title: Eldon Hansen Content: Eldon Robert Hansen is a mathematician who has published widely in global optimization theory and interval analysis . His primary publications include Global Optimization Using Interval Analysis ( 1992 ) , A Table of Series and Products ( 1975 ) , and Topics in Interval Analysis ( 1969 ) . He also co-authored a number of works with the mathematician William Walster . Hansen completed his undergraduate studies at the University of California , Berkeley , and received his Ph.D. in mathematics from Stanford University in 1960 on Jacobi methods and Block-Jacobi methods for computing matrix eigenvalues ( Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society , 1961 ) . He was born in 1927 near Rochester , WA . Hansen 's algorithm extended the classical Gauss-Seidel algorithm to interval computations , and has been used to compute uncertainties in delta wing composite structures ( Delcroix , Boyer , & Braibant ) Hansen 's method used interval analysis to solve a supposedly `` insoluble '' global optimization problem . The method was originally described for both the one-dimensional and multi-dimensional cases in the 1980s , and is more fully described in the 1992 Global Optimization Using Interval Analysis and the 2nd edition of the book written with William Walster in 2003 , and was translated into Russian in 2012 . Dr. Hansen taught at Stanford University , The University of California at Berkeley , San Jose State College , Oxford University , and Washington State University ; and he worked at Lockheed in Palo Alto , California .","qid":"2789","docid":"Eldon_Hansen","rank":15,"score":130118},{"content":"Title: Sverre Hansen (actor) Content: Sverre Hansen ( 24 August 1919 -- 21 October 1995 ) was a Norwegian actor . He was born in Bergen . He made his stage debut at Studioteatret in 1945 , and was later assigned at Det Nye Teater , Folketeatret , Nationaltheatret and Fjernsynsteatret . Among his films are minor roles in Ni liv from 1957 and Ugler i mosen from 1959 , and his leading role in the film Eggs from 1995 earned him the Amanda Award .","qid":"2789","docid":"Sverre_Hansen_(actor)","rank":16,"score":129754},{"content":"Title: David Minard Content: Captain David Minard , MC , USN ( 23 May 1913 -- 9 October 2005 ) Mercury Seven heat stress physiologist for Project Mercury In the late 1950s , Minard as a captain in the U.S. Navy and head of the physiology department at the Naval Medical Research Institute , helped to develop the Wet Bulb Globe Temperature Index utilized to measure heat stress in the military and other industrial settings . Minard , with Constantin Yaglou , created the wet bulb globe temperature index in 1957 for U.S. Marines training at Parris Island , South Carolina . It is still commonly used as a heat-stress index in the military , steel mills , marathon races and industrial environments . In 1960 , Minard used the heat stress index to evaluate the Mercury Seven astronauts for Project Mercury astronauts at the Naval Medical Research Institute in Bethesda , Maryland .","qid":"2789","docid":"David_Minard","rank":17,"score":129565},{"content":"Title: Edmund H. Hansen Content: Edmund H. Hansen ( November 13 , 1894 -- October 10 , 1962 ) was an American sound engineer . He won two Academy Awards ; one for Best Sound Recording and the other Best Visual Effects . He was nominated for another 12 films across the two categories .","qid":"2789","docid":"Edmund_H._Hansen","rank":18,"score":129036},{"content":"Title: Alvin Hansen Content: Alvin Harvey Hansen ( August 23 , 1887 -- June 6 , 1975 ) , often referred to as `` the American Keynes , '' was a professor of economics at Harvard , a widely read author on current economic issues , and an influential advisor to the government who helped create the Council of Economic Advisors and the Social Security system . He is best known for introducing Keynesian economics in the United States in the 1930s . More effectively than anyone else , he explicated , extended , domesticated , and popularized the ideas embodied in Keynes ' The General Theory . In 1967 , Paul McCracken , chairman of the President 's Council of Economic Advisers , saluted Hansen : `` It is certainly a statement of fact that you have influenced the nation 's thinking about economic policy more profoundly than any other economist in this century . ''","qid":"2789","docid":"Alvin_Hansen","rank":19,"score":128632},{"content":"Title: Adolph Hansen Content: Karl Adolph Hansen ( 1851 in Hamburg -- 1920 in Giessen ) was a German botanist . He graduated in 1887 at the University of Würzburg on a thesis entitled `` Geschichte der Assimilation und Chlorophyllfunktion '' ( supervised by Julius Sachs ) . He was professor of botany at the Justus Liebig-Universität Gießen 1891-1920 . He had very broad academic interests , including history and archaeology . However , he always worked alone , supervised very few doctoral students ( 4 in 39 years ) , and stood outside the development of experimental physiological botany among his contemporaries . Hansen wrote scholarly works on Goethe 's Metamorphosis of Plants and had a fierce dispute over this hypothesis with Houston Stewart Chamberlain .","qid":"2789","docid":"Adolph_Hansen","rank":20,"score":128080},{"content":"Title: Per Brinch Hansen Content: Per Brinch Hansen ( November 13 , 1938 -- July 31 , 2007 ) was a Danish-American computer scientist known for his work in operating systems , concurrent programming and parallel and distributed computing .","qid":"2789","docid":"Per_Brinch_Hansen","rank":21,"score":128054},{"content":"Title: Orval H. Hansen Content: Orval Howard Hansen ( born August 3 , 1926 ) is a former congressman from Idaho . He served three terms as a Republican in the House from 1969 to 1975 , representing the state 's 2nd district .","qid":"2789","docid":"Orval_H._Hansen","rank":22,"score":128027},{"content":"Title: Maurits Hansen Content: Maurits Christopher Hansen ( 5 July 1794 -- 16 March 1842 ) was a Norwegian writer . He was born in Modum as a son of Carl Hansen ( 1757 -- 1826 ) and Abigael Wulfsberg ( 1758 -- 1823 ) . In October 1816 he married teacher Helvig Leschly ( 1789 -- 1874 ) . He was a father-in-law of Eilert Sundt , and thus grandfather of Einar Sundt . He is recognized for his contribution to a diversity of genres and the introduction of the novel in Norway . He was a major contributor to the Norwegian Romantic Movement . He also wrote one of the world 's first crime novels with `` Mordet på Maskinbygger Roolfsen '' ( `` The Murder of Engine Maker Roolfsen '' ) in 1839 , two years before Edgar Allan Poe 's short story `` The Murders in the Rue Morgue '' in 1841 . After attending Oslo Cathedral School from 1809 and completing his examen artium in 1814 , he worked as a teacher in Trondheim from 1820 and in Kongsberg from 1826 . He was a fellow of the Royal Norwegian Society of Sciences and Letters in Trondheim , but was not appointed when he applied for a position as lecturer of philosophy at the Royal Frederick University around 1839 .","qid":"2789","docid":"Maurits_Hansen","rank":23,"score":127394},{"content":"Title: Alf Scott-Hansen, Jr. Content: Alf Scott-Hansen ( 22 December 1903 -- 1961 ) was a Norwegian engineer and film director . He was born in Kristiania as a son of port director Alf Scott-Hansen , Sr. ( 1870 -- 1930 ) and his wife Lalla Wiborg ( 1869 -- 1953 ) . He was a nephew of Commander Sigurd Scott-Hansen . He finished his secondary education in 1922 , served in the King 's Guard before studying electrical engineering at his father 's alma mater , the Dresden University of Technology . The studies in Dresden were interrupted and he instead graduated in engineering from Edinburgh in 1928 . He worked in Siemens in Norway until 1942 , then in Sønnico from the early 1950s to his death . He was married to actress Wenche Foss from 1939 . Before the marriage was dissolved , the couple were active socialites in Norway 's capital . During this period Scott-Hansen also forayed into the film industry , directing the films Rikard Nordraak in 1945 and Trollfossen in 1948 . During parts of the occupation of Norway by Nazi Germany , he was imprisoned in Grini concentration camp from April to November 1942 . On 16 July 1961 he was found deceased at his cabin in Skåtøy , where he was vacationing alone .","qid":"2789","docid":"Alf_Scott-Hansen,_Jr.","rank":24,"score":127258},{"content":"Title: Christian Hansen (architect) Content: Hans Christian Hansen ( 20 April 1803 -- 2 May 1883 ) was a Historicist Danish architect who worked 18 years in Greece where he was active in the transformation of Athens from a small town to the country 's capital and an international metropolis . Later in his career he returned to Denmark where he became a professor at the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts and designed buildings such as the Copenhagen Municipal Hospital and the Østervold Observatory . He was the brother of Theophilus Hansen who was also an internationally successful architect , active in Athens and Vienna . He is considered to be a pioneer in the study and application of polychrome architecture .","qid":"2789","docid":"Christian_Hansen_(architect)","rank":25,"score":127056},{"content":"Title: James V. Hansen Content: James Vear `` Jim '' Hansen ( born August 14 , 1932 ) was a Republican member of the United States House of Representatives from Utah . Hansen was born in Salt Lake City , graduating from the city 's East High School . From 1951 until 1955 he served in the United States Navy . He attended the University of Utah , receiving a business degree from the school in 1961 . The same year that he left college , Hansen was elected to the Farmington City Council . He also worked as an insurance agent . From 1973 until 1980 , Hansen was a member of the Utah House of Representatives and served as speaker of the house from 1979 until 1980 . He was elected to Congress in 1980 and represented from January 3 , 1981 . Hansen retired on January 3 , 2003 . Hansen served as chairman of the Committee on Resources in his last term in the 107th Congress . Hansen ran for the governorship in 2004 , but was defeated at the Republican convention by Jon Huntsman , Jr. who went on to win the election . He was appointed a commissioner on the 2005 Base Realignment and Closure Commission . When a portion of US-89 in Weber County , Utah was upgraded to freeway standards , it was named the James V. Hansen Highway . The federal building in Ogden , Utah was renamed the James V. Hansen Federal Building in his honor in 2004 .","qid":"2789","docid":"James_V._Hansen","rank":26,"score":126984},{"content":"Title: Multipole density formalism Content: The Multipole Density Formalism ( also referred to as Hansen-Coppens Formalism ) is an X-ray crystallography method of electron density modelling proposed by Niels K. Hansen and Philip Coppens in 1979 . Unlike the commonly used Independent Atom Model , the Hansen-Coppens Formalism presents an aspherical approach , allowing one to model the electron distribution around a nucleus separately in different directions and therefore describe numerous chemical features of a molecule inside the unit cell of an examined crystal in detail .","qid":"2789","docid":"Multipole_density_formalism","rank":27,"score":126389},{"content":"Title: Paul Hansen (tenor) Content: Paul Hansen ( 3 April 1886 -- 11 November 1967 ) was a Danish opera singer and actor . Hansen started his opera career as a tenor but later increased his range to take on baritone roles . In 1917 Hansen , now working in Berlin , branched into silent movies and in 1919 took on the romantic lead in The Mistress of the World .","qid":"2789","docid":"Paul_Hansen_(tenor)","rank":28,"score":126320},{"content":"Title: Holger Juul Hansen Content: Holger Juul Hansen ( 14 August 1924 -- 19 March 2013 ) was a Danish actor . Hansen starred in a large number of Danish movies and television shows . His most prominent roles were as banker Hans Christian Varnæs , head of one of the two rival families in Matador , and as Doctor Moesgaard in The Kingdom .","qid":"2789","docid":"Holger_Juul_Hansen","rank":29,"score":126259},{"content":"Title: Randulf Hansen Content: Randulf Hansen ( 26 August 1858 -- 5 September 1942 ) was a Norwegian ship designer . He was considered to be one of the country 's leading naval architects of iron and steel ships . Among his designs were the British passenger liner SS Britannia ( 1887 ) and the Norwegian barque Skomvær ( 1890 ) . Hansen was born in Bergen , Norway . He trained under Norwegian ship designer Ananias Dekke at Nordnes . He later worked in Philadelphia and New Brunswick . After a short stay at Flages shipyard in Bergen , he went to work for the shipbuilding firm Raylton , Dixon & Co. at Middlesbrough . In 1882 , he returned to Bergen to work at the shipbuilder firm Martens , Olsen & Co. . Hansen was offered the position design and drafting manager at Laxevaags Maskin - og Jernskibsbyggeri in Bergen . In 1889 Hansen moved to Fevigs Jernskibsbyggeri , a new iron shipyard in Fevik at Grimstad in Aust-Agder . The yard in Fevik was a hull workshop , without division for boilers and machinery . Most ships were towed for completion to shipyards in Great Britain or to Fredrikstad or Bergen . Over the next twenty 20 years , over seventy steel vessels were designed by Randulf Hansen .","qid":"2789","docid":"Randulf_Hansen","rank":30,"score":126213},{"content":"Title: Miriam Hansen Content: Miriam Hansen ( 28 April 1949 -- 5 February 2011 ) was a film historian who made important contributions to the study of early cinema and mass culture .","qid":"2789","docid":"Miriam_Hansen","rank":31,"score":125775},{"content":"Title: Bernhoff Hansen Content: Bernhoff Otelius Hansen ( August 17 , 1877 -- December 22 , 1950 ) was a Norwegian wrestler who competed in the 1904 Summer Olympics for the United States . He was born in Rognan in the municipality of Saltdal in Norway . Originally he was a Norwegian wrestler in Nordland , but one and a half years before the 1904 Olympic Games , he left Norway for the United States . He was affiliated with the Brooklyn-based Norwegian Turnverein gymnastic society . Hansen was sponsored by the Norwegian Turnverein at the Olympics in 1904 . Hansen won three matches at the 1904 Olympics and won a gold medal in heavyweight category . First name spelled Bernhoff by FILA and in an article by New York Times from January 16 , 1918 . By the time of the article he was referred to as `` a Norwegian light-heavyweight wrestler '' . Hansen died in New York City . In 2012 Norwegian historians found documentation showing that Hansen was registered as an `` alien '' ( foreigner ) as late as 1925 , and questioning whether he ever received American citizenship . The historians thus petitioned to have Hansen 's gold registered as Norwegian .","qid":"2789","docid":"Bernhoff_Hansen","rank":32,"score":125673},{"content":"Title: Rasmus Malling-Hansen Content: Rasmus Malling-Hansen ( 5 September 1835 -- 27 September 1890 ) was a Danish inventor , minister and principal at the Royal Institute for the Deaf , and one of the true pioneers of the 19th century .","qid":"2789","docid":"Rasmus_Malling-Hansen","rank":33,"score":125524},{"content":"Title: Morian Hansen Content: Jens Henning Fisker Hansen ( 10 January 1905 in Frederikssund , Denmark -- 21 February 1995 ) , known popularly as Morian Hansen , was a former motorcycle speedway rider from Denmark who rode in the first ever Speedway World Championship Final in 1936 . Hansen 's first speedway races were at Copenhagen in 1928 . He first rode in the UK for the West Ham Hammers in 1931 on a two-month permit , returning two years later . He joined the Hackney Wick Wolves in 1935 . He then moved onto the Bristol Bulldogs and Wembley Lions before the outbreak of World War II . He competed in the World Championship finals in 1936 and 1937 . Hansen had held a pilot 's licence since 1935 and served in the Royal Air Force during the war , rising to the rank of Squadron Leader .","qid":"2789","docid":"Morian_Hansen","rank":34,"score":125485},{"content":"Title: Peter Allan Hansen Content: Peter Allan Hansen ( 20 April 1944 -- 18 April 2012 ) was a Danish classical philologist known principally for his work on the Carmina epigraphica graeca I-II and on other aspects of Greek epigraphy . Born in Copenhagen he was educated at Copenhagen University and at Brasenose College , Oxford , where he was a pupil of Lilian H. Jeffery . After 1975 he settled in Oxford and through the support of scholarships and grants continued his work on Hesychios and epigraphy there .","qid":"2789","docid":"Peter_Allan_Hansen","rank":35,"score":125379},{"content":"Title: John H.L. Hansen Content: John H.L. Hansen ( born November 17 , 1959 in Plainfield , NJ ) is Professor of Electrical Engineering ( EE ) and Associate Dean for Research in Erik Jonsson School of Engineering & Computer Science , at the University of Texas at Dallas ( UTD ) . He is also the University Distinguished Chair in Telecommunications Engineering , and holds a joint appointment as Professor in the School of Behavioral and Brain Sciences . He is the son of Henrik Hansen ( wrestler ) , Danish wrestling champion who won a bronze medal in Greco-Roman wrestling , welterweight class , at the 1948 Summer Olympics in London .","qid":"2789","docid":"John_H.L._Hansen","rank":36,"score":125228},{"content":"Title: Jørgen Hansen (boxer) Content: Jørgen Hansen ( born 27 March 1943 in Aarhus ) is a retired Danish welterweight boxer . Hansen competed for Denmark at the 1968 Summer Olympics in the welterweight division but lost his first match . Hansen turned professional shortly after the games and was active as a professional until 1982 . Hansen fought for the WBC world light welterweight title in 1973 , but was stopped by Italian Bruno Arcari . Hansen won the European welterweight title in 1977 against Italian Marco Scano but lost the title by disqualification in his first defense . In 1978 he was awarded a chance to regain the title against Frenchman Alain Marion whom Hansen stopped in the 6 round of the title bout . Hansen later lost the title by disqualification . Hansen won the European title for the third time when he knocked out British European champion Dave Boy Green in the third round . He defended the title successfully six times before giving up the title at the end of 1981 . His fought his last fight in December 1982 winning a decision against former world champion Perico Fernandez . Hansen retired in 1982 with a professional record of 78-14-0 ( 34 KO 's ) .","qid":"2789","docid":"Jørgen_Hansen_(boxer)","rank":37,"score":125207},{"content":"Title: Frank Hansen's Fortune Content: Frank Hansen 's Fortune ( German : Frank Hansens Glück ) is a 1917 German silent western film directed by Viggo Larsen and starring Larsen , Lupu Pick and Kitty Dewall . Two diggers working in the Mexican diamond fields discover a very valuable diamond leading to a series of events that sees only one of them become rich .","qid":"2789","docid":"Frank_Hansen's_Fortune","rank":38,"score":124961},{"content":"Title: Judson Laire Content: Judson Laire ( New York City , New York , August 3 , 1902 -- Rhinebeck , New York , July 5 , 1979 ) was an American film , stage , and television actor best known for starring as Lars Hansen in the early CBS television series , Mama from 1949 to 1957 , as well as several daytime soap operas including As the World Turns , The Nurses , Love is a Many Splendored Thing and The Edge Of Night . In a thirty-year stage career Laire appeared in ten Broadway productions . A resident of Clinton Corners , New York , he died in Northern Dutchess Hospital in Rhinebeck , New York , in 1979 . Among his Broadway credits was Advise and Consent by Loring Mandel which opened in 1961 .","qid":"2789","docid":"Judson_Laire","rank":39,"score":124869},{"content":"Title: Simon Hansen Content: Simon Hansen is a South African born film maker . Hansen has been working in the Film and entertainment industry since 1992 . He is best known for producing Alive in Joburg , the film on which District 9 is based .","qid":"2789","docid":"Simon_Hansen","rank":40,"score":124766},{"content":"Title: Kåre Øistein Hansen Content: Kåre Øistein Hansen ( 8 November 1927 -- 6 May 2012 ) was a Norwegian politician for the Socialist Left Party . He served as a member of the Parliament of Norway during the term 1973 -- 1977 , representing Buskerud , and was a member of the Standing Committee on Finance and Economic Affairs .","qid":"2789","docid":"Kåre_Øistein_Hansen","rank":41,"score":124652},{"content":"Title: Niels Ebbesen Hansen Content: Niels Ebbesen Hansen ( January 4 , 1866 -- October 5 , 1950 ) was a Danish-American horticulturist and botanist who was a pioneer in plant breeding .","qid":"2789","docid":"Niels_Ebbesen_Hansen","rank":42,"score":124513},{"content":"Title: Gyda Hansen Content: Gyda Hansen ( 7 February 1938 -- 20 August 2010 ) was a Danish film actress . She appeared in 22 films between 1963 and 2000 .","qid":"2789","docid":"Gyda_Hansen","rank":43,"score":124436},{"content":"Title: John R. Hansen Content: John Robert Hansen ( August 24 , 1901 -- September 23 , 1974 ) served one term , from January 3 , 1965 to January 3 , 1967 , as a Democratic U.S. Representative from Iowa . He and Tom Harkin are the only two Democrats to have represented southwestern Iowa in the U.S. House since the end of the Great Depression . A native and lifelong resident of Manning , Iowa , Hansen attended the Manning public schools . He attended the University of Iowa from 1919 to 1921 . He and his wife Mary Lou were the parents of two children , Robert and Jack . After serving as a sales representative , general manager , and president of Dultmeier Manufacturing Co. , of Manning , Iowa from 1921 to 1962 , he served as president of Dultmeier Sales , in Omaha , Nebraska from 1934 to 1957 . Hansen had been politically active in Democratic politics for many years . He served as member of the Carroll County Democratic Central Committee from 1932 to 1944 , and as its chairman from 1944 to 1952 . He served as district committeeman on the Democratic State Central Committee from 1952 to 1957 , and as Sixth Congressional District Democratic chairman from 1953 to 1957 . He was twice a delegate to Democratic National Convention , in 1948 and 1964 . He served as the Democratic nominee for Lieutenant Governor in 1960 , but lost to W.L. Mooty . Hansen also served in several appointive positions in Iowa state government . He served as member of the Board of Control of State Institutions from 1957 to 1960 . He also was a member of executive council of the Governor 's Alcoholism Commission and the Commission on Interstate Cooperation from 1957 to 1960 . In 1963 , Hansen 's close friend , Harold Hughes , was elected Governor of Iowa . When Hansen ran for the Democratic nomination for the Iowa 's 7th congressional district in 1964 , the vote was forced to a convention after none of the six candidates received over 35 percent of the vote in a primary . In the convention , on the ninth ballot , Hansen won the Democratic nomination without a single vote to spare . In the 1964 general election ( when Democratic President Lyndon B. Johnson defeated Republican Barry Goldwater by a landslide , and the Democratic majority in the House increased by 48 seats ) , Hansen defeated longtime Republican incumbent Ben F. Jensen . However , Hansen was one of many Midwestern Democrats elected to Congress from Republican-leaning districts in 1964 who served only a single term . In 1966 Hansen was defeated in his run for re-election by William Scherle , a conservative Republican member of the Iowa House of Representatives from Mills County , Iowa . After returning from Washington , Hansen served as member of the Iowa State Highway Commission , from February 1967 until retirement on July 1 , 1969 . He died in Des Moines , Iowa , on September 23 , 1974 . He was interred in Manning Cemetery , Manning , Iowa .","qid":"2789","docid":"John_R._Hansen","rank":44,"score":124262},{"content":"Title: Anders Hansen Content: Anders Rosenberg Hansen ( born 16 September 1970 ) is a retired Danish professional golfer . Hansen was born in Sønderborg , Denmark . He turned professional in 1995 . It took him a few years to establish himself on the European Tour , with his first top 116 Order of Merit finish ( the level a player requires to automatically regain his card ) coming in 1999 . His maiden European Tour victory was the 2002 Volvo PGA Championship and he finished in the top 60 on the Order of Merit every year from 2000 to 2012 , with a best of seventh in 2011 . He has featured in the top 25 of the Official World Golf Ranking and has been the highest ranked Danish golfer . Hansen represented Denmark in the WGC-World Cup in 1999 , 2002 , 2003 , 2004 , 2005 and 2007 . Hansen had six top 10 's in 2006 including a 3rd at the Dubai Desert Classic , playing the two final days in the leaderball with Tiger Woods and Retief Goosen , and a second at the Italian Open for the second straight year . Hansen qualified for the PGA Tour for 2007 , capturing the fourth available spot , eight strokes off the winner , George McNeill , but failed to maintain his playing rights at the end of the season . His second European tour victory came when he won the 2007 BMW PGA Championship , the same tournament where he claimed his first victory five years before . Hansen then won his third event in 2009 at the Joburg Open , in South Africa . He came from behind on the final day with a 66 , and eventually won by one stroke over Andrew McLardy . A month later he won for the second time on the Sunshine Tour at the Vodacom Championship and after strong finishes in the two European Tour co-sanctioned events at the end of the season , he headed the Order of Merit for 2009 . Hansen achieved his best finish ever at a World Golf Championship event in March 2011 , when he finished tied 3rd at the WGC-Cadillac Championship , three strokes behind winner Nick Watney . He later on achieved his best finish in a major , when he finished 3rd in the 2011 PGA Championship . He retired after the 2015 European Tour season , but still played in a small number of events in 2016 .","qid":"2789","docid":"Anders_Hansen","rank":45,"score":124137},{"content":"Title: Alf Hansen Content: Alf John Hansen ( born 13 July 1948 ) is a retired rower from Norway . In 1976 , he won a gold medal at the Montreal Olympic Games in the double scull event ( 2x ) with his brother Frank Hansen . The Hansen brothers started their career with a silver medal at the 1974 world championships , and followed that up with a gold medal at the 1975 world championships . They would go on to win the 1978 and 1979 world championships in the double scull . Unfortunately the Norwegian Rowing Federation boycotted the Moscow Olympics in 1980 , so the brothers were unable to defend their Olympic title . Frank officially retired after the Moscow Olympics . Alf continued his career with a new partner and won gold , then silver at the world championships together with Rolf Thorsen in 1982 and 1983 . He further won a silver medal in the Olympic Games in Seoul in 1988 and ended his professional career after the worlds in 1991 at the age of 43 . Hansen was awarded the Thomas Keller Medal in 1990 . The medal is given by the International Rowing Federation ( FISA ) for an outstanding international career in the sport of rowing as well as exemplary sportsmanship . It is the highest honor in rowing .","qid":"2789","docid":"Alf_Hansen","rank":46,"score":124058},{"content":"Title: Anton Hansen Content: Anton Hansen ( 1891 -- 1960 ) was a Danish cartoonist and painter . Like Storm P. and Aksel Jørgensen , he illustrated local newspapers with satirical sketches , especially of Copenhagen 's poor . He had met both as a member of De Tretten where he exhibited in 1910 and 1912 . Hansen contributed a number of politically satirical cartoons to the Danish Ekstra Bladet and the Norwegian Exlex ans Arbeiderbladet between 1909 and 1924 . He worked for the German Simplicissimus ( 1920 -- 1932 ) and later draw cartoons for Danish newspapers including Socialdemokraten and Information . He also made artistic drawings of the city and imaginative illustrations for books such as Grimms Eventyr ( Grimms ' Fairy Tales ) .","qid":"2789","docid":"Anton_Hansen","rank":47,"score":124006},{"content":"Title: Franklin Hansen Content: Franklin Hansen ( May 2 , 1897 -- January 13 , 1982 ) was an American sound engineer . He won an Academy Award in the category Sound Recording for the film A Farewell to Arms and was nominated for four more in the same category .","qid":"2789","docid":"Franklin_Hansen","rank":48,"score":123779},{"content":"Title: Asbjørn Hansen Content: Asbjørn Hansen ( 29 May 1930 -- 25 March 2017 ) was a Norwegian football goalkeeper who played for Sparta and Sarpsborg . He is regarded as one of Norway 's best goalkeepers of all time , and was first-choice goalkeeper for the Norway national team through most of the 1950s . Hansen made his senior debut for Sparta in 1948 , and was a member of the Sparta team that won the Norwegian Football Cup in 1952 . At the time of his death , he was the last surviving member from the cup-winning team . In 1958 , following Sparta 's relegation from the Norwegian Main League the previous year , Hansen joined city rivals Sarpsborg FK , where he played until his retirement from top-level football in 1962 . on 25 June 1952 , Hansen made his debut for the Norwegian national team in a friendly against Yugoslavia , and he remained first-choice goalkeeper throughout most of the next decade , playing his last international in 1961 . In total , he won 52 caps for Norway . Only Erik Thorstvedt ( 97 caps ) and Thomas Myhre ( 56 caps ) have played more matches for Norway as goalkeeper .","qid":"2789","docid":"Asbjørn_Hansen","rank":49,"score":123613},{"content":"Title: Multiplier-accelerator model Content: The multiplier -- accelerator model ( also known as Hansen -- Samuelson model ) is a macroeconomic model which analyzes the business cycle . This model was developed by Paul Samuelson , who credited Alvin Hansen for the inspiration . This model is based on the Keynesian multiplier , which is a consequence of assuming that consumption intentions depend on the level of economic activity , and the accelerator theory of investment , which assumes that investment intentions depend on the pace of growth in economic activity .","qid":"2789","docid":"Multiplier-accelerator_model","rank":50,"score":123544},{"content":"Title: Oddvar Hansen Content: Oddvar Ingolf Hansen ( 11 April 1921 -- 31 March 2011 ) was a Norwegian footballer and coach , who represented Brann in his hometown Bergen . As a player , Hansen was a right-back who played 238 first-team games for Brann between 1940 and 1956 . He was a losing cup finalist in 1950 . He also won 19 caps for Norway between 1948 and 1954 , and was a member of Norway 's squad at the 1952 Olympics . As a coach , Hansen became player-coach of Brann in 1955 when he took over from Englishman George Ainsley . He had three spells as Brann 's head coach ( 1955 -- 57 , 1960 -- 63 and 1965 -- 68 ) , and is best remembered for leading the club to consecutive league titles in 1962 and 1963 . The 1963 title would turn out to be Brann 's last league championship in 44 years , until the drought came to an end in 2007 . In addition to his achievements in football , Hansen was also an excellent table tennis player , who became national champion in 1947 . He died on 31 March 2011 , less than two weeks before what would have been his 90th birthday .","qid":"2789","docid":"Oddvar_Hansen","rank":51,"score":123532},{"content":"Title: Arvid Hansen Content: Arvid Hansen ( 1 March 1916 -- 13 February 1945 ) was a Norwegian resistance member who was executed during the occupation of Norway by Nazi Germany . He was born in Oslo as the son of Harald and Helga Marie Hansen . He worked in Oslo as an electrician . When Norway was invaded by Germany in 1940 , he became involved in the subsequent fighting . He later involved himself in the illegal press , and later in Milorg . He conducted several sabotage missions as a part of the group D.B. . He was also a part of the group Aks 13000 . His last mission was Aksjon smør , in which Milorg men stole foodstuffs from two warehouses , one in the street Tollbugata belonging to German forces , and one in the street Skippergata belonging to Arbeidstjenesten . The foodstuffs were distributed to Milorg men who hid in the forests surrounding Oslo . This was his 28th sabotage mission . On 13 February 1945 , the day after Aksjon smør , two Gestapo officers by coincidence intercepted a resistance meeting in Storm Weinholdt 's home . Storm Weinholdt and Frank Olsen were arrested , and Adolf Bogstad was killed . This kickstarted a crackdown in which several people were arrested . Four Nazis then stormed Hansen 's home just before midnight on 13 February 1945 . They rang the doorbell , and shot Arvid Hansen 's father Harald who answered at the door . Almost immediately they met Arvid Hansen , who was in his bedroom . Hansen managed to fire three shots and kill one of the Nazis , but when firing for a second time , he was himself hit and instantly killed . His fiancée , who had been assisting in the resistance work , was wounded . His mother survived , and fled to Sweden the next week . Together with eight other resistance members -- Adolf Bogstad , Erik Bruun , Henry Gundersen , Ingolf Nordstrøm , Kåre Olafsen , Frank Olsen , Kjell Ramberg and Storm Weinholdt -- he is commemorated with a memorial stone at Sarabråten in Østmarka .","qid":"2789","docid":"Arvid_Hansen","rank":52,"score":123463},{"content":"Title: Richard D. Hansen Content: Richard D. Hansen is a distinguished American archaeologist and currently Adjunct Professor of Anthropology at the University of Utah in Salt Lake City . He previously has been an Affiliate Research Professor and Senior Scientist at the Institute for Mesoamerican Research in the Department of Anthropology at Idaho State University and an Associate Scientist ( Level IV ) at the Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics at UCLA . Hansen is a specialist on the ancient Maya and also a director of the Mirador Basin Project , which investigates the mainly unexplored territory in the northern Peten , Guatemala . Sites of special significance which Hansen has excavated and mapped within the Mirador Basin include the Mirador , Nakbe , Tintal , Xulnal , Waka ' , El Pesquero , Tamazul , Porvenir , La Florida , and 42 additional major and minor sites within the Mirador system , many of which are linked by an extensive early causeway system and contain similar art , artifacts , and architecture .","qid":"2789","docid":"Richard_D._Hansen","rank":53,"score":123450},{"content":"Title: Ove Verner Hansen Content: Ove Verner Hansen ( 20 July 1932 -- 20 February 2016 ) was a Danish opera singer and actor . He played the character , `` Bøffen '' ( or `` Biffen '' in Norwegian , literally meaning `` the steak '' in both languages ) in several of the Olsen-Gang ( Olsen-banden ) - movies . He played a tall , large , and slow-moving henchman , often seen lifting Egon Olsen up over his head , carrying him under one arm , and trying to kill him .","qid":"2789","docid":"Ove_Verner_Hansen","rank":54,"score":123234},{"content":"Title: Gary Hansen Content: Gary Duane Hansen ( born c. 1958 ) is a macroeconomist at UCLA . He is known for creating the theory of indivisible labor , as part of this doctoral thesis at the University of Minnesota . Hansen graduated from the University of Puget Sound in 1980 , and with a doctorate from the University of Minnesota , under supervision of Edward Prescott , in 1986 .","qid":"2789","docid":"Gary_Hansen","rank":55,"score":123210},{"content":"Title: Joachim Hansen (actor) Content: Joachim Hansen ( 28 June 1930 -- 13 September 2007 ) was a German actor . He was best known for film roles in the 1960s and 1970s where he was often cast in roles portraying Nazi officers and World War II German officials . Of nearly sixty five film credits , Hansen 's most notable roles include : `` The Star of Africa '' as Hans-Joachim Marseille , Jürgen Stroop in The Eagle Has Landed , and Generaloberst Alfred Jodl in The Winds of War and War and Remembrance mini-series . Hansen was born in Frankfurt ( Oder ) and died in Berlin .","qid":"2789","docid":"Joachim_Hansen_(actor)","rank":56,"score":122733},{"content":"Title: Pål Bang-Hansen Content: Pål Bang-Hansen ( 29 July 1937 -- 25 March 2010 ) was a Norwegian actor , film director , screenwriter and film critic . He is particularly known as a television personality and film expert at the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation , leading the television film show Filmmagasinet for more than thirty years .","qid":"2789","docid":"Pål_Bang-Hansen","rank":57,"score":122725},{"content":"Title: Carl William Hansen Content: Carl William Hansen ( 11 October 1872 -- 3 August 1936 ) was a Danish author , Luciferian , Wandering Bishop and Occultist . Hansen was born in Copenhagen and first initiated into Martinism in 1898 by Alphonse Wallen . Hansen published Den Ny Morgens Gry , Lucifer-Hiram , Verdensbygmesterens Genkomst ( The Dawn of a New Morning , Lucifer-Hiram , The Return of the World 's Master Builder ) , in 1906 under the pseudonym Ben Kadosh . Inspired by the French Gnostic movement , and such writers as Carl Kohl , his major interests seems to have been alchemy and astrology . Until 1905 he was in communication with Swedish playwright and alchemist August Strindberg . Some of Hansen 's occult ideas inspire the Neo-Luciferian Church today . In September 1921 Theodor Reuss issued fringe masonic charters to Hansen for Gnostic Primas , Memphis & Misraim , Ordo Templi Orientis and the Hermetic Brotherhood of Light . In 1923 he engaged in the founding of a Martinist lodge in Denmark , later dissolved and rebuilt as the lodge The Three Columns . This lodge formed part of The Danish Grand Orient , chartered by Joanny Bricaud in Lyon as Grand Orient de la vraie et haute Maçonnerie ésoterique et gnostique du Danemark . The Danish Grand Orient worked until 1929 where it merged with the Grand Orient of Denmark and the North and formed The Grand Lodge of Denmark , an irregular Masonic body . By profession Carl W. Hansen was a dealer in dairy products , though he lists himself as a chemist in Hartmann 's Who 's Who , second edition 1927 . Biographies of Hansen have been written by Peder Byberg Madsen and Bjarne Salling Pedersen and included in the reissue of Den Ny Morgens Gry , Lucifer-Hiram , Verdensbygmesterens Genkomst in 2006 ( ISBN 978-87-91698-00-2 ) Hansen died from a heart attack at the age of 64 .","qid":"2789","docid":"Carl_William_Hansen","rank":58,"score":122723},{"content":"Title: Randall Hansen Content: Randall Hansen is a political scientist and historian at the University of Toronto , where he has held a Canada Research Chair in Political Science since 2005 . He is the Director of the Centre for European , Russian , and Eurasian Studies at the Munk School of Global Affairs and is jointly appointed to the School of Public Policy and Governance . Hansen taught at the Queen Mary University of London and the University of Oxford ( where he was a tutorial fellow at Merton College ) before taking up his current position . He wil become the Interim Director of the Munk School effective June 1 , 2017 . His fields of research are migration and citizenship , eugenics and population policy , and the effect of war on civilian populations . He has authored three books , Citizenship and Immigration in Postwar Britain , Fire and Fury : the Allied Bombing of Germany 1942-1945 , and Disobeying Hitler : German Resistance after Valkyrie . Hansen was co-editor ( with Matthew J. Gibney ) of Immigration and Asylum : From 1900 to the Present . He is co-author ( with Desmond King ) of Sterilized by the State : Eugenics , Race and the Population Scare in 20th Century North America . Fire and Fury was shortlisted for the Governor General 's Literary Award for Non-Fiction in 2009 . Additionally , he has contributed numerous articles to academic journals . Hansen will be the interim director the Munk School of Global Affairs for the period June 1 , 2017 to June 30 , 2018 , succeeding Stephen Toope .","qid":"2789","docid":"Randall_Hansen","rank":59,"score":122671},{"content":"Title: Aadel Bülow-Hansen Content: Aadel Bülow-Hansen ( 24 September 1906 -- 18 November 2001 ) was a Norwegian physiotherapist . Together with psychiatrist Trygve Braatøy ( 1904-1953 ) , she developed psychomotor physiotherapy using psychomotorics , which can be used for the treatment of neuromuscular stress conditions . Aadel Bülow-Hansen was born in Kristiania ( now Oslo ) , Norway . She went to primary school and middle school at Nissens Pigskole . She continused her education at Orthopedic and Medico-Mechanical Institute ( Christiania Orthopediske and Medico Mekaniske Senter ) , which had been founded by her father , Victor Bülow-Hansen ( 1861 -- 1938 ) . She was employed by Sophie 's Minde Clinic ( now a subsidiary of Oslo University Hospital ) from 1927 until 1945 . During World War II , she worked together with neurologist Henrik Seyffarth , to find treatments for work-related stress . She came to understand that there might be a connection between muscle tension , respiration , and mental trauma . Bülow-Hansen had seen how important controlled respiration was to contributing to a healthy body and can also lead to control of the emotions . She was the first physiotherapist to be named to the First Class of the Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav , and in 2000 , she was named as the physiotherapist of the century in Norway . One of her students was Gerda Boyesen , who later developed Biodynamic Psychology , a form of Body Psychotherapy .","qid":"2789","docid":"Aadel_Bülow-Hansen","rank":60,"score":122560},{"content":"Title: Edmund Hansen Grut Content: Edmund Hansen Grut ( January 15 , 1831 -- 13 June 1907 ) was a Danish ophthalmologist born in Copenhagen . In 1857 he earned his medical doctorate at the University of Copenhagen , and afterwards traveled to Berlin , where he studied with Albrecht von Graefe ( 1828-1870 ) . In 1863 he opened an eye clinic at Nørregade , Copenhagen , and in 1873 founded an ophthalmic clinic at Havnegade ( Harbour Street ) , not far from the University Hospital . By 1880 , the Havnegade clinic had 19 beds for patients , and on the average performed around 100 cataract surgeries per year . It was also a centre of training for ophthalmology students , where men such as Jannik Petersen Bjerrum ( 1851-1920 ) , Marius Tscherning ( 1854-1939 ) and Gordon Norrie ( 1855-1941 ) worked as assistants . In 1882 Grut became a lecturer at the university , and in 1888 became the first professor of ophthalmology in Denmark . For a period of time he was editor-in-chief of the periodical Nordisk Oftalmologisk Tidsskrift .","qid":"2789","docid":"Edmund_Hansen_Grut","rank":61,"score":122423},{"content":"Title: Henry Paul Hansen Content: Henry Paul Hansen ( April 28 , 1907 -- October 8 , 1989 ) was an American palynologist known largely for his pioneering work on the vegetation history of the North American Pacific Northwest and for his time as the dean of Graduate Studies at Oregon State University from 1949 - 1972 .","qid":"2789","docid":"Henry_Paul_Hansen","rank":62,"score":122371},{"content":"Title: The Adventures of Captain Hansen Content: The Adventures of Captain Hansen ( German : Die Abenteuer des Kapitän Hansen ) is a 1917 German silent film directed by Harry Piel .","qid":"2789","docid":"The_Adventures_of_Captain_Hansen","rank":63,"score":122261},{"content":"Title: Agnete Hegelund Content: Agnete Hegelund Hansen ( born 10 March 1988 ) is a Danish fashion model . She has modeled in fashion shows for designers Burberry Prorsum , Christian Lacroix , Diane von Fürstenberg , Dolce & Gabbana , Givenchy , Marni , among others .","qid":"2789","docid":"Agnete_Hegelund","rank":64,"score":122254},{"content":"Title: Harold I. Hansen Content: Harold I. Hansen ( 1914-1992 ) was a major theatre professor at Brigham Young University ( BYU ) and the director of the Hill Cumorah Pageant from 1937-1977 , excluding the years during World War II in which it was not held . Hansen was born in Logan , Utah . Hansen did his undergraduate education at Utah State University . He then received an offer of a graduate assistantship at the University of Idaho to continue studies in drama , but at the urging of David O. McKay he accepted the call he had already received to serve in the Eastern States Mission . Hansen had very much hoped to serve in Denmark . It was while a missionary in the Eastern States mission that Hansen first served as director of the Hill Cumorah Pageant . Although pageants had been produced at the Hill Cumorah the previous two years , 1937 was the first year that H. Wayne Driggs ' script , which would be the basis of the pageant until 1987 , was used . Thus as the first director Hansen essentially had to figure out the ways to move from the script to actual production that would remain the main outline of the production for the next half-century , or ten years beyond his retirement as director . It was also there that he met Betty Kotter , also serving as a missionary in the mission , who he later married . They were actually married at the flagpole on the Hill Cumorah on July 16 , 1940 , just before a production of the Hill Cumorah Pageant , and about a year after Hansen had finished his mission . Harold would later claim this was where he and Betty first met , but she claimed the story he told of their first encounter was largely made up . They were sealed in the Logan Temple the following month . After his mission Hansen earned a masters in drama at Iowa State University . His thesis was on the history of drama as supported by religious institutions in the United States . From 1941-1942 Hansen was a seminary and institute instructor with the Church Educational System . He then performed at The Cleveland Play House until 1945 when he joined the faculty of Michigan State University . He then returned to Utah State University where he joined the Drama faculty and earned a Ph.D. in 1949 with the subject of his doctoral dissertation being a history of Mormon Theatre . In 1952 Hansen was recruited by Brigham Young University president Ernest L. Wilkinson to replace T. Earl Pardoe as head of the Drama department . From his start at BYU Hansen was producing cutting edge shows . During his first season he managed to perform both The Glass Managerie and Death of a Salesman . The reason this was exceptional is that at the time both shows were still running on broadway . In many ways the biggest BYU production done by Hansen was Sand in their Shoes , a musical about the Mormon Pioneers with text by Don Oscarson and music by Crawford Gates . While head of the BYU Theatre Department Hansen oversaw the implementation of graduate studies in 1960 and the move to suitable space in the Harris Fine Arts Center in 1965 . Hansen remained the head of the BYU Theatre Department until 1979 . While working at BYU Hansen was also involved as the co-owner and co-director with Lael Woodbury of the Ledges Theatre in Grand Ledge , Michigan from 1960-1967 . They had previously from 1947-1952 run the Proscenium Players , also in Grand Ledge , from 1947-1952 . From the end of World War II until 1977 Hansen had also served as director of the Hill Cumorah Pageant . In 1977 Hansen was replaced as director of the Hill Cumorah Pageant by Jack Paul Sederholm , who had studied at BYU and was then chair of the communications art department at Elizabethtown College in Pennsylvania . Sederholm had served for 12 years previously as Hansen 's chief assistant . In 1967 BYU Press published a book authored by Hansen with the same title as his doctoral dissertation . Hansen and his wife Betty were the parents of four daughters . The Harris Fine Arts Center has a rehearsal hall named for Hansen .","qid":"2789","docid":"Harold_I._Hansen","rank":65,"score":122170},{"content":"Title: Flemming Hansen (politician) Content: Flemming Hansen ( born 9 August 1939 ) is a Danish politician representing the Conservative People 's Party . Born in Copenhagen , he has been a member of parliament ( Folketing ) since 1984 and was the Minister of Traffic from 27 November 2001 to 12 September 2007 , Minister of Nordic Co-operation from 18 June 2002 to 18 February 2005 , and Minister of Energy from 18 February 2005 to 12 September 2007 . He owns shoe shops in Vejle , Fredericia , and Horsens .","qid":"2789","docid":"Flemming_Hansen_(politician)","rank":66,"score":122102},{"content":"Title: Jacob Ellehammer Content: Jacob Christian Hansen Ellehammer ( June 14 , 1871 -- May 20 , 1946 ) was a Danish watchmaker and inventor born in Bakkebølle , Denmark . He is remembered chiefly for his contributions to powered flight . Following the end of his apprenticeship as a watchmaker he moved to Copenhagen where he worked as an electronics mechanic before establishing his own company in 1898 . In the beginning he produced cigarette machines , beverage machines and other electronic machinery . In 1904 he produced his first motorcycle , the Elleham motorcycle . In 1903 -- 1904 Jacob Ellehammer used his experience constructing motorcycles to build the world 's first air-cooled radial engine , a three-cylinder engine which he used as the basis for a more powerful five-cylinder model in 1907 . This was installed in his triplane and made a number of short free-flight hops as mentioned below . In 1905 , he constructed a monoplane , and in the following year a `` semi-biplane '' . In this latter machine , he made a tethered flight on 12 September 1906 . Ellehammer 's later inventions included a successful triplane and helicopter . His helicopter was a coaxial machine . A famous photo shows it hovering in 1914 , though there is no evidence that it was successful in achieving translational flight . Ellehammer later studied a disc-rotor configuration - a compound helicopter with coaxial blades that extended from the hub for hover , and retracted for high speed vertical flight . Although a wind tunnel model was constructed , there 's no evidence that anything more was studied .","qid":"2789","docid":"Jacob_Ellehammer","rank":67,"score":122055},{"content":"Title: Ejvind Hansen Content: Ejvind Hansen ( July 28 , 1924 -- December 19 , 1996 ) was a Danish sprint canoeist who competed in the late 1940s and the early 1950s . Competing in two Summer Olympics , he won a silver in the K-2 1000 m event at London in 1948 . Hansen also won three medals at the ICF Canoe Sprint World Championships with a silver ( K-1 4 x 500 m : 1950 ) and two bronzes ( K-1 4 x 500 m and K-2 500 m : both 1948 ) .","qid":"2789","docid":"Ejvind_Hansen","rank":68,"score":121990},{"content":"Title: Matthew Hansen Content: Matthew Hansen is a Canadian screenwriter , author and editor . A former competitive cyclist , Hansen lives in Toronto , Ontario . He began his publishing career as a cycling journalist . Following that , Hansen worked as an editor for Dreamwave Productions , publishers of several comic titles including The Transformers , before moving onto to become the Editor in Chief of Marvel Comics/Dabel Brothers Productions Hansen adapted R.A. Salvatore 's novel The Highwayman through Marvel Comics . Hansen also adapted Ted Dekker 's Circle Trilogy of novels into graphic novels . Hansen wrote the film Zoom , which premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival in 2015 . In 2016 , Hansen was nominated for a Canadian Screen Award for Zoom , for Best Original Screenplay .","qid":"2789","docid":"Matthew_Hansen","rank":69,"score":121857},{"content":"Title: George V. Hansen Content: George Vernon Hansen ( September 14 , 1930 -- August 14 , 2014 ) was a Republican politician from the state of Idaho . He served in the U.S. House of Representatives for 14 years , representing Idaho 's 2nd district from 1965 to 1969 and again from 1975 to 1985 .","qid":"2789","docid":"George_V._Hansen","rank":70,"score":121580},{"content":"Title: Jim Hansen (Idaho politician) Content: James Duncan `` Jim '' Hansen ( born November 5 , 1959 ) is an American attorney , Ada County Highway District Commissioner and former Democratic politician from Idaho . He was the 2006 Democratic nominee for Congress in Idaho 's 2nd district , but was defeated by four-term incumbent Mike Simpson . Hansen was elected to the Ada County Highway District in 2012 and is serving a four-year term .","qid":"2789","docid":"Jim_Hansen_(Idaho_politician)","rank":71,"score":121507},{"content":"Title: Myrna Hansen Content: Myrna Hansen ( born August 5 , 1934 ) is an American actress , model and beauty pageant titleholder who won Miss USA 1953 . She played the part of Lydia in the movie `` Raintree County '' .","qid":"2789","docid":"Myrna_Hansen","rank":72,"score":121472},{"content":"Title: Jens Christian Hansen Content: Jens Christian Hansen ( 5 May 1932 in Bodø -- 8 May 2014 ) was a Norwegian geographer . He took the dr.philos . degree in 1970 with the thesis Administrative grenser og tettstedsvekst . After a period as a docent at the Norwegian School of Economics he was a professor at the University of Bergen from 1972 . He was a fellow of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters from 1985 , of the Academia Europaea and of the Royal Norwegian Society of Sciences and Letters . He died in May 2014 .","qid":"2789","docid":"Jens_Christian_Hansen","rank":73,"score":121459},{"content":"Title: Charles D. Hansen Content: Charles `` Chuck '' D. Hansen is an American computer scientist at the University of Utah who works on scientific visualization . He is a Fellow of the IEEE and Associate Director of the Scientific Computing and Imaging Institute . He is currently associate editor-in-chief of IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Graphics .","qid":"2789","docid":"Charles_D._Hansen","rank":74,"score":121453},{"content":"Title: Johannes Hansen (sculptor) Content: Johannes Christian Hansen ( 22 October 1903 -- 2 August 1995 ) was a Danish sculptor . In addition to his sculpted figures of children and interacting couples , he designed a wide variety of glazes and plates for the Knabstrup Keramiske Industri ceramics factory where he was artistic director .","qid":"2789","docid":"Johannes_Hansen_(sculptor)","rank":75,"score":121209},{"content":"Title: Warren Hansen Content: Warren R. Hansen ( born February 15 , 1943 ) is a Canadian retired curler . He played as third on the Hec Gervais rink that won the 1974 Brier . Hansen served as director of event operations for Curling Canada , but retired in June 2015 . He currently works for the Curling Canada Board of Governors as an advisory , the United States Curling Association as a Business Development Consultant and is part of the organizing committee , in Las Vegas , that are hosting the Men 's World Curling Championship in 2018 . Hansen worked for Curling Canada ( formerly the Canadian Curling Association ) 1974 - 2015 . His involvement with the organization has been instrumental in moving major events into hockey arenas , introducing the page playoff system , reducing the amount of sheets in events to four , implementing player dress codes , bringing in officiating of major events and the creation of the Continental Cup of Curling and Canada Cup of Curling . In addition Hansen played a key role , along with Calgary 's Ray Kingsmith in establishing curling as a demonstration sport at the 1988 Winter Olympics in Calgary . In 2002 he developed the game of Mixed Doubles as part of the newly created Continental Cup . In June 2015 it was announced that Mixed Doubles will be a full medal sport at the 2018 Winter Olympics . Hansen is a member of the Alberta Sports Hall of Fame as a team member of the Edmonton Huskies and also as a Curling Builder . He is a member of the City of Edmonton Sports Hall of Fame as a team member of the Huskies and a Curler/Builder in the Canadian Curing Hall of Fame and a Builder in the World Curing Hall of Fame . Hansen grew up in Namao , Alberta and played junior football for the -LSB- -LSB- Edmonton Huskies -RSB- when the team won three consecutive Canadian championships in 1962 , '63 and ' 64 . -RSB- .","qid":"2789","docid":"Warren_Hansen","rank":76,"score":121153},{"content":"Title: Even Hansen Content: Even Hansen ( 1790 -- 1840 ) was a Norwegian civil servant and politician . He worked as fut in Sunnfjord and Nordfjord from 1826 to 1833 , and later in Hedmark . He served as a deputy representative to the Norwegian Parliament in both 1830 and 1833 .","qid":"2789","docid":"Even_Hansen","rank":77,"score":121069},{"content":"Title: Storms of My Grandchildren Content: Storms of My Grandchildren : The Truth About the Coming Climate Catastrophe and Our Last Chance to Save Humanity is climate scientist James Hansen 's first book , published by Bloomsbury Press in 2009 . The book is about threats to people and habitability for life on earth from global warming .","qid":"2789","docid":"Storms_of_My_Grandchildren","rank":78,"score":121068},{"content":"Title: Kenneth Hansen (rallycross) Content: Svend Kenneth Hansen , born 29 September 1960 and hailing from Götene , is a Swedish rallycross driver with Danish roots . His late father , Svend Hansen , can be regarded as the inventor of the so-called Joker Laps for rallycross . Hansen has been part of the European rallycross elite since the late 1980s and has won an FIA European Championships for Rallycross Drivers title no less than 14 times up until the year 2008 . He holds most of the records for rallycross , including the amount ( 249 ) of attended European rounds .","qid":"2789","docid":"Kenneth_Hansen_(rallycross)","rank":79,"score":121048},{"content":"Title: Holm Hansen Munthe Content: Holm Hansen Munthe ( 1 January 1848 -- 23 May 1898 ) was a Norwegian architect . He was a leading representative of dragon style architecture ( Drakestil ) during the 1880s and 1890s . Holm Hansen Munthe was born at Stange in Hedmark , Norway . He was the son of Adolph Frederik Munthe ( 1817 -- 1884 ) and Karen Emilie Hansen ( 1820 -- 1884 ) . He father was a military officer and government official . In the early 1870s , he was an apprentice in Christiania and a student at the drawing school of Wilhelm von Hanno . He graduated from Hanover Polytechnikum in 1877 . Between 1878 and 1885 he cooperated with Henrik Nissen . From 1889 he worked for the Holmenkol-Voxenkol-Selskabet , among others drawing the well-known Frognerseteren restaurant in the so-called dragon style . Emperor Wilhelm II of Germany , vacationing in Norway , noticed these buildings and commissioned the erection of his Rominten Hunting Lodge in East Prussia ; however these buildings were largely destroyed after World War II , remnants of the Lodge are used as the seat of the administration at the Kaliningrad Central Park . The Kongsnæs ' sailors station in Potsdam was partially destroyed in 1945 . Currently it is planned to re-erect the complete complex . In 1898 Munthe was appointed city architect in Kristiania , but he died before actually assuming office . he was buried at Vår Frelsers gravlund in Oslo .","qid":"2789","docid":"Holm_Hansen_Munthe","rank":80,"score":120979},{"content":"Title: Jørgen Hammergaard Hansen Content: Jørgen Hammergaard Hansen ( c. 1930 -- 22 August 2013 ) was a Danish badminton player who won numerous major international titles from the mid-1950s to the mid-1960s . Though he competed in singles at a strong international level during the first half of his career , it was as a doubles player that he made his mark , capturing six All-England men 's doubles titles with Finn Kobberø ( 1955 , 1956 , 1961 , 1962 , 1963 , 1964 ) and reaching the final round of the All-England mixed doubles on three occasions . Noted for his powerful smash which included an ability to smash off his backhand with the heavy rackets of the day , Hammergaard Hansen took part in five consecutive Thomas Cup ( men 's international team ) campaigns for Denmark between 1952 and 1964 , winning over 80 percent of his matches . In 1998 he was inducted into the Badminton Hall of Fame .","qid":"2789","docid":"Jørgen_Hammergaard_Hansen","rank":81,"score":120852},{"content":"Title: Heino Hansen Content: Arvo Heino Raudanma Hansen ( born 24 September 1947 ) is a Danish former professional footballer who played 31 games and scored five goals for the Danish national team from 1972 to 1978 , and represented Denmark at the 1972 Summer Olympics football tournament . Hansen played as a midfielder for Danish club Slagelse B&I , as well as German clubs FC St. Pauli and SC Preußen Münster in the German 2 . Bundesliga . Hansen started his career with Slagelse B&I . He debuted for the Danish national team in July 1972 , scoring a goal in the 5 -- 2 win against Icelandic national team . He scored three goals in six games at the 1972 Olympics in Germany , and moved to play in the 2 . Bundesliga after the tournament . He played 74 games and scored 14 goals for St. Pauli between 1974 and 1976 , and played 63 games and scored three goals for Münster between 1976 and 1978 . He moved back to Slagelse where he ended his career .","qid":"2789","docid":"Heino_Hansen","rank":82,"score":120731},{"content":"Title: Bjarne Hansen Content: Bjarne Hansen is a Danish art director , painter and colorist . He was worked as a freelance illustrator for magazines , commercials and books . He graduated from the Art and Craft School in Kolding in 1991 . He has also worked in preproduction on the TV shows Troll Tales , Benjamin Blümchen , among other TV specials . Bjarne has been a background painter for A-Film on the features Quest For Camelot and JungleJack 1 and 2 . He also worked on a small primary color-script for the CGI animated feature Jungo Goes Bananas , another in the JungleJack series . He also worked as head of backgrounds on feature film Asterix and the Vikings . He also worked in the American comics industry . He was nominated for a Wizard Fan Award in 1998 . He has written and drawn graphic novels , illustrated a story by Morten Remar , and has worked coloring DC Comics including House of Secrets , The Light Brigade and A God Somewhere . Bjarne recently has worked as art director on Sylvain Chomet 's film The Illusionist , focusing on color-script and background-painting . The film was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Animated Feature .","qid":"2789","docid":"Bjarne_Hansen","rank":83,"score":120645},{"content":"Title: Guttorm Hansen Content: Guttorm Hansen ( 3 November 1920 -- 2 April 2009 ) was a Norwegian writer and politician for the Labour Party . He started his career as a mechanic , but after 1945 he was a journalist and editor of magazines and newspapers . Via local politics in his native Namsos he was elected to the Norwegian Parliament in 1961 , serving six terms in total . He was the President of the Storting for two of these terms , from 1973 to 1981 . He was also known as a prolific book writer , many of his books having a direct connection to his political life .","qid":"2789","docid":"Guttorm_Hansen","rank":84,"score":120616},{"content":"Title: Frits Hansen Content: Frits Hansen ( 31 January 1841 -- 8 June 1911 ) was a Norwegian educator , newspaper editor , biographer and politician . Hansen was born at Larvik , in Vestfold , Norway . He was the son of Magistrate Frederik Christian Hansen ( 1799-1860 ) and Albine Elise Fougnerbakken ( 1801-1846 ) . He earned his Cand.theol . degree in 1865 . Subsequently he became a teacher at the Norwegian Military Academy . From 1872 , Hansen taught at Sagatun Folk High School in Hamar . In 1881 Hansen was a teacher at a private middle school in Stavanger . He was also editor of the Lillehammer newspaper Framgang . In 1890 , he wrote Edvard Storm , digteren fra Vaage , a biography of the poet Edvard Storm . In 1896 he moved to Christiania ( now Oslo ) and was editor of Eidsvold . He was the chairman and founder of the regional centrist-conservative political party Centre in the 1890s .","qid":"2789","docid":"Frits_Hansen","rank":85,"score":120398},{"content":"Title: Gunnar Hansen Content: Gunnar Milton Hansen ( March 4 , 1947 -- November 7 , 2015 ) was an Icelandic-born American actor and author best known for playing the mentally impaired cannibal Leatherface in The Texas Chain Saw Massacre ( 1974 ) .","qid":"2789","docid":"Gunnar_Hansen","rank":86,"score":120203},{"content":"Title: Søren Hansen Content: Søren Hansen ( born 21 March 1974 ) is a Danish professional golfer . Hansen was born in Copenhagen , Denmark . He won the 1997 Danish Amateur Stroke Play Championship and turned professional later that year . Hansen collected his first professional win at the Challenge Tour 's 1998 Navision Open Golf Championship in his home country . Since 1999 he has been a member of the European Tour where he has picked up two tournament victories . He won the 2002 Murphy 's Irish Open , where he won at the fourth extra hole in a play-off against Richard Bland , Niclas Fasth and Darren Fichardt . He also won the 2007 Mercedes-Benz Championship by a margin of four strokes . His best Order of Merit finish is 8th in 2007 . He represented Europe in the 2008 Ryder Cup matches , but he did not win a match , the U.S. was victorious . In September 2007 , he reached the top 50 of the Official World Golf Rankings and became the top-ranked Danish golfer . Hansen represented Denmark in the World Cup in 1998 , 2001 , 2002 , 2005 and 2007 . On 11 August 2009 , Hansen was charged with tax evasion by Danish authorities for allegedly claiming residency of Monaco , while actually living in Denmark . On 19 May 2010 , Hansen was fined nearly $ 1.1 million for tax evasion .","qid":"2789","docid":"Søren_Hansen","rank":87,"score":120116},{"content":"Title: Gerhard Armauer Hansen Content: Gerhard Henrik Armauer Hansen ( 29 July 1841 -- 12 February 1912 ) was a Norwegian physician , remembered for his identification of the bacterium Mycobacterium leprae in 1873 as the causative agent of leprosy .","qid":"2789","docid":"Gerhard_Armauer_Hansen","rank":88,"score":120099},{"content":"Title: Hårek Ludvig Hansen Content: Hårek Ludvig Hansen ( 14 July 1901 -- 1 March 1996 ) was a Norwegian politician for the Conservative Party . He was elected to the Norwegian Parliament from Nordland in 1945 , but was not re-elected in 1949 . Born in Tjøtta , Hansen was a member of Alstahaug municipal council from 1963 to 1965 . Outside politics he mainly worked as a fisher and farmer .","qid":"2789","docid":"Hårek_Ludvig_Hansen","rank":89,"score":119994},{"content":"Title: Geir-Ketil Hansen Content: Geir-Ketil Hansen ( born 13 March 1956 in Narvik ) is a Norwegian politician for the Socialist Left Party . He was elected to the Norwegian Parliament from Nordland in 2001 , but was not re-elected in 2005 . He served in the position of deputy representative during the terms 1989 -- 1993 and 2005 -- 2009 . On the local level Hansen was a member of the executive committee of Narvik municipal council from 1979 to 1987 . From 1999 to 2001 and 2005 to 2011 he was a member of Nordland county cabinet . Since 2006 he works at the Office of the Auditor General of Norway .","qid":"2789","docid":"Geir-Ketil_Hansen","rank":90,"score":119977},{"content":"Title: Valda Hansen Content: Valda Joanne Hansen ( November 3 , 1932 -- July 21 , 1993 ) was an American actress , known for her performances in a number of B-movies in the 1950s and 1970s . Her most famous role was that of the White Ghost in Ed Wood 's Night of the Ghouls ( 1959 ) . She had previously played a stripper in Strips Around the World ( 1955 ) . She returned to the screen in the 1970s and appeared in movies such as Cain 's Cutthroats ( 1971 ) , Slaughter 's Big Rip-Off ( 1973 ) and Wham ! Bam ! Thank You , Spaceman ! ( 1975 , in which she was credited as `` Zelda '' ) . She also appeared in a 1990s documentary about the filmmaker Ed Wood . Hansen retired from acting around 1975 , and died in Hollywood on July 21 , 1993 , aged 60 , from cancer .","qid":"2789","docid":"Valda_Hansen","rank":91,"score":119907},{"content":"Title: IS–LM model Content: The IS -- LM model , or Hicks -- Hansen model , is a macroeconomic tool that shows the relationship between interest rates ( ordinate ) and assets market ( also known as real output in goods and services market plus money market , as abscissa ) . The intersection of the `` investment -- saving '' ( IS ) and `` liquidity preference -- money supply '' ( LM ) curves models `` general equilibrium '' where supposed simultaneous equilibrium occurs in both interest and assets markets . Yet two equivalent interpretations are possible : first , the IS -- LM model explains changes in national income when price level is fixed short-run ; second , the IS -- LM model shows why an aggregate demand curve can shift . Hence , this tool is sometimes used not only to analyse economic fluctuations but also to suggest potential levels for appropriate stabilisation policies . The model was developed by John Hicks in 1937 , and later extended by Alvin Hansen , as a mathematical representation of Keynesian macroeconomic theory . Between the 1940s and mid-1970s , it was the leading framework of macroeconomic analysis . While it has been largely absent from macroeconomic research ever since , it is still a backbone conceptual introductory tool in many macroeconomics textbooks .","qid":"2789","docid":"IS–LM_model","rank":92,"score":119846},{"content":"Title: Peter Hansen (actor) Content: Peter Franklin Hansen ( December 5 , 1921 -- April 9 , 2017 ) was an American actor , best known for his role as a lawyer , Lee Baldwin , on the soap opera General Hospital , playing the role from 1965 to 1976 , 1977 to 1986 , briefly in 1990 , and again from 1992 to 2004 . 1989 , played in movie , '' War of the Roses , with Danny Devito , Kathleen Turner , Michael Douglas .","qid":"2789","docid":"Peter_Hansen_(actor)","rank":93,"score":119739},{"content":"Title: Mount Holm-Hansen Content: Mount Holm-Hansen is a prominent mountain rising to 1,920 m between the lower David Valley and Bartley Glacier in the Asgard Range of Victoria Land , Antarctica . Bifrost Ledge is a flat benchlike feature that rises to 1,750 metres ( 5,740 ft ) on the north side of Mount Holm-Hansen . It was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names in 1997 after Osmund Holm-Hansen , a plant physiologist , who , working in the 1959 -- 60 season , was one of the first American scientists to visit and conduct research in both Taylor Valley and Wright Valley . Holm-Hansen was a Research Biologist at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography from 1962 , and his extensive field research from 1976 includes studies of microbial populations in McMurdo Sound , the Ross Sea , and other ocean areas south of the Antarctic Convergence .","qid":"2789","docid":"Mount_Holm-Hansen","rank":94,"score":119681},{"content":"Title: John Hansen (rower) Content: John Ørsted Hansen ( born 8 October 1938 ) is a retired Danish rower . Together with Erik Petersen , Kurt Helmudt and Bjørn Hasløv he won the gold medal at the 1964 Summer Olympics and a silver medal at the 1964 European Championships in the coxless fours event .","qid":"2789","docid":"John_Hansen_(rower)","rank":95,"score":119661},{"content":"Title: Hans Hansen (architect) Content: Hans Hansen ( 16 May 1889 , Roetgen -- 24 May 1966 , Cologne ) was a German architect and theorist and one of the correspondents of Bruno Taut 's utopian expressionist chain letter , the Glass Chain . Hansen contributed under the pseudonym Antischmitz . Hansen was born in Roetgen . In 1920 he attracted the attention and praise of Bruno Taut after the publication of his book `` The Experience of Architecture '' ( Das Erlebnis der Architektur ) . Hansen later went on to become one of Germany 's leading church architects . He died in Cologne . His great great granddaughter , Dinah Jane Hansen , is in the girl group Fifth Harmony . She has shown support to him on her visit to Denmark on October 22 , 2016","qid":"2789","docid":"Hans_Hansen_(architect)","rank":96,"score":119506},{"content":"Title: Hans Peter Hansen Content: Hans Peter Hansen ( December 20 , 1829 -- November 18 , 1899 ) was a Danish xylographer who specialized in portraits . Hansen was born in Copenhagen . He first learned the profession of watchmaking before studying woodcutting under Hans Christian Henneberg , Johann Adolf Kittendorff , and Johan Peter Aagaard . At the same time , he also followed courses at the Academy of Arts of Copenhagen ( 1843/44 ) . In 1854 , he travelled to Germany , first to Dresden and then to Leipzig , where he settled . In 1859 , he married Clara Aurelia Sophie Langer ( August 5 , 1830 -- July 1 , 1913 ) , the daughter of the engraver Georg Gottfried Langer and sister of engraver Karl Hermann Theodor Langer ( December 17 , 1819 -- 1895 ) . In 1864 , he returned to Copenhagen , where he worked for several illustrated magazines and newspapers , such as Illustreret Tidende and Ude og Hjemme . He also illustrated books , amongst them Nyere Dansk Malerkunst ( Sigurd Müller , 1884 ) and the children books printed by Richardt 's and Rode 's .","qid":"2789","docid":"Hans_Peter_Hansen","rank":97,"score":119470},{"content":"Title: Lisa M. Hansen Content: Lisa M. Hansen is an American film producer , production manager , actress , writer , and craft service person . She has worked in various genres , including thriller , action , drama , and science fiction . She once frequently made cameos in the movies she has been involved with .","qid":"2789","docid":"Lisa_M._Hansen","rank":98,"score":119461},{"content":"Title: Kenneth Hansen (speedway rider) Content: Kenneth Kruse Hansen ( born 19 October 1987 in Herlev , Denmark ) is a motorcycle speedway rider who rode in the United Kingdom for the Wolverhampton Wolves and Peterborough Panthers in the Elite League . He started the 2007 season with the Workington Comets in the Premier League but lost his place after sustaining a broken wrist . Hansen has represented Denmark in the Under-21 Speedway World Cup . It was announced in 2008 that the Wolverhampton Wolves had signed Hansen on a full contract .","qid":"2789","docid":"Kenneth_Hansen_(speedway_rider)","rank":99,"score":119400},{"content":"Title: Francis Everitt Content: C. W. Francis Everitt is a US-based English physicist working on experimental testing of general relativity . Everitt was educated at Imperial College London and the University of Pennsylvania in low-temperature physics . He is Professor at the Hansen Experimental Physics Laboratory of Stanford University and is also an Associate Member of the Kavli Institute for Particle Astrophysics and Cosmology ( KIPAC ) . Everitt is Principal Investigator of the Gravity Probe B mission mainly aimed to test frame-dragging at an expected accuracy of 1 % . According to general relativity , it is an effect induced by the rotation of the Earth on orbiting gyroscopes . Everitt spent more than 40 years on the project and was awarded with the NASA Distinguished Public Service Medal . The results were published in Physical Review Letters in May 2011 . The results confirm general relativity 's predictions , though not to the project 's ambitious goal of 1 % precision .","qid":"2789","docid":"Francis_Everitt","rank":100,"score":119362}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: James Hansen Content: James Edward Hansen ( born 29 March 1941 ) is an American adjunct professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University . He is best known for his research in climatology , his 1988 Congressional testimony on climate change that helped raise broad awareness of global warming , and his advocacy of action to avoid dangerous climate change . In recent years he has become a climate activist to mitigate the effects of climate change , on a few occasions leading to his arrest . In 2000 , Hansen advanced an alternative view of global warming over the last 100 years , arguing that during that time frame the negative forcing via aerosols and the positive forcing via largely balanced each other out , and that the 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide , such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons . However , even then he wrote `` the future balance of forcings is likely to shift toward dominance of CO2 over aerosols ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"James_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 200388\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bjørn Helland-Hansen Content: Bjørn Helland-Hansen ( 16 October 1877 -- 7 September 1957 ) was a Norwegian pioneer in the field of modern oceanography . He studied the variation patterns of the weather in the northern Atlantic Ocean and of the atmosphere . He studied both medicine and physics at the University of Christiania ( now University of Oslo ) . He developed the `` Helland-Hansen Photometer '' in 1910 , which was carried on board Michael Sars . It was operated for the first time close to the Azores at a depth between 500 and m . In 1915 he became Professor of oceanography at the Bergen Museum , and in 1917 director of the Geophysical Institute , University of Bergen . In 1933 he was awarded the Alexander Agassiz Medal . In 1939 he became President of the International Geodesic and Geophysical Union . He was a member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences and a member of the Member of the Academy of Sciences of the German Democratic Republic ( DDR ) . Helland-Hansen trained Alexander Kuchin , the Russian oceanographer who went to Antarctica with Roald Amundsen . An island in the Russian Arctic , east of the Geiberg Islands , has been named Gellanda-Gansena after Helland-Hansen . thumb | left | Bjørn Helland-Hansen ( ca 1917 )\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Bjørn_Helland-Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 165747\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Jens Hoyer Hansen Content: Jens Høyer Hansen ( 14 July 1940 -- 10 August 1999 ) was a Danish-born jeweller who settled in New Zealand and did most of his well-known work in Nelson , New Zealand . Hansen was one of a number of European-trained jewellers who came to New Zealand in the 1960s and transformed contemporary jewellery in the country , including Tanya Ashken , Kobi Bosshard and Gunter Taemmler . He was the designer and creator of the prop ring used as The One Ring in Peter Jackson 's The Lord of the Rings and The Hobbit film trilogies .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Jens_Hoyer_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 141739\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Warming: What You Need to Know Content: Global Warming What You Need to Know is a 2006 global warming ( climate change ) documentary , directed by Nicolas Brown , starring Tom Brokaw , James Hansen , Michael Oppenheimer , and Mark Serreze . The film focuses on impacts from climate change , and Tom Brokaw interviews scientists . The documentary premiered on Discovery Channel , 16 July 2006 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Warming:_What_You_Need_to_Know\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 136985\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: W. W. Hansen Content: William Webster Hansen ( May 27 , 1909 -- May 23 , 1949 ) was an American physicist and professor . He was one of the founders of the technology of microwave electronics .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"W._W._Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 136895\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Emil Christian Hansen Content: Emil Christian Hansen ( May 8 , 1842 -- August 27 , 1909 ) was a Danish mycologist and fermentation physiologist . Born in Ribe , he financed his education by writing novels . He was awarded a gold medal in 1876 for an essay on fungi , titled De danske Gjødningssvampe . During his days as a university student in Copenhagen , he worked as an unpaid assistant to zoologist Japetus Steenstrup ( 1813 -- 1897 ) . In 1876 , with Alfred Jørgensen ( 1848 -- 1925 ) , he published a Danish translation of Charles Darwin 's `` The Voyage of the Beagle '' ; Rejse om Jorden . From 1879 to 1909 , he was director of the physiological department at Carlsberg Laboratory . Hired by the Carlsberg Laboratory in Copenhagen in 1879 , he became the first to isolate a pure cell of yeast in 1883 , and after combining it with a sugary solution , produced more yeast than was in a yeast bank . It was named as Saccharomyces carlsbergensis after the laboratory , and is the yeast from which are derived , all yeasts used in lager beers . See Fermentation , Yeast . Hansen is the taxonomic authority of the fungal genus Anixiopsis ( 1897 ) from the family Onygenaceae .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Emil_Christian_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 134173\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: John H. Mercer Content: John H. Mercer ( Cheltenham , England , 19 October 1922 -- Columbus , Ohio 3 July 1987 ) was a glaciologist , chiefly known for his theoretical work on , and field studies of Antarctic ice streams , especially in the Transantarctic Mountains and in West Antarctica . Following John T. Hollin 's work ( 1962 ) suggesting that climatic warming and rising sea-level cause Antarctic ice shelves to retreat , Mercer postulated that the West Antarctic ice sheet , being grounded well below sea-level and terminating in floating ice shelves , was vulnerable to these changes and may have collapsed altogether during the last interglacial when Antarctica may have been warmer and sea-level may have been higher . In 1978 , in the science magazine Nature , Mercer pointed out that `` green-house '' warming from burning fossil fuel could have the same effect during the present interglacial . Two studies published 12 May 2014 confirm Mercer 's assumption . Climate scientist James Hansen has coined the term , `` John Mercer effect . '' After Mercer published his paper suggesting that the West Antarctic ice sheet could collapse in response to warming , he struggled to get funding . Others , including Hansen , had similar problems . Many climate scientists censor their own work to avoid losing funding , especially regarding prospects for limiting warming to 2 ° C above pre-industrial temperatures . John H. Mercer was the third child of Harriet and John W. Mercer . He was educated at private schools in Cheltenham and , later , at Gordonstoun in Scotland . During World War II he served in the British Merchant Marines ( 1940 -- 46 ) as a radio man . After the war he went to University of Cambridge and studied geography . At that time he came under the influence of William Vaughan Lewis . After finishing his B.A. in 1949 Mercer went to Canada , where he received his PhD in geography from McGill University in 1954 . He was a Research Scholar from 1954 to 1956 at the Australian National University in Canberra , where he studied land use and population in western Samoa . He returned to Canada and worked in the Canadian Hydro-graphic Office in Ottawa as a geographer in 1957 and 1958 . During 1959 -- 60 , 1961 -- 62 , 1964 , and 1966 , the American Geographical Society employed him at its World Data Center A for Glaciology in New York . The turning point in his career as a glaciologist was in 1960 , when he became a Research Associate at The Ohio State University , in the Institute of Polar Studies ( renamed the Byrd Polar Research Center ) . He remained at The Ohio State University until his death , becoming its first Senior Research Scientist .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"John_H._Mercer\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 133992\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Charles M. Hansen Content: Dr. Charles Medom Hansen ( Louisville , Kentucky , 1938 ) is an American-born scientist with Danish ancestry who is now a Danish citizen living in the Copenhagen area . After a degree ( 1961 , Louisville ) and Masters ( 1962 , Wisconsin ) in chemical engineering , Hansen worked for his PhD at the Technical University of Denmark , initially on the problems of solvent retention in polymers , starting his life-time interest in diffusion science . However , the problems of predicting the compatibility of solvents with polymers took over , leading him to overcome the problems of the then-popular Hildebrand solubility parameter by dividing Hildebrand 's single parameter into three components : dispersion , polar and hydrogen bonding . His 1967 doctoral thesis ( Dr. techn . ) provided the basis for what came to be called Hansen solubility parameters , or HSPs . In addition to providing a theoretical framework , the thesis provided the first working set of HSP values for common solvents and for a range of commercial polymers , making it of immediate practical use to academia and industry . His theories were put to immediate use during his 8 years ( 1968 -- 76 ) at the R/D Center , PPG Industries in Pittsburgh where the universality of HSP became apparent as they were shown to work equally well for problems such as optimising the compatibility of pigments within paint and ink formulations . Gradually they became adopted more widely as shown by the cumulative graph of Google Scholar citations for the phrase `` Hansen Solubility Parameter '' . He was Director of the Scandinavian Paint & Printing Ink Research Institute in Hørsholm , Denmark from 1976 to 1985 , a Senior Scientist at Hempel Group from 1985 to 1987 , then Senior Scientist at FORCE Technology , Copenhagen from 1988 to 2004 . Upon retirement he became , and remains , an independent consultant . In addition to over 130 published papers and 8 patents ( h-index 25 ) , he authored Hansen Solubility Parameters -- A User 's Handbook in 1999 followed by an expanded 2nd Edition in 2007 . With Abbott and Yamamoto he authored the package of software , eBook and datasets called Hansen Solubility Parameters in Practice , in 2008 which is currently in its 5th Edition .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Charles_M._Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 133018\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Rolf Hansen (director) Content: Rolf Hansen ( 12 December 1904 -- 3 December 1990 ) was a German film director . He directed 20 films between 1936 and 1960 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Rolf_Hansen_(director)\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 132534\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carl Hansen Ostenfeld Content: Carl Emil Hansen Ostenfeld ( born Carl Emil Ostenfeld-Hansen ) ( 3 August 1873 -- 16 January 1931 ) was a Danish systematic botanist . He graduated from the University of Copenhagen under professor Eugenius Warming . He was a keeper at the Botanical Museum 1900-1918 , when he became professor of botany at the Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University . In 1923 , by the early retirement of Raunkiær 's , Ostenfeld became professor of botany at the University of Copenhagen and director of the Copenhagen Botanical Garden , both positions held until his death in 1931 . He was a member of the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters and served on the board of directors of the Carlsberg Foundation . Ostenfeld is known as an explorer of the Danish flora , including marine plankton , as well as the flora of Western Australia . Ostenfeld participated in the International Phytogeographic Excursion to the British Isles in 1911 . The party studied the flora of parts of Ireland , including Killarney , Connemara and The Burren . In collaboration with O. Rosenberg , he was one of the first to confirm that some plants could form asexual seeds , now called ( apomixis ) . Their experiments repeated those of Gregor Mendel with Hieracium hybrids , showing that Mendel had observed a mixture of sexual recombination and apomixis . About a dozen plant species are named after him . Also some localities in Greenland bear names that commemorate him : C.H. Ostenfeld Land in Northeast Greenland C.H. Ostenfeld Nunatak in Wordie 's Glacier , Northeast Greenland The French Academy of Sciences awarded him the Prix Desmazières for 1917 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Carl_Hansen_Ostenfeld\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 132330\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ed Hansen Content: Edward Hansen ( 30 January 193716 December 2005 ) was an American film writer , director and editor . Hansen was born in Minnesota . He specialized and mostly directed nudies such as the Kitten Natividad films Takin ' It Off , Takin ' It All Off , Takin ' It Off Out West , and The Bikini Carwash Company . He was also the editor of 9 1/2 Weeks and Skeeter . Hansen died in Antioch , California , of bladder cancer , aged 68 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Ed_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 131272\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Morris H. Hansen Content: Morris Howard Hansen ( 1910 -- 1990 ) was an American statistician . While at the United States Census Bureau , he was one of the first to develop methods for statistical sampling and made contributions in many areas of surveys and censuses .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Morris_H._Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 130962\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Osmund Holm-Hansen Content: Osmund Holm-Hansen ( also known as Oz Holm-Hansen ) is a Norwegian-born American scientist , for whom Mount Holm-Hansen , in Antarctica is named . A plant physiologist by training , from 1962 Holm-Hansen was the head of polar research at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography . Beginning in 1976 , Holm-Hansen conducted extensive field research on microbial populations in McMurdo Sound , the Ross Sea , and other ocean areas south of the Antarctic Convergence .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Osmund_Holm-Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 130728\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Siegfried Hansen Content: Siegfried Hansen ( March 29 , 1912-June 28 , 2002 ) was an American electrical engineer and inventor notable for his development of the early Mark I space suit. , a role that earned him appellations of `` Space Suit Father '' and `` Space Suit Pioneer '' . The Mark I was significant for its hard torso and flexible arms , providing constant volume while allowing the occupant to manipulate the external environment . These efforts broke briefly into the mainstream with Hansen 's in-suit appearance on the cover of the December 1957 issue of Look magazine . Hansen was born in San Francisco and educated at the University of Washington in Seattle .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Siegfried_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 130288\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Eldon Hansen Content: Eldon Robert Hansen is a mathematician who has published widely in global optimization theory and interval analysis . His primary publications include Global Optimization Using Interval Analysis ( 1992 ) , A Table of Series and Products ( 1975 ) , and Topics in Interval Analysis ( 1969 ) . He also co-authored a number of works with the mathematician William Walster . Hansen completed his undergraduate studies at the University of California , Berkeley , and received his Ph.D. in mathematics from Stanford University in 1960 on Jacobi methods and Block-Jacobi methods for computing matrix eigenvalues ( Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society , 1961 ) . He was born in 1927 near Rochester , WA . Hansen 's algorithm extended the classical Gauss-Seidel algorithm to interval computations , and has been used to compute uncertainties in delta wing composite structures ( Delcroix , Boyer , & Braibant ) Hansen 's method used interval analysis to solve a supposedly `` insoluble '' global optimization problem . The method was originally described for both the one-dimensional and multi-dimensional cases in the 1980s , and is more fully described in the 1992 Global Optimization Using Interval Analysis and the 2nd edition of the book written with William Walster in 2003 , and was translated into Russian in 2012 . Dr. Hansen taught at Stanford University , The University of California at Berkeley , San Jose State College , Oxford University , and Washington State University ; and he worked at Lockheed in Palo Alto , California .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Eldon_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 130118\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sverre Hansen (actor) Content: Sverre Hansen ( 24 August 1919 -- 21 October 1995 ) was a Norwegian actor . He was born in Bergen . He made his stage debut at Studioteatret in 1945 , and was later assigned at Det Nye Teater , Folketeatret , Nationaltheatret and Fjernsynsteatret . Among his films are minor roles in Ni liv from 1957 and Ugler i mosen from 1959 , and his leading role in the film Eggs from 1995 earned him the Amanda Award .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Sverre_Hansen_(actor)\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 129754\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: David Minard Content: Captain David Minard , MC , USN ( 23 May 1913 -- 9 October 2005 ) Mercury Seven heat stress physiologist for Project Mercury In the late 1950s , Minard as a captain in the U.S. Navy and head of the physiology department at the Naval Medical Research Institute , helped to develop the Wet Bulb Globe Temperature Index utilized to measure heat stress in the military and other industrial settings . Minard , with Constantin Yaglou , created the wet bulb globe temperature index in 1957 for U.S. Marines training at Parris Island , South Carolina . It is still commonly used as a heat-stress index in the military , steel mills , marathon races and industrial environments . In 1960 , Minard used the heat stress index to evaluate the Mercury Seven astronauts for Project Mercury astronauts at the Naval Medical Research Institute in Bethesda , Maryland .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"David_Minard\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 129565\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Edmund H. Hansen Content: Edmund H. Hansen ( November 13 , 1894 -- October 10 , 1962 ) was an American sound engineer . He won two Academy Awards ; one for Best Sound Recording and the other Best Visual Effects . He was nominated for another 12 films across the two categories .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Edmund_H._Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 129036\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Alvin Hansen Content: Alvin Harvey Hansen ( August 23 , 1887 -- June 6 , 1975 ) , often referred to as `` the American Keynes , '' was a professor of economics at Harvard , a widely read author on current economic issues , and an influential advisor to the government who helped create the Council of Economic Advisors and the Social Security system . He is best known for introducing Keynesian economics in the United States in the 1930s . More effectively than anyone else , he explicated , extended , domesticated , and popularized the ideas embodied in Keynes ' The General Theory . In 1967 , Paul McCracken , chairman of the President 's Council of Economic Advisers , saluted Hansen : `` It is certainly a statement of fact that you have influenced the nation 's thinking about economic policy more profoundly than any other economist in this century . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Alvin_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 128632\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Adolph Hansen Content: Karl Adolph Hansen ( 1851 in Hamburg -- 1920 in Giessen ) was a German botanist . He graduated in 1887 at the University of Würzburg on a thesis entitled `` Geschichte der Assimilation und Chlorophyllfunktion '' ( supervised by Julius Sachs ) . He was professor of botany at the Justus Liebig-Universität Gießen 1891-1920 . He had very broad academic interests , including history and archaeology . However , he always worked alone , supervised very few doctoral students ( 4 in 39 years ) , and stood outside the development of experimental physiological botany among his contemporaries . Hansen wrote scholarly works on Goethe 's Metamorphosis of Plants and had a fierce dispute over this hypothesis with Houston Stewart Chamberlain .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Adolph_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 128080\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Per Brinch Hansen Content: Per Brinch Hansen ( November 13 , 1938 -- July 31 , 2007 ) was a Danish-American computer scientist known for his work in operating systems , concurrent programming and parallel and distributed computing .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Per_Brinch_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 128054\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Orval H. Hansen Content: Orval Howard Hansen ( born August 3 , 1926 ) is a former congressman from Idaho . He served three terms as a Republican in the House from 1969 to 1975 , representing the state 's 2nd district .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Orval_H._Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 128027\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Maurits Hansen Content: Maurits Christopher Hansen ( 5 July 1794 -- 16 March 1842 ) was a Norwegian writer . He was born in Modum as a son of Carl Hansen ( 1757 -- 1826 ) and Abigael Wulfsberg ( 1758 -- 1823 ) . In October 1816 he married teacher Helvig Leschly ( 1789 -- 1874 ) . He was a father-in-law of Eilert Sundt , and thus grandfather of Einar Sundt . He is recognized for his contribution to a diversity of genres and the introduction of the novel in Norway . He was a major contributor to the Norwegian Romantic Movement . He also wrote one of the world 's first crime novels with `` Mordet på Maskinbygger Roolfsen '' ( `` The Murder of Engine Maker Roolfsen '' ) in 1839 , two years before Edgar Allan Poe 's short story `` The Murders in the Rue Morgue '' in 1841 . After attending Oslo Cathedral School from 1809 and completing his examen artium in 1814 , he worked as a teacher in Trondheim from 1820 and in Kongsberg from 1826 . He was a fellow of the Royal Norwegian Society of Sciences and Letters in Trondheim , but was not appointed when he applied for a position as lecturer of philosophy at the Royal Frederick University around 1839 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Maurits_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 127394\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Alf Scott-Hansen, Jr. Content: Alf Scott-Hansen ( 22 December 1903 -- 1961 ) was a Norwegian engineer and film director . He was born in Kristiania as a son of port director Alf Scott-Hansen , Sr. ( 1870 -- 1930 ) and his wife Lalla Wiborg ( 1869 -- 1953 ) . He was a nephew of Commander Sigurd Scott-Hansen . He finished his secondary education in 1922 , served in the King 's Guard before studying electrical engineering at his father 's alma mater , the Dresden University of Technology . The studies in Dresden were interrupted and he instead graduated in engineering from Edinburgh in 1928 . He worked in Siemens in Norway until 1942 , then in Sønnico from the early 1950s to his death . He was married to actress Wenche Foss from 1939 . Before the marriage was dissolved , the couple were active socialites in Norway 's capital . During this period Scott-Hansen also forayed into the film industry , directing the films Rikard Nordraak in 1945 and Trollfossen in 1948 . During parts of the occupation of Norway by Nazi Germany , he was imprisoned in Grini concentration camp from April to November 1942 . On 16 July 1961 he was found deceased at his cabin in Skåtøy , where he was vacationing alone .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Alf_Scott-Hansen,_Jr.\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 127258\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Christian Hansen (architect) Content: Hans Christian Hansen ( 20 April 1803 -- 2 May 1883 ) was a Historicist Danish architect who worked 18 years in Greece where he was active in the transformation of Athens from a small town to the country 's capital and an international metropolis . Later in his career he returned to Denmark where he became a professor at the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts and designed buildings such as the Copenhagen Municipal Hospital and the Østervold Observatory . He was the brother of Theophilus Hansen who was also an internationally successful architect , active in Athens and Vienna . He is considered to be a pioneer in the study and application of polychrome architecture .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Christian_Hansen_(architect)\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 127056\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: James V. Hansen Content: James Vear `` Jim '' Hansen ( born August 14 , 1932 ) was a Republican member of the United States House of Representatives from Utah . Hansen was born in Salt Lake City , graduating from the city 's East High School . From 1951 until 1955 he served in the United States Navy . He attended the University of Utah , receiving a business degree from the school in 1961 . The same year that he left college , Hansen was elected to the Farmington City Council . He also worked as an insurance agent . From 1973 until 1980 , Hansen was a member of the Utah House of Representatives and served as speaker of the house from 1979 until 1980 . He was elected to Congress in 1980 and represented from January 3 , 1981 . Hansen retired on January 3 , 2003 . Hansen served as chairman of the Committee on Resources in his last term in the 107th Congress . Hansen ran for the governorship in 2004 , but was defeated at the Republican convention by Jon Huntsman , Jr. who went on to win the election . He was appointed a commissioner on the 2005 Base Realignment and Closure Commission . When a portion of US-89 in Weber County , Utah was upgraded to freeway standards , it was named the James V. Hansen Highway . The federal building in Ogden , Utah was renamed the James V. Hansen Federal Building in his honor in 2004 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"James_V._Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 126984\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Multipole density formalism Content: The Multipole Density Formalism ( also referred to as Hansen-Coppens Formalism ) is an X-ray crystallography method of electron density modelling proposed by Niels K. Hansen and Philip Coppens in 1979 . Unlike the commonly used Independent Atom Model , the Hansen-Coppens Formalism presents an aspherical approach , allowing one to model the electron distribution around a nucleus separately in different directions and therefore describe numerous chemical features of a molecule inside the unit cell of an examined crystal in detail .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Multipole_density_formalism\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 126389\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Paul Hansen (tenor) Content: Paul Hansen ( 3 April 1886 -- 11 November 1967 ) was a Danish opera singer and actor . Hansen started his opera career as a tenor but later increased his range to take on baritone roles . In 1917 Hansen , now working in Berlin , branched into silent movies and in 1919 took on the romantic lead in The Mistress of the World .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Paul_Hansen_(tenor)\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 126320\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Holger Juul Hansen Content: Holger Juul Hansen ( 14 August 1924 -- 19 March 2013 ) was a Danish actor . Hansen starred in a large number of Danish movies and television shows . His most prominent roles were as banker Hans Christian Varnæs , head of one of the two rival families in Matador , and as Doctor Moesgaard in The Kingdom .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Holger_Juul_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 126259\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Randulf Hansen Content: Randulf Hansen ( 26 August 1858 -- 5 September 1942 ) was a Norwegian ship designer . He was considered to be one of the country 's leading naval architects of iron and steel ships . Among his designs were the British passenger liner SS Britannia ( 1887 ) and the Norwegian barque Skomvær ( 1890 ) . Hansen was born in Bergen , Norway . He trained under Norwegian ship designer Ananias Dekke at Nordnes . He later worked in Philadelphia and New Brunswick . After a short stay at Flages shipyard in Bergen , he went to work for the shipbuilding firm Raylton , Dixon & Co. at Middlesbrough . In 1882 , he returned to Bergen to work at the shipbuilder firm Martens , Olsen & Co. . Hansen was offered the position design and drafting manager at Laxevaags Maskin - og Jernskibsbyggeri in Bergen . In 1889 Hansen moved to Fevigs Jernskibsbyggeri , a new iron shipyard in Fevik at Grimstad in Aust-Agder . The yard in Fevik was a hull workshop , without division for boilers and machinery . Most ships were towed for completion to shipyards in Great Britain or to Fredrikstad or Bergen . Over the next twenty 20 years , over seventy steel vessels were designed by Randulf Hansen .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Randulf_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 126213\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Miriam Hansen Content: Miriam Hansen ( 28 April 1949 -- 5 February 2011 ) was a film historian who made important contributions to the study of early cinema and mass culture .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Miriam_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 125775\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bernhoff Hansen Content: Bernhoff Otelius Hansen ( August 17 , 1877 -- December 22 , 1950 ) was a Norwegian wrestler who competed in the 1904 Summer Olympics for the United States . He was born in Rognan in the municipality of Saltdal in Norway . Originally he was a Norwegian wrestler in Nordland , but one and a half years before the 1904 Olympic Games , he left Norway for the United States . He was affiliated with the Brooklyn-based Norwegian Turnverein gymnastic society . Hansen was sponsored by the Norwegian Turnverein at the Olympics in 1904 . Hansen won three matches at the 1904 Olympics and won a gold medal in heavyweight category . First name spelled Bernhoff by FILA and in an article by New York Times from January 16 , 1918 . By the time of the article he was referred to as `` a Norwegian light-heavyweight wrestler '' . Hansen died in New York City . In 2012 Norwegian historians found documentation showing that Hansen was registered as an `` alien '' ( foreigner ) as late as 1925 , and questioning whether he ever received American citizenship . The historians thus petitioned to have Hansen 's gold registered as Norwegian .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Bernhoff_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 125673\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Rasmus Malling-Hansen Content: Rasmus Malling-Hansen ( 5 September 1835 -- 27 September 1890 ) was a Danish inventor , minister and principal at the Royal Institute for the Deaf , and one of the true pioneers of the 19th century .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Rasmus_Malling-Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 125524\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Morian Hansen Content: Jens Henning Fisker Hansen ( 10 January 1905 in Frederikssund , Denmark -- 21 February 1995 ) , known popularly as Morian Hansen , was a former motorcycle speedway rider from Denmark who rode in the first ever Speedway World Championship Final in 1936 . Hansen 's first speedway races were at Copenhagen in 1928 . He first rode in the UK for the West Ham Hammers in 1931 on a two-month permit , returning two years later . He joined the Hackney Wick Wolves in 1935 . He then moved onto the Bristol Bulldogs and Wembley Lions before the outbreak of World War II . He competed in the World Championship finals in 1936 and 1937 . Hansen had held a pilot 's licence since 1935 and served in the Royal Air Force during the war , rising to the rank of Squadron Leader .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Morian_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 125485\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Peter Allan Hansen Content: Peter Allan Hansen ( 20 April 1944 -- 18 April 2012 ) was a Danish classical philologist known principally for his work on the Carmina epigraphica graeca I-II and on other aspects of Greek epigraphy . Born in Copenhagen he was educated at Copenhagen University and at Brasenose College , Oxford , where he was a pupil of Lilian H. Jeffery . After 1975 he settled in Oxford and through the support of scholarships and grants continued his work on Hesychios and epigraphy there .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Peter_Allan_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 125379\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: John H.L. Hansen Content: John H.L. Hansen ( born November 17 , 1959 in Plainfield , NJ ) is Professor of Electrical Engineering ( EE ) and Associate Dean for Research in Erik Jonsson School of Engineering & Computer Science , at the University of Texas at Dallas ( UTD ) . He is also the University Distinguished Chair in Telecommunications Engineering , and holds a joint appointment as Professor in the School of Behavioral and Brain Sciences . He is the son of Henrik Hansen ( wrestler ) , Danish wrestling champion who won a bronze medal in Greco-Roman wrestling , welterweight class , at the 1948 Summer Olympics in London .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"John_H.L._Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 125228\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Jørgen Hansen (boxer) Content: Jørgen Hansen ( born 27 March 1943 in Aarhus ) is a retired Danish welterweight boxer . Hansen competed for Denmark at the 1968 Summer Olympics in the welterweight division but lost his first match . Hansen turned professional shortly after the games and was active as a professional until 1982 . Hansen fought for the WBC world light welterweight title in 1973 , but was stopped by Italian Bruno Arcari . Hansen won the European welterweight title in 1977 against Italian Marco Scano but lost the title by disqualification in his first defense . In 1978 he was awarded a chance to regain the title against Frenchman Alain Marion whom Hansen stopped in the 6 round of the title bout . Hansen later lost the title by disqualification . Hansen won the European title for the third time when he knocked out British European champion Dave Boy Green in the third round . He defended the title successfully six times before giving up the title at the end of 1981 . His fought his last fight in December 1982 winning a decision against former world champion Perico Fernandez . Hansen retired in 1982 with a professional record of 78-14-0 ( 34 KO 's ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Jørgen_Hansen_(boxer)\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 125207\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Frank Hansen's Fortune Content: Frank Hansen 's Fortune ( German : Frank Hansens Glück ) is a 1917 German silent western film directed by Viggo Larsen and starring Larsen , Lupu Pick and Kitty Dewall . Two diggers working in the Mexican diamond fields discover a very valuable diamond leading to a series of events that sees only one of them become rich .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Frank_Hansen's_Fortune\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 124961\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Judson Laire Content: Judson Laire ( New York City , New York , August 3 , 1902 -- Rhinebeck , New York , July 5 , 1979 ) was an American film , stage , and television actor best known for starring as Lars Hansen in the early CBS television series , Mama from 1949 to 1957 , as well as several daytime soap operas including As the World Turns , The Nurses , Love is a Many Splendored Thing and The Edge Of Night . In a thirty-year stage career Laire appeared in ten Broadway productions . A resident of Clinton Corners , New York , he died in Northern Dutchess Hospital in Rhinebeck , New York , in 1979 . Among his Broadway credits was Advise and Consent by Loring Mandel which opened in 1961 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Judson_Laire\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 124869\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Simon Hansen Content: Simon Hansen is a South African born film maker . Hansen has been working in the Film and entertainment industry since 1992 . He is best known for producing Alive in Joburg , the film on which District 9 is based .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Simon_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 124766\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kåre Øistein Hansen Content: Kåre Øistein Hansen ( 8 November 1927 -- 6 May 2012 ) was a Norwegian politician for the Socialist Left Party . He served as a member of the Parliament of Norway during the term 1973 -- 1977 , representing Buskerud , and was a member of the Standing Committee on Finance and Economic Affairs .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Kåre_Øistein_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 124652\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Niels Ebbesen Hansen Content: Niels Ebbesen Hansen ( January 4 , 1866 -- October 5 , 1950 ) was a Danish-American horticulturist and botanist who was a pioneer in plant breeding .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Niels_Ebbesen_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 124513\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Gyda Hansen Content: Gyda Hansen ( 7 February 1938 -- 20 August 2010 ) was a Danish film actress . She appeared in 22 films between 1963 and 2000 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Gyda_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 124436\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: John R. Hansen Content: John Robert Hansen ( August 24 , 1901 -- September 23 , 1974 ) served one term , from January 3 , 1965 to January 3 , 1967 , as a Democratic U.S. Representative from Iowa . He and Tom Harkin are the only two Democrats to have represented southwestern Iowa in the U.S. House since the end of the Great Depression . A native and lifelong resident of Manning , Iowa , Hansen attended the Manning public schools . He attended the University of Iowa from 1919 to 1921 . He and his wife Mary Lou were the parents of two children , Robert and Jack . After serving as a sales representative , general manager , and president of Dultmeier Manufacturing Co. , of Manning , Iowa from 1921 to 1962 , he served as president of Dultmeier Sales , in Omaha , Nebraska from 1934 to 1957 . Hansen had been politically active in Democratic politics for many years . He served as member of the Carroll County Democratic Central Committee from 1932 to 1944 , and as its chairman from 1944 to 1952 . He served as district committeeman on the Democratic State Central Committee from 1952 to 1957 , and as Sixth Congressional District Democratic chairman from 1953 to 1957 . He was twice a delegate to Democratic National Convention , in 1948 and 1964 . He served as the Democratic nominee for Lieutenant Governor in 1960 , but lost to W.L. Mooty . Hansen also served in several appointive positions in Iowa state government . He served as member of the Board of Control of State Institutions from 1957 to 1960 . He also was a member of executive council of the Governor 's Alcoholism Commission and the Commission on Interstate Cooperation from 1957 to 1960 . In 1963 , Hansen 's close friend , Harold Hughes , was elected Governor of Iowa . When Hansen ran for the Democratic nomination for the Iowa 's 7th congressional district in 1964 , the vote was forced to a convention after none of the six candidates received over 35 percent of the vote in a primary . In the convention , on the ninth ballot , Hansen won the Democratic nomination without a single vote to spare . In the 1964 general election ( when Democratic President Lyndon B. Johnson defeated Republican Barry Goldwater by a landslide , and the Democratic majority in the House increased by 48 seats ) , Hansen defeated longtime Republican incumbent Ben F. Jensen . However , Hansen was one of many Midwestern Democrats elected to Congress from Republican-leaning districts in 1964 who served only a single term . In 1966 Hansen was defeated in his run for re-election by William Scherle , a conservative Republican member of the Iowa House of Representatives from Mills County , Iowa . After returning from Washington , Hansen served as member of the Iowa State Highway Commission , from February 1967 until retirement on July 1 , 1969 . He died in Des Moines , Iowa , on September 23 , 1974 . He was interred in Manning Cemetery , Manning , Iowa .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"John_R._Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 124262\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Anders Hansen Content: Anders Rosenberg Hansen ( born 16 September 1970 ) is a retired Danish professional golfer . Hansen was born in Sønderborg , Denmark . He turned professional in 1995 . It took him a few years to establish himself on the European Tour , with his first top 116 Order of Merit finish ( the level a player requires to automatically regain his card ) coming in 1999 . His maiden European Tour victory was the 2002 Volvo PGA Championship and he finished in the top 60 on the Order of Merit every year from 2000 to 2012 , with a best of seventh in 2011 . He has featured in the top 25 of the Official World Golf Ranking and has been the highest ranked Danish golfer . Hansen represented Denmark in the WGC-World Cup in 1999 , 2002 , 2003 , 2004 , 2005 and 2007 . Hansen had six top 10 's in 2006 including a 3rd at the Dubai Desert Classic , playing the two final days in the leaderball with Tiger Woods and Retief Goosen , and a second at the Italian Open for the second straight year . Hansen qualified for the PGA Tour for 2007 , capturing the fourth available spot , eight strokes off the winner , George McNeill , but failed to maintain his playing rights at the end of the season . His second European tour victory came when he won the 2007 BMW PGA Championship , the same tournament where he claimed his first victory five years before . Hansen then won his third event in 2009 at the Joburg Open , in South Africa . He came from behind on the final day with a 66 , and eventually won by one stroke over Andrew McLardy . A month later he won for the second time on the Sunshine Tour at the Vodacom Championship and after strong finishes in the two European Tour co-sanctioned events at the end of the season , he headed the Order of Merit for 2009 . Hansen achieved his best finish ever at a World Golf Championship event in March 2011 , when he finished tied 3rd at the WGC-Cadillac Championship , three strokes behind winner Nick Watney . He later on achieved his best finish in a major , when he finished 3rd in the 2011 PGA Championship . He retired after the 2015 European Tour season , but still played in a small number of events in 2016 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Anders_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 124137\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Alf Hansen Content: Alf John Hansen ( born 13 July 1948 ) is a retired rower from Norway . In 1976 , he won a gold medal at the Montreal Olympic Games in the double scull event ( 2x ) with his brother Frank Hansen . The Hansen brothers started their career with a silver medal at the 1974 world championships , and followed that up with a gold medal at the 1975 world championships . They would go on to win the 1978 and 1979 world championships in the double scull . Unfortunately the Norwegian Rowing Federation boycotted the Moscow Olympics in 1980 , so the brothers were unable to defend their Olympic title . Frank officially retired after the Moscow Olympics . Alf continued his career with a new partner and won gold , then silver at the world championships together with Rolf Thorsen in 1982 and 1983 . He further won a silver medal in the Olympic Games in Seoul in 1988 and ended his professional career after the worlds in 1991 at the age of 43 . Hansen was awarded the Thomas Keller Medal in 1990 . The medal is given by the International Rowing Federation ( FISA ) for an outstanding international career in the sport of rowing as well as exemplary sportsmanship . It is the highest honor in rowing .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Alf_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 124058\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Anton Hansen Content: Anton Hansen ( 1891 -- 1960 ) was a Danish cartoonist and painter . Like Storm P. and Aksel Jørgensen , he illustrated local newspapers with satirical sketches , especially of Copenhagen 's poor . He had met both as a member of De Tretten where he exhibited in 1910 and 1912 . Hansen contributed a number of politically satirical cartoons to the Danish Ekstra Bladet and the Norwegian Exlex ans Arbeiderbladet between 1909 and 1924 . He worked for the German Simplicissimus ( 1920 -- 1932 ) and later draw cartoons for Danish newspapers including Socialdemokraten and Information . He also made artistic drawings of the city and imaginative illustrations for books such as Grimms Eventyr ( Grimms ' Fairy Tales ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Anton_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 124006\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Franklin Hansen Content: Franklin Hansen ( May 2 , 1897 -- January 13 , 1982 ) was an American sound engineer . He won an Academy Award in the category Sound Recording for the film A Farewell to Arms and was nominated for four more in the same category .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Franklin_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 123779\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Asbjørn Hansen Content: Asbjørn Hansen ( 29 May 1930 -- 25 March 2017 ) was a Norwegian football goalkeeper who played for Sparta and Sarpsborg . He is regarded as one of Norway 's best goalkeepers of all time , and was first-choice goalkeeper for the Norway national team through most of the 1950s . Hansen made his senior debut for Sparta in 1948 , and was a member of the Sparta team that won the Norwegian Football Cup in 1952 . At the time of his death , he was the last surviving member from the cup-winning team . In 1958 , following Sparta 's relegation from the Norwegian Main League the previous year , Hansen joined city rivals Sarpsborg FK , where he played until his retirement from top-level football in 1962 . on 25 June 1952 , Hansen made his debut for the Norwegian national team in a friendly against Yugoslavia , and he remained first-choice goalkeeper throughout most of the next decade , playing his last international in 1961 . In total , he won 52 caps for Norway . Only Erik Thorstvedt ( 97 caps ) and Thomas Myhre ( 56 caps ) have played more matches for Norway as goalkeeper .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Asbjørn_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 123613\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Multiplier-accelerator model Content: The multiplier -- accelerator model ( also known as Hansen -- Samuelson model ) is a macroeconomic model which analyzes the business cycle . This model was developed by Paul Samuelson , who credited Alvin Hansen for the inspiration . This model is based on the Keynesian multiplier , which is a consequence of assuming that consumption intentions depend on the level of economic activity , and the accelerator theory of investment , which assumes that investment intentions depend on the pace of growth in economic activity .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Multiplier-accelerator_model\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 123544\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Oddvar Hansen Content: Oddvar Ingolf Hansen ( 11 April 1921 -- 31 March 2011 ) was a Norwegian footballer and coach , who represented Brann in his hometown Bergen . As a player , Hansen was a right-back who played 238 first-team games for Brann between 1940 and 1956 . He was a losing cup finalist in 1950 . He also won 19 caps for Norway between 1948 and 1954 , and was a member of Norway 's squad at the 1952 Olympics . As a coach , Hansen became player-coach of Brann in 1955 when he took over from Englishman George Ainsley . He had three spells as Brann 's head coach ( 1955 -- 57 , 1960 -- 63 and 1965 -- 68 ) , and is best remembered for leading the club to consecutive league titles in 1962 and 1963 . The 1963 title would turn out to be Brann 's last league championship in 44 years , until the drought came to an end in 2007 . In addition to his achievements in football , Hansen was also an excellent table tennis player , who became national champion in 1947 . He died on 31 March 2011 , less than two weeks before what would have been his 90th birthday .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Oddvar_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 123532\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Arvid Hansen Content: Arvid Hansen ( 1 March 1916 -- 13 February 1945 ) was a Norwegian resistance member who was executed during the occupation of Norway by Nazi Germany . He was born in Oslo as the son of Harald and Helga Marie Hansen . He worked in Oslo as an electrician . When Norway was invaded by Germany in 1940 , he became involved in the subsequent fighting . He later involved himself in the illegal press , and later in Milorg . He conducted several sabotage missions as a part of the group D.B. . He was also a part of the group Aks 13000 . His last mission was Aksjon smør , in which Milorg men stole foodstuffs from two warehouses , one in the street Tollbugata belonging to German forces , and one in the street Skippergata belonging to Arbeidstjenesten . The foodstuffs were distributed to Milorg men who hid in the forests surrounding Oslo . This was his 28th sabotage mission . On 13 February 1945 , the day after Aksjon smør , two Gestapo officers by coincidence intercepted a resistance meeting in Storm Weinholdt 's home . Storm Weinholdt and Frank Olsen were arrested , and Adolf Bogstad was killed . This kickstarted a crackdown in which several people were arrested . Four Nazis then stormed Hansen 's home just before midnight on 13 February 1945 . They rang the doorbell , and shot Arvid Hansen 's father Harald who answered at the door . Almost immediately they met Arvid Hansen , who was in his bedroom . Hansen managed to fire three shots and kill one of the Nazis , but when firing for a second time , he was himself hit and instantly killed . His fiancée , who had been assisting in the resistance work , was wounded . His mother survived , and fled to Sweden the next week . Together with eight other resistance members -- Adolf Bogstad , Erik Bruun , Henry Gundersen , Ingolf Nordstrøm , Kåre Olafsen , Frank Olsen , Kjell Ramberg and Storm Weinholdt -- he is commemorated with a memorial stone at Sarabråten in Østmarka .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Arvid_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 123463\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Richard D. Hansen Content: Richard D. Hansen is a distinguished American archaeologist and currently Adjunct Professor of Anthropology at the University of Utah in Salt Lake City . He previously has been an Affiliate Research Professor and Senior Scientist at the Institute for Mesoamerican Research in the Department of Anthropology at Idaho State University and an Associate Scientist ( Level IV ) at the Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics at UCLA . Hansen is a specialist on the ancient Maya and also a director of the Mirador Basin Project , which investigates the mainly unexplored territory in the northern Peten , Guatemala . Sites of special significance which Hansen has excavated and mapped within the Mirador Basin include the Mirador , Nakbe , Tintal , Xulnal , Waka ' , El Pesquero , Tamazul , Porvenir , La Florida , and 42 additional major and minor sites within the Mirador system , many of which are linked by an extensive early causeway system and contain similar art , artifacts , and architecture .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Richard_D._Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 123450\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ove Verner Hansen Content: Ove Verner Hansen ( 20 July 1932 -- 20 February 2016 ) was a Danish opera singer and actor . He played the character , `` Bøffen '' ( or `` Biffen '' in Norwegian , literally meaning `` the steak '' in both languages ) in several of the Olsen-Gang ( Olsen-banden ) - movies . He played a tall , large , and slow-moving henchman , often seen lifting Egon Olsen up over his head , carrying him under one arm , and trying to kill him .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Ove_Verner_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 123234\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Gary Hansen Content: Gary Duane Hansen ( born c. 1958 ) is a macroeconomist at UCLA . He is known for creating the theory of indivisible labor , as part of this doctoral thesis at the University of Minnesota . Hansen graduated from the University of Puget Sound in 1980 , and with a doctorate from the University of Minnesota , under supervision of Edward Prescott , in 1986 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Gary_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 123210\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Joachim Hansen (actor) Content: Joachim Hansen ( 28 June 1930 -- 13 September 2007 ) was a German actor . He was best known for film roles in the 1960s and 1970s where he was often cast in roles portraying Nazi officers and World War II German officials . Of nearly sixty five film credits , Hansen 's most notable roles include : `` The Star of Africa '' as Hans-Joachim Marseille , Jürgen Stroop in The Eagle Has Landed , and Generaloberst Alfred Jodl in The Winds of War and War and Remembrance mini-series . Hansen was born in Frankfurt ( Oder ) and died in Berlin .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Joachim_Hansen_(actor)\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 122733\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pål Bang-Hansen Content: Pål Bang-Hansen ( 29 July 1937 -- 25 March 2010 ) was a Norwegian actor , film director , screenwriter and film critic . He is particularly known as a television personality and film expert at the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation , leading the television film show Filmmagasinet for more than thirty years .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Pål_Bang-Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 122725\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carl William Hansen Content: Carl William Hansen ( 11 October 1872 -- 3 August 1936 ) was a Danish author , Luciferian , Wandering Bishop and Occultist . Hansen was born in Copenhagen and first initiated into Martinism in 1898 by Alphonse Wallen . Hansen published Den Ny Morgens Gry , Lucifer-Hiram , Verdensbygmesterens Genkomst ( The Dawn of a New Morning , Lucifer-Hiram , The Return of the World 's Master Builder ) , in 1906 under the pseudonym Ben Kadosh . Inspired by the French Gnostic movement , and such writers as Carl Kohl , his major interests seems to have been alchemy and astrology . Until 1905 he was in communication with Swedish playwright and alchemist August Strindberg . Some of Hansen 's occult ideas inspire the Neo-Luciferian Church today . In September 1921 Theodor Reuss issued fringe masonic charters to Hansen for Gnostic Primas , Memphis & Misraim , Ordo Templi Orientis and the Hermetic Brotherhood of Light . In 1923 he engaged in the founding of a Martinist lodge in Denmark , later dissolved and rebuilt as the lodge The Three Columns . This lodge formed part of The Danish Grand Orient , chartered by Joanny Bricaud in Lyon as Grand Orient de la vraie et haute Maçonnerie ésoterique et gnostique du Danemark . The Danish Grand Orient worked until 1929 where it merged with the Grand Orient of Denmark and the North and formed The Grand Lodge of Denmark , an irregular Masonic body . By profession Carl W. Hansen was a dealer in dairy products , though he lists himself as a chemist in Hartmann 's Who 's Who , second edition 1927 . Biographies of Hansen have been written by Peder Byberg Madsen and Bjarne Salling Pedersen and included in the reissue of Den Ny Morgens Gry , Lucifer-Hiram , Verdensbygmesterens Genkomst in 2006 ( ISBN 978-87-91698-00-2 ) Hansen died from a heart attack at the age of 64 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Carl_William_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 122723\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Randall Hansen Content: Randall Hansen is a political scientist and historian at the University of Toronto , where he has held a Canada Research Chair in Political Science since 2005 . He is the Director of the Centre for European , Russian , and Eurasian Studies at the Munk School of Global Affairs and is jointly appointed to the School of Public Policy and Governance . Hansen taught at the Queen Mary University of London and the University of Oxford ( where he was a tutorial fellow at Merton College ) before taking up his current position . He wil become the Interim Director of the Munk School effective June 1 , 2017 . His fields of research are migration and citizenship , eugenics and population policy , and the effect of war on civilian populations . He has authored three books , Citizenship and Immigration in Postwar Britain , Fire and Fury : the Allied Bombing of Germany 1942-1945 , and Disobeying Hitler : German Resistance after Valkyrie . Hansen was co-editor ( with Matthew J. Gibney ) of Immigration and Asylum : From 1900 to the Present . He is co-author ( with Desmond King ) of Sterilized by the State : Eugenics , Race and the Population Scare in 20th Century North America . Fire and Fury was shortlisted for the Governor General 's Literary Award for Non-Fiction in 2009 . Additionally , he has contributed numerous articles to academic journals . Hansen will be the interim director the Munk School of Global Affairs for the period June 1 , 2017 to June 30 , 2018 , succeeding Stephen Toope .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Randall_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 122671\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Aadel Bülow-Hansen Content: Aadel Bülow-Hansen ( 24 September 1906 -- 18 November 2001 ) was a Norwegian physiotherapist . Together with psychiatrist Trygve Braatøy ( 1904-1953 ) , she developed psychomotor physiotherapy using psychomotorics , which can be used for the treatment of neuromuscular stress conditions . Aadel Bülow-Hansen was born in Kristiania ( now Oslo ) , Norway . She went to primary school and middle school at Nissens Pigskole . She continused her education at Orthopedic and Medico-Mechanical Institute ( Christiania Orthopediske and Medico Mekaniske Senter ) , which had been founded by her father , Victor Bülow-Hansen ( 1861 -- 1938 ) . She was employed by Sophie 's Minde Clinic ( now a subsidiary of Oslo University Hospital ) from 1927 until 1945 . During World War II , she worked together with neurologist Henrik Seyffarth , to find treatments for work-related stress . She came to understand that there might be a connection between muscle tension , respiration , and mental trauma . Bülow-Hansen had seen how important controlled respiration was to contributing to a healthy body and can also lead to control of the emotions . She was the first physiotherapist to be named to the First Class of the Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav , and in 2000 , she was named as the physiotherapist of the century in Norway . One of her students was Gerda Boyesen , who later developed Biodynamic Psychology , a form of Body Psychotherapy .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Aadel_Bülow-Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 122560\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Edmund Hansen Grut Content: Edmund Hansen Grut ( January 15 , 1831 -- 13 June 1907 ) was a Danish ophthalmologist born in Copenhagen . In 1857 he earned his medical doctorate at the University of Copenhagen , and afterwards traveled to Berlin , where he studied with Albrecht von Graefe ( 1828-1870 ) . In 1863 he opened an eye clinic at Nørregade , Copenhagen , and in 1873 founded an ophthalmic clinic at Havnegade ( Harbour Street ) , not far from the University Hospital . By 1880 , the Havnegade clinic had 19 beds for patients , and on the average performed around 100 cataract surgeries per year . It was also a centre of training for ophthalmology students , where men such as Jannik Petersen Bjerrum ( 1851-1920 ) , Marius Tscherning ( 1854-1939 ) and Gordon Norrie ( 1855-1941 ) worked as assistants . In 1882 Grut became a lecturer at the university , and in 1888 became the first professor of ophthalmology in Denmark . For a period of time he was editor-in-chief of the periodical Nordisk Oftalmologisk Tidsskrift .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Edmund_Hansen_Grut\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 122423\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Henry Paul Hansen Content: Henry Paul Hansen ( April 28 , 1907 -- October 8 , 1989 ) was an American palynologist known largely for his pioneering work on the vegetation history of the North American Pacific Northwest and for his time as the dean of Graduate Studies at Oregon State University from 1949 - 1972 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Henry_Paul_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 122371\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Adventures of Captain Hansen Content: The Adventures of Captain Hansen ( German : Die Abenteuer des Kapitän Hansen ) is a 1917 German silent film directed by Harry Piel .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Adventures_of_Captain_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 122261\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Agnete Hegelund Content: Agnete Hegelund Hansen ( born 10 March 1988 ) is a Danish fashion model . She has modeled in fashion shows for designers Burberry Prorsum , Christian Lacroix , Diane von Fürstenberg , Dolce & Gabbana , Givenchy , Marni , among others .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Agnete_Hegelund\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 122254\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Harold I. Hansen Content: Harold I. Hansen ( 1914-1992 ) was a major theatre professor at Brigham Young University ( BYU ) and the director of the Hill Cumorah Pageant from 1937-1977 , excluding the years during World War II in which it was not held . Hansen was born in Logan , Utah . Hansen did his undergraduate education at Utah State University . He then received an offer of a graduate assistantship at the University of Idaho to continue studies in drama , but at the urging of David O. McKay he accepted the call he had already received to serve in the Eastern States Mission . Hansen had very much hoped to serve in Denmark . It was while a missionary in the Eastern States mission that Hansen first served as director of the Hill Cumorah Pageant . Although pageants had been produced at the Hill Cumorah the previous two years , 1937 was the first year that H. Wayne Driggs ' script , which would be the basis of the pageant until 1987 , was used . Thus as the first director Hansen essentially had to figure out the ways to move from the script to actual production that would remain the main outline of the production for the next half-century , or ten years beyond his retirement as director . It was also there that he met Betty Kotter , also serving as a missionary in the mission , who he later married . They were actually married at the flagpole on the Hill Cumorah on July 16 , 1940 , just before a production of the Hill Cumorah Pageant , and about a year after Hansen had finished his mission . Harold would later claim this was where he and Betty first met , but she claimed the story he told of their first encounter was largely made up . They were sealed in the Logan Temple the following month . After his mission Hansen earned a masters in drama at Iowa State University . His thesis was on the history of drama as supported by religious institutions in the United States . From 1941-1942 Hansen was a seminary and institute instructor with the Church Educational System . He then performed at The Cleveland Play House until 1945 when he joined the faculty of Michigan State University . He then returned to Utah State University where he joined the Drama faculty and earned a Ph.D. in 1949 with the subject of his doctoral dissertation being a history of Mormon Theatre . In 1952 Hansen was recruited by Brigham Young University president Ernest L. Wilkinson to replace T. Earl Pardoe as head of the Drama department . From his start at BYU Hansen was producing cutting edge shows . During his first season he managed to perform both The Glass Managerie and Death of a Salesman . The reason this was exceptional is that at the time both shows were still running on broadway . In many ways the biggest BYU production done by Hansen was Sand in their Shoes , a musical about the Mormon Pioneers with text by Don Oscarson and music by Crawford Gates . While head of the BYU Theatre Department Hansen oversaw the implementation of graduate studies in 1960 and the move to suitable space in the Harris Fine Arts Center in 1965 . Hansen remained the head of the BYU Theatre Department until 1979 . While working at BYU Hansen was also involved as the co-owner and co-director with Lael Woodbury of the Ledges Theatre in Grand Ledge , Michigan from 1960-1967 . They had previously from 1947-1952 run the Proscenium Players , also in Grand Ledge , from 1947-1952 . From the end of World War II until 1977 Hansen had also served as director of the Hill Cumorah Pageant . In 1977 Hansen was replaced as director of the Hill Cumorah Pageant by Jack Paul Sederholm , who had studied at BYU and was then chair of the communications art department at Elizabethtown College in Pennsylvania . Sederholm had served for 12 years previously as Hansen 's chief assistant . In 1967 BYU Press published a book authored by Hansen with the same title as his doctoral dissertation . Hansen and his wife Betty were the parents of four daughters . The Harris Fine Arts Center has a rehearsal hall named for Hansen .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Harold_I._Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 122170\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Flemming Hansen (politician) Content: Flemming Hansen ( born 9 August 1939 ) is a Danish politician representing the Conservative People 's Party . Born in Copenhagen , he has been a member of parliament ( Folketing ) since 1984 and was the Minister of Traffic from 27 November 2001 to 12 September 2007 , Minister of Nordic Co-operation from 18 June 2002 to 18 February 2005 , and Minister of Energy from 18 February 2005 to 12 September 2007 . He owns shoe shops in Vejle , Fredericia , and Horsens .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Flemming_Hansen_(politician)\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 122102\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Jacob Ellehammer Content: Jacob Christian Hansen Ellehammer ( June 14 , 1871 -- May 20 , 1946 ) was a Danish watchmaker and inventor born in Bakkebølle , Denmark . He is remembered chiefly for his contributions to powered flight . Following the end of his apprenticeship as a watchmaker he moved to Copenhagen where he worked as an electronics mechanic before establishing his own company in 1898 . In the beginning he produced cigarette machines , beverage machines and other electronic machinery . In 1904 he produced his first motorcycle , the Elleham motorcycle . In 1903 -- 1904 Jacob Ellehammer used his experience constructing motorcycles to build the world 's first air-cooled radial engine , a three-cylinder engine which he used as the basis for a more powerful five-cylinder model in 1907 . This was installed in his triplane and made a number of short free-flight hops as mentioned below . In 1905 , he constructed a monoplane , and in the following year a `` semi-biplane '' . In this latter machine , he made a tethered flight on 12 September 1906 . Ellehammer 's later inventions included a successful triplane and helicopter . His helicopter was a coaxial machine . A famous photo shows it hovering in 1914 , though there is no evidence that it was successful in achieving translational flight . Ellehammer later studied a disc-rotor configuration - a compound helicopter with coaxial blades that extended from the hub for hover , and retracted for high speed vertical flight . Although a wind tunnel model was constructed , there 's no evidence that anything more was studied .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Jacob_Ellehammer\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 122055\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ejvind Hansen Content: Ejvind Hansen ( July 28 , 1924 -- December 19 , 1996 ) was a Danish sprint canoeist who competed in the late 1940s and the early 1950s . Competing in two Summer Olympics , he won a silver in the K-2 1000 m event at London in 1948 . Hansen also won three medals at the ICF Canoe Sprint World Championships with a silver ( K-1 4 x 500 m : 1950 ) and two bronzes ( K-1 4 x 500 m and K-2 500 m : both 1948 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Ejvind_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 121990\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Matthew Hansen Content: Matthew Hansen is a Canadian screenwriter , author and editor . A former competitive cyclist , Hansen lives in Toronto , Ontario . He began his publishing career as a cycling journalist . Following that , Hansen worked as an editor for Dreamwave Productions , publishers of several comic titles including The Transformers , before moving onto to become the Editor in Chief of Marvel Comics/Dabel Brothers Productions Hansen adapted R.A. Salvatore 's novel The Highwayman through Marvel Comics . Hansen also adapted Ted Dekker 's Circle Trilogy of novels into graphic novels . Hansen wrote the film Zoom , which premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival in 2015 . In 2016 , Hansen was nominated for a Canadian Screen Award for Zoom , for Best Original Screenplay .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Matthew_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 121857\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: George V. Hansen Content: George Vernon Hansen ( September 14 , 1930 -- August 14 , 2014 ) was a Republican politician from the state of Idaho . He served in the U.S. House of Representatives for 14 years , representing Idaho 's 2nd district from 1965 to 1969 and again from 1975 to 1985 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"George_V._Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 121580\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Jim Hansen (Idaho politician) Content: James Duncan `` Jim '' Hansen ( born November 5 , 1959 ) is an American attorney , Ada County Highway District Commissioner and former Democratic politician from Idaho . He was the 2006 Democratic nominee for Congress in Idaho 's 2nd district , but was defeated by four-term incumbent Mike Simpson . Hansen was elected to the Ada County Highway District in 2012 and is serving a four-year term .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Jim_Hansen_(Idaho_politician)\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 121507\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Myrna Hansen Content: Myrna Hansen ( born August 5 , 1934 ) is an American actress , model and beauty pageant titleholder who won Miss USA 1953 . She played the part of Lydia in the movie `` Raintree County '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Myrna_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 121472\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Jens Christian Hansen Content: Jens Christian Hansen ( 5 May 1932 in Bodø -- 8 May 2014 ) was a Norwegian geographer . He took the dr.philos . degree in 1970 with the thesis Administrative grenser og tettstedsvekst . After a period as a docent at the Norwegian School of Economics he was a professor at the University of Bergen from 1972 . He was a fellow of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters from 1985 , of the Academia Europaea and of the Royal Norwegian Society of Sciences and Letters . He died in May 2014 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Jens_Christian_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 121459\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Charles D. Hansen Content: Charles `` Chuck '' D. Hansen is an American computer scientist at the University of Utah who works on scientific visualization . He is a Fellow of the IEEE and Associate Director of the Scientific Computing and Imaging Institute . He is currently associate editor-in-chief of IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Graphics .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Charles_D._Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 121453\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Johannes Hansen (sculptor) Content: Johannes Christian Hansen ( 22 October 1903 -- 2 August 1995 ) was a Danish sculptor . In addition to his sculpted figures of children and interacting couples , he designed a wide variety of glazes and plates for the Knabstrup Keramiske Industri ceramics factory where he was artistic director .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Johannes_Hansen_(sculptor)\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 121209\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Warren Hansen Content: Warren R. Hansen ( born February 15 , 1943 ) is a Canadian retired curler . He played as third on the Hec Gervais rink that won the 1974 Brier . Hansen served as director of event operations for Curling Canada , but retired in June 2015 . He currently works for the Curling Canada Board of Governors as an advisory , the United States Curling Association as a Business Development Consultant and is part of the organizing committee , in Las Vegas , that are hosting the Men 's World Curling Championship in 2018 . Hansen worked for Curling Canada ( formerly the Canadian Curling Association ) 1974 - 2015 . His involvement with the organization has been instrumental in moving major events into hockey arenas , introducing the page playoff system , reducing the amount of sheets in events to four , implementing player dress codes , bringing in officiating of major events and the creation of the Continental Cup of Curling and Canada Cup of Curling . In addition Hansen played a key role , along with Calgary 's Ray Kingsmith in establishing curling as a demonstration sport at the 1988 Winter Olympics in Calgary . In 2002 he developed the game of Mixed Doubles as part of the newly created Continental Cup . In June 2015 it was announced that Mixed Doubles will be a full medal sport at the 2018 Winter Olympics . Hansen is a member of the Alberta Sports Hall of Fame as a team member of the Edmonton Huskies and also as a Curling Builder . He is a member of the City of Edmonton Sports Hall of Fame as a team member of the Huskies and a Curler/Builder in the Canadian Curing Hall of Fame and a Builder in the World Curing Hall of Fame . Hansen grew up in Namao , Alberta and played junior football for the -LSB- -LSB- Edmonton Huskies -RSB- when the team won three consecutive Canadian championships in 1962 , '63 and ' 64 . -RSB- .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Warren_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 121153\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Even Hansen Content: Even Hansen ( 1790 -- 1840 ) was a Norwegian civil servant and politician . He worked as fut in Sunnfjord and Nordfjord from 1826 to 1833 , and later in Hedmark . He served as a deputy representative to the Norwegian Parliament in both 1830 and 1833 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Even_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 121069\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Storms of My Grandchildren Content: Storms of My Grandchildren : The Truth About the Coming Climate Catastrophe and Our Last Chance to Save Humanity is climate scientist James Hansen 's first book , published by Bloomsbury Press in 2009 . The book is about threats to people and habitability for life on earth from global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Storms_of_My_Grandchildren\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 121068\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kenneth Hansen (rallycross) Content: Svend Kenneth Hansen , born 29 September 1960 and hailing from Götene , is a Swedish rallycross driver with Danish roots . His late father , Svend Hansen , can be regarded as the inventor of the so-called Joker Laps for rallycross . Hansen has been part of the European rallycross elite since the late 1980s and has won an FIA European Championships for Rallycross Drivers title no less than 14 times up until the year 2008 . He holds most of the records for rallycross , including the amount ( 249 ) of attended European rounds .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Kenneth_Hansen_(rallycross)\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 121048\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Holm Hansen Munthe Content: Holm Hansen Munthe ( 1 January 1848 -- 23 May 1898 ) was a Norwegian architect . He was a leading representative of dragon style architecture ( Drakestil ) during the 1880s and 1890s . Holm Hansen Munthe was born at Stange in Hedmark , Norway . He was the son of Adolph Frederik Munthe ( 1817 -- 1884 ) and Karen Emilie Hansen ( 1820 -- 1884 ) . He father was a military officer and government official . In the early 1870s , he was an apprentice in Christiania and a student at the drawing school of Wilhelm von Hanno . He graduated from Hanover Polytechnikum in 1877 . Between 1878 and 1885 he cooperated with Henrik Nissen . From 1889 he worked for the Holmenkol-Voxenkol-Selskabet , among others drawing the well-known Frognerseteren restaurant in the so-called dragon style . Emperor Wilhelm II of Germany , vacationing in Norway , noticed these buildings and commissioned the erection of his Rominten Hunting Lodge in East Prussia ; however these buildings were largely destroyed after World War II , remnants of the Lodge are used as the seat of the administration at the Kaliningrad Central Park . The Kongsnæs ' sailors station in Potsdam was partially destroyed in 1945 . Currently it is planned to re-erect the complete complex . In 1898 Munthe was appointed city architect in Kristiania , but he died before actually assuming office . he was buried at Vår Frelsers gravlund in Oslo .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Holm_Hansen_Munthe\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 120979\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Jørgen Hammergaard Hansen Content: Jørgen Hammergaard Hansen ( c. 1930 -- 22 August 2013 ) was a Danish badminton player who won numerous major international titles from the mid-1950s to the mid-1960s . Though he competed in singles at a strong international level during the first half of his career , it was as a doubles player that he made his mark , capturing six All-England men 's doubles titles with Finn Kobberø ( 1955 , 1956 , 1961 , 1962 , 1963 , 1964 ) and reaching the final round of the All-England mixed doubles on three occasions . Noted for his powerful smash which included an ability to smash off his backhand with the heavy rackets of the day , Hammergaard Hansen took part in five consecutive Thomas Cup ( men 's international team ) campaigns for Denmark between 1952 and 1964 , winning over 80 percent of his matches . In 1998 he was inducted into the Badminton Hall of Fame .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Jørgen_Hammergaard_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 120852\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Heino Hansen Content: Arvo Heino Raudanma Hansen ( born 24 September 1947 ) is a Danish former professional footballer who played 31 games and scored five goals for the Danish national team from 1972 to 1978 , and represented Denmark at the 1972 Summer Olympics football tournament . Hansen played as a midfielder for Danish club Slagelse B&I , as well as German clubs FC St. Pauli and SC Preußen Münster in the German 2 . Bundesliga . Hansen started his career with Slagelse B&I . He debuted for the Danish national team in July 1972 , scoring a goal in the 5 -- 2 win against Icelandic national team . He scored three goals in six games at the 1972 Olympics in Germany , and moved to play in the 2 . Bundesliga after the tournament . He played 74 games and scored 14 goals for St. Pauli between 1974 and 1976 , and played 63 games and scored three goals for Münster between 1976 and 1978 . He moved back to Slagelse where he ended his career .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Heino_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 120731\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bjarne Hansen Content: Bjarne Hansen is a Danish art director , painter and colorist . He was worked as a freelance illustrator for magazines , commercials and books . He graduated from the Art and Craft School in Kolding in 1991 . He has also worked in preproduction on the TV shows Troll Tales , Benjamin Blümchen , among other TV specials . Bjarne has been a background painter for A-Film on the features Quest For Camelot and JungleJack 1 and 2 . He also worked on a small primary color-script for the CGI animated feature Jungo Goes Bananas , another in the JungleJack series . He also worked as head of backgrounds on feature film Asterix and the Vikings . He also worked in the American comics industry . He was nominated for a Wizard Fan Award in 1998 . He has written and drawn graphic novels , illustrated a story by Morten Remar , and has worked coloring DC Comics including House of Secrets , The Light Brigade and A God Somewhere . Bjarne recently has worked as art director on Sylvain Chomet 's film The Illusionist , focusing on color-script and background-painting . The film was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Animated Feature .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Bjarne_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 120645\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Guttorm Hansen Content: Guttorm Hansen ( 3 November 1920 -- 2 April 2009 ) was a Norwegian writer and politician for the Labour Party . He started his career as a mechanic , but after 1945 he was a journalist and editor of magazines and newspapers . Via local politics in his native Namsos he was elected to the Norwegian Parliament in 1961 , serving six terms in total . He was the President of the Storting for two of these terms , from 1973 to 1981 . He was also known as a prolific book writer , many of his books having a direct connection to his political life .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Guttorm_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 120616\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Frits Hansen Content: Frits Hansen ( 31 January 1841 -- 8 June 1911 ) was a Norwegian educator , newspaper editor , biographer and politician . Hansen was born at Larvik , in Vestfold , Norway . He was the son of Magistrate Frederik Christian Hansen ( 1799-1860 ) and Albine Elise Fougnerbakken ( 1801-1846 ) . He earned his Cand.theol . degree in 1865 . Subsequently he became a teacher at the Norwegian Military Academy . From 1872 , Hansen taught at Sagatun Folk High School in Hamar . In 1881 Hansen was a teacher at a private middle school in Stavanger . He was also editor of the Lillehammer newspaper Framgang . In 1890 , he wrote Edvard Storm , digteren fra Vaage , a biography of the poet Edvard Storm . In 1896 he moved to Christiania ( now Oslo ) and was editor of Eidsvold . He was the chairman and founder of the regional centrist-conservative political party Centre in the 1890s .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Frits_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 120398\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Gunnar Hansen Content: Gunnar Milton Hansen ( March 4 , 1947 -- November 7 , 2015 ) was an Icelandic-born American actor and author best known for playing the mentally impaired cannibal Leatherface in The Texas Chain Saw Massacre ( 1974 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Gunnar_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 120203\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Søren Hansen Content: Søren Hansen ( born 21 March 1974 ) is a Danish professional golfer . Hansen was born in Copenhagen , Denmark . He won the 1997 Danish Amateur Stroke Play Championship and turned professional later that year . Hansen collected his first professional win at the Challenge Tour 's 1998 Navision Open Golf Championship in his home country . Since 1999 he has been a member of the European Tour where he has picked up two tournament victories . He won the 2002 Murphy 's Irish Open , where he won at the fourth extra hole in a play-off against Richard Bland , Niclas Fasth and Darren Fichardt . He also won the 2007 Mercedes-Benz Championship by a margin of four strokes . His best Order of Merit finish is 8th in 2007 . He represented Europe in the 2008 Ryder Cup matches , but he did not win a match , the U.S. was victorious . In September 2007 , he reached the top 50 of the Official World Golf Rankings and became the top-ranked Danish golfer . Hansen represented Denmark in the World Cup in 1998 , 2001 , 2002 , 2005 and 2007 . On 11 August 2009 , Hansen was charged with tax evasion by Danish authorities for allegedly claiming residency of Monaco , while actually living in Denmark . On 19 May 2010 , Hansen was fined nearly $ 1.1 million for tax evasion .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Søren_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 120116\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Gerhard Armauer Hansen Content: Gerhard Henrik Armauer Hansen ( 29 July 1841 -- 12 February 1912 ) was a Norwegian physician , remembered for his identification of the bacterium Mycobacterium leprae in 1873 as the causative agent of leprosy .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Gerhard_Armauer_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 120099\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hårek Ludvig Hansen Content: Hårek Ludvig Hansen ( 14 July 1901 -- 1 March 1996 ) was a Norwegian politician for the Conservative Party . He was elected to the Norwegian Parliament from Nordland in 1945 , but was not re-elected in 1949 . Born in Tjøtta , Hansen was a member of Alstahaug municipal council from 1963 to 1965 . Outside politics he mainly worked as a fisher and farmer .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Hårek_Ludvig_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 119994\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Geir-Ketil Hansen Content: Geir-Ketil Hansen ( born 13 March 1956 in Narvik ) is a Norwegian politician for the Socialist Left Party . He was elected to the Norwegian Parliament from Nordland in 2001 , but was not re-elected in 2005 . He served in the position of deputy representative during the terms 1989 -- 1993 and 2005 -- 2009 . On the local level Hansen was a member of the executive committee of Narvik municipal council from 1979 to 1987 . From 1999 to 2001 and 2005 to 2011 he was a member of Nordland county cabinet . Since 2006 he works at the Office of the Auditor General of Norway .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Geir-Ketil_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 119977\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Valda Hansen Content: Valda Joanne Hansen ( November 3 , 1932 -- July 21 , 1993 ) was an American actress , known for her performances in a number of B-movies in the 1950s and 1970s . Her most famous role was that of the White Ghost in Ed Wood 's Night of the Ghouls ( 1959 ) . She had previously played a stripper in Strips Around the World ( 1955 ) . She returned to the screen in the 1970s and appeared in movies such as Cain 's Cutthroats ( 1971 ) , Slaughter 's Big Rip-Off ( 1973 ) and Wham ! Bam ! Thank You , Spaceman ! ( 1975 , in which she was credited as `` Zelda '' ) . She also appeared in a 1990s documentary about the filmmaker Ed Wood . Hansen retired from acting around 1975 , and died in Hollywood on July 21 , 1993 , aged 60 , from cancer .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Valda_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 119907\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: IS–LM model Content: The IS -- LM model , or Hicks -- Hansen model , is a macroeconomic tool that shows the relationship between interest rates ( ordinate ) and assets market ( also known as real output in goods and services market plus money market , as abscissa ) . The intersection of the `` investment -- saving '' ( IS ) and `` liquidity preference -- money supply '' ( LM ) curves models `` general equilibrium '' where supposed simultaneous equilibrium occurs in both interest and assets markets . Yet two equivalent interpretations are possible : first , the IS -- LM model explains changes in national income when price level is fixed short-run ; second , the IS -- LM model shows why an aggregate demand curve can shift . Hence , this tool is sometimes used not only to analyse economic fluctuations but also to suggest potential levels for appropriate stabilisation policies . The model was developed by John Hicks in 1937 , and later extended by Alvin Hansen , as a mathematical representation of Keynesian macroeconomic theory . Between the 1940s and mid-1970s , it was the leading framework of macroeconomic analysis . While it has been largely absent from macroeconomic research ever since , it is still a backbone conceptual introductory tool in many macroeconomics textbooks .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"IS–LM_model\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 119846\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Peter Hansen (actor) Content: Peter Franklin Hansen ( December 5 , 1921 -- April 9 , 2017 ) was an American actor , best known for his role as a lawyer , Lee Baldwin , on the soap opera General Hospital , playing the role from 1965 to 1976 , 1977 to 1986 , briefly in 1990 , and again from 1992 to 2004 . 1989 , played in movie , '' War of the Roses , with Danny Devito , Kathleen Turner , Michael Douglas .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Peter_Hansen_(actor)\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 119739\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mount Holm-Hansen Content: Mount Holm-Hansen is a prominent mountain rising to 1,920 m between the lower David Valley and Bartley Glacier in the Asgard Range of Victoria Land , Antarctica . Bifrost Ledge is a flat benchlike feature that rises to 1,750 metres ( 5,740 ft ) on the north side of Mount Holm-Hansen . It was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names in 1997 after Osmund Holm-Hansen , a plant physiologist , who , working in the 1959 -- 60 season , was one of the first American scientists to visit and conduct research in both Taylor Valley and Wright Valley . Holm-Hansen was a Research Biologist at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography from 1962 , and his extensive field research from 1976 includes studies of microbial populations in McMurdo Sound , the Ross Sea , and other ocean areas south of the Antarctic Convergence .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Mount_Holm-Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 119681\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: John Hansen (rower) Content: John Ørsted Hansen ( born 8 October 1938 ) is a retired Danish rower . Together with Erik Petersen , Kurt Helmudt and Bjørn Hasløv he won the gold medal at the 1964 Summer Olympics and a silver medal at the 1964 European Championships in the coxless fours event .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"John_Hansen_(rower)\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 119661\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hans Hansen (architect) Content: Hans Hansen ( 16 May 1889 , Roetgen -- 24 May 1966 , Cologne ) was a German architect and theorist and one of the correspondents of Bruno Taut 's utopian expressionist chain letter , the Glass Chain . Hansen contributed under the pseudonym Antischmitz . Hansen was born in Roetgen . In 1920 he attracted the attention and praise of Bruno Taut after the publication of his book `` The Experience of Architecture '' ( Das Erlebnis der Architektur ) . Hansen later went on to become one of Germany 's leading church architects . He died in Cologne . His great great granddaughter , Dinah Jane Hansen , is in the girl group Fifth Harmony . She has shown support to him on her visit to Denmark on October 22 , 2016\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Hans_Hansen_(architect)\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 119506\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hans Peter Hansen Content: Hans Peter Hansen ( December 20 , 1829 -- November 18 , 1899 ) was a Danish xylographer who specialized in portraits . Hansen was born in Copenhagen . He first learned the profession of watchmaking before studying woodcutting under Hans Christian Henneberg , Johann Adolf Kittendorff , and Johan Peter Aagaard . At the same time , he also followed courses at the Academy of Arts of Copenhagen ( 1843/44 ) . In 1854 , he travelled to Germany , first to Dresden and then to Leipzig , where he settled . In 1859 , he married Clara Aurelia Sophie Langer ( August 5 , 1830 -- July 1 , 1913 ) , the daughter of the engraver Georg Gottfried Langer and sister of engraver Karl Hermann Theodor Langer ( December 17 , 1819 -- 1895 ) . In 1864 , he returned to Copenhagen , where he worked for several illustrated magazines and newspapers , such as Illustreret Tidende and Ude og Hjemme . He also illustrated books , amongst them Nyere Dansk Malerkunst ( Sigurd Müller , 1884 ) and the children books printed by Richardt 's and Rode 's .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Hans_Peter_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 119470\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Lisa M. Hansen Content: Lisa M. Hansen is an American film producer , production manager , actress , writer , and craft service person . She has worked in various genres , including thriller , action , drama , and science fiction . She once frequently made cameos in the movies she has been involved with .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Lisa_M._Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 119461\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kenneth Hansen (speedway rider) Content: Kenneth Kruse Hansen ( born 19 October 1987 in Herlev , Denmark ) is a motorcycle speedway rider who rode in the United Kingdom for the Wolverhampton Wolves and Peterborough Panthers in the Elite League . He started the 2007 season with the Workington Comets in the Premier League but lost his place after sustaining a broken wrist . Hansen has represented Denmark in the Under-21 Speedway World Cup . It was announced in 2008 that the Wolverhampton Wolves had signed Hansen on a full contract .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Kenneth_Hansen_(speedway_rider)\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 119400\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Francis Everitt Content: C. W. Francis Everitt is a US-based English physicist working on experimental testing of general relativity . Everitt was educated at Imperial College London and the University of Pennsylvania in low-temperature physics . He is Professor at the Hansen Experimental Physics Laboratory of Stanford University and is also an Associate Member of the Kavli Institute for Particle Astrophysics and Cosmology ( KIPAC ) . Everitt is Principal Investigator of the Gravity Probe B mission mainly aimed to test frame-dragging at an expected accuracy of 1 % . According to general relativity , it is an effect induced by the rotation of the Earth on orbiting gyroscopes . Everitt spent more than 40 years on the project and was awarded with the NASA Distinguished Public Service Medal . The results were published in Physical Review Letters in May 2011 . The results confirm general relativity 's predictions , though not to the project 's ambitious goal of 1 % precision .\",\n \"qid\": \"2789\",\n \"docid\": \"Francis_Everitt\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 119362\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":1376,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"That model predicted that global temperature between 1988 and 1997 would rise by 0.45°C (Figure 1)."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .","qid":"2790","docid":"List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming","rank":1,"score":131636},{"content":"Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.","qid":"2790","docid":"Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C","rank":2,"score":131426},{"content":"Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .","qid":"2790","docid":"Future_sea_level","rank":3,"score":127971},{"content":"Title: 1997–98 El Niño event Content: The 1997 -- 98 El Niño was regarded as one of the most powerful El Niño -- Southern Oscillation events in recorded history , resulting in widespread droughts , flooding and other natural disasters across the globe . It caused an estimated 16 % of the world 's reef systems to die , and temporarily warmed air temperature by 1.5 ° C , compared to the usual increase of 0.25 ° C associated with El Niño events . It led to a severe outbreak of Rift Valley fever after extreme rainfall in north-eastern Kenya and southern Somalia . It also led to record rainfalls in California during the water season of 1997 -- 98 and one of Indonesia 's worst droughts on record . 1998 ultimately became the warmest year in recorded history ( up until then ) .","qid":"2790","docid":"1997–98_El_Niño_event","rank":4,"score":119776},{"content":"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .","qid":"2790","docid":"Global_warming","rank":5,"score":117625},{"content":"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .","qid":"2790","docid":"Regional_effects_of_global_warming","rank":6,"score":115066},{"content":"Title: Global Forecast System Content: The Global Forecast System ( GFS ) is a global numerical weather prediction system containing a global computer model and variational analysis run by the United States ' National Weather Service ( NWS ) . The mathematical model is run four times a day , and produces forecasts for up to 16 days in advance , but with decreased spatial resolution after 10 days . The forecast skill generally decreases with time ( as with any numerical weather prediction model ) and for longer term forecasts , only the larger scales retain significant accuracy . It is one of the predominant synoptic scale medium-range models in general use . The GFS model is a spectral model with an approximate horizontal resolution of 13 km for the first 10 days and 27 km from 240 to 384 hours ( 16 days ) . In the vertical , the model is divided into 64 layers and temporally , it produces forecast output every hour for the first 120 hours , three hourly through day 10 and 12 hourly through day 16 . The output from the GFS is also used to produce model output statistics . In addition to the main model , the GFS is also the basis of a lower resolution 20-member ( 22 , counting the control and operational members ) ensemble that runs concurrently with the operational GFS and is available on the same time scales . This ensemble is referred to as the `` Global Ensemble Forecast System '' ( GEFS ) . Ensemble model output statistics are available out to 8 days . The GFS ensemble is combined with Canada 's Global Environmental Multiscale Model ensemble to form the North American Ensemble Forecast System ( NAEFS ) . As with most works of the U.S. government , GFS data is not copyrighted and is available for free in the public domain under provisions of U.S. law . Because of this , the model serves as the basis for the forecasts of numerous private , commercial and foreign weather companies . By 2015 the GFS model had fallen behind the accuracy of other global weather models . This was most notable in the GFS model incorrectly predicting Hurricane Sandy turning out to sea until 4 days before landfall ; while the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts ' model predicted landfall correctly at 7 days . Much of this was suggested to be due to limits in computational resources within the National Weather Service . In response , the NWS purchased new supercomputers , increasing processing power from 776 teraflops to 5.78 petaflops . The agency has also been testing a potential replacement model with different mechanics , the flow-following , finite-volume Icosahedral Model ( FIM ) , since the early 2010s .","qid":"2790","docid":"Global_Forecast_System","rank":7,"score":114633},{"content":"Title: Navy Global Environmental Model Content: The Navy Global Environmental Model ( NAVGEM ) is a global numerical weather prediction computer simulation run by the United States Navy 's Fleet Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography Center . This mathematical model is run four times a day and produces weather forecasts . Along with the NWS 's Global Forecast System , which runs out to 16 days , the ECMWF 's Integrated Forecast System ( IFS ) and the CMC 's Global Environmental Multiscale Model ( GEM ) , both of which run out 10 days , and the UK Met Office 's Unified Model , which runs out to 6 days , it is one of five synoptic scale medium-range models in general use . The NAVGEM became operational in February 2013 , replacing the NOGAPS . It uses the same forecast range as the NOGAPS did ( three-hour intervals out 180 hours ) but also uses a refurbished dynamic core and improvements to the physics simulations compared to its predecessor . Category : Numerical climate and weather models Category : National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration","qid":"2790","docid":"Navy_Global_Environmental_Model","rank":8,"score":112787},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Europe Content: Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe . According to international climate experts global temperature rise should not exceed 2 ° C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of the climate change . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . It is estimated that from the now living persons alive are 70 % in the year 2050 . Emission reduction means development and implementation of new energy technology solutions . Some people consider that the technology revolution has already started in Europe since the markets of the renewable technology have annually grown . European Union climate chief is Connie Hedegaard since 10 February 2010 .","qid":"2790","docid":"Climate_change_in_Europe","rank":9,"score":112625},{"content":"Title: Global warming hiatus Content: A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .","qid":"2790","docid":"Global_warming_hiatus","rank":10,"score":110845},{"content":"Title: Global temperature record Content: The global temperature record shows the fluctuations of the temperature of the atmosphere and the oceans through various spans of time. The most detailed information exists since 1850, when methodical thermometer-based records began. There are numerous estimates of temperatures since the end of the Pleistocene glaciation, particularly during the current Holocene epoch. Older time periods are studied by paleoclimatology.","qid":"2790","docid":"Global_temperature_record","rank":11,"score":110148},{"content":"Title: Flow-following, finite-volume Icosahedral Model Content: The Flow-following , finite-volume Icosahedral Model ( FIM ) is a numerical weather prediction model that has been under development at the Earth System Research Laboratory in the United States since 2008 . The FIM is being developed as a candidate to eventually supplant the Global Forecast System , the United States 's current medium-range forecast model . The FIM was originally slated to become operational some time in 2014 ( as of autumn 2016 the model is still testing ) ; the GFS will continue to be run and maintained for several years afterward , much in the same way the GFS and its predecessor , the Nested Grid Model , ran concurrently for several years . The model currently produces similar results to the GFS , but runs slower on the NWS 's operational computers . Its three-part name derives from its key features : `` flow-following '' indicates that its vertical coordinates are based on both terrain and potential temperature ( isentropic sigma coordinates , previously used in the now-discontinued rapid update cycle model ) , and `` finite-volume '' describes the method used for calculating horizontal transport . The `` icosahedral '' portion describes the model 's most uncommon feature : whereas most grid-based forecast models have historically used rectangular grid points ( a less than ideal arrangement for a planet that is a slightly oblate spheroid ) , the FIM instead fits Earth to a truncated icosahedron , with twelve evenly spaced pentagons ( including two at the poles ) anchoring a grid of hexagons . The FIM runs as a multiscale model , with a suffix number indicating the model 's horizontal resolution . FIM7 operates at a spatial resolution of approximately 60 km , FIM8 at 30 km , FIM9 at 15km and FIM9 .5 at 10km . The FIM7 and FIM8 both run twice daily ( 0z and 12z ) with 6-hour temporal resolution out to 14 days . The FIM9 runs four times daily , also with 6-hour steps , out to 10 days . ( FIM9 .5 is not currently in operation . )","qid":"2790","docid":"Flow-following,_finite-volume_Icosahedral_Model","rank":12,"score":109798},{"content":"Title: Year Without a Summer Content: The year 1816 is known as the Year Without a Summer ( also the Poverty Year , the Summer that Never Was , Year There Was No Summer , and Eighteen Hundred and Froze to Death ) because of severe climate abnormalities that caused average global temperatures to decrease by 0.4 -- 0.7 ° C ( 0.7 -- 1.3 ° F ) . This resulted in major food shortages across the Northern Hemisphere . Evidence suggests that the anomaly was predominantly a volcanic winter event caused by the massive 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora in the Dutch East Indies ( the largest eruption in at least 1,300 years after the extreme weather events of 535 -- 536 ) , perhaps plus the 1814 eruption of Mayon in the Philippines . The Earth had already been in a centuries-long period of global cooling that started in the 14th century . Known today as the Little Ice Age , it had already caused considerable agricultural distress in Europe . The Little Ice Age 's existing cooling was aggravated by the eruption of Tambora , which occurred during its concluding decades .","qid":"2790","docid":"Year_Without_a_Summer","rank":13,"score":109482},{"content":"Title: Sea level rise Content: A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .","qid":"2790","docid":"Sea_level_rise","rank":14,"score":108214},{"content":"Title: 2012–13 Australian bushfire season Content: The 2012 -- 13 Australian bushfire season had above average fire potential for most of the southern half of the continent from the east coast to the west . This is despite having extensive fire in parts of the country over the last 12 months . The reason for this prediction is the abundant grass growth spurred by two La Niña events over the last two years . Most parts of the country experienced a heat wave at the start of 2013 , with a new national average maximum being set on 7 January 2013 . The new record of 40.33 C beat the old record of 40.17 C that had been set on 21 December 1972 . Another record also beaten in 2013 was Australia 's mean temperature climbing from 31.86 C set on 21 December 1972 to 32.23 C on 7 January 2013 . Additionally , six of the 20 hottest days in Australian records ( by average maximum ) have been in January 2013 . Australia also experienced its hottest summer on average following a particularly hot spell in January . Using average day and night temperatures the average was found to be 28.6 C beating the previous record set in the summer of 1997 -- 1988 . Fourteen of the weather bureau 's 112 long term weather stations recorded their hottest days on record including one in Sydney that recorded a daytime record of 46 C . The daytime maximum temperatures for 2012 -- 13 also beat the 1982 -- 83 record and January was the hottest month since records began in 1910 .","qid":"2790","docid":"2012–13_Australian_bushfire_season","rank":15,"score":108064},{"content":"Title: Theodor Landscheidt Content: Theodor Landscheidt ( Bremen , 1927 -- May 20 , 2004 ) was a German author , astrologer and amateur climatologist . In 1989 , Landscheidt forecast a period of sunspot minima after 1990 , accompanied by increased cold , with a stronger minimum and more intense cold which should peak in 2030 His work on solar cycles has been cited by global warming skeptics to argue that observed warming is not anthropogenic and will soon be reversed , based on an assumption that fluctuations in climate are controlled by solar activity . In 1983 he founded and financed the `` Schroeter Institute for Research in Cycles of Solar Activity '' in Lilienthal , near Bremen . The Institute later moved with him to Nova Scotia , Canada .","qid":"2790","docid":"Theodor_Landscheidt","rank":16,"score":107018},{"content":"Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .","qid":"2790","docid":"Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum","rank":17,"score":104781},{"content":"Title: Navy Operational Global Atmospheric Prediction System Model Content: Navy Operational Global Atmospheric Prediction System Model ( NOGAPS ) is a global numerical weather prediction computer model run by Fleet Numerical . This mathematical model is run four times a day and produces weather forecasts . Along with the ECMWF 's Integrated Forecast System ( IFS ) , the Canadian Global Environmental Multiscale Model ( GEM ) it is one of several synoptic scale medium-range models in general use .","qid":"2790","docid":"Navy_Operational_Global_Atmospheric_Prediction_System_Model","rank":18,"score":104742},{"content":"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.","qid":"2790","docid":"Climate_change_in_the_United_States","rank":19,"score":104601},{"content":"Title: Thaw (weather) Content: January thaw is a term applied to a thaw or rise in temperature in mid-winter found in mid-latitude North America . Sinusoidal estimates of expected temperatures , for northern locales , usually place the lowest temperatures around January 23 and the highest around July 24 , and provide fairly accurate estimates of temperature expectations . Actual average temperatures in North America usually significantly differ twice over the course of the year : Mid-autumn temperatures tend to be warmer than predicted by the sinusoidal model , creating the impression of extended summer warmth known as Indian summer . For five days around January 25 , temperatures are usually significantly warmer than predicted by the sinusoidal estimate , and also warmer than neighboring temperatures on both sides . During this `` thaw '' period , usually lasting for about a week , temperatures are generally about 6 ° C ( 10 ° F ) above normal . This varies from year to year , and temperatures fluctuate enough that such a rise in late-January temperature would be unremarkable ; what is remarkable ( and unexplained ) is the tendency for such rises to occur more commonly in late January than in mid-January or early February , which sinusoidal estimates have to be slightly warmer . In some regions ( such as northern Canada ) this phenomenon will not be manifest as a `` thaw '' in the technical sense , since temperatures will remain below freezing . The January thaw is believed to be a weather singularity . A possible physical mechanism for such phenomena was offered in the 1950s by E.G. Bowen : he suggested that some `` calendaricities '' ( as he called them ) might be explicable in terms of meteoric particles from cometary orbits acting as ice nuclei in terrestrial clouds ; his theory then received some support from several sources . However , Bowen 's ideas later fell out of favour with the development of atmospheric dynamic modelling techniques , although one of his rainfall peaks does seem to correspond with the date of the January thaw . Data analysis has not found statistically significant support for the supposed January thaw . The authors of this study state that `` the effects of sampling in finite climate records are wholly adequate to account for the existence of January thaw ` features ' in northeastern U.S. temperature data . ''","qid":"2790","docid":"Thaw_(weather)","rank":20,"score":104546},{"content":"Title: Navy Operational Global Atmospheric Prediction System Content: The Navy Operational Global Atmospheric Prediction System ( NOGAPS ) is a global numerical weather prediction computer model run by the United States Navy 's Fleet Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography Center . This mathematical model was run four times a day and produced weather forecasts . The NOGAPS was replaced by the NAVGEM in February 2013 .","qid":"2790","docid":"Navy_Operational_Global_Atmospheric_Prediction_System","rank":21,"score":103275},{"content":"Title: NRLMSISE-00 Content: NRLMSISE-00 is an empirical , global model of the Earth 's atmosphere from ground to space . It models the temperatures and densities of the atmosphere 's components . A primary use of this model is to aid predictions of satellite orbital decay due to atmospheric drag . This model has also been used by astronomers to calculate the mass of air between telescopes and laser beams in order to assess the impact of laser guide stars on the non-lasing telescopes .","qid":"2790","docid":"NRLMSISE-00","rank":22,"score":103070},{"content":"Title: Numerical weather prediction Content: Numerical weather prediction ( NWP ) uses mathematical models of the atmosphere and oceans to predict the weather based on current weather conditions . Though first attempted in the 1920s , it was not until the advent of computer simulation in the 1950s that numerical weather predictions produced realistic results . A number of global and regional forecast models are run in different countries worldwide , using current weather observations relayed from radiosondes , weather satellites and other observing systems as inputs . Mathematical models based on the same physical principles can be used to generate either short-term weather forecasts or longer-term climate predictions ; the latter are widely applied for understanding and projecting climate change . The improvements made to regional models have allowed for significant improvements in tropical cyclone track and air quality forecasts ; however , atmospheric models perform poorly at handling processes that occur in a relatively constricted area , such as wildfires . Manipulating the vast datasets and performing the complex calculations necessary to modern numerical weather prediction requires some of the most powerful supercomputers in the world . Even with the increasing power of supercomputers , the forecast skill of numerical weather models extends to only about six days . Factors affecting the accuracy of numerical predictions include the density and quality of observations used as input to the forecasts , along with deficiencies in the numerical models themselves . Post-processing techniques such as model output statistics ( MOS ) have been developed to improve the handling of errors in numerical predictions . A more fundamental problem lies in the chaotic nature of the partial differential equations that govern the atmosphere . It is impossible to solve these equations exactly , and small errors grow with time ( doubling about every five days ) . Present understanding is that this chaotic behavior limits accurate forecasts to about 14 days even with perfectly accurate input data and a flawless model . In addition , the partial differential equations used in the model need to be supplemented with parameterizations for solar radiation , moist processes ( clouds and precipitation ) , heat exchange , soil , vegetation , surface water , and the effects of terrain . In an effort to quantify the large amount of inherent uncertainty remaining in numerical predictions , ensemble forecasts have been used since the 1990s to help gauge the confidence in the forecast , and to obtain useful results farther into the future than otherwise possible . This approach analyzes multiple forecasts created with an individual forecast model or multiple models .","qid":"2790","docid":"Numerical_weather_prediction","rank":23,"score":102282},{"content":"Title: Global Environmental Multiscale Model Content: The Global Environmental Multiscale Model ( GEM ) , is an integrated forecasting and data assimilation system developed in the Recherche en Prévision Numérique ( RPN ) , Meteorological Research Branch ( MRB ) , and the Canadian Meteorological Centre ( CMC ) . Along with the NWS 's Global Forecast System ( GFS ) , which runs out to 16 days , the ECMWF 's Integrated Forecast System ( IFS ) , which runs out 10 days , the Naval Research Laboratory Navy Global Environmental Model ( NAVGEM ) , which runs out eight days , and the UK Met Office 's Unified Model , which runs out to 6 days , it is one of the five predominant synoptic scale medium-range models in general use . The GEM 's operational model , known as the Global Deterministic Prediction System ( GDPS ) , is currently operational for the global data assimilation cycle and medium-range forecasting , the regional data assimilation spin-up cycle and short-range forecasting . Furthermore , mesoscale forecasts ( distributed under the names Regional Deterministic Prediction System or RDPS for the coarser mesh and High Resolution Deterministic Prediction System or HRDPS for the finer mesh ) are produced overnight and are available to the operational forecasters . A growing number of meteorological applications are now either based on or use the GEM model . Output from the GEM goes out to 10 days , on par with the public output of the European Integrated Forecast System . The ensemble variant of the GEM is known as the Global Ensemble Prediction System ( GEPS ) . It has 20 members ( plus control ) and runs out 16 days , the same range as the American Global Forecast System . The GEPS runs alongside the GFS ensemble to form the North American Ensemble Forecast System . A Regional Ensemble Prediction System ( REPS ) , covering North America and also having 20 members plus control , runs out 72 hours . The GEM model has been developed to meet the operational weather forecasting needs of Canada for the coming years . These presently include short-range regional forecasting , medium-range global forecasting , and data assimilation . In the future they will include nowcasting at the meso-scales , and dynamic extended-range forecasting on monthly to seasonal timescales . The essence of the approach is to develop a single highly efficient model that can be reconfigured at run time to either run globally at uniform-resolution ( with possibly degraded resolution in the `` other '' hemisphere ) , or to run with variable resolution over a global domain such that high resolution is focused over an area of interest . The operational GEM model dynamics is formulated in terms of the hydrostatic primitive equations with a terrain following pressure vertical coordinate ( h ) . The time discretization is an implicit two-time-level semi-Lagrangian scheme . The spatial discretization is a Galerkin grid-point formulation on an Arakawa C-grid in the horizontal ( lat-lon ) and an unstaggered vertical discretization . The horizontal mesh can be of uniform or variable resolution , and furthermore can be arbitrarily rotated , the vertical mesh is also variable . The explicit horizontal diffusion is -2 on all prognostic variables . The operational GEM model is interfaced with a full complement of physical parametrizations , these currently include : solar and infrared radiation interactive with water vapor , carbon dioxide , ozone and clouds , prediction of surface temperature over land with the force-restore method , turbulence in the planetary boundary layer through vertical diffusion , diffusion coefficients based on stability and turbulent kinetic energy , surface layer based on Monin-Obukhov similarity theory , shallow convection scheme ( non precipitating ) , Kuo-type deep convection scheme ( global forecast system ) , Fritsch-Chappell type deep convection scheme ( regional forecast system ) , Sundqvist condensation scheme for stratiform precipitation , gravity wave drag . The next stage of development of the GEM model is to evaluate the non-hydrostatic version for mesoscale applications where the hydrostatic assumption breaks down . The limited-area ( open-boundary ) version is scheduled to follow . The distributed memory version of GEM is almost completed , it is a major recoding effort that is based upon a locally developed communication interface currently using Message Passing Interface . Research on the performance of different land surface schemes such as ISBA ( Interaction Soil-Biosphere-Atmosphere ) and CLASS ( Canadian Land Surface Scheme ) is making progress . The strategy is progressing towards a unified data assimilation and forecast system , at the heart of which lies a single multipurpose and multiscale numerical model . Output from Canadian forecast models such as the GEM is under Canadian crown copyright but is issued under a free license if properly attributed to Environment Canada . Various unofficial sites thus redistribute GEM data , including the GDPS and GEPS .","qid":"2790","docid":"Global_Environmental_Multiscale_Model","rank":24,"score":100900},{"content":"Title: 2010 Northern Hemisphere heat waves Content: The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves included severe heat waves that impacted most of the United States, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, China, Hong Kong, North Africa and the European continent as a whole, along with parts of Canada, Russia, Indochina, South Korea and Japan during May, June, July, and August 2010. The first phase of the global heatwaves was caused by a moderate El Niño event, which lasted from June 2009 to May 2010. The first phase lasted only from April 2010 to June 2010, and caused only moderate above average temperatures in the areas affected. But it also set new record high temperatures for most of the area affected, in the Northern Hemisphere. The second phase (the main, and most devastating phase) was caused by a very strong La Niña event, which lasted from June 2010 to June 2011. According to meteorologists, the 2010–11 La Niña event was one of the strongest La Niña events ever observed. That same La Niña event also had devastating effects in the Eastern states of Australia. The second phase lasted from June 2010 to October 2010, caused severe heat waves, and multiple record-breaking temperatures. The heatwaves began on April 2010, when strong anticyclones began to develop, over most of the affected regions, in the Northern Hemisphere. The heatwaves ended in October 2010, when the powerful anticyclones over most of the affected areas dissipated. The heat wave during the summer of 2010 was at its worst in June, over the Eastern United States, Middle East, Eastern Europe and European Russia, and over Northeastern China and southeastern Russia. June 2010 marked the fourth consecutive warmest month on record globally, at 0.66 °C (1.22 °F) above average, while the period April–June was the warmest ever recorded for land areas in the Northern Hemisphere, at 1.25 °C (2.25 °F) above average. The previous record for the global average temperature in June was set in 2005 at 0.66 °C (1.19 °F), and the previous warm record for April–June over Northern Hemisphere land areas was 1.16 °C (2.09 °F), set in 2007. The strongest of the anticyclones, the one situated over Siberia, registered a maximum high pressure of 1040 millibars. The weather caused forest fires in China, where three in a team of 300 died fighting a fire that broke out in the Binchuan County of Dali, as Yunnan suffered the worst drought in 60 years by February 17. A major drought was reported across the Sahel as early as January. In August, a section of the Petermann Glacier tongue connecting northern Greenland, the Nares Strait and the Arctic Ocean broke off, the biggest ice shelf in the Arctic to detach in 48 years. By the time the heatwaves had ended in late October 2010, about $500 billion (2011 USD) of damage was done, in the Northern Hemisphere alone. The World Meteorological Organization stated that the heat waves, droughts and flooding events fit with predictions based on global warming for the 21st century, include those based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's 2007 4th Assessment Report. Some climatologists argue that these weather events would not have happened if the atmospheric carbon dioxide was at pre-industrial levels.","qid":"2790","docid":"2010_Northern_Hemisphere_heat_waves","rank":25,"score":100664},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Argentina Content: According to scientists , global warming is predicted to have significant effects on the climate of Argentina . Though temperatures have increased at a slower rate than the global average , nonetheless these impacts have occurred in many areas . If these trends continue , it is predicted that climate change will exacerbate existing natural disasters such as increasing the intensity and frequency of floods or create new ones .","qid":"2790","docid":"Climate_change_in_Argentina","rank":26,"score":100630},{"content":"Title: Wibjörn Karlén Content: Wibjörn Karlén ( born 26 August 1937 in Kristine , Kopparberg County , Sweden ) , Ph.D. , is a professor emeritus of physical geography and quaternary geology at Stockholm University , Sweden . In an article which describes Karlén as a paleoclimatologist , he is quoted as saying : `` One of the big problems with trying to determine long-term temperature changes , is that weather records only go back to about 1860 . By relying on statistical reconstruction of the last 1000 years , using only the temperature patterns of the last 140 years instead of actual temperature readings , the IPCC report and Summary missed both a major cooling period as well as a significant warming trend during that millennium . '' Karlén has also criticized the mainstream media for `` spreading the exaggerated views of a human impact on climate . '' He was also named in a 2007 minority report of the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee as one of 400 `` prominent scientists '' who were said to dispute global warming . In 2010 , he predicted that natural climate changes , caused to a large degree by the sun 's activity , would more likely make the climate colder than warmer in the next decades . He is a contributing author to the Fraser Institute 2007 Independent Summary for Policymakers . Karlén is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences .","qid":"2790","docid":"Wibjörn_Karlén","rank":27,"score":100541},{"content":"Title: James O'Brien (oceanographer) Content: James O'Brien ( born August 10 , 1935 , died September 20 , 2016 ) is the emeritus Robert O. Lawton Professor of Meteorology and Oceanography at Florida State University . He believes sea levels are rising but predicts a more modest 18 in rise instead of 6 ft by 2100 targeted by some other scientists . He stated that `` sea level in Florida is going to continue to rise period . Unless we go back into an Ice age , we will continue to rise at over 8 in in 10 year . That 's without any global warming . ''","qid":"2790","docid":"James_O'Brien_(oceanographer)","rank":28,"score":100457},{"content":"Title: 1990 United Kingdom heat wave Content: The 1990 heat wave in the United Kingdom was a particularly severe heat event with temperatures hitting record highs of 37.1 C on 3 August . The temperature was recorded at Cheltenham , Gloucestershire , and was a full degree Celsius above the previous record , set in 1911 . However , this record was subsequently broken in the 2003 heatwave .","qid":"2790","docid":"1990_United_Kingdom_heat_wave","rank":29,"score":100382},{"content":"Title: Temperature's Rising Content: Temperature 's Rising is a compilation album released in 1995 by the Canadian rock band Loverboy . The album was the third compilation by the band , but this particular compilation aimed at the more rarely heard songs by the band , and the minor hits that the previous compilations did not cover .","qid":"2790","docid":"Temperature's_Rising","rank":30,"score":100187},{"content":"Title: Fate of the World Content: Fate of the World is a 2011 global warming game developed and published by Red Redemption . It features several scenarios , based on actual scientific research , in which the player is put in charge of a fictional international organization managing social , technological and environmental policies . The goals of the scenarios range from improving living conditions in Africa , to preventing catastrophic climate change , to exacerbating it . It is quickly followed by an expansion pack called Fate of the World : Tipping Point , released in late 2011 . The climate prediction models for the game are the work of Myles Allen , the head of the Climate Dynamics group at the University of Oxford .","qid":"2790","docid":"Fate_of_the_World","rank":31,"score":99657},{"content":"Title: HD 73256 b Content: HD 73256 b is an 1.87 MJ hot Jupiter orbiting at 0.037 AU taking 2.55 days to orbit around HD 73256 . Assuming the planet is perfectly grey with no greenhouse or tidal effects , and a Bond albedo of 0.1 , the temperature would be about 1300 K . This is close to 51 Pegasi b ; between the predicted temperatures of HD 189733 b and HD 209458 b ( 1180-1392K ) , before they were measured . It is a candidate for `` near-infrared characterisation with the VLTI Spectro-Imager '' .","qid":"2790","docid":"HD_73256_b","rank":32,"score":99274},{"content":"Title: 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves Content: The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves included severe heat waves that impacted most of the United States , Kazakhstan , Mongolia , China , Hong Kong , North Africa and the European continent as a whole , along with parts of Canada , Russia , Indochina , South Korea and Japan during May , June , July , and August 2010 . The first phase of the global heatwaves was caused by a moderate El Niño event , which lasted from June 2009 to May 2010 . The first phase lasted only from April 2010 to June 2010 , and caused only moderate above average temperatures in the areas affected . But it also set new record high temperatures for most of the area affected , in the Northern Hemisphere . The second phase ( the main , and most devastating phase ) was caused by a very strong La Niña event , which lasted from June 2010 to June 2011 . According to meteorologists , the 2010 -- 11 La Niña event was one of the strongest La Niña events ever observed . That same La Niña event also had devastating effects in the Eastern states of Australia . The second phase lasted from June 2010 to October 2010 , caused severe heat waves , and multiple record-breaking temperatures . The heatwaves began on April 2010 , when strong anticyclones began to develop , over most of the affected regions , in the Northern Hemisphere . The heatwaves ended in October 2010 , when the powerful anticyclones over most of the affected areas dissipated . The heat wave during the summer of 2010 was at its worst in June , over the Eastern United States , Middle East , Eastern Europe and European Russia , and over Northeastern China and southeastern Russia . June 2010 marked the fourth consecutive warmest month on record globally , at 0.66 ° C ( 1.22 ° F ) above average , while the period April -- June was the warmest ever recorded for land areas in the Northern Hemisphere , at 1.25 ° C ( 2.25 ° F ) above average . The previous record for the global average temperature in June was set in 2005 at 0.66 ° C ( 1.19 ° F ) , and the previous warm record for April -- June over Northern Hemisphere land areas was 1.16 ° C ( 2.09 ° F ) , set in 2007 . Sometime during June 2010 , the highest recorded temperature caused by the heatwave was 53.5 ° C , in Southeastern Russia , just north of Kazakhstan . The strongest of the anticyclones , the one situated over Siberia , registered a maximum high pressure of 1040 millibars . The weather caused forest fires in China , where three in a team of 300 died fighting a fire that broke out in the Binchuan County of Dali , as Yunnan suffered the worst drought in 60 years by February 17 . A major drought was reported across the Sahel as early as January . In August , a section of the Petermann Glacier tongue connecting northern Greenland , the Nares Strait and the Arctic Ocean broke off , the biggest ice shelf in the Arctic to detach in 48 years . By the time the heatwaves had ended in late October 2010 , about $ 500 billion ( 2011 USD ) of damage was done , in the Northern Hemisphere alone . The World Meteorological Organization stated that the heat waves , droughts and flooding events fit with predictions based on global warming for the 21st century , include those based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's 2007 4th Assessment Report . Some climatologists argue that these weather events would not have happened if the atmospheric carbon dioxide was at pre-industrial levels .","qid":"2790","docid":"2010_Northern_Hemisphere_summer_heat_waves","rank":33,"score":99052},{"content":"Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .","qid":"2790","docid":"Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous","rank":34,"score":98852},{"content":"Title: Jonathan M. Gregory Content: Jonathan M. Gregory FRS is a climate modeller working on mechanisms of global and large-scale change in climate and sea level on multidecadal and longer timescales . He is currently a senior scientist in the Climate Division of NERC 's National Centre for Atmospheric Science ( NCAS-Climate ) , located in the Department of Meteorology at the University of Reading ; and a Research Fellow in climate change at the Met Office Hadley Centre . A 2004 study , led by Gregory and published in the journal Nature , predicted that the Greenland ice sheet is likely to be eliminated as a consequence of global warming , resulting in a rise in global sea-levels by 7 meters over the next 1000 years or more . He was a co-ordinating Lead Author of the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report chapter 11 Changes in Sea Level , and a contributing author to the sea level chapter in the IPCC Second Assessment Report '' . Gregory was also a co-Lead Author of the 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report chapter 5 Observations : Oceanic Climate Change and Sea Level , and chapter 10 Global Climate Projections . IPCC was a co-recipient ( with Al Gore ) of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize for its work on climate change . In 2010 Jonathan Gregory was awarded an Advanced Grant by the European Research Council to carry out research on sea level change . In 2017 Jonathan Gregory was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society .","qid":"2790","docid":"Jonathan_M._Gregory","rank":35,"score":98656},{"content":"Title: Temperature Rising (album) Content: Temperature Rising is the second English language album by Thai singer Tata Young . It was released in 2006 . The album consist of cover songs and original songs . The first single is `` El Nin-YO ! '' , from the lyrics of which the album 's title comes from . ( `` You got my temperature rising like El Nin-YO ! '' ) . Her second single is `` Zoom '' which was released in September . `` Come Rain Come Shine '' , the third single , was used in Star World 's station promo 's from December 2006 to mid-2007 . The promo includes footage of Tata Young singing `` Come Rain Come Shine '' as well as scenes from some of Star World 's television shows ( Everybody Loves Raymond , American Idol etc. . ) Track # 7 , `` Zoom '' , was covered by Ashley Tisdale on her 2007 debut album Headstrong , under the title as `` Do n't Touch ( The Zoom Song ) '' . Temperature Rising was last Tata Young album released on cassette tapes , but in very small numbers produced in a short time until September 2006 .","qid":"2790","docid":"Temperature_Rising_(album)","rank":36,"score":98151},{"content":"Title: Integrated Forecast System Content: The Integrated Forecast System ( IFS ) is an operational global meteorological forecasting model . IFS is developed and maintained by the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts ( ECMWF ) based in Reading , England . Because of its source , it is often known as the `` ECMWF '' or the `` European model '' in North America , to distinguish it from the American Global Forecast System ( GFS ) . It is one of the predominant synoptic-scale medium-range models in general use worldwide ; its most prominent rivals in the 6 -- 10 day medium range include the GFS and the Canadian Global Environmental Multiscale Model ( GEM and GDPS ) . The IFS is a global model that runs every twelve hours . Its output runs out to fifteen days in one-day intervals ( although output is only made available to most members of the public out to 7 to 10 days , depending on the variable ) . The operational model runs both in a deterministic forecast mode and as a 51-member ensemble . The current deterministic mode has a horizontal resolution of 16 km while the ensemble prediction systems have resolutions of 32 and 64 km , and 137 layers in the vertical resolution in the deterministic compared to 91 layers in the ensemble ; both modes ' vertical layers follow terrain at low levels . The IFS , like the GFS , uses spectral representation rather than a grid-based system . Because the IFS only offers output on a day-by-day interval , each individual ECMWF member country typically runs its own synoptic-scale forecast for the shorter ranges of 5 days or less , separate from the IFS , with smaller time intervals ( examples include the French ARPEGE , British Unified Model and German GME/ICON ) . In contrast to the GEM/GDPS ( which is copyrighted but freely licensed ) and the GFS ( which is public domain ) , the ECMWF 's proprietary data and forecasts are heavily restricted and require a licence for most output . A limited amount of the IFS 's output is released freely to the public and licenced under a Creative Commons licence that prohibits commercial usage or derivative works .","qid":"2790","docid":"Integrated_Forecast_System","rank":37,"score":98140},{"content":"Title: Deep Decarbonization Pathways Project Content: The Deep Decarbonization Pathways Project ( DDPP ) is a global consortium formed in October 2013 which researches methods to limit the rise of global temperature due to global warming to 2 ° C or less . The focus of the DDPP is on sustainable energy systems , other sectors of the economy , such as agriculture and land-use , are not directly considered .","qid":"2790","docid":"Deep_Decarbonization_Pathways_Project","rank":38,"score":98101},{"content":"Title: Rapid Refresh Content: The Rapid Refresh ( RR or RAP ) is a numerical weather prediction ( NWP ) model . The model is designed to provide short-range hourly weather forecasts for North America . The Rapid Refresh was officially made operational on May 1 , 2012 , replacing the Rapid Update Cycle ( RUC ) . The Rapid Refresh is run at the NOAA National Centers for Environmental Prediction ( NCEP ) . It is based on the framework of the Weather Research and Forecasting model ( WRF ) ; the Global Forecast System ( GFS ) provides the boundary parameters . The grid points are spaced every 13 km , with 50 vertical intervals extending up to the 10-hectopascal ( 10 mb ) level of the atmosphere . The model runs once each hour , with forecasts given hourly out to 18 hours . An experimental version of the Rapid Refresh runs at the Earth System Research Laboratory ( ESRL ) , a NOAA unit that develops models in the research stage prior to operational implementation . This version uses more modern model framework and also has a higher-resolution mode , the High Resolution Rapid Refresh ( HRRR ) , that uses a 3 km grid spacing and gives forecasts in 15-minute intervals ( though still only issued once an hour ) .","qid":"2790","docid":"Rapid_Refresh","rank":39,"score":97804},{"content":"Title: Leipzig Declaration Content: The Leipzig Declaration on Global Climate Change is a statement made in 1995 , seeking to refute the claim there is a scientific consensus on the global warming issue . It was issued in an updated form in 1997 and revised again in 2005 , claiming to have been signed by 80 scientists and 25 television news meteorologists while the posting of 33 additional signatories was pending verification that those 33 additional scientists still agreed with the statement . All versions of the declaration , which opposes the global warming hypothesis and the Kyoto Protocol , were penned by Fred Singer 's Science and Environmental Policy Project ( SEPP ) . The first declaration was based on a November 9 -- 10 , 1995 conference , organized by Helmut Metzner in Leipzig , Germany . The second declaration was additionally based on a successor conference in Bonn , Germany on November 10 -- 11 , 1997 . The conferences were cosponsored by SEPP and the European Academy for Environmental Affairs and titled International Symposium on the Greenhouse Controversy .","qid":"2790","docid":"Leipzig_Declaration","rank":40,"score":97473},{"content":"Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Content: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change : A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases was a 2005 international conference that examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration , and the 2 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) ceiling on global warming thought necessary to avoid the most serious effects of global warming . Previously this had generally been accepted as being 550 ppm . The conference took place under the United Kingdom 's presidency of the G8 , with the participation of around 200 ` internationally renowned ' scientists from 30 countries . It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter , from 1 February to 3 February .","qid":"2790","docid":"Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change","rank":41,"score":97407},{"content":"Title: ERA-40 Content: ERA-40 is an ECMWF re-analysis of the global atmosphere and surface conditions for 45-years , over the period from September 1957 through August 2002 by ECMWF . Many sources of the meteorological observations were used , including radiosondes , balloons , aircraft , buoyes , satellites , scatterometers . This data was run through the ECMWF computer model at a 125 km resolution . As the ECMWF 's computer model is one of the more highly regarded in the field of forecasting , many scientists take its reanalysis to have similar merit . The data is stored in GRIB format . The reanalysis was done in an effort to improve the accuracy of historical weather maps and aid in a more detailed analysis of various weather systems through a period that was severely lacking in computerized data . With the data from reanalyses such as this , many of the more modern computerized tools for analyzing storm systems can be utilized , at least in part , because of this access to a computerized simulation of the atmospheric state .","qid":"2790","docid":"ERA-40","rank":42,"score":97181},{"content":"Title: Global warming in Turkey Content:","qid":"2790","docid":"Global_warming_in_Turkey","rank":43,"score":97107},{"content":"Title: Model for Prediction Across Scales Content: The Model for Prediction Across Scales ( MPAS ) is a coupled Earth system modeling package that integrates atmospheric , oceanographic and cryospheric modeling on a variety of scales from the planetary to regional and mesoscale/microscale . It includes climate and weather modeling and simulations that were first used by researchers in 2013 . The atmospheric components ( MPAS-A ) were led by the National Center for Atmospheric Research ( NCAR ) 's Earth System Laboratory ( NESL ) and the oceanographic components ( MPAS-O ) by the Climate , Ocean , and Sea Ice Modeling Group ( COSIM ) at Los Alamos National Laboratory ( LANL ) . It has been used for real-time weather as well as seasonal forecasting of convection , tornadoes and tropical cyclones , among other uses . Its atmospheric modeling aspects are intended to use and complement rather than replace the Weather Research and Forecasting Model ( WRF-ARW/NMM ) , the Global Forecast System ( GFS ) and the Community Earth System Model ( CESM ) .","qid":"2790","docid":"Model_for_Prediction_Across_Scales","rank":44,"score":96937},{"content":"Title: Bølling-Allerød warming Content: The Bølling-Allerød interstadial was an abrupt warm and moist interstadial period that occurred during the final stages of the last glacial period . This warm period ran from c. 14,700 to c. 12,700 years before the present ( BP ) . It began with the end of the cold period known as the Oldest Dryas , and ended abruptly with the onset of the Younger Dryas , a cold period that reduced temperatures back to near-glacial levels within a decade . In some regions , a cold period known as the Older Dryas can be detected in the middle of the Bølling-Allerød interstadial . In these regions the period is divided into the Bølling oscillation , which peaked around 14,500 BP , and the Allerød oscillation , which peaked closer to 13,000 BP . Estimates of CO2 rise are 20 -- 35 ppmv within 200 years , a rate less than 29 -- 50 % compared to the anthropogenic global warming signal from the past 50 years , and with a radiative forcing of 0.59 -- 0.75 W m − 2 .","qid":"2790","docid":"Bølling-Allerød_warming","rank":45,"score":96878},{"content":"Title: Temperatures Rising Content: Temperatures Rising is an American television sitcom that aired on the ABC network from September 12 , 1972 to August 29 , 1974 . During its 46-episode run , it was presented in three different formats and cast line-ups . The series was developed for the network by William Asher and Harry Ackerman for Ashmont Productions and Screen Gems . Set in a fictional Washington , D.C. hospital , the series featured James Whitmore as a no-nonsense chief of staff , forced to deal with the outlandish antics of a young intern ( Cleavon Little ) and three nurses ( Joan Van Ark , Reva Rose , and Nancy Fox ) . For the first season , 26 episodes were produced and broadcast . In the second season , Whitmore was replaced in the lead role by comedian Paul Lynde , and Asher was replaced as producer by Duke Vincent and Bruce Johnson . The series was re-titled The New Temperatures Rising Show , and featured a new supporting cast : Sudie Bond , Barbara Cason , Jennifer Darling , Jeff Morrow , and John Dehner . Cleavon Little was the only returning member of the original cast . In this season , Lynde was presented as the penny-pinching chief of staff , with Bond as his nagging mother and owner of the hospital . The New Temperatures Rising Show ran for 13 episodes before being placed on hiatus in January 1974 due to poor ratings . It returned in July in yet another incarnation . Asher returned as producer and restored the series to its original format -- albeit with Lynde continuing in the lead . Reverting to the original title of Temperatures Rising , Little remained in the show 's cast , accompanied by a new line-up of supporting players : Alice Ghostley , Barbara Rucker and , returning from the first season 's cast , Nancy Fox . Offered as a summer replacement on Thursday nights , the third version of the sitcom ran for seven episodes , after which it was cancelled permanently .","qid":"2790","docid":"Temperatures_Rising","rank":46,"score":96841},{"content":"Title: Climate model Content: Climate models use quantitative methods to simulate the interactions of the important drivers of climate , including atmosphere , oceans , land surface and ice . They are used for a variety of purposes from study of the dynamics of the climate system to projections of future climate . All climate models take account of incoming energy from the sun as short wave electromagnetic radiation , chiefly visible and short-wave ( near ) infrared , as well as outgoing long wave ( far ) infrared electromagnetic . Any imbalance results in a change in temperature . Models vary in complexity : A simple radiant heat transfer model treats the earth as a single point and averages outgoing energy This can be expanded vertically ( radiative-convective models ) and/or horizontally Finally , ( coupled ) atmosphere -- ocean -- sea ice global climate models solve the full equations for mass and energy transfer and radiant exchange . Box models can treat flows across and within ocean basins . Other types of modelling can be interlinked , such as land use , allowing researchers to predict the interaction between climate and ecosystems .","qid":"2790","docid":"Climate_model","rank":47,"score":96428},{"content":"Title: Economic impacts of climate change Content: This article describes the economic impacts of climate change . Given the inherent nature of economic forecasting , which involves significant degrees of uncertainty , estimates of the results of global warming over the 21st century have varied widely . Many analyses , such as that of the Stern Review presented to the British Government , have predicted reductions by several percent of world gross domestic product due to climate related costs such as dealing with increased extreme weather events and stresses to low-lying areas due to sea level rises . Other studies by independent economists looking at the effects of climate change have found more ambiguous results around the range of net-neutral changes when all aspects of the issue are evaluated , though the issue remains intensely debated .","qid":"2790","docid":"Economic_impacts_of_climate_change","rank":48,"score":96243},{"content":"Title: Held-Hou Model Content: The Held-Hou Model is a model for the Hadley circulation of the atmosphere that would exist in the absence of atmospheric turbulence . The model was developed by Isaac Held and Arthur Hou in 1980 . The essence of the model is that air rising from the surface at the equator conserves its angular momentum as it moves poleward . This distribution of wind , in turn , determines the distribution of temperature , which determines the latitudinal extent of the circulation by requiring energy conservation . This stands in contrast to George Hadley 's original conception of the circulation , which he argued reached the poles . The Hadley circulation has a cooling effect at and near the equator and a warming effect at higher latitudes within the Hadley Cell . This energy transport can be converted into a mass transport , to determine the strength of the circulation , by normalizing by the appropriate vertical stability . The effects of moisture and seasons on the model have been studied . Earth 's atmosphere violates the underlying assumptions of the model : angular momentum is not conserved and the tropical atmosphere is not energetically closed . As such , the Held-Hou model is a conceptual model that does not make quantitatively accurate predictions of the sensitivity of the Hadley circulation to changes in atmospheric parameters .","qid":"2790","docid":"Held-Hou_Model","rank":49,"score":96036},{"content":"Title: GME of Deutscher Wetterdienst Content: GME - operational global numerical weather prediction model of the German Weather Service . The model is on almost uniform icosahedral-hexagonal grid . The GME gridpoint approach avoids the disadvantages of spectral techniques as well as the pole problem in latitude -- longitude grids and provides a data structure well suited to high efficiency on distributed memory parallel computers . The GME 's approach to a global grid would later be utilized by the Flow-following , finite-volume Icosahedral Model ( FIM ) , an experimental model currently in development in the United States .","qid":"2790","docid":"GME_of_Deutscher_Wetterdienst","rank":50,"score":95994},{"content":"Title: General circulation model Content: A general circulation model ( GCM ) is a type of climate model . It employs a mathematical model of the general circulation of a planetary atmosphere or ocean . It uses the Navier -- Stokes equations on a rotating sphere with thermodynamic terms for various energy sources ( radiation , latent heat ) . These equations are the basis for computer programs used to simulate the Earth 's atmosphere or oceans . Atmospheric and oceanic GCMs ( AGCM and OGCM ) are key components along with sea ice and land-surface components . GCMs and global climate models are used for weather forecasting , understanding the climate and forecasting climate change . Versions designed for decade to century time scale climate applications were originally created by Syukuro Manabe and Kirk Bryan at the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory in Princeton , New Jersey . These models are based on the integration of a variety of fluid dynamical , chemical and sometimes biological equations .","qid":"2790","docid":"General_circulation_model","rank":51,"score":95842},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Texas Content: Over the next century , climate in Texas could experience additional changes . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Texas could increase by about 3 ° F ( ~ 1.7 ° C ) in spring ( with a range of 1-6 ° F ) and about 4 ° F ( ~ 2.2 ° C ) in other seasons ( with a range of 1-9 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease by 5-30 % in winter and increase by about 10 % in the other seasons . Increases in summer could be slightly larger ( up to 30 % ) than in spring and fall . Other climate models may show different results . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to decrease , and the amount of precipitation on extreme wet days in summer is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how severe storms such as hurricanes would change .","qid":"2790","docid":"Climate_change_in_Texas","rank":52,"score":95709},{"content":"Title: Nested Grid Model Content: The Nested Grid Model ( usually known as NGM for short ) was a numerical weather prediction model run by the National Centers for Environmental Prediction , a division of the National Weather Service , in the United States . The NGM was , as its name suggested , derived from two levels of grids : a hemispheric-scale grid and a synoptic-scale grid , the latter of which had a resolution of approximately 90 kilometers . Its most notable feature was that it assumed the hydrostatic equation . The NGM debuted in 1987 , directly replacing the limited-area fine-mesh ( LFM ) model , which was immediately halted upon the NGM 's debut . The NGM was also used to create model output statistics . Development of the model stopped in 1993 . By 2000 , the model was seen as obsolete , particularly for mesoscale features that were not hydrostatic , and was scheduled to be superseded by the Global Forecast System ( GFS ) in 2001 . However , though the NGM ceased widespread use in the early 2000s due to the GFS and improvements in the Eta model ( later the North American Mesoscale Model ) , and the NGM 's short-range LAMP products were phased out in 2006 , NGM MOS products continued to be in significant general use ( alongside the Eta/NAM and GFS ) until March 3 , 2009 , when the NGM MOS products were finally discontinued .","qid":"2790","docid":"Nested_Grid_Model","rank":53,"score":95641},{"content":"Title: Global warming in Tuvalu Content: Global warming is a concern in Tuvalu since the average height of the islands is less than 2 m above sea level , with the highest point of Niulakita being about 4.6 m above sea level . Tuvalu could be one of the first nations to experience the effects of sea level rise . Not only could parts of the island be flooded but the rising saltwater table could also destroy deep rooted food crops such as coconut , pulaka , and taro .","qid":"2790","docid":"Global_warming_in_Tuvalu","rank":54,"score":95518},{"content":"Title: Masao Kanamitsu Content: Masao Kanamitsu ( November 6 , 1943 in Kumamoto , Japan -- August 17 , 2011 in Del Mar , California ) - was Japanese and American atmospheric scientist working in the field of data assimilation . His research greatly influenced global and regional climate change studies including development of breakthrough reanalysis and downscaling datasets and weather forecasting studies . He was the co-author of one of the most cited geophysics paper in his time . Kanamitsu was born in 1943 and was raised in Sapporo . He did his B.S. and M. Sc . in 1968 at Hokkaido University , Japan and M.Sc . and Ph. D. in 1975 at Florida State University . He was one of the large group of Japanese scientists who after the World War II greatly contributed to the development of the dynamic meteorology in the US and in the World including Syukuro Manabe , Taroh Matsuno , Kikuro Miyakoda , and Akio Arakawa . He served as a Forecaster at Japan Meteorological Agency , as a leader of the Global Modeling Branch , Development Division , and later as an Acting Chief of the Prediction Branch at the Climate Prediction Center of the National Meteorological Center . In 2001 he moved to Scripps Institution of Oceanography where he worked to the rest of his life . He had a group of young researchers working with him . Kanamitsu was instrumental in creating one of the most successful datasets used in global change studies - the NCEP/NCAR Reanalysis for which he received a Group Gold Medal from the Department of Commerce in 1997 . His 1996 reanalysis paper is one of the most celebrated paper in atmospheric science and geosciences - at the time of his death this paper was cited 7985 times . His publications report ambitious , multiyear in making , and extensive project to develop regional-scale climate change dataset based on the NCEP -- NCAR reanalysis for the period 1948 -- 2005 . This downscaling paved the way for local scale understanding of climate changes . In he worked out a problem of how to produce meteorological dataset such as winds , pressures , or temperature on fine scale ( say every 10 km ) if the measurements are performed every 200 km . This led to a concept of dynamical downscaling of climate analysis using regional models . He served as an editor for the Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan ( 1980 -- 1985 ) and the Monthly Weather Review ( 1991 -- 1993 ) . He was active scientifically to the end of his very productive life . At the time of his death he was a researcher at Scripps Institution of Oceanography where in relatively short time of about 10 years he wrote 35 papers . Kanamitsu was survived by his wife Mariko and he had daughter Tomoko . He enjoyed hiking in various mountain ranges around Japan , United States and Europe . He loved dogs . He received Meteorological Society of Japan award in 1983 . He was known as Kana among his friends .","qid":"2790","docid":"Masao_Kanamitsu","rank":55,"score":95270},{"content":"Title: Unified Model Content: The Unified Model is a Numerical Weather Prediction and climate modeling software suite originally developed by the United Kingdom Met Office , and now both used and further developed by many weather-forecasting agencies around the world . The Unified Model gets its name because a single model is used across a range of both timescales ( nowcasting to centennial ) and spatial scales ( convective scale to climate system earth modelling ) . The models are grid-point based , rather than wave based , and are run on a variety of supercomputers around the world . The Unified Model atmosphere can be coupled to a number of ocean models . At the Met Office it is used for the main suite of Global Model , North Atlantic and Europe model ( NAE ) and a high-resolution UK model ( UKV ) , in addition to a variety of Crisis Area Models and other models that can be run on demand . Similar Unified Model suites with global and regional domains are used by many other national or military weather agencies around the world for operational forecasting . Data for numerical weather prediction is provided by observations from satellites , from the ground ( both human and from automatic weather stations ) , from buoys at sea , radar , radiosonde weather balloons , wind profilers , commercial aircraft and a background field from previous model runs . The computer model is only adjusted towards the observations using assimilation , rather than forcing the model to accept an observed value that might make the system unstable ( and could be an inaccurate observation ) . The Unified Model software suite is written in Fortran ( originally 77 but now predominantly 90 ) and uses height as the vertical variable . Because most developments of interest are at near to the ground the vertical layers are closer together near the surface .","qid":"2790","docid":"Unified_Model","rank":56,"score":95212},{"content":"Title: 2052: A Global Forecast for the Next Forty Years Content: 2052 -- A Global Forecast for the Next Forty Years is a 2012 book describing trends in global development . It is written by Jørgen Randers and is a follow-up to The Limits to Growth , which in 1972 was the first worldwide report by the Club of Rome . It differs in three ways from the previous report . First , it does not describe an impending disaster scenario , but shows only trends . Secondly , it is to be read in the light of experience since 1972 , namely , that all of humanity has responded to the report , but with a delay of 20 to 40 years . Thirdly , it offers not only future scenarios , it makes concrete proposals on how the individual should respond to emerging developments . Randers repeatedly points out that he does not want to predict specific events , only general trends .","qid":"2790","docid":"2052:_A_Global_Forecast_for_the_Next_Forty_Years","rank":57,"score":94911},{"content":"Title: Antarctica cooling controversy Content: An apparent contradiction in the observed cooling behavior of Antarctica between 1966 and 2000 became part of the public debate in the global warming controversy , particularly between advocacy groups of both sides in the public arena including politicians , as well as the popular media . In his novel State of Fear , Michael Crichton asserted that the Antarctic data contradict global warming . The few scientists who have commented on the supposed controversy state that there is no contradiction , while the author of the paper whose work inspired Crichton 's remarks has said that Crichton `` misused '' his results . There is no similar controversy within the scientific community , as the small observed changes in Antarctica are consistent with the small changes predicted by climate models , and because the overall trend since comprehensive observations began is now known to be one of warming . At the South Pole , where some of the strongest cooling trends were observed between the 1950s and 1990s , the mean trend is flat from 1957 through 2013 .","qid":"2790","docid":"Antarctica_cooling_controversy","rank":58,"score":94820},{"content":"Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .","qid":"2790","docid":"Global_cooling","rank":59,"score":94632},{"content":"Title: Late 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave Content: The late 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave ( also referred to as the November 2009 heat wave and the South Australian heat wave ) was a heat wave that occurred in the southeastern Australian states of South Australia , Victoria and southern New South Wales . Daily maximum temperatures during the heat wave were roughly 10 ° C ( 18 ° F ) above average in many locations . Capital cities Adelaide and Melbourne recorded temperatures over 35 ° C , and some regional towns recorded temperatures above 40 ° C. Above average temperatures in the region began in late October and persisted until mid-November 2009 . Many locations through the region broke temperature records for November . This heat wave was the second experienced in the region within a 10-month period , following the early 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave in January and February 2009 , to which 374 deaths were attributed . Although the earlier heat wave was far more intense , the later heat wave was more extensive and long lasting . The heat wave was caused by a combination of factors , including hot , dry winds caused by a slow-moving high-pressure system that had settled over the Tasman Sea , an El Niño event occurring in the Pacific Ocean , and gradually rising temperatures across southern Australia , probably as a result of global warming .","qid":"2790","docid":"Late_2009_southeastern_Australia_heat_wave","rank":60,"score":94442},{"content":"Title: Petar Gburčik Content: Prof. Petar Gburčik ( Cyrillic : Петар Гбурчик ) ( 30 October 1931 - 29 October 2006 ) was a Serbian scientist and a Professor of Meteorology at the University of Belgrade . He was the author of first mathematical models of the numerical weather prediction , which were used operationally in the Weather Service of Yugoslavia from 1970 to 1977 . In the same period he began modeling of the atmospheric diffusion of air-pollution and created the first model of the spatial distribution of air-pollution . The output of this model was used for the elaboration of the urban plan of Pančevo . For the actual research of the three-dimensional distribution of wind energy ( on the territories of Belgrade and Serbia ) he applied the integration of classic models with GIS technology . Special area of his engagements were the intentionally and inadvertently modified climates , as well as their impact on the sustainable development . These modifications destabilize the climate system and lead to big material and social damage , due to the lack of possibility of weather control . Petar Gburčik proved this with his scientific papers on weather modifications and climate change .","qid":"2790","docid":"Petar_Gburčik","rank":61,"score":94421},{"content":"Title: Guy Stewart Callendar Content: Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''","qid":"2790","docid":"Guy_Stewart_Callendar","rank":62,"score":94341},{"content":"Title: North American Ensemble Forecast System Content: The North American Ensemble Forecast System ( NAEFS ) is a joint project involving the Meteorological Service of Canada ( MSC ) in Canada , the National Weather Service ( NWS ) in the United States , and the National Meteorological Service of Mexico ( NMSM ) in Mexico providing numerical weather prediction ensemble guidance for the 1 - to 16-day forecast period . The NAEFS combines the Canadian MSC ( Global Environmental Multiscale Model ) and the US NWS global ensemble prediction systems ( Global Forecast System ) , improving probabilistic operational guidance over what can be built from any individual country 's ensemble . Model guidance from the NAEFS is incorporated into the forecasts of the respective national agencies . NAEFS operates on the fundamental principles of ensemble forecasting which provides a range of possible weather forecasts of the atmospheric state over a given forecast period . The initial state of the atmosphere and/or the numerical weather prediction model configuration are slightly varied to provide a range of possible forecast solutions . The global ensemble prediction systems at MSC and NWS use slightly different , but equally valid methods to initialize and integrate the atmospheric state . By combining the ensembles from both centers into one ensemble , the possible range of future atmospheric states for a given forecast period are better sampled , producing on average , improved estimates of the future atmospheric state and the associated uncertainty . NAEFS collaboration allows the national weather agencies to pool their research resources and make improvements to the ensemble prediction systems more quickly and efficiently . The exchange of knowledge allows research and operations to develop a new generation of ensemble products with the goal of improving timeliness and accuracy in alerting the public of high impact weather events .","qid":"2790","docid":"North_American_Ensemble_Forecast_System","rank":63,"score":94293},{"content":"Title: Cretaceous Thermal Maximum Content: Cretaceous Thermal Maximum , also known as Cretaceous Thermal Optimum , was a period early in the Late Cretaceous notable for its dramatic increase in global temperatures .","qid":"2790","docid":"Cretaceous_Thermal_Maximum","rank":64,"score":94118},{"content":"Title: Planetary equilibrium temperature Content: The planetary equilibrium temperature is a theoretical temperature that a planet would be at when considered simply as if it were a black body being heated only by its parent star . In this model , the presence or absence of an atmosphere ( and therefore any greenhouse effect ) is not considered , and one treats the theoretical black body temperature as if it came from an idealized surface of the planet . Other authors use different names for this concept , such as equivalent blackbody temperature of a planet , or the effective radiation emission temperature of the planet . Similar concepts include the global mean temperature , global radiative equilibrium , and global-mean surface air temperature , which includes the effects of global warming .","qid":"2790","docid":"Planetary_equilibrium_temperature","rank":65,"score":94106},{"content":"Title: David Carson (climatologist) Content: David John Carson is a climatologist . He has been director of the Hadley Centre ( around 1990-1996 ) , director of Numerical Weather Prediction at the UKMO ( around 1999-2000 ) , and was director of the World Climate Research Programme from 2000-2005 . Carson joined the UK Meteorological Office in 1969 , following his Ph.D from the Department of Applied Mathematics , University of Liverpool , working on the structure and evolution of the atmospheric boundary layer . He did early research on the development of atmospheric general circulation models . In 1982 , he was appointed to Assistant Director within the Met Office , and led the Boundary Layer Research Branch and later the Dynamical Climatology Branch . For 1987 -- 1989 Carson was seconded to the Natural Environment Research Council ( NERC ) as their first Programme Director for atmospheric sciences . He returned to the Met . Office in January 1990 and became Director of Climate Research and then first Director of the Hadley Centre .","qid":"2790","docid":"David_Carson_(climatologist)","rank":66,"score":94100},{"content":"Title: Hockey stick controversy Content: In the hockey stick controversy , the data and methods used in reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years have been disputed . Reconstructions have consistently shown that the rise in the instrumental temperature record of the past 150 years is not matched in earlier centuries , and the name `` hockey stick graph '' was coined for figures showing a long-term decline followed by an abrupt rise in temperatures . These graphs were publicised to explain the scientific findings of climatology , and in addition to scientific debate over the reconstructions , they have been the topic of political dispute . The issue is part of the global warming controversy and has been one focus of political responses to reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . The use of proxy indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed from the 1990s onwards , and found indications that recent warming was exceptional . The reconstruction introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large-scale reconstructions , and its findings were disputed by Patrick Michaels at the United States House Committee on Science . In 1998 , Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 . In ( MBH99 ) the methodology was extended back to 1000 . The term hockey stick was coined by the climatologist Jerry D. Mahlman , to describe the pattern this showed , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' , followed by a sharp increase corresponding to the `` blade '' . A version of this graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , along with four other reconstructions supporting the same conclusion . The graph was publicised , and became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th-century warmth was exceptional . Those disputing the graph included Pat Michaels , the George C. Marshall Institute and Fred Singer . A paper by Willie Soon and Sallie Baliunas claiming greater medieval warmth was used by the Bush administration chief of staff Philip Cooney to justify altering the first Environmental Protection Agency Report on the Environment . The paper was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy , but on July 28 , Republican Jim Inhofe spoke in the Senate citing it to claim `` that man-made global warming is the greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American people '' . Later in 2003 , a paper by Steve McIntyre and Ross McKitrick disputing the data used in MBH98 paper was publicised by the George C. Marshall Institute and the Competitive Enterprise Institute . In 2004 , Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 , McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal component analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . The analysis therein was subsequently disputed by published papers , including and , which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . In June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton launched what Sherwood Boehlert , chairman of the House Science Committee , called a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into the data , methods and personal information of Mann , Bradley and Hughes . At Boehlert 's request , a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council was set up , which reported in 2006 , supporting Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . Barton and U.S. Rep. Ed Whitfield requested Edward Wegman to set up a team of statisticians to investigate , and they supported McIntyre and McKitrick 's view that there were statistical failings , although they did not quantify whether there was any significant effect . They also produced an extensive network analysis which has been discredited by expert opinion and found to have issues of plagiarism . Arguments against the MBH studies were reintroduced as part of the Climatic Research Unit email controversy , but dismissed by eight independent investigations . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , have supported the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Over a dozen subsequent reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .","qid":"2790","docid":"Hockey_stick_controversy","rank":67,"score":93881},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .","qid":"2790","docid":"Climate_change_in_Japan","rank":68,"score":93676},{"content":"Title: Gilbert Plass Content: Gilbert Norman Plass ( 22 March 1920 -- 1 March 2004 ) was a Canadian physicist who in the 1950s made predictions about the increase in global atmospheric carbon dioxide levels in the 20th century and its effect on the average temperature of the planet that closely match measurements reported half a century later . Plass worked most of his life as a physicist in the United States . He graduated from Harvard University in 1941 and earned a PhD in physics from Princeton University in 1947 . He worked as an associate physicist at the Metallurgical Laboratory ( Manhattan District ) of the University of Chicago from 1942 to 1945 . He became an instructor of physics at Johns Hopkins University in 1946 , and eventually became an associate professor there . In 1955 , leaving academia , he held a job for a year as a staff scientist with Lockheed Aircraft Corporation . He then joined the advanced research staff at the Aeronutronic division of the Ford Motor Company . In 1960 , he became manager of the research lab at Ford 's theoretical physics department and a consulting editor of the journal Infrared Physics ( now called Infrared Physics and Technology ) . In 1963 , he accepted a position as the first professor of atmospheric and space science at the Southwest Center for Advanced Studies ( now the University of Texas at Arlington ) , where he remained for five years . In 1968 , he arrived at Texas A&M University , where he served as professor of physics and head of the department .","qid":"2790","docid":"Gilbert_Plass","rank":69,"score":93570},{"content":"Title: 8.2 kiloyear event Content: In climatology , the 8.2 kiloyear event was a sudden decrease in global temperatures that occurred approximately 8,200 years before the present , or c. 6,200 BCE , and which lasted for the next two to four centuries . Milder than the Younger Dryas cold spell that preceded it , but more severe than the Little Ice Age that would follow , the 8.2 kiloyear cooling was a significant exception to general trends of the Holocene climatic optimum . During the event , atmospheric methane concentration decreased by 80 ppb or an emission reduction of 15 % , by cooling and drying at a hemispheric scale .","qid":"2790","docid":"8.2_kiloyear_event","rank":70,"score":93374},{"content":"Title: List of Temperatures Rising episodes Content: Temperatures Rising is an American television sitcom that aired for two years on the ABC network , during which time it was presented in three different formats and cast line-ups with a total of 46 episodes . The series was originally developed , produced , and occasionally directed by William Asher for Ashmont Productions and Screen Gems and premiered on September 12 , 1972 , in the time slot of Tuesday nights at 8:00 PM . The regular cast consisted of Cleavon Little as Dr. Jerry Noland , Joan Van Ark as Nurse Annie Carlisle , Reva Rose as Nurse Mildred `` Millie '' MacInerny , Nancy Fox as Student Nurse Ellen Turner , and James Whitmore as Dr. Vincent Campanelli . The premise of the series featured Campanelli as the no-nonsense chief-of-staff of Capitol General , a ( fictional ) Washington , D.C. hospital , who is forced to deal with the outlandish antics of Noland and the three nurses , whom Campanelli refers to as `` the four horsemen of aggravation '' . During its first season -- and first format -- 26 episodes were aired with the final one broadcast on . Reruns of the season 's episodes continued until September 4 , 1973 . Despite heavy competition in the ratings from Maude on CBS and Bonanza on NBC , Temperatures Rising did well enough in its first season to be renewed for a second . For this second season , John Mitchell , the head of Screen Gems , decided to replace James Whitmore with comedian Paul Lynde , whose own sitcom , The Paul Lynde Show ( also produced by William Asher for the 1972 -- 73 season ) was to be cancelled . Asher was against the change and declined to continue with Temperatures Rising , resulting in him being replaced as producer by Duke Vincent and Bruce Johnson . Under them , Van Ark , Rose , and Fox were dropped from the cast along with Whitmore , thus retaining Little as the only returning member . The New Temperatures Rising Show , as the series was now retitled , began airing on , and starred Paul Lynde as Dr. Paul Mercy , Sudie Bond as his mother Martha Mercy , Barbara Cason as Miss Tillis , the head nurse , Jennifer Darling as Nurse `` Windy '' Winchester , Jeff Morrow as Dr. Lloyd Axton , John Dehner as Dr. Charles Cleveland Claver , and Cleavon Little as Dr. Jerry Noland , while Jerry Houser was featured in a recurring role as an intern named Haskell . In this season Mercy was presented as the penny-pinching chief-of-staff , with his nagging mother as the owner of the hospital . Little 's character was changed to the chief surgeon and `` the only sane member of this medical madhouse '' . The New Temperatures Rising Show ran for 13 episodes before being placed on hiatus on . The ratings for the show were poor and , as a result , Mitchell asked Asher to return to the series as producer and restore it to its original format -- albeit with Paul Lynde continuing in the lead . For the third format of the series -- which reverted to the original title of Temperatures Rising -- Bond , Cason , Darling , Morrow , Dehner , and Houser were dropped from the cast while Lynde and Little continued on as , respectively , Dr. Mercy and Dr. Nolan . Added to the line-up were Alice Ghostley as Nurse Edwina Moffitt , sister of Dr. Mercy , and Barbara Rucker as Nurse Kelly , while Nancy Fox , from the first-season cast , returned as Nurse Ellen Turner . Offered as a summer replacement on Thursday nights , the third format of the sitcom ran for seven episodes from July 18 to , after which it was cancelled permanently . As of , , Temperatures Rising has not been released on DVD or Blu-ray Disc .","qid":"2790","docid":"List_of_Temperatures_Rising_episodes","rank":71,"score":93349},{"content":"Title: Global Historical Climatology Network Content: The Global Historical Climatology Network ( GHCN ) is a database of temperature , precipitation and pressure records managed by the National Climatic Data Center , Arizona State University and the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center . The aggregate data are collected from many continuously reporting fixed stations at the Earth 's surface and represent the input of approximately 6000 temperature stations , 7500 precipitation stations and 2000 pressure stations . This work has often been used as a foundation for reconstructing past global temperatures , and was used in previous versions of two of the best-known reconstructions , that prepared by the National Climatic Data Center ( NCDC ) , and that prepared by NASA as its Goddard Institute for Space Studies ( GISS ) temperature set . The average temperature record is 60 years long with ~ 1650 records greater than 100 years and ~ 220 greater than 150 years ( based on GHCN v2 in 2006 ) . The earliest data included in the database were collected in 1697 .","qid":"2790","docid":"Global_Historical_Climatology_Network","rank":72,"score":92963},{"content":"Title: 1911 Eastern North America heat wave Content: The 1911 Eastern North America heat wave was an 11-day heat wave in New York City and other Eastern cities that killed 380 people starting on July 4 , 1911 . In Nashua , New Hampshire , the temperature peaked at 106 degrees Fahrenheit ( 41 C ) . In New York City , 146 people and 600 horses died . In Boston , the temperature rose to 104 ° ( 40 ° C ) on July 4 , an all-time record high that still stands today .","qid":"2790","docid":"1911_Eastern_North_America_heat_wave","rank":73,"score":92780},{"content":"Title: World Ocean Circulation Experiment Content: The World Ocean Circulation Experiment ( WOCE ) was a component of the international World Climate Research Program , and aimed to establish the role of the World Ocean in the Earth 's climate system . WOCE 's field phase ran between 1990 and 1998 , and was followed by an analysis and modeling phase that ran until 2002 . When the WOCE was conceived , there were three main motivations for its creation . The first of these is the inadequate coverage of the World Ocean , specifically in the Southern Hemisphere . Data was also much more sparse during the winter months than the summer months , and there was -- and still to some extent -- a critical need for data covering all seasons . Secondly , the data that did exist was not initially collected for studying ocean circulation and was not well suited for model comparison . Lastly , there were concerns involving the accuracy and reliability of some measurements . The WOCE was meant to address these problems by providing new data collected in ways designed to `` meet the needs of global circulation models for climate prediction . ''","qid":"2790","docid":"World_Ocean_Circulation_Experiment","rank":74,"score":92742},{"content":"Title: 1911 United Kingdom heat wave Content: The United Kingdom heatwave of 1911 was a particularly severe heat wave and associated drought . Records were set around the country for temperature in England , including the highest accepted temperature , at the time , of 36.7 C ( 98.6 F ) , only broken 79 years later in the 1990 heatwave , which reached 37.1 C ( 98.78 F ) . The highest ever accepted temperature is currently 38.5 C ( 101.3 F ) recorded on 10 August 2003 in Faversham , Kent . North America was also affected around about this time .","qid":"2790","docid":"1911_United_Kingdom_heat_wave","rank":75,"score":92720},{"content":"Title: 2000 Southern United States heat wave Content: Aided by drought , a heat wave persisted in late Summer 2000 along the southern tier of the United States from July to early September of that year . Near the end of the period , daily , monthly , and even all-time record high temperatures were broken , with highs commonly peaking well over 100 degrees Fahrenheit . On September 4 , Houston hit 109 ° F ( 42.8 ° C ) and Dallas peaked at 111 ° F ( 43.9 ° C ) ; on September 5 , Corpus Christi peaked at 109 ° F ( 42.8 ° C ) , San Antonio peaked at 111 ° F ( 43.9 ° C ) while College Station and Austin reached 112 ° F ( 44.4 ° C ) . Damage totaled $ 4 billion , mainly due to wildfires and crop losses , and there were 140 deaths .","qid":"2790","docid":"2000_Southern_United_States_heat_wave","rank":76,"score":92698},{"content":"Title: Climate change in southeast Alaska Content: Climate change in southeast Alaska are changes which occur in southeast Alaska as average temperatures rise as a result of global warming . The temperate rainforest that covers this area is a result of humid summers and transient snow cover in winter . The conifers that thrive in this moist climate are free from fire risk as compared to the forests to both the north and south . Warmer weather will lengthen the growing period of the trees and the increase in evapotranspiration is likely to outweigh the increase of precipitation . Assuming a scenario involving a mid-range increase in emissions , the average temperature may rise by about 3 ° F by the year 2040 and by 6 ° F by 2080 . The trees will grow more vigorously but fungi that cause rot will also thrive , there is likely to be an increase in windthrow , and fire risk may rise . With winter temperatures increasing , the type of precipitation will change . Lack of snow cover on the ground will expose tree roots to colder soils , and yellow ceder is already showing the result of this with many trees dying . The melting of glaciers in the watershed is likely to accelerate and will cause hydrological changes that will impact the wetland habitats and the distribution of wildlife . Animals such as the black-tailed deer , moose and mountain goat may benefit from less snow cover , while such mammals as the northwestern deer mouse that tunnels under the snow are likely to be disadvantaged .","qid":"2790","docid":"Climate_change_in_southeast_Alaska","rank":77,"score":91935},{"content":"Title: International Temperature Scale of 1990 Content: The International Temperature Scale of 1990 ( ITS-90 ) published by the Consultative Committee for Thermometry ( CCT ) of the International Committee for Weights and Measures ( CIPM ) is an equipment calibration standard for making measurements on the Kelvin and Celsius temperature scales . ITS -- 90 is an approximation of the thermodynamic temperature scale that facilitates the comparability and compatibility of temperature measurements internationally . It specifies fourteen calibration points ranging from 0.65 ± 0 K to ± 0 K ( -272.50 ± 0 ° C to ± 0 ° C ) and is subdivided into multiple temperature ranges which overlap in some instances . ITS-90 is the latest ( as of 2014 ) of a series of International Temperature Scales adopted by CIPM since 1927 . Adopted at the 1989 General Conference on Weights and Measures , it supersedes the International Practical Temperature Scale of 1968 ( amended edition of 1975 ) and the 1976 `` Provisional 0.5 K to 30 K Temperature Scale '' . CCT has also adopted a mise en pratique ( practical instructions ) in 2011 . The lowest temperature covered by ITS-90 is 0.65 K . In 2000 , the temperature scale was extended further , to 0.9 mK , by the adoption of a supplemental scale , known as the Provisional Low Temperature Scale of 2000 ( PLTS-2000 ) .","qid":"2790","docid":"International_Temperature_Scale_of_1990","rank":78,"score":91699},{"content":"Title: Six Degrees: Our Future on a Hotter Planet Content: Six Degrees : Our Future on a Hotter Planet ( 358 pages ) , ISBN 978-0-00-720905-7 is a 2007 ( 2008 in USA ) non-fiction book by author Mark Lynas about global warming . The book looks and attempts to summarize results from scientific papers on climate change .","qid":"2790","docid":"Six_Degrees:_Our_Future_on_a_Hotter_Planet","rank":79,"score":91639},{"content":"Title: World Climate Research Programme Content: The World Climate Research Programme ( WCRP ) was established in 1980 , under the joint sponsorship of International Council for Science and the World Meteorological Organization , and has also been sponsored by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO since 1993 . It is a component of the World Climate Programme . The objectives of the programme are to develop the fundamental scientific understanding of the physical climate system and climate processes needed to determine to what extent climate can be predicted and the extent of human influence on climate . The programme encompasses studies of the global atmosphere , oceans , sea ice , land ice ( such as glaciers , ice caps and ice sheets ) , and the land surface which together constitute the Earth 's physical climate system . WCRP activities address issues of scientific uncertainty in the Earth 's climate system including transport and storage of heat by the ocean , the global energy and hydrological cycle , the formation of clouds and their effects on radiative transfer , and the role of the cryosphere in climate . These activities match the scientific priorities identified by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , and provide the basis for responding to issues raised in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change . WCRP also lays the scientific foundation for meeting the research challenges posed in Agenda 21 . Together with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme and the International Human Dimensions of Global Environmental Change Programme , WCRP provides the international framework for scientific cooperation in the study of global climate change . Scientific guidance for the programme is provided by a Joint Scientific Committee consisting of 18 scientists selected by mutual agreement between the three sponsoring organizations .","qid":"2790","docid":"World_Climate_Research_Programme","rank":80,"score":91469},{"content":"Title: Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera Content: Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera is a theoretical physicist and researcher at the Institute of Geophysics of the National Autonomous University of Mexico ( UNAM ) . He disagrees with predictions about future climate change , arguing that they ignore the most important factor , which is sun activity . In the summer of 2008 , he also predicted the world to soon enter a little ice age . `` The models and forecasts of the U.N. IPCC `` are incorrect because they only are based on mathematical models and presented results at scenarios that do not include , for example , solar activity . '' -- Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera .","qid":"2790","docid":"Victor_Manuel_Velasco_Herrera","rank":81,"score":91176},{"content":"Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .","qid":"2790","docid":"Copenhagen_Diagnosis","rank":82,"score":91165},{"content":"Title: 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference , COP 21 or CMP 11 was held in Paris , France , from 30 November to 12 December 2015 . It was the 21st yearly session of the Conference of the Parties ( COP ) to the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and the 11th session of the Conference of the Parties ( CMP ) to the 1997 Kyoto Protocol . The conference negotiated the Paris Agreement , a global agreement on the reduction of climate change , the text of which represented a consensus of the representatives of the 196 parties attending it . The agreement will enter into force when joined by at least 55 countries which together represent at least 55 percent of global greenhouse emissions . On 22 April 2016 ( Earth Day ) , 174 countries signed the agreement in New York , and began adopting it within their own legal systems ( through ratification , acceptance , approval , or accession ) . According to the organizing committee at the outset of the talks , the expected key result was an agreement to set a goal of limiting global warming to less than 2 degrees Celsius ( ° C ) compared to pre-industrial levels . The agreement calls for zero net anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions to be reached during the second half of the 21st century . In the adopted version of the Paris Agreement , the parties will also `` pursue efforts to '' limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C . The 1.5 ° C goal will require zero emissions sometime between 2030 and 2050 , according to some scientists . Prior to the conference , 146 national climate panels publicly presented draft national climate contributions ( called `` Intended Nationally Determined Contributions '' , INDCs ) . These suggested commitments were estimated to limit global warming to 2.7 degrees Celsius by 2100 . For example , the EU suggested INDC is a commitment to a 40 percent reduction in emissions by 2030 compared to 1990 . The agreement establishes a `` global stocktake '' which revisits the national goals to `` update and enhance '' them every five years beginning 2023 . However , no detailed timetable or country-specific goals for emissions were incorporated into the Paris Agreement -- as opposed to the previous Kyoto Protocol . A number of meetings took place in preparation for COP21 , including the Bonn Climate Change Conference , 19 to 23 October 2015 , which produced a draft agreement .","qid":"2790","docid":"2015_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference","rank":83,"score":91101},{"content":"Title: Model output statistics Content: Model Output Statistics ( MOS ) is a multiple linear regression technique in which predicands , often near-surface quantities , such as 2-meter ( AGL ) air temperature , horizontal visibility , and wind direction , speed and gusts , are related statistically to one or more predictors . The predictors are typically forecasts from a numerical weather prediction ( NWP ) model , climatic data , and , if applicable , recent surface observations . Thus , output from NWP models can be transformed by the MOS technique into sensible weather parameters that are familiar to the `` person on the street '' .","qid":"2790","docid":"Model_output_statistics","rank":84,"score":91084},{"content":"Title: History of numerical weather prediction Content: The history of numerical weather prediction considers how current weather conditions as input into mathematical models of the atmosphere and oceans to predict the weather and future sea state ( the process of numerical weather prediction ) has changed over the years . Though first attempted manually in the 1920s , it was not until the advent of the computer and computer simulation that computation time was reduced to less than the forecast period itself . ENIAC was used to create the first forecasts via computer in 1950 , and over the years more powerful computers have been used to increase the size of initial datasets as well as include more complicated versions of the equations of motion . The development of global forecasting models led to the first climate models . The development of limited area ( regional ) models facilitated advances in forecasting the tracks of tropical cyclone as well as air quality in the 1970s and 1980s . Because the output of forecast models based on atmospheric dynamics requires corrections near ground level , model output statistics ( MOS ) were developed in the 1970s and 1980s for individual forecast points ( locations ) . The MOS apply statistical techniques to post-process the output of dynamical models with the most recent surface observations and the forecast point 's climatology . This technique can correct for model resolution as well as model biases . Even with the increasing power of supercomputers , the forecast skill of numerical weather models only extends to about two weeks into the future , since the density and quality of observations -- together with the chaotic nature of the partial differential equations used to calculate the forecast -- introduce errors which double every five days . The use of model ensemble forecasts since the 1990s helps to define the forecast uncertainty and extend weather forecasting farther into the future than otherwise possible .","qid":"2790","docid":"History_of_numerical_weather_prediction","rank":85,"score":91003},{"content":"Title: 2019 heat wave in India and Pakistan Content: From mid-May to mid-June 2019, India and Pakistan had a severe heat wave. It was one of the hottest and longest heat waves since the two countries began recording weather reports. The highest temperatures occurred in Churu, Rajasthan, reaching up to 50.8 °C (123.4 °F), a near record high in India, missing the record of 51.0 °C (123.8 °F) set in 2016 by a fraction of a degree. As of 12 June 2019, 32 days are classified as parts of the heatwave, making it the second longest ever recorded.As a result of hot temperatures and inadequate preparation, more than 184 people died in the state of Bihar, with many more deaths reported in other parts of the country. In Pakistan, five infants died after extreme heat exposure.The heat wave coincided with extreme droughts and water shortages across India and Pakistan. In mid-June, reservoirs that previously supplied Chennai ran dry, depriving millions. The water crisis was exacerbated by high temperatures and lack of preparation, causing protests and fights that sometimes led to killing and stabbing.","qid":"2790","docid":"2019_heat_wave_in_India_and_Pakistan","rank":86,"score":90873},{"content":"Title: WRF Content: WRF may refer to : Weather Research and Forecasting model , a numerical weather prediction system Westminster Russia Forum , a UK organization promoting improved relations with Russia Wiley Rein & Fielding , a Washington , DC based law firm World Reformed Fellowship , an ecumenical Christian organization World Resources Forum , the global science-based platform for sharing knowledge about sustainable resource management","qid":"2790","docid":"WRF","rank":87,"score":90795},{"content":"Title: Atmospheric model Content: An atmospheric model is a mathematical model constructed around the full set of primitive dynamical equations which govern atmospheric motions . It can supplement these equations with parameterizations for turbulent diffusion , radiation , moist processes ( clouds and precipitation ) , heat exchange , soil , vegetation , surface water , the kinematic effects of terrain , and convection . Most atmospheric models are numerical , i.e. they discretize equations of motion . They can predict microscale phenomena such as tornadoes and boundary layer eddies , sub-microscale turbulent flow over buildings , as well as synoptic and global flows . The horizontal domain of a model is either global , covering the entire Earth , or regional ( limited-area ) , covering only part of the Earth . The different types of models run are thermotropic , barotropic , hydrostatic , and nonhydrostatic . Some of the model types make assumptions about the atmosphere which lengthens the time steps used and increases computational speed . Forecasts are computed using mathematical equations for the physics and dynamics of the atmosphere . These equations are nonlinear and are impossible to solve exactly . Therefore , numerical methods obtain approximate solutions . Different models use different solution methods . Global models often use spectral methods for the horizontal dimensions and finite-difference methods for the vertical dimension , while regional models usually use finite-difference methods in all three dimensions . For specific locations , model output statistics use climate information , output from numerical weather prediction , and current surface weather observations to develop statistical relationships which account for model bias and resolution issues .","qid":"2790","docid":"Atmospheric_model","rank":88,"score":90717},{"content":"Title: Climate change in South Korea Content: In recent decades most countries have been experiencing huge industrial progress . Urban and industrial areas in South Korea also had fast development from 1960s to 1980s . Industrialization and the increase in population have produced various pollutants and greenhouse gases , which are anthropogenic factors for climate change . South Korea is experiencing changes in climate parameters , including annual temperature , rainfall amounts , and precipitation . The most distinct climate change predicted for South Korea is an increase in the range of temperature fluctuation throughout the four seasons . The number of record minimum temperature days has decreased rapidly , and maximum precipitation during the summer has increased . Ongoing global climate change has produced local climate changes and extreme weather that affects : social , economy , industry , culture , and many other sectors . The increased possibility for new types of strong weather damage evokes the seriousness and the urgency of climate change . To quickly adapt to climate change , the South Korean government began an effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , and is one step closer to having a low-carbon based socio-economic nation .","qid":"2790","docid":"Climate_change_in_South_Korea","rank":89,"score":90529},{"content":"Title: Climate change and potatoes Content: Global warming is predicted to have significant effects on global potato production . Like many crops , potatoes are likely to be affected by changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide , temperature and precipitation , as well as interactions between these factors . As well as affecting potatoes directly , climate change will also affect the distributions and populations of many potato diseases and pests . Potato is one of the world 's most important food crops . Potato production must be adapted to climate change to avoid reductions in crop yields .","qid":"2790","docid":"Climate_change_and_potatoes","rank":90,"score":90486},{"content":"Title: 2013 heatwave in Ireland and the United Kingdom Content: The 2013 heat wave in the United Kingdom and Ireland was a period of unusually hot weather primarily in July 2013 , with isolated warm days in June and August . A prolonged high pressure system over Britain and Ireland caused higher than average temperatures for 19 consecutive days in July , reaching 33.5 ° C at Heathrow and Northolt . Following a brief period of cooler weather at the end of July , temperatures temporarily rose again , peaking at 34.1 ° C on 1 August in the United Kingdom , the warmest the country had seen since July 2006 , and 31.0 ° C in Ireland . At 19 days , the July heatwave was the longest continuous period of hot weather in the UK since August 1997 . However , in the general sense , Britain did not have an overall exceptional summer ; the country experienced cool low pressure systems brought by an unseasonably low latitude by the jet stream for the 6 summers previous , which made the summer of 2013 more `` welcome '' and feel warmer than other summers . The historical records suggests `` Using the CET record ( for June , July & August ) , the average temperature by that measure was 16.3 degC ( Provisional ) : neither June nor August was exceptionally warm , so this value does not ` rate ' too highly when set against other very warm summer seasons . '' With June being a cool month and August being an Average month , in terms of temperatures the English Central summer temperature ended up being on the average side set up against previous summers since the CET series began in 1659 .","qid":"2790","docid":"2013_heatwave_in_Ireland_and_the_United_Kingdom","rank":91,"score":90483},{"content":"Title: Pliocene climate Content: During the Pliocene epoch ( 5.3 Ma to 2.6 Ma ) climate became cooler and drier , and seasonal , similar to modern climates . The global average temperature in the mid-Pliocene ( 3.3 Ma -- 3 Ma ) was 2 -- 3 ° C higher than today , global sea level 25m higher and the northern hemisphere ice sheet was ephemeral before the onset of extensive glaciation over Greenland that occurred in the late Pliocene around 3 Ma . The formation of an Arctic ice cap is signaled by an abrupt shift in oxygen isotope ratios and ice-rafted cobbles in the North Atlantic and North Pacific ocean beds . Mid-latitude glaciation was probably underway before the end of the epoch . The global cooling that occurred during the Pliocene may have spurred on the disappearance of forests and the spread of grasslands and savannas . During the Pliocene the earth climate system response shifted from a period of high frequency-low amplitude oscillation dominated by the 41,000-year period of Earth 's obliquity to one of low-frequency , high-amplitude oscillation dominated by the 100,000-year period of the orbital eccentricity characteristic of the Pleistocene glacial-interglacial cycles . The equatorial pacific ocean sea surface temperature gradient was considerably lower than it is today , mean sea surface temperature in the east were substantially warmer than today but similar in the west , this condition has been described as a permanent El Niño state or El Padre","qid":"2790","docid":"Pliocene_climate","rank":92,"score":90442},{"content":"Title: Hypercane Content: A hypercane is a hypothetical class of extreme tropical cyclone that could form if ocean temperatures reached 50 C , which is 15 C-change warmer than the warmest ocean temperature ever recorded . Such an increase could be caused by a large asteroid or comet impact , a large supervolcanic eruption , or extensive global warming . There is some speculation that a series of hypercanes resulting from an impact by a large asteroid or comet contributed to the demise of the non-avian dinosaurs . The hypothesis was created by Kerry Emanuel of MIT who also coined the term .","qid":"2790","docid":"Hypercane","rank":93,"score":90426},{"content":"Title: Polar amplification Content: Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict . In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .","qid":"2790","docid":"Polar_amplification","rank":94,"score":90404},{"content":"Title: HadGEM1 Content: HadGEM1 ( abbreviation for Hadley Centre Global Environmental Model , version 1 ) is a coupled climate model developed at the Met Office 's Hadley Centre in 2006 and used in IPCC Fourth Assessment Report on climate change . It represents a significant scientific advance on its predecessor , HadCM3 . HadGEM1 also provides a basis for further development of models , particularly involving enhanced resolution and full Earth System modelling . The current version is HadGEM3 .","qid":"2790","docid":"HadGEM1","rank":95,"score":90194},{"content":"Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .","qid":"2790","docid":"Climate_change_in_the_Arctic","rank":96,"score":90163},{"content":"Title: 2016 Indian heat wave Content: In April and May 2016 , India experienced a major heat wave . A national record high temperature of 51.0 ° C ( 123.8 ° F ) was set in the town of Phalodi , in the state of Rajasthan . A total of over 160 people have died and 330 million affected . There are also water shortages . Drought has worsened the heat wave .","qid":"2790","docid":"2016_Indian_heat_wave","rank":97,"score":90017},{"content":"Title: Debye model Content: In thermodynamics and solid state physics , the Debye model is a method developed by Peter Debye in 1912 for estimating the phonon contribution to the specific heat ( heat capacity ) in a solid . It treats the vibrations of the atomic lattice ( heat ) as phonons in a box , in contrast to the Einstein model , which treats the solid as many individual , non-interacting quantum harmonic oscillators . The Debye model correctly predicts the low temperature dependence of the heat capacity , which is proportional to -- the Debye T3 law . Just like the Einstein model , it also recovers the Dulong -- Petit law at high temperatures . But due to simplifying assumptions , its accuracy suffers at intermediate temperatures . See M. Shubin and T. Sunada for a rigorous treatment of the Debye model .","qid":"2790","docid":"Debye_model","rank":98,"score":89910},{"content":"Title: Duncan Wingham Content: Duncan John Wingham ( born 12 October 1957 ) is a British physicist who is Professor of Climate Physics at University College London , and was the first Director of the Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling . He is chief executive of the Natural Environment Research Council and Principal Scientist for the CryoSat Satellite Mission . In the 1990s , Wingham was involved in a four-year satellite study of the Antarctic ice sheet . His conclusion then , and from later research , is that the Antarctic has contributed little to observed rising sea levels in the 20th century . However , he has also stated that `` it is possible that the consequences of global warming on sea level rise have been underestimated ... Other sources of rise must be underestimated . In particular it is possible that the effect of global warming on thermal expansion -LSB- on the oceans -RSB- is larger than we thought '' . In a 2005 interview Wingham stated '' -LSB- t -RSB- he Antarctic is to some extent insulated from global warming because to its north are zonal flows in the atmosphere and ocean , unimpeded by other landmasses ... I am not denying global warming . ''","qid":"2790","docid":"Duncan_Wingham","rank":99,"score":89876},{"content":"Title: Highest temperature recorded on Earth Content: The standard measuring conditions for temperature are in the air , 1.5 meters above the ground , and shielded from direct sunlight . The highest confirmed temperature on Earth recorded according to these measures was 56.7 C in Furnace Creek Ranch , California , located in the Death Valley desert in the United States , on July 10 , 1913 . The former highest official temperature on Earth , held for 90 years by ` Aziziya , Libya , was de-certified by the WMO ( World Meteorological Organization ) in January 2012 as the record for the world 's highest surface temperature ( this temperature of 57.8 ° C ( 136 ° F ) , registered on 13 September 1922 , is currently considered to have been a recorder 's error ) . Christopher C. Burt , the weather historian writing for Weather Underground who shepherded the Libya reading 's 2012 disqualification , believes that the 1913 Death Valley reading is `` a myth '' , and is at least four or five degrees Fahrenheit too high , as do other weather historians Dr. Arnold Court and William Taylor Reid . Burt proposes that the highest reliably recorded temperature on Earth is still at Death Valley , but is instead 53.9 C recorded five times : 20 July 1960 , 18 July 1998 , 20 July 2005 , 7 July 2007 , and 30 June 2013 . Temperatures measured directly on the ground may exceed air temperatures by 30 to 50 ° C . A ground temperature of 84 ° C ( 183.2 ° F ) has been recorded in Port Sudan , Sudan . A ground temperature of 93.9 ° C ( 201 ° F ) was recorded also in Furnace Creek Ranch on 15 July 1972 ; this may be the highest natural ground surface temperature ever recorded . The theoretical maximum possible ground surface temperature has been estimated to be between 90 and 100 ° C for dry , darkish soils of low thermal conductivity . Temperature measurements via satellite also tend to capture occurrence of higher records but are considered less reliable than ground-positioned thermometers . There is a satellite record of 66.8 C measured in the Flaming Mountains of China in 2008 . Other satellite measurements of ground temperature taken between 2003 and 2009 , taken with the MODIS infrared spectroradiometer on the Aqua satellite , found a maximum temperature of 70.7 ° C ( 159.3 ° F ) , which was recorded in 2005 in the Lut Desert , Iran . The Lut Desert was also found to have the highest maximum temperature in 5 of the 7 years measured ( 2004 , 2005 , 2006 , 2007 and 2009 ) . These measurements reflect averages over a large region and so are lower than the maximum point surface temperature .","qid":"2790","docid":"Highest_temperature_recorded_on_Earth","rank":100,"score":89862}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 131636\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \\\"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\\\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \\\"deep emissions reductions\\\" and \\\"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\\\" Furthermore, the report finds that \\\"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\\\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \\\"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\\\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 131426\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Future_sea_level\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 127971\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1997–98 El Niño event Content: The 1997 -- 98 El Niño was regarded as one of the most powerful El Niño -- Southern Oscillation events in recorded history , resulting in widespread droughts , flooding and other natural disasters across the globe . It caused an estimated 16 % of the world 's reef systems to die , and temporarily warmed air temperature by 1.5 ° C , compared to the usual increase of 0.25 ° C associated with El Niño events . It led to a severe outbreak of Rift Valley fever after extreme rainfall in north-eastern Kenya and southern Somalia . It also led to record rainfalls in California during the water season of 1997 -- 98 and one of Indonesia 's worst droughts on record . 1998 ultimately became the warmest year in recorded history ( up until then ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"1997–98_El_Niño_event\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 119776\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 117625\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Regional_effects_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 115066\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Forecast System Content: The Global Forecast System ( GFS ) is a global numerical weather prediction system containing a global computer model and variational analysis run by the United States ' National Weather Service ( NWS ) . The mathematical model is run four times a day , and produces forecasts for up to 16 days in advance , but with decreased spatial resolution after 10 days . The forecast skill generally decreases with time ( as with any numerical weather prediction model ) and for longer term forecasts , only the larger scales retain significant accuracy . It is one of the predominant synoptic scale medium-range models in general use . The GFS model is a spectral model with an approximate horizontal resolution of 13 km for the first 10 days and 27 km from 240 to 384 hours ( 16 days ) . In the vertical , the model is divided into 64 layers and temporally , it produces forecast output every hour for the first 120 hours , three hourly through day 10 and 12 hourly through day 16 . The output from the GFS is also used to produce model output statistics . In addition to the main model , the GFS is also the basis of a lower resolution 20-member ( 22 , counting the control and operational members ) ensemble that runs concurrently with the operational GFS and is available on the same time scales . This ensemble is referred to as the `` Global Ensemble Forecast System '' ( GEFS ) . Ensemble model output statistics are available out to 8 days . The GFS ensemble is combined with Canada 's Global Environmental Multiscale Model ensemble to form the North American Ensemble Forecast System ( NAEFS ) . As with most works of the U.S. government , GFS data is not copyrighted and is available for free in the public domain under provisions of U.S. law . Because of this , the model serves as the basis for the forecasts of numerous private , commercial and foreign weather companies . By 2015 the GFS model had fallen behind the accuracy of other global weather models . This was most notable in the GFS model incorrectly predicting Hurricane Sandy turning out to sea until 4 days before landfall ; while the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts ' model predicted landfall correctly at 7 days . Much of this was suggested to be due to limits in computational resources within the National Weather Service . In response , the NWS purchased new supercomputers , increasing processing power from 776 teraflops to 5.78 petaflops . The agency has also been testing a potential replacement model with different mechanics , the flow-following , finite-volume Icosahedral Model ( FIM ) , since the early 2010s .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Forecast_System\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 114633\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Navy Global Environmental Model Content: The Navy Global Environmental Model ( NAVGEM ) is a global numerical weather prediction computer simulation run by the United States Navy 's Fleet Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography Center . This mathematical model is run four times a day and produces weather forecasts . Along with the NWS 's Global Forecast System , which runs out to 16 days , the ECMWF 's Integrated Forecast System ( IFS ) and the CMC 's Global Environmental Multiscale Model ( GEM ) , both of which run out 10 days , and the UK Met Office 's Unified Model , which runs out to 6 days , it is one of five synoptic scale medium-range models in general use . The NAVGEM became operational in February 2013 , replacing the NOGAPS . It uses the same forecast range as the NOGAPS did ( three-hour intervals out 180 hours ) but also uses a refurbished dynamic core and improvements to the physics simulations compared to its predecessor . Category : Numerical climate and weather models Category : National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Navy_Global_Environmental_Model\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 112787\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Europe Content: Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe . According to international climate experts global temperature rise should not exceed 2 ° C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of the climate change . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . It is estimated that from the now living persons alive are 70 % in the year 2050 . Emission reduction means development and implementation of new energy technology solutions . Some people consider that the technology revolution has already started in Europe since the markets of the renewable technology have annually grown . European Union climate chief is Connie Hedegaard since 10 February 2010 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Europe\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 112625\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming hiatus Content: A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_hiatus\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 110845\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global temperature record Content: The global temperature record shows the fluctuations of the temperature of the atmosphere and the oceans through various spans of time. The most detailed information exists since 1850, when methodical thermometer-based records began. There are numerous estimates of temperatures since the end of the Pleistocene glaciation, particularly during the current Holocene epoch. Older time periods are studied by paleoclimatology.\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_temperature_record\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 110148\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Flow-following, finite-volume Icosahedral Model Content: The Flow-following , finite-volume Icosahedral Model ( FIM ) is a numerical weather prediction model that has been under development at the Earth System Research Laboratory in the United States since 2008 . The FIM is being developed as a candidate to eventually supplant the Global Forecast System , the United States 's current medium-range forecast model . The FIM was originally slated to become operational some time in 2014 ( as of autumn 2016 the model is still testing ) ; the GFS will continue to be run and maintained for several years afterward , much in the same way the GFS and its predecessor , the Nested Grid Model , ran concurrently for several years . The model currently produces similar results to the GFS , but runs slower on the NWS 's operational computers . Its three-part name derives from its key features : `` flow-following '' indicates that its vertical coordinates are based on both terrain and potential temperature ( isentropic sigma coordinates , previously used in the now-discontinued rapid update cycle model ) , and `` finite-volume '' describes the method used for calculating horizontal transport . The `` icosahedral '' portion describes the model 's most uncommon feature : whereas most grid-based forecast models have historically used rectangular grid points ( a less than ideal arrangement for a planet that is a slightly oblate spheroid ) , the FIM instead fits Earth to a truncated icosahedron , with twelve evenly spaced pentagons ( including two at the poles ) anchoring a grid of hexagons . The FIM runs as a multiscale model , with a suffix number indicating the model 's horizontal resolution . FIM7 operates at a spatial resolution of approximately 60 km , FIM8 at 30 km , FIM9 at 15km and FIM9 .5 at 10km . The FIM7 and FIM8 both run twice daily ( 0z and 12z ) with 6-hour temporal resolution out to 14 days . The FIM9 runs four times daily , also with 6-hour steps , out to 10 days . ( FIM9 .5 is not currently in operation . )\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Flow-following,_finite-volume_Icosahedral_Model\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 109798\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Year Without a Summer Content: The year 1816 is known as the Year Without a Summer ( also the Poverty Year , the Summer that Never Was , Year There Was No Summer , and Eighteen Hundred and Froze to Death ) because of severe climate abnormalities that caused average global temperatures to decrease by 0.4 -- 0.7 ° C ( 0.7 -- 1.3 ° F ) . This resulted in major food shortages across the Northern Hemisphere . Evidence suggests that the anomaly was predominantly a volcanic winter event caused by the massive 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora in the Dutch East Indies ( the largest eruption in at least 1,300 years after the extreme weather events of 535 -- 536 ) , perhaps plus the 1814 eruption of Mayon in the Philippines . The Earth had already been in a centuries-long period of global cooling that started in the 14th century . Known today as the Little Ice Age , it had already caused considerable agricultural distress in Europe . The Little Ice Age 's existing cooling was aggravated by the eruption of Tambora , which occurred during its concluding decades .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Year_Without_a_Summer\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 109482\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea level rise Content: A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea_level_rise\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 108214\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2012–13 Australian bushfire season Content: The 2012 -- 13 Australian bushfire season had above average fire potential for most of the southern half of the continent from the east coast to the west . This is despite having extensive fire in parts of the country over the last 12 months . The reason for this prediction is the abundant grass growth spurred by two La Niña events over the last two years . Most parts of the country experienced a heat wave at the start of 2013 , with a new national average maximum being set on 7 January 2013 . The new record of 40.33 C beat the old record of 40.17 C that had been set on 21 December 1972 . Another record also beaten in 2013 was Australia 's mean temperature climbing from 31.86 C set on 21 December 1972 to 32.23 C on 7 January 2013 . Additionally , six of the 20 hottest days in Australian records ( by average maximum ) have been in January 2013 . Australia also experienced its hottest summer on average following a particularly hot spell in January . Using average day and night temperatures the average was found to be 28.6 C beating the previous record set in the summer of 1997 -- 1988 . Fourteen of the weather bureau 's 112 long term weather stations recorded their hottest days on record including one in Sydney that recorded a daytime record of 46 C . The daytime maximum temperatures for 2012 -- 13 also beat the 1982 -- 83 record and January was the hottest month since records began in 1910 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"2012–13_Australian_bushfire_season\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 108064\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Theodor Landscheidt Content: Theodor Landscheidt ( Bremen , 1927 -- May 20 , 2004 ) was a German author , astrologer and amateur climatologist . In 1989 , Landscheidt forecast a period of sunspot minima after 1990 , accompanied by increased cold , with a stronger minimum and more intense cold which should peak in 2030 His work on solar cycles has been cited by global warming skeptics to argue that observed warming is not anthropogenic and will soon be reversed , based on an assumption that fluctuations in climate are controlled by solar activity . In 1983 he founded and financed the `` Schroeter Institute for Research in Cycles of Solar Activity '' in Lilienthal , near Bremen . The Institute later moved with him to Nova Scotia , Canada .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Theodor_Landscheidt\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 107018\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 104781\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Navy Operational Global Atmospheric Prediction System Model Content: Navy Operational Global Atmospheric Prediction System Model ( NOGAPS ) is a global numerical weather prediction computer model run by Fleet Numerical . This mathematical model is run four times a day and produces weather forecasts . Along with the ECMWF 's Integrated Forecast System ( IFS ) , the Canadian Global Environmental Multiscale Model ( GEM ) it is one of several synoptic scale medium-range models in general use .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Navy_Operational_Global_Atmospheric_Prediction_System_Model\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 104742\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 104601\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Thaw (weather) Content: January thaw is a term applied to a thaw or rise in temperature in mid-winter found in mid-latitude North America . Sinusoidal estimates of expected temperatures , for northern locales , usually place the lowest temperatures around January 23 and the highest around July 24 , and provide fairly accurate estimates of temperature expectations . Actual average temperatures in North America usually significantly differ twice over the course of the year : Mid-autumn temperatures tend to be warmer than predicted by the sinusoidal model , creating the impression of extended summer warmth known as Indian summer . For five days around January 25 , temperatures are usually significantly warmer than predicted by the sinusoidal estimate , and also warmer than neighboring temperatures on both sides . During this `` thaw '' period , usually lasting for about a week , temperatures are generally about 6 ° C ( 10 ° F ) above normal . This varies from year to year , and temperatures fluctuate enough that such a rise in late-January temperature would be unremarkable ; what is remarkable ( and unexplained ) is the tendency for such rises to occur more commonly in late January than in mid-January or early February , which sinusoidal estimates have to be slightly warmer . In some regions ( such as northern Canada ) this phenomenon will not be manifest as a `` thaw '' in the technical sense , since temperatures will remain below freezing . The January thaw is believed to be a weather singularity . A possible physical mechanism for such phenomena was offered in the 1950s by E.G. Bowen : he suggested that some `` calendaricities '' ( as he called them ) might be explicable in terms of meteoric particles from cometary orbits acting as ice nuclei in terrestrial clouds ; his theory then received some support from several sources . However , Bowen 's ideas later fell out of favour with the development of atmospheric dynamic modelling techniques , although one of his rainfall peaks does seem to correspond with the date of the January thaw . Data analysis has not found statistically significant support for the supposed January thaw . The authors of this study state that `` the effects of sampling in finite climate records are wholly adequate to account for the existence of January thaw ` features ' in northeastern U.S. temperature data . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Thaw_(weather)\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 104546\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Navy Operational Global Atmospheric Prediction System Content: The Navy Operational Global Atmospheric Prediction System ( NOGAPS ) is a global numerical weather prediction computer model run by the United States Navy 's Fleet Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography Center . This mathematical model was run four times a day and produced weather forecasts . The NOGAPS was replaced by the NAVGEM in February 2013 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Navy_Operational_Global_Atmospheric_Prediction_System\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 103275\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: NRLMSISE-00 Content: NRLMSISE-00 is an empirical , global model of the Earth 's atmosphere from ground to space . It models the temperatures and densities of the atmosphere 's components . A primary use of this model is to aid predictions of satellite orbital decay due to atmospheric drag . This model has also been used by astronomers to calculate the mass of air between telescopes and laser beams in order to assess the impact of laser guide stars on the non-lasing telescopes .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"NRLMSISE-00\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 103070\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Numerical weather prediction Content: Numerical weather prediction ( NWP ) uses mathematical models of the atmosphere and oceans to predict the weather based on current weather conditions . Though first attempted in the 1920s , it was not until the advent of computer simulation in the 1950s that numerical weather predictions produced realistic results . A number of global and regional forecast models are run in different countries worldwide , using current weather observations relayed from radiosondes , weather satellites and other observing systems as inputs . Mathematical models based on the same physical principles can be used to generate either short-term weather forecasts or longer-term climate predictions ; the latter are widely applied for understanding and projecting climate change . The improvements made to regional models have allowed for significant improvements in tropical cyclone track and air quality forecasts ; however , atmospheric models perform poorly at handling processes that occur in a relatively constricted area , such as wildfires . Manipulating the vast datasets and performing the complex calculations necessary to modern numerical weather prediction requires some of the most powerful supercomputers in the world . Even with the increasing power of supercomputers , the forecast skill of numerical weather models extends to only about six days . Factors affecting the accuracy of numerical predictions include the density and quality of observations used as input to the forecasts , along with deficiencies in the numerical models themselves . Post-processing techniques such as model output statistics ( MOS ) have been developed to improve the handling of errors in numerical predictions . A more fundamental problem lies in the chaotic nature of the partial differential equations that govern the atmosphere . It is impossible to solve these equations exactly , and small errors grow with time ( doubling about every five days ) . Present understanding is that this chaotic behavior limits accurate forecasts to about 14 days even with perfectly accurate input data and a flawless model . In addition , the partial differential equations used in the model need to be supplemented with parameterizations for solar radiation , moist processes ( clouds and precipitation ) , heat exchange , soil , vegetation , surface water , and the effects of terrain . In an effort to quantify the large amount of inherent uncertainty remaining in numerical predictions , ensemble forecasts have been used since the 1990s to help gauge the confidence in the forecast , and to obtain useful results farther into the future than otherwise possible . This approach analyzes multiple forecasts created with an individual forecast model or multiple models .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Numerical_weather_prediction\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 102282\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Environmental Multiscale Model Content: The Global Environmental Multiscale Model ( GEM ) , is an integrated forecasting and data assimilation system developed in the Recherche en Prévision Numérique ( RPN ) , Meteorological Research Branch ( MRB ) , and the Canadian Meteorological Centre ( CMC ) . Along with the NWS 's Global Forecast System ( GFS ) , which runs out to 16 days , the ECMWF 's Integrated Forecast System ( IFS ) , which runs out 10 days , the Naval Research Laboratory Navy Global Environmental Model ( NAVGEM ) , which runs out eight days , and the UK Met Office 's Unified Model , which runs out to 6 days , it is one of the five predominant synoptic scale medium-range models in general use . The GEM 's operational model , known as the Global Deterministic Prediction System ( GDPS ) , is currently operational for the global data assimilation cycle and medium-range forecasting , the regional data assimilation spin-up cycle and short-range forecasting . Furthermore , mesoscale forecasts ( distributed under the names Regional Deterministic Prediction System or RDPS for the coarser mesh and High Resolution Deterministic Prediction System or HRDPS for the finer mesh ) are produced overnight and are available to the operational forecasters . A growing number of meteorological applications are now either based on or use the GEM model . Output from the GEM goes out to 10 days , on par with the public output of the European Integrated Forecast System . The ensemble variant of the GEM is known as the Global Ensemble Prediction System ( GEPS ) . It has 20 members ( plus control ) and runs out 16 days , the same range as the American Global Forecast System . The GEPS runs alongside the GFS ensemble to form the North American Ensemble Forecast System . A Regional Ensemble Prediction System ( REPS ) , covering North America and also having 20 members plus control , runs out 72 hours . The GEM model has been developed to meet the operational weather forecasting needs of Canada for the coming years . These presently include short-range regional forecasting , medium-range global forecasting , and data assimilation . In the future they will include nowcasting at the meso-scales , and dynamic extended-range forecasting on monthly to seasonal timescales . The essence of the approach is to develop a single highly efficient model that can be reconfigured at run time to either run globally at uniform-resolution ( with possibly degraded resolution in the `` other '' hemisphere ) , or to run with variable resolution over a global domain such that high resolution is focused over an area of interest . The operational GEM model dynamics is formulated in terms of the hydrostatic primitive equations with a terrain following pressure vertical coordinate ( h ) . The time discretization is an implicit two-time-level semi-Lagrangian scheme . The spatial discretization is a Galerkin grid-point formulation on an Arakawa C-grid in the horizontal ( lat-lon ) and an unstaggered vertical discretization . The horizontal mesh can be of uniform or variable resolution , and furthermore can be arbitrarily rotated , the vertical mesh is also variable . The explicit horizontal diffusion is -2 on all prognostic variables . The operational GEM model is interfaced with a full complement of physical parametrizations , these currently include : solar and infrared radiation interactive with water vapor , carbon dioxide , ozone and clouds , prediction of surface temperature over land with the force-restore method , turbulence in the planetary boundary layer through vertical diffusion , diffusion coefficients based on stability and turbulent kinetic energy , surface layer based on Monin-Obukhov similarity theory , shallow convection scheme ( non precipitating ) , Kuo-type deep convection scheme ( global forecast system ) , Fritsch-Chappell type deep convection scheme ( regional forecast system ) , Sundqvist condensation scheme for stratiform precipitation , gravity wave drag . The next stage of development of the GEM model is to evaluate the non-hydrostatic version for mesoscale applications where the hydrostatic assumption breaks down . The limited-area ( open-boundary ) version is scheduled to follow . The distributed memory version of GEM is almost completed , it is a major recoding effort that is based upon a locally developed communication interface currently using Message Passing Interface . Research on the performance of different land surface schemes such as ISBA ( Interaction Soil-Biosphere-Atmosphere ) and CLASS ( Canadian Land Surface Scheme ) is making progress . The strategy is progressing towards a unified data assimilation and forecast system , at the heart of which lies a single multipurpose and multiscale numerical model . Output from Canadian forecast models such as the GEM is under Canadian crown copyright but is issued under a free license if properly attributed to Environment Canada . Various unofficial sites thus redistribute GEM data , including the GDPS and GEPS .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Environmental_Multiscale_Model\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 100900\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2010 Northern Hemisphere heat waves Content: The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves included severe heat waves that impacted most of the United States, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, China, Hong Kong, North Africa and the European continent as a whole, along with parts of Canada, Russia, Indochina, South Korea and Japan during May, June, July, and August 2010. The first phase of the global heatwaves was caused by a moderate El Niño event, which lasted from June 2009 to May 2010. The first phase lasted only from April 2010 to June 2010, and caused only moderate above average temperatures in the areas affected. But it also set new record high temperatures for most of the area affected, in the Northern Hemisphere. The second phase (the main, and most devastating phase) was caused by a very strong La Niña event, which lasted from June 2010 to June 2011. According to meteorologists, the 2010–11 La Niña event was one of the strongest La Niña events ever observed. That same La Niña event also had devastating effects in the Eastern states of Australia. The second phase lasted from June 2010 to October 2010, caused severe heat waves, and multiple record-breaking temperatures. The heatwaves began on April 2010, when strong anticyclones began to develop, over most of the affected regions, in the Northern Hemisphere. The heatwaves ended in October 2010, when the powerful anticyclones over most of the affected areas dissipated. The heat wave during the summer of 2010 was at its worst in June, over the Eastern United States, Middle East, Eastern Europe and European Russia, and over Northeastern China and southeastern Russia. June 2010 marked the fourth consecutive warmest month on record globally, at 0.66 °C (1.22 °F) above average, while the period April–June was the warmest ever recorded for land areas in the Northern Hemisphere, at 1.25 °C (2.25 °F) above average. The previous record for the global average temperature in June was set in 2005 at 0.66 °C (1.19 °F), and the previous warm record for April–June over Northern Hemisphere land areas was 1.16 °C (2.09 °F), set in 2007. The strongest of the anticyclones, the one situated over Siberia, registered a maximum high pressure of 1040 millibars. The weather caused forest fires in China, where three in a team of 300 died fighting a fire that broke out in the Binchuan County of Dali, as Yunnan suffered the worst drought in 60 years by February 17. A major drought was reported across the Sahel as early as January. In August, a section of the Petermann Glacier tongue connecting northern Greenland, the Nares Strait and the Arctic Ocean broke off, the biggest ice shelf in the Arctic to detach in 48 years. By the time the heatwaves had ended in late October 2010, about $500 billion (2011 USD) of damage was done, in the Northern Hemisphere alone. The World Meteorological Organization stated that the heat waves, droughts and flooding events fit with predictions based on global warming for the 21st century, include those based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's 2007 4th Assessment Report. Some climatologists argue that these weather events would not have happened if the atmospheric carbon dioxide was at pre-industrial levels.\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"2010_Northern_Hemisphere_heat_waves\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 100664\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Argentina Content: According to scientists , global warming is predicted to have significant effects on the climate of Argentina . Though temperatures have increased at a slower rate than the global average , nonetheless these impacts have occurred in many areas . If these trends continue , it is predicted that climate change will exacerbate existing natural disasters such as increasing the intensity and frequency of floods or create new ones .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Argentina\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 100630\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wibjörn Karlén Content: Wibjörn Karlén ( born 26 August 1937 in Kristine , Kopparberg County , Sweden ) , Ph.D. , is a professor emeritus of physical geography and quaternary geology at Stockholm University , Sweden . In an article which describes Karlén as a paleoclimatologist , he is quoted as saying : `` One of the big problems with trying to determine long-term temperature changes , is that weather records only go back to about 1860 . By relying on statistical reconstruction of the last 1000 years , using only the temperature patterns of the last 140 years instead of actual temperature readings , the IPCC report and Summary missed both a major cooling period as well as a significant warming trend during that millennium . '' Karlén has also criticized the mainstream media for `` spreading the exaggerated views of a human impact on climate . '' He was also named in a 2007 minority report of the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee as one of 400 `` prominent scientists '' who were said to dispute global warming . In 2010 , he predicted that natural climate changes , caused to a large degree by the sun 's activity , would more likely make the climate colder than warmer in the next decades . He is a contributing author to the Fraser Institute 2007 Independent Summary for Policymakers . Karlén is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Wibjörn_Karlén\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 100541\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: James O'Brien (oceanographer) Content: James O'Brien ( born August 10 , 1935 , died September 20 , 2016 ) is the emeritus Robert O. Lawton Professor of Meteorology and Oceanography at Florida State University . He believes sea levels are rising but predicts a more modest 18 in rise instead of 6 ft by 2100 targeted by some other scientists . He stated that `` sea level in Florida is going to continue to rise period . Unless we go back into an Ice age , we will continue to rise at over 8 in in 10 year . That 's without any global warming . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"James_O'Brien_(oceanographer)\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 100457\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1990 United Kingdom heat wave Content: The 1990 heat wave in the United Kingdom was a particularly severe heat event with temperatures hitting record highs of 37.1 C on 3 August . The temperature was recorded at Cheltenham , Gloucestershire , and was a full degree Celsius above the previous record , set in 1911 . However , this record was subsequently broken in the 2003 heatwave .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"1990_United_Kingdom_heat_wave\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 100382\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Temperature's Rising Content: Temperature 's Rising is a compilation album released in 1995 by the Canadian rock band Loverboy . The album was the third compilation by the band , but this particular compilation aimed at the more rarely heard songs by the band , and the minor hits that the previous compilations did not cover .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Temperature's_Rising\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 100187\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Fate of the World Content: Fate of the World is a 2011 global warming game developed and published by Red Redemption . It features several scenarios , based on actual scientific research , in which the player is put in charge of a fictional international organization managing social , technological and environmental policies . The goals of the scenarios range from improving living conditions in Africa , to preventing catastrophic climate change , to exacerbating it . It is quickly followed by an expansion pack called Fate of the World : Tipping Point , released in late 2011 . The climate prediction models for the game are the work of Myles Allen , the head of the Climate Dynamics group at the University of Oxford .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Fate_of_the_World\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 99657\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: HD 73256 b Content: HD 73256 b is an 1.87 MJ hot Jupiter orbiting at 0.037 AU taking 2.55 days to orbit around HD 73256 . Assuming the planet is perfectly grey with no greenhouse or tidal effects , and a Bond albedo of 0.1 , the temperature would be about 1300 K . This is close to 51 Pegasi b ; between the predicted temperatures of HD 189733 b and HD 209458 b ( 1180-1392K ) , before they were measured . It is a candidate for `` near-infrared characterisation with the VLTI Spectro-Imager '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"HD_73256_b\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 99274\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves Content: The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves included severe heat waves that impacted most of the United States , Kazakhstan , Mongolia , China , Hong Kong , North Africa and the European continent as a whole , along with parts of Canada , Russia , Indochina , South Korea and Japan during May , June , July , and August 2010 . The first phase of the global heatwaves was caused by a moderate El Niño event , which lasted from June 2009 to May 2010 . The first phase lasted only from April 2010 to June 2010 , and caused only moderate above average temperatures in the areas affected . But it also set new record high temperatures for most of the area affected , in the Northern Hemisphere . The second phase ( the main , and most devastating phase ) was caused by a very strong La Niña event , which lasted from June 2010 to June 2011 . According to meteorologists , the 2010 -- 11 La Niña event was one of the strongest La Niña events ever observed . That same La Niña event also had devastating effects in the Eastern states of Australia . The second phase lasted from June 2010 to October 2010 , caused severe heat waves , and multiple record-breaking temperatures . The heatwaves began on April 2010 , when strong anticyclones began to develop , over most of the affected regions , in the Northern Hemisphere . The heatwaves ended in October 2010 , when the powerful anticyclones over most of the affected areas dissipated . The heat wave during the summer of 2010 was at its worst in June , over the Eastern United States , Middle East , Eastern Europe and European Russia , and over Northeastern China and southeastern Russia . June 2010 marked the fourth consecutive warmest month on record globally , at 0.66 ° C ( 1.22 ° F ) above average , while the period April -- June was the warmest ever recorded for land areas in the Northern Hemisphere , at 1.25 ° C ( 2.25 ° F ) above average . The previous record for the global average temperature in June was set in 2005 at 0.66 ° C ( 1.19 ° F ) , and the previous warm record for April -- June over Northern Hemisphere land areas was 1.16 ° C ( 2.09 ° F ) , set in 2007 . Sometime during June 2010 , the highest recorded temperature caused by the heatwave was 53.5 ° C , in Southeastern Russia , just north of Kazakhstan . The strongest of the anticyclones , the one situated over Siberia , registered a maximum high pressure of 1040 millibars . The weather caused forest fires in China , where three in a team of 300 died fighting a fire that broke out in the Binchuan County of Dali , as Yunnan suffered the worst drought in 60 years by February 17 . A major drought was reported across the Sahel as early as January . In August , a section of the Petermann Glacier tongue connecting northern Greenland , the Nares Strait and the Arctic Ocean broke off , the biggest ice shelf in the Arctic to detach in 48 years . By the time the heatwaves had ended in late October 2010 , about $ 500 billion ( 2011 USD ) of damage was done , in the Northern Hemisphere alone . The World Meteorological Organization stated that the heat waves , droughts and flooding events fit with predictions based on global warming for the 21st century , include those based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's 2007 4th Assessment Report . Some climatologists argue that these weather events would not have happened if the atmospheric carbon dioxide was at pre-industrial levels .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"2010_Northern_Hemisphere_summer_heat_waves\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 99052\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 98852\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Jonathan M. Gregory Content: Jonathan M. Gregory FRS is a climate modeller working on mechanisms of global and large-scale change in climate and sea level on multidecadal and longer timescales . He is currently a senior scientist in the Climate Division of NERC 's National Centre for Atmospheric Science ( NCAS-Climate ) , located in the Department of Meteorology at the University of Reading ; and a Research Fellow in climate change at the Met Office Hadley Centre . A 2004 study , led by Gregory and published in the journal Nature , predicted that the Greenland ice sheet is likely to be eliminated as a consequence of global warming , resulting in a rise in global sea-levels by 7 meters over the next 1000 years or more . He was a co-ordinating Lead Author of the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report chapter 11 Changes in Sea Level , and a contributing author to the sea level chapter in the IPCC Second Assessment Report '' . Gregory was also a co-Lead Author of the 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report chapter 5 Observations : Oceanic Climate Change and Sea Level , and chapter 10 Global Climate Projections . IPCC was a co-recipient ( with Al Gore ) of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize for its work on climate change . In 2010 Jonathan Gregory was awarded an Advanced Grant by the European Research Council to carry out research on sea level change . In 2017 Jonathan Gregory was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Jonathan_M._Gregory\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 98656\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Temperature Rising (album) Content: Temperature Rising is the second English language album by Thai singer Tata Young . It was released in 2006 . The album consist of cover songs and original songs . The first single is `` El Nin-YO ! '' , from the lyrics of which the album 's title comes from . ( `` You got my temperature rising like El Nin-YO ! '' ) . Her second single is `` Zoom '' which was released in September . `` Come Rain Come Shine '' , the third single , was used in Star World 's station promo 's from December 2006 to mid-2007 . The promo includes footage of Tata Young singing `` Come Rain Come Shine '' as well as scenes from some of Star World 's television shows ( Everybody Loves Raymond , American Idol etc. . ) Track # 7 , `` Zoom '' , was covered by Ashley Tisdale on her 2007 debut album Headstrong , under the title as `` Do n't Touch ( The Zoom Song ) '' . Temperature Rising was last Tata Young album released on cassette tapes , but in very small numbers produced in a short time until September 2006 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Temperature_Rising_(album)\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 98151\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Integrated Forecast System Content: The Integrated Forecast System ( IFS ) is an operational global meteorological forecasting model . IFS is developed and maintained by the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts ( ECMWF ) based in Reading , England . Because of its source , it is often known as the `` ECMWF '' or the `` European model '' in North America , to distinguish it from the American Global Forecast System ( GFS ) . It is one of the predominant synoptic-scale medium-range models in general use worldwide ; its most prominent rivals in the 6 -- 10 day medium range include the GFS and the Canadian Global Environmental Multiscale Model ( GEM and GDPS ) . The IFS is a global model that runs every twelve hours . Its output runs out to fifteen days in one-day intervals ( although output is only made available to most members of the public out to 7 to 10 days , depending on the variable ) . The operational model runs both in a deterministic forecast mode and as a 51-member ensemble . The current deterministic mode has a horizontal resolution of 16 km while the ensemble prediction systems have resolutions of 32 and 64 km , and 137 layers in the vertical resolution in the deterministic compared to 91 layers in the ensemble ; both modes ' vertical layers follow terrain at low levels . The IFS , like the GFS , uses spectral representation rather than a grid-based system . Because the IFS only offers output on a day-by-day interval , each individual ECMWF member country typically runs its own synoptic-scale forecast for the shorter ranges of 5 days or less , separate from the IFS , with smaller time intervals ( examples include the French ARPEGE , British Unified Model and German GME/ICON ) . In contrast to the GEM/GDPS ( which is copyrighted but freely licensed ) and the GFS ( which is public domain ) , the ECMWF 's proprietary data and forecasts are heavily restricted and require a licence for most output . A limited amount of the IFS 's output is released freely to the public and licenced under a Creative Commons licence that prohibits commercial usage or derivative works .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Integrated_Forecast_System\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 98140\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Deep Decarbonization Pathways Project Content: The Deep Decarbonization Pathways Project ( DDPP ) is a global consortium formed in October 2013 which researches methods to limit the rise of global temperature due to global warming to 2 ° C or less . The focus of the DDPP is on sustainable energy systems , other sectors of the economy , such as agriculture and land-use , are not directly considered .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Deep_Decarbonization_Pathways_Project\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 98101\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Rapid Refresh Content: The Rapid Refresh ( RR or RAP ) is a numerical weather prediction ( NWP ) model . The model is designed to provide short-range hourly weather forecasts for North America . The Rapid Refresh was officially made operational on May 1 , 2012 , replacing the Rapid Update Cycle ( RUC ) . The Rapid Refresh is run at the NOAA National Centers for Environmental Prediction ( NCEP ) . It is based on the framework of the Weather Research and Forecasting model ( WRF ) ; the Global Forecast System ( GFS ) provides the boundary parameters . The grid points are spaced every 13 km , with 50 vertical intervals extending up to the 10-hectopascal ( 10 mb ) level of the atmosphere . The model runs once each hour , with forecasts given hourly out to 18 hours . An experimental version of the Rapid Refresh runs at the Earth System Research Laboratory ( ESRL ) , a NOAA unit that develops models in the research stage prior to operational implementation . This version uses more modern model framework and also has a higher-resolution mode , the High Resolution Rapid Refresh ( HRRR ) , that uses a 3 km grid spacing and gives forecasts in 15-minute intervals ( though still only issued once an hour ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Rapid_Refresh\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 97804\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Leipzig Declaration Content: The Leipzig Declaration on Global Climate Change is a statement made in 1995 , seeking to refute the claim there is a scientific consensus on the global warming issue . It was issued in an updated form in 1997 and revised again in 2005 , claiming to have been signed by 80 scientists and 25 television news meteorologists while the posting of 33 additional signatories was pending verification that those 33 additional scientists still agreed with the statement . All versions of the declaration , which opposes the global warming hypothesis and the Kyoto Protocol , were penned by Fred Singer 's Science and Environmental Policy Project ( SEPP ) . The first declaration was based on a November 9 -- 10 , 1995 conference , organized by Helmut Metzner in Leipzig , Germany . The second declaration was additionally based on a successor conference in Bonn , Germany on November 10 -- 11 , 1997 . The conferences were cosponsored by SEPP and the European Academy for Environmental Affairs and titled International Symposium on the Greenhouse Controversy .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Leipzig_Declaration\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 97473\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Content: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change : A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases was a 2005 international conference that examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration , and the 2 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) ceiling on global warming thought necessary to avoid the most serious effects of global warming . Previously this had generally been accepted as being 550 ppm . The conference took place under the United Kingdom 's presidency of the G8 , with the participation of around 200 ` internationally renowned ' scientists from 30 countries . It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter , from 1 February to 3 February .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 97407\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: ERA-40 Content: ERA-40 is an ECMWF re-analysis of the global atmosphere and surface conditions for 45-years , over the period from September 1957 through August 2002 by ECMWF . Many sources of the meteorological observations were used , including radiosondes , balloons , aircraft , buoyes , satellites , scatterometers . This data was run through the ECMWF computer model at a 125 km resolution . As the ECMWF 's computer model is one of the more highly regarded in the field of forecasting , many scientists take its reanalysis to have similar merit . The data is stored in GRIB format . The reanalysis was done in an effort to improve the accuracy of historical weather maps and aid in a more detailed analysis of various weather systems through a period that was severely lacking in computerized data . With the data from reanalyses such as this , many of the more modern computerized tools for analyzing storm systems can be utilized , at least in part , because of this access to a computerized simulation of the atmospheric state .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"ERA-40\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 97181\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming in Turkey Content:\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_in_Turkey\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 97107\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Model for Prediction Across Scales Content: The Model for Prediction Across Scales ( MPAS ) is a coupled Earth system modeling package that integrates atmospheric , oceanographic and cryospheric modeling on a variety of scales from the planetary to regional and mesoscale/microscale . It includes climate and weather modeling and simulations that were first used by researchers in 2013 . The atmospheric components ( MPAS-A ) were led by the National Center for Atmospheric Research ( NCAR ) 's Earth System Laboratory ( NESL ) and the oceanographic components ( MPAS-O ) by the Climate , Ocean , and Sea Ice Modeling Group ( COSIM ) at Los Alamos National Laboratory ( LANL ) . It has been used for real-time weather as well as seasonal forecasting of convection , tornadoes and tropical cyclones , among other uses . Its atmospheric modeling aspects are intended to use and complement rather than replace the Weather Research and Forecasting Model ( WRF-ARW/NMM ) , the Global Forecast System ( GFS ) and the Community Earth System Model ( CESM ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Model_for_Prediction_Across_Scales\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 96937\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bølling-Allerød warming Content: The Bølling-Allerød interstadial was an abrupt warm and moist interstadial period that occurred during the final stages of the last glacial period . This warm period ran from c. 14,700 to c. 12,700 years before the present ( BP ) . It began with the end of the cold period known as the Oldest Dryas , and ended abruptly with the onset of the Younger Dryas , a cold period that reduced temperatures back to near-glacial levels within a decade . In some regions , a cold period known as the Older Dryas can be detected in the middle of the Bølling-Allerød interstadial . In these regions the period is divided into the Bølling oscillation , which peaked around 14,500 BP , and the Allerød oscillation , which peaked closer to 13,000 BP . Estimates of CO2 rise are 20 -- 35 ppmv within 200 years , a rate less than 29 -- 50 % compared to the anthropogenic global warming signal from the past 50 years , and with a radiative forcing of 0.59 -- 0.75 W m − 2 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Bølling-Allerød_warming\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 96878\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Temperatures Rising Content: Temperatures Rising is an American television sitcom that aired on the ABC network from September 12 , 1972 to August 29 , 1974 . During its 46-episode run , it was presented in three different formats and cast line-ups . The series was developed for the network by William Asher and Harry Ackerman for Ashmont Productions and Screen Gems . Set in a fictional Washington , D.C. hospital , the series featured James Whitmore as a no-nonsense chief of staff , forced to deal with the outlandish antics of a young intern ( Cleavon Little ) and three nurses ( Joan Van Ark , Reva Rose , and Nancy Fox ) . For the first season , 26 episodes were produced and broadcast . In the second season , Whitmore was replaced in the lead role by comedian Paul Lynde , and Asher was replaced as producer by Duke Vincent and Bruce Johnson . The series was re-titled The New Temperatures Rising Show , and featured a new supporting cast : Sudie Bond , Barbara Cason , Jennifer Darling , Jeff Morrow , and John Dehner . Cleavon Little was the only returning member of the original cast . In this season , Lynde was presented as the penny-pinching chief of staff , with Bond as his nagging mother and owner of the hospital . The New Temperatures Rising Show ran for 13 episodes before being placed on hiatus in January 1974 due to poor ratings . It returned in July in yet another incarnation . Asher returned as producer and restored the series to its original format -- albeit with Lynde continuing in the lead . Reverting to the original title of Temperatures Rising , Little remained in the show 's cast , accompanied by a new line-up of supporting players : Alice Ghostley , Barbara Rucker and , returning from the first season 's cast , Nancy Fox . Offered as a summer replacement on Thursday nights , the third version of the sitcom ran for seven episodes , after which it was cancelled permanently .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Temperatures_Rising\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 96841\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate model Content: Climate models use quantitative methods to simulate the interactions of the important drivers of climate , including atmosphere , oceans , land surface and ice . They are used for a variety of purposes from study of the dynamics of the climate system to projections of future climate . All climate models take account of incoming energy from the sun as short wave electromagnetic radiation , chiefly visible and short-wave ( near ) infrared , as well as outgoing long wave ( far ) infrared electromagnetic . Any imbalance results in a change in temperature . Models vary in complexity : A simple radiant heat transfer model treats the earth as a single point and averages outgoing energy This can be expanded vertically ( radiative-convective models ) and/or horizontally Finally , ( coupled ) atmosphere -- ocean -- sea ice global climate models solve the full equations for mass and energy transfer and radiant exchange . Box models can treat flows across and within ocean basins . Other types of modelling can be interlinked , such as land use , allowing researchers to predict the interaction between climate and ecosystems .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_model\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 96428\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Economic impacts of climate change Content: This article describes the economic impacts of climate change . Given the inherent nature of economic forecasting , which involves significant degrees of uncertainty , estimates of the results of global warming over the 21st century have varied widely . Many analyses , such as that of the Stern Review presented to the British Government , have predicted reductions by several percent of world gross domestic product due to climate related costs such as dealing with increased extreme weather events and stresses to low-lying areas due to sea level rises . Other studies by independent economists looking at the effects of climate change have found more ambiguous results around the range of net-neutral changes when all aspects of the issue are evaluated , though the issue remains intensely debated .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Economic_impacts_of_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 96243\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Held-Hou Model Content: The Held-Hou Model is a model for the Hadley circulation of the atmosphere that would exist in the absence of atmospheric turbulence . The model was developed by Isaac Held and Arthur Hou in 1980 . The essence of the model is that air rising from the surface at the equator conserves its angular momentum as it moves poleward . This distribution of wind , in turn , determines the distribution of temperature , which determines the latitudinal extent of the circulation by requiring energy conservation . This stands in contrast to George Hadley 's original conception of the circulation , which he argued reached the poles . The Hadley circulation has a cooling effect at and near the equator and a warming effect at higher latitudes within the Hadley Cell . This energy transport can be converted into a mass transport , to determine the strength of the circulation , by normalizing by the appropriate vertical stability . The effects of moisture and seasons on the model have been studied . Earth 's atmosphere violates the underlying assumptions of the model : angular momentum is not conserved and the tropical atmosphere is not energetically closed . As such , the Held-Hou model is a conceptual model that does not make quantitatively accurate predictions of the sensitivity of the Hadley circulation to changes in atmospheric parameters .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Held-Hou_Model\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 96036\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: GME of Deutscher Wetterdienst Content: GME - operational global numerical weather prediction model of the German Weather Service . The model is on almost uniform icosahedral-hexagonal grid . The GME gridpoint approach avoids the disadvantages of spectral techniques as well as the pole problem in latitude -- longitude grids and provides a data structure well suited to high efficiency on distributed memory parallel computers . The GME 's approach to a global grid would later be utilized by the Flow-following , finite-volume Icosahedral Model ( FIM ) , an experimental model currently in development in the United States .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"GME_of_Deutscher_Wetterdienst\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 95994\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: General circulation model Content: A general circulation model ( GCM ) is a type of climate model . It employs a mathematical model of the general circulation of a planetary atmosphere or ocean . It uses the Navier -- Stokes equations on a rotating sphere with thermodynamic terms for various energy sources ( radiation , latent heat ) . These equations are the basis for computer programs used to simulate the Earth 's atmosphere or oceans . Atmospheric and oceanic GCMs ( AGCM and OGCM ) are key components along with sea ice and land-surface components . GCMs and global climate models are used for weather forecasting , understanding the climate and forecasting climate change . Versions designed for decade to century time scale climate applications were originally created by Syukuro Manabe and Kirk Bryan at the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory in Princeton , New Jersey . These models are based on the integration of a variety of fluid dynamical , chemical and sometimes biological equations .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"General_circulation_model\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 95842\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Texas Content: Over the next century , climate in Texas could experience additional changes . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Texas could increase by about 3 ° F ( ~ 1.7 ° C ) in spring ( with a range of 1-6 ° F ) and about 4 ° F ( ~ 2.2 ° C ) in other seasons ( with a range of 1-9 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease by 5-30 % in winter and increase by about 10 % in the other seasons . Increases in summer could be slightly larger ( up to 30 % ) than in spring and fall . Other climate models may show different results . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to decrease , and the amount of precipitation on extreme wet days in summer is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how severe storms such as hurricanes would change .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Texas\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 95709\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Nested Grid Model Content: The Nested Grid Model ( usually known as NGM for short ) was a numerical weather prediction model run by the National Centers for Environmental Prediction , a division of the National Weather Service , in the United States . The NGM was , as its name suggested , derived from two levels of grids : a hemispheric-scale grid and a synoptic-scale grid , the latter of which had a resolution of approximately 90 kilometers . Its most notable feature was that it assumed the hydrostatic equation . The NGM debuted in 1987 , directly replacing the limited-area fine-mesh ( LFM ) model , which was immediately halted upon the NGM 's debut . The NGM was also used to create model output statistics . Development of the model stopped in 1993 . By 2000 , the model was seen as obsolete , particularly for mesoscale features that were not hydrostatic , and was scheduled to be superseded by the Global Forecast System ( GFS ) in 2001 . However , though the NGM ceased widespread use in the early 2000s due to the GFS and improvements in the Eta model ( later the North American Mesoscale Model ) , and the NGM 's short-range LAMP products were phased out in 2006 , NGM MOS products continued to be in significant general use ( alongside the Eta/NAM and GFS ) until March 3 , 2009 , when the NGM MOS products were finally discontinued .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Nested_Grid_Model\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 95641\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming in Tuvalu Content: Global warming is a concern in Tuvalu since the average height of the islands is less than 2 m above sea level , with the highest point of Niulakita being about 4.6 m above sea level . Tuvalu could be one of the first nations to experience the effects of sea level rise . Not only could parts of the island be flooded but the rising saltwater table could also destroy deep rooted food crops such as coconut , pulaka , and taro .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_in_Tuvalu\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 95518\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Masao Kanamitsu Content: Masao Kanamitsu ( November 6 , 1943 in Kumamoto , Japan -- August 17 , 2011 in Del Mar , California ) - was Japanese and American atmospheric scientist working in the field of data assimilation . His research greatly influenced global and regional climate change studies including development of breakthrough reanalysis and downscaling datasets and weather forecasting studies . He was the co-author of one of the most cited geophysics paper in his time . Kanamitsu was born in 1943 and was raised in Sapporo . He did his B.S. and M. Sc . in 1968 at Hokkaido University , Japan and M.Sc . and Ph. D. in 1975 at Florida State University . He was one of the large group of Japanese scientists who after the World War II greatly contributed to the development of the dynamic meteorology in the US and in the World including Syukuro Manabe , Taroh Matsuno , Kikuro Miyakoda , and Akio Arakawa . He served as a Forecaster at Japan Meteorological Agency , as a leader of the Global Modeling Branch , Development Division , and later as an Acting Chief of the Prediction Branch at the Climate Prediction Center of the National Meteorological Center . In 2001 he moved to Scripps Institution of Oceanography where he worked to the rest of his life . He had a group of young researchers working with him . Kanamitsu was instrumental in creating one of the most successful datasets used in global change studies - the NCEP/NCAR Reanalysis for which he received a Group Gold Medal from the Department of Commerce in 1997 . His 1996 reanalysis paper is one of the most celebrated paper in atmospheric science and geosciences - at the time of his death this paper was cited 7985 times . His publications report ambitious , multiyear in making , and extensive project to develop regional-scale climate change dataset based on the NCEP -- NCAR reanalysis for the period 1948 -- 2005 . This downscaling paved the way for local scale understanding of climate changes . In he worked out a problem of how to produce meteorological dataset such as winds , pressures , or temperature on fine scale ( say every 10 km ) if the measurements are performed every 200 km . This led to a concept of dynamical downscaling of climate analysis using regional models . He served as an editor for the Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan ( 1980 -- 1985 ) and the Monthly Weather Review ( 1991 -- 1993 ) . He was active scientifically to the end of his very productive life . At the time of his death he was a researcher at Scripps Institution of Oceanography where in relatively short time of about 10 years he wrote 35 papers . Kanamitsu was survived by his wife Mariko and he had daughter Tomoko . He enjoyed hiking in various mountain ranges around Japan , United States and Europe . He loved dogs . He received Meteorological Society of Japan award in 1983 . He was known as Kana among his friends .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Masao_Kanamitsu\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 95270\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Unified Model Content: The Unified Model is a Numerical Weather Prediction and climate modeling software suite originally developed by the United Kingdom Met Office , and now both used and further developed by many weather-forecasting agencies around the world . The Unified Model gets its name because a single model is used across a range of both timescales ( nowcasting to centennial ) and spatial scales ( convective scale to climate system earth modelling ) . The models are grid-point based , rather than wave based , and are run on a variety of supercomputers around the world . The Unified Model atmosphere can be coupled to a number of ocean models . At the Met Office it is used for the main suite of Global Model , North Atlantic and Europe model ( NAE ) and a high-resolution UK model ( UKV ) , in addition to a variety of Crisis Area Models and other models that can be run on demand . Similar Unified Model suites with global and regional domains are used by many other national or military weather agencies around the world for operational forecasting . Data for numerical weather prediction is provided by observations from satellites , from the ground ( both human and from automatic weather stations ) , from buoys at sea , radar , radiosonde weather balloons , wind profilers , commercial aircraft and a background field from previous model runs . The computer model is only adjusted towards the observations using assimilation , rather than forcing the model to accept an observed value that might make the system unstable ( and could be an inaccurate observation ) . The Unified Model software suite is written in Fortran ( originally 77 but now predominantly 90 ) and uses height as the vertical variable . Because most developments of interest are at near to the ground the vertical layers are closer together near the surface .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Unified_Model\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 95212\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2052: A Global Forecast for the Next Forty Years Content: 2052 -- A Global Forecast for the Next Forty Years is a 2012 book describing trends in global development . It is written by Jørgen Randers and is a follow-up to The Limits to Growth , which in 1972 was the first worldwide report by the Club of Rome . It differs in three ways from the previous report . First , it does not describe an impending disaster scenario , but shows only trends . Secondly , it is to be read in the light of experience since 1972 , namely , that all of humanity has responded to the report , but with a delay of 20 to 40 years . Thirdly , it offers not only future scenarios , it makes concrete proposals on how the individual should respond to emerging developments . Randers repeatedly points out that he does not want to predict specific events , only general trends .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"2052:_A_Global_Forecast_for_the_Next_Forty_Years\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 94911\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Antarctica cooling controversy Content: An apparent contradiction in the observed cooling behavior of Antarctica between 1966 and 2000 became part of the public debate in the global warming controversy , particularly between advocacy groups of both sides in the public arena including politicians , as well as the popular media . In his novel State of Fear , Michael Crichton asserted that the Antarctic data contradict global warming . The few scientists who have commented on the supposed controversy state that there is no contradiction , while the author of the paper whose work inspired Crichton 's remarks has said that Crichton `` misused '' his results . There is no similar controversy within the scientific community , as the small observed changes in Antarctica are consistent with the small changes predicted by climate models , and because the overall trend since comprehensive observations began is now known to be one of warming . At the South Pole , where some of the strongest cooling trends were observed between the 1950s and 1990s , the mean trend is flat from 1957 through 2013 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Antarctica_cooling_controversy\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 94820\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_cooling\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 94632\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Late 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave Content: The late 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave ( also referred to as the November 2009 heat wave and the South Australian heat wave ) was a heat wave that occurred in the southeastern Australian states of South Australia , Victoria and southern New South Wales . Daily maximum temperatures during the heat wave were roughly 10 ° C ( 18 ° F ) above average in many locations . Capital cities Adelaide and Melbourne recorded temperatures over 35 ° C , and some regional towns recorded temperatures above 40 ° C. Above average temperatures in the region began in late October and persisted until mid-November 2009 . Many locations through the region broke temperature records for November . This heat wave was the second experienced in the region within a 10-month period , following the early 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave in January and February 2009 , to which 374 deaths were attributed . Although the earlier heat wave was far more intense , the later heat wave was more extensive and long lasting . The heat wave was caused by a combination of factors , including hot , dry winds caused by a slow-moving high-pressure system that had settled over the Tasman Sea , an El Niño event occurring in the Pacific Ocean , and gradually rising temperatures across southern Australia , probably as a result of global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Late_2009_southeastern_Australia_heat_wave\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 94442\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Petar Gburčik Content: Prof. Petar Gburčik ( Cyrillic : Петар Гбурчик ) ( 30 October 1931 - 29 October 2006 ) was a Serbian scientist and a Professor of Meteorology at the University of Belgrade . He was the author of first mathematical models of the numerical weather prediction , which were used operationally in the Weather Service of Yugoslavia from 1970 to 1977 . In the same period he began modeling of the atmospheric diffusion of air-pollution and created the first model of the spatial distribution of air-pollution . The output of this model was used for the elaboration of the urban plan of Pančevo . For the actual research of the three-dimensional distribution of wind energy ( on the territories of Belgrade and Serbia ) he applied the integration of classic models with GIS technology . Special area of his engagements were the intentionally and inadvertently modified climates , as well as their impact on the sustainable development . These modifications destabilize the climate system and lead to big material and social damage , due to the lack of possibility of weather control . Petar Gburčik proved this with his scientific papers on weather modifications and climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Petar_Gburčik\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 94421\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Guy Stewart Callendar Content: Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Guy_Stewart_Callendar\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 94341\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: North American Ensemble Forecast System Content: The North American Ensemble Forecast System ( NAEFS ) is a joint project involving the Meteorological Service of Canada ( MSC ) in Canada , the National Weather Service ( NWS ) in the United States , and the National Meteorological Service of Mexico ( NMSM ) in Mexico providing numerical weather prediction ensemble guidance for the 1 - to 16-day forecast period . The NAEFS combines the Canadian MSC ( Global Environmental Multiscale Model ) and the US NWS global ensemble prediction systems ( Global Forecast System ) , improving probabilistic operational guidance over what can be built from any individual country 's ensemble . Model guidance from the NAEFS is incorporated into the forecasts of the respective national agencies . NAEFS operates on the fundamental principles of ensemble forecasting which provides a range of possible weather forecasts of the atmospheric state over a given forecast period . The initial state of the atmosphere and/or the numerical weather prediction model configuration are slightly varied to provide a range of possible forecast solutions . The global ensemble prediction systems at MSC and NWS use slightly different , but equally valid methods to initialize and integrate the atmospheric state . By combining the ensembles from both centers into one ensemble , the possible range of future atmospheric states for a given forecast period are better sampled , producing on average , improved estimates of the future atmospheric state and the associated uncertainty . NAEFS collaboration allows the national weather agencies to pool their research resources and make improvements to the ensemble prediction systems more quickly and efficiently . The exchange of knowledge allows research and operations to develop a new generation of ensemble products with the goal of improving timeliness and accuracy in alerting the public of high impact weather events .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"North_American_Ensemble_Forecast_System\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 94293\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cretaceous Thermal Maximum Content: Cretaceous Thermal Maximum , also known as Cretaceous Thermal Optimum , was a period early in the Late Cretaceous notable for its dramatic increase in global temperatures .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Cretaceous_Thermal_Maximum\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 94118\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Planetary equilibrium temperature Content: The planetary equilibrium temperature is a theoretical temperature that a planet would be at when considered simply as if it were a black body being heated only by its parent star . In this model , the presence or absence of an atmosphere ( and therefore any greenhouse effect ) is not considered , and one treats the theoretical black body temperature as if it came from an idealized surface of the planet . Other authors use different names for this concept , such as equivalent blackbody temperature of a planet , or the effective radiation emission temperature of the planet . Similar concepts include the global mean temperature , global radiative equilibrium , and global-mean surface air temperature , which includes the effects of global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Planetary_equilibrium_temperature\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 94106\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: David Carson (climatologist) Content: David John Carson is a climatologist . He has been director of the Hadley Centre ( around 1990-1996 ) , director of Numerical Weather Prediction at the UKMO ( around 1999-2000 ) , and was director of the World Climate Research Programme from 2000-2005 . Carson joined the UK Meteorological Office in 1969 , following his Ph.D from the Department of Applied Mathematics , University of Liverpool , working on the structure and evolution of the atmospheric boundary layer . He did early research on the development of atmospheric general circulation models . In 1982 , he was appointed to Assistant Director within the Met Office , and led the Boundary Layer Research Branch and later the Dynamical Climatology Branch . For 1987 -- 1989 Carson was seconded to the Natural Environment Research Council ( NERC ) as their first Programme Director for atmospheric sciences . He returned to the Met . Office in January 1990 and became Director of Climate Research and then first Director of the Hadley Centre .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"David_Carson_(climatologist)\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 94100\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hockey stick controversy Content: In the hockey stick controversy , the data and methods used in reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years have been disputed . Reconstructions have consistently shown that the rise in the instrumental temperature record of the past 150 years is not matched in earlier centuries , and the name `` hockey stick graph '' was coined for figures showing a long-term decline followed by an abrupt rise in temperatures . These graphs were publicised to explain the scientific findings of climatology , and in addition to scientific debate over the reconstructions , they have been the topic of political dispute . The issue is part of the global warming controversy and has been one focus of political responses to reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . The use of proxy indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed from the 1990s onwards , and found indications that recent warming was exceptional . The reconstruction introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large-scale reconstructions , and its findings were disputed by Patrick Michaels at the United States House Committee on Science . In 1998 , Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 . In ( MBH99 ) the methodology was extended back to 1000 . The term hockey stick was coined by the climatologist Jerry D. Mahlman , to describe the pattern this showed , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' , followed by a sharp increase corresponding to the `` blade '' . A version of this graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , along with four other reconstructions supporting the same conclusion . The graph was publicised , and became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th-century warmth was exceptional . Those disputing the graph included Pat Michaels , the George C. Marshall Institute and Fred Singer . A paper by Willie Soon and Sallie Baliunas claiming greater medieval warmth was used by the Bush administration chief of staff Philip Cooney to justify altering the first Environmental Protection Agency Report on the Environment . The paper was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy , but on July 28 , Republican Jim Inhofe spoke in the Senate citing it to claim `` that man-made global warming is the greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American people '' . Later in 2003 , a paper by Steve McIntyre and Ross McKitrick disputing the data used in MBH98 paper was publicised by the George C. Marshall Institute and the Competitive Enterprise Institute . In 2004 , Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 , McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal component analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . The analysis therein was subsequently disputed by published papers , including and , which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . In June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton launched what Sherwood Boehlert , chairman of the House Science Committee , called a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into the data , methods and personal information of Mann , Bradley and Hughes . At Boehlert 's request , a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council was set up , which reported in 2006 , supporting Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . Barton and U.S. Rep. Ed Whitfield requested Edward Wegman to set up a team of statisticians to investigate , and they supported McIntyre and McKitrick 's view that there were statistical failings , although they did not quantify whether there was any significant effect . They also produced an extensive network analysis which has been discredited by expert opinion and found to have issues of plagiarism . Arguments against the MBH studies were reintroduced as part of the Climatic Research Unit email controversy , but dismissed by eight independent investigations . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , have supported the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Over a dozen subsequent reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Hockey_stick_controversy\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 93881\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Japan\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 93676\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Gilbert Plass Content: Gilbert Norman Plass ( 22 March 1920 -- 1 March 2004 ) was a Canadian physicist who in the 1950s made predictions about the increase in global atmospheric carbon dioxide levels in the 20th century and its effect on the average temperature of the planet that closely match measurements reported half a century later . Plass worked most of his life as a physicist in the United States . He graduated from Harvard University in 1941 and earned a PhD in physics from Princeton University in 1947 . He worked as an associate physicist at the Metallurgical Laboratory ( Manhattan District ) of the University of Chicago from 1942 to 1945 . He became an instructor of physics at Johns Hopkins University in 1946 , and eventually became an associate professor there . In 1955 , leaving academia , he held a job for a year as a staff scientist with Lockheed Aircraft Corporation . He then joined the advanced research staff at the Aeronutronic division of the Ford Motor Company . In 1960 , he became manager of the research lab at Ford 's theoretical physics department and a consulting editor of the journal Infrared Physics ( now called Infrared Physics and Technology ) . In 1963 , he accepted a position as the first professor of atmospheric and space science at the Southwest Center for Advanced Studies ( now the University of Texas at Arlington ) , where he remained for five years . In 1968 , he arrived at Texas A&M University , where he served as professor of physics and head of the department .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Gilbert_Plass\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 93570\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 8.2 kiloyear event Content: In climatology , the 8.2 kiloyear event was a sudden decrease in global temperatures that occurred approximately 8,200 years before the present , or c. 6,200 BCE , and which lasted for the next two to four centuries . Milder than the Younger Dryas cold spell that preceded it , but more severe than the Little Ice Age that would follow , the 8.2 kiloyear cooling was a significant exception to general trends of the Holocene climatic optimum . During the event , atmospheric methane concentration decreased by 80 ppb or an emission reduction of 15 % , by cooling and drying at a hemispheric scale .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"8.2_kiloyear_event\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 93374\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of Temperatures Rising episodes Content: Temperatures Rising is an American television sitcom that aired for two years on the ABC network , during which time it was presented in three different formats and cast line-ups with a total of 46 episodes . The series was originally developed , produced , and occasionally directed by William Asher for Ashmont Productions and Screen Gems and premiered on September 12 , 1972 , in the time slot of Tuesday nights at 8:00 PM . The regular cast consisted of Cleavon Little as Dr. Jerry Noland , Joan Van Ark as Nurse Annie Carlisle , Reva Rose as Nurse Mildred `` Millie '' MacInerny , Nancy Fox as Student Nurse Ellen Turner , and James Whitmore as Dr. Vincent Campanelli . The premise of the series featured Campanelli as the no-nonsense chief-of-staff of Capitol General , a ( fictional ) Washington , D.C. hospital , who is forced to deal with the outlandish antics of Noland and the three nurses , whom Campanelli refers to as `` the four horsemen of aggravation '' . During its first season -- and first format -- 26 episodes were aired with the final one broadcast on . Reruns of the season 's episodes continued until September 4 , 1973 . Despite heavy competition in the ratings from Maude on CBS and Bonanza on NBC , Temperatures Rising did well enough in its first season to be renewed for a second . For this second season , John Mitchell , the head of Screen Gems , decided to replace James Whitmore with comedian Paul Lynde , whose own sitcom , The Paul Lynde Show ( also produced by William Asher for the 1972 -- 73 season ) was to be cancelled . Asher was against the change and declined to continue with Temperatures Rising , resulting in him being replaced as producer by Duke Vincent and Bruce Johnson . Under them , Van Ark , Rose , and Fox were dropped from the cast along with Whitmore , thus retaining Little as the only returning member . The New Temperatures Rising Show , as the series was now retitled , began airing on , and starred Paul Lynde as Dr. Paul Mercy , Sudie Bond as his mother Martha Mercy , Barbara Cason as Miss Tillis , the head nurse , Jennifer Darling as Nurse `` Windy '' Winchester , Jeff Morrow as Dr. Lloyd Axton , John Dehner as Dr. Charles Cleveland Claver , and Cleavon Little as Dr. Jerry Noland , while Jerry Houser was featured in a recurring role as an intern named Haskell . In this season Mercy was presented as the penny-pinching chief-of-staff , with his nagging mother as the owner of the hospital . Little 's character was changed to the chief surgeon and `` the only sane member of this medical madhouse '' . The New Temperatures Rising Show ran for 13 episodes before being placed on hiatus on . The ratings for the show were poor and , as a result , Mitchell asked Asher to return to the series as producer and restore it to its original format -- albeit with Paul Lynde continuing in the lead . For the third format of the series -- which reverted to the original title of Temperatures Rising -- Bond , Cason , Darling , Morrow , Dehner , and Houser were dropped from the cast while Lynde and Little continued on as , respectively , Dr. Mercy and Dr. Nolan . Added to the line-up were Alice Ghostley as Nurse Edwina Moffitt , sister of Dr. Mercy , and Barbara Rucker as Nurse Kelly , while Nancy Fox , from the first-season cast , returned as Nurse Ellen Turner . Offered as a summer replacement on Thursday nights , the third format of the sitcom ran for seven episodes from July 18 to , after which it was cancelled permanently . As of , , Temperatures Rising has not been released on DVD or Blu-ray Disc .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_Temperatures_Rising_episodes\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 93349\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Historical Climatology Network Content: The Global Historical Climatology Network ( GHCN ) is a database of temperature , precipitation and pressure records managed by the National Climatic Data Center , Arizona State University and the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center . The aggregate data are collected from many continuously reporting fixed stations at the Earth 's surface and represent the input of approximately 6000 temperature stations , 7500 precipitation stations and 2000 pressure stations . This work has often been used as a foundation for reconstructing past global temperatures , and was used in previous versions of two of the best-known reconstructions , that prepared by the National Climatic Data Center ( NCDC ) , and that prepared by NASA as its Goddard Institute for Space Studies ( GISS ) temperature set . The average temperature record is 60 years long with ~ 1650 records greater than 100 years and ~ 220 greater than 150 years ( based on GHCN v2 in 2006 ) . The earliest data included in the database were collected in 1697 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Historical_Climatology_Network\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 92963\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1911 Eastern North America heat wave Content: The 1911 Eastern North America heat wave was an 11-day heat wave in New York City and other Eastern cities that killed 380 people starting on July 4 , 1911 . In Nashua , New Hampshire , the temperature peaked at 106 degrees Fahrenheit ( 41 C ) . In New York City , 146 people and 600 horses died . In Boston , the temperature rose to 104 ° ( 40 ° C ) on July 4 , an all-time record high that still stands today .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"1911_Eastern_North_America_heat_wave\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 92780\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: World Ocean Circulation Experiment Content: The World Ocean Circulation Experiment ( WOCE ) was a component of the international World Climate Research Program , and aimed to establish the role of the World Ocean in the Earth 's climate system . WOCE 's field phase ran between 1990 and 1998 , and was followed by an analysis and modeling phase that ran until 2002 . When the WOCE was conceived , there were three main motivations for its creation . The first of these is the inadequate coverage of the World Ocean , specifically in the Southern Hemisphere . Data was also much more sparse during the winter months than the summer months , and there was -- and still to some extent -- a critical need for data covering all seasons . Secondly , the data that did exist was not initially collected for studying ocean circulation and was not well suited for model comparison . Lastly , there were concerns involving the accuracy and reliability of some measurements . The WOCE was meant to address these problems by providing new data collected in ways designed to `` meet the needs of global circulation models for climate prediction . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"World_Ocean_Circulation_Experiment\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 92742\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1911 United Kingdom heat wave Content: The United Kingdom heatwave of 1911 was a particularly severe heat wave and associated drought . Records were set around the country for temperature in England , including the highest accepted temperature , at the time , of 36.7 C ( 98.6 F ) , only broken 79 years later in the 1990 heatwave , which reached 37.1 C ( 98.78 F ) . The highest ever accepted temperature is currently 38.5 C ( 101.3 F ) recorded on 10 August 2003 in Faversham , Kent . North America was also affected around about this time .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"1911_United_Kingdom_heat_wave\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 92720\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2000 Southern United States heat wave Content: Aided by drought , a heat wave persisted in late Summer 2000 along the southern tier of the United States from July to early September of that year . Near the end of the period , daily , monthly , and even all-time record high temperatures were broken , with highs commonly peaking well over 100 degrees Fahrenheit . On September 4 , Houston hit 109 ° F ( 42.8 ° C ) and Dallas peaked at 111 ° F ( 43.9 ° C ) ; on September 5 , Corpus Christi peaked at 109 ° F ( 42.8 ° C ) , San Antonio peaked at 111 ° F ( 43.9 ° C ) while College Station and Austin reached 112 ° F ( 44.4 ° C ) . Damage totaled $ 4 billion , mainly due to wildfires and crop losses , and there were 140 deaths .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"2000_Southern_United_States_heat_wave\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 92698\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in southeast Alaska Content: Climate change in southeast Alaska are changes which occur in southeast Alaska as average temperatures rise as a result of global warming . The temperate rainforest that covers this area is a result of humid summers and transient snow cover in winter . The conifers that thrive in this moist climate are free from fire risk as compared to the forests to both the north and south . Warmer weather will lengthen the growing period of the trees and the increase in evapotranspiration is likely to outweigh the increase of precipitation . Assuming a scenario involving a mid-range increase in emissions , the average temperature may rise by about 3 ° F by the year 2040 and by 6 ° F by 2080 . The trees will grow more vigorously but fungi that cause rot will also thrive , there is likely to be an increase in windthrow , and fire risk may rise . With winter temperatures increasing , the type of precipitation will change . Lack of snow cover on the ground will expose tree roots to colder soils , and yellow ceder is already showing the result of this with many trees dying . The melting of glaciers in the watershed is likely to accelerate and will cause hydrological changes that will impact the wetland habitats and the distribution of wildlife . Animals such as the black-tailed deer , moose and mountain goat may benefit from less snow cover , while such mammals as the northwestern deer mouse that tunnels under the snow are likely to be disadvantaged .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_southeast_Alaska\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 91935\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: International Temperature Scale of 1990 Content: The International Temperature Scale of 1990 ( ITS-90 ) published by the Consultative Committee for Thermometry ( CCT ) of the International Committee for Weights and Measures ( CIPM ) is an equipment calibration standard for making measurements on the Kelvin and Celsius temperature scales . ITS -- 90 is an approximation of the thermodynamic temperature scale that facilitates the comparability and compatibility of temperature measurements internationally . It specifies fourteen calibration points ranging from 0.65 ± 0 K to ± 0 K ( -272.50 ± 0 ° C to ± 0 ° C ) and is subdivided into multiple temperature ranges which overlap in some instances . ITS-90 is the latest ( as of 2014 ) of a series of International Temperature Scales adopted by CIPM since 1927 . Adopted at the 1989 General Conference on Weights and Measures , it supersedes the International Practical Temperature Scale of 1968 ( amended edition of 1975 ) and the 1976 `` Provisional 0.5 K to 30 K Temperature Scale '' . CCT has also adopted a mise en pratique ( practical instructions ) in 2011 . The lowest temperature covered by ITS-90 is 0.65 K . In 2000 , the temperature scale was extended further , to 0.9 mK , by the adoption of a supplemental scale , known as the Provisional Low Temperature Scale of 2000 ( PLTS-2000 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"International_Temperature_Scale_of_1990\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 91699\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Six Degrees: Our Future on a Hotter Planet Content: Six Degrees : Our Future on a Hotter Planet ( 358 pages ) , ISBN 978-0-00-720905-7 is a 2007 ( 2008 in USA ) non-fiction book by author Mark Lynas about global warming . The book looks and attempts to summarize results from scientific papers on climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Six_Degrees:_Our_Future_on_a_Hotter_Planet\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 91639\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: World Climate Research Programme Content: The World Climate Research Programme ( WCRP ) was established in 1980 , under the joint sponsorship of International Council for Science and the World Meteorological Organization , and has also been sponsored by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO since 1993 . It is a component of the World Climate Programme . The objectives of the programme are to develop the fundamental scientific understanding of the physical climate system and climate processes needed to determine to what extent climate can be predicted and the extent of human influence on climate . The programme encompasses studies of the global atmosphere , oceans , sea ice , land ice ( such as glaciers , ice caps and ice sheets ) , and the land surface which together constitute the Earth 's physical climate system . WCRP activities address issues of scientific uncertainty in the Earth 's climate system including transport and storage of heat by the ocean , the global energy and hydrological cycle , the formation of clouds and their effects on radiative transfer , and the role of the cryosphere in climate . These activities match the scientific priorities identified by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , and provide the basis for responding to issues raised in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change . WCRP also lays the scientific foundation for meeting the research challenges posed in Agenda 21 . Together with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme and the International Human Dimensions of Global Environmental Change Programme , WCRP provides the international framework for scientific cooperation in the study of global climate change . Scientific guidance for the programme is provided by a Joint Scientific Committee consisting of 18 scientists selected by mutual agreement between the three sponsoring organizations .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"World_Climate_Research_Programme\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 91469\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera Content: Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera is a theoretical physicist and researcher at the Institute of Geophysics of the National Autonomous University of Mexico ( UNAM ) . He disagrees with predictions about future climate change , arguing that they ignore the most important factor , which is sun activity . In the summer of 2008 , he also predicted the world to soon enter a little ice age . `` The models and forecasts of the U.N. IPCC `` are incorrect because they only are based on mathematical models and presented results at scenarios that do not include , for example , solar activity . '' -- Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Victor_Manuel_Velasco_Herrera\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 91176\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Copenhagen_Diagnosis\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 91165\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference , COP 21 or CMP 11 was held in Paris , France , from 30 November to 12 December 2015 . It was the 21st yearly session of the Conference of the Parties ( COP ) to the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and the 11th session of the Conference of the Parties ( CMP ) to the 1997 Kyoto Protocol . The conference negotiated the Paris Agreement , a global agreement on the reduction of climate change , the text of which represented a consensus of the representatives of the 196 parties attending it . The agreement will enter into force when joined by at least 55 countries which together represent at least 55 percent of global greenhouse emissions . On 22 April 2016 ( Earth Day ) , 174 countries signed the agreement in New York , and began adopting it within their own legal systems ( through ratification , acceptance , approval , or accession ) . According to the organizing committee at the outset of the talks , the expected key result was an agreement to set a goal of limiting global warming to less than 2 degrees Celsius ( ° C ) compared to pre-industrial levels . The agreement calls for zero net anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions to be reached during the second half of the 21st century . In the adopted version of the Paris Agreement , the parties will also `` pursue efforts to '' limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C . The 1.5 ° C goal will require zero emissions sometime between 2030 and 2050 , according to some scientists . Prior to the conference , 146 national climate panels publicly presented draft national climate contributions ( called `` Intended Nationally Determined Contributions '' , INDCs ) . These suggested commitments were estimated to limit global warming to 2.7 degrees Celsius by 2100 . For example , the EU suggested INDC is a commitment to a 40 percent reduction in emissions by 2030 compared to 1990 . The agreement establishes a `` global stocktake '' which revisits the national goals to `` update and enhance '' them every five years beginning 2023 . However , no detailed timetable or country-specific goals for emissions were incorporated into the Paris Agreement -- as opposed to the previous Kyoto Protocol . A number of meetings took place in preparation for COP21 , including the Bonn Climate Change Conference , 19 to 23 October 2015 , which produced a draft agreement .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"2015_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 91101\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Model output statistics Content: Model Output Statistics ( MOS ) is a multiple linear regression technique in which predicands , often near-surface quantities , such as 2-meter ( AGL ) air temperature , horizontal visibility , and wind direction , speed and gusts , are related statistically to one or more predictors . The predictors are typically forecasts from a numerical weather prediction ( NWP ) model , climatic data , and , if applicable , recent surface observations . Thus , output from NWP models can be transformed by the MOS technique into sensible weather parameters that are familiar to the `` person on the street '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Model_output_statistics\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 91084\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: History of numerical weather prediction Content: The history of numerical weather prediction considers how current weather conditions as input into mathematical models of the atmosphere and oceans to predict the weather and future sea state ( the process of numerical weather prediction ) has changed over the years . Though first attempted manually in the 1920s , it was not until the advent of the computer and computer simulation that computation time was reduced to less than the forecast period itself . ENIAC was used to create the first forecasts via computer in 1950 , and over the years more powerful computers have been used to increase the size of initial datasets as well as include more complicated versions of the equations of motion . The development of global forecasting models led to the first climate models . The development of limited area ( regional ) models facilitated advances in forecasting the tracks of tropical cyclone as well as air quality in the 1970s and 1980s . Because the output of forecast models based on atmospheric dynamics requires corrections near ground level , model output statistics ( MOS ) were developed in the 1970s and 1980s for individual forecast points ( locations ) . The MOS apply statistical techniques to post-process the output of dynamical models with the most recent surface observations and the forecast point 's climatology . This technique can correct for model resolution as well as model biases . Even with the increasing power of supercomputers , the forecast skill of numerical weather models only extends to about two weeks into the future , since the density and quality of observations -- together with the chaotic nature of the partial differential equations used to calculate the forecast -- introduce errors which double every five days . The use of model ensemble forecasts since the 1990s helps to define the forecast uncertainty and extend weather forecasting farther into the future than otherwise possible .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"History_of_numerical_weather_prediction\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 91003\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2019 heat wave in India and Pakistan Content: From mid-May to mid-June 2019, India and Pakistan had a severe heat wave. It was one of the hottest and longest heat waves since the two countries began recording weather reports. The highest temperatures occurred in Churu, Rajasthan, reaching up to 50.8 °C (123.4 °F), a near record high in India, missing the record of 51.0 °C (123.8 °F) set in 2016 by a fraction of a degree. As of 12 June 2019, 32 days are classified as parts of the heatwave, making it the second longest ever recorded.As a result of hot temperatures and inadequate preparation, more than 184 people died in the state of Bihar, with many more deaths reported in other parts of the country. In Pakistan, five infants died after extreme heat exposure.The heat wave coincided with extreme droughts and water shortages across India and Pakistan. In mid-June, reservoirs that previously supplied Chennai ran dry, depriving millions. The water crisis was exacerbated by high temperatures and lack of preparation, causing protests and fights that sometimes led to killing and stabbing.\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"2019_heat_wave_in_India_and_Pakistan\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 90873\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: WRF Content: WRF may refer to : Weather Research and Forecasting model , a numerical weather prediction system Westminster Russia Forum , a UK organization promoting improved relations with Russia Wiley Rein & Fielding , a Washington , DC based law firm World Reformed Fellowship , an ecumenical Christian organization World Resources Forum , the global science-based platform for sharing knowledge about sustainable resource management\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"WRF\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 90795\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmospheric model Content: An atmospheric model is a mathematical model constructed around the full set of primitive dynamical equations which govern atmospheric motions . It can supplement these equations with parameterizations for turbulent diffusion , radiation , moist processes ( clouds and precipitation ) , heat exchange , soil , vegetation , surface water , the kinematic effects of terrain , and convection . Most atmospheric models are numerical , i.e. they discretize equations of motion . They can predict microscale phenomena such as tornadoes and boundary layer eddies , sub-microscale turbulent flow over buildings , as well as synoptic and global flows . The horizontal domain of a model is either global , covering the entire Earth , or regional ( limited-area ) , covering only part of the Earth . The different types of models run are thermotropic , barotropic , hydrostatic , and nonhydrostatic . Some of the model types make assumptions about the atmosphere which lengthens the time steps used and increases computational speed . Forecasts are computed using mathematical equations for the physics and dynamics of the atmosphere . These equations are nonlinear and are impossible to solve exactly . Therefore , numerical methods obtain approximate solutions . Different models use different solution methods . Global models often use spectral methods for the horizontal dimensions and finite-difference methods for the vertical dimension , while regional models usually use finite-difference methods in all three dimensions . For specific locations , model output statistics use climate information , output from numerical weather prediction , and current surface weather observations to develop statistical relationships which account for model bias and resolution issues .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmospheric_model\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 90717\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in South Korea Content: In recent decades most countries have been experiencing huge industrial progress . Urban and industrial areas in South Korea also had fast development from 1960s to 1980s . Industrialization and the increase in population have produced various pollutants and greenhouse gases , which are anthropogenic factors for climate change . South Korea is experiencing changes in climate parameters , including annual temperature , rainfall amounts , and precipitation . The most distinct climate change predicted for South Korea is an increase in the range of temperature fluctuation throughout the four seasons . The number of record minimum temperature days has decreased rapidly , and maximum precipitation during the summer has increased . Ongoing global climate change has produced local climate changes and extreme weather that affects : social , economy , industry , culture , and many other sectors . The increased possibility for new types of strong weather damage evokes the seriousness and the urgency of climate change . To quickly adapt to climate change , the South Korean government began an effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , and is one step closer to having a low-carbon based socio-economic nation .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_South_Korea\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 90529\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change and potatoes Content: Global warming is predicted to have significant effects on global potato production . Like many crops , potatoes are likely to be affected by changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide , temperature and precipitation , as well as interactions between these factors . As well as affecting potatoes directly , climate change will also affect the distributions and populations of many potato diseases and pests . Potato is one of the world 's most important food crops . Potato production must be adapted to climate change to avoid reductions in crop yields .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_and_potatoes\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 90486\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2013 heatwave in Ireland and the United Kingdom Content: The 2013 heat wave in the United Kingdom and Ireland was a period of unusually hot weather primarily in July 2013 , with isolated warm days in June and August . A prolonged high pressure system over Britain and Ireland caused higher than average temperatures for 19 consecutive days in July , reaching 33.5 ° C at Heathrow and Northolt . Following a brief period of cooler weather at the end of July , temperatures temporarily rose again , peaking at 34.1 ° C on 1 August in the United Kingdom , the warmest the country had seen since July 2006 , and 31.0 ° C in Ireland . At 19 days , the July heatwave was the longest continuous period of hot weather in the UK since August 1997 . However , in the general sense , Britain did not have an overall exceptional summer ; the country experienced cool low pressure systems brought by an unseasonably low latitude by the jet stream for the 6 summers previous , which made the summer of 2013 more `` welcome '' and feel warmer than other summers . The historical records suggests `` Using the CET record ( for June , July & August ) , the average temperature by that measure was 16.3 degC ( Provisional ) : neither June nor August was exceptionally warm , so this value does not ` rate ' too highly when set against other very warm summer seasons . '' With June being a cool month and August being an Average month , in terms of temperatures the English Central summer temperature ended up being on the average side set up against previous summers since the CET series began in 1659 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"2013_heatwave_in_Ireland_and_the_United_Kingdom\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 90483\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pliocene climate Content: During the Pliocene epoch ( 5.3 Ma to 2.6 Ma ) climate became cooler and drier , and seasonal , similar to modern climates . The global average temperature in the mid-Pliocene ( 3.3 Ma -- 3 Ma ) was 2 -- 3 ° C higher than today , global sea level 25m higher and the northern hemisphere ice sheet was ephemeral before the onset of extensive glaciation over Greenland that occurred in the late Pliocene around 3 Ma . The formation of an Arctic ice cap is signaled by an abrupt shift in oxygen isotope ratios and ice-rafted cobbles in the North Atlantic and North Pacific ocean beds . Mid-latitude glaciation was probably underway before the end of the epoch . The global cooling that occurred during the Pliocene may have spurred on the disappearance of forests and the spread of grasslands and savannas . During the Pliocene the earth climate system response shifted from a period of high frequency-low amplitude oscillation dominated by the 41,000-year period of Earth 's obliquity to one of low-frequency , high-amplitude oscillation dominated by the 100,000-year period of the orbital eccentricity characteristic of the Pleistocene glacial-interglacial cycles . The equatorial pacific ocean sea surface temperature gradient was considerably lower than it is today , mean sea surface temperature in the east were substantially warmer than today but similar in the west , this condition has been described as a permanent El Niño state or El Padre\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Pliocene_climate\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 90442\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hypercane Content: A hypercane is a hypothetical class of extreme tropical cyclone that could form if ocean temperatures reached 50 C , which is 15 C-change warmer than the warmest ocean temperature ever recorded . Such an increase could be caused by a large asteroid or comet impact , a large supervolcanic eruption , or extensive global warming . There is some speculation that a series of hypercanes resulting from an impact by a large asteroid or comet contributed to the demise of the non-avian dinosaurs . The hypothesis was created by Kerry Emanuel of MIT who also coined the term .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Hypercane\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 90426\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Polar amplification Content: Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict . In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Polar_amplification\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 90404\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: HadGEM1 Content: HadGEM1 ( abbreviation for Hadley Centre Global Environmental Model , version 1 ) is a coupled climate model developed at the Met Office 's Hadley Centre in 2006 and used in IPCC Fourth Assessment Report on climate change . It represents a significant scientific advance on its predecessor , HadCM3 . HadGEM1 also provides a basis for further development of models , particularly involving enhanced resolution and full Earth System modelling . The current version is HadGEM3 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"HadGEM1\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 90194\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_the_Arctic\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 90163\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2016 Indian heat wave Content: In April and May 2016 , India experienced a major heat wave . A national record high temperature of 51.0 ° C ( 123.8 ° F ) was set in the town of Phalodi , in the state of Rajasthan . A total of over 160 people have died and 330 million affected . There are also water shortages . Drought has worsened the heat wave .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"2016_Indian_heat_wave\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 90017\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Debye model Content: In thermodynamics and solid state physics , the Debye model is a method developed by Peter Debye in 1912 for estimating the phonon contribution to the specific heat ( heat capacity ) in a solid . It treats the vibrations of the atomic lattice ( heat ) as phonons in a box , in contrast to the Einstein model , which treats the solid as many individual , non-interacting quantum harmonic oscillators . The Debye model correctly predicts the low temperature dependence of the heat capacity , which is proportional to -- the Debye T3 law . Just like the Einstein model , it also recovers the Dulong -- Petit law at high temperatures . But due to simplifying assumptions , its accuracy suffers at intermediate temperatures . See M. Shubin and T. Sunada for a rigorous treatment of the Debye model .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Debye_model\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 89910\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Duncan Wingham Content: Duncan John Wingham ( born 12 October 1957 ) is a British physicist who is Professor of Climate Physics at University College London , and was the first Director of the Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling . He is chief executive of the Natural Environment Research Council and Principal Scientist for the CryoSat Satellite Mission . In the 1990s , Wingham was involved in a four-year satellite study of the Antarctic ice sheet . His conclusion then , and from later research , is that the Antarctic has contributed little to observed rising sea levels in the 20th century . However , he has also stated that `` it is possible that the consequences of global warming on sea level rise have been underestimated ... Other sources of rise must be underestimated . In particular it is possible that the effect of global warming on thermal expansion -LSB- on the oceans -RSB- is larger than we thought '' . In a 2005 interview Wingham stated '' -LSB- t -RSB- he Antarctic is to some extent insulated from global warming because to its north are zonal flows in the atmosphere and ocean , unimpeded by other landmasses ... I am not denying global warming . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Duncan_Wingham\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 89876\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Highest temperature recorded on Earth Content: The standard measuring conditions for temperature are in the air , 1.5 meters above the ground , and shielded from direct sunlight . The highest confirmed temperature on Earth recorded according to these measures was 56.7 C in Furnace Creek Ranch , California , located in the Death Valley desert in the United States , on July 10 , 1913 . The former highest official temperature on Earth , held for 90 years by ` Aziziya , Libya , was de-certified by the WMO ( World Meteorological Organization ) in January 2012 as the record for the world 's highest surface temperature ( this temperature of 57.8 ° C ( 136 ° F ) , registered on 13 September 1922 , is currently considered to have been a recorder 's error ) . Christopher C. Burt , the weather historian writing for Weather Underground who shepherded the Libya reading 's 2012 disqualification , believes that the 1913 Death Valley reading is `` a myth '' , and is at least four or five degrees Fahrenheit too high , as do other weather historians Dr. Arnold Court and William Taylor Reid . Burt proposes that the highest reliably recorded temperature on Earth is still at Death Valley , but is instead 53.9 C recorded five times : 20 July 1960 , 18 July 1998 , 20 July 2005 , 7 July 2007 , and 30 June 2013 . Temperatures measured directly on the ground may exceed air temperatures by 30 to 50 ° C . A ground temperature of 84 ° C ( 183.2 ° F ) has been recorded in Port Sudan , Sudan . A ground temperature of 93.9 ° C ( 201 ° F ) was recorded also in Furnace Creek Ranch on 15 July 1972 ; this may be the highest natural ground surface temperature ever recorded . The theoretical maximum possible ground surface temperature has been estimated to be between 90 and 100 ° C for dry , darkish soils of low thermal conductivity . Temperature measurements via satellite also tend to capture occurrence of higher records but are considered less reliable than ground-positioned thermometers . There is a satellite record of 66.8 C measured in the Flaming Mountains of China in 2008 . Other satellite measurements of ground temperature taken between 2003 and 2009 , taken with the MODIS infrared spectroradiometer on the Aqua satellite , found a maximum temperature of 70.7 ° C ( 159.3 ° F ) , which was recorded in 2005 in the Lut Desert , Iran . The Lut Desert was also found to have the highest maximum temperature in 5 of the 7 years measured ( 2004 , 2005 , 2006 , 2007 and 2009 ) . These measurements reflect averages over a large region and so are lower than the maximum point surface temperature .\",\n \"qid\": \"2790\",\n \"docid\": \"Highest_temperature_recorded_on_Earth\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 89862\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":1377,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"But his results are evidence that the actual climate sensitivity is about 3°C for a doubling of atmospheric CO2."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Climate sensitivity Content: Climate sensitivity is the equilibrium temperature change in response to changes of the radiative forcing . Therefore , climate sensitivity depends on the initial climate state , but potentially can be accurately inferred from precise palaeoclimate data . Slow climate feedbacks , especially changes of ice sheet size and atmospheric CO2 , amplify the total Earth system sensitivity by an amount that depends on the time scale considered . Although climate sensitivity is usually used in the context of radiative forcing by carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , it is thought of as a general property of the climate system : the change in surface air temperature ( ΔTs ) following a unit change in radiative forcing ( RF ) , and thus is expressed in units of ° C / ( W/m2 ) . For this to be useful , the measure must be independent of the nature of the forcing ( e.g. from greenhouse gases or solar variation ) ; to first order this is indeed found to be so . The climate sensitivity specifically due to is often expressed as the temperature change in ° C associated with a doubling of the concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere . For coupled atmosphere-ocean global climate models ( e.g. CMIP5 ) the climate sensitivity is an emergent property : it is not a model parameter , but rather a result of a combination of model physics and parameters . By contrast , simpler energy-balance models may have climate sensitivity as an explicit parameter . The terms represented in the equation relate radiative forcing ( RF ) to linear changes in global surface temperature change ( ΔTs ) via the climate sensitivity λ . It is also possible to estimate climate sensitivity from observations ; however , this is difficult due to uncertainties in the forcing and temperature histories .","qid":"2794","docid":"Climate_sensitivity","rank":1,"score":195392},{"content":"Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .","qid":"2794","docid":"Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change","rank":2,"score":171393},{"content":"Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .","qid":"2794","docid":"Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous","rank":3,"score":134431},{"content":"Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .","qid":"2794","docid":"350.org","rank":4,"score":133633},{"content":"Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .","qid":"2794","docid":"Atmospheric_carbon_cycle","rank":5,"score":133341},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .","qid":"2794","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere","rank":6,"score":132972},{"content":"Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .","qid":"2794","docid":"Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios","rank":7,"score":129377},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Wyoming Content: On a per-person basis , Wyoming emits more carbon dioxide than any other state or any other country : 276000 lb of it per capita a year , because of burning coal , which provides nearly all of the state 's electrical power . Over the last century , the average temperature in Laramie , Wyoming , has increased 1.5 ° F ( 0.8 ° C ) , and precipitation has decreased by up to 20 % in many parts of the state . Over the next century , climate in Wyoming may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Wyoming could increase by 4 ° F ( 2 ° C ) in spring and fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) , 5 ° F ( 2.5 ° C ) in summer ( with a range of 2-8 ° F ) , and 6 ° F ( 3 ° C ) in winter ( with a range of 3-11 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease slightly in summer ( with a range of 0-10 % ) , increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and increase by 30 % in winter ( with a range of 10-50 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .","qid":"2794","docid":"Climate_change_in_Wyoming","rank":8,"score":129205},{"content":"Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .","qid":"2794","docid":"Carbon_diet","rank":9,"score":127905},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .","qid":"2794","docid":"Greenhouse_gas","rank":10,"score":127303},{"content":"Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .","qid":"2794","docid":"List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming","rank":11,"score":126003},{"content":"Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .","qid":"2794","docid":"Global_warming_potential","rank":12,"score":123707},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .","qid":"2794","docid":"Climate_change_in_Japan","rank":13,"score":123588},{"content":"Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .","qid":"2794","docid":"Deforestation_and_climate_change","rank":14,"score":123584},{"content":"Title: Scott Denning Content: A. Scott Denning is a climate scientist and professor of atmospheric science at Colorado State University , whose faculty he joined in 1998 . He is known for his research into atmosphere-biosphere interactions and atmospheric carbon dioxide . He firmly supports action to avoid dangerous climate change and has said that the science behind it is `` settled '' . He has also argued that , if no action is taken on the matter , global warming could cause the climate of Colorado to resemble the current climate of its neighbors to the south , such as southern New Mexico , Texas and Mexico .","qid":"2794","docid":"Scott_Denning","rank":15,"score":122987},{"content":"Title: Suess effect Content: The Suess effect is a change in the ratio of the atmospheric concentrations of heavy isotopes of carbon ( 13C and 14C ) by the admixture of large amounts of fossil-fuel derived CO2 , which is depleted in 13CO2 and contains no 14CO2 . It is named for the Austrian chemist Hans Suess , who noted the influence of this effect on the accuracy of radiocarbon dating . More recently , the Suess effect has been used in studies of climate change . The term originally referred only to dilution of atmospheric 14CO2 . The concept was later extended to dilution of 13CO2 and to other reservoirs of carbon such as the oceans and soils .","qid":"2794","docid":"Suess_effect","rank":16,"score":122303},{"content":"Title: Air sensitivity Content: Air sensitivity is a term used , particularly in chemistry , to denote the reactivity of chemical compounds with some constituent of air . Most often , reactions occur with atmospheric oxygen ( O2 ) or water vapor ( H2O ) , although reactions with the other constituents of air such as carbon monoxide ( CO ) , carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and nitrogen ( N2 ) are also possible . The range of methods used to work with air-sensitive compounds are known as air-free techniques . Two main methods exist -- gloveboxes and Schlenk lines . Gloveboxes are sealed cabinets filled with an inert gas such as argon or nitrogen . Normal laboratory equipment can be set up and manipulated through the use of the gloves . A Schlenk line is a vacuum and inert-gas dual-manifold that allows glassware to be evacuated and refilled with inert gas .","qid":"2794","docid":"Air_sensitivity","rank":17,"score":121836},{"content":"Title: Keeling Curve Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that plots the ongoing change in concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere since the 1950s . It is based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii that began under the supervision of Charles David Keeling . Keeling 's measurements showed the first significant evidence of rapidly increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere . Many scientists credit Keeling 's graph with first bringing the world 's attention to the current increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Charles David Keeling , of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego , was the first person to make frequent regular measurements of the atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) concentration , taking readings at the South Pole and in Hawaii from 1958 onwards . Measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had been taken prior to the Mauna Loa measurements , but on an ad-hoc basis across a variety of locations . Guy Stewart Callendar had shown a steady increase in concentrations since the 19th century . Keeling had perfected the measurement techniques and observed `` strong diurnal behavior with steady values of about 310 ppm in the afternoon '' at three locations : Big Sur near Monterey , the rain forests of Olympic Peninsula , and high mountain forests in Arizona . By measuring the ratio of two isotopes of carbon , Keeling attributed the diurnal change to respiration from local plants and soils , with afternoon values representative of the `` free atmosphere '' . By 1960 , Keeling and his group had determined that the measurement records from California , Antarctica , and Hawaii were long enough to see not just the diurnal and seasonal variations , but also a year-on-year increase that roughly matched the amount of fossil fuels burned per year . In the article that made him famous , Keeling observed : `` at the South Pole the observed rate of increase is nearly that to be expected from the combustion of fossil fuel '' .","qid":"2794","docid":"Keeling_Curve","rank":18,"score":120262},{"content":"Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .","qid":"2794","docid":"CO2_fertilization_effect","rank":19,"score":119840},{"content":"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .","qid":"2794","docid":"Global_warming","rank":20,"score":119782},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .","qid":"2794","docid":"Climate_change_in_Pakistan","rank":21,"score":119706},{"content":"Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .","qid":"2794","docid":"Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum","rank":22,"score":117858},{"content":"Title: William D. Sellers Content: William D. Sellers ( 18 August 1928 -- 27 August 2014 ) was an American meteorologist , climate scientist , and pioneer of climate modelling . He created one the earliest climate models and was one of the first scientists to recognize the effects of CO2 in the atmosphere on the earth 's climate . He published the textbook `` Physical Climatology '' .","qid":"2794","docid":"William_D._Sellers","rank":23,"score":117685},{"content":"Title: North American Carbon Program Content: The North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) is one of the major elements of the Strategic Plan for the U.S. Climate Change Science Program . The central objective of NACP is to measure and understand carbon stocks and sources and sinks of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , and carbon monoxide ( CO ) in North America and adjacent ocean regions . The specific program goals are as followed : Develop quantitative scientific knowledge , robust observations , and models to determine the emissions and uptake of CO2 , CH4 , and CO , changes in carbon stocks , and the factors regulating these processes for North America and adjacent ocean basins . Develop the scientific basis to implement full carbon accounting on regional and continental scales . This is the knowledge base needed to design monitoring programs for natural and managed CO2 sinks and emissions of CH4 . Support long-term quantitative measurements of fluxes , sources , and sinks of atmospheric CO2 and CH4 , and develop forecasts for future trends . The North American Carbon Program was designed to help with the process of providing data needed to model the synthesis activities .","qid":"2794","docid":"North_American_Carbon_Program","rank":24,"score":117296},{"content":"Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .","qid":"2794","docid":"Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center","rank":25,"score":117100},{"content":"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.","qid":"2794","docid":"Climate_change_in_the_United_States","rank":26,"score":116278},{"content":"Title: Climate footprint Content: The term climate footprint has emerged from the field of carbon footprinting , and refers to a measure of the full set of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) controlled under the Kyoto Protocol . A climate footprint is a more comprehensive measure of anthropogenic impact upon the climate than a carbon footprint , but is also more costly and labour-intensive to calculate . A climate footprint is a measure of the total amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFCs ) and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) emissions of a defined population , system or activity , considering all relevant sources , sinks and storage within the spatial and temporal boundary of the population , system or activity of interest . Calculated as carbon dioxide equivalent ( CO2e ) using the relevant 100-year global warming potential ( GWP100 ) .","qid":"2794","docid":"Climate_footprint","rank":27,"score":115658},{"content":"Title: Michael Raupach Content: Michael Robin Raupach ( 30 October 1950 -- 10 February 2015 ) was an Australian climate scientist . He is credited with developing the concept of a carbon budget , the amount of CO2 that is emitted and absorbed in the global ecosystem in the course of a year . When the in balance , CO2 emissions and absorption in carbon sinks are roughly the same , but when disturbed , possibly large changes in the ecosystem ensue . He was a founding co-chair of the Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) , a network of the world 's leading carbon cycle researchers . He was instrumental in publishing the Annual Carbon Budget , which draws on a large amount of scientific data to determine the level of imbalance and options for addressing it . He worked for the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation before becoming the director of the Australian National University 's Climate Change Institute in 2014 . He was a co-chair of the Global Carbon Project from 2000 to 2008 , and contributed to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Fourth Assessment Report in 2007 . He chaired the steering committee of the ` Australia 2050 ' project of the Australian Academy of Science ( AAS ) . In 2009 -- 2010 he chaired the Expert Working Group on Challenges at the Intersection of Carbon , Energy and Water , reporting to the Prime Minister 's Science , Engineering and Innovation Council and the Office of the Chief Scientist of Australia . His career included the publication of 150 scientific papers and 50 reports . His research developed in three stages , the first focused on very localized flow and transport of matter and energy through and above plant canopies . At the next stage , he worked on quantification of CO2 transport through and above plant canopies , though still on a small scale . In the 1990s , his focus began to shift to global ecosystems when he became a member of the scientific steering committee of the Biospheric Aspects of the Hydrological Cycle core project of the IGBP ( International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme ) . One of the most fundamental and important questions that the project addressed was : does the land-surface matter in climate and weather ? His research contributed to addressing that question , through his work on turbulent fluxes near the land surface , boundary-layer budgeting and quantifying the water balance at broader scales . He was a fellow of the Australian Academy of Science , the Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering , and the American Geophysical Union . Just before his death following a short illness , he co-chaired the working group of the Australian Academy of Science drafting the AAS booklet The Science of Climate Change : Questions and Answers .","qid":"2794","docid":"Michael_Raupach","rank":28,"score":114832},{"content":"Title: Guy Stewart Callendar Content: Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''","qid":"2794","docid":"Guy_Stewart_Callendar","rank":29,"score":113336},{"content":"Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Content: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change : A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases was a 2005 international conference that examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration , and the 2 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) ceiling on global warming thought necessary to avoid the most serious effects of global warming . Previously this had generally been accepted as being 550 ppm . The conference took place under the United Kingdom 's presidency of the G8 , with the participation of around 200 ` internationally renowned ' scientists from 30 countries . It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter , from 1 February to 3 February .","qid":"2794","docid":"Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change","rank":30,"score":113232},{"content":"Title: Mars Surveyor '98 program Content: The Mars Surveyor '98 program comprised two spacecraft launched separately , the Mars Climate Orbiter ( formerly the Mars Surveyor '98 Orbiter ) and the Mars Polar Lander ( formerly the Mars Surveyor '98 Lander ) ; on board the Mars Polar Lander spacecraft were two surface-penetrator probes ( Deep Space 2 ) . The two missions were to study the Martian weather , climate , water and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) budget , to understand the reservoirs , behavior , and atmospheric role of volatiles and to search for evidence of long-term and episodic climate changes . Both spacecraft were launched during the 1998 Mars orbit insertion launch window . Both were lost , including the penetrator probes .","qid":"2794","docid":"Mars_Surveyor_'98_program","rank":31,"score":111992},{"content":"Title: Global Historical Climatology Network Content: The Global Historical Climatology Network ( GHCN ) is a database of temperature , precipitation and pressure records managed by the National Climatic Data Center , Arizona State University and the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center . The aggregate data are collected from many continuously reporting fixed stations at the Earth 's surface and represent the input of approximately 6000 temperature stations , 7500 precipitation stations and 2000 pressure stations . This work has often been used as a foundation for reconstructing past global temperatures , and was used in previous versions of two of the best-known reconstructions , that prepared by the National Climatic Data Center ( NCDC ) , and that prepared by NASA as its Goddard Institute for Space Studies ( GISS ) temperature set . The average temperature record is 60 years long with ~ 1650 records greater than 100 years and ~ 220 greater than 150 years ( based on GHCN v2 in 2006 ) . The earliest data included in the database were collected in 1697 .","qid":"2794","docid":"Global_Historical_Climatology_Network","rank":32,"score":111842},{"content":"Title: Revelle factor Content: The Revelle factor ( buffer factor ) is the ratio of instantaneous change in carbon dioxide to the change in total dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) , and is a measure of the resistance to atmospheric CO2 being absorbed by the ocean surface layer . The buffer factor is used to examine the distribution of CO2 between the atmosphere and the ocean , and measures the amount of CO2 that can be dissolved in the mixed surface layer . It is named after the oceanographer Roger Revelle , who was one of the first scientists to study global warming . Revelle factor = / ( Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- ) where DIC is dissolved inorganic carbon . Δ -LSB- -RSB- / -LSB- -RSB- is the instantaneous change in p and Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- is the instantaneous change in DIC .","qid":"2794","docid":"Revelle_factor","rank":33,"score":111840},{"content":"Title: Michael Schlesinger Content: Dr. Michael Earl Schlesinger ( born February 23 , 1943 ) is a Professor of Atmospheric Sciences and director of the Climate Research Group at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign . He received his Ph.D. ( meteorology ) in 1976 from the University of California , Los Angeles . Michael Schlesinger is an expert in the modeling , simulation and analysis of climate and climate change , with interests in simulating and understanding the climates of the geologic past and possible future climates resulting from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases and human-made aerosols . He has been instrumental in developing a range of simple and complex climate models , which have been used by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and the Energy Modeling Forum . His research currently focuses on : ( 1 ) simulating and understanding the effects on climate of a human-induced melting of the Greenland ice sheet ; ( 2 ) simulating and understanding the coupled climate-chemistry system , including the influences of the Sun - both irradiance and energetic electron precipitation - and volcanoes ; ( 3 ) understanding and reducing the uncertainty in the estimation of climate sensitivity and climate feedbacks ; and ( 4 ) performing integrative assessment of climate change , including further development of the robust adaptive decision strategy for mitigating and adapting to human-induced climate change . He is known for his work on oscillations in the global climate system , on estimating the climate sensitivity , and on seasonal climate change . He has edited four books , most recently Human-induced climate change : An interdisciplinary assessment . He regularly appears in the media .","qid":"2794","docid":"Michael_Schlesinger","rank":34,"score":111069},{"content":"Title: Severinghaus electrode Content: The Severinghaus electrode is an electrode that measures carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . It was developed by Dr. John W. Severinghaus and his technician A. Freeman Bradley in 1958 . It utilizes a CO2-sensitive glass electrode in a surrounding film of bicarbonate solution covered by a thin plastic carbon dioxide permeable membrane , but impermeable to water and electrolytic solutes . The carbon dioxide pressure of a sample gas or liquid equilibrates through the membrane and the glass electrode measures the resulting pH of the bicarbonate solution .","qid":"2794","docid":"Severinghaus_electrode","rank":35,"score":111000},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide removal Content: Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions .","qid":"2794","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_removal","rank":36,"score":110784},{"content":"Title: Climate engineering Content: Climate engineering , commonly referred to as geoengineering , also known as climate intervention , is the deliberate and large-scale intervention in the Earth 's climatic system with the aim of limiting adverse global warming . Climate engineering is an umbrella term for measures that mainly fall into two types : carbon dioxide removal and solar radiation management . Carbon dioxide removal addresses the cause of global warming by removing one of the greenhouse gases ( carbon dioxide ) from the atmosphere . Solar radiation management attempts to offset effects of greenhouse gases by causing the Earth to absorb less solar radiation . Climate engineering approaches are sometimes viewed as additional potential options for limiting global warming , alongside mitigation and adaptation . There is substantial agreement among scientists that climate engineering can not substitute for climate change mitigation . Some approaches might be used as accompanying measures to sharp cuts in greenhouse gas emissions . Given that all types of measures for addressing climate change have economic , political , or physical limitations , some climate engineering approaches might eventually be used as part of an ensemble of measures . Research on costs , benefits , and various types of risks of most climate engineering approaches is at an early stage and their understanding needs to improve to judge their adequacy and feasibility . Almost all research into solar radiation management has consisted of computer modelling or laboratory tests , and an attempt to move to outdoor experimentation was controversial . Some carbon dioxide removal practices , such as planting of trees and bio-energy with carbon capture and storage projects , are underway . Their scalability to effectively affect global climate is , however , debated . Ocean iron fertilization has been given small-scale research trials , sparking substantial controversy . Most experts and major reports advise against relying on climate engineering techniques as a simple solution to global warming , in part due to the large uncertainties over effectiveness and side effects . However , most experts also argue that the risks of such interventions must be seen in the context of risks of dangerous global warming . Interventions at large scale may run a greater risk of disrupting natural systems resulting in a dilemma that those approaches that could prove highly ( cost - ) effective in addressing extreme climate risk , might themselves cause substantial risk . Some have suggested that the concept of engineering the climate presents a so-called `` moral hazard '' because it could reduce political and public pressure for emissions reduction , which could exacerbate overall climate risks ; others assert that the threat of climate engineering could spur emissions cuts . Some are in favour of a moratorium on out-of-doors testing and deployment of solar radiation management ( SRM ) .","qid":"2794","docid":"Climate_engineering","rank":37,"score":110387},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Idaho Content: Like other parts of the world , climate in Idaho has changed dramatically over the geologic history of the Earth . Paleo-climatic records give some indication of these changes . The longest instrumented records of climate in Idaho extend back to the late 1800s . Concern over human induced climate change through the emission of carbon dioxide from fossil fuels and methane from agriculture and industry , are driving research efforts across the state at university , state , and federals levels to understand what the implications of climate change could be in Idaho . In the big picture of greenhouse gas emissions , Idaho emits the least carbon dioxide per person of the United States , less than 23,000 pounds a year . It relies mostly on nonpolluting hydroelectric power from its rivers . Like other parts of the world , Idaho has seen significant temperature increases , especially in the last several decades . From 1971-2005 the average annual observed temperature in the Snake River Plain , located in southern Idaho , has increased by 1.4 degrees Celsius based on data from 10 climate stations ( Dubois , Ashton , Oakely , Pocatello , Aberdeen , Hazelton , Jerome , Boise , Nampa , and Payette ) . Statistically the increasing temperature trends are most significant in the months of January , March , and April . While precipitation has generally increased , since the early 1900s . The high variability in precipitation makes the identification of precipitation trends statistically difficult . Over the next century , climate in Idaho will experience additional changes due both to ` natural ' climate variability and due to feedbacks related to the interaction between climate variability and increasing greenhouse gases . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Idaho could increase by 5 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 9 F-change ) in winter and summer and 4 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 7 F-change ) in spring and fall . Precipitation is estimated to change little in summer , to increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and to increase by 20 % in winter ( with a range of 10-40 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .","qid":"2794","docid":"Climate_change_in_Idaho","rank":38,"score":110338},{"content":"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .","qid":"2794","docid":"Regional_effects_of_global_warming","rank":39,"score":110273},{"content":"Title: Hiroshi Kanzawa Content: Hiroshi Kanzawa ( b. January 1953 in Maebashi , Gunma Prefecture , Japan ) is a Japanese meteorologist , environmental scientist and the dean of the Graduate School of Environmental Studies at the University of Nagoya . He is perhaps best known for his onsite atmospheric work in Antarctica and the papers he has co-authored on Ozone depletion , including : `` Large stratospheric sudden warming in Antarctic late winter and shallow ozone hole in 1988 '' ( with Sadao Kamaguchi ) and `` Sensitivity Map of LAI to Precipitation and Surface Air Temperature Variations in a Global Scale '' ( co-authored with his Japanese colleague Seita Emori and Jiahua Zhang and Congbin Fu of the START , Institute of Atmospheric Physics in Beijing , China ) . Kanzawa also sits on the board of Councilors of the Hydrospheric Atmospheric Research Center at the University of Nagoya .","qid":"2794","docid":"Hiroshi_Kanzawa","rank":40,"score":110187},{"content":"Title: Climate commitment Content: Climate commitment describes the fact that climate reacts with a delay to influencing factors ( `` climate forcings '' ) such as the presence of greenhouse gases . Climate commitment studies attempt to assess the amount of future global warming that is `` committed '' under the assumption of some constant level of forcings . The constant level often used for illustrative purposes is doubling or quadrupling ; or the present level of forcing .","qid":"2794","docid":"Climate_commitment","rank":41,"score":110095},{"content":"Title: James Hansen Content: James Edward Hansen ( born 29 March 1941 ) is an American adjunct professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University . He is best known for his research in climatology , his 1988 Congressional testimony on climate change that helped raise broad awareness of global warming , and his advocacy of action to avoid dangerous climate change . In recent years he has become a climate activist to mitigate the effects of climate change , on a few occasions leading to his arrest . In 2000 , Hansen advanced an alternative view of global warming over the last 100 years , arguing that during that time frame the negative forcing via aerosols and the positive forcing via largely balanced each other out , and that the 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide , such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons . However , even then he wrote `` the future balance of forcings is likely to shift toward dominance of CO2 over aerosols ''","qid":"2794","docid":"James_Hansen","rank":42,"score":109658},{"content":"Title: Atmospheric temperature Content: Atmospheric temperature is a measure of temperature at different levels of the Earth 's atmosphere . It is governed by many factors , including incoming solar radiation , humidity and altitude . When discussing surface temperature , the annual atmospheric temperature range at any geographical location depends largely upon the type of biome , as measured by the Köppen climate classification .","qid":"2794","docid":"Atmospheric_temperature","rank":43,"score":108728},{"content":"Title: Chicago Climate Exchange Content: The Chicago Climate Exchange ( CCX ) was North America 's only voluntary , legally binding greenhouse gas ( GHG ) reduction and trading system for emission sources and offset projects in North America and Brazil . CCX employed independent verification , included six greenhouse gases , and traded greenhouse gas emission allowances from 2003 to 2010 . The companies joining the exchange committed to reducing their aggregate emissions by 6 % by 2010 . CCX had an aggregate baseline of 680 million metric tons of CO2 equivalent . CCX ceased trading carbon credits at the end of 2010 due to inactivity in the U.S. carbon markets , although carbon exchanges were intended to still be facilitated .","qid":"2794","docid":"Chicago_Climate_Exchange","rank":44,"score":108556},{"content":"Title: Kenneth Hare Content: Fredrick Kenneth Hare , ( February 5 , 1919 -- September 3 , 2002 ) was a Canadian climatologist and academic , who researched atmospheric carbon dioxide , climate change , drought , and arid zone climates and was a strong advocate for preserving the natural environment .","qid":"2794","docid":"Kenneth_Hare","rank":45,"score":108432},{"content":"Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .","qid":"2794","docid":"Carbon_rift","rank":46,"score":108389},{"content":"Title: Climate change feedback Content: Climate change feedback is important in the understanding of global warming because feedback processes may amplify or diminish the effect of each climate forcing , and so play an important part in determining the climate sensitivity and future climate state . Feedback in general is the process in which changing one quantity changes a second quantity , and the change in the second quantity in turn changes the first . Positive feedback amplifies the change in the first quantity while negative feedback reduces it . The term `` forcing '' means a change which may `` push '' the climate system in the direction of warming or cooling . An example of a climate forcing is increased atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases . By definition , forcings are external to the climate system while feedbacks are internal ; in essence , feedbacks represent the internal processes of the system . Some feedbacks may act in relative isolation to the rest of the climate system ; others may be tightly coupled ; hence it may be difficult to tell just how much a particular process contributes . Forcings , feedbacks and the dynamics of the climate system determine how much and how fast the climate changes . The main positive feedback in global warming is the tendency of warming to increase the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere , which in turn leads to further warming . The main negative feedback comes from the Stefan -- Boltzmann law , the amount of heat radiated from the Earth into space changes with the fourth power of the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere . Some observed and potential effects of global warming are positive feedbacks , which contribute directly to further global warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that `` Anthropogenic warming could lead to some effects that are abrupt or irreversible , depending upon the rate and magnitude of the climate change . ''","qid":"2794","docid":"Climate_change_feedback","rank":47,"score":108222},{"content":"Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .","qid":"2794","docid":"Economics_of_global_warming","rank":48,"score":108059},{"content":"Title: Kyoto Protocol Content: The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , based on the fact that ( a ) global warming exists and ( b ) human-made CO2 emissions have caused it . The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto , Japan , on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005 . There are currently 192 parties ( Canada withdrew effective December 2012 ) to the Protocol . The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to `` a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' ( Art. 2 ) . The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities : it puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . The Protocol 's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012 . A second commitment period was agreed on in 2012 , known as the Doha Amendment to the protocol , in which 37 countries have binding targets : Australia , the European Union ( and its 28 member states ) , Belarus , Iceland , Kazakhstan , Liechtenstein , Norway , Switzerland , and Ukraine . Belarus , Kazakhstan and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets . Japan , New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyoto 's first-round but have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period . Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada ( which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012 ) and the United States ( which has not ratified the Protocol ) . As of July 2016 , 66 states have accepted the Doha Amendment , while entry into force requires the acceptances of 144 states . Of the 37 countries with binding commitments , 7 have ratified . Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ends in 2020 . This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the Paris Agreement , which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto protocol .","qid":"2794","docid":"Kyoto_Protocol","rank":49,"score":107840},{"content":"Title: Mesopause Content: The mesopause is the temperature minimum at the boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere atmospheric regions . Due to the lack of solar heating and very strong radiative cooling from carbon dioxide , the mesosphere is the coldest region on Earth with temperatures as low as -100 ° C ( -148 ° F or 173 K ) . The altitude of the mesopause for many years was assumed to be at around 85 km ( 53 mi . ) , but observations to higher altitudes and modeling studies in the last 10 years have shown that in fact the mesopause consists of two minima - one at about 85 km and a stronger minimum at about 100 km . ( 62 mi . ) Another feature is that the summer mesopause is cooler than the winter ( sometimes referred to as the mesopause anomaly ) . It is due to a summer-to-winter circulation giving rise to upwelling at the summer pole and downwelling at the winter pole . Air rising will expand and cool resulting in a cold summer mesopause and conversely downwelling air results in compression and associated increase in temperature at the winter mesopause . In the mesosphere the summer-to-winter circulation is due to gravity wave dissipation , which deposits momentum against the mean east-west flow , resulting in a small north-south circulation . In recent years the mesopause has also been the focus of studies on global climate change associated with increases in CO2 . Unlike the troposphere , where greenhouse gases result in the atmosphere heating up , increased CO2 in the mesosphere acts to cool the atmosphere due to increased radiative emission . This results in a measurable effect - the mesopause should become cooler with increased CO2 . Observations do show a decrease of temperature of the mesopause , though the magnitude of this decrease varies and is subject to further study . Modeling studies of this phenomenon have also been carried out .","qid":"2794","docid":"Mesopause","rank":50,"score":107229},{"content":"Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.","qid":"2794","docid":"Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C","rank":51,"score":107183},{"content":"Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .","qid":"2794","docid":"Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean","rank":52,"score":106952},{"content":"Title: Climate Dress Content: The Climate Dress was designed in 2009 by Danish design company Diffus Design in collaboration with the Swiss embroidery company Forster-Rohner , Alexandra Institute and the Danish School of Design . The Climate Dress is laced with hundreds of light-emitting diodes ( LEDs ) that responds to the level of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) in the nearby surroundings and are powered through the conductive embroidery by an Arduino Lily pad microprocessor and a carbon dioxide detector , resulting in patterns that range from slow pulses to rapid flashes depending on the concentration of the CO2 . The Climate Dress does not rely on wiring , soldering , or crimping , which is often the case with smart textile products . All functional elements are blended into the embroidery and exposed to the viewer . The Climate Dress was presented at the Cop 15 Climate Summit in Copenhagen in 2009 , at the `` Health Environment Climate '' exhibition . In 2011 the Climate Dress won first prize in the Design That Performs contest , hosted by Samsung .","qid":"2794","docid":"Climate_Dress","rank":53,"score":106441},{"content":"Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .","qid":"2794","docid":"Atmospheric_methane","rank":54,"score":106328},{"content":"Title: Zotino Tall Tower Observation Facility Content: The Zotino Tall Tower Observation Facility ( ZOTTO ) is a climatic research station in the Siberian taiga in the proximity of Zotino , Russia , established and operated by the Max Planck Society and the Sukachev Institute of Forest , it serves as a long-term observing platform to be operated for at least 30 years . Far from human influences , researchers aim to determine how the concentration of greenhouse gases , aerosols , and the rising temperatures of the terrestrial atmosphere affect each other mutually . The heart of the station is a 302 m tower on which precision instruments measure the concentration of carbon dioxide , methane and other greenhouse gases . The measurement data are processed directly in the station at the foot of the tower and then transferred to the Institute of Forest , in Krasnoyarsk , Russia , as well as to the Max Planck Institute for Biogeochemistry in Jena , Germany . The station has been operational since September 2006 . It extended the project Terrestrial Carbon Observing System and was funded by the 5th framework programme of the European Union , uniting 8 European and 4 Russian partners . A main conclusion of the project is that Siberian forests constitute a substantially smaller carbon-sink than so far assumed .","qid":"2794","docid":"Zotino_Tall_Tower_Observation_Facility","rank":55,"score":106323},{"content":"Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .","qid":"2794","docid":"History_of_climate_change_science","rank":56,"score":105959},{"content":"Title: Atmosphere of Earth Content: The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases , commonly known as air , that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity . The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation , warming the surface through heat retention ( greenhouse effect ) , and reducing temperature extremes between day and night ( the diurnal temperature variation ) . By volume , dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen , 20.95 % oxygen , 0.93 % argon , 0.04 % carbon dioxide , and small amounts of other gases . Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor , on average around 1 % at sea level , and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere . Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers , and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres . The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 kg , three quarters of which is within about 11 km of the surface . The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude , with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space . The Kármán line , at 100 km , or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius , is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space . Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km . Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere , based on characteristics such as temperature and composition . The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science ( aerology ) . Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann .","qid":"2794","docid":"Atmosphere_of_Earth","rank":57,"score":105850},{"content":"Title: Wetland methane emissions Content: As one of the most significant natural sources of atmospheric methane , wetlands remain a major area of concern with respect to climate change . Wetlands are characterized by water-logged soils and distinctive communities of plant and animal species that have evolved and adapted to the constant presence of water . Due to this high level of water saturation as well as warm weather , wetlands are one of the most significant natural sources of atmospheric methane . Most methanogenesis , or methane production , occurs in oxygen-poor environments . Because the microbes that live in warm , moist environments consume oxygen more rapidly than it can diffuse in from the atmosphere , wetlands are the ideal anaerobic , or oxygen poor , environments for fermentation . Fermentation is a process used by certain kinds of microorganisms to break down essential nutrients . In a process called acetoclastic methanogenesis , microorganisms from the classification domain archaea produce methane by fermenting acetate and H2-CO2 into methane and carbon dioxide . H3C-COOH → CH4 + CO2 Depending on the wetland and type of archaea , hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis , another process that yields methane , can also occur . This process occurs as a result of archaea oxidizing hydrogen with carbon dioxide to yield methane and water . 4H2 + CO2 → CH4 + 2H2O","qid":"2794","docid":"Wetland_methane_emissions","rank":58,"score":105431},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide clathrate Content: Carbon dioxide hydrate is a snow-like crystalline substance composed of water ice and carbon dioxide . It normally is a Type I gas clathrate . However , there has been some experimental evidence for the development of a metastable Type II phase at A temperature near the ice melting point . The clathrate can exist below 283K ( 10 ° C ) at a range of pressures of carbon dioxide . It is quite likely to be important on Mars due to the presence of carbon dioxide and ice at low temperatures .","qid":"2794","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_clathrate","rank":59,"score":105422},{"content":"Title: Cobalt(II) fluoride Content: Cobalt ( II ) fluoride is a chemical compound with the formula ( CoF2 ) . It is a pink crystalline solid compound which is antiferromagnetic at low temperatures ( TN = 37.7 K ) The formula is given for both the red tetragonal crystal , ( CoF2 ) , and the tetrahydrate red orthogonal crystal , ( CoF2 · 4H2O ) . CoF2 is used in oxygen-sensitive fields , namely metal production . In low concentrations , it has public health uses . CoF2 is sparingly soluble in water . The compound can be dissolved in warm mineral acid , and will decompose in boiling water . Yet the hydrate is water-soluble , especially the di-hydrate CoF2 · 2H2 O and tri-hydrate CoF2 · 3H2O forms of the compound . The hydrate will also decompose with heat .","qid":"2794","docid":"Cobalt(II)_fluoride","rank":60,"score":105391},{"content":"Title: Croconic acid Content: Croconic acid or 4,5-dihydroxycyclopentenetrione is a chemical compound with formula C5H2O5 or ( C =O ) 3 ( COH ) 2 . It has a cyclopentene backbone with two hydroxyl groups adjacent to the double bond and three ketone groups on the remaining carbon atoms . It is sensitive to light , soluble in water and ethanol and forms yellow crystals that decompose at 212 ° C. The compound is acidic and loses the hydrogen cations H + from the hydroxyls ( pK1 = 0.80 ± 0.08 and pK2 = 2.24 ± 0.01 at 25 ° C ) . The resulting anions , hydrogencroconate C5HO5 − and croconate C5O52 − are also quite stable . The croconate ion , in particular , is aromatic and symmetric , as the double bond and the negative charges become delocalized over the five CO units . The lithium , sodium and potassium croconates crystallize from water as dihydrates but the orange potassium salt can be dehydrated to form a monohydrate . The croconates of ammonium , rubidium and caesium crystallize in the anhydrous form . Salts of barium , lead , silver , etc. are also known . Croconic acid also forms ethers such as dimethyl croconate where the hydrogen atom of the hydroxyl group is substituted with an alkyl group .","qid":"2794","docid":"Croconic_acid","rank":61,"score":105221},{"content":"Title: Mary Christina Wood Content: Mary Christina Wood ( born 1962 ) is an Oregon Philip H. Knight Professor of Law and author , best known for her writings advocating for the use of the Public trust doctrine to compel government action on climate change . Wood originated the approach , called atmospheric trust litigation , `` to hold governments worldwide accountable for reducing carbon pollution within their jurisdictions , and her research is being used in cases and petitions brought on behalf of children and youth throughout the United States and in other countries . '' In 2014 , after a number of atmospheric trust litigation and petitions were brought by young people worldwide , Forbes contributor James Conca wrote , '' ( i ) f the Supreme Court holds the government responsible for at least trying to protect our atmosphere , things could certainly change here in America . ''","qid":"2794","docid":"Mary_Christina_Wood","rank":62,"score":104818},{"content":"Title: Cloud feedback Content: Cloud feedback is the coupling between cloudiness and surface air temperature where a surface air temperature change leads to a change in clouds , which could then amplify or diminish the initial temperature perturbation . Cloud feedbacks can affect the magnitude of internally generated climate variability or they can affect the magnitude of climate change resulting from external radiative forcings . Global warming is expected to change the distribution and type of clouds . Seen from below , clouds emit infrared radiation back to the surface , and so exert a warming effect ; seen from above , clouds reflect sunlight and emit infrared radiation to space , and so exert a cooling effect . Cloud representations vary among global climate models , and small changes in cloud cover have a large impact on the climate . Differences in planetary boundary layer cloud modeling schemes can lead to large differences in derived values of climate sensitivity . A model that decreases boundary layer clouds in response to global warming has a climate sensitivity twice that of a model that does not include this feedback . However , satellite data show that cloud optical thickness actually increases with increasing temperature . Whether the net effect is warming or cooling depends on details such as the type and altitude of the cloud ; details that are difficult to represent in climate models .","qid":"2794","docid":"Cloud_feedback","rank":63,"score":104490},{"content":"Title: Bosch reaction Content: The Bosch reaction is a chemical reaction between carbon dioxide and hydrogen that produces elemental carbon ( graphite ) , water , and a 10 % return of invested heat . It is named after the German chemist Carl Bosch . This reaction requires the introduction of iron as a catalyst and requires a temperature level of 530-730 degrees Celsius . The overall reaction is as follows : CO2 ( g ) + 2 H2 ( g ) → C ( s ) + 2 H2O ( g ) The above reaction is actually the result of two reactions . The first reaction , the reverse water gas shift reaction , is a fast one : CO2 + H2 → CO + H2O The second reaction controls the reaction rate : CO + H2 → C + H2O The overall reaction produces 2.3 × 103 joules for every gram of carbon dioxide reacted at 650 ° C. Reaction temperatures are in the range of 450 to 600 ° C. The reaction can be accelerated in the presence of an iron , cobalt or nickel catalyst . Ruthenium also serves to speed up the reaction . Together with the Sabatier reaction , the Bosch reaction is studied as a way to remove carbon dioxide and to generate clean water aboard a space station . The reaction is also used to produce graphite for radiocarbon dating with Accelerator Mass Spectrometry . The Bosch reaction is being investigated for use in maintaining space station life support . Though the Bosch reaction would present a completely closed hydrogen and oxygen cycle which only produces atomic carbon as waste , difficulties in maintaining its higher required temperature and properly handling carbon deposits mean that significantly more research will be required before a Bosch reactor can become a reality . One problem is that the production of elemental carbon tends to foul the catalyst 's surface , which is detrimental to the reaction 's efficiency .","qid":"2794","docid":"Bosch_reaction","rank":64,"score":104331},{"content":"Title: Climate change and potatoes Content: Global warming is predicted to have significant effects on global potato production . Like many crops , potatoes are likely to be affected by changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide , temperature and precipitation , as well as interactions between these factors . As well as affecting potatoes directly , climate change will also affect the distributions and populations of many potato diseases and pests . Potato is one of the world 's most important food crops . Potato production must be adapted to climate change to avoid reductions in crop yields .","qid":"2794","docid":"Climate_change_and_potatoes","rank":65,"score":104296},{"content":"Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .","qid":"2794","docid":"Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact","rank":66,"score":104243},{"content":"Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .","qid":"2794","docid":"Carbon_neutrality","rank":67,"score":104234},{"content":"Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .","qid":"2794","docid":"Low-carbon_economy","rank":68,"score":104119},{"content":"Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .","qid":"2794","docid":"Attribution_of_recent_climate_change","rank":69,"score":104099},{"content":"Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .","qid":"2794","docid":"Low-carbon_emission","rank":70,"score":103860},{"content":"Title: Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals Content: Climate change has had a significant direct effect on terrestrial animals , by being a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction . The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago . This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles . Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history . However , with the recent increased emission of CO2 in the Earth 's atmosphere , abrupt climate change has occurred . It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present ( Van Hoof 2006 ) . Animals have had specific responses to climate change . Species respond to climate changes by migration , adaptation , or if neither of those occur , death . These migrations can sometimes follow an animal 's preferred temperature , elevation , soil , etc. , as said terrain moves due to climate change . Adaptation can be either genetic or phenological , and death can occur in a local population only ( extirpation ) or as an entire species , otherwise known as extinction . Climate changes is projected to affect individual organisms , populations , species distributions and ecosystem composition and function both directly ( ex . Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation ) and indirectly ( through climate changing the intensity and frequency of disturbances such as wildfires and severe storms ) ( IPCC 2002 ) . Every organism has a unique set of preferences or requirements , a niche and biodiversity has been tied to the diversity of animals ' niches . These can include or be affected by temperature , aridity , resource availability , habitat requirements , enemies , soil characteristics , competitors , and pollinators . Since the factors that compose a niche can be so complex and interconnected , the niches of many animals are bound to be affected by climate change ( Parmesan Yohe 2003 ) . One study done by Camille Parmesan and Gary Yohe from University of Texas , Austin shows the global fingerprint of climate change on natural systems . The results of their global analysis of 334 species were recorded to demonstrate the correlation of patterns consistent with global climate change of the 20th century . Using the IPCC 's ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) ` levels of confidence ' , this study proved significant nonrandom behavioral changes due to global climate change with very high confidence ( > 95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change .","qid":"2794","docid":"Effects_of_climate_change_on_terrestrial_animals","rank":71,"score":103312},{"content":"Title: Cap carbonate Content: Cap carbonates are layers of distinctively textured carbonate rocks which typically form the uppermost layer of sedimentary sequences reflecting major glaciations in the geological record . The rising temperatures , and increased oceanic surface area - due to reduced ice cover and rising sea levels - at the end of a glaciation increase the rate of precipitation . High concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) must build up in the atmosphere to overcome the effect of the high reflectivity ( albedo ) of ice and allow temperatures to rise sufficiently to begin melting . Increased precipitation dissolves carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , falling as a weak carbonic acid - acid rain . This would weather exposed silicate and carbonate rock , including readily-attacked glacial debris , which would release large amounts of calcium . When washed into the ocean , these precipitate to form distinctively textured layers of carbonate sedimentary rock . A heavily debated cap carbonate appears at the top of the Gaskiers glaciation , believed by many to be global in extent .","qid":"2794","docid":"Cap_carbonate","rank":72,"score":103003},{"content":"Title: Seita Emori Content: Seita Emori ( born 1970 in Kanagawa , Japan ) is a Japanese environmental scientist whose most noted work focuses upon the worldwide effects of Global Warming . He completed his Doctorate at the University of Tokyo in 1997 and thereafter joined the National Institute of Environmental Studies , Japan where he is currently the Chief of the Climate Risk Assessment Research Section at the Center for Global Environmental Research . Emori is a contributing author to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and a member of the IPCC Steering Committee for the `` Expert Meeting on New Scenarios '' , for which the IPCC received a Noble Prize in 2007 . Among Emori 's publications are the academic paper `` Sensitivity Map of LAI to Precipitation and Surface Air Temperature Variations in a Global Scale '' ( co-authored with his Japans colleague Hiroshi Kanzawa and Jiahua Zhang and Congbin Fu of the START , Institute of Atmospheric Physics in Beijing , China ) .","qid":"2794","docid":"Seita_Emori","rank":73,"score":102802},{"content":"Title: Climate change in the United Kingdom Content: Climate change in the United Kingdom has been a subject of protests and controversies and various policies have been developed to mitigate its effects . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . The UK Government has a commitment to reduce CO2 equivalent emissions by 80 % on 1990 levels by 2025 and by 50 % on 1990 levels by 2050 .","qid":"2794","docid":"Climate_change_in_the_United_Kingdom","rank":74,"score":102612},{"content":"Title: Evangelical Climate Initiative Content: The Evangelical Climate Initiative ( ECI ) is a campaign by US-American church leaders and organizations to promote market based mechanisms to mitigate global warming . ECI 's first statement , calling for reductions in carbon dioxide emissions , was initially signed by 86 evangelical leaders . Signatories included Rick Warren , the presidents of 39 evangelical colleges , and the leader of the Salvation Army . The number of signatories had risen to over 100 by December 2007 , and as of July 2011 over 220 evangelical leaders had signed the call to action . David P. Gushee , a professor of Christian ethics at Mercer University , helped draft the document . When the Evangelical Climate Initiative launched in February 2006 , the National Association of Evangelicals ( NAE ) was not ready to make such a commitment . Not quite a year later , the NAE worked with the Center for Health and the Global Environment at Harvard Medical School to bring scientists and evangelical Christian leaders together to mitigate climate change . As ABC News reported :","qid":"2794","docid":"Evangelical_Climate_Initiative","rank":75,"score":102480},{"content":"Title: Bomb pulse Content: The bomb pulse is the sudden increase of carbon-14 ( 14C ) in the Earth 's atmosphere due to the hundreds of aboveground nuclear bombs tests started in 1945 and intensified between 1950 until 1963 when the Limited Test Ban Treaty was signed by the United States , the Soviet Union and Great Britain . These hundreds of blasts were followed by a doubling of the concentration of 14C in the atmosphere . Since then , the concentration of 14C has decreased towards the previous level . Carbon-14 , the radioisotope of carbon-12 , is naturally developed in trace amounts in the atmosphere and it can be detected in all living organisms . Carbon of all types is continually used to form the molecules of the cells of organisms . Doubling of the concentration of 14C in the atmosphere is reflected in the tissues and cells of all organisms that lived around the period of nuclear testing . This property has many applications in the fields of biology and forensics .","qid":"2794","docid":"Bomb_pulse","rank":76,"score":102197},{"content":"Title: Central chemoreceptors Content: Central chemoreceptors of the central nervous system , located on the ventrolateral medullary surface in the vicinity of the exit of the 9th and 10th cranial nerves , are sensitive to the pH of their environment . These act to detect the changes in pH of nearby cerebrospinal fluid ( CSF ) that are indicative of altered oxygen or carbon dioxide concentrations available to brain tissues . An increase in carbon dioxide causes tension of the arteries , often resulting from decreased CO2 output ( hypercapnia ) , indirectly causes the blood to become more acidic ; the cerebrospinal fluid pH is closely comparable to plasma , as carbon dioxide easily diffuses across the blood -- brain barrier . However , a change in plasma pH alone will not stimulate central chemoreceptors as H + are not able to diffuse across the blood -- brain barrier into the CSF . Only CO2 levels affect this as it can diffuse across , reacting with H2O to form carbonic acid and thus decrease pH. Central chemoreception remains , in this way , distinct from peripheral chemoreceptors . The central chemoreception system has also been shown experimentally to respond to hypercapnic hypoxia ( elevated CO2 , decreased O2 ) and aqueous sodium cyanide injection into the whole animal and in vitro slice preparation . These methods can be used to mimic some forms of hypoxic hypoxia and they are currently being studied including the detection of variation in arterial CO2 tension acting as a quick-response-system for short term ( or emergency ) regulation . This system utilizes a negative feedback system , therefore if the pH of the cerebral spinal fluid does not compare to an ideal `` set '' level , then the receptor will send an error signal to the effectors and appropriate action may be executed . Peripheral chemoreceptors ( carotid and aortic bodies ) and central chemoreceptors ( medullary neurons ) primarily function to regulate respiratory activity . This is an important mechanism for maintaining arterial blood pO2 , pCO2 , and pH within appropriate physiological ranges . For example , a fall in arterial pO2 ( hypoxemia ) or an increase in arterial pCO2 ( hypercapnia ) leads to an increase in the rate and depth of respiration through activation of the chemoreceptor reflex . Chemoreceptor activity , however , also affects cardiovascular function either directly ( by interacting with medullary vasomotor centers ) or indirectly ( via altered pulmonary stretch receptor activity ) . Respiratory arrest and circulatory shock ( these conditions decrease arterial pO2 and pH , and increase arterial pCO2 ) dramatically increase chemoreceptor activity leading to enhanced sympathetic outflow to the heart and vasculature via activation of the vasomotor center in the medulla .","qid":"2794","docid":"Central_chemoreceptors","rank":77,"score":102034},{"content":"Title: Tom Wigley Content: Tom Wigley is a climate scientist at the University of Adelaide . He is also affiliated with the University Corporation for Atmospheric Research ( UCAR ) . He was named a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science ( AAAS ) for his major contributions to climate and carbon cycle modeling and to climate data analysis , and because he is `` one of the world 's foremost experts on climate change and one of the most highly cited scientists in the discipline . '' His h-index ( August 2014 ) is 64 , one of the highest in the discipline . He contributed to many of the reports published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( the work of the IPCC , including the contributions of many scientists , was recognised by the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize ) . Wigley was educated as a mathematical physicist and earned his doctorate at the University of Adelaide in Australia . He served as director of the Climatic Research Unit at the University of East Anglia in the United Kingdom from 1978 to 1993 . In 1993 he went on to the National Center for Atmospheric Research in Boulder , Colorado , where he was appointed a senior scientist in 1994 . He subsequently moved to the University of Adelaide where he currently ( 2014 ) holds a Professorial Fellowship . His published papers include the first paper to demonstrate 20th century warming using both land and marine data , the first paper to include the effects of aerosol cooling on projections of future climate change , the first paper to provide realistic scenarios for the stabilization of atmospheric CO2 , and the first paper to use pattern-based methods to identify a significant human influence on the climate . Wigley has also published a number of highly cited papers in aqueous geochemistry , including a now-standard method for carbon dating of groundwater . Wigley has argued in the popular media that the IPCC has been too optimistic about the prospect of averting harmful climate change by reducing greenhouse emissions through the use of renewable technologies alone , and argued that any realistic portfolio must include significant contributions from nuclear energy . He has also pointed out that `` the human-induced changes that are expected over the next 100 years are much , much greater than any changes that societies experienced in the past . '' In 2013 , with other leading experts , he was co-author of an open letter to policy makers , which stated that `` continued opposition to nuclear power threatens humanity 's ability to avoid dangerous climate change . ''","qid":"2794","docid":"Tom_Wigley","rank":78,"score":101952},{"content":"Title: Idealized greenhouse model Content: The surface of the Sun radiates light and heat at approximately 5,500 ° C . The Earth is much cooler and so radiates heat back away from itself at much longer wavelengths , mostly in the infrared range . The idealized greenhouse model is based on the fact that certain gases in the Earth 's atmosphere , including carbon dioxide and water vapour , are transparent to the high-frequency , high-energy solar radiation , but are much more opaque to the lower frequency infrared radiation leaving the surface of the earth . Thus heat is easily let in , but is partially trapped by these gases as it tries to leave . Rather than get hotter and hotter , Kirchhoff 's law of thermal radiation says that the gases of the atmosphere also have to re-emit the infrared energy that they absorb , and they do so , also at long infrared wavelengths , both upwards into space as well as downwards back towards the Earth 's surface . In the long-term , thermal equilibrium is reached when all the heat energy arriving on the planet is leaving again at the same rate . In this idealized model , the greenhouse gases cause the surface of the planet to be warmer than it would be without them , in order for the required amount of heat energy finally to be radiated out into space from the top of the atmosphere . The greenhouse effect can be illustrated with an idealized planet . This is a common `` textbook model '' : the planet will have a constant surface temperature Ts and an atmosphere with constant temperature Ta . For diagrammatic clarity , a gap can be depicted between the atmosphere and the surface . Alternatively , Ts could be interpreted as a temperature representative of the surface and the lower atmosphere , and Ta could be interpreted as the temperature of the upper atmosphere . In order to justify that Ta and Ts remain constant over the planet , strong ocean and atmospheric currents can be imagined to provide plentiful lateral mixing . Furthermore , any daily or seasonal cycles in temperature are assumed to be insignificant .","qid":"2794","docid":"Idealized_greenhouse_model","rank":79,"score":101755},{"content":"Title: Atmosphere of Pluto Content: The atmosphere of Pluto is the tenuous layer of gases surrounding Pluto . It consists mainly of nitrogen ( N2 ) , with minor amounts of methane ( CH4 ) and carbon monoxide ( CO ) , all of which are vaporized from their ices on Pluto 's surface . It contains layered haze , probably consisting of heavier compounds which form from these gases due to high-energy radiation . The atmosphere of Pluto is notable for its strong and not completely clear seasonal changes caused by peculiarities of the orbital and axial rotation of Pluto . Surface pressure of the atmosphere of Pluto , measured by New Horizons in 2015 , is about , roughly 100,000 times less than Earth 's atmospheric pressure . Temperature on the surface is 40 to , but it quickly grows with altitude due to methane-generated greenhouse effect . Near the altitude it reaches 110 K , and then slowly decreases . Pluto is the only trans-Neptunian object with a known atmosphere . Its closest analog is the atmosphere of Triton , although in some aspects it resembles even the atmosphere of Mars . The atmosphere of Pluto has been studied since the 1980s by way of earth-based observation of occultations of stars by Pluto and spectroscopy . In 2015 , it was studied from a close distance by the spacecraft New Horizons .","qid":"2794","docid":"Atmosphere_of_Pluto","rank":80,"score":101714},{"content":"Title: Timothy Ball Content: Timothy Francis `` Tim '' Ball ( born November 5 , 1938 ) is a Canadian geographer . A retired professor , he taught in the department of geography at the University of Winnipeg from 1971 until 1996 . Ball rejects the scientific opinion on climate change , stating that `` CO2 is not a greenhouse gas . '' He has worked with the Friends of Science and the Natural Resources Stewardship Project , and is a research fellow at the Frontier Centre for Public Policy .","qid":"2794","docid":"Timothy_Ball","rank":81,"score":101668},{"content":"Title: Climate change in China Content: The position of the Chinese government on climate change is contentious . China has ratified the Kyoto Protocol , but as a non-Annex I country which is not required to limit greenhouse gas emissions under terms of the agreement . In particular since 2007 the Chinese government has n't changed its attitude towards climate change policy and has become one of the major drivers of low-carbon technology developments . In 2002 , on the basis of an analysis of fossil fuel consumption ( including especially the coal power plants ) and cement production data , that China surpassed the United States as the world 's largest emitter of carbon dioxide , putting out 7,000 million tonnes , in comparison with America 's 5,800 million . According to data from the US Energy Information Administration China was the top emitter by fossil fuels CO2 in 2009 China : 7,710 million tonnes ( mt ) ( 25.4 % ) ahead of US : 5,420 mt ( 17.8 % ) , India : 5.3 % , Russia : 5.2 % and Japan : 3.6 % . China was also the top emitter of all greenhouse gas emissions including building and deforestation in 2005 : China : 7,220 mt ( 16.4 % ) , US : 6,930 mt ( 15.7 % ) , 3 . Brazil 6.5 % , 4 . Indonesia : 4.6 % , 5 . Russia 4.6 % , 6 . India 4.2 % , 7 . Japan 3.1 % , 8 . Germany 2.3 % , 9 . Canada 1.8 % , and 10 . Mexico 1.6 % . In the cumulative emissions between 1850 and 2007 the top emitters were : 1 . US 28.8 % 2 . China : 9.0 % , 3 . Russia 8.0 % , 4 . Germany 6.9 % , 5 . UK 5.8 % , 6 . Japan 3.9 % , 7 . France 2.8 % , 8 . India 2.4 % , 9 . Canada 2.2 % and 10 . Ukraine 2.2 % . According to BBC News , in September 2014 , China surpassed the European Union 's per capita carbon emissions for the first time in history . China 's per capita carbon emissions now stand at 7.2 t/capita . China 's carbon emissions have increased rapidly since its economic boom in the early 2000s . Since then , their per capita carbon emissions have increased by more than 2.5 times .","qid":"2794","docid":"Climate_change_in_China","rank":82,"score":101499},{"content":"Title: EU Allowances Content: EU Allowances are Climate credits ( or Carbon credits ) used in the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme ( EU ETS ) . EU Allowances are issued by the EU Member States into Member State Registry accounts . By April 30 of each year , operators of installations covered by the EU ETS must surrender an EU Allowance for each ton of CO2 emitted in the previous year . Category : Carbon emissions in the European Union","qid":"2794","docid":"EU_Allowances","rank":83,"score":101464},{"content":"Title: Carbon price Content: Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' . Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain . The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions . The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations .","qid":"2794","docid":"Carbon_price","rank":84,"score":101354},{"content":"Title: Peter Thejll Content: Peter Andreas Thejll ( born 1956 ) is a Danish astrophysicist and climate researcher . His research in solar variation helped provide evidence of the greenhouse effect on the Earth 's climate in the late 20th century . In particular , his study with Knud Lassen on Northern Hemisphere land air temperature showed that the rise of 0.4 degrees Celsius since 1980 could not be accounted for by the solar cycle . Climatologists have pointed to this finding as an `` actual piece of evidence for greenhouse warming '' . Thejll received his undergraduate education at the University of Copenhagen . He received an M.S. in physics and a Ph.D. in astrophysics from the University of Delaware . Thejll was a Carlsberg Fellow at the Niels Bohr Institute and worked at the Nordic Institute for Theoretical Physics . Thejll currently is a senior scientist at the Danish Meteorological Institute in Copenhagen . He is currently involved in the creation of a global automatic system to observe the Earth 's reflectivity - albedo - using observations of the earthshine on the Moon . Such data can be used for climate change studies and calibration of satellite data as the measurements deliver independent data on the albedo . A telescope is now installed on Hawaii at the Mauna Loa Observatory . The Swedish research agency VINNOVA is funding this project .","qid":"2794","docid":"Peter_Thejll","rank":85,"score":101115},{"content":"Title: Atmosphere of Venus Content: The atmosphere of Venus is the layer of gases surrounding Venus . It is composed primarily of carbon dioxide and is much denser and hotter than that of Earth . The temperature at the surface is 740 K ( 467 ° C , 872 ° F ) , and the pressure is 93 bar ( 9.3 MPa ) , roughly the pressure found 900 m underwater on Earth . The Venusian atmosphere supports opaque clouds made of sulfuric acid , making optical Earth-based and orbital observation of the surface impossible . Information about the topography has been obtained exclusively by radar imaging . Aside from carbon dioxide , the other main component is nitrogen . Other chemical compounds are present only in trace amounts . Mikhail Lomonosov was the first person to hypothesize the existence of an atmosphere on Venus based on his observation of the transit of Venus of 1761 in a small observatory near his house in Saint Petersburg , Russia . Aside from the very surface layers , the atmosphere is in a state of vigorous circulation . The upper layer of troposphere exhibits a phenomenon of super-rotation , in which the atmosphere circles the planet in just four Earth days , much faster than the planet 's sidereal day of 243 days . The winds supporting super-rotation blow at a speed of 100 m/s ( ~ 360 km/h or 220 mph ) or more . Winds move at up to 60 times the speed of the planet 's rotation , while Earth 's fastest winds are only 10 % to 20 % rotation speed . On the other hand , the wind speed becomes increasingly slower as the elevation from the surface decreases , with the breeze barely reaching the speed of 10 km/h ( 2.8 m/s ) on the surface . Near the poles are anticyclonic structures called polar vortices . Each vortex is double-eyed and shows a characteristic S-shaped pattern of clouds . Above there is an intermediate layer of mesosphere which separates the troposphere from the thermosphere . The thermosphere is also characterized by strong circulation , but very different in its nature - the gases heated and partially ionized by sunlight in the sunlit hemisphere migrate to the dark hemisphere where they recombine and downwell . Unlike Earth , Venus lacks a magnetic field . Its ionosphere separates the atmosphere from outer space and the solar wind . This ionised layer excludes the solar magnetic field , giving Venus a distinct magnetic environment . This is considered Venus 's induced magnetosphere . Lighter gases , including water vapour , are continuously blown away by the solar wind through the induced magnetotail . It is speculated that the atmosphere of Venus up to around 4 billion years ago was more like that of the Earth with liquid water on the surface . A runaway greenhouse effect may have been caused by the evaporation of the surface water and subsequent rise of the levels of other greenhouse gases . Despite the harsh conditions on the surface , the atmospheric pressure and temperature at about 50 km to 65 km above the surface of the planet is nearly the same as that of the Earth , making its upper atmosphere the most Earth-like area in the Solar System , even more so than the surface of Mars . Due to the similarity in pressure and temperature and the fact that breathable air ( 21 % oxygen , 78 % nitrogen ) is a lifting gas on Venus in the same way that helium is a lifting gas on Earth , the upper atmosphere has been proposed as a location for both exploration and colonization . On January 29 , 2013 , ESA scientists reported that the ionosphere of the planet Venus streams outwards in a manner similar to `` the ion tail seen streaming from a comet under similar conditions . ''","qid":"2794","docid":"Atmosphere_of_Venus","rank":86,"score":101066},{"content":"Title: The Climate Registry Content: The Climate Registry ( TCR ) is a non-profit organization governed by U.S. states and Canadian provinces and territories . TCR designs and operates voluntary and compliance greenhouse gas ( GHG ) reporting programs globally , and assists organizations in measuring , reporting and verifying the carbon in their operations in order to manage and reduce it . TCR also consults with governments nationally and internationally on all aspects of GHG measurement , reporting , and verification .","qid":"2794","docid":"The_Climate_Registry","rank":87,"score":100989},{"content":"Title: Atmospheric Infrared Sounder Content: The Atmospheric Infrared Sounder ( AIRS ) is one of six instruments flying on board NASA 's Aqua satellite , launched on May 4 , 2002 . The instrument is designed to support climate research and improve weather forecasting . Working in combination with its partner microwave instrument , the Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit ( AMSU-A ) , AIRS observes the global water and energy cycles , climate variation and trends , and the response of the climate system to increased greenhouse gases . AIRS uses infrared technology to create three-dimensional maps of air and surface temperature , water vapor , and cloud properties . AIRS can also measure trace greenhouse gases such as ozone , carbon monoxide , carbon dioxide , and methane . AIRS and AMSU-A share the Aqua satellite with the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer ( MODIS ) , Clouds and the Earth 's Radiant Energy System ( CERES ) , and the Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer-EOS ( AMSR-E ) . Aqua is part of NASA 's `` A-train , '' a series of high-inclination , Sun-synchronous satellites in low Earth orbit designed to make long-term global observations of the land surface , biosphere , solid Earth , atmosphere , and ocean . AIRS data is free and available to the public through the Goddard Earth Sciences Data Information and Services Center . NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena , California , manages AIRS for NASA 's Science Mission Directorate in Washington , D.C.","qid":"2794","docid":"Atmospheric_Infrared_Sounder","rank":88,"score":100980},{"content":"Title: Vatican Climate Forest Content: The Vatican Climate Forest , to be located in the Bükk National Park , Hungary , was donated to the Vatican City by a carbon offsetting company . The forest is to be sized to offset the carbon emissions generated by the Vatican during 2007 . The Vatican 's acceptance of the offer , at a ceremony on July 5 , 2007 , was reported as being `` purely symbolic '' , and a way to encourage Catholics to do more to safeguard the planet . No trees have been planted under the project and the carbon offsets have not materialised . In a more effective move to combat global warming , in May 2007 , the Vatican announced that the roof of the Paul VI Audience Hall would be covered with photovoltaic panels . The installation was officially placed into service on November 26 , 2008 .","qid":"2794","docid":"Vatican_Climate_Forest","rank":89,"score":100695},{"content":"Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .","qid":"2794","docid":"Environmental_impact_of_aviation","rank":90,"score":100406},{"content":"Title: Ken Caldeira Content: Kenneth Caldeira is an atmospheric scientist who works at the Carnegie Institution for Science 's Department of Global Ecology . He researches ocean acidification , climate effects of trees , intentional climate modification , and interactions in the global carbon cycle/climate system . He also acted as an inventor for Intellectual Ventures , a Seattle-based invention and patent company headed up by Nathan Myhrvold .","qid":"2794","docid":"Ken_Caldeira","rank":91,"score":100397},{"content":"Title: 2,3,3,3-Tetrafluoropropene Content: 2,3,3,3-Tetrafluoropropene , or HFO-1234yf , is a hydrofluoroolefin ( HFO ) with the formula CH2 = CFCF3 . This colorless gas has been proposed as a replacement for R-134a as a refrigerant in automobile air conditioners . HFO-1234yf is the first in a new class of refrigerants acquiring a global warming potential ( GWP ) rating one 335th that of R-134a ( and only 4 times higher than carbon dioxide , which can also be used as a refrigerant but which has properties significantly different from those of R134a , especially requiring operation at around 5 times higher pressure ) and an atmospheric lifetime of about 400 times shorter .","qid":"2794","docid":"2,3,3,3-Tetrafluoropropene","rank":92,"score":100325},{"content":"Title: Drawdown (climate) Content: Climate drawdown is the point at which greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere begin to decline on a year-to-year basis . Drawdown is a goal for reversing climate change , and eventually reducing global average temperatures . Project Drawdown is a climate change mitigation project initiated by Paul Hawken and climate activist Amanda Joy Ravenhill . Central to the project is the compilation of a list of the `` 100 most substantive solutions to global warming . '' The list , encompassing only technologically viable , existing solutions , was compiled by a team of over 200 scholars , scientists , policymakers , business leaders and activists ; for each solution the carbon impact through the year 2050 , the total and net cost to society , and the total lifetime savings were measured and modelled .","qid":"2794","docid":"Drawdown_(climate)","rank":93,"score":100153},{"content":"Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .","qid":"2794","docid":"Carbon_tax","rank":94,"score":99527},{"content":"Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference) Content: In 2005, an international conference titled Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and global warming and its effects. The conference name was derived from Article 2 of the charter for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The conference explored the possible impacts at different levels of greenhouse gas emissions and how the climate might be stabilized at a desired level. The conference took place under the United Kingdom's presidency of the G8, with the participation of around 200 \"internationally renowned\" scientists from 30 countries. It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter, from 1 February to 3 February. The conference was one of many meetings leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, at which the international community agreed to limit global warming to no more than 2C in order to have a 50-50 chance of avoiding dangerous climate change. However, a 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting it is below the 2 degree temperature target.","qid":"2794","docid":"Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change_(2005_conference)","rank":95,"score":99454},{"content":"Title: Amorphous carbonia Content: Amorphous carbonia , also called a-carbonia or a-CO2 , is an exotic amorphous solid form of carbon dioxide that is analogous to amorphous silica glass . It was first made in the laboratory in 2006 by subjecting dry ice to high pressures ( 40-48 gigapascal , or 400,000 to 480,000 atmospheres ) , in a diamond anvil cell . Amorphous carbonia is not stable at ordinary pressures -- it quickly reverts to normal CO2 . While normally carbon dioxide forms molecular crystals , where individual molecules are bound by Van der Waals forces , in amorphous carbonia a covalently bound three-dimensional network of atoms is formed , in a structure analogous to silicon dioxide or germanium dioxide glass . Mixtures of a-carbonia and a-silica may be a prospective very hard and stiff glass material stable at room temperature . Such glass may serve as protective coatings , e.g. in microelectronics . The discovery has implications for astrophysics , as interiors of massive planets may contain amorphous solid carbon dioxide .","qid":"2794","docid":"Amorphous_carbonia","rank":96,"score":99391},{"content":"Title: Unstoppable Global Warming: Every 1,500 Years Content: Unstoppable Global Warming : Every 1,500 Years is a book about climate change , written by Siegfried Fred Singer and Dennis T. Avery , which asserts that natural changes , and not CO2 emissions , are the cause of Global Warming . Published by Rowman & Littlefield in 2006 , the book sold well and was reprinted in an updated edition in 2007 . The title refers to the hypothesis of 1,500-year climate cycles in the Holocene first postulated by Gerard C. Bond , mainly based on petrologic tracers of drift ice in the North Atlantic .","qid":"2794","docid":"Unstoppable_Global_Warming:_Every_1,500_Years","rank":97,"score":99030},{"content":"Title: Charles David Keeling Content: Charles David Keeling ( April 20 , 1928 -- June 20 , 2005 ) was an American scientist whose recording of carbon dioxide at the Mauna Loa Observatory first alerted the world to the possibility of anthropogenic contribution to the `` greenhouse effect '' and global warming . The Keeling Curve measures the progressive buildup of carbon dioxide , a greenhouse gas , in the atmosphere .","qid":"2794","docid":"Charles_David_Keeling","rank":98,"score":98806},{"content":"Title: Katsuko Saruhashi Content: was a geochemist who made some of the first measurements of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels in seawater and subsequently showed the evidence in seawater and the atmosphere of the dangers of radioactive fallout .","qid":"2794","docid":"Katsuko_Saruhashi","rank":99,"score":98291},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Europe Content: Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe . According to international climate experts global temperature rise should not exceed 2 ° C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of the climate change . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . It is estimated that from the now living persons alive are 70 % in the year 2050 . Emission reduction means development and implementation of new energy technology solutions . Some people consider that the technology revolution has already started in Europe since the markets of the renewable technology have annually grown . European Union climate chief is Connie Hedegaard since 10 February 2010 .","qid":"2794","docid":"Climate_change_in_Europe","rank":100,"score":98113}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate sensitivity Content: Climate sensitivity is the equilibrium temperature change in response to changes of the radiative forcing . Therefore , climate sensitivity depends on the initial climate state , but potentially can be accurately inferred from precise palaeoclimate data . Slow climate feedbacks , especially changes of ice sheet size and atmospheric CO2 , amplify the total Earth system sensitivity by an amount that depends on the time scale considered . Although climate sensitivity is usually used in the context of radiative forcing by carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , it is thought of as a general property of the climate system : the change in surface air temperature ( ΔTs ) following a unit change in radiative forcing ( RF ) , and thus is expressed in units of ° C / ( W/m2 ) . For this to be useful , the measure must be independent of the nature of the forcing ( e.g. from greenhouse gases or solar variation ) ; to first order this is indeed found to be so . The climate sensitivity specifically due to is often expressed as the temperature change in ° C associated with a doubling of the concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere . For coupled atmosphere-ocean global climate models ( e.g. CMIP5 ) the climate sensitivity is an emergent property : it is not a model parameter , but rather a result of a combination of model physics and parameters . By contrast , simpler energy-balance models may have climate sensitivity as an explicit parameter . The terms represented in the equation relate radiative forcing ( RF ) to linear changes in global surface temperature change ( ΔTs ) via the climate sensitivity λ . It is also possible to estimate climate sensitivity from observations ; however , this is difficult due to uncertainties in the forcing and temperature histories .\",\n \"qid\": \"2794\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_sensitivity\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 195392\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .\",\n \"qid\": \"2794\",\n \"docid\": \"Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 171393\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .\",\n \"qid\": \"2794\",\n \"docid\": \"Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 134431\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .\",\n \"qid\": \"2794\",\n \"docid\": \"350.org\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 133633\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"2794\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmospheric_carbon_cycle\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 133341\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .\",\n \"qid\": \"2794\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 132972\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .\",\n \"qid\": \"2794\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 129377\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Wyoming Content: On a per-person basis , Wyoming emits more carbon dioxide than any other state or any other country : 276000 lb of it per capita a year , because of burning coal , which provides nearly all of the state 's electrical power . Over the last century , the average temperature in Laramie , Wyoming , has increased 1.5 ° F ( 0.8 ° C ) , and precipitation has decreased by up to 20 % in many parts of the state . Over the next century , climate in Wyoming may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Wyoming could increase by 4 ° F ( 2 ° C ) in spring and fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) , 5 ° F ( 2.5 ° C ) in summer ( with a range of 2-8 ° F ) , and 6 ° F ( 3 ° C ) in winter ( with a range of 3-11 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease slightly in summer ( with a range of 0-10 % ) , increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and increase by 30 % in winter ( with a range of 10-50 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .\",\n \"qid\": \"2794\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Wyoming\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 129205\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .\",\n \"qid\": \"2794\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_diet\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 127905\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2794\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 127303\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .\",\n \"qid\": \"2794\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 126003\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"2794\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_potential\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 123707\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .\",\n \"qid\": \"2794\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Japan\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 123588\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .\",\n \"qid\": \"2794\",\n \"docid\": \"Deforestation_and_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 123584\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Scott Denning Content: A. Scott Denning is a climate scientist and professor of atmospheric science at Colorado State University , whose faculty he joined in 1998 . He is known for his research into atmosphere-biosphere interactions and atmospheric carbon dioxide . He firmly supports action to avoid dangerous climate change and has said that the science behind it is `` settled '' . He has also argued that , if no action is taken on the matter , global warming could cause the climate of Colorado to resemble the current climate of its neighbors to the south , such as southern New Mexico , Texas and Mexico .\",\n \"qid\": \"2794\",\n \"docid\": \"Scott_Denning\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 122987\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Suess effect Content: The Suess effect is a change in the ratio of the atmospheric concentrations of heavy isotopes of carbon ( 13C and 14C ) by the admixture of large amounts of fossil-fuel derived CO2 , which is depleted in 13CO2 and contains no 14CO2 . It is named for the Austrian chemist Hans Suess , who noted the influence of this effect on the accuracy of radiocarbon dating . More recently , the Suess effect has been used in studies of climate change . The term originally referred only to dilution of atmospheric 14CO2 . The concept was later extended to dilution of 13CO2 and to other reservoirs of carbon such as the oceans and soils .\",\n \"qid\": \"2794\",\n \"docid\": \"Suess_effect\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 122303\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Air sensitivity Content: Air sensitivity is a term used , particularly in chemistry , to denote the reactivity of chemical compounds with some constituent of air . Most often , reactions occur with atmospheric oxygen ( O2 ) or water vapor ( H2O ) , although reactions with the other constituents of air such as carbon monoxide ( CO ) , carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and nitrogen ( N2 ) are also possible . The range of methods used to work with air-sensitive compounds are known as air-free techniques . Two main methods exist -- gloveboxes and Schlenk lines . Gloveboxes are sealed cabinets filled with an inert gas such as argon or nitrogen . Normal laboratory equipment can be set up and manipulated through the use of the gloves . A Schlenk line is a vacuum and inert-gas dual-manifold that allows glassware to be evacuated and refilled with inert gas .\",\n \"qid\": \"2794\",\n \"docid\": \"Air_sensitivity\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 121836\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Keeling Curve Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that plots the ongoing change in concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere since the 1950s . It is based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii that began under the supervision of Charles David Keeling . Keeling 's measurements showed the first significant evidence of rapidly increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere . Many scientists credit Keeling 's graph with first bringing the world 's attention to the current increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Charles David Keeling , of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego , was the first person to make frequent regular measurements of the atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) concentration , taking readings at the South Pole and in Hawaii from 1958 onwards . Measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had been taken prior to the Mauna Loa measurements , but on an ad-hoc basis across a variety of locations . Guy Stewart Callendar had shown a steady increase in concentrations since the 19th century . Keeling had perfected the measurement techniques and observed `` strong diurnal behavior with steady values of about 310 ppm in the afternoon '' at three locations : Big Sur near Monterey , the rain forests of Olympic Peninsula , and high mountain forests in Arizona . By measuring the ratio of two isotopes of carbon , Keeling attributed the diurnal change to respiration from local plants and soils , with afternoon values representative of the `` free atmosphere '' . By 1960 , Keeling and his group had determined that the measurement records from California , Antarctica , and Hawaii were long enough to see not just the diurnal and seasonal variations , but also a year-on-year increase that roughly matched the amount of fossil fuels burned per year . In the article that made him famous , Keeling observed : `` at the South Pole the observed rate of increase is nearly that to be expected from the combustion of fossil fuel '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2794\",\n \"docid\": \"Keeling_Curve\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 120262\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2794\",\n \"docid\": \"CO2_fertilization_effect\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 119840\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .\",\n \"qid\": \"2794\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 119782\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .\",\n \"qid\": \"2794\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Pakistan\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 119706\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .\",\n \"qid\": \"2794\",\n \"docid\": \"Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 117858\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: William D. Sellers Content: William D. Sellers ( 18 August 1928 -- 27 August 2014 ) was an American meteorologist , climate scientist , and pioneer of climate modelling . He created one the earliest climate models and was one of the first scientists to recognize the effects of CO2 in the atmosphere on the earth 's climate . He published the textbook `` Physical Climatology '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"2794\",\n \"docid\": \"William_D._Sellers\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 117685\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: North American Carbon Program Content: The North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) is one of the major elements of the Strategic Plan for the U.S. Climate Change Science Program . The central objective of NACP is to measure and understand carbon stocks and sources and sinks of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , and carbon monoxide ( CO ) in North America and adjacent ocean regions . The specific program goals are as followed : Develop quantitative scientific knowledge , robust observations , and models to determine the emissions and uptake of CO2 , CH4 , and CO , changes in carbon stocks , and the factors regulating these processes for North America and adjacent ocean basins . Develop the scientific basis to implement full carbon accounting on regional and continental scales . This is the knowledge base needed to design monitoring programs for natural and managed CO2 sinks and emissions of CH4 . Support long-term quantitative measurements of fluxes , sources , and sinks of atmospheric CO2 and CH4 , and develop forecasts for future trends . The North American Carbon Program was designed to help with the process of providing data needed to model the synthesis activities .\",\n \"qid\": \"2794\",\n \"docid\": \"North_American_Carbon_Program\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 117296\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .\",\n \"qid\": \"2794\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 117100\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.\",\n \"qid\": \"2794\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 116278\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate footprint Content: The term climate footprint has emerged from the field of carbon footprinting , and refers to a measure of the full set of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) controlled under the Kyoto Protocol . A climate footprint is a more comprehensive measure of anthropogenic impact upon the climate than a carbon footprint , but is also more costly and labour-intensive to calculate . A climate footprint is a measure of the total amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFCs ) and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) emissions of a defined population , system or activity , considering all relevant sources , sinks and storage within the spatial and temporal boundary of the population , system or activity of interest . Calculated as carbon dioxide equivalent ( CO2e ) using the relevant 100-year global warming potential ( GWP100 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2794\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_footprint\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 115658\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Michael Raupach Content: Michael Robin Raupach ( 30 October 1950 -- 10 February 2015 ) was an Australian climate scientist . He is credited with developing the concept of a carbon budget , the amount of CO2 that is emitted and absorbed in the global ecosystem in the course of a year . When the in balance , CO2 emissions and absorption in carbon sinks are roughly the same , but when disturbed , possibly large changes in the ecosystem ensue . He was a founding co-chair of the Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) , a network of the world 's leading carbon cycle researchers . He was instrumental in publishing the Annual Carbon Budget , which draws on a large amount of scientific data to determine the level of imbalance and options for addressing it . He worked for the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation before becoming the director of the Australian National University 's Climate Change Institute in 2014 . He was a co-chair of the Global Carbon Project from 2000 to 2008 , and contributed to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Fourth Assessment Report in 2007 . He chaired the steering committee of the ` Australia 2050 ' project of the Australian Academy of Science ( AAS ) . In 2009 -- 2010 he chaired the Expert Working Group on Challenges at the Intersection of Carbon , Energy and Water , reporting to the Prime Minister 's Science , Engineering and Innovation Council and the Office of the Chief Scientist of Australia . His career included the publication of 150 scientific papers and 50 reports . His research developed in three stages , the first focused on very localized flow and transport of matter and energy through and above plant canopies . At the next stage , he worked on quantification of CO2 transport through and above plant canopies , though still on a small scale . In the 1990s , his focus began to shift to global ecosystems when he became a member of the scientific steering committee of the Biospheric Aspects of the Hydrological Cycle core project of the IGBP ( International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme ) . One of the most fundamental and important questions that the project addressed was : does the land-surface matter in climate and weather ? His research contributed to addressing that question , through his work on turbulent fluxes near the land surface , boundary-layer budgeting and quantifying the water balance at broader scales . He was a fellow of the Australian Academy of Science , the Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering , and the American Geophysical Union . Just before his death following a short illness , he co-chaired the working group of the Australian Academy of Science drafting the AAS booklet The Science of Climate Change : Questions and Answers .\",\n \"qid\": \"2794\",\n \"docid\": \"Michael_Raupach\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 114832\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Guy Stewart Callendar Content: Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2794\",\n \"docid\": \"Guy_Stewart_Callendar\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 113336\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Content: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change : A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases was a 2005 international conference that examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration , and the 2 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) ceiling on global warming thought necessary to avoid the most serious effects of global warming . Previously this had generally been accepted as being 550 ppm . The conference took place under the United Kingdom 's presidency of the G8 , with the participation of around 200 ` internationally renowned ' scientists from 30 countries . It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter , from 1 February to 3 February .\",\n \"qid\": \"2794\",\n \"docid\": \"Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 113232\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mars Surveyor '98 program Content: The Mars Surveyor '98 program comprised two spacecraft launched separately , the Mars Climate Orbiter ( formerly the Mars Surveyor '98 Orbiter ) and the Mars Polar Lander ( formerly the Mars Surveyor '98 Lander ) ; on board the Mars Polar Lander spacecraft were two surface-penetrator probes ( Deep Space 2 ) . The two missions were to study the Martian weather , climate , water and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) budget , to understand the reservoirs , behavior , and atmospheric role of volatiles and to search for evidence of long-term and episodic climate changes . Both spacecraft were launched during the 1998 Mars orbit insertion launch window . Both were lost , including the penetrator probes .\",\n \"qid\": \"2794\",\n \"docid\": \"Mars_Surveyor_'98_program\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 111992\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Historical Climatology Network Content: The Global Historical Climatology Network ( GHCN ) is a database of temperature , precipitation and pressure records managed by the National Climatic Data Center , Arizona State University and the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center . The aggregate data are collected from many continuously reporting fixed stations at the Earth 's surface and represent the input of approximately 6000 temperature stations , 7500 precipitation stations and 2000 pressure stations . This work has often been used as a foundation for reconstructing past global temperatures , and was used in previous versions of two of the best-known reconstructions , that prepared by the National Climatic Data Center ( NCDC ) , and that prepared by NASA as its Goddard Institute for Space Studies ( GISS ) temperature set . The average temperature record is 60 years long with ~ 1650 records greater than 100 years and ~ 220 greater than 150 years ( based on GHCN v2 in 2006 ) . The earliest data included in the database were collected in 1697 .\",\n \"qid\": \"2794\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Historical_Climatology_Network\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 111842\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Revelle factor Content: The Revelle factor ( buffer factor ) is the ratio of instantaneous change in carbon dioxide to the change in total dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) , and is a measure of the resistance to atmospheric CO2 being absorbed by the ocean surface layer . The buffer factor is used to examine the distribution of CO2 between the atmosphere and the ocean , and measures the amount of CO2 that can be dissolved in the mixed surface layer . It is named after the oceanographer Roger Revelle , who was one of the first scientists to study global warming . Revelle factor = / ( Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- ) where DIC is dissolved inorganic carbon . Δ -LSB- -RSB- / -LSB- -RSB- is the instantaneous change in p and Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- is the instantaneous change in DIC .\",\n \"qid\": \"2794\",\n \"docid\": \"Revelle_factor\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 111840\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Michael Schlesinger Content: Dr. Michael Earl Schlesinger ( born February 23 , 1943 ) is a Professor of Atmospheric Sciences and director of the Climate Research Group at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign . He received his Ph.D. ( meteorology ) in 1976 from the University of California , Los Angeles . Michael Schlesinger is an expert in the modeling , simulation and analysis of climate and climate change , with interests in simulating and understanding the climates of the geologic past and possible future climates resulting from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases and human-made aerosols . He has been instrumental in developing a range of simple and complex climate models , which have been used by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and the Energy Modeling Forum . His research currently focuses on : ( 1 ) simulating and understanding the effects on climate of a human-induced melting of the Greenland ice sheet ; ( 2 ) simulating and understanding the coupled climate-chemistry system , including the influences of the Sun - both irradiance and energetic electron precipitation - and volcanoes ; ( 3 ) understanding and reducing the uncertainty in the estimation of climate sensitivity and climate feedbacks ; and ( 4 ) performing integrative assessment of climate change , including further development of the robust adaptive decision strategy for mitigating and adapting to human-induced climate change . He is known for his work on oscillations in the global climate system , on estimating the climate sensitivity , and on seasonal climate change . He has edited four books , most recently Human-induced climate change : An interdisciplinary assessment . He regularly appears in the media .\",\n \"qid\": \"2794\",\n \"docid\": \"Michael_Schlesinger\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 111069\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Severinghaus electrode Content: The Severinghaus electrode is an electrode that measures carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . It was developed by Dr. John W. Severinghaus and his technician A. Freeman Bradley in 1958 . It utilizes a CO2-sensitive glass electrode in a surrounding film of bicarbonate solution covered by a thin plastic carbon dioxide permeable membrane , but impermeable to water and electrolytic solutes . The carbon dioxide pressure of a sample gas or liquid equilibrates through the membrane and the glass electrode measures the resulting pH of the bicarbonate solution .\",\n \"qid\": \"2794\",\n \"docid\": \"Severinghaus_electrode\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 111000\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide removal Content: Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"2794\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_removal\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 110784\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate engineering Content: Climate engineering , commonly referred to as geoengineering , also known as climate intervention , is the deliberate and large-scale intervention in the Earth 's climatic system with the aim of limiting adverse global warming . Climate engineering is an umbrella term for measures that mainly fall into two types : carbon dioxide removal and solar radiation management . Carbon dioxide removal addresses the cause of global warming by removing one of the greenhouse gases ( carbon dioxide ) from the atmosphere . Solar radiation management attempts to offset effects of greenhouse gases by causing the Earth to absorb less solar radiation . Climate engineering approaches are sometimes viewed as additional potential options for limiting global warming , alongside mitigation and adaptation . There is substantial agreement among scientists that climate engineering can not substitute for climate change mitigation . Some approaches might be used as accompanying measures to sharp cuts in greenhouse gas emissions . Given that all types of measures for addressing climate change have economic , political , or physical limitations , some climate engineering approaches might eventually be used as part of an ensemble of measures . Research on costs , benefits , and various types of risks of most climate engineering approaches is at an early stage and their understanding needs to improve to judge their adequacy and feasibility . Almost all research into solar radiation management has consisted of computer modelling or laboratory tests , and an attempt to move to outdoor experimentation was controversial . Some carbon dioxide removal practices , such as planting of trees and bio-energy with carbon capture and storage projects , are underway . Their scalability to effectively affect global climate is , however , debated . Ocean iron fertilization has been given small-scale research trials , sparking substantial controversy . Most experts and major reports advise against relying on climate engineering techniques as a simple solution to global warming , in part due to the large uncertainties over effectiveness and side effects . However , most experts also argue that the risks of such interventions must be seen in the context of risks of dangerous global warming . Interventions at large scale may run a greater risk of disrupting natural systems resulting in a dilemma that those approaches that could prove highly ( cost - ) effective in addressing extreme climate risk , might themselves cause substantial risk . Some have suggested that the concept of engineering the climate presents a so-called `` moral hazard '' because it could reduce political and public pressure for emissions reduction , which could exacerbate overall climate risks ; others assert that the threat of climate engineering could spur emissions cuts . Some are in favour of a moratorium on out-of-doors testing and deployment of solar radiation management ( SRM ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2794\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_engineering\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 110387\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Idaho Content: Like other parts of the world , climate in Idaho has changed dramatically over the geologic history of the Earth . Paleo-climatic records give some indication of these changes . The longest instrumented records of climate in Idaho extend back to the late 1800s . Concern over human induced climate change through the emission of carbon dioxide from fossil fuels and methane from agriculture and industry , are driving research efforts across the state at university , state , and federals levels to understand what the implications of climate change could be in Idaho . In the big picture of greenhouse gas emissions , Idaho emits the least carbon dioxide per person of the United States , less than 23,000 pounds a year . It relies mostly on nonpolluting hydroelectric power from its rivers . Like other parts of the world , Idaho has seen significant temperature increases , especially in the last several decades . From 1971-2005 the average annual observed temperature in the Snake River Plain , located in southern Idaho , has increased by 1.4 degrees Celsius based on data from 10 climate stations ( Dubois , Ashton , Oakely , Pocatello , Aberdeen , Hazelton , Jerome , Boise , Nampa , and Payette ) . Statistically the increasing temperature trends are most significant in the months of January , March , and April . While precipitation has generally increased , since the early 1900s . The high variability in precipitation makes the identification of precipitation trends statistically difficult . Over the next century , climate in Idaho will experience additional changes due both to ` natural ' climate variability and due to feedbacks related to the interaction between climate variability and increasing greenhouse gases . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Idaho could increase by 5 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 9 F-change ) in winter and summer and 4 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 7 F-change ) in spring and fall . Precipitation is estimated to change little in summer , to increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and to increase by 20 % in winter ( with a range of 10-40 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .\",\n \"qid\": \"2794\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Idaho\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 110338\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .\",\n \"qid\": \"2794\",\n \"docid\": \"Regional_effects_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 110273\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hiroshi Kanzawa Content: Hiroshi Kanzawa ( b. January 1953 in Maebashi , Gunma Prefecture , Japan ) is a Japanese meteorologist , environmental scientist and the dean of the Graduate School of Environmental Studies at the University of Nagoya . He is perhaps best known for his onsite atmospheric work in Antarctica and the papers he has co-authored on Ozone depletion , including : `` Large stratospheric sudden warming in Antarctic late winter and shallow ozone hole in 1988 '' ( with Sadao Kamaguchi ) and `` Sensitivity Map of LAI to Precipitation and Surface Air Temperature Variations in a Global Scale '' ( co-authored with his Japanese colleague Seita Emori and Jiahua Zhang and Congbin Fu of the START , Institute of Atmospheric Physics in Beijing , China ) . Kanzawa also sits on the board of Councilors of the Hydrospheric Atmospheric Research Center at the University of Nagoya .\",\n \"qid\": \"2794\",\n \"docid\": \"Hiroshi_Kanzawa\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 110187\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate commitment Content: Climate commitment describes the fact that climate reacts with a delay to influencing factors ( `` climate forcings '' ) such as the presence of greenhouse gases . Climate commitment studies attempt to assess the amount of future global warming that is `` committed '' under the assumption of some constant level of forcings . The constant level often used for illustrative purposes is doubling or quadrupling ; or the present level of forcing .\",\n \"qid\": \"2794\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_commitment\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 110095\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: James Hansen Content: James Edward Hansen ( born 29 March 1941 ) is an American adjunct professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University . He is best known for his research in climatology , his 1988 Congressional testimony on climate change that helped raise broad awareness of global warming , and his advocacy of action to avoid dangerous climate change . In recent years he has become a climate activist to mitigate the effects of climate change , on a few occasions leading to his arrest . In 2000 , Hansen advanced an alternative view of global warming over the last 100 years , arguing that during that time frame the negative forcing via aerosols and the positive forcing via largely balanced each other out , and that the 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide , such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons . However , even then he wrote `` the future balance of forcings is likely to shift toward dominance of CO2 over aerosols ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2794\",\n \"docid\": \"James_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 109658\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmospheric temperature Content: Atmospheric temperature is a measure of temperature at different levels of the Earth 's atmosphere . It is governed by many factors , including incoming solar radiation , humidity and altitude . When discussing surface temperature , the annual atmospheric temperature range at any geographical location depends largely upon the type of biome , as measured by the Köppen climate classification .\",\n \"qid\": \"2794\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmospheric_temperature\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 108728\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Chicago Climate Exchange Content: The Chicago Climate Exchange ( CCX ) was North America 's only voluntary , legally binding greenhouse gas ( GHG ) reduction and trading system for emission sources and offset projects in North America and Brazil . CCX employed independent verification , included six greenhouse gases , and traded greenhouse gas emission allowances from 2003 to 2010 . The companies joining the exchange committed to reducing their aggregate emissions by 6 % by 2010 . CCX had an aggregate baseline of 680 million metric tons of CO2 equivalent . CCX ceased trading carbon credits at the end of 2010 due to inactivity in the U.S. carbon markets , although carbon exchanges were intended to still be facilitated .\",\n \"qid\": \"2794\",\n \"docid\": \"Chicago_Climate_Exchange\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 108556\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kenneth Hare Content: Fredrick Kenneth Hare , ( February 5 , 1919 -- September 3 , 2002 ) was a Canadian climatologist and academic , who researched atmospheric carbon dioxide , climate change , drought , and arid zone climates and was a strong advocate for preserving the natural environment .\",\n \"qid\": \"2794\",\n \"docid\": \"Kenneth_Hare\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 108432\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"2794\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_rift\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 108389\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change feedback Content: Climate change feedback is important in the understanding of global warming because feedback processes may amplify or diminish the effect of each climate forcing , and so play an important part in determining the climate sensitivity and future climate state . Feedback in general is the process in which changing one quantity changes a second quantity , and the change in the second quantity in turn changes the first . Positive feedback amplifies the change in the first quantity while negative feedback reduces it . The term `` forcing '' means a change which may `` push '' the climate system in the direction of warming or cooling . An example of a climate forcing is increased atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases . By definition , forcings are external to the climate system while feedbacks are internal ; in essence , feedbacks represent the internal processes of the system . Some feedbacks may act in relative isolation to the rest of the climate system ; others may be tightly coupled ; hence it may be difficult to tell just how much a particular process contributes . Forcings , feedbacks and the dynamics of the climate system determine how much and how fast the climate changes . The main positive feedback in global warming is the tendency of warming to increase the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere , which in turn leads to further warming . The main negative feedback comes from the Stefan -- Boltzmann law , the amount of heat radiated from the Earth into space changes with the fourth power of the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere . Some observed and potential effects of global warming are positive feedbacks , which contribute directly to further global warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that `` Anthropogenic warming could lead to some effects that are abrupt or irreversible , depending upon the rate and magnitude of the climate change . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"2794\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_feedback\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 108222\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"2794\",\n \"docid\": \"Economics_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 108059\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kyoto Protocol Content: The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , based on the fact that ( a ) global warming exists and ( b ) human-made CO2 emissions have caused it . The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto , Japan , on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005 . There are currently 192 parties ( Canada withdrew effective December 2012 ) to the Protocol . The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to `` a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' ( Art. 2 ) . The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities : it puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . The Protocol 's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012 . A second commitment period was agreed on in 2012 , known as the Doha Amendment to the protocol , in which 37 countries have binding targets : Australia , the European Union ( and its 28 member states ) , Belarus , Iceland , Kazakhstan , Liechtenstein , Norway , Switzerland , and Ukraine . Belarus , Kazakhstan and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets . Japan , New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyoto 's first-round but have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period . Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada ( which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012 ) and the United States ( which has not ratified the Protocol ) . As of July 2016 , 66 states have accepted the Doha Amendment , while entry into force requires the acceptances of 144 states . Of the 37 countries with binding commitments , 7 have ratified . Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ends in 2020 . This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the Paris Agreement , which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto protocol .\",\n \"qid\": \"2794\",\n \"docid\": \"Kyoto_Protocol\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 107840\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mesopause Content: The mesopause is the temperature minimum at the boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere atmospheric regions . Due to the lack of solar heating and very strong radiative cooling from carbon dioxide , the mesosphere is the coldest region on Earth with temperatures as low as -100 ° C ( -148 ° F or 173 K ) . The altitude of the mesopause for many years was assumed to be at around 85 km ( 53 mi . ) , but observations to higher altitudes and modeling studies in the last 10 years have shown that in fact the mesopause consists of two minima - one at about 85 km and a stronger minimum at about 100 km . ( 62 mi . ) Another feature is that the summer mesopause is cooler than the winter ( sometimes referred to as the mesopause anomaly ) . It is due to a summer-to-winter circulation giving rise to upwelling at the summer pole and downwelling at the winter pole . Air rising will expand and cool resulting in a cold summer mesopause and conversely downwelling air results in compression and associated increase in temperature at the winter mesopause . In the mesosphere the summer-to-winter circulation is due to gravity wave dissipation , which deposits momentum against the mean east-west flow , resulting in a small north-south circulation . In recent years the mesopause has also been the focus of studies on global climate change associated with increases in CO2 . Unlike the troposphere , where greenhouse gases result in the atmosphere heating up , increased CO2 in the mesosphere acts to cool the atmosphere due to increased radiative emission . This results in a measurable effect - the mesopause should become cooler with increased CO2 . Observations do show a decrease of temperature of the mesopause , though the magnitude of this decrease varies and is subject to further study . Modeling studies of this phenomenon have also been carried out .\",\n \"qid\": \"2794\",\n \"docid\": \"Mesopause\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 107229\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \\\"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\\\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \\\"deep emissions reductions\\\" and \\\"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\\\" Furthermore, the report finds that \\\"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\\\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \\\"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\\\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.\",\n \"qid\": \"2794\",\n \"docid\": \"Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 107183\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .\",\n \"qid\": \"2794\",\n \"docid\": \"Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 106952\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Dress Content: The Climate Dress was designed in 2009 by Danish design company Diffus Design in collaboration with the Swiss embroidery company Forster-Rohner , Alexandra Institute and the Danish School of Design . The Climate Dress is laced with hundreds of light-emitting diodes ( LEDs ) that responds to the level of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) in the nearby surroundings and are powered through the conductive embroidery by an Arduino Lily pad microprocessor and a carbon dioxide detector , resulting in patterns that range from slow pulses to rapid flashes depending on the concentration of the CO2 . The Climate Dress does not rely on wiring , soldering , or crimping , which is often the case with smart textile products . All functional elements are blended into the embroidery and exposed to the viewer . The Climate Dress was presented at the Cop 15 Climate Summit in Copenhagen in 2009 , at the `` Health Environment Climate '' exhibition . In 2011 the Climate Dress won first prize in the Design That Performs contest , hosted by Samsung .\",\n \"qid\": \"2794\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Dress\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 106441\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .\",\n \"qid\": \"2794\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmospheric_methane\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 106328\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"